South America, past and present

LUIS CINCINATO BOLLO

SOUTH AMERICA

PAST AND PRESENT

By LUIS CINCINATO BOLLO

Retired Director General of the Civil Registry and Bureau
of Demographical Statistics of Uruguay. :: :: :: ::
Author of Physical Geography ; Geography of America ;
Ideas in Zoology ; Climatology of the La Plata Region,

Translated from Spanish
By NEMESIO BAROS

ILLUSTRATED WITH«IX MAPS

NEW YORK

1919

Copyright, 1919, by

IN-EMBSIO BAROS

SANTA BARBARA

CONTENTS

FIRST PART— SOUTH AMERICA PAST

HiSTOBiCAL Information Regarding Epoch-making Events
IN South America

CHAPTER PAGE

I. Region of the La Plata River 1

II. Historical Information about the Central

Andean Region — Peru and Bolivia 66

III. Historical Information About the North
Andean Region — Venezuela, Colombia and
Ecuador 72

SECOND PART— SOUTH AMERICA PRESENT

IV. Orography and General Configuration of

South America 81

V. The Vast Natural Regions of South America 90

VI. Hydrography 110

VII. Climatology of the La Plata Region 113

VIII. The Native South American 117

IX. Present and Fossil Fauna of South America 126

X. Demography 140

XI. Political Organization of the Various South

American States 149

XII. Cities of South America 159

XIII. Transportation Rail and Water Routes

of South America 163

XIV. The Meat-Producing Region of South Ameri-

ca— the La Plata Valley 173

iii

IV

CHAPTER

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

XVIII.

CONTENTS

PACE

The Cereal -Producing Region of South
America — the Argentina 183

The Mineral-Producing Region of South
America — Chile, Peru and Bolivia 186

The Tropical Fruit-Producing Region of
South America — Brazil, Ecuador, Colom-
bia, Venezuela and Paraguay 194

Future South America (Rod6) 213

Statistics — Comparison of the General Com-
merce OF South America; Currency, Weights
and Measures 218

MAPS

FACING
PAGE

South America, 1777 26

Relief Map of North America 82

Relief Map of South America 83

Physical Map of South America 90

Political Map of South America 159

Means of Communication in South America — Rail-
roads AND Navigation Lines 163

FIRST PART
SOUTH AMERICA PAST

CHAPTER I
REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER

SUMMARY

The Aborigines — Peoples of the Andes and the Pampas — Submissive Disposition of
the Andeans — Haughty and Fighting Spirit of the Pampas — How these Peoples' Institu-
tions Contributed to the Formation of this Very Marked Contrast — Conquest of the
Region of the La Plata River — Condition of the Indians of South America During the
Conquest — ^The Jesuits — System of Jesuitical Government — Social Condition of the
Indigenes of BoUvia — Spanish Settlements in Uruguay — Disputes Over the Oriental
Territory of Uruguay Between Spaniards and Portuguese — Founding of the Viceroyship
of the Rio de La Plata in 1776 — Last War Between Spain and Portugal (1800) for the
Oriental Missions of Upper Uruguay — Invasions by the English in 1806 and 1807 — Pop-
ular Movements Forerunners of the South American Revolution in Caracas in 1711 and
1713, Cochabamba in 1730, Asuncion in 1731, Quito, Chuquisaca, Montevideo and
Caracas in 1809 and Buenos Aires in 1810 — Artigas Victor in the First Battle of the La
Plata River Against the Spaniards at Las Piedras in 1811 — The Orien tales Abandoned
by the Buenos Aires Assembly, Obliged to Combat the Spaniards and Portuguese —
Exodus of the People of Eastern Uruguay.

The Aborigines

At the time of the discovery of America by Columbus in
1492, it was inhabited by many millions of Indians unevenly
scattered throughout its various regions, some of which and
among them what are now known as Peru and Bolivia com-
pared in density of population with some of the European
countries of the same period. There is no
Conteast between ^^ta ou which to base au account of the

the Peoples of

^^«^ndes and the exact number of Indians inhabiting these
regions at the time, but it remains an undis-
puted fact that Perti and Bolivia had a number of cities
with a dense population depending principally upon agricul-
ture, the mining industry being then of little importance,
due to the lack of commercial intercourse with the outside
world, for excepting the settlements which now comprise
Ecuador and Colombia, they were all inhabited by savages.
The Punas Heladas (bleak, frozen regions) of Bolivia,
which are at 4,000 meters above the level of the sea, had been

X

2 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

the center of an advanced civilization which left the famous
ruins of Tiahuanaco, colossal city which must have exceeded
in population the city of Cuzco, the capital of the Empire
of the Incas, which the Spaniards found there on their
arrival in Peru.

The founders of Tiahuanaco were not the miserable
Aimaras who were first visited by the Spanish conquerors,
but a banished and ignored tribe who were destroyed or
compelled to migrate by the advance of a more barbarous
and warring nation from the land to the south which is now
Argentina.

The whole Tiahuanaco race may have disappeared or
been obliged to abandon its native haunts through some
change in the living conditions on the lofty Bolivian plateau,
which having risen higher through the action of some seismic
disturbance became uninhabitable for man and his progeny.
For were it not for the vast mineral wealth first found there
by the Spaniards — principally silver, which gave more than
a thousand million pesos, from the Potosi and other nearby
regions — and the rich deposits of lead, copper, tin, etc.,
which are now being developed, the Puna, that bleak and
frozen region, would now be completely deserted. This
meseta (plateau) has not always remained at its present
elevation, which fact is made evident by the soil of the
pampas, composed mostly of sediment such as is deposited
under water and not only found on low, level ground but at
more than one thousand meters above the sea on the sides of
the Cordillera Real of Bolivia, which slopes as far as the
immense desert-like plain called El Chaco.

On the same soil of the pampas, which covers the Argen-
tine plain, and which is to be found at more than one thou-
sand metres elevation, numerous species of fossils have been
discovered corresponding to the tiger, the predecessor of
the elephant, ape, megatheriums, etc. No better proof than
this need be asked to substantiate the fact that the Bolivian
plateau has risen considerably higher than its original eleva-
tion above sea level.

KEGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 3

These changes have occurred quite frequently in South
American regions as well as in other parts of the world, as is
the case in the desert of Sahara in the African continent,
where at one time abundant streams drained its vast
domains and luxuriant vegetation and domestic animals of
all kinds were to be found ; these included the ox, a likeness
of which has been found hewn in the rocks, no doubt carved
there by the unknown settler of that unrecorded epoch.

The upheaval of the Alps mountains to beyond a certain
height intercepted the northerly rain-laden winds, thereby
making a barren, arid desert where once vegetation
abounded and beautiful rivers flowed.

The tablelands of Patagonia — a desolate arid region from
the Andes to the Atlantic, which Darwin termed "Accursed
Land" — possess fossil fauna of mammals similar to that of
the pampas, a fauna so rich in species and variety of form
(more than 1,500 of the 5,000 known throughout the world)
that make this the biggest fossil graveyard of the world.

You may find there all the species of fossils, from the
predecessor of the horse to that of the ape, which bears closer
physical resemblance to man, not excluding the anthropo-
morphus of Asia and Africa, the gliptodon which furnished
Darwin with material proof for the elucidation of the meta-
morphosis, for it was this gigantic gliptodon which proved
to be the predecessor of the "mulita" of the pampas. The
fossil species of La Pampa and Patagonia will be dealt with
in another part of the book.

These huge creatures, like the megatherium, the primitive
horse and other herbivorous animals, had to have an over-
abundance of food. The gigantic forests where they wan-
dered at will, stand today petrified mute witnesses attesting
to the history of the region.

The change in the elevation of the Andean range in rising
to a height that impeded the eastbound course of clouds from
the Pacific, which produced rain to feed this flora, gradually
caused its disappearance as well as that of the animals.
Evidences of this upheaval are found at Mendoza in the

4 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

pampa soil which formed the prairie now at 1,000 metres
above sea level. The changes of La Patagonia are identical
to those of the Bolivian plateau.

The theory that the American Indians are descendants of
the Mongolians and that the famous plateau of Pamir may
have been the cradle of humanity, can not now be accepted.
The paleontological records show that the new world of the
Spaniards is older than that which was believed to have
been the primitive home of man.

The race which inhabited the Andean region at Cuenca
on the borders of Lake Titicaca, had reached a high state
of civilization, as is verified by the Templo del Sol (Temple
of the Sun), the palaces and tombs of the Incas, the high-
ways, the aqueducts and various other improvements, prod-
uct of engineering skill. Politically, this nation was not
as far advanced as others which were considered barbarians,
among them the Charruas, Arancanos and the tribes of the
pampas, all of which constituted several true republics
where all governmental functions were directed by parlia-
ments or assemblies and where the executive was openly
elected by the male members of the tribe. Every Indian was
endowed with individual sovereign privileges to freely elect
his governing chief, whom he obeyed strictly in all that
obedience was due.

The Quichuas and Aimar^s were organized under govern-
ments similar to that under the then reigning kings of the
Orient and of Egypt, whose subjects blindly obeyed every
wish of a potentate whom they had not elected to power, but
who had by divine inheritance received the authority to
govern.

This socialistic system, wherein the state not only gov-
erned but also interfered in every act of the life of the indi-
vidual, from the cultivation of the soil to even the most
harmless diversions, and where the police vigilance had
reached the stage where every ten individuals were watched
by a sort of deputy who became responsible for the short-
comings of others and such as he himself could not have

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 5

possibly prevented, had broken up the spirit of individual
initiative and spontaneity and caused the people to become
accustomed to entirely depend upon and expect everything
from the government.

The absolute and complete submission of the Indians to
the self-constituted authorities, together with the want of
initiative which is the main characteristic of the Andean
Indian, was in direct contrast to the aggressiveness of the
Pampas, Araucanos, Charruas and Guaranles.

The Spaniards with a handful of men subdued powerful
nations of millions of inhabitants, by merely mastering the
Incas. Pizarro with only 180 soldiers of infantry and thirty-
seven of cavalry started from Panama in 1531 to conquer
Peru, which was then in itself a powerful empire of severaT
million population, and accomplished his mission, while
Don Pedro de Mendoza with more than one thousand men
founded the city of Buenos Aires in 1535 and had to abandon
it on the following year, after losing half of his men on
being attacked by the Querandies and Charrtias.

The Charriias occupied what is now Reptiblica Oriental del
Uruguay and crossed the river to assist in the expulsion of
the invaders. The Spaniards, on being driven from the land
which they had temporarily taken possession of and on which
site is now situated the city of Buenos Aires, planned to
reoccupy it, and returned later with additional reinforce-
ments under the command of Garay, and again founded the
city whose inhabitants were constantly engaged in defend-
ing themselves from continuous assaults.

Soils, the discoverer of the La Plata River, on attempting
to take possession of the territory which is now Republic
of Uruguay, was killed, together with some of his compan-
ions, by the Charruas, who very heroically' defended their
domains.

The Spaniards later planned to found a settlement near
the site where Soils died, but the Charruas burned down the
Spanish fortress and drove the Spaniards out of the country.

In 1600, Hernandarias de Saavedra, Governor of Para-

6 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

guay, thought that the time had come to exterminate the
Charrfias, and so, at the head of 600 Spaniards, undertook
the journey to Uruguay, where he arrived after a strenuous
four months' campaign. The Charrtias engaged him in bat-
tle on the banks of the Uruguay and the Spaniards were so
decisively defeated that only their leader escaped, according
to the Spanish writer Centenera in his book "La Argentina."

This disaster caused Hernandarias to petition the king of
Spain, Felipe II, stating that it was impossible to subdue
the Charruas by force of arms and that the missionaries
must be resorted to, which proposal was accepted by the
king, who sent the first missionaries to the La Plata River.

In subsequent encounters with the Spaniards from time
to time, the Indians, now victors, now vanquished, yet never
slaves, came into the possession of horses which had been
introduced by the Spaniards and became invincible warriors.

The Querandles and other tribes which were never van-
quished first fought against the Spaniards, and later met
the Argentinos in fierce encounters in the vicinity of Buenos
Aires until 1879, when the conquest of the desert was finally
accomplished.

The Guaranies of Paraguay proved no less fearless adver-
saries in the defense of their native country against the
Spaniards who founded Asunci6n, but instead of resorting
to force the subjection of this tribe was at last effected by
the Catholic missionaries.

The aggressive character of the people of the southernmost
regions of South America was fully demonstrated by their
initiative in the war of independence against Spain, for it
was the Gauchos of the La Plata River, descendants of the
Indians, who were the first to take up arms to fight for their
independence. They were the liberators of Bolivia and
Peru, and would have gone to Colombia and Venezuela if
Bolivar's men of the plains and those of his generals, Paez
and Piar, descendants of the Guaranian race, had not ven-
tured upon a like undertaking. Nevertheless, the indepen-
dence of Peru and Bolivia would not have been secured with-

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 7

out the assistance rendered by the Gauchos of La Plata,
descendants of the Pampas, Charrtias and Guaranles, all
settlers of the plains.

Conquest of the La Plata Region

Once the discovery of America by Columbus became a
realization, Spain and Portugal lent material assistance to
the undertakings which resulted in the discovery of South
America as a whole, followed by its conquest and its divis-
ion in almost equal parts between the two.

One of the exploring expeditions, under the command of
Juan Diaz de Soils, arrived in 1516 at the mouth of a great
river, or more properly speaking, the great estuary which he
called Mar Dulce (Fresh Sea), as he admired its immensity.
This name was later changed to Rio de La Plata. Soils was
killed by the Charruas on descending to the east side of the
river.

Following the same route that Soils had traveled, Her-
nando Magallanes, Portuguese, in the service of Spain,
arrived at Mar Dulce in 1520, and, as one of the members
of his crew beheld the hill which rises opposite the capital
of the state of Uruguay, exclaimed "Monte-vi-eu" (Mount
saw I), which was later corrupted into Montevideo.

Sebastian Cabot, who had been in the service of England
and who discovered part of the North Atlantic coast, came
afterwards to take possession of the land and govern it in
the name of the sovereigns of Spain. After reaching the La
Plata River, Cabot discovered the great river Parand,
ascending it to its affluent, the Bermejo, where he received
from the indigenes several pieces of silver, which had prob-
ably come from Bolivia. On his return to Spain, Cabot
presented the pieces of silver to the court, and the opinion
was that this metal was very abundant in the region drained
by the river discovered by Soils, and so the name of Mar
Dulce was changed to the less appropriate one of Rio de
la Plata.

At a later period, in 1535, came Don Pedro de Mendoza

8 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

with more than one thousand men to substitute Cabot and
founded the city of Buenos Aires. The city was attacked by
the Indians, who compelled the Spaniards to retire shortly
afterwards to the fort of Sancti Spiritus, founded by Cabot
on the Parand.

Mendoza was succeeded by his lieutenant, Ayolas, the
founder of the city of Asuncion on the river Paraguay.
Not long after Ayolas was killed by the Indians, and in his
place the settlers of Paraguay elected Domingo Martinez
de Yrala provisional governor.

Paraguay, which comprised all the region drained by the
rivers La Plata, Parang and Uruguay, and the capital of
which was Asunci6n, was the first center of civilization in
the discovered regions. Yrala was succeeded by Alvar
NtiSez Cabeza de Vaca, who in turn was replaced by Ortiz de
Zdrate, the predecessor of Don Juan de Garay, who again
founded the city of Buenos Aires in 1580. Hernando Arias de
Saavedra, who was afterwards elected Governor by the set-
tlers and his election confirmed by the Crown, was the last
of the conquerors of the La Plata, a native of Asuncion.

In 1617 the vast territory of which Asuncion was the
capital city was divided into two parts: Paraguay on the
north, and what was termed Province of Buenos Aires on the
south, which comprised Buenos Aires and the adjacent
territory lying between the rivers Paran4 and Uruguay, also
the lands to the east of Uruguay to the Atlantic, called
Banda Oriental (Eastern Bank), inhabited by such fierce
tribes as the Charruas, Yaros and Minuanos.

The latter was a specially important region for the reason
that the livestock which had been abandoned by the Span-
iards years before had rapidly multiplied. On the other
hand, Paraguay was far richer in food vegetable products
than what the Guaranies, a less combative tribe, had to
offer to the conquerors.

This abundance of livestock prompted the Spaniards to
colonize the Banda Oriental. The first settlement, known
as Santo Domingo de Soriano, was founded in 1624 on the

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 9

river Negro, a big inland stream, and at a point not far from
the river Uruguay in one of the most fertile regions and
where livestock thrived best. The settlement of San Sal-
vador, which had been founded there previously, had to be
abandoned, due to attacks by the Indians.

Condition of the Indians of South America During the

Conquest

Before the establishment of missions the Indian subjects

were distributed among the Spanish leaders, and formed

what were known as E^icomiendas, com-

Reducciones (Set- -, n -r -,• e -, ±^\ i j-

tiements of con- posed of ludiaus of both sexes employed in

different kinds of work for the exclusive
profit of their masters. According to regulation these
Indians could not be sold, neither could they be mistreated
nor driven out on account of illness or old age. Thus did
Yrala organize the first Reducciones of the Indians taken
prisoners. Whenever they submitted voluntarily they were
gathered together in villages, with their chief at the head
under the denomination Encomienda Mitayo, which was
awarded as a prize to the chief.

These groups were not as much sought as those known as
Yanacones, as only two months work from each man per year
was allowed for the benefit of the Spaniards, and, besides,
under the same arrangement, the women, children and chiefs
were exempt from all work.

Through repeated complaints, which the Auditor of Char-
cas investigated in 1612 previous to action upon them, all
personal work was abolished and recommendation made
that the new settlements be left to the Jesuits.

The Jesuits who had been summoned in 1609 established
themselves at La Guaira, opposite the famous cascades which
are formed by the Parand, and founded the Reducci6n of
Loreto and others, which, after attacks by the Mamelucos
of San Paulo, were transferred to the site of the present day
missions comprising the territory between the upper Parand

10 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

and the upper Uruguay at the bend where the former turns
eastwardly. This took place in 1631, when the Reducciones
of Corpus, San Ignacio, etc., were founded and which con-
stituted the Western Missions, now the mission territory in
Argentina.

Each villa or tribe was entrusted to two Jesuits, who
were absolute owners of all the property and who disposed
of everything at will. There was a Municipal Council in
each settlement, but nominally only, as the Jesuits were the
masters. All the work of cultivation, construction and
lesser industries performed by the Indians was for the bene-
fit of the Order of Jesuits, which fed them, clothed them
and furnished them with all the necessaries of a simple life.

Azara, the celebrated Spanish sage, who planned the
boundaries between the Spanish and Portuguese possessions,
in speaking of the Missions, gave accurate information
regarding these settlements.

All Indians between the ages of eighteen and fifty years
paid annually one peso per head to the Royal Treasury, and
in addition, each tribe had to contribute 600 pesos.

In order to isolate their settlements from commercial
intercourse with all other peoples, the Jesuits separated
each tribe by deep pits and stockades and built big gates,
under guards, at points on the roads leading to and from
the settlement, allowing no one to enter or leave without a
written order. They permitted horseback riding only to
those of the Indians who looked after the livestock. The
Jesuits had provided themselves with cannon and equip-
ment and built adequate fortifications.

When the Jesuits refused admittance not only to the
Indians and the Spanish authorities, but to the priests as
well, it was the impression that they intended the organiza-
tion of a Jesuitical empire. Azara says : "The dances which
the Jesuits introduced among their tribes consisted largely
of instruction in fencing and the use of the sword, as I have
myself seen. The women were never allowed to dance."

The Jesuits were English, Italian and German, and the

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 11

few Spanish among them had neither office nor authority.
The Spanish Government limited itself to telling the Jesuits,
after a century and a half, that it was time to grant some
liberty to the Indians by permitting them to have self-
governing powers, the right to trade and transact business
with the Spaniards, and in fact, that they should be extri-
cated from the confinement in which they were kept like so
many rabbits in a warren.

The Jesuits stated that the Indians were not capable of
governing themselves and promised to gradually reestablish
private property, which in fact did not exist, as everything
belonged to the Order. Each family was assigned a small
piece of ground for cultivation two days out of each week
for their own benefit. But inasmuch as the Indians could
not sell their produce the arrangement was of no advantage
to them for the reason that the Order paid for their products
just what it saw fit. In the end, according to the Indians,
the Jesuits disposed of the products of these properties
together with their own.

"It is beyond all doubt," says Azara, "that the Jesuits
governed these tribes arbitrarily, they themselves not being
responsible to any one, and disposed of the properties of
the different settlements and the individual work of the
Indians just as freely as was done by the Indian chiefs
who succeeded them, though the Jesuits were more consid-
erate, only requiring them to work half of the day, amused
them with dancing, festivals and tournaments and supplied
them with sufficient food and clothing. All needlework was
assigned to the musicians, sextons and choir boys, as the
women attended only to the knitting of the cotton."

Manufactures by the Indians of fabrics, cotton and to-
bacco, as well as mate (Brazilian holly), vegetables and
medicinal herbs, were transported to other cities and there
sold in order to bring other articles back. The churches,
which were sumptuously adorned, consumed a large portion
of the income.

A decree calling for the expulsion of the Jesuits from

12 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

their domains was issued on February 27, 1767, by Carlos
III, but the mandate was not complied with until the follow-
ing year for fear of an uprising. The Indians did not want
to obey the Spanish civilian authorities who were in con-
flict with the clergy, and in all disputes upheld the. latter.
These disputes brought about the downfall of the missions
and caused the scattering of the Indians throughout the
forests, finally reducing their number from 144,000 in 1767
to only 45,000 in 1804.

Were the Jesuits good colonizers and did they prove good
sponsors of civilization? I say. No. To civilize does not
mean merely to feed and clothe and impart an appearance
of culture, but it means enlightenment as to the duties and
privileges that all free men have in order to stabilize society
so that civil equality may make of each man a social entity
capable of successfully contributing to the solidarity of a
nation.

The Jesuits could have accomplished this after one and
a half centuries of rule, but they failed, as is proven by the
fact that on their disappearance all else went with them
and only the ruins of the temples remained. They did not con-
struct, for after one and a half centuries — according to them-
selves— the Indians were not capable of self-government.

"To deprive a people from practicing self-government
because of incapability," says Macaulay, "is as irrational
as it is to refuse to operate for cataract on the eye of a
patient for the reason that he will not be able to at first
see the objects before him, the retina not being used to the
light, but which faculty can be acquired after training the
eye as to distance by the necessary reaction on the optic
nerve."

The same thing is true of the Paraguayan Indians of the
time of Francia and L6pez, who after forty years of domina-
tion had not organized even one tribe capable of self-govern-
ment, but who governed by tyranny, notwithstanding the
fact that this tribe by its material progress bore evidence of
a modern race.

" REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 13

The Argentinian, Agustin Alvarez, says in one of his
well-known works : "The races of mankind are not improved
by their ethnical but by their mental transformation, for
the ability to succeed does not take root in the skin or the
bony framework of man ; neither is man's value based, as
is that of the ox, on the load that it pulls, value of its hide,
tissue, fat and bone. Improvement in the breeding of live-
stock is merely physical, but the development of the human
race must be accomplished through the spirit."

To quote Horace Mann : "The opinion of the most com-
petent, most tranquil, most experienced instructors of the
young, is, that we can within two or three generations
through our school system and without undue sacrifice have
this beautiful dream come true (he referred to the reforma-
tion of corrupted humanity) and see the best wishes of all
philanthropists fulfilled. The value of the school is insuper-
able. It will before long, before the lapse of centuries, yes,
within two or three generations, bring about the modification
of the races. There are neither young nor old nations,
neither are there superior nor inferior nations." And
neither are the Latin people inferior to the Germans,
as these latter in their delirium had come to believe, nor are
the Latin races inferior to the Anglo-Saxon, or these to the
Latin, whose highly developed culture has at times charmed
and dazzled them, as is demonstrated by history in the
alternating predominance of first one nation and then
another.

Predominance comes during an historical period to the
most highly intellectual, the most industrious and the most
perseverant nation of that particular period. Japan, next
to China, is the oldest civilized nation in the world, but
having adopted the educational system of the Occidentals, it
is to-day a young nation in the Eastern Hemisphere and its
intellectual men are among the most renowned in medicine
and other sciences. The Americans have demonstrated the
truth of the assertion by Horace Mann, by transforming, in
less than a quarter of a century, the mental development of

14 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

the Filipinos raised and educated under the antiquated
political rule of Spain.

Social Condition of the Indians Under Spanish
Domination

"No more miserable and humiliating condition of humanity
can be pictured than was that of the Indians at work in the
fields. One of the iniquitous laws of the colonies, the per-
sonal tribute of the Mitas (enforced service of Indians)
remained in force after independence till 1857. From
each settlement a certain number of indigenes was recruited
annually to contribute during the year to the work
in the mines, on the farms in the cultivation of the soil or
the raising of livestock, and in the shops where the tocuyo
(shirting) fabrics were designed. The Indians thus forced
to serve were called Conciertos."

"Whoever consults the Noticias Secretas (secret notes) of
Jorje Juan and Antonio de Ulloa, wherein the system of Mitas
is portrayed as it was carried on during the latter period of
the Colonies, and how without any material difference it
existed until the middle of the nineteenth century, can feel
that deep melancholia emanating from a clear vision of the
abyss of human wickedness. Obstinate Indians were
dragged to the shops' prison by tying their hair to the tail of
the rider's horse. Only one of every ten of those thus forced
to slavery ever returned alive."

"In order to still further torment the Mitayo (Indian
subject to Mitas) and humble his last remaining particle of
self-esteem they would further punish him by cutting his
hair to the roots, which punishment was to him the worst
of ignominy. All this painful discipline has created in the
heart of the Indian not only the habit but the necessity of
suffering. Whenever treated kindly he appears nonplussed
and believes that he is being deceived. On the other hand,
he becomes accustomed to the harshest tyranny, with the
half-harrowing, half-repugnant meekness of a much abused

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 15

and despised canine, and as is often the case with the com-
mon watchdog that feels neglected and leaves home after a
prolonged lapse of time between whippings."

"At the time of the abolition of the unjust personal trib-
ute exacted under the rule of Robles, many were the Indians
that became frightened at the new order of things and acted
as if a revered tradition was being violated and became
homesick for the old slavery days. Away from the spur
and influence of chastisement the Indian is indolent and
weak. No promise can be made that he will believe nor
reward big enough to stimulate him. It is not within the
scope of his understanding that labor is ennobling and
should be voluntary. He has neither love of freedom nor
idea of rights."

"The emancipation movement as regards Spain at the
time of the liberal yet unfortunate uj)rising of 1809, also
the ephemeral declaration of independence two years later,
and finally the adhesion to the triumphal impulse of Boli-
var's hosts, were the achievement of the few settled and
cultured Creoles in whom the inspiration to be free was
uppermost and ranked above all else. The idea of mother
country and patriotic passion for same were conceived at
the hidalgos (public meeting houses) of the cities where the
traditional rivalry between 'chapetones' (imported Span-
iards) and Creoles was self-evident."

"The motley crowd of indigenes remained untouched by
the idea and the love, even though it be sent forth as a
horde or an army, its share of unredeemable blood to pay.
Plebeian liberty did not obtain in them that heroic and
genial incarnation which evolved into sculptural align-
ments within the breast of the Gauchos of the La Plata and
within the plainsman of other parts of Colombia and in
Venezuela. Even long after the revolution it often hap-
pened that the Ganan Indian of the haciendas, ignoring
the existence of the nation, believed that the mita to which
he was subject was imposed yet in the king's name."

"The revolution not inspired by the Indian was even less

16 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

of a reality to him. The change in his condition was neg-
ligible. Within the republic the Indian continued to
acquiesce as the conquered race, the wretched clay upon
which the social edifice is planted. The mestizo aims to
deny his half of indigenous blood and endeavors to attest
by his filial wickedness the purity of his lineage. The Indian
clergyman with difficulty reaches the benefice. The uni-
versity is a step-mother to him of humble birth. The
plebeian Indian, like the horse changed from master to
master, sees his state as a helot confirmed. He is mis-
treated and annoyed by the slovenly grouch of the streets.
When the Negro slave finds his task growing burdensome
he turns to the Indian transient and compels him to do his
work for him."

"Cruelty that has perhaps been lessened by the law is
kept alive through habit. The rapacious claw of the 'Cor-
regidor) (corrector — magistrate) passed as had the vintage
of blood of the 'Encomendero' (agent), but the whip for
the Indian remains clutched in the right hand of the boss
of the hacienda, the head man in the shop, the local doctrine
leader, the uncivil and domineering curate, who also
assumes executionership. His tyrants have trained him
upon being lashed to rise and kiss the hand of the whipper
and to say, 'Dios se lo pague' (May God reward you), and
if it be the hand of the black slave that has mercilessly
come down on his back, whether on his master's account or
the slave's own hatred and iniquity, the Indian, the wretched
Indian of South America, kisses the hand of the slave. So
continues he in a darkened night, in the shadows of which the
spirit casts not even a ray of enthusiasm, or of eagerness,
nor even of idle curiosity. The unfulfilled promise, the lie,
sordid fruits of weakness and fear, form the timid defense
with which he endeavors to repress the march to martyr-
dom's excesses. Smiles of heavenly hope he sees not, as he
knows not their radiancy, and the religion which taught
him is to him nothing more than an unctionless monotone.
Death to him means neither joy nor sorrow. Only the

EEGION OF THE LA PLATA EIVER 17

ephemeral exaltation of inebriety brings forth from the
depths of his slavery-bewitched soul, benumbed-like hob-
goblins of daring and bravery, passionate phantoms display-
ing in the lightning rays of madness, the idol of vengeance."

"The air of nobility, emanating from illustrious birth or
from the superiority of the profession, was maintained in
all the purity of Spanish tradition, either through the pre-
eminence of the families' descendants, of founders of cities
and the dignitaries of the Colony, or the aristocratic aureola
of the clergy, or the army or the academic degrees. All the
occupations were of lower order; industrial work, the
mechanic arts were assigned to Indians and mestizos or to
the few foreign immigrants. Territorial wealth, perpetu-
ated in fact on the society of colonial origin, was distrib-
uted among very few. That mountain beyond, one of
nature's wonders, that far-off prairie to which no horse's
gallop finds an end, that valley which could produce bread
enough for an empire, are very often the property of one
single man, rich feudal patrimony where the bent figure
of the indigene represents the rustic who satisfies every
obligation to the master. Numberless clergymen distributed
among the settlements in convents, together with the mul-
titude of secular ecclesiasts, caused the population the effect
of the plant that is being attacked by ants.

"Also in contiguous hierarchy was the attorney, capable
and only versatile personage acquainted with all phases of
understanding as a politician, writer, poet, orator, and
carrying wherever he went as the keys to universal knowl-
edge, his Peripateticism, also his Latin. To complete the
scene of the privileged fraternity, there was the soldier, the
personification of a force, as a rule, uncultured and rough,
but who acquired prominence through the laurels of eman-
cipation and inclined to the leadership in politics, to which
he had to offer some assistance at the first timid show of
reaction against the all-embracing clerical influence."

"The aggregate of society thus constituted was that of a
vast convent which, as in the time of the feudal lordships,

18 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

had near its fortified walls an abbatial hamlet which sounds
of activities of disputes or festivities were lost in the lofty
and austere majesty of monastical silence." (Pages from
Rodo).

All the Indians of Bolivia had to pay tribute to the
Spanish treasury in manner as follows : Those called Origi-
narios, the most distinguished of the Indian settlements,
owning land in the valley and on the puna (plateau), paid
nine pesos and six reales (one real is about one eighth of a
peso) per head per year. The Agregados, owning a very
small portion of land in the valley or a larger one on the
puna, paid seven pesos annually, that of the "Forasteros,"
who owned no land, four pesos annually.

They had established the Caja General de Censos (General
Annuity Funds) for the purpose of paying tribute in case
of epidemic or poor crops. The lands were assigned on a
usufructuary basis and could never become private prop-
erty. Tribute was expected only from the Indians, who
should have been by right the owners of the lands. When-
ever tribute was demanded from a Negro, a Mestizo (half-
breed) or a white, the Court would exempt him, stating:
"Having proved that he is not an Indian he is hereby ex-
empted."

Bolivar abolished the law of tribute in 1825, but it was
reestablished and remained in force until years afterwards.

The excessive mortality rate brought about by Spanish
colonization of South America is briefly explained in the fol-
lowing lines :

"Though we were good, useful farmers we were sent into
the mines, where they loaded us like so many beasts of
burden carrying baskets of ore, and so making life for us
down in the bowels of the earth harsh and unendurable."

The same system which decreed that landed property
should never belong to the individual but to the State, pre-
vailed in the empire of the Incas for thousands of years and
was adopted by the Spaniards, who did not suspect that
the modern Georgians were to come centuries after to find

KEG ION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 19

this old-as-the-world system to be the panacea of all social
evils. In Russia, just before the outbreak of the war
which has recently come to an end, there were vast regions
of millions of square kilometers ruled under the strictest
communism dividing the land periodically in parcels allotted
on a usufructuary basis according to the number of mem-
bers of each family. It was practiced as the Peruvians did,
as did also the Jews during their celebrated jubilees held
every fifty years.

Mackenzie in his very interesting book, "Russia," dC'
scribes the result of the system in that country in the fol-
lowing manner: "Nobody digs either a ditch or a well, nor
plants a tree, nor constructs a durable dwelling, nor a fence*
or any other improvement, for he knows he builds for some-
one else," The Georgians do not take into consideration
the fact that if the land is valuable, it is due in almost
every case to the accumulated work of man where one
family has had the possession of it for several generations
and has improved it continuously.

The most fertile fields of the La Plata and where the best
livestock is raised owe their productivity largely to the
industry of the settlers, who were obliged to root out and
eradicate weeds, thorns, and thickets of all kinds, annihilate
the beasts of prey, and at the same time defend themselves
from savage tribes.

Where no inducement exists for man to become the pos-
sessor of the land he cultivates, the land will be of little
or no value, as no one is willing to toil for the exclusive
benefit of others.

At the time the slaves of Brazil were given their liberty,
the Brazilian landowners, under the impression that the
slaves were the only laborers, believed, or pretended to be-
lieve, that Brazil would suffer a terrible calamity because
nothing would be produced. It was their opinion that the
Negro no longer under the lash would not work', yet the
reverse happened. Production increased as the effort of
the freed Negro to do better work increased. The same

20 SOUTH AMEKICA PAST AND PRESENT

results would have been obtained had they decreed that
each Indian work for his own benefit.

The Indian Problem

Such was the condition of the Indian of the Andean tribes
of South America under Spanish domination, and it so
remained until a few years ago. The laws enacted have
had the tendency right along to better the condition of the
Indian, for there have constantly appeared legislators who
have been inspired by a sense of humanity and justice to im-
prove their condition. Yet laws are impotent against the
customs of tribes that for centuries have received their train-
ing in the conqueror's school of barbarism.

What could be expected of a conquering nation whose
hero, Pizarro, the Conqueror of Peru, could neither read
nor write? What could be expected of a cruel, ignorant,
and fanatical army which only aspired to plunder? The
Araucanos, indefatigable defenders of their native land,
compelled the Conqueror Valdivia to drink melted gold and
made him atone for all the crimes committed by his sol-
diers, who, like their leader, had only one desire as they
conquered, and that was the accumulation of riches, even
if it were necessary to decapitate millions of human beings.

The Indians of Peru, victims of the most abject slavery,
the product of absolute monarchies, were unable to defend
their soil against a handful of adventurers.

Following the overthrow of Spanish rule, the great
Bolivar, through wise legislation, initiated the regeneration
of the Indian, but being that the political directors, descend-
ants of the Spaniards, had the same defects as their predeces-
sors, the tendencies of the Liberator availed little or noth-
ing. Even to-day the Indian desirous of living a free, un-
trammelled life is compelled to ascend the summit of lofty,
glacial mountain peaks of 4,000 to 5,000 meters elevation
looking after his small herd of llamas and alpacas. Should
he venture to descend to the plains from his dwelling amid
the clouds, he becomes the victim of a Government that

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 21

places him in barracks to equip him as a soldier. Should
he hire out to work he becomes the victim of an employer
who pays him a miserable wage of one quarter to one half
dollar per day without meals. He starts to work at sun-
rise, after partaking of a scanty breakfast, works all day
without a morsel of food, only now and then chewing on
coca leaves to check his hunger.

Notwithstanding this condition, there are over 2,000,000
Indians in Peru who have nothing to subsist on. Yet the
influx of hundreds of thousands of Chinese coolies is looked
upon with favor, notorious gamblers who at night stake
their earnings of the day before, and who are both morally
and physically inferior to the Indian.

It is pathetic to find the Chinese hotels and lodging houses
of Callao and Lima crowded with the lower element of the
populace who are partly attracted there by the ridiculously
low prices of meals, then to gamble away the few cents
saved at the expense of their stomachs. The Chinaman's
love of gambling is such that it is not uncommon to find the
employer become the servant of his servant, the former
having staked his entire hotel on one unlucky play of the
night before.

The admission of the Chinese has been harmful and will
prove even more so as time goes on, not only because the
Chinaman is mentally and physically the Indian's inferior,
but also economically, inasmuch as the Chinaman with his
long and varied experience is a more successful farmer,
knowledge which the Indian can in time acquire with his
superior intelligence. The fault lies with the Governments
which, absorbed in preoccupied politics, neglect those vital
problems which should make the foundation and the bul-
wark of a nation.

Imagine what 2,000,000 farm hands trained in all the
branches of agriculture could accomplish oh soil so un-
usually fertile as that of Peru, where sugar-cane, cotton,
and various other plants for which the soil seems to be
particularly adapted, yield such good returns. What enor-

22 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

mous production this country would contribute to the
world at large should it collect the energy of so many-
hands right at its doors, only awaiting the opportunity to
be called by other more enterprising nations. When we
turn to Argentina, with its copious production of 5,000,000
tons of cereals, which it places in European markets, and
which is the product of work done almost entirely by 1,000,-
000 Italian laborers who have transformed the country from
a purely live-stock raising community to first place in the
world's granary, we can form a fair idea of what the evolu-
tion of Peru will be when it learns to utilize its idle millions.

Besides the resident laborers of Argentina, it has been
benefited by the added experience of thousands of golon-
drinas (swallows) farm-hands transported directly from
Italy, who engage in agricultural work during the winter
of the northern hemisphere, and during three or four months
of the austral summer season at the end of which time
they return to Europe. The golondrinas have stayed away
since 1914, and will remain absent till no one knows when,
as many, perhaps, have gone with the departed ten million
and more laborers for whom Europe now mourns and whom
the whole world will miss. Should there be any extra hands
in Italy, they will perhaps go to France, whose shops have
lost 2,000,000 men in the recent war, or perhaps to England
or to both. Argentina will therefore have a shortage of
human working machines which have contributed to its
present prosperity. It will lose tens of thousands of vigor-
ous young men when French and Belgian industries start
anew — where they can afford to offer a higher wage than
Argentina because their products show a correspondingly
larger profit. But Argentina could advantageously substi-
tute Italian labor with Indian labor from Peru and Bolivia,
the Indian being an agriculturist, has cultivated maize for
centuries, is as a rule sober in his habits, and possesses
endurance and unusual physical strength.

The Bolivian railroad now under construction, and which
will connect Quiaca and Uyuni, will permit the transfer

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 23

of laborers from Peru aud Bolivia to Argentina, something
wliicli deserves primary consideration in the service of the
Bolivian-Argentine railway. This might not coincide with
the Utopian idea of the Argentinos that this railroad will
turn the Bolivian market to them, as they believe that there
is nothing that Bolivia can export in either mineral or
vegetable products that can afford the freight from Quiaca
to the ports of Buenos Aires and Rosario, which are at a
distance of about 400 leagues (1,200 miles more or less)
from the Bolivian frontier by rail. The mineral and vege-
table products will always be exported through the Pacific
ports, excepting lumber, sugar, and coffee, which can be
transported out of the country much more economically
via I*ort Suarez on the Paraguay, opposite Corumbd
(Brazil), a river port with service by the Lloyd Brazilian
Steamship Line, which steamers connect with Buenos Aires,
Montevideo, Rio de Janeiro and all ports of the Brazilian
coast line. One very much needed improvement would be
a railroad from Santa Cruz de la Sierra across the Bolivian
Chaco in order that this market coiild be successfully de-
veloped, a fact which ought to interest the Bolivian republic
above everything else.

It is of necessity that l^eru and Bolivia consider both the
utilization of the Indian and his intellectual and moral
development as the primordial problem affecting his ex-
istence. How much better it would be for these two
nations to solve the Indian question, than to employ the
energy of their intellectual lights in disputing with their
neighbors the Argentinos, Paraguayos, Brasileros, Ecua-
torianos and Colombianos over parcels of lands which can
not compare in natural wealth to those that remain aban-
doned and unproductive within the confines of their native
land.

We do not make mention of Chile, which country is in
conflict with the countries of Peru and Bolivia, for the
reason that this is an entirely different proposition involv-
ing self-love and national dignity. The illusory ambition of

24 SOUTH AMEKTCA PAST AND PEESENT

seeking additional lands, is a universal malady. Geograph-
ical vanity seems to be a world-wide contagion. Spain has
bnried hundreds of thousands of her soldiers on African
soil where she has covetously sought new lands to conquer,
while at the very doors of the city of Madrid there lies a
desert-like region unfilled and worthless and which might
as well be a part of the African desert so desolate and
barren it is.

Italy with its maremmas, its pontin lagoons, its malaria
on the outskirts of Rome as described in the bulletins
announcing the manner of combating this terrible disease,
and its Isle of Sardinia now almost deserted and which at
one time provided the whole of the Roman Emj)ire with its
grain, seeks new lands in Abyssinia where the torrid heat
of the sun would have ere this made victims of legions of
Italian soldiers had not Menelik awakened them to the fact
that they were merely chasing phantoms.

The Uruguayans have lost half of their territory by hav-
ing it snatched away from them by the Portuguese and their
descendants, the Brazilians. This, however, does not affect
the size of their territory, inasmuch as their gauchos and
capitalists have literally taken possession of the province
of Rio Grande where they own vast areas of land, and the
lack of additional territory also is made up by their attrac-
tive Montevideo, the residential city of all the big land-
owners, as it is also the principal port of exportation for
their abundant livestock production.

First Spanish Settlements in Uruguay

The first settlements of the Banda Oriental (Eastern
Bank) had as their object the defense of the territory
against the Portuguese who invaded it to
StS T' ^^"^ carry off livestock into Brazil to San Paulo,
betwe^en^'pamards which was fouudcd by Criminals of all
and Portuguese gorts. These wcre a constant menace to

Spanish colonization.

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 25

The Portuguese founded the Colony of Sacramento in
1680 opposite Buenos Aires, from which place they were
driven out by the Spanish Governor, The Portuguese Gov-
ernor was made prisoner and deported to Lima. Hostili-
ties continued until 1G81 when the treaty between the Cortes
of Spain and Portugal decreed the return of the Colony to
Portugal until such a time as the boundaries of the Spanish
and Portuguese colonies be determined.

In 1704 the Spaniards of Buenos Aires received instruc-
tions from the Metropolis to dislodge the Portuguese from
the Colony which they proceeded to do, compelling the
Portuguese to evacuate. But, in 1715, by the treaty of
Utrecht, it became the possession of Portugal once again.
Later, in 1720 and 1722, they tried to occupy Montevideo,
but failed.

In order to prevent further assaults by the Portuguese,
Zabala, Governor of Buenos Aires, founded the city of San
Felipe y Santiago de Montevideo in 1726. The Portuguese
of the Colony continued their incursions from all sides but
again without success, and finally by the treaty of 1750 be-
tween Spain and Portugal the Colony was ceded to Spain.
This treaty fixed the Ibicuy River — tributary of the Uruguay
— as the boundary between the Spanish and Portuguese
possessions. Notwithstanding the treaty, the Portuguese
occupied the Colony until 1762, when the Spaniards resorted
to a twenty-five day siege and forced the Portuguese to
evacuate.

Zeballos, then Spanish Governor, proceeded east and took
the fortifications of Santa Teresa and San Miguel, which
the Portuguese had built on Spanish soil.

The Ibicuy boundary should have been mutually accepted
as the dividing line between the Republics of Uruguay and
Brazil, but the latter, contrary to all justice, extended its
domain farther south as far as the Cuareim River, This
treaty was endorsed by and imposed upon Uruguay by
Argentina under the government of General Urquiza in
1851. The Government of Uruguay declared that it ac-

26 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

cepted the imposition inasmuch as it lacked the necessary
means to defend its rights.

ViCEROYSHIP OF RiO DE LA PlATA FoUNDED IN 1776

The Viceroyship of the La Plata River was established
in 1776, taking- in addition the gubernatorial districts of
Paraguay and Tucuman, under Viceroy Don Pablo de Zeba-
llos, who took possession of the Colony, and in so doing
demolished its ramparts.

The treaty of 1777 granted to Spain all of the dominion
of the Banda Oriental of Uruguay. Zeballos, a progressive
ruler, divided the territory into eight districts, each under
an intendent, and gave the settlers permission to trade with
outsiders, which until then had been prohibited.

All merchandise that had come to Uruguay in the past
came through the Ports of Panama and Portobelo, thence to
Potosi to La Plata, its price increasing from 800 per cent
to 1,000 per cent. This liberty of commercial activity gave
importance to the Banda Oriental for its abundant live-
stock.

Hostilities were again renewed between Spain and
Portugal in 1800, the Portuguese taking possession of the
Misiones Orientales (Eastern Missions) of Upper Uruguay,
which they retained according to the treaty of peace that
followed. This started the boundary disputes between
Brazil and Argentina, which were submitted for decision to
the President of the United States of America only a few
years ago.

Invasions op the La Plata by the English

The English having profited by their triumph at Traf-
algar in 1805, 'attacked in 1806 the city of Buenos Aires with
an army of 6,000 men, and as no resistance was offered, due
to cowardice on the part of Viceroy Sobremonte, the Eng-
lish quickly took possession of the city.

The Spaniards of Montevideo soon after planned the ex-
pulsion of the English from Buenos Aires, and embarking

SOUTH I
AMERICA

KEGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 27

at Colonia, under command of Liniers, they descended near
the city and with the cooperation of the men and women
residents advanced upon the invaders, and after a bloody
struggle the English finally capitulated.

In his proclamation, the leader of the patricians stated:
"The men born in America are not inferior to the Spaniards
or Europeans and no one surpasses them in courage."
Viceroy Sobremonte was repudiated by the people master
of their own destinies, and named Liniers in his place.

The defeat of the English caused great enthusiasm in
Spain, and the Cortes awarded as a recompense to Monte-
video, a coat-of-arms and the title "Muy Leal y Recon-
quistadora Ciudad" (Most Loyal and Reconquering City).

The English returned and captured the coveted port of
Maldonado at the mouth of the La Plata River and marched
against Montevideo with 8,000 men, laying the city waste
and capturing it after a slaughter where the English them-
selves suffered great losses. This battle took place during
the month of February, 1807. In July of the same year,
the English advanced upon Buenos Aires, but the opposing
forces surprised them by the stubborn resistance they offered
and forced the English to retreat, also compelling them to
surrender the sea coast of Montevideo, which they abandoned
on the 19th of the following September.

The short stay of the English at Montevideo proved bene-
ficial to the native South Americans, as it helped them to
foresee the realization of their aspirations for a better gov-
ernment and the assurance of political and commercial
liberty. It was then that the first daily appeared in the La
Plata region.

Popular Movements Forerunners of the South
American Revolution

The spirit of independence among the American settle-
ments had been cropping out for some years, and in refer-
ence to its manifestations the Spaniard Antonio Juan de
Ulloa said in 1731 : "It seems improper that among people

28 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

under the same Government and having the same blood
coursing through their veins that there should exist such
enmity, ill-will and hatred, and that the cities and large
centers of population should be the scenes of discord and
continued opposition between the Spaniards and the
Creoles."

Two revolutionary movements were started in Venezuela
in the years 1711 and 1713, the first one proclaiming a
native born King, and the second was an uprising by the
Creoles against the monopoly created by the Compania
Giupuzcana of Caracas.

In 1730, the Mestizos of Cochabamba secured the right to
elect Alcaldes (Mayors) and Corregidores (Town Magis-
trates) from among the Creoles and to the exclusion of the
Spaniards. In August, 1809, the natives of Quito failed to
recognize the Spanish authorities ruling over them and
established an assembly under the title of "Soberana"
(Supreme). During the following May, the Creoles of
Chuquisaca in Bolivia deposed the Spanish authorities and
organized a governmental assembly. Two months later the
natives of La Paz rose up in arms under the cry "Mueran
Los Chapetones" (Death to the Spaniards), and also organ-
ized a governmental assembly and in their proclamation
stated: "The time has now come to raise the banner of
liberty over these unfortunate colonies." These two revo-
lutions were crushed by the Spaniards, who, following their
established precedents, put the leaders to death.

In 1809 Montevideo was the scene of a conspiracy wherein
Don Joaquin Sudrez, Larraiiaga, Perez, Barreiro, Monte-
rroso, and other patriots planned to strike a blow to Spanish
rule in the La Plata region.

Mention must be made of Miranda, who had ten years be-
fore organized in the City of London the association called
Gran Reuni6n Americana (Great American Union) for the
purpose of framing a republican constitution for the various
Spanish colonies. Among the prominent members of the
Society were Alvear and San Martin, natives of Argentina ;

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 29

O'Higgins, Chilean ; NariSo and Montufar, Granadinos
(from U. S. of Colombia, at that time Nueva Granada) ;
Rocafuerte, Ecuadorian; Caro, Cuban,

The so-called ''Guerra de los Comuneros" (War of the
Comuneros-party opposed to the tyranny of Carlos V) of
Paraguay in 1723, was the expression of an enraged public
at the city of Asuncion when the then Governor Vic-
toria, an appointee of the Spanish Crown, following a
custom of the Metropolis, gave up his office, for a monetary
consideration, to Balmaceda. In consequence of this, the
Cabildo of Asunci6n arrayed itself against the Governor and
opposed him with unusual zeal. The Royal Audience of
Charcas sent Antequera, a native attorney and prosecuting
member of the Audience, to settle the dispute. As an
American, Antequera favored the Cabildo and decreed the
imprisonment of the Governor, who lost no time in leaving
the country.

The Cabildo represented the wishes of the people against
the authority and tyranny of the Metropolis. The Viceroy
of Peru, on hearing the complaint of the deposed Governor,
ordered Antequera to reinstate him in office, to which
Antequera replied that he would not respect the order, as
the authority of the people was superior to that of the King.

In support of the stand that he had taken, Antequera
caused Paraguay to revolt, the people investing him with
the powers of Governor in opposition to the King's will,
just as the Comuneros of Castilla had done under the com-
mand of Juan de Padilla, in defense of Spanish municipal
liberties against the tyranny of Carlos V, son of Juana La
Loca (Jane the Insane) and Emperor of Germany and King
of Spain, that historical figure whose record so closely resem-
bles that of the German ex-Kaiser, now a refugee in Holland.

Antequera was prepared for the Spanish forces which
were marching against him, decisively defeating them with
a loss of 800 of his own men. On withdrawing from
Paraguay, he assembled the Cabildo and advised that opposi-
tion be made to the entry of the new Spanish Governor.

30 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

Antequera, being later apprehended, was tried and executed
in Lima in 1731.

Turning back two centuries, 1540, Gonzalo Pizarro, in
Peru, revolted against Spain, and Carbajal, his next in com-
mand, ordered the royal banner burned. They were both
arrested and summarily executed. From this time onward
the smouldering spirit of independence kept constantly
growing and developing, finally preparing the people for the
memorable outburst recorded as the Pronunciamiento (up-
rising) of Buenos Aires on May 25, 1810 (South America's
Fourth of July), when the people at a public demonstration,
which took place in the city of Buenos Aires, proclaimed
a governmental Junta.

The leaders of the revolution pledged themselves not to
recognize any other government than that of Fernando VII
— even if such were not their intention.

The people of Caracas in Venezuela had one month before,
on the 19th of April, dismissed the Spanish rulers and ap-
pointed an Assembly to govern in the name of Fernando
VII. Chile did likewise on the 18th of September following.

These manifestations of discontent were further incited
by the proclamation issued by Napoleon I, Emperor of
France, in behalf of his brother Joseph Bonaparte for the
throne of Spain while the Emperor was holding Fer-
nando VII, the legitimate owner of the Spanish Crown, a
prisoner at Bayona. This was the cause of the Spanish
revolt at Madrid on the 2nd of May when the Supreme
Governmental Assembly at Sevilla was organized to govern
in place of the imbecile King, Fernando VII.

The Buenos Aires Junta two days after its organiza-
tion sent out a proclamation inviting the settlements to ap-
point Deputies, and on the strength of this invitation the
Royalist Party invited the Assembly to recognize the Board
of Regency of Spain. Liniers in Cordoba revolted in sup-
port of this pretension of the Crown, was promptly subdued
by the Assembly forces, and he and his companions executed
in the month of August, 1810.

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 31

Montevideo, a well fortified city under the Realistas
(Royal Party), was opposed to the revolution, and, on the
arrival of the Viceroy Elio, the hostilities with Buenos Aires
began.

The Banda Oriental of Uruguay declared for the revolu-
tion, with Viera and Beuavides at Ascencio near Mercedes,
at the head, and supported by the garrison of the city of
Mercedes under the command of Fernandez. Artigas, later
commander of the Orientales, joined with a strong force,
which increased the army of patriots to 3,000 under the com-
mand of Belgrano, who was later succeeded by Rondeau.

The Artigas detachment was rushed to Montevideo, meet-
ing the Spanish forces near Las Piedras where he engaged
them in battle, annihilated them, and made their leader.
General Posadas, prisoner. This was the first battle,
"Batalla de Las Piedras," in 1811, which was won by South
Americans in the war of independence and which gave
General Artigas, Commander of the Orientales, increased
prestige.

Not long after, Artigas, together with General Rondeau,
who commanded the Argentine forces, laid siege to Monte-
video, but soon withdrawing under resolution by the Argen-
tine government, claiming that it was imperative that the
army be sent to Perti.

Exodus of the People of Eastern Uruguay

The Orientales, on being left with only their own forces
by the Argeutinos, who had previously signed a treaty with
the Spanish Viceroy of Montevideo, were obliged to combat
not only the Spaniards but also the Portuguese, who had
invaded the territory of the Orientales to protect the
Spaniards, their temporary allies.

Artigas, as the leader of the Orientales, protested against
this treachery of the Buenos Aires Government and with-
drew to the interior accompanied by the patrician families,
including all the women and children and the aged, all of

32 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

whom were giving up their native land and suffering untold
hardships rather than become a foreign master's slave.
This noble act of collective heroism is known in South
American history as the "Exodo del Pueblo Oriental del
Uruguay" (Exodus of the People of Eastern Uruguay).

Artigas, with his small army and his people, had to cross
to the western bank of the Uruguay in order to save them-
selves from complete destruction on being attacked by the
Portuguese.

The Army op Argentina Crosses the Uruguay to Combat
THE Portuguese .

The Buenos Aires Junta protested against the entry
of the Portuguese army, which, according to the treaty,
should have returned to Brazil. Being unable to come to
an immediate settlement, the war with the Spaniards and
Portuguese was started, and accordingly the Argentinos
sent an army under Rondeau against Montevideo.

Artigas of the Orientales, as per agreement entered into
with Rondeau, brought his forces and formed the left wing
of the army of patriots and began the advance on
Montevideo.

On April 5, 1813, Artigas brought together delegates
from among the Orientales who, in Congress assembled,
recognized the authority of the Buenos Aires Junta,
appointed a municipal body entrusted with the internal
governmental functions of the province, and sent five depu-
ties to the general Congress which was to convene in Buenos
Aires. These deputies had instructions to ask for the abso-
lute independence of the provinces of the La Plata and the
formation of a Confederacy of all of them, constituted under
a republican form of government. These were the cele-
brated instructions of 1813, which had as their fundamental
principle, on petition by the Oriental Deputies, the im-
mediate declaration of absolute independence of the
colonies, permanently relieving them of all obligations of
fidelity to the Spanish Crown and the family of the Bor-

kp:gion of the la plata kiver 33

bones, and that all political connections between the colo-
nies and Spain be and remain completely abrogated. They
were not to accept, in substitution of the absolute regime,
any other than a republican form of government nor any
other system than the "Confederacion de los Estados
Soberanos del Plata" (Confederacy of the Sovereign States
of the La Plata). The celebrated instructions of 1813 came
newly to light in 1867, having been found at Asuncion dur-
ing that year and published in 1878.

Historians, both friends and enemies of Artigas, com-
mented on them without knowing what they really were.
These instructions form the basis of a constitution pat-
terned after that of the United States of America. Such
were the views of the leader of the Orientales, though the
form of government that those people should have who still
called themselves subjects of Fernando VII had not yet
been defined.

On Congress refusing to accept the Oriental Deputies,
Artigas petitioned the Argentine General Rondeau, head
of the army, for a new edict on the election of Deputies, and,
according to the Argentine government, elections should
be held at the encampment, or general headquarters, of the
Argentines, on the 8th of the following December.

Thus was elected the Provincial Representation, which
appointed three Deputies to the Congress of Buenos Aires
and a municipal assembly of three members. This election
was protested by Artigas, inasmuch as it did not represent
the true wishes of the people, besides the fact that it had
been conducted under the pressure of the army of Argentina.

Besides the 5,000 Orientales under Artigas, there re-
mained just a few lukewarm citizens, as are found every-
where, who prefer a life of ease to making sacrifices for
principle, in most cases the tranquil and peace-loving resi-
dents of the cities. So, what the group of Argentine citizens
assembled at the Argentine encampment under Argentine
influence, resolved, was not the opinion of the Orientales,
and Artigas did right in protesting as he did.

34 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

This disagreement with the govGrnment of Buenos Aires
brought about the separation of the Orientales from the be-
sieging forces on the 21st of January, 1814. The rejection
of the Deputies sent by Artigas in 1813, was the first demon-
stration of the narrow-mindedness of the Buenos Aires
Junta or Committee, which desired complete and blind
submission to its mandates, not taking into account the
fact that they themselves, as a ruling body, were not a direct
product of the popular will, but of a small coterie self-
styled "Government of the Revolution." The same privilege
belonged to Artigas, who was publicly known as the leader
of the Banda Oriental. The government of Buenos Aires
could not object to the Oriental representation as designated
by the leading citizens of the country, while the members of
the government were self-appointed, and they exercised au-
thority without consulting the various provinces.

The city of Montevideo surrendered on the 20th of June,
1814, with 5,000 men and 300 cannon.

Zorrilla de San Martin, in speaking of the revolutionary
spirit of the day, said : "Had we time at this moment to
traverse all of the regions of America and acquaint our-
selves with the revolutionary condition, we would find it
useful. The sun of liberty appears to be sinking. The
triumvirate government of Buenos Aires, without thought
or fixed purpose, gropes in the dark, seeking or waiting for
the man who never comes, and who should be recognized
by his crown of gold. The Constituent Assembly cannot
constitute anything as it lacks abiding faith. It does not
declare independence, and much less will it adopt any
symbols, coat-of-arms, or its own money, but neither does
it abandon the Spanish flag — the royal flag — for it is bound
to the ancient Metropolis by a traditional monarchical
spirit. It will not burn down the fleet, but will calk it
instead for the probable return to the port from whence it
came. It will enact important reforms, but within the
Spanish organism. It is somewhat similar to the con-
stituency of Cadiz and nothing more. We need not hold

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 35

it responsible for this, neither shall we try to lessen its
renown. It was to be expected, it is humanlike. Artigas,
who was more of a seer than a sage, dictated his instructions
of the year 1813. With these instructions or fundamentals,
Artigas with the same confidence that led Washington and
Jefferson, drafted the chapters of the South American gospel.
At no place in austral America had a similar declaration
been written."

''Fernando VII will continue to rule morally in our midst.
Belgrano and Rivadavia will go to Europe within a year
to recognize Carlos III. There they will meet Sarratea,
Argentine General, but they will not come to an understand-
ing and only failure will they find. Belgrano, disappointed
in Europe, will plan to crown a descendant of one of the
Incas kings. It is essential that he be a king. The declara-
tion of independence of the united provinces of the La Plata
will be effected only three years after, on July 9, 1816, by
the Tucumiln Congress, and this will be the glorious day
of Argentina."

''The Tucumdn declaration was made nevertheless after
delays, fear, and hesitation, and the very same pr6ceres
(illustrious citizens) who sanctioned it, far from de-
claring it like Artigas as the substitution of the colonial
regime on a republican basis, they importuned at that time
and subsequently for the establishment of a European
dynasty on the La Plata."

"What would the noble republic of Argentina give to-day,
what would we, all the sons of the La Plata give, to see
embodied in the records of the Tucum^in Congress, the
instructions of Artigas?" ("Epopeya de Artigas.")

Artigas's Instructions of 1813

Which were presented by the Deputies of Eastern Uruguay before
the General Constituent Assembly of Buenos Aires

1st. To demand the declaration of absolute independence
for these colonies, and cessation of all obligations of fidelity
to the Crown of Spain.

36 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

2nd. To accept no other system than a confederacy call-
ing for a covenant of reciprocity with the provinces which
make up the State.

3rd. To promote civil and religious liberty within all its
conceivable bounds.

4tlL That each province establish its government on the
above basis besides that of the Supreme Government of the
Nation.

5th. Both national and provincial governments to be
divided into Legislative, Executive, and Judicial depart-
ments, each one independent of the other in authority.

6th. These three branches are never to be united, but
will act independently of each other.

7th. The Supreme Government to be concerned only in
general State matters. Other matters to be handled
specially by their respective provincial government.

8th. The territory now occupied by the people of the
eastern coast of Uruguay, as far as the fortress of Santa
Teresa, will constitute one single province called Provincia
Oriental (Eastern Province).

9th. That the seven Mission villages, also those of Batovi,
Santa Tecla, San Rafael, and Tacuarembo, which are occu-
pied by the Portuguese, to be reclaimed when the proper
time comes, and as territory which has always belonged to
this province.

10th. That this province for the present enters into a
separate binding alliance of friendship with each one of the
others for their common defense, protection of their liberty,
and for their mutual and general happiness, each in turn
binding itself to assist each one of the others against all
violence or attack against all or any of them for reason
of religion, sovereignty, commerce, or any other pretext
whatever it might be.

11th. That this province shall retain its sovereignty,
liberty and independence, all powers, jurisdiction, and
privileges which shall not expressly be delegated by the
Confederacy to the united provinces in Congress assembled.

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 37

12th and 13th. The ports of Maldonado and Colonia, with
free access for the imj^ortation of merchandise and the
exportation of fruits with the corresponding custom-house
duties.

14th. That no tax or duty be imposed on articles exported
from one province to another, nor any preference given
through regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports
of one province over those of another, neither are the vessels
which are destined from this province to another to be com-
pelled to enter, anchor, or pay duty in still another province.

15th. Not to permit the enactment of any law for this
province covering property of foreigners who die intestate,
or covering fines and forfeitures which formerly applied to
the King, or on territory of the latter, as long as it does not
by ordinance determine to what funds to have same applied
to, as the only department legally entitled from its economi-
cal jurisdiction.

16th. That this province should have its territorial con-
stitution, with the privilege of sanctioning the general con-
stitution of the United Provinces, as would be drafted by
the Constituent Assembly.

17th. That this province shall have the right to increase
its regiments to the number required, name the officers of
companies, regulate its militia for the protection of its
liberty, not violating the right of the people to keep and
possess arms.

18th. That military despotism be duly and completely
annihilated by constitutional measures that shall insure
the inviolability of the people's sovereignty.

19th. That the seat of government of the United Provinces
be of necessity and indispensably situated outside the city
of Buenos Aires.

20th. The Constitution shall guarantee to the United
Provinces a republican form of government, and shall insure
each one against all domestic violence, usurpation of its
rights and liberty and sovereign security.

The above are the essential articles of the proposed con-

38 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

stitution, which Artigas, as leader of the Uruguayans and
the people of Uruguay, wanted as their Federal Constitu-
tion for the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata, These
represent the principles of the Constitution of the United
States of America, which were later adopted by the Argen-
tine Constitution of 1816.

Had these principles been accepted since 1813, we would
not have had to regret the bloody civil wars between the
Orientales and the PorteSos (residents of Buenos Aires),
and between Artigas and the Directorate of Buenos Aires,
and which acceptance would have made the Uruguayan
Republic an integral part of the United Provinces of to-day.

The Deputies of Eastern Uruguay were not admitted to
the Constituent Congress or Assembly for the reason that
the Election Ordinance proclaimed by the Triumvirate,
which exercised the executive power of the nation by its
Article No. 5, prohibited the Deputies from receiving im-
perative orders as national deputies. None of the provinces
had taken part in the preparation of this ordinance, as the
Triumvirate, following Spanish practice, really believed
that the Buenos Aires government, as the heir of the Vice-
roys, could dictate measures of a general character without
the consent or opinion of the different settlements constitut-
ing the nation. The government of the Triumvirate was
aware of the opinion of Artigas, as he had expressed it to
General Rondeau, to the effect that it was his aim to dis-
regard the interference of Buenos Aires in the Oriental
province soon after the termination of the war.

Artigas so arranged the Instructions as to provide meas-
ures to secure the autonomy of the Oriental province, while
the Porteiios took measures to defeat his purpose. It is
perhaps surprising that Artigas should have given instruc-
tions to the Deputies; but, in fact, it was nothing out of
the ordinary, as it was a case wherein the people were in
accord with their leader as well as with the Deputies, and
they were all in favor of the autonomy of their province.
The idea of autonomy had been fostered in Antigas's mind

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 39

since 1811, when, in a communication to the Paraguayan
government, he stated : '^The Banda Oriental is the sister,
the ally, of Buenos Aires, hut it has its own boundaries,
which have been pointed out by nature/'

The War Between Orientales and Portends

The war between the Orientales and the Portenos — the
Uruguayans and the residents of Buenos Aires respectively
— broke out soon after the seizure of Montevideo. This
war was provoked by the intolerance of the people of Buenos
Aires toward the spirit and inclination shown locally among
the Orientales. The Argentine provinces of Santa Fe,
Cordoba, Entre Rios, and Corrientes, on accepting the pro-
tection offered by Artigas, seceded from Argentina. Shortly
after the secession of these provinces, Director Posadas
started peace negotiations with Artigas, and on the 17th
of August drafted a decree revoking a former one fixing a
price on Artigas's head, acclaiming him in the later decree
a faithful servant of the mother country, bestowing upon
him the rank of Colonel, and conferring on him the office of
General Commander of the Oriental campaign.

Peace did not last very long, for on the 1st of January,
1815, the forces of the Orientales, under Rivera, met those
of Buenos Aires at Guayabos, under the command of Dor-
rego, where the latter were completely routed. It was an
encounter of brother against brother, as had been that of
Carreras and O'Higgins at Maipo on August 26, 1815, and
that of Bolivar and Castillos, at Cartagena, on the 12th of
December, 1814.

The government of Buenos Aires having changed hands,
orders were given for the dislodgment of the Argentine
forces from Montevideo, which was effected, and the with-
drawal of the Argentine troops completed on the 25th of
February following. The city was then occupied by the forces
of the Orientales, who hoisted the first patriotic flag on the
La Plata River, which has been called the Flag of Artigas,
consisting of one white between two blue stripes, and a red

40 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

stripe diagonally crossing the other three. The first na-
tional coat-of-arms of Uruguay was adopted the same year.
This emblem had as its center a balance — symbol of equality
— and beyond, the radiant sun around which was the motto :
'^With liberty neither do I offend nor fear/'

Following the fall of the Argentine government under
Alvear, a provisional law was enacted on May 5, 1815, which
directed the installation of the Tucumdn Congress, which
proclaimed the Independence of Argentina.

Discord Among the Leaders op Argentina

The deep-rooted differences between Artigas and the gov-
ernment of Buenos Aires had become pronounced even
among the leaders of "Mayo" (Argentina's month of Inde-
pendence), as is described by Mitre, the reputed Argentine
historian, in his story of Belgrano, as follows : "Hardly had
a year elapsed when the revolutionary arena was destitute
of its most renowned leaders — Moreno, the inspiration of
the revolution, died while at sea; Alberti, member of the
Mayo commission, died before he saw his work completed;
Berruti and French, the two political orators of the cele-
brated 25th of May (Independence Day), had been ex-
patriated as of the criminal class; Rodriguez Pena, the
energetic force of the preaching campaign which preceded
the revolution ; Ascu6naga, who had so efficiently cooperated
in its triumph ; Vieytes, the indefatigable companion of Bel-
grano in the tasks that prepared the change of 1810; all
of them ignominiously persecuted, and whose friends of other
days referred to them as frenzied fanatics, frantic demo-
crats, expatriates, moral perverts, blood-thirsty plunderers,
infamous traitors, rebels, low-lived, cynical, seditious in-
surgents, poison ivylike, and corruptors of the people."

Zorrilla de San Martin says : "That struggle will continue
indefinitely, it will continue in a rage and implacable, and
the man will not be there until the tyrant appears ; revolu-
tions, mutinies, tumultuous disorders, political conspiracies
will follow each other without interruption within that

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 41

chaotic nucleus where the political rulers will rise and fall
— thanks for this, as in many cases, to intrigue — betraying
the lofty' interests of the South American Independence.

"It is not then possible that the capitan of blandengues
(old-fashioned regiment), the man of sincerity, Artigas,
will be a party to it, nor will he swear thereto the uncondi-
tional submission of his people to any faction. He is the
order ; he comes to ask for means to liberate his country, and
will accept whatever means are given him and from whomso-
ever he receives them, because he is ready to liberate it with
those men, without those men, and against those men should
it become necessary."

These remarks of two historians of the La Plata give
a complete idea of the grievous discords which held sway
within the element that directed the revolution, and they
also explain sufficiently well the state of anarchy which
prevailed among the governing heads, just as it has hap-
pened during momentous events which have revolutionized
the world. Add to this the want of political education and
of party discipline, as well as ideas of assumed authority
inherited from the mother country and incompatible with
political liberty, and you will form some conception of
politics at that time. A group of well-meaning citizens, yet
arrogant and ill-prepared to govern, imposing their will
on the great majority of the citizens who were not heard in
any manner.

The haughtiness of Artigas is explained in the fact that he
was the leader of the Orientales, the most fertile land of war-
riors, the capital of which — Montevideo — proudly displayed
the motto, ''Muy fiel y reconquistadora ciudad," and which
had been and still was the best fortified place of the Rio de la
Plata, and the rival of Buenos Aires.

Artigas and the Orientales could not be mere satellites of
the Committee which had assumed power. "The Banda
Oriental has boundaries, she is the sister, the ally, to Buenos
Aires," Artigas had said in his note of December 7, 1811,
which was read publicly at the City of Asunci6n in Para-

42 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

guay, amid the acclamations of the people, and adding: "The
Orientales have sworn an irreconcilable hatred to all forms
of tj^ranuy, and have sworn not to lay down their arms
until every foreigner leaves the country."

Artigas, desirous of securing autonomy for his loved
Provincia Oriental, wished to embody in his instructions a
federal constitution patterned after that of the United
States of America, while on the other hand, individuals at
the head of the Buenos Aires government, descendants of
good Spanish stock, self-constituted authorities, could not
conceive any other plan except one on the Spanish style,
with all the exaggerated ideas of a unitary and despotic
centralism as formulated by Carlos V.

The Army of Argentina Rebels Against the Buenos

Aires Government_, Installing General Rondeau

at the Head

General Alvear, not through his meritorious accom-
plishments— he being a very young man at the time — but
through the intrigues which were in vogue at the time, was
appointed General of the Army of Peru, but the army
leaders of Alto Peru refused to recognize him as such, there-
by establishing a regrettable example of insubordination.
The Army of Peru rose up in rebellion against Alvear on
the 19th of December, 1814, demanding the continuance of
Rondeau. Director Posadas, in view of the disobedience
shown his government, renounced his authority on March
9, 1815, but against all discretion the Constituent Assembly
entitled Logia (lodge) Lautaro, which was a sort of political
masonic lodge, named Alvear as Director, whose position
became indefensible, since his defeat by Artigas with Do-
rrego as Lieutenant, and since the army disregarded him.

In the meantime, Belgrano and Rivadavia were searching
Europe for a Prince to occupy the throne of the Provincias
Unidas (United Provinces) independently of Spain. The
monarchial scheme was shared by San Martin, Belgrano,
Rivadavia, Sarratea, and Puyrred6n. Director Posadas

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 43

comment was, "What difference does it make whether the
ruler-to-be be called Desk, Table or Bench, Emperor or
King?"

Following the battle of Guayabos, the government of
Buenos Aires had sent ambassadors to arrange terms of
peace with Artigas, peace being endorsed by Artigas under
condition that the City of Montevideo be surrendered and
the forces withdrawn, which was accepted by Buenos Aires,
and its forces evacuating on February 27, 1815, as before
stated.

Alvear would not give in, and signed a communication
which placed the provinces of the Rio de la Plata under
the authority of England, but this note, which was to have
been delivered by Minister Garcia to Strangford, failed to
be delivered, Garcia limiting himself to state to the
English Minister that the Provinces of the La Plata had
depended on the support of England in order to save them-
selves from falling into the clutches of Spain. A subsequent
revolution in Buenos Aires destroyed the power of Alvear,
who sought refuge on an English battleship, and the Con-
stituent Assembly dissolved.

The United Provinces of the La Plata, in congress as-
sembled at Tucuman, declared their independence on the
9th of July, 1816.

The Last Portuguese Invasion

The Portuguese invaded territory of the Oriental province
with an army of 10,000 men, commanded by Lecor, for the
purpose of expelling Artigas and taking possession of the
territory comprising the Banda Oriental. The Oriental
forces, though weakened, offered stubborn resistance, and
Director Puyrredon intimated to the invader that the terri-
tory should be abandoned, and proposed to Artigas his
assistance, on condition that the Oriental Division render
obedience to the Directorate and to the Congress, and that
the Argentine flag be hoisted instead. Artigas most em-
phatically opposed the proposition, ordered the Argentine

44 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

document to be consigned to the flames, and started prepara-
tions for the defense of his country. We quote from Ar-
tigas's note, in answer to the Argentine proposal, the follow-
ing: ^'^The leader of the Orientales has at all times demon-
strated that he loves his country too well to sacrifice this
noble patrimony for the contemptible price of necessity/'
He gathered 4,000 men, who were unable to check the ad-
vance of the Portuguese into Montevideo, which had been
abandoned by its small patriotic garrison.

During the rule of Puyrredon, the political parties were
divided into Unitario and Federal. The Federal's preten-
sion was that the province of Buenos Aires, which yielded
larger returns, should not be under the national govern-
ment, but that it be governed under autonomy, or in other
words, he was asking for just the same conditions that the
Banda Oriental of Uruguay wanted. Among the leaders
of the Federal Party were Dorrego, Agrelo, General French,
the Anchorenas, and other influential personages. They
had as their organ a daily called La Cronica, where it was
claimed that the Director Puyrredon was implicated with
the Portuguese who had invaded Uruguay. This expose
gave an excuse to Puyrredon to have them deported to the
Antilles, together with the Oriental patriots. Colonels
Pagola and Valdenegros, and other men of distinction. On
arriving at Baltomire, the deported patriots issued a mani-
festo reading: ''What is this crime of ours if among the
many facts that confront us we have believed that the gov-
ernment is implicated in schemes of perfidy and treachery,
and that it had called and entreated the Portuguese to in-
vade the Oriental territory." It is not strange therefore
that Artigas should have believed Puyrredon to be a traitor.

The Orientales Abandoned by the Argentinos

After several engagements with the Portuguese, Artigas
proceeded to Entre Rios to secure reinforcements in Argen-
tina, but instead of assistance he was received by the chief-
tain Ramirez, his former prot6g6, in a hostile and warlike

EEGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 45

attitude, and who, in a consequent encounter with Artigas,
defeated the latter, who was compelled to withdraw into
Paraguay.

Artigas, an unnoticed hero, was slandered by nearly all
the Argentine historians, but his instructions of 1813, which
were newly brought to light in 1868, when they were found
in the city of Asuncion, together with other documents bear-
ing his signature, place the leader of the Orientales among
the first statesmen of America, both in thought and action.
(Refer to the Book, "Instructions of the Year 1813," pub-
lished by Miranda, Libreria Nacional, Montevideo, 1916.)

Opinion Given by President Monroe's Commission to
Argentina in 1818 Regarding Artigas

The testimony given by the United States Government
Commission, which was sent to Argentina during the Monroe
administration to study the political situation at the time
the Argentine government asked of the great northern re-
public to recognize the independence of the United Provinces
of the La Plata, proves the truth of our statements. The
members of this commission who went to Argentina aboard
the frigate "Congress" in 1818, were Cesar A Rodney, John
Graham, and Theodore Bland. President Monroe, on ex-
plaining to the United States Congress the purpose of this
commission, officially requested that provision be made for
the necessary funds to defray the expenses of the said com-
mission. It was at the memorable session of the United
States Congress in March of 1818, during the five days
from March 21 to 28, which were exclusively devoted to the
Argentine matter, that Clay was inspired to express the
following sentiment: "Artigas appears to be in truth, a
republican, a man of strong mind and strong understand-
ing, brave, active, intelligent, devoted to his country, and
possessing the entire confidence of the people of whom he
is chief." (Smith of Maryland, U. S. A. Congress, March
28, 1818.)

46 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

It was at the most critical period of the struggles of
Artigas and his brave gauchos, trapped as they were by
their enemies, that the North American commission arrived.

Clay maintained that instead of a commission, a govern-
ment representative should be sent, and that the independ-
ence of the Spanish-American republics should be recognized.
The government's attitude was to defer recognition until re-
ceipt of report, to which Clay answered by quoting Washing-
ton's remarks: "Born in a land of freedom, my fervent
prayers and best wishes are irresistibly roused wherever I see
an oppressed nation break the barriers that separate her
from freedom." "The United States of America, Clay con-
tinued, "must not wait for the Kings to recognize the only
other republic besides ours, in order to do likewise. If the
health of the European monarchies depends upon the death
of the republics of America, then the security of the Ameri-
can republic must not be restrained by the others born at
her side." Clay concluded his oration by saying: ''The only
champion of democracy in these regions is the hrave and
chivalrous Artigas"

In his report to President Monroe, Commissioner Rodney
sent extended and detailed information covering all the
events which took place in the La Plata region since its
discovery, including all documents obtained in Buenos Aires,
the central point of the territory dominated by the enemies
of Artigas, to whom the Argentine historians referred as
the bandit, captain of smugglers, highwayman, blood-
thirsty bandit, and other similar not endearing terms. The
Rodney report ends with this statement : "It is fair to add,
nevertheless, that General Artigas is considered by persons
worthy of belief, to be a consistent supporter of the inde-
pendence of his country. A decisive opinion on such a
delicate question could be hardly expected from me inas-
much as my position does not permit me full view of the
condition of the territory as a whole. I have not yet had
the satisfaction of a formal interview with General Artigas,
who is unquestionably a man possessing singular and ex-

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 47

ceptional talents. But were I to dare conjecture, I do not
believe it impossible that in this as well as in the majority
of local disputes there is fault on both sides. It is to be
lamented that they are in open hostility." Commissioner
Graham said: "General Artigas and his followers claim
that the intervention of the Buenos Aires government is to
dominate them and to compel them to submit to conditions
which will rob them of the privileges of self-government
which they believe they are entitled to demand. They state
that they are desirous of joining the people of the western
bank of the river, hut not in such a loay as to he left siihject
to the tyranny of Buenos Aires. This war has had as its
origin a combination of causes, wherein perhaps both fac-
tions have something to complain of and something for
which to repent. Mutual interests demand their union, but
much discretion and moderation are needed to secure it ; in
fact, a great deal more than what can at this moment be
expected from the irritated spirit of some of the leading
personages of both sides."

At the same time that the American envoys were writing
these reports, Puyrredon wrote to San Martin as follows:
"Artigas has been completely routed by the Portuguese and
compelled to seek shelter in the forests with very few of
his bandits." San Martin had sent two messengers from
Chile with instructions to go to the Artigas camp for con-
ciliation, but this move was unfavorably received by Puyrre-
don, who reproached San Martin for having interfered, and
ordered the messengers to return from Mendoza without
interviewing Artigas.

The report of the third commissioner, Mr. Bland, says:
"Artigas put the plans of the Buenos Aires government to
the test, demanding that the Banda Oriental he considered
and treated as a state. This demand was considered at
Buenos Aires as the most irrational criminal offense and
defiant rehellion against the only lawful government of the
United Provinces, which government, according to its doc-
trine, emhraced all of the viceroyship of which Buenos

48 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

Aires had always been and by right was then and should
continue to he the capital whence all authority should
emanate. Artigas opposed and denounced this as a mani-
festation of an unjust and arbitrary spirit of domination on
the part of Buenos Aires, and to which he could not in any
manner submit. Artigas, though driven first in one direc-
tion and then in another, attacked by the Portuguese on
one side and by the patriots of Buenos Aires on the other,
and on guard against an unexpected attack by the
Spaniards, has the entire population in a state of submis-
sion to the power of his will. It may be said that Artigas
and his gauchos valiantly defend their homes, their country,
and their rights, and that the King of Portugal plans to
enlarge his domains by adding the province to Brazil." In
speaking of the peasants of the province Oriental, Bland
says : ^'They are the most formidable guerillas that have ever
lived." They rank second to hone in physical prowess, and
the deeds of valor ascribed to them by far surpass those of
the Parthes, the Escitas, and the Cossacks of the Don.

"Revolutionary America had in the culmination of its
justifiable revolution, and from the very beginning, one true
adherent and armed supporter, Artigas. Yet all is not
known, except by the people who guard within their soul
the glory of that tradition, for it happens that some of the
most interesting and appealing facts about the La Plata
revolution have not either been written or propagated. This
came to me as I read the excellent resume, written in such
clear and precise style, which the illustrious noble, Rufino
Blanco Fombona, presented at the Madrid conferences, re-
garding the origin of contemporary America."

"It is locally admitted that the revolution of the extreme
south originated and was maintained in a monarchial atmos-
phere, which appears to be relatively true, as no mention
is made of Artigas, instigator of democracy, harassed and
pursued like a beast of the jungle, by the monarchial
oligarchy of the Posadas and the Puyrredons, and then
slandered in transient history by writers inheriting the

EEGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 49

hatred of monarchial politici. A fundamental revision of
comparative worth is a new task on the history of this
region of the south, and when this revision has been com-
pleted and certain ghastly and mediocre figures have passed
to a secondary plane, one figure will continue to grow to
gigantic proportions as a figure worthy of America, the
chieftain with lionlike grasp who in 1813 hoisted the flag
of integral organization and clearly defined republicanism —
which Bolivar also took up soon after, though in a less
fervent form, in opposition to the monarchial program of
San Martin." (From Jos6 Enrique Rodo, in Motives de
Proteo.)

Ignorance regarding the true history of the La Plata, and
ignorance as to the true part played by Artigas, are the two
main reasons for the many errors which we find in books
of American history. In a book recently published in the
City of New York (Appleton, 1918), and written by Don
Enrique Santibdiiez, former instructor of universal history
in the preparatory school in the City of Mexico, we read in
substance the following : "Artigas represented in that chaos
the chieftain whom we very frequently find in Latin America,
who does not recede from any act of brigandage or false
report, provided he can dominate his unfortunate country."
This Mexican historian honestly believes that Artigas was
another Pancho Villa. He is a new grave-digger for the
Oriental hero who, to quote Mitre, the Argentine historian,
"Has been buried definitively." "We two," wrote Mitre
to Lopez (another Argentine historian), after a dispute,
"have shown the same predilection for the great men and
the same repulsion for the disorganized barbarians, like
Artigas, whom we have buried historically/'

But the historically dead one returns to life, and an
aureole of glory, which no other Platenese caudillo (chieftain)
or hero possesses, now crowns his head, for the reason that he
was the only democrat of his time in the La Plata region, and
the only one who did not doubt the ultimate triumph of the
republic.

50 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

The Orientales Take Up Arms Against Brazil

The Banda Oriental was annexed to Brazil, under the title

of Provincia Cisplatina, thus forming part of the kingdom

of Portugal. Soon after, on the 21st of

Invasion of Thirty-
three— 1825— September, 1822, Brazil declared its inde-
pendence from Portugal, with the usual
result — a conflict between the two nations, the Brazilians
being compelled, under their leader, Lecor, to withdraw
from Montevideo to Canelones.

The Oriental Knights, members of a patriotic society, sent
a commission to Buenos Aires to propose the incorporation
of a Banda Oriental with the United Provinces, and so pre-
sented themselves before the cabinet minister, Rivadavia.
The latter remonstrated, stating that he could not accept
the proposal until presented by a regularly constituted
government. This provoked Lavalleja, future leader of
the famous Thirty-three, to revolt. But on being pursued,
and not having any resources at his command, he was
unable to offer resistance, and therefore migrated into
Argentina.

On the 20th of October following, the Cabildo of Monte-
video decided to enact the law exacted by the Buenos Aires
government, and so the neighbor communities in meeting
assembled unanimously declared : "That the province as
a whole, and particularly the capital, placed itself freely
and of its own free will under the protection of the Buenos
Aires government, that they considered the act of incor-
poration with the Portuguese monarchy null, criminal, and
arbitrary — the act having been sanctioned by the Congress
of 1821, composed largely of employees under the pay of the
Portuguese King, and that the province of Oriental of Uru-
guay did not belong, and should never belong, to any other
power, state, or nation than that of Rio de la Plata, of which
it had been and still was a part."

Three days after the issuance of the above declaration,
the Portuguese General, in compliance with instructions

i EEGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 51

received from Lisbon, abandoned the town to Lecor, and
he himself set sail for Portugal.

The patriots Lavalleja, Manuel Oribe, Zufriategui, and
others got together and jointly entered a binding agreement
to invade the province of Oriental, and accordingly invaded
the territory on April 19, 1825, on the Agraciada coast.
These venturesome heroes were thirty-three in number. They
swore on their knees before the flag to liberate their native
land or die in the attempt. The motto inscribed on the
banner of liberty, which Lavalleja caused to wave, read :
"Liberty or Death."

The group of patriots under this banner was augmented
by the forces of Rivera and others, and on the seventh of
May laid siege to the city of Montevideo. On the 20th of
August the National Assembly convened at Florida and
named Lavalleja Captain General. On the 25th of August
the said assembly declared the independence of the Pro-
vincia Oriental and its incorporation with the Argentine
provinces, and so advised the government of Buenos
Aires.

On the 20th of the following September, the Orientales,
under Rivera, defeated the Brazilian forces at Riucon de
las Gallinas. General Lavalleja routed another Brazilian
army at the battle of Sarandi, under the cry, "Shoulder
Carbine, Sabre in Hand," which triumph was enthusias-
tically celebrated in Buenos Aires.

The Argentine Congress declared the incorporation of
the Provincia Oriental with the United Provinces, and
demanded its release from the governmental authorities
of Rio de Janeiro. This brought about Brazil's declaration
of war, which the Argentine government answered by the in-
tervention of its army in crossing the Uruguay, thence
marching north and encamping on the plains of Ytuzaingo.
The combined forces of Argentinos and Orientales consisted
of 7,000 men, against 9,000 Brazilians, including 3,600 Aus-
trians sent by the Emperor of Austria as a nucleus for the
Brazilians' forces, to his political associate, the Emperor

52 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

of Brazil, the Austrian General, Bauer. There were many
Austrian oflScers, members of the Brazilian Stafif.

The republican forces were rewarded with victory, and
in due time a treaty of peace was signed, wherein England
took part by guaranteeing the complete independence of
the Provincia Oriental on the 27th of August, 1828. The
Uruguayan Constitution was sworn to on the 18th of July,
1830, and recently amended on March 1, 1919.

The War Against the Despot Rosas

General Rivera, who was elected the first President,
served four years, and President Oribe, elected to succeed
_ „ „ him, did not serve out his term, which was

The New Troy . ' '

interrupted by a revolution, and Oribe
obliged to resign the presidency. Rivera, who again occu-
pied the presidential chair, declared war in 1839 against
the despot Rosas of Buenos Aires.

Oribe, on giving up the presidency, placed himself at the
disposal of the tyrant, who was then ruling as an absolute
king. Oribe, becoming Rosas' sword, relentlessly per-
secuted the Unitarians, enemies of the latter. After
defeating all of Rosas's enemies, Oribe, who was an able
general, came to Montevideo with a powerful army of 14,000
men, besieging the city on the 16th of February, 1843. The
siege lasted for nine years, and gained for the city the title
of "Nueva Troya." During this prolonged siege, the par-
tisans of the despot Rosas dominated the whole of the
Oriental campaign. Montevideo was the retreat of the most
illustrious Argentine enemies of Rosas, the "Unitarios"
(Unitarians), among them Mitre, Paz, Plorencio Varela,
and a good many Europeans, like Garibaldi, who was at the
head of the Italian legion.

Rosas was the most cruel tyrant that ever ruled in
America. He established a despotic form of government,
over which he ruled for twenty years, during which time
he mercilessly persecuted his enemies and confiscated their
property. He leaned upon and catered to the lowest element,

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 33

and his audacity reached such a stage that he had his photo-
graph placed on the altar of a church in place of one of
the images. He was inimical to all forms of civilization
and oppressed all foreigners. The laws were proclaimed
under the caption : "Death to the unclean, loathsome, and
savage Unitarios, enemies of God and Man. Long live the
Restorer of the law." His adherents were the most dreaded
assassins. "La Mazorca," organized by Rosas, was an organ-
ization of bandits, associated for the purpose of whipping
and murdering all Unitarios without any process of law.

It was this despotic cruelty that drove the Unitarios and
their families into Montevideo and Chile. Two thousand
two hundred Argentinos were murdered during this reign
of terror and tyranny. His outrages against the French
caused the French fleet to blockade the port of Buenos Aires,
and it was then that he added to his title, that of "Restaura-
dor de las leyes," the one of "Defensor de la Independencia
Americana" (Defender of American Independence), when
instead he should have acquired the title of "Defensor de la
barbarie pampeana" (Defender of pampean cruelty).

The Triple Alliance Against Rosas

It appears almost incredible to-day to read of the atroci-
ties committed by Rosas, but nevertheless it remains a fact.
He was a bloodthirsty emulator of Neron. "Amalia," by
the well-known author Jos6 Marmol, gives a very good idea
of who Rosas was and what took place under his dominion.
Rosas claimed to be a federalist, but had no conception
of what a federal government should be, as his government
was as absolute as the most exaggerated form that could
be found in any country in the world. All of Argentina
was a gathering of savage gauchos, who controlled in their
territory in the various provinces, also as absolute owners
of the land.

In December, 1850, the defensive government of Monte-
video celebrated a treaty of ofifensive-defensive alliance with
Brazil and the Argentine provinces of Entre Rios and Cor-

54 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

rientes, against Rosas. The Argentine General, Urquiza,
crossed the Uruguay with his troops to attack Oribe, and
thus deprive Rosas of the former's support. The Brazilians
also entered Oriental territory. Oribe was soon after
abandoned by his best leaders, and nearly all of his army,
composed mostly of Argentinos, joined Urquiza's troops,
and Oribe was compelled to capitulate on October 3, 1851,
thereby terminating the siege of Montevideo, which had
lasted for a period of eight years, seven months, and twenty-
two days.

The allied forces, numbering 30,000, invaded the province
of Buenos Aires, finally accomplishing the overthrow of
Rosas on the third day of February, 1852. He sailed in an
English vessel to England, where he died several years later.
Thus was fulfilled the prophecy of MArmol, the poet who
said : "Ni el polvo de tus huesos America tendr^" (Not even
the dust of your bones will America retain).

War Against Lopez, the Tyrant op Paraguay

Another tyrannical government had been implanted in
Paraguay by the dictator Francia and the members of the
L6pez family, his successors, making it necessary for the
Argentinos, Orientales and Brasileros to organize a triple
alliance to demolish it (treaty of May 1, 1865). No more
bloody war has been fought on American soil than that be-
tween the Lopez forces and those of the nations allied
against him. The conflict lasted five years. Paraguay was
ruined and its man power almost completely annihilated
defending a tyrant ruler, not defending the land, as the allies
did not intend to acquire territory by conquest, seeking only
to rid the republics of America of a despotic government
which was a constant menace to their comfort.

Paraguay was then the first military power in South
America, and her position would have entitled her to the
sobriquet of "The Germany of America." Her ruler, L6pez,
had ideas in common with the would-be world-conqueror ex-
Kaiser, leading his people to believe that he was fighting for

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 55

the liberty of the country which he ruled as a tyrant, just as
the Kaiser succeeded in making his subjects believe that the
allied nations had provoked the war as a pretext to deprive
them of their commerce and rob them of their wealth. These
two absolute monarchs differed, in that L6pez died fighting
the enemy, while Wilhelm II, after careful planning and
watching for the opportunity that finally came, succeeded in
making his flight to neutral territory though he yet had a
powerful army and navy at his command.

''Paraguay lost over 500,000 men in this war, of whom 160,-
000 died in the field of battle, 40,000 among those executed
and tortured to death, 200,000 victims of cholera epidemic,
etc., and lastly, a vast number died of hunger." (Geography
of Paraguay, by Hector F. Decoud, Asuncion, 1896.)

The citizens of Paraguay have familiarized themselves
with the depraved record of L6pez, as is proven by the
earnest protest recently made at Asuncion when some one
planned to honor the memory of the tyrant Lopez. His case
should be treated in like manner as that of the Kaiser, who
is being cursed by his former countrymen as having been the
instigator of the most terrible catastrophe ever recorded in
history, for Paraguay's position in American politics at that
time was identical to that of Germany in European poli-
tics until destroyed by the recent war which proved the
Kaiser's undoing, under which government the people as
a whole were further advanced in a general way but polit-
ically the least competent — the government of Germany
having been conducted as were those of medieval times. The
political education of the people is worth far more than all
German "Kultur" methods such as make her unfit for real
self-government, due to the fact that her subjects have been
brought up to obey and given no opportunity to practice any
form of free government.

The Oriental Republic in 1885 exempted Paraguay from
payment of the war debt and returned to the latter all the
trophies of war which the Orientales had captured during
the conflict, with the statement that the war had not been

56 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

waged against the noble Paraguayans but against the despot
Lopez.

The Causes Which Led to the Independence of South
America prom Spain

In the chapter wherein Professor Shepherd explains the
causes which led to the Independence of Spanish America,
he says : "Few movements in history have been so much mis-
understood and few have displayed such a complexity of
purposes and methods, and none has presented a stranger
outcome as the series of revolutions which from 1810 to 1826
destroyed the power of Spain in America." The struggle is
best explained by regarding it from a threefold point of
view: Spanish, Spanish-American and European, "In the
first place," says Shepherd, "it was a fight between Span-
iards of the New World and a conservative government of
the Old World." We would say more fittingly that it was
a struggle between the old spirit of Spain anterior to Carlos
V and the absolute ideas of domination of the latter, which
destroyed Spanish liberty. In Spain, Padilla and the Comu-
neros revolted against the absolute power of Carlos V (who
ruled according to the German way) and were defeated,
but the triumph of the absolute monarchy proved disas-
trous for Spain, as America could not become the victim
of tyrannical government, without protesting, which was
done by the War of the Comuneros of Paraguay in 1723,
who in their proclamation resolved : ''That the authority of
the people was superior to even that of the Mngj" This
revolution was suppressed and its leader executed after he
resigned his command, but there remained within the breast
of each Paraguayan and Platense a concealed animosity
towardvS the tyranny of Spain. Shepherd credits the Indians
as being neutral or inclined to favor the government of the
metropolis; this may be true of the Indians and Mestizos
of Peru and other Andean districts, trained in the school of
despotism or absolute government of the Incas. These In-
dians did not detect any difference between their old form of

REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 57

government and that administered bj Spain. Indian the-
ocracy did not recognize citizenship, and had it not been
that the Spaniards forced the Indians to work, these would
have perhaps preferred the Spanish form of government.
But such was not the case with the pampean Indian of the
La Plata, the Charrtia of Uruguay, the Arauoano of Chile,
and the Guaranl of the Paraguay and of the Bolivian plains,
who were never subdued, who always maintained their inde-
pendence and were the first to assist in the expulsion of the
Spaniards, and also contributed the larger number of de-
fenders to the cause of independence, many of the city resi-
dents remaining neutral, preferring a tranquil existence,
whether as subjects of Si3ain or of any other dominion.

Other factors which Shepherd and many other historians
believe had an influence on the independence of the South
American colonies were the ideas evoked in connection with
the American and French revolutions, as well as those ad-
vanced by the philosophers Montesquieu, Rousseau and Vol-
taire, neither of which was known but slightly in South
America. Books and printed matter were not at that time
world-known, and besides, the great majority of South
Americans, particularly the residents of the champaign,
who took an active part in the revolutions, the real patriots,
were unable to read. It was not ideas, it was not what
the philosophers said that aroused those patriots, but it
was the spirit of freedom in the Indian and the Creole before
Spain's time, during the rule of Spain and after the victory
over Spain. It is that same spirit that causes them to revolt
and take up arms against the seat of government when it
no longer respects their rights. These are the horrible revo-
lutions which so alarm the Europeans ivhen contrasting the
South American revolutionists with the meek and tolerant
people of some of the countries of Europe, among them the
Germans, Austrians, etc., who will stand for the most tyran-
nical or despotic form of government.

The moment for which the South Americans had so long-
ingly waited to accomplish their desires came when Napo-

58 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

leon invaded Spain, as we hereinbefore stated. We must
insist that the independence was not brought about by the
dreamers and thinkers, but by the plainsmen, men of action
— the gauchos of the La Plata, the 'llaneros (plainsmen) of
Venezuela, and Nueva Granada (now Colombia), Bolivar
and Artigas, the "Caudillos," who embody the souls of
peoples, and San Martin, Sucre and Cordoba, the generals
who win the battles for freedom.

COLONIAL AUTHORITIES!

Summary

Indian Council — Board of Traffic and Commerce — The Royal Audience — Consulates —
The Viceroys — The Governors — The Cabildos — Town Mayors — Spanish Municipal Laws
— Padilla and the Comuneros.

Indian Council.

The discovery and settlement of America, which placed
such vast domains under the authority of the King of Spain,
had an immediate influence on the public administration of
the Metropolis whereby the opportunity came to create new
special authorities entrusted exclusively with American
affairs.

The judicial concept on Spanish domination of America,
decreed complete separation of its affairs and those of the
Metropolis, the only tie binding America to Spain being
the authority of the Sovereign who governed Spain
under the mandate of a public law which insured the people
a certain participation in public matters, particularly as to
the levying of taxes voted upon by the Cortes (Senate and
Congress of Deputies in Si)ain). America became the ex-
clusive property of the Sovereign with all rights vested in
him and combining the Executive, Legislative and Judicial
powers, with authority thereby to tax and alienate the prop-
erty if he so desired.

Consequently, America did not form a governmental part
of Spain, it being only and exclusively the property or

» From the " Historical Manual of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay," by Santiago
Bollo, Libreria Nacionali Montevideo.

COLONIAL AUTHORITIES 59

dominion of the Sovereign. We will see further on how at
the beginning of the struggle for the independence of South
America that this judicial concept of sovereignty was to be
the legal doctrine to be invoked for its severance from the
Metropolis.

The supreme authority on whom rested all matters rela-
tive to America consisted of an Advisory Board which bore
the title "Consejo Real de Indias" (Royal Indian Council)
which body was appointed as were all other supreme
colonial authorities, directly by the Crown.

One of the functions of the Council was the drafting of
Ordinances and Laws pertaining to civil as well as econo-
mical and religious matters which it presented for final
approbation to the King who on finding them to his liking
would publish them and order their enforcement. The
Council also attended to the revision of all plans by the
viceroys who, on the Council's mandate, would submit them
to the King.

Board of Commerce

The Board of Commerce established at Sevilla, about the
year 1605, was also a collegiate body composed of President,
Treasurer, Accountant, three Advocate Judges and Prose-
cutor. The functions of this Board were to attend to all
matters relative to commerce and navigation in connection
with America, to directly supervise the dispatching and
registering of all vessels destined to take care of the Indian
trade, and to exercise civil and criminal jurisdiction on all
cases arising therefrom.

The Royal Audience

The Royal Audience had judicial supervision within the
territory to which it was assigned and had the authority as
a second and third higher tribunal to hear civil and crim-
inal cases originating before the lower courts, and having
besides, the right to pass on the appointments of those
magistrates.

60 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

The members of these Audiences were appointed by the
King with whom this assembly communicated directly and
which privilege contributed largely to earning for it the
high consideration in which it was held.

Consulates

The Indian Consulates, established since 1543, composed
an institution adapted to the commerce of America and at-
tended to the settlement of all disagreements between the
carriers.

The election of the Consuls was conducted by two graded
bodies, or in other words, the carriers in a body selected
thirty of their number who, in turn, elected the Consuls.

The Viceroys

The executive power in the territory of the colonies rested
on the Viceroys, who, as the name indicates, were the direct
representatives or delegates of the Crown and vesting in
themselves such political powers as the Sovereign had not
already delegated to some one else.

The vast American domains had during the colonial
period, only four viceroj^ships, namely: Mexico, Nueva
Granada, Peru and Rio de la Plata, organized according to
the latter, in the year 1776.

As the Crown's representatives, the Viceroys had supreme
jurisdiction over all matters and under no other appellate
authority than the King himself. They had the right to
modify judicial deliberations, and, in fact, provide them-
selves with the supreme authority of the King, without any
other limitation than what was expressly prohibited.

The Viceroys had under their immediate jurisdiction
several Governors, each viceroyship being divided into
gubernatorial districts which, in some cases, embraced large
territorial areas. The Viceroys were also Commanders-in-
chief of land and sea forces with supreme military au-
thority and the privilege to appoint and discharge the com^
manding officers of the land forces.

COLONIAL AUTHORITIES 61

Such responsibility attached to the office of Viceroy to
which supposedly highly respectable men of the Metropolis
were appointed, that they were prohibited from coming to
America in company with their wives and sons and the
wives of the latter.

Governors

Each Governor and Intendant comprised the Executive
Department in their respective gubernatorial district into
which the viceroyship was divided. They were, as a rule,
appointed by the Viceroy, but these appointments were
temporary, as the appointment only became effective after
confirmation by the King. Some of these appointments
were not confirmed at times and therefore the provisional
Governor would retire in favor of the King's appointee.

As a necessary qualification, the prospective Governor
had to be a native born citizen of Spain and he should bind
himself not to contract marriage in the territory where he
was to assume authority.

The general functions of the Governors were the same as
those of the Viceroys within their respective jurisdiction,
excepting that the latter were superior in authority. When-
ever a vacancy occurred, whether through death or for any
other reason, or the appointee failed to take up the duties
of his office at the time, the Royal Audience would take
charge until the appointment of a successor or until the
original appointee was ready to exercise the duties of his
office.

Cabildos (Town Assemblies)

The only authority that did not emanate directly from
the Metropolis amidst the various regulations which com-
pletely absorbed the rights and privileges of the native
born American, was the institution called Cabildo or Ayun-
tamiento (Town Assembly) whose members were elected
from among Spaniards or Americans without distinction,

62 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

only that the candidate be a resident of the town and a man
of sound moral character. Theoretically, the Cabildo was
the genuine representative body of the people, an adulter-
ated imitation of the ancient Comunas of the Metropolis
which shared in the carrying out of public questions through
the deputies sent from the towns by the efforts of the
Comunas, to the General Congress.

We have stated that this institution represented the
people only theoretically, for although the election of its
members was originally by popular acclaim, besides holding
elections to name a successor to fill each vacancy occurring,
the truth was that the sovereign reserved unto himself the
right to name a few of its members who were none other
than the five appointed for life, who naturally had more
prestige than those who were elected annually, not alone
for the reason of their owning the position but also in
recognition of the origin of their authority as the repre-
sentatives of the interests of the Sovereign.

The municipal power of Spain had suffered the first of
the illegal attacks of the throne, and at the time to
which we refer it had been deprived of its attributes and
independence. It existed only as a ridiculous image of
what it once had been. National sovereignty was originally
concentrated in the municipal power. It was the legiti-
mate organ of expression of each community's social inter-
ests, but the fusion of the divers monarchies and lordships
into which the peninsula was divided, together with the
plan of centralization evolved by Fernando the Catholic
and consummated by Carlos V accomplished the ruin of
that municipal power. By the time of the conquest there
remained not a trace of this power in the Cabildos. Subse-
quent Indian legislation reduced these institutions to an
absolute nonentity and reversed the order of their functions
by completely surrendering them to the despotic and arbi-
trary government of the Metropolis.

Carlos V, King of Spain and Emperor of Germany, was
not a Spaniard. He was German on his father's side and

COLONIAL AUTHORITIES 63

by education, and was not even familiar with the Spanish
language at the time of his occupation of the throne. He
surrounded himself from the very beginning of his reign
with a German Court and a government conducted k la
Germanica, in no different manner than was the recently
deposed German Kaiser, the instigator of the war that has
destroyed Europe. Carlos V died insane while confiued
in a convent, and the Carlos V of the present day, as a
criminal also, will in time be called to justice.

Were the Spaniards to familiarize themselves with the
history of Carlos V, there would be no German sympathiz-
ers among them, inasmuch as it was the Germanic system
that brought about the ruination of Spain and Spanish
liberty.

Whenever the Cabildo sat in private session it was de-
nominated Cabildo Cerrado (Reserved Assembly), but when
the public was admitted to its deliberations it was called
Cabildo Abierto (Open Assembly). The latter would con-
vene either on petition by the people or of its own volition,
the conduct of its deliberations being similar to that of
assemblies of the old democracies.

CORREGIDORES (ToWN MAGISTRATES)

The corregidores were the exclusive functionaries of
those districts where the indigenes under subjection were
congregated, their duties being to impart justice in cases
where Indians and Spaniards were in dispute, to represent
the former in all such cases and more specially to train
them in all the industries, strictly prohibiting them from
keeping any of the profit from their own work. These
oflScials were also appointed by the Crown.

Spanish Municipal Rights
In Spain as well as in America at a later period, munic-

64 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

ipal power was vested in the Cabildos whose members were
the direct representatives of the people and
ComunenJy^CMem- ^^® medium throiigh whom the necessary
opposing th7 en- arrangements were made in the selection

ScSV? 0^ Deputies to be sent to the Cortes who in

turn, as we have learned, drafted legisla-
tion on matters relative to taxation and were also re-
sponsible for the security of the fundamental laws of the
nation, should these at any time be in danger of being ab-
sorbed by the power of the Sovereign.

The elections of Deputies to the Cortes were conducted
at the Town Hall or Cabildo headquarters under the chair-
manship of the Cabildo. The powers with which they were
invested clearly specified the wishes of the civic bodies they
represented, leaving it to the people to be the judges with
the privilege to pass on the use or misuse that the Deputies
would make of these powers. Thus, the Cabildos were
primarily the bodies entrusted to guard the rights and
privileges of the civic communities as well as to take the
lead should the people revolt at any time against the viola-
tion of their prerogative. Such was the action taken in
1520 when on the occasion of Carlos V leaving Spanish
territory to go to Germany, the Cortes met in session at
Santiago de Galicia to confer on a subsidy which was asked
by the King to pay for the expenses of his trip.

Therefore, taking advantage of the opportunity afforded
by the Cortes, the majority of the Spanish cities sent their
Deputies with explicit instructions demanding that the
King stay within the confines of the nation, or in case he
should absent himself therefrom, to leave part of the na-
tional territory in the hands of the various cities and not to
centralize it in one foreign regent, thereby violating
monarchial laws.

Padilla and the Comuneros

These Deputies had express orders not to take part in the
voting on the question of subsidy until action had been

COLONIAL AUTHORITIES 65

taken by the King on the various petitions made through
them by their respective cities. But instead, the Deputies
went before the Cortes, tied hand and foot, voting for all
measures that the King through his minister demanded of
them. This disloyal action was the signal for a general
insurrection by the cities represented, and their taking up
of arms in defense of their trodden rights. The first one to
give the signal was Toledo, supported by two of the mem-
bers of his Cabildo, Don Juan de Padilla and Don Fernando
Davales. This revolution was suppressed by force of arms
and the leaders executed. This also sounded the death
knell to Spanish liberty under the despotic reign of Emperor
Carlos V and that of his successors. This same Carlos V, a
native of Gante, was the one who in reply to a lawful peti-
tion from his fellow-citizens in support of their rights, had
them executed as a warning to all who dared complain.

CHAPTER II

HISTORICAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE CENTRAL
ANDEAN REGION— PERU AND BOLIVIA

SUMMARY

Conquest of Peru — Empire of the Incas — Upper Peru from 1810 to 1812 — Spanish
Invasions into Argentina — Argentine Invasions into Upper Peru — San Martin Crosses the
Andes — Bolivar and San Martin — The Guayaquil Conference.

The CoNQUEsr op Peru

The conquest of the Andean region first began in 1524
by the famous conquerors Francisco Pizarro and Diego
de Almagro, who started from Panama and, traveling along
the Pacific coast, penetrated as far south as Peru. The two
sons of Huaina Capac — Huascar and Atahualpa — were at
war against each other at the time of the arrival of the
Spaniards. Huascar solicited Pizarro's assistance against
his brother Atahualpa, who did likewise when in 1532 he
went before Pizarro in great pomp and splendor. This
was the opportune moment of which Pizarro took advantage
to treacherously imprison Atahualpa, who was tried for
imaginary crimes and executed. One of Atahualpa's sons
was proclaimed luca, but his reign was of short dura-
tion, as he died soon after having assumed power.

Pizarro returned to Spain and obtained the confirmation
of his authorit}', Almagro being designated for the conquest
of the lands to the South. Pizarro founded the City of
Lima on the site which to him seemed the most proper for
the exchange of communications with Spain. In the mean-
time, Almagro proceeded in a southerly direction and ex-
plored Chile, but failed to find any gold, which was his
main object, and also that of Pizarro. Almagro's troops
had been reduced considerably in numbers in crossing the

PERU AND BOLIVIA 67

desert of Atacama and later in crossing the mountains,
Almagro returning to Peru very much disappointed and
disillusioned. Valdivia was finally the conqueror of Chile.

The Peruanos rose up in rebellion and attacked the
Almagro troops, who routed the former and took the city
of Cuzco, which Almagro claimed as his own. The civil
strife between the Spanish factions started, culminating in
the defeat of Almagro, who was made prisoner and decapi-
tated. Pizarro was soon after assassinated by Almagro's
adherents.

Gonzalo Pizarro next assumed authority and revolted
against Spain, which action was later indorsed by Carbajal,
who burned the royal banner to the ground and hoisted one
which he himself designed. Both Pizarro and Carbajal
died in battle against the royal army, which had been
organized by Pedro de Gasca, sent from Spain to assume
control of the government of Peru.

In looking back into the remote past to the first Peruvian
Empire, founded 3,000 years before the beginning of the
Christian era, we find little to establish its identity, but
such is not the case with the empire founded in the year
1100 A. D., by Manco Capac, which dynasty numbered
thirteen emperors, ending with the rule of Tupac Amaru,
who was beheaded by the Spaniards in 1571. The empire
was named Tauantinsuyu, which in the Quichua language
means "The Four Regions." The god of these agriculturists
was the Sun, whose rays ripen the earth's products and
give life to creation throughout. The lands were divided
into three equal portions : one for the Inca Emperor, another
for the Sun and priests, and a third for the people. Each
married man received a parcel of land, which increased with
each new son born to the family. The lands were again
divided after the harvesting of the crops. Farming was
done in common, first cultivating the lands of the Sun, then
those of the soldiers, and lastly those of the individual
families. The Great Spirit, supporter of their religion, was
known as Pachacamac, whose symbol was the Sun. The

68 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

inhabitants were familiar with astronomy, and the seasons
of the year had special recognition; Spring and Summer,
when nature appears the brightest, was the "Season of
Creative Heat," while Autumn and Winter represented the
"Season of the Darkened Side."

They were also familiar with the twelve signs of the
zodiac, and the Milky Way was to them a belt of luminous
matter. Their chronological records dated back 3,000 years
before the present era began. They used to celebrate festivi-
ties in honor of the Sun when the rays of this heavenly
body attained their verticality at the Tropic of Capricorn.
Instead of penmanship they used "Quipus," which con-
sisted of strings of various colors, which with the aid of
knots tied in divers ways, enabled them to record a variety
of events. Their architecture was of a massive style like
that of the Egyptians, and their buildings more substantial
than those of the Romans, as attested by the ruins of their
temples, the Cuzco Palace, and several other works of con-
struction.

Alto (Upper) Peru prom 1810 to 1812

We will take a passing glance at the regions of Alto
Peru (Bolivia), where the general headquarters of the
Spanish troops were situated, and which troops had instruc-
tions to advance upon and attack the patriotic army of
Argentina.

The Army of the North under the command of Balcarce,
entered Bolivia on the 27th of October, 1810, attacked Cota-
gaita, and was defeated. A second attack was successfully
carried out, this time at Suipacha, ending with the capture
of Cotagaita. The attacking army proceeded north and
on meeting defeat at Huaqui was compelled to retreat to
Argentine territory.

After the defeat at Huaqui, the Army of the North, under
instructions from Belgrano, initiated its campaign and was
victorious at the battle of Piedras River on the 2d of Sep-
tember, 1812, and soon after routed the enemy at Tucuman,

PERU AND BOLIVIA 69

pursuing the Spanish army to Salta, where they were
obliged to capitulate.

Belgrano penetrated Upper Peru, which was in revolt
against Spain, went to Potosi, and on his march north-
wardly he was attacked by Viceroy Pezuela, his forces being
first defeated at Vilcapugio in October, 1813, and later at
Ayouma on the 14th of November following. The Argentine
troops had again failed in their mission, and returned
to Argentine territory a second time.

These fruitless attempts convinced the army of patriots
that this was not the proper route for them to carry on
a successful campaign against Spanish power, and con-
sidered the plan of maritime connections to reach Lima, the
capital of Peru and center of all resources used by Spain.
This was the idea conceived by General San Martin, who was
more capable and better prepared than Belgrano to take
charge of the campaign. The Army of the North under
Rondeau again ventured into Upper Peru, a third time
reached Potosi, and though favored in a way that it had not
been formerly, was completely routed at Sipe Sipe and
forced to retreat.

Spanish Invasion of Northern Argentina Checked by

THE GauCHOS op GtJEMES

After the battle of Sipe Sipe, the Spaniards invaded Salta
and Jujuy in 1816, but were checked by the brave gauchos
of Giiemes, fearless soldiers and expert riders, such as the
Orientales of Artigas and Rivera, who had battled against
veteran Spanish troops. The courage displayed by the
gauchos was such that they would venture near enough to
throw their lasso around the soldiers on guard duty and
drag them away as prisoners. The gauchos finally drove
the Spaniards out by their continued surprise attacks,
though without the implements so necessary in battle.

The Army of Argentina Crosses the Andes to Chile
San Martin was at Cuyo organizing the army which was

70 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

to cross the Andes for the purpose of attacking the
Spaniards in Chile and thence go by water to Peru. On
completing the preparations for his Chilean campaign, with
his Army of the Andes in two divisions of 4,000 soldiers and
1,200 recruits, San Martin left the encampment at Mendoza
and began his journey across the Andes through the passes
of Uspallata and Los Patos, encamping in the valley of
Aconcagua in Chile. In their first encounter, which took
place at Chacabuco, the Spaniards were routed and almost
the entire army captured. San Martin next entered
Santiago, the capital of Chile, which Junta de Notables
(Council of Notables) elected him Supreme Director of
Chile, but San Martin did not accept the honor and there-
fore the title was bestowed upon General O'Higgins.

The Spaniards, through a surprise attack in the valley
of Cancha Rayada on the 10th of March, 1818, caused the
Argentine army to scatter, but it was promptly brought to-
gether by San Martin, who led it to victory in the battle
of the valley of Maipo on the 5th of April, 1818. This
glorious victory opened the road to Peru.

On the 20th of August, 1820, San Martin, at the head of
4,430 Argentines and Chilenos, set sail from the port of
Valparaiso with the Chilean fleet under the celebrated
Admiral Lord Cochrane, disembarking on the coast of Peru
on September the 8th.

BolIvar and San Martin — Conference at Guayaquil

The Spaniards scattered throughout Peru and the Argen-
tine frontier numbered 20,000.

The army commanded by San Martin had its first triumph
against the Spaniards at Cerro de Pasco, going from there
to Lima the capital of the Viceroyship of Peru, thence to
Callao, a strongly fortified port, both of which had been
recently abandoned by the Spanish forces.

During the same period, another illustrious patriot, Gen-
eral Bolivar, "Libertador del Norte" (Liberator from the
North) had after hard-fought battles reached Guayaquil,

PEEU AND BOLIVIA 71

having first liberated Venezuela, Colombia and Quito. On
being invited to a conference in Guayaquil, San Martin met
the other liberator to consult upon a plan for the conduct of
the Peruvian campaign. Bolivar expressed his desire to
continue his campaign through Peru, and so San Martin
realized that the only thing for him to do was to withdraw
and make the sacrifice in behalf of the South-American
cause in order that Bolivar could lead his army to Peru and
thereby consummate its independence through the destruc-
tion of the only remaining center of Spanish power. San
Martin arrived at Lima on the 20th of August and pre-
sented his sealed resignation to the Constituent Congress
duly assembled, leaving soon after for Chile. On accepting
his resignation. The Congress bestowed upon San Martin
the title: "Fundador de la Libertad del Peru" (Founder of
the Liberty of Peru) and "Capitan General de sus ejercitos"
(Captain General of its Armies). Thus terminated the
career of one of the greatest generals of the war for South-
American independence.

CHAPTER III

HISTORICAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE NORTH

ANDEAN REGION— VENEZUELA, COLOMBIA

AND ECUADOR

SUMMARY

Independence of the North Andean Region — Miranda and Bolivar, Northern Heroes —
The Liberating Armies of the North and the South Shake Hands in Peru — Sarmiento's and
Rodo's Opinion of Bolivar.

Miranda and Bolivar — Northern Heroes

We will now look into the important events which pre-
ceded the independence of the provinces of the Andes. We
have already stated that one month before the Cry of
Freedom by the Argentinos of Buenos Aires, in the month of
May, the people of Caracas, in public meeting assembled, de-
clared that "Venezuela in the exercise of its natural and
political rights" would proceed to establish a government
which would exercise its authority in the name and as the
representative of Fernando VII. Bogota did likewise,
establishing another assembly on July 20th, and Chile's on
September the 18th.

The Miranda revolution failed in 1812, when he capitu-
lated at San Mateo. He was sent to Cadiz and imprisoned
in the Carraca (the navy yard in Ci\diz, Spain) with a ring
placed around his neck like a common criminal, in which
prison he died in 1816. Miranda's comrades, Bolivar and
the other leaders migrated to Cartagena (New Granada,
now Colombia), which was in the hands of the revolu-
tionists. Bolivar, who initiated his campaign in 1813, after
seven victories reached Caracas, his native land, a trium-
phant hero. In his manifesto of June 15 he stated the
following: '' Spaniards and Canaries — Reckon with Death,

72

VENEZUELA, COLOMBIA AND ECUADOE 73

notwithstanding your neutrality. Americans — Count on
Life though guilty you might be." This was in retaliation
for the butcheries and atrocities committed by the
Spaniards.

In 1813, after alternate victories and defeats, Bolivar
started the organization of an Assembly. During the fol-
lowing year he was defeated at Lapuerta and Aragua by
the bloodthirsty Boves, who also triumphed over Kivas and
Bermudes at Maturin. Three thousand of the inhabitants
of this latter town were put to the sword by Morales the
barbarian. While these executions were taking place,
Bolivar went before the government of Nueva Granada,
where he was appointed Captain General. Little rould
he accomplish at this time, due to the civil war which was
then going on, so he sailed for Jamaica, whence he was to
return later to prepare for his third campaign into
Venezuela.

At about this time (1815) the Spaniards received rein-
forcements, with the addition of 10,000 veteran troops under
Morillo, which together with the Caracas reinforcements,
formed an army of 16,000 well equipped men, 5,000 of whom
marched against Cartagena, which was abandoned by its
garrison after a siege which lasted 180 days. Six thousand
people died of hunger and disease, besides 400 old men,
women, and children who were beheaded under Morales'
orders.

In 1816, Bolivar returned for his third campaign, with re-
sources furnished him by Petion of Santo Domingo. He
met with reverses at the beginning and dispersed his troops
under the command of his lieutenants Mariiio, Piar and
Paez, and set sail for Haiti, due to discord in the ranks.

On being summoned again, Bolivar presented himself
at Barcelona, Venezuela, in 1816. He failed in his first at-
tempt to capture Caracas and asked the protection of his
general "Black" Piar, who was the owner of the llanos of
the Orinoco, and who advised Bolivar to start operations in
the region of Guayana, to which Bolivar acceded. Piar next

74 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

defeated the Spaniards at San Felix, and shortly after, on
being found guilty of conspiracy against Bolivar, was ar-
rested and executed.

Bolivar, later reinforced by Paez, mustered an army of
4,000, which was subsequently annihilated by a surprise
attack at Rincon de los Toros. Bolivar, then, with only forty
men he was able to get together, marched into San Fer-
nando. So ended the year 1819.

Bolivar's next reinforcements came with the addition of
General Santander of Nueva Granada, who joined him at
the foot of the Andes, completing an army of 2,500 men for
the invasion of Nueva Granada, which was being defended by
Viceroy Samano with an army of 4,000 men. After many
minor incidents, Bolivar routed the Spaniards at Boyacd,
where he captured 1,600 prisoners along with their leader,
Barreiro. Bolivar then fought his way triumphantly into
Bogota, and on the 8th of September issued a proclama-
tion announcing the consummation of the union of Venezuela
and Nueva Granada under the name of Repiiblica de
Colombia.

Bolivar proposed before the Congress of Angostura
(Venezuela) the union of The Republic of Colombia with
Venezuela, Nueva Granada, and Quito (now Ecuador),
which proposal was enthusiastically and unanimously
adopted. The confederacy covered 115,000 square leagues
with a population of 8,000,000. Its banner was that of
Miranda, hoisted by him in 1808. Bolivar was appointed
Provisional President on the 17th of December, 1819, and
military operations were immediately begun against Morillo,
who had 12,000 men under him.

The Northern and Southern Armies of Liberation Shake
Hands in Peru

It was at this historical moment, which turned out to be
the most important of the revolution, that the Generals, San
Martin in the South and Bolivar in the North, without
previous notice or agreement, simultaneously started both

VENEZUELA, COLOMBIA AND ECUADOR 75

campaigns against Peru, which was then the principal
Spanish fortification in America.

Bolivar started from Venezuela, by destroying the enemy
forces numbering 5,000 men at Carabobo on the 24th of
June, 1821. This triumph permitted him to enter Caracas
a second time as the victor. It proved to be the decisive
battle for the independence of Colombia.

The Congress of Cucuta sanctioned the new constitution
and elected Bolivar first President for a term of four years.
He delegated his oflice to his Vice-President, Santander, and
placed himself at the head of the troops assigned to liberate
Ecuador.

On the completion of arrangements of a few unimportant
details in Ecuador, Bolivar named General Sucre as the
leader of the military campaign. The first few engagements
proved disastrous to the American patriots. General Sucre
was defeated at Huachi and was compelled to seek aid from
San Martin, who sent General Arenales to the Quito frontier,
thence to Guayaquil. Thus, 1,500 men of the Army of the
South joined forces with the Army of the North during
January, 1822, to combat Spanish rule.

Following the conference held in Guayaquil, Bolivar
moved to Peru, and at the head of his army triumphed at the
battle of Junin. On being defeated, the Viceroy La Serma
decided to concentrate his forces at the Apurimac and there
fight a decisive battle. He opened his offensive campaign
in December. The opposing armies met on the pampas of
Ayacucho, the Spanish under the command of the Viceroy,
while General Sucre assumed command of the South Ameri-
can forces. General Cordoba, a young man twenty-five j^ears
of age, but of magnetic personality, raised his hat high
in the air and imperatively commanded : "March on ! Arms
at will! Conquerors dash I" and with one accord, 3,000
Colombian bayonets advanced with such vigorous energy
that they demolished everything in their way. The Viceroy,
desirous of checking defeat, dashed amid his troops to en-
courage them, but was himself wounded and taken prisoner.

76 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PKESENT

The Spanish army capitulated. Officers and men were taken
prisoners and the liberty of Peru accomplished.

Alto Peru, to do honor to its liberator, changed its
old historic name to that of '^Republica de Bolivia" and the
name of its capital to "Sucre" in honor of the victorious
General of Ayacucho.

Sarmiento's and Rodo's Opinion of San Martin

AND BOLfVAR

Don Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, native of Argentina
and one of the most brilliant intellects which South America
has produced, said in criticising a biography of the Hero of
the North : "In that biography, as in all the others that have
been written about him, I have seen the European General,
the Marshals of the Empire, a less colossal Napoleon, but I
have failed to see the South American caudillo (the chief-
tain) in a revolt by the masses of the people. I see a repro-
duction of Europe, but nothing that reveals America to me."

"Venezuela has plains, pastoral life, barbarian life, purely
American — from these the Great Bolivar sprang forth."

"The manner in which the European and American
writers have written the history of Bolivar, corresponds
to San Martin and other military men like him. San
Martin was not popular as a 'Caudillo,' he was truly and
only a General. He had received his education in Europe
and came to-South America at the time his country was in a
state of revolution, enabling him to organize the army at his
ease under the European plan, and conducting the fighting
in the regular way according to prescribed rules."

"San Martin's expedition into Chile was a methodically
conducted conquest like that of Napoleon into Italy. But
if San Martin had had to command 'guerrilleros,' and had
been defeated at one point, then joined a group of 'llaneros'
farther on, they would have hanged him on the second
attempt."

"The world does not yet know Bolivar, the real Bolivar,
and it is quite probable that when the true interpretation

VENEZUELA, COLOMBIA AND ECUADOR 77

of his higher psychological being is vividly explained, he
may then appear even more extraordinary and great."

The celebrated Uruguayan writer Jos6 Enrique Rod6
says of Bolivar :

"Great in thought, great in action, great upon being glori-
fied, great upon being victimized by misfortune; great in
exalting that which might be impure in the souls of the
great, and great to endure in loneliness and in death, the
tragic atonement of greatness. Many there are whose lives
show a more perfect harmony, a finer moral or esthetic sense,
but few that manifest such resolute character of greatness
and of strength, and few that control with like fortitude the
sympathetic feeling of heroic imagination."

"Bolivar, the revolutionst, the bushwhacker, the general,
the leader of men, the tribune, the legislator, the president,
all in one and all in his own style, represents an unparalleled
originality which assumes and includes that of the land
upon which he lived and of the means he had at his com-
mand. He did not fight like the European strategist,
neither did he employ for his visions as a founder other
than the divided elements furnished by institutions founded
on universal experience and justice, and neither did he leave
in the ensemble any image like anything that had gone
before. That is why we dote upon him, that is why he con-
trols us and why he will always remain as the hero par
excellence, representative of eternal Spanish-American
union. He — far better, for reason of his greatness and still
more so for his eminence above the sectional leaders in
whom semi-barbaric originality became individualized — per-
sonifies that which is characteristic and peculiar in our
history. The clay of America, pierced by the breath of
genius, transformed its flavor and its aroma into qualities of
the spirit which exhaled in a vivid flame, an original and
distinct heroic personality."

"The Alcibiades, the writer, the statesman of Caracas, was,
whenever the occasion demanded it, the intrepid gaucho of
the pampas of the North — el llanero (the Plainsman)."

I

SECOND PART
SOUTH AMERICA PRESENT

CHAPTER IV

OROGRAPHY AND GENERAL CONFIGURATION OF
SOUTH AMERICA

SUMMARY

South America compared with other continenta — Structure of both Americas — Descrip-
tion of its Andes — Mountain systems of Brazil — Has the Andean relief changed? — South
American appearance during the tertiary epoch — The South American of the tertiary
age — Change of hving conditions on the Patagonian and Bolivian plateaus.

South America Compared with Other Continents

The continent of South America, like the continents of
North America and Africa, is triangular in shape but
smaller than either of these two, as the following figures
show:

CONTINENT8

AREA IN 8Q. KILOMETERS

POPULATION

Millions

Milliona

Asia

42

920

Africa

31

144

North America. . . .

26

133

South America. . . .

18

52

Europe

10

450

Australia

8

5

South America ranks fourth in size, is two-thirds as large
as North America and as large as Europe and Australia
combined.

Structure of Both Americas

The structure of South America resembles that of North
America. On the west, the high range of mountains called
the Andes corresponds to the Rocky Mountain Range of the
latter, though the former range has higher peaks, and
plateaus of from 3,000 to 4,000 meters elevation. On the

81

82 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

east, the range of mountains along the coast of Brazil, which
vary from 1,000 to 2,000 meters above sea-level, corresponds
to the Allegheny Range of the North American continent.
(Figure No. 1.)

Description op the Andes

The Andean Range and its branches cover one-ninth of
the territory of South America, or an approximate area of
two million square kilometers, attaining its widest expanse
in Bolivia, where it extends from the Real (Royal) or Interior
Range to the Western or Exterior Range, a distance of 750
kilometers — region of Lake Titicaca, 18° south. The length
of the Andes from the Strait of Magellan, at the southern
extremity of Chile to Cape Gallinas at the extreme northern-
most point of Colombia, is 7,500 kilometers. They are the
highest man-inhabited mountains in the world, where human
habitations are to be found at more than 4,000 meters above
sea-level. One of these, the station of Punto Alto, is at 4,788
meters elevation on the slope of Titicaca on the Antofagasta-
La Paz railroad. At 5,592 meters above sea-level, latitude
16° in Peru, there is a small settlement of Indian herders of
whom The Geographical Magazine made special mention in
1917. The large cities of Potosi, La Paz (capital of Bolivia)
and Pimo are approximately at 4,000, 3,000 and 4,260
meters elevation, respectively. It can be said of Bolivia
that it is the roof of America, as Pamir is the roof of the
world.

The Andes mountains are the second highest in the world,
next to the Himalayas in Asia. Mount Aconcagua, the high-
est peak, which is 7,1.30 meters above sea-level, is in latitude
32° S., in line with another high peak. Mount Tupungato, at
6,510 meters elevation, and also in line with the city of
Mendoza. Next in height to Mount Aconcagua comes Cerro
de Huascan, in Peru, at 6,721 meters, and Mount Sorata, in
Bolivia, at 6,017 meters elevation. The average cubical di-
mensions of the Andes mountains in kilometers are. 7,000 in
length, 160 in width, and 4 in height.

RELIEF MAP OF NORTH AMERICA

RELIEF MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA

OROGRAPHY AND GENERAL CONFIGURATION 83

PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS OF SOUTH AMERICA

Andes Meters

Aconcagua ^'l^*^

TupuDgato 6,550

Cerro Mercedario 6,670

Cerro Porongoe 6,052

Cerro Juucal 6,070

Mont Piasia 0,772

Cerro de Colorados 6,115

Volcan LluUaico 6,620

Volcan Lincancaur 6,000

Moute Illimani (Bolivia) 6,400

Monte Sorata " 6,617

Andes Meters

Volcan Sajaraa (Bolivia) 6,424

Volcan Misti (Peru) 6,100

Nudo Cuzco " 6,000

Cerro Ampato " 6,950

Huascan " 6,700

Chimborazo (Ecuador) 6,310

Cotopaxi " 5,943

Sierra Tocul (Colombia) 5,984

Nevado Tolima " 5,584

Columna, Sierra Nevada (Vene-
zuela) 5,000

Mountains of Bbazil

Meters

Serra dos Orgaos 2,391

Agulhas Negras 2,994

Serra de Pirineos 2,932

AREA AND POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AND
NORTH AMERICA, 1919

Square Kilometera

(1 Square Mile =

2.5S96 Square

Kilometers)

United States 110,000,000

Brazil 8,550,000

Argentine 2,950,000

Mexico .

Peru

Bolivia . . .
Colombia .
Venezuela .

Chile

Ecuador . .
Paraguay .
Uruguay. .

1,987,000

1,769,000

1,470,000

1,300,000

1,020,000

757,000

307,000

253,000

187,000

Inhabitants

110,000,000

24,000,000

8,000,000

15,000,000

4,600,000

2,650,000

5,700,000

2,800,000

4,000,000

1,500,000

800,000

1,500,000

Inhabitants

Square
Kilometer

12.0
2.8
2.6
8.
2.7
1.8
4.4
2.7
5.2
5.
3.

PRINCIPAL RIVERS— SOUTH AMERICA

Kilometers

Amazon 5,000

Parand 4,500

Madeira 3,240

Purus 3,000

San Francisco 2,900

Yapura 2,800

Tocantins 2,500

Orinoco 2,250

Paraguay 2,200

Xingu 2,100

Ealometers

Jurua 2,000

PUcomayo 2,000

Ucayale 1,900

River Negro of Amazon 1,700

lea o Putimiayo 1 ,600

Tapajos 1,500

Uruguay 1,500

Mamord 1,500

Beni 1,300

Magdalena 1,300

Mountain Systems op Brazil

The range of mountains on the coast of Brazil, which,
together with all its ramifications, form the backbone of
Brazil, cover a much larger area than the Andes mountains,
in fact twice the area, or about 4,000,000 square kilometers,
though considerably lower than the Andean range.

Has the Andean Relief Changed?

Why is the mountainous region of South America the most
densely pojjulated? Have living conditions changed in the

84 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

Bolivian, Andean, and Patagonlan regions? It will be
noticed that the most densely populated districts of South
America are the tropical mountainous regions, particularly
in Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. The
climate of the plains of the Amazon is extremely warm and
moist. It is specially remarkable that the indigenes of
Bolivia and Peru have preferred the almost barren frozen
Andean Punas to the fertile plains, which, under cultivation,
will yield the largest variety of vegetable products known to
man, but which climate, as that of the plains of the Amazon,
is exceedingly warm. It was in the arid frigid regions of
the high mountains of Peru that the Incas founded their
highly cultured empire, not unlike the kingdoms of the
Pharaohs of ancient Egypt.

The famous ruins of Tiahuanaco of Bolivia, which are now
in a desolate waste, represent the handicraft of a civiliza-
tion preceding that found there by the Spaniards at the time
of the exploration of the new world. But it can hardly be
believed that the nation, which had developed into such a
powerful empire, could have prospered as the Empire of the
Incas did in a semi-sterile region such as it is now. There-
fore, the belief that the region of Bolivia has passed through
a transformation in the upheaval of its soil, from an eleva-
tion of 1,000 to 2,000 meters, to more than 3,000 meters to
which it has risen since that unknown imperial epoch, up to
the present time, and that the whole Andean region has had
a like change. When comparing the present soil formation
of Patagonia, so desolate and arid that Darwin called it
"Accursed Land," with that of the same region which pro-
duced the gigantic fossil fauna, among which remains we
find the mammoth animals which only luxuriant forests
could feed, and these very forests being now in a petrified
form by the changes which thousands of years have wrought,
it can not be doubted that the "punas heladas" of Bolivia
have undergone a similar change.

European science, influenced by religious tradition, located
the primitive home of man in Asia, and, later, when the first

OKOGKAPHY AND GENERAL CONFIGURATION 85

fossil remains of man were fouud at Simia together with
Proboscidea and colossal Rodens and Edentates, the wise
men were then of the opinion that Europe was where man
first appeared on earth. Ameghino, noted Argentine natur-
alist, on discovering the largest ossarium of big mammals
which has yet been found, revealed the fact that the Pampa
Argentina is the most complete page in the history of the
world, for the reason that it has never been entirely sub-
merged, and beginning with the cretaceous period of the
secondary epoch, the various species of animals continued
to record their evolution in this part of America without in-
terruption for millions of years. So that on the side of the
Andean range, which sprang forth from the waters during
the Azoic or lifeless era, are the tertiary and quaternary
terrains, which were the cradle of reptiles, mammals and
man. Thus, it is explained, that the present soil of Argen-
tina, Bolivia and Brazil constitutes today the largest fossil
animal graveyard in the world, and which has contributed
more than 1,500 species of fossils such as are not found any-
where else on the globe. It means, in fact, that South
America has contributed one-third of the species of fossil
remains which are known today.

At the time of the secondary epoch, when the cretaceous
terrains of the Patagonia region appeared above the water,
there was no such land as the Northern Hemisphere with
exception of a few islands widely scattered in the northern
vast watery expanse. What now constitute the mainlands
of Europe, Asia and North America were yet under water.
The Southern Hemisphere consisted then of a large tract of
continental land including what is now Patagonia, the
Pampas and a part of Brazil, which were united to Africa
by a body of land which is known today under the name of
Arquelensis, just as Patagonia w^as united to Australia and
New Zealand by the lands of the Antarctic, which were
under the icy regions recently discovered by Admundsen, the
noted Arctic explorer. The present conditions of the Pata-
gonia region are not altogether adapted for a stupen-

86 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

dous development of animal life, which were just the reverse
conditions during the secondary epoch. The Andean range
was very low and did not obstruct the moist winds from the
Pacific Ocean as is the case today. The climate was moist
and warm and the vegetation compared with the flora which
we find today growing on the plains of the Amazon. The
forests of palm trees and coniferous plants are to be found
in a petrified state, covering large areas, among which are
also found large trunks of the hardness of flint.

We find, in these petrified forests buried in the reddish
sandstone, the petrified skeletons of mammoth animals which
today are extinct, such as the Dinosaur u, or huge crocodiles,
measuring 30 meters in length ; the Miolania, gigantic
turtle with horns like those of an ox, and measuring four
meters in diameter; the Physornis, a runner bird of prey
twice as large as the iiandu (American ostrich) of the
pampas ; the Peludos, of the size of an ox ; the Parastrapote-
therium, which was much larger than the elephant of the
present day; the Proroterido, the primitive horse; and the
Pyrotherium, which on migrating into Africa and later into
Asia was transformed into Mastodon and Dinoterium.

Appearance op South America During the Tertiary Epoch

During the tertiary epoch the appearance of the whole
world changed. The Northern Hemisphere became conti-
nental, the Arquelensis, which joined South America and
Africa, disappeared and South America took its present
aspect. Therefore, the Hehreiv Cosmogony results entirely
in error. The southern part of the New World was the first
habitation of animal life including man, for as man was
one of the last mammals, it is not probable that on the
South American continent becoming the primitive home of
the bigger species of mammals, not excluding the ape,
man would not have appeared also. The Trigodon, another
monster about the size of the rhinoceros, inhabited the Pata-
gonian region during the tertiary period, also the Gliptodon,
a huge tatti or armadillo or "mulita," the shells of which

OROGRAPHY AND GENERAL CONFIGURATION 87

were used as houses, according to all indications, by the
primitive man of the pampas, his contemporary, as is proven
by the human remains found with fragments of burnt earth
which were part of ancient fireplaces, with the remains of
bones chipped and broken by blows, and those of the primi-
tive man measuring one meter in height (about 39 inches).
There are also found the complete skeleton of the Mega-
therium, measuring eight meters in length, and the Toxodon,
corresponding in size to the hippopotamus, an aquatic mak-
ing its abode in river streams. Some of these skeletons
have been found with the points of stone spears and arrow-
heads of the first man of Patagonia, buried in the backbone
and the bones of the leg. Also, skeletons of the Smilodon of
the tiger family, with canine-teeth in the shape of a saw,
and much larger than the species of Asia and Africa.

The South American op the Tertiary Age

The Scientific Congress, which met in Tucumdn in De-
cember, 1910, and which was attended by the geologists,
zoologists and other men of science of Argentina, declared
the Toxodon to be of the tertiary epoch, adding that the spear
and arrowheads found imbedded in the bones were genuine.
Therefore, it remains a proven fact that the man of the
tertiary epoch was an inhabitant of South America, and
that he is not the exclusive patrimony of the so-called Old
World, as is claimed by the wise men of Europe.

Ameghino, the naturalist, has received the fullest confir-
mation, since his death in 1911, regarding his conjecture of
the existence of man in the Patagonia region during the
tertiary era.

The celebrated naturalist, Agassiz, had already given it
as his opinion that it would have been possible for man to
have lived in America during the tertiary era, as Voltaire
also stated in 1775 that man could have appeared at the
same time in Europe and in America, and asked — "Could
not man have appeared on both continents at the same time,

88 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

just as the fly did?" All that has been said has its attesta-
tion in the museums of La Plata and Buenos Aires, where
they have complete skeletons of the animals described and
that of the ape fossil of the Santa Cruz river in Patagonia,
which, according to Mahoudeau, instructor in the Paris
School of Anthropology, has more characteristics in common
with man than any other.

Change of Living Conditions on the Patagonian and
Bolivian Plateaus

As in the case of the Bolivian plateau, it will perhaps be
possible to demonstrate later on that the same conditions
prevailed there as in Patagonia and that conditions of life in
general were very different from what they are today. It is
probable that the same uijheaval that caused the change in
elevation of the Bolivian plateau, also caused the change in
living conditions in the Patagonian territory, and that the
change took place simultaneously in both places.

Were it not so, it could not be explained how the great
Bolivian plateau could have been settled during the time of
the Incas, inasmuch as the severity of the climate and the
barrenness of the soil were such as to make the territory in-
adequate for the primitive inhabitants' first abode, when
they could have selected the Andean slopes and valleys with
an extraordinarily fertile soil and a milder and healthier
climate than that of India, which had been the home of
hundreds of millions of men since the remotest times. Be-
sides, the formation of the soil of the pampean region, that is
to say, its geological structure and composition, is identical
with that of the eastern plains of Bolivia, Paraguay and a
large area of the Amazonian region. The soil is of the same
yellowish color and composed principally of sand And clay
in almost equal proportions. The soil is rich in fossils of
similar mammals, small shells forming large banks and
other mollusks of salt and fresh water varieties, proving con-
clusively that these areas had been covered by water from
the sea and by river-floods alternately.

OROGKAPHY AND GENERAL CONFIGURATION 89

The extensive salt-pits of the central part of the Argentine
republic, which cover an arc circle 700 kilometers in length
within the provinces of Rioja, Catamarca, Tucuman and
Santiago del Estero, are not deej) deposits of salt, btit a thin
layer of sea-water salt, like that found in the salt-pits of
Jujuy, Salta, and on the great Bolivian plateau, which de-
jjosits were probably formed by the salt which had been
dissolved by sea-water.

The Andean range was much lower than it is today, both
in the northern and southern parts of the present terri-
tory of Argentina, particularly in the north, where the
ground was so low that the waters from the Pacific Ocean
would through several narrow passages inundate the terri-
tory of northern Argentina and southern Bolivia. We find
today in southern Patagonia the big lake Buenos Aires,
which is crossed by parallel 46° S,, at 227 meters above
sea-level, like a gigantic condor climbing the Andes, the
waters of this lake flowing into the Pacific through the
Barker or Las Heras River and into the Atlantic through the
Deseado River. This communication between the two
oceans had been maintained at many points of the Andean
range before the upheaval, which was the fundamental and
immediate cause for the stopj^age of abundant rains easterly
bound for the Patagonian region, and resulting in the dis-
appearance of the gigantic flora which fed the largest fauna
of mammals that has ever inhabited the globe. The Andean
valleys of the Patagonian region, which were thus visited by
the rain-laden winds from the Pacific Ocean, are today a vast
expanse of fantastic petrified flint formations of what was a
wonderful Patagonian forest in prehistoric times. The west-
ern slope of the region of Patagonia which is in Chilean
territory, is noted for its magnificent forests which receive
copious rains. This region is very similar to that of North
America along the Pacific coast states of California, Oregon
and Washington and the western coast of Canada.

CHAPTER V
THE VAST NATURAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA

SUMMARY

Description of its vast regions: Region of the Andes, Region of the Plains, divided into
the Plains of the La Plata or the Pa7npas, the Plains of the Amazon, the Plains of the Orinoco;
How was the soil of the Pampas, which cover one-third of the territory of South America,
formed? — Opinions of Darwin, D'Orbigny. Bravard, Burmeister and Ameghino, regarding
this formation — Analogous formation of the loess and]the soil of the Pampas — Burmeister's
error regarding the fertility of the Pampean soil. Fossils of the Pampean soU — The Pata-
gonia of today and what it was during the tertiary epoch — The plateaus of the Brazilian
System.

Region of the Andes

As hereinbefore stated, the mountainous regions of the
Andes and its branches, which measure 7,500 kilometers in
length, cover an area of 2,000,000 square kilometers, reach-
ing to a height of 7,130 meters above sea-level at the Mount
of Aconcagua (Argentina) and more than 6,000 meters ele-
vation at other points in Argentina, Bolivia and Peru. The
Andean range, which is several hundred meters in height at
the extreme southern portion of Patagonia, increases gradu-
ally in height until it reaches parallel 32° S., with Mounts
Aconcagua 7,130 meters high, and Mounts Tupungato, Mer-
cedario and Juncal at more than (5,000 meters above the sea.
It again attains considerable height farther north at the
Bolivian frontier, with higher peaks in Bolivia and Peru.

From the extreme southern point of the continent the
range is a heavy, massive main line till it reaches parallel 27°
S., where it divides into two branches — the eastern branch,
which is farther from the Pacific, is the Cordillera Real
(Royal Range) in Bolivia. Between the two ranges lies the
great Bolivian Plateau, which is 800 kilometers in length
north and south and more than eighty thousand square kilo-
meters in area.

90

the Brazilian frontier impede further navigation, makes
the Guajamirin Railway to Port Velho an indispensable

VAST NATURAL REGIONS 91

In Peru there are three parallel branches of the Andes,
between which lie the extensive plains through which run
the big rivers Marau6n, or Amazon (tive thousand kilometers
long), the Huallaga and the Ucayali, which reach far into
the interior of the country and are large navigable streams,
particularly the Amazon, which admits steamers of 18 feet
draught.

The Andean valleys of Peru and Bolivia are extremely
fertile, producing cofifee, cocoa, cotton, rubber and all the
tropical products. The valleys of the eavstern slope of Bolivia,
called "Yungas," are the most fertile regions on the globe.
The Pacific coast along the northern part of Chile and Peru
has very little rainfall, but tropical products, such as
sugar-cane, cotton, cocoa, etc., are raised in the regions
where they have irrigation. The climate of the valleys and
coast is very warm, but no fevers prevail. Mining is
the main source of wealth in these two countries, as well
as in Chile. These are the largest producers of copper,
lead, zinc, silver and tin. Chile and Peru produce nitre
and guano, the latter being used as a fertilizer. Peru
and Bolivia also i^roduce the well-known coca (from which
cocaine is extracted), quinine and other medicinal plants.

The Yungas and the Bolivian plains, where the tributaries
of the Madeira River (tributary of the Amazon), 3,000 kilo-
meters in length and navigable as far as the Bolivian fron-
tier, yield a large variety of vegetables, which cannot be
exported either to the adjoining countries, to Europe, or to
North America, due to want of transportation facilities.
Rubber is the only product exported, as its commercial value
warrants the payment of high freight rates. The tributaries
of the Madeira River iire the rivers Beni, Mamore and Purus,
and the tributary of the latter — Acre River — which flows in
the territory of the Acre, is remarkable for its abundant
rubber production. These rivers are navigable for small
vessels, but the fact that the cataracts of the Madeira at
the Brazilian frontier impede further navigation, makes
the Guajamirin Railway to Port Velho an indispensable

92 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

route for the products of Bolivia that are exported to Eu-
rope and North America via the Madeira and Amazon.

The Andean valleys of Peru and Bolivia, which face east-
wardly, have a larger rainfall than those facing westwardly
or toward the Pacific Ocean, and are therefore more fertile.
Peru, having an outlet through the Marafion and its tribu-
taries to the Atlantic, and through its numerous ports on
the Pacific, can export its products to all parts of the world,
yet its principal source of wealth, like that of Bolivia, lies
in its minerals. The plateaus, which are at 3,000 and 4,000
meters elevation, have the richer mines and are consequently
the places which are more densely populated. The climate
at 4,000 meters, which is the region of the Puna Brava, is not
mild, the mean temperature being from six to ten degrees
centigrade. On the Puna, at less than 4,000 meters and
not under 3,000, the mean temperature is from twelve to
fourteen degrees centigrade.

The rainy season starts in November and lasts until the
following March. The hot months of the year are from Au-
gust to November. The months of May, June and July are
cold with frequent snows. The region of perpetual snow
is above 6,000 meters, and still higher on the western slope.
The Central plateau of Bolivia is the region for products
such as potatoes and other vegetables which constitute the
principal food of the Indian, who also cultivates quinoa and
maize in the valley.

Ecuador is also in the Andean region. The Andes are
here divided into two large branches which enclose a narrow
valley called El Callejon. The two ranges called Oriental
and Occidental, beginning from the equator as far as parallel
3° south, are united by a chain of high mountains called
Parano de Azuay, 4,500 meters above the level of the sea.
The highest peak in Ecuador is the majestic Mount Chim-
borazo, 0,400 meters high. The most dreaded volcanoes of
South America which are in the republic of Ecuador are the
Cotopaxi, Snni>ay, Tunguragua, Cayamb^, and also below the
equator the Pichincha and others. It could be called the

VAST NATUKAL REGIONS 93

"Land of Volcanoes and Earthquakes." Here we also find
the most densely populated region — the plateau or Puna,
which has a mild climate, though just below the equator.

Quito, the capital, which is 3,000 meters above sea level
and at a few minutes distance from the equator, has by
reason of its altitude a mean temperature of 15° centigrade,
which is somewhat colder than the temperature of Monte-
video and Buenos Aires, latitude 35° south, and the Tambo
of Antisana at 4,500 meters elevation has the mean tempera-
ture of Petrograd — i° centigrade,

Ecuador has two seasons, the rainy or winter, and the dry
or summer season, the latter being also the windy season.
The winter lasts from December till May, and summer the
remainder of the year. The region along the coast has very
little rainfall, and, as has been observed for several years
past, there seems to be a tendency to its complete cessation,
as happened in Peru,

On the other hand, the Oriental region of the plains has a
heavy rainfall which feeds many large rivers, tributaries of
the Amazon, such as the Napo, Pastassa, Santiago and
Tigre.

The boundary between Ecuador and Peru, which nature
has pointed out by the Maranon, or Amazon, has been the
source of a long dispute between the two countries, and in
fact, Peru exercises authority over the Port of Iquitos and
the territory on the north bank of the Amazon, farther
north beyond the bend of this river where it changes its
course from a northerly to an easterly direction. So, part
of the tributaries of the Amazon — the rivers Napo, Tigre,
Pastassa and Santiago — are in the zone occupied by Peru
where it joins Colombia, with which country Peru also has a
dispute on boundaries. It is possible that all these questions
of boundaries between Peru and Chile for Tacna and
Arica, and the boundary disputes between Venezuela and
Colombia and between Colombia and Ecuador with Peru,
will be submitted to arbitration before the tribunal of the
League of Nations,

94 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

Whether this or some other means will be the solution of
these boundary controversies, it can be affirmed at this time
that settlement will be arranged before long, as the epoch of
wars and conquests has terminated since the intervention
of the United States of America in the European War. We
still remember President Wilson's comment at the time of
his departure for Europe to the Allied Congress, when he
said in substance that the governments of America which
will nof try by all means to prevent their peoples from being
incited into war to settle their international disputes will
be responsible to the world for their failure. These remarks
were prompted by the outrages committed by the mob of
Peru and Chile in the Tacna and Arica dispute.

Since the opening up of the Panama Canal, the Republic
of Ecuador has planned to turn the commercial route
to the Pacific, and to this effect a railroad line has
been constructed from Quito to Guayaquil and another one
is projected to extend from Port Bolivar on the Gulf of
Guayaquil, to the Santiago River, a tributary of the Amazon.
The Andean range at Pasto in southern Colombia separates
into three smaller ranges called Oriental, Central and Occi-
dental, all being less than 6,000 meters high. These valleys,
which extend north and south, are drained by the Magdalena
and its tributary, the Cauca, neither one of them being diffi-
cult to navigate. The Magdalena is navigable only by small
steamers as far as Girardot, which is the port for Bogota,
the capital of Colombia. The Atrato River also runs in a
northerly direction, as does the Magdalena, and flows into
the Sea of the Antilles. The climate and products compare
with those of Ecuador, and in addition, Colombia produces
platinum and emeralds, which are not to be found anywhere
else in the Andean region. On the east side of the Andes, as
in the other countries of the Andean region, are immense
plains drained by the tributaries of the Amazon, remarkable
for their fertility and variety of vegetable products, among
which rubber is the most valuable.

The princii)al commercial products of the Andean valley

VAST NATURAL REGIONS 95

are coffee, cocoa aud quiuiiie. The Putumayo and Yapnra,
tributaries of the Amazon, aud the Inirida and other tribu-
taries of the Orinoco, drain this region. The eastern range
branches off into northern Venezuela aud forms a mountain-
ous zone to the coast of the S.ea of Antilles; it has fertile
plains, and its climate aud corresponding products vary with
the altitude, as in the other mountainous districts of the
Andes. No point in Venezuela is over 6,000 meters above
sea-level. The Orinoco, which is 2,000 kilometers long, drains
the plains extending south of the Andes as far as the Parime
range, which separates them from the plains of the Amazon.
The Orinoco is a large navigable stream and a ver\^ im-
portant commercial route to the Atlantic. The plains of the
Orinoco are adapted to cattle-raising.

A resume of all that has been said regarding the coun-
tries in the Andean region north and south of, and including
Bolivia, and which we find to have the same structure, can
be given as follows :

First. Plateaus or punas, varying from a mild to a very
cold climate, scanty vegetation, large mineral wealth aud a
dense population dependent on the mining industry.

Second. Valleys of the Andes at a low elevation, with an
abundance of tropical vegetable products, such as coffee,
quinine, sugar, cotton, etc., cultivated with great care and in
suflSciently large quantities to supply local and foreign
markets.

Third. The plains drained by the tributaries of the Am-
azon, which among other products furnish high-grade lumber
and rubber to the markets of the world.

The Plains

The plains extend from one end of the continent to the
other, a distance of 7,000 kilometers north and south and a
maximum width of 5,000 kilometers east and west in the
region of the Amazon along the line of the equator, occupy-
ing two-thirds of the continental area, or 12,000,000 square
kilometers in all. The plains are divided into three large

96 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

zones, or slopes, called Plains of the Orinoco, Plains of the
Amazon, and Plains of the La Plata or the pampas.

The plains of the Orinoco occupy more than 1,000,000
square kilometers, mostly in Venezuela. The land is well
adapted to cattle-raising, though the climate is very warm,
which with its long dry spells makes it unsuitable for Eng-
lish breeds, which the packing industry prefers. Native
cattle can be raised successfully as in Paraguay and Brazil.

Humboldt, in describing the plains of the Orinoco, says:
"When, through the vertical effect of the sun's rays which
no cloud can obstruct, the parched weed falls like dust and
the hardened soil cracks open as if disturbed by a violent
earthquake, then if opposing winds clash on the surface, and
the clashing terminates in a circular motion, the whole plain
presents an extraordinary spectacle. Vapor-like, the sand
ascends with the rarified whirlwind, perhaps charged with
electricity, like a dark funnel-shaped cloud with its point
sliding over the earth like the roaring water-spout, which is
so much dreaded by the experienced navigator. The skies,
which appear dei)ressed, cast only a semi-day light blurred
and livid across the desolate plains. The horizon seems to
close in abruptly, tightly hugging the desert and squeezing
the heart of man. Suspended in atmosphere which the
horizon conceals, the burning, dust-like sand feeds the sultry
heat in the air. Instead of coolness, the eastern breezes
bring on new heat from some place long under the rays of
the sun. The water-puddles which the palm-tree shades, but
which the sun has robbed of its verdure, gradually disap-
pear and go. Animal life falls into a lethargy; the crocodile
and the boa lying deep in the dried clay appear to have lost
all sense of motion. Everywhere the drought announces
death, and everywhere it besets the terrified traveler, who is
deluded by the resplendence of the rays of reflected light giv-
ing the appearance of an undulated surface. Cattle and
horses roam aimlessly about enveloped in clouds of dust,
tormented with hunger and an unquenchable thirst. The
former bellowing plaintively, the latter with necks stretched

VAST NATUKAL REGIONS 97

against the wind lustily inhaling the air, trying to locate
some pool of water not yet swallowed by the rays of the sun.
When after a long drought the welcome rainy sea.son arrives
the scene of the desert changes. The pale blue of the sky
which until then had been devoid of clouds, takes on a lighter
hue. The Southern Cross is hardly discernible in the night
across the darkened space and hardly has the dampness
touched the surface of the earth when the mist-laden desert
is to be seen covered with a variety of grasses. Later the
moistened clay rises bejond the edge of the swamps; a sud-
den noise is then heard as of an explosion of a small marshy
volcano, as the soil rises and shoots up in the air. He who
happens to be familiar with this phenomenon rushes away
on its being announced, as it means that a monstrous aquatic
serpent or a crocodile is leaving its grave as the first water
ripples form and awaken it from its seeming death."

The plains of the Amazon, which have an abundance of
vegetation, occupy half of the area of Brazil and a large zone
in the adjoining countries — Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and
Bolivia — or about 7,000,000 square kilometers, drained by
the great river and its big tributaries. They slope slightly
from west to east and territory' on both the northern and
southern hemispheres is drained by tributaries of the
Amazon. These rivers form the largest fluvial network in
the world with 50,000 kilometers of navigable waters, the
combined length of which could circle the globe at the equa-
tor with 10,000 remaining kilometers, which is the distance
from the La Plata to the City of London. Their great vege-
table wealth has only in part been developed for want of
transportation facilities, as is the case in many other wealth-
producing districts of South America. No other part of the
world offers as fine a grade and as large a variety of lumber,
including cedar, pine, ebony, lignum-vitse, jacarandd and
rosewood. The industries are limited to the extraction of
India rubber, rosin, etc. The climate of the Amazonian
region is equatorial, that is, it is a uniform high tempera-
ture. There is no dry season as in the tropical regions; the

98 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

rainfall is heavy the entire year. Agassiz, who explored
this region, gave the name of "Marea Semestral" (semi-
annual tide) to the flood-tides of the northern and southern
tributaries, which alternate every six months. It is a well-
known fact that the Amazon runs parallel to the equator and
that its affluents lie in both hemispheres. The rains follow
the sun and every six months the rainfall is heavier alter-
nately in each hemisphere. The heavy rains temper the
climate and so It is not as warm as it is in other equatorial
regions. According to Agassiz, the maximum temperature
is not over 30° centigrade and the climate, though somewhat
unhealthy, is not unsuited to human habitation, as are parts
of India and certain equatorial regions of Africa. So, one
half of Brazil is covered by the plains of the Amazon and
the other half by the mountainous region of the coast.

The variety of vegetation distributed over these valleys is
so great that it divides them into belts, as follows:

First — The Palm Tree Region occupies a wide strip on the
banks of the Amazon in Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru,
and produces a diversity of tropical fruits, among which are
bananas, dates and cocoanuts, and another palm, some of
which grow to twenty-five meters in height, others very small
with leaves so wide that the Indians use them for roofing
their houses. Agassiz counted more than one hundred dif-
ferent varieties of palm trees in this region.

Second — The Region of Tree-like Ferns occupies a belt 800
kilometers wide across the whole width of the Amazonian
slope.

Third — The Region of Virgin Forests has an immense
wealth of gums, rosins and medicinal plants, and extends
from the mouth of the Amazon to Bahia. This is the zone
of the gum-extracting industry.

Fourth — The Coffee, Tobacco and Sugar Region includes
the plains and valleys of eastern Bahia as far as Santa Cata-
lina. Four-fifths of the coffee consumed throughout the
world comes from Brazil and most of it is exported through
Rio de Janeiro and Santos.

VAST NATURAL REGIONS 99

Fifth — The Cotton Region extends from Pari\ to Rio <le
Janeiro.

The Pampas of the La Plata

The pampas of the La Plata, which extend from the Brazil-
ian transversal region (Sierra Parecis), latitude 20° S. to
parallel 40° S., a distance of 2,000 kilometers north and
south, are noted for their big forests, which
Origin of the ]{q [^ f\^Q uorthern part and are named

Pampean Soil ^

Chaco and Paraguay, and which produce the
hardest woods known — the lapacho, fiandubay, quebracho,
etc. — and are also noted for their magnificent prairies
which, lying in the southern part, are nowhere equalled in
the raising of live stock for meat purposes, and in the pro-
duction of wool. Live-stock raising has become a scientific
industry and the agricultural industry has been developed
to the extent that Argentina is to-day one of the largest
grain-producing countries of the world. This is "Pampa
Fertil," which occupies the southeastern portion of the La
Plata basin, including the whole of the Province of Buenos
Aires as far as the Negro River. This is the most favoretl
of all the regions of Argentina as to fertility of soil, mildness
of climate, abundant rains and accessibility for communi-
cation with the rest of the world, through its large and
important ports — Buenos Aires, Rosario, La Plata and
Bahia Blanca. Its climate compares with that of southern
Europe ; a sub-tropical climate, in other words, a temperate
climate with no cold season. Four months, June, July, Au-
gust and September, the thermometer registers a mini-
mum temperature of 5° centigrade. It rains the year round,
with a heavier rainfall during the Spring and Summer,
though more rainy days during the winter months. There
are four mouths with a mean temperature of 20° C. Few
days during the summer season have a temperature exceed-
ing 35° and less than 5° during the Winter season, along the
eastern border. Farther in the interior, in Cordoba for in-
stance, the maximum is 43° C. and the minimum 8° C. below

100 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

zero; at San Luis 40° maximum above and 7° minimum
below zero; Victoria, in the pampean territory, 40° above,
11° below. The maximum temperature of Montevideo is 38°
and Buenos Aires 40°, which takes place every five years or
more. In fact, from a climatological standpoint, Monte-
video is the most fortunate city in the world, for added to
its advantage in having a sub-tropical climate, the fact that
it is a peninsula on high ground and open to the ocean winds,
it enjoys a maritime climate during the Summer months
when those winds prevail. The reader may refer to L. C.
BoUo's ''Climatologia Platense," Montevideo, 1916, Libreria
Barreiro y Ramos.

The northern part of the La Plata plains (Chaco, Para-
guay, Matto Grosso of Brazil, eastern plains of Bolivia)
which, as we have said, is covered hj forests among the most
valuable in the world from a standpoint of lumber material,
is called the Northern Littoral, which it derives from its big
streams the Parand and the Paraguay, which, together with
the Uruguay, form the great estuary of the La Plata. The
Paraguay, a tributary of the Parauil, penetrates into the
heart of the continent and is navigable almost to its source,
its principal ports being Cuyabd and Corumb^, which are in
the heart of Brazil. Port Suarez, which is opposite Corumb4
on the plains of Bolivia, is a promising port for commercial
communication between this region and the ports of Monte-
video and Buenos Aires. Cuyabd is in latitude 16° S. while
Montevideo is in latitude 35° S., or a distance of nearly 20
degrees, approximately 1,200 miles, which have the service
of several steamship lines. This is the future great impor-
tant route from the La Plata to the Amazon, as the Arinos
River, a tributary of the Tapajos, one of the largest tribu-
taries of the Amazon is just a few miles distant from the
Paraguay where canal communication could be established
to connect all the South American streams. Captain Bossi
has written a book in regard to navigation of upper Para-
guay, giving the details as to the facilities for the enterprise.
It is yet remembered in Brazil that pieces of artillery have

VAST NATURAL REGIONS 101

been transported from Cuyabd via the Paraguay and after
crossing a few miles by land have been shipped at Port Velho
on the river Arinos, the tributary of the Tapajos, finally
reaching the Port of Pard or Belem, via the Amazon. The
reader can readily form an idea of how important these navi-
gation connections would be within the interior of the
South American continent through lands which embrace all
climatic belts with an abundance of the most valuable prod-
ucts of the soil, over an area more than 2,000 miles in length
from the equator south to Buenos Aires and Montevideo, a
distance of 35 degrees. This northern littoral has a warm
climate with its dry season during the Winter. A large por-
tion of Matto Grosso, lying in the valley of the La Plata in
Brazil, has an equatorial climate with a mean annual tem-
perature of 20° C, and rain the year round.

Referring again to the soil of the Fertil, or Southeastern
Pampa : Throughout the whole expanse of this vast plain,
under a growth of vegetable mould and under the sandy
marshes and shell banks, the soil is composed of a clayish
sand to a depth of from fifteen to twenty meters, and as
much as fifty meters in some places. It varies in color from
a dark gray in certain parts to a whitish and yellowish hue
in others. This soil formation lies uncovered on the banks
of the rivers and on the hills and high ground where the
mould has been carried away by the water. Large forma-
tions of solid rock, called Toscas, composed of lime, clay and
sand, are also found. The pampean soil does not contain
fossil sea-life, but a great quantity of land fossil mammals,
such as the Megatherium, Toxodon, and other gigantic ani-
mals, which we have already mentioned. Fresh water mol-
lusks and varieties of salts have been found. The soil con-
tains a certain amount of lime which emits carbonic acid
whenever brought in contact with sulphuric acid. D'Orbigny
referred to this soil as "Pampean Formation" and Darwin
called it "Pampean Slime." The former considered it supe-
rior tertiary soil, while the latter believed it to be a late
quaternary. Bravard, another great naturalist, was in

102 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

accord with D'Orbigny. Burmeister, at one time Director
of the Buenos Aires Museum, claimed it was quaternary
and corresponding to the Deluge period in Europe. The
artesian wells in the city of Buenos Aires show this pampean
formation to be thirty meters in depth, and in excavations
between the La Plata and the Tandil ridge of mountains it
is found to have a depth of fifty-six meters. This kind of soil
is not to be found beyond the Colorado River, which boun-
dary Darwin pointed out as being the extent of this forma-
tion. At Mendoza, which is 800 meters above sea-level, the
formation described is fourteen meters deep and has the
same gigantic fossil mammals: Megatherium, Mastodon,
Gliptodon, etc. The soil formation in the San Luis district
is the same, according to Burmeister. It is also found be-
tween Entre Rios and Santa Fe, between the rivers Uruguay
and Parani, in the Oriental Republic, a large part of the
Chaco, in Paraguay, and the eastern plains of Bolivia. This
soil formation continues to a great height on the Mount of
Montevideo. The southern part of the Republic of Uruguay
is also covered with humus, or vegetable mould. It is found
on the river Negro, near Mercedes in Uruguay, along the
rivulets Coquimbo and Sarandi, and at Talar where the large
deposits of gigantic fossil mammals are found. But nowhere
in the pamj^ean soil is there any fossil sea-life, which proves
that it does not owe its formation to the action of sea-water.
Not a vestige of marine infusoria is found, even with the aid
of the miscroscope. The question arises, How was the pam-
pean soil formed? According to D'Orbigny, Darwin, Bra-
vard, Burmeister, Ameghino and other sages, several have
been the factors which have contributed to the formation of
this soil. Ameghino, who knew more about the soil by rea-
son of his having always lived in the country and who there-
fore made a closer and longer study of it, says that many
have been the causes which together have shared in its forma-
tion, principally the action of the winds (the theory also
advanced by Bravard) which have carried the material dur-
ing heavy windstorms, as in the case of the "loess" which

VAST NATURAL REGIONS 103

form the soil of China. It represents the accumulation of
material which the winds have piled up for centuries. The
loess of the Rhine are of like origin.

Richtofen, the geologist, was the first to demonstrate the
origin of the loess caused by the winds in China, to which
conclusion he arrived after a very close study of the Chinese
soil. The loess soil which formed a border around the des-
erts of Central Asia specially attracted his attention. The
wind-storms of that region caused him to understand the
action of the winds on soil formation. The dust which is
carried by the winds is the last product in the pulverization
of the sand. It is carried to the edge of the dry belt, where
it precipitates through the action of the rain, or falling by it^
own weight becomes fastened to the weeds, the roots of
which have left as traces the little canals characteristic of
the loess soil. By erosion the rain-waters and the river-
streams have transported the loess formation for long dis-
tances and dei)Osited it in the form of alluvions at the bot-
tom of lakes and on the banks of rivers. According to
Fritch, the volume of dust which was transported in 1863
by the trade-winds of northeastern Sahara to the Canary
Islands amounted to 4,000,000 cubic meters. This dust is
similar to that of the loess of China, which form its yellow
soil, similar to that of the pampas. Loess soil formation
covers at least 20 per cent of the surface of China, the region
of the Mississippi, the pampas and other regions. He who
has witnessed the cyclones produced by the Zonda winds of
the plains of San Juan in the republic of Argentina, which
are similar to those of the simoom of the Sahara, can very
well appreciate the powerful action of the wind as a carrier
of the material which has made the pampean soil what it is.
Ameghino affirms that the pampean soil is not of marine
origin but that it is the result of the combined action of the
rains, rivers, winds and the subterranean forces, which have
caused depressions and upheavals of the soil. He has shown
that the soil at the foot of the Cordoba ridge is a quartz
sand which gradually changes to impalpable mud at the

104 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

mouth of the Parana. This proves the fact that the greater
part of the material which forms the pampean soil between
Cordoba and Rosario comes from the decomposition of rock
of the Cordoba ridge of mountains. The fragments of rock
from the mountains first form into boulders, the separate
particles of material being carried away in the form of sand
to a greater distance, and the material which comes from the
decomposition of feldspar is carried to the valley of the
ParanA, where part of it remains, and part of it, together
with clay which the Parana carries from the north, is
finally deposited on the plains of Buenos Aires. So it is
everywhere; the pampean soil contains a larger proportion
of sand as it nears the mountains and a larger proportion of
clay the farther the distance from the mountains that formed
it. The soil of the republic of Uruguay, which is farther
away from the mountain range is much harder, due to the
large percentage of clay over sand. The action of the carry-
ing winds is very evident in many places where the sands
and dirt have formed deep banks where fossil remains are
buried.

Among the opinions given by men of science, regarding
the fertility of the soil of the pampas, it is well to note the
serious error committed by Burmeister when he asserted
in his important work, "Physical Description of the Republic
of Argentina," published forty years ago, that the soil of the
pampas was unfit for cultivation and that live-stock raising
would be the only industry. It was Burmeister's belief that
plants inferior to those native to the soil should be the kind
cultivated, and cited the lands of Brazil, where the gigantic
forests were cut down and in their place coffee-trees and
sugar-cane were planted. He said : "The pampas produce
only miserable grasses consisting of plants inferior to wheat
that the planters want to cultivate. These attempts will
have no success. These are positive facts," he said, "which
are proven by Liebig's Agricultural Chemistry." But ex-
perience has refuted the erroneous statement which so in-
jured Argentina, for to-day the pampas lead the world in

VAST NATUKAL KEGIONS 105

grain production, sending five million tons of wheat, com,
barley and oats to European and North American markets.

Fossil Eemains of the Pampean Soil

In conclusion, and so that the North American reader may
be able to compare its antiquity with that of the soil of the
Northern continent, we will briefly enumerate the fossil
mammals of the pampean soil, as follows:

Primates — Besides the fossil remains of man, there are in
Brazil and Argentina, the Protopithecus of Brazil (Lund)
and the Protopithecus Bonaerensis (Gervais and Ame-
ghino), which compare with the Anthropomorphus. There
are four species of Primates (Cebus) and other apes of
Brazil.

In North America the true fossil ape of the tertiary age is
not known, and the apes of today, natives of Central America
and Mexico, are South American types. In Europe and
Asia they appear in the Miocene epoch, but these species have
no predecessors in the most ancient formations of that same
region, and it is evident that they came from South America,
where they had lived, crossing over the Arquelensis or the
continent which united America and Africa. The apes
called "Homunculideos" or "Hombrecillos (little meu ) de
Santa Cruz" in Patagonia, are, in the opinion of Dr. Mahou-
deau, Instructor in the Paris School of Anthropology, the
species which bear closer resemblance to man and which
show closer relation to the common trunk from which man
and ape originated. It is possible that the predecessor of
man had its origin in the Pampa Argentina.

Cheiroptera — Seven species of bats have been found.

Carnivorous — Smilodon populator, stronger than the lion
of today, and stronger than the Smilodon which is now on
exhibition at the Museum of Natural History in New York
City, the fossil remains of which were found on soil of the
United States of America.

Canis — Eleven species of dogs and the fossil Canis Azarae.

Artotheriums — Gigantic bears unlike the present species.

106 SOUTH AMEIUCA PAST AND PRESENT

Tipoteridos — Order discovered by Gervais and Ameghiuo.
Includes the tipoterium, of which there are three species,
and the Toxodon, of which five species have been found corre-
sponding in size to the rhinoceros.

Solipede — Three species of horses have been found,
among them the Equus Argentinus (by Burmeister). The
South American horse of the present day was introduced
by the Spaniards.

Macrauquenia — Twice as high as the horse, and combining
the characteristics of the giraife, camel and llama.

Prohoscides — There are two species of Mastodons: Hum-
boldt and Andium. No fossil elephants have been found.

Ruminants — There are several species of Auchenia,
Cierves, Antelopes, etc.

Edentates (toothless) — The Megatherium family. — The
American Megatherium is much larger than the elephant.
It is on exhibition in nearly all the museums of the world.
There are five smaller species, and several of the Milodon
type. Among the Edentates, mention must be made of
several of the animals with armour-like coverings not un-
like that of the Armadillo. These are the Gliptodon species
with an armour covering which in some places measures
two meters in thickness; exhibited in the museums of La
Plata and Buenos Aires. These armour coverings were
used as tents by the fossil man of the pampas of the
tertiary age, as verified by marks of the handiwork of
primitive man, and which can not be disputed.

The Patagonian Region of the Present Day and AVhat
It Was in the Remote Past

Patagonia, which was at one time one of the most fertile
regions on the globe, is today a vast arid tract, almost unin-
habitable for reason of its sudden and extreme climatic
changes and limited rainfall. The winter temperature falls
as low as SO'^ C. below zero at Colonia Sarmiento and
Bueii Pastor on the Chubut, and to 28° C. below in many
places; the summer temperature rises at times to 40° C.

VAST NATUKAL REGIONS 107

above zero at points on the rivers Chubut and Negro, and in
the southern pampas. This contrast is due to the dryness
of the air, the rainfall being exceedingly low throughout the
Patagonian region excepting on the Andean valleys of the
Neuquen and a few other places. Onelli, the Argentine
explorer, who served as a member of the Commission on
boundaries with Chile, and is therefore thoroughly familiar
with this region, says in his recent book, "Climbing the
Andes," B. A., 1916 edition : ''Patagonia has a uniformly
monotonous and gloomy aspect ; its step-like graded plateaus
alternating with its mountains of basalt, appear aston-
ishingly duplicated along the line from the Negro river to
the Strait of Magellan, 15,000 sq. leagues." The abrupt and
smooth coast line is destitute of all vegetation, and its
gloomy appearance can, perhaps, be better imagined than
described, for this is the region to which Darwin applied
the term "Accursed Land," to which we have alluded before.
The land which can be utilized for sheep-raising purposes
covers an area of 8,000 square leagues, figuring on about
1,500 head to a square league or a total of 12,000,000 sheep,
which is a small figure, for were the rainfall heavier a much
larger number could be accommodated. The remaining 7,000
square leagues of surface will remain unserviceable for an
indefinitely long time, due to the difficulty, and, I dare say,
impossibility of finding fresh artesian water. The fertile part
of the Patagonian region is that which penetrates into the
heart of the Andes through the "'Valles Gordilleranos"
(valleys of the range), comprising 4,000 square leagues of
fertile soil with abundant rains, large forests and metals
which can be easily exploited through the advantages of an
abundant supply of fuel and motive force, which can be
obtained from the numberless streams and water-falls found
in the district. This region can be properly referred to as
the ^'Switzerland of Argentina," having even larger lakes
than those of Switzerland in Europe, surrounded by high
mountains. We find there the great lakes : Argentina, which
is 120 kilometers long by 50 kilometers wide ; Buenos Aires

108 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

Lake, 150 kilometers long; Nahuel Huapi Lake, resem-
bling a gigantic octopus, 100 kilometers in length, and many
others. There are more than 100 lakes of considerable
size. The lakes of the Andes, which Frey numbered from 1
to 70, and which are considered large bodies, do not appear
on the maps.

The Sterile Pampa

The sterile pampa region with its barren deserts occupies
the northwestern part of Argentina as far as the foot of
the Andes mountains. It is sandy in certain places and
saline in others ; very little rainfall with a tropical African
climate during the summer season, and very cold in winter.
The only vegetation found consists of a species of feeble,
thorny shrubbery. High temperature of 46° centigrade at
Santiago del Estero, and 41° at San Juan, Rioja, have
been recorded, temperature such as is recorded in the Desert
of Sahara. In the very same region the thermometer
registers six and eight degrees below during the winter
months, and has fallen as low as twelve and fourteen below,
at San Luis and Mendoza.

The Mountainous Region of Brazil and the Plateaus op
THE Brazilian System

The great system formed by the Coast Range and many
other chains of mountains, attains its maximum height
(2,944 meters) at Agulhas Negras, and 2,932 meters at the
Pyrenees in Goyaz. It covers an area of 4,500,000 square
kilometers, which is equal to almost half of the territory of
Europe.

Two million square kilometers of this area have a
healthy and temperate climate. This comprises the most
densely populated and most widely cultivated region in-
cluding the states of San Paulo, Rio Janeiro, Bahia,
Pernambuco, Santa Catalina, and Rio Grande del Sur.
Most of the coffee, tobacco, cotton, sugar-cane, lumber,
and tinctorial plants produced, come from the valleys, while

VAST NATURAL REGIONS 109

the plateaus are being utilized for cattle-raising, where
there are more than 28,000,000 head at the present time.
One of the leading regions of the live-stock industry is Matto
Grosso, situated in upper Paraguay, known as the plateaus
of the Parecis Range, and which is now accessible by the
railroad recently built from Corumb^ to San Paulo and
Santos. The jerked beef, prepared in this region, is shipped
via the Parand and the La Plata, for consumption in Brazil.
Another very important live-stock state is Rio Grande del
Sur, which adjoins the Republica Oriental del Uruguay, and
ships prepared beef via the Uruguayan Central Railroad to
Montevideo, whence it is exported to foreign markets. This
route is also used for the exportation of wool, hides, fats and
other animal products, the value of which amounts to more
than 40,000,000 dollars annually. Live stock is also an im-
portant industry in the states of Goyaz and Minas. Not
so much beef is exported, as the consumption among the
24,000,000 inhabitants of Brazil is in itself an important
item, figuring that the proportion is a little more than one
animal for each inhabitant, while Argentina has 30,000,000
head of cattle and 67.000,000 head of sheep for 8,000,000
inhabitants, and Uruguay for its one and a half million
population, has 8,000,000 cattle and 20,000,000 sheep.

The United States of America at one time exported large
quantities of beef, for in 1890 their 65,000,000 head of cattle
were more than enough for the population of 60,000,000, but
they are today importing large quantities of beef from the
La Plata region in order to keep pace with the consumption
of their 110,000,000 population. It is possible that Brazil
will be able to increase its production of live stock and has
accordingly taken very good steps to effect it.

CHAPTER VI
HYDROGRAPHY

SUMMARY

Influence of the Andean Range on the Hydrography of South America— The Line of
Perpetual Snow on the Andes — The Great Hydrographic Slopes of South America — Ist, La
Plata Slope — 2d, The Amazonian Slope — 3d, The Slope of the Orinoco — 4th, Pacific Slope.

Influence op the Andean Range on the Hydrography
OP South America

The Andean Range is the water-shed between the two
large drainage slopes, one over a long and narrow tract,
the other extending over nearly the whole continent. Due
to its great height this range has a marked effect on the
climate and the rainfall, in obstructing the moisture-laden
clouds carried by the eastern winds.

The Line op Perpetual Snow on the Andes

It is noticeable that the eastern slope has a heavier rain-
fall than either the plateau region or the western slope of
the Pacific. The line of perpetual snow is at a higher alti-
tude on the mountains along the Pacific Coast than on
the eastern range where the snowfall is heavier. Perpetual
snow is at a height of 6,000 meters on the western range
of Bolivia, while at an elevation of 5,200 meters on the
eastern Cordillera. It is of course a natural fact that the
line of perpetual snow descends to a lower elevation the
farther the distance from the equator, to wit : at Mt. Acon-
cagua 33° south, 4,482 meters elevation; at Mt. Sarmiento,
55° south, 1,072 meters. As the rainfall of Ecuador is
heavier than in Bolivia, the line of perpetual snow is higher,
or 4,600 meters on Mt. Cotopaxi, which is situated almost on
the line of the equator.

110

HYDROGRAPHY 111

The Great Hydrographic Slopes of South America

The eastern or Atlantic slope consists of three slopes
drained by the three large rivers of South America : the
Orinoco, the Amazon and the La Plata, the first two being
2,200 and 5,000 kilometers long, respectively, and the third
is formed by the rivers Parana and Uruguay, 4,500 and
1,500 kilometers, respectively. In the chapter devoted to
"Means of Communication" we show in detail how easy
it would be to establish communication between the La
Plata and the Amazon through the rivers Parang and Para-
guay and the Tocantins, tributary of the Amazon, a project
which should attract the attention of enterprising Yankee
concerns to whom nothing seems impossible. This route
could be established far more economically than the one
contemplated by the English, in Africa, from the Cape
through the South African republics, through the Congo
and the Nile to Cairo, Egypt, a part of which is already
completed. The reader can easily observe the conditions of
navigation of South America, by consulting the map on
"Communications" found in another part of this book, with
reference to river communication and railroad lines now in
operation as well as those being planned. The so-called Rio
de la Plata is a big estuary formed by the Parand and
Uruguay, both of which have their origin in the tropical
region of Brazil. The La Plata is 180 miles wide at its
mouth, where it flows into the Atlantic Ocean, between Cape
Santa Maria in Uruguay and Cape San Antonio in Argen-
tina. The distance across the estuary, between Montevideo
and Buenos Aires, is 120 miles and 30 miles from Buenos
Aires to the nearest point in Uruguay. The part of the
river from Montevideo, toward Buenos Aires, is fresh
river-water, and east of Montevideo salt sea-water. Monte-
video is a seaport. The Parand is a very large stream
not unlike the Mississippi of North America, as to abun-
dance of water, general course and different climatic
belts through which it flows. The Paraguay, the principal

112 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

tributary of the Parand, though far more useful as a navig-
able stream, compares with the Missouri River. It is
navigable by small steamers almost to its source. The great
central zone of Brazil, with its immense wealth of lumber
and live-stock, can have direct communication with the
Atlantic Ocean through the Paraguay into the Parana and
the La Plata, Bolivia, which is devoid of seacoast though
nearer to the Pacific than to the Atlantic, has outlet through
the Paraguay, with Port Suarez on one of the tributaries of
the above river which flows through Bolivian territory,
and far more advantageous for Bolivian commerce than
the Beni, Mamore, Madeira and Amazon. One steamship
line connects Port Suarez with Buenos Aires and Monte-
video.

The Amazon, which is 5,000 kilometers long, is the largest
river in the world, both as regards volume of water and the
number of its big tributaries. The combined length of the
navigable streams, including the Amazon and its tributaries,
and which extend to both hemispheres, is 50,000 kilometers.
The Madeira, which flows from far in the interior of Bolivia,
is 3,000 kilometers long. The Tapajos, Xingu, Purus, Tocan-
tins are each more than 2,000 kilometers in length. The
Negro is the main northern tributary. In our chapter
"Means of Communication" we give a more detailed account
as to the navigation and the importance of the tributaries
of the Amazon.

The rivers of the Pacific slope are of very little importance,
the principal streams being the Barker, Aysen, Valdivia,
Bueno, etc., of the Chilean republic. It is a well-known fact
that the northern littoral of Chile and Peru is a dry and
riverless region. Ecuador has one large river, on the side
of the Pacific, the Guayaquil. Colombia has the rivers Mag-
dalena and Atrato, which are very important navigable
streams.

CHAPTER VII
CLIMATOLOGY OF THE LA PLATA REGION

SUMMARY

Climate of the Coast Belt — Basis of Temperature of the Coast Belt — Temperature of the
Pampean, the Central and the Patagonian Regions — The Law of Rains — Transparency of
the Sky in the Various Zones of the La Plata Region.

Climate op the Coast Belt

In addition to what has been said in describing the
regions of the Andes and the plains, we will here supplement
that which relates to the Climatology of the La Plata, which
embraces the best known regions of the South American
Continent, there being over 200 meteorological observatories
scattered from Tierra del Fuego to Paraguay and covering
the territory of the republics of Argentina, Uruguay and
Paraguay, or from parallel 22° S. to 56° S. a distance of
700 leagues, or 34 degrees of latitude, which is half the
length of the continent north and south. The meteorological
department of Argentina is under the direction of North
American meteorologists who publish a daily weather re-
port or bulletin. The tract of land situated between and
on the Uruguay, Parang and Paraguay rivers is called
Littoral, supposed to reach not only to Buenos Aires, but
includes the Atlantic littoral as far as Patagonia.

Basis of Temperature op the Littoral Belt

The Littoral, which is the most thickly populated district
of Argentina and Uruguay, has a temperate climate, which
gradually gets colder as the distance from the equator in-
creases and as is the natural result on all regions under 300
meters elevation. We give below the average temperature of

113

114 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

the last ten years beginning with the City of Asuncion on the
north :

CENTIGRADE

ATERAQB MAXIMUM MINIMUM

Asunci6n (Capital of Paraguay) 22 42 0

Corrientes (Argentine Republic) 20 42 0

Sal to (Republic of Uruguay) 18

Montevideo (Republic of Uruguay) 16 38 -6

Buenos Aires (Argentine Republic) 16 40 -6

Bahia Blanca (Argentine Republic) 14 42 -8

Montevideo has perceptibly the same average mean
temperature as Buenos Aires, though not as warm in sum-
mer as the latter, and a maximum temperature of 38° C,
which is recorded only about every eight or ten years, which
is not the case in Buenos Aires, where this maximum is
reached almost every summer. Buenos Aires has also colder
winters, due to the cold winds which sweep over the city
from the mountain range, and which winds have risen in
temperature after crossing the estuary of La Plata, which
waters have a minimum temperature of 5° or 6°C. above
zero. The coldest time of day is between six, and seven
o'clock in the morning. It must be borne in mind that
Montevideo has a maritime, and Buenos Aires a continental
climate.

Temperature of the Central and Patagonian Regions

In Argentina, as the distance from the littoral or coast
increases the intensity of heat or cold increases until, at
the Pampa, there is a maximum temperature of 44° and 46°
C, in the provinces of Santiago, Tucuman, etc.

The mean maximum temperature of this central zone can
be compared with that of the warmest regions of the globe,
as is shown by the following figures :

CENTIGRADE

MEAN MAXIMUM

Catamarca (Recreo) 34

Santiago del Estero 35

Cruz del Eje (C6rdoba) 33

Uaadi-Half a (Nubia) 34

Maaaua (Central Africa) 34

Kartiun (Soudan) 33

CLIMATOLOGY OP THE LA PLATA REGION 115

Patagonia has an excessively cold winter climate, which
goes down to 30° C. below zero at the Neuqueu in Colonia
Sarmiento and other places. In the summer the temper-
ature rises to the other extreme, registering 42° C. on the
Chubut at port Madrin on the Atlantic. Many are the
places where the temperature rises to 40° C. in summer and
falls to 25° below zero during the winter.

The Law op Rains

The rainfall gradually decreases towards the southern
extremity, following the natural result of rainfall, being
heavier nearer the tropics and lighter as it nears the poles.
In the northern part of the Littoral, which comprises Para-
guay, Chaco and the Mission district, there is a rainy season
between April and September, with a heavy rainfall the re-
mainder of the year. Farther south, between the rivers
Uruguay and Parantl or Argentine Mesopotamia, the rain-
fall in the summer and winter is equal.

The following table shows the decrease in the annual
rainfall (in millimeters) from north to south:

Asunci6n (Paraguay) 1320

Concordia (Argentina) 1070

Montevideo 934

Buenos Aires 930

Mar del Plata 690

Patagones 310

In the region of the sterile or midland Pampa, the decrease
in rainfall is noticed the farther the distance from the
Uruguay river between the parallels 30° S. and 35° S., which
is the latitude of the Republica Oriental del Uruguay. The
diminution is about at the rate of 100 millimeters for each
100 kilometers. Therefore, the rainfall of 900 to 1,000 milli-
meters on the coast of Uruguay is only 200 millimeters in
San Juan, at the foot of the Andes, making irrigation indis-
pensable for all agricultural products raised in this latter
region, which, nevertheless, is the best wine-producing zone,
its grape competing with the best made in Andalusia,

116 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

Spain, and in the wine-producing districts of Portugal. All
the best grades of fruits and vegetables, native to the region,
are also raised.

The Patagonian region has very little rainfall excepting
at Neuquen (1,820 mm.) and at San Martin de los Andes; in
a few other places it is considerably less. On the Pata-
gonian coast the rains are few and far between, the maxi-
mum corresponding to Trelev, which is 560 mm. On the
other hand, the rainfall on the Chilean side is from 2,000 to
3,000 millimeters, only equaled in the Amazonian region.
Punta Arenas, on the Strait of Magellan, at a great distance
from the Pacific, has little rainfall (400 mm.). Refer to
L. C. Bollo, "Climatologia Platense" Barreiro y Ramos,
Montevideo, 1916.

Transparency of the Sky in the Various Zones op the
La Plata Region

Regarding the condition of the sky, few places can com-
pare with Uruguay in clearness and transparency, prin-
cipally because the atmosphere is free from haziness and
dust. This fact alone entitles Uruguay and Argentina to
display the sun as their symbol together with the white
and azure hues, which their flags unfold.

CONDITION OP THE SKY. A Perfectly Clear Sky is marked 100

LITTORAL ZONE TBN-TEAK AVERAOE

Montevideo 51

Asunci6n 45

Buenos Aires 46

Bahia Blanca 44

UIDLAND ZONB

Tucumdn 58

C<3rdoba 53

San Luis 44

ANDEAN ZONB

La Quiaca 38

Salta 56

Mendoza 35

CHAPTER VIII
THE NATIVE SOUTH AMERICAN

SUMMARY

Is there One Singular Type of Native South American ? — Was South America First
Settled by Men from another Continent ? — The Various South American Races, Accord-
ing to D'Orbigny: Andean-Peruvian, Pampean, Brazilian-Guaranitica — The Races of South
America do not descend from the Mongolians — The Americans were the first to use cop-
per, which metal was unknown to the Egj'ptian, Asiatic and European peoples, and were
the first to discover bronze which the South American introduced during the invasions
of the Eastern Hemisphere — The Esquimaux of today, of American origin, invaded Green-
land and Northern Asia.

Is There One Singular Type op Native South American f

We will not here discuss the origin of the American, who
was considered, until just recently, a modification of the
Mongol type, which it resembles slightly, though a great
many of the nations of the South American indigenes are as
ditlerent from the Mongols as they are from the Caucasians.
The Yuracares, of the Mamor6 river in Bolivia, and of whom
D'Orbigny made a very close study, having resided among
them for about eight months, are almost white in color and
have a fine physique. The Chiriguanos of Bolivia, on the
river Pilcomayo, have a light-copper complexion. The Im-
baburenos of Ecuador are as white of skin as the Europeans.
The Cariazos, also of Ecuador, have an aquiline nose like
the Jivaros of the Pastaza river, while the Zaparos of the
Napo resemble the Chinese. According to tradition, Manco
Capac, who founded the Empire of the Incas, 1,000 years
before the present era, had white skin and golden hair as
had his wife.

Was South America First Settled by Men from Another

Continent?

Mr. Andres Lamas, well-known Uruguayan publicist, in
his introduction to the work of Lozano, "History of the

117

118 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

Conquest of Paraguay, La Plata River and Tucum^n,"
says : "We do not know of any American myth or tradition
to which we can attribute the supposition that America
might have been settled by emigrants from another
continent."

"We find traditions of invasions, conquests, colonization,
transmigrations, the supplanting of various tribes whose
origin we ignore but who appeared to have been moving and
operating within the same continent and coming from the
interior of the mainland."

"We find traditions of civilized men of divers American
races, traditions of white-skinned golden-haired men, of
barbates, who have had more or less influence in the do-
minion, culture and destinies of peoples. But there is no
tradition to tell us that such and such a tribe or such and
such men were the settlers of an uninhabited land. On the
contrary, each one in its turn appears, according to its re-
spective tradition, to have functioned and established its
dominion over people already occupying the premises, who
either were or considered themselves aborigines. Therefore,
not only is there want of a determined fact, myths and
native traditions that will permit us to suppose that
America was settled by immigrants from another continent,
but the American myths and traditions existing are in
opposition to this supposition. This is the opinion of one
of the most celebrated historians of the La Plata, who, with
great ardor and devotion, made a thorough study of these
questions."

The opinion that became so general some time ago that the
Mongolians had migrated into and settled in America, was
due to the fact that many invasions into North America
came from the North, but in South America we find that the
invasions were just the reverse. Manco Capac went to
Cuzco, from the South ; the civilization which he founded
and the palaces constructed in Tiahuanaco, all preceded
Manco Capac's time and emanated from people that came
from the South; the tribes that destroyed Tiahuanaco and

THE NATIVE SOUTH AMERICAN 119

exterminated the inhabitants fifteen centuries ago, also came
from the South; the great invasion, which put an end to the
second dynasty of the Incas of Cuzco, proceeded from Argen-
tina ; the Yncasica civilization started from the South travel-
ing in a northerly direction, going from Cuzco to Quito and
thence to Ecuador; the Guarani race, which contributed a
larger number of inhabitants to South America, started its
invasion from Paraguay northwardly to the Amazon, the
Orinoco and the Caribbean or Antilles Isles ; the Caribbeans
were Guaranles; the Tupies a family branch of the Guar-
anies, moving northwardly drove away the indigenes from
the territory where today stands Rio Janeiro. The Mexicans
make mention of invasions which have come into their terri-
tory from the South.

If South America was the continent where the ape and the
biggest ape first api^eared, it is not altogether impossible
that it also had human inhabitants contemporaneously with
the Old World or even before. Could it be that the At-
lantida of Platon is the Arquelensis, which united America
and Africa? And do not the names of Atlantic and Atlas
mountains indicate invasions by Mexicans of Tlascala who
arrived from Western Lands, according to tradition of the
indigenes of Old Berberia, now Marruecos and Tunes?
There is no other language that could have applied these
names distinctly of Mexican origin.

The South American Races

According to D'Orbigny

Going back to the subject of the indigenous races of South
America, we are indebted to the celebrated French natur-
alist, D'Orbigny, for a good classification based on the
principal anatomical characteristics. Although it may not
correspond exactly with the details given at a later date
through anthropology, then an almost unknown science, he
furnishes by means of his exactness in detail a perfect idea
of the man of South America. The sage D'Orbigny resided

120 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

in America several years and was able to understand those
peoples. The Andean-Peruvian race was of dark olive com-
plexion, small stature, horizontal eyes and rather high fore-
head. It is divided into three branches : Peruana, Aniiciana,
and Araucana. Average height of the Peruano, 1.59 meters;
large, aquiline nose ; lips, medium ; cheekbones not high ;
long, oval face, in fact, characteristics which the Mongolian
does not possess. To this branch belong the Quichuas and
Aimaras of the Peru-Bolivian Plateau, the founders of the
Empire of the Incas, which, as we have said, attained
civilization comparable to that of Ancient Egypt.

The Anticiana: average height, 1.64 meters; nose not uni-
form in shape; dark-olive complexion, more or less fair;
forehead, not low; horizontal eyes; face, oval. To this
branch belong the Yuracares, almost white in complexion,
who live in the forests of Bolivia, and the Mocetones, etc.

The Araucama: Average height, 1.64 meters; complexion,
veiy dark brown ; face, almost circular ; nose, short and flat ;
high cheek-bones; forehead, rather high. Araiwanos Ran-
queles and Fueguinos of Patagonia are descendants of the
Araucanos of Chile, the PeJiuenches of Patagonia and the
Aucas.

The Pampean Race: Very tall; arched forehead, not low;
horizontal eyes; dark-olive skin. This race inhabited the
Pampa Argentina and the territoiy of Uruguay. It is di-
vided into three branches: Pampeana, CJiiquitana and
Moxcana. The Pampean is tall of stature, averaging 1.68
meters in height; complexion, brown, dark-olive or reddish
brown; long face; flat nose; very large mouth; high cheek-
bones; many are ferocious in appearance.

The Patagones and Tehuelches, of Patagonia, the extinct
Charrnas, of Uruguay, and the Tohas, and others of the
Chaco.

The Chiquitana and Moxana branches are scattered
throughout the Bolivian plains of Moxos and Chiquitos.

The Brasilo-Ouaranitica Race: Yellowish with a pale
reddish tinge; moderate stature, average 1.62 meters;

THE NATIVE SOUTH AMERICAN 121

rounded forehead; circular face; small protruding mouth,
thin lips, cheek-bones somewhat regular ; stockily built. The
larger part of tlie indigenous ])opnlation of Brazil, Paraguaj'
and the regions of the tributaries of the Amazon belong to
this race.

The Querandies, who settled on the right-hand side of the
La Plata when Buenos Aires was founded, belong to the
Guaranies branch.

The Races of South America Are Not Descendants of
THE Mongolians

We believe that upon inspection of the descriptive char-
acteristics as given by D'Orbigny, regarding the principal
American peoples, they will be found convincing enough to
cause us to abandon the Mongolomanian idea of the sages
who make of the Mongolian race an enormous bag wherein
they cram all things about which they are unable to give a
satisfactory explanation. The I'eruvian race, which
founded one of the greatest empires that have ever existed,
is distinguished mainly by the fact that their cheek-bones
are not high, contrary to the most noticeable characteristic
of the Mongolians, which is predominant even among the
races to which the Mongolians are related, as for instance
the Magiares, and all the descendants of Mongolians found
in Russia today. The Guaranies and Peruanos, who repre-
sent, perhaps, the largest of the South American races, are
also noted for their high cheek-bones.

The region of Pamir, which the believers of the Mongolian
immigration idea have selected as the original home of man-
kind, and which place they claim was the starting point of
the great invasions that went into Europe from Asia, is on
account of its climatic conditions of excessive heat and cold
during the opposing seasons, the contrasting changes be-
tween the places which are bathed by the rays of the sun and
those in shade, as well as by its barrenness, lack of water
and fuel, the least desirable location for human life to have
grown and developed. Its present inhabitants are among

122 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

the most inferior of the Asiatic races of today. It can not
be aflSrmed that the conditions of life may have been better,
as was the case in Patagonia and even in the Desert of
Sahara, for notwithstanding the nntiring study of that
region, by famous explorers, particularly the English, not
even a vestige has been found which might establish the fact
that there was at one time a more profuse vegetation or a
partially advanced civilization, and not a trace that there
might have been, in that particular region, a higher order of
animal or vegetable life nor of a more civilized man. It is
like the other legends, which treat about the antiquity of the
white races of India, as the Dravidians, and that attributed
to the Aryans, this latter legend having been completely
disproved by the conscientious study of the most renowned
investigators of a later period. The celebrated structures of
India and everything that was considered remotely ancient,
are found to date back only a few centuries prior to the con-
quest by Alexander the Great. Yet some of these novels are
being used as a historical text today in certain universities.
Like the oldest civilized regions of Egypt and Chaldea,
though their history only goes back 7,000 years, these
regions, due to their fertility of soil, were the centers of
numerous organized nations, which found means of subsist-
ence and proper living conditions for the successful develop-
ment of the species. But what are 7,000 years against
18,000, which the Mexican traditions claim for their civiliza-
tion, the antiquity of the Empire of the Incas and still the
older civilization j)recediug that of the Incas, and which is
attested by the ruins of Tiahuanaco?

There exists one fact which proves that the people of
America exerted some influence in European civilization,
they being the first to use copper, as in no part of the Old
World was copper known, neither among the Egyptians
who made use of brass many thousands of years before
the Europeans did. As bronze is an alloy of copper and
tin, it is natural to suppose that if copper was unknown
to both the Europeans and the Egyptians, and known to

THE NATIVE SOUTH AMEKICAN 123

the native Americaus, who used it as arrow points, the
latter were the inventors of bronze, which product has
played such an important part in the civilization of the
Eastern Hemisphere. It has also been demonstrated that
the Eskimo are natives of America and differ from the
Mongolians, who are brachicephalus, in that the Eskimo are
unquestionabl}^ the most dolichocephalic of all the peoples
of the world. The Eskimo, on being pushed away by other
people, spread to the Arctic regions and crossed to
Greenland and Northern Asia. This invasion differed en-
tirely from tliose which might have taken place from Asia
to America, and of which there may have been several in the
course of all the past ages.

The primitive races of America are represented by the
Eskimo in the North, the Botocudos of Brazil, and the
Tekiuicos and Pecherais of Tierra del Fuego; their respec-
tive languages are unlike those of their immediate neighbors ;
they have a dolicocephalus cranium. In Europe, the Bas-
cos and the Bereberes are considered the primitive races;
the former believe that they are the descendants of the
Iberians, who inhabited a large part of western France and
part of Italy. The Bereberes of Marruecos and Tunis,
formerly Berbery, have many things in common with the
inhabitants of Livia, who in many ways resembled the
Iberians. All these peoples have suffered many changes, due
to the intermingling with the peoples of contiguous terri-
tory, though they yet retain a certain degree of similarity
to the native American. The Bereber, like the native Ameri-
can Indian, has scanty beard; red skin; black and straight
hair; dqlicocephalus cranium. The Berberes (Guanches)
also inhabited the Canaries, and spoke a language similar
lo the Basco. The Bascos resemble the Indian of America
in that they both have black, straight hair and a dolico-
cephalus cranium. The Fulos or Fullahs of the Soudan in
Africa have also the same complexion and hair of the
American Indian.

Columbus claimed that the inhabitants whom he found at

124 SOUTH AMERICA TAST AND PRESENT

Hispaniola and on the i.sland of Guahamani resembled the
Canarios. Casteluau, noted explorer, says in his book
"Voyage dans I'Ameriqne du Sud :" "I have found it an im-
possibility to examine the beautiful Egyptian paintings in
the British Museum, without registering surprise on notic-
ing the striking resemblance of many of the subjects to the
Indians of the New World, among whom I have lived for
many years. The best artist could not paint a better repro-
duction of the savages of South America than has been made
by these very able masters."

The reputed French geographer, E. Reclus, declares that
the Mutugorri, Iberian people or ancestors of the Bascos,
were of a reddish complexion. Michelet, celebrated French
historian, says that on beholding the Etruscan vases, they
reminded him of the Mexican statues of Palenque. The
reader will no doubt have noticed that the resemblances
described by these eminent men are not a mere accident, but
they cause one to ponder and realize that there was a re-
semblance between the oldest races of the two hemispheres —
Oriental and Occidental — and there is one additional proof
in the fact that there existed another continent which
joined these two — the Arquelensis, which joined Brazil and
Africa, or the Atlantida of Platou, which joined Mexico to
Berberia and Spain and which was the road used by the
Mexicans, who were probably the ancestors of the Bascos,
Bereberes, Fulahs and Egyptians.

Platon says in his Timeus, that Solon on his trip to Egypt
beard one of the priests exclaim : "Oh Solon ! Oh Solon !
You Greeks are young still. There is not one single old
man among you. You accept as facts what are emblematic
fables. Y'ou only have information as to one Deluge which
has been preceded by many. Athens has existed as a civil-
ized community for ages, and has for a very long time been
famous in Egypt, for feats which you ignore and the history
of which is on record in our archives. There you may
secure information as to the antiquity of our nation. There
you will learn about the heroic manner in which the

THE NATIVE SOUTH AMERICAN 125

Atheniaus of old times checked a formidable nation which
had established itself over Europe and Asia through an in-
vasion by warriors coming from the Atlantic Sea. This
body of water partially surrounded a large tract of land
situated opposite the entrance to the Strait called 'Columns
of Hercules.' This region was larger than Asia and Libia
combined. There was a large number of islands between
this land and the Strait. The country, about which I have
just spoken, or Atlantida island, was governed by united
sovereigns. In one of their expeditions they took posses-
sion of Libia as far as Egypt on one side, and on the other
they traversed the whole region as far as Tirreni. All our
people were at one time slaves, our grandfathers becoming
our liberators when their fleet defeated that of the Atlan-
tidos. A short time afterwards their island became sub-
merged, and the region which was larger than Europe and
Asia combined disappeared instantaneously." There is a
similar tradition in America. "At one time there was in
Central America the Empire of Xibalba, governed by two
kings, who were Supreme Chiefs of the empire and who had
ten other kings under them, each one the ruler of a large
kingdom, establishing among themselves a sort of council,
which decided matters of common interest. Gradually they
extended their dominion over the whole world, but a sudden
deluge came and they all disappeared." (Brasseur de
Bourbourg, Histoires de nations civilisees du Mexique et de
I'Am^rique Centrale.)

Be this the trutli or a mere myth, science considers
possible the existence of the Atlantida island, and Pale-
ontology considers it even more necessary in order to
explain the emigration of the big mammals from Europe to
North America and from South America to Africa.

CHAPTER IX

PRESENT AND FOSSIL FAUNA OF SOUTH AMERICA

The present fauna of South America is cliaracterized by
the absence of Proboscides and Hypoides, but such was not
the case in ages past, this continent having furnished more
ungulates or hoofed-animals with hoof and skull, and also
had a large number of Proboscides (animals with prehensile
extension of the nose like the elephant) and Hypoides or
primitive horse. Eight speces of ungulates are known, all
of which have disappeared ; four of these — the Tillodont, An-
cylopoda, Amblypoda, and Condylartha — are found among
fossil remains in Europe and North America. A larger
variety was found in South America. The sub-orders now
extinct, Protougulata, Litopternos, Toxodontia and Typo-
theria, were exclusively South American. In brief —
This continent had all the ungulates that ever lived and are
yet living in the other continents, thereby proving that
Bouth America was the primitive home of all ungulates,
and the center of irradiation which reached across the
Arquelensis, uniting Brazil and Africa, and across the land
joining Patagonia and Australia — the Austral Continent,
the route taken by the Marsupials, from which the Kangaroo
of Australia descends. The Comadreja (Opossum) of the
Pamj^a is the predecessor of the Kangaroo and the oldest
of the mammals living today. The gigantic ungulate Am-
blipodes, primitive South American species, had a bulk and
heavy frame like the elephant's, though having much heavier
and stronger legs and five toes on each foot. The family of
the Astratoperiums developed into a larger species than
the elephant, of which we have as an example the I'arastra-
l)otherium. Several species of the family of the Protohippus
are known to be the predecessors of the horse today. The

126

PRESENT AND FOSSIL FAUNA 127

primitive horse had five toes ou each foot, the toes gradually
disappearing until finally only one remained, that of the
present horse. An exhibit in the American Museum of
Natural History of New York shows this and other phases
in the evolution of the horse. It is known in this museum
as Eohippus (Aurora horse), and it is stated that it lived
3,000,000 years ago. In North America it inhabited the
regions of New Mexico and Wyoming. The Pyrotherium
compared in size with the elephant of today. It is repre-
sented in Africa by the Moeritherium, Paheomosdon, etc.,
and in Europe and Asia by the Mastodon and Dinotherium.
The Pyrotherium of the Pampa, the ancestor of these species,
crossed the Arquelensis, which united both continents, just
as the Mastodon and the Dinotherium passed from Europe
to North America, over the now submerged continent, which
may have been Atlantida. Ou crossing Panama, these two
gigantic mammals returned to their mother land, the home
of their ancestor, the pampean Pyrotherium of the cretace-
ous era.

In cases where the intermediate evolutionary order of
animal life is not to be found in a continent, but its primi-
tive and ulterior forms are discovered, it conclusively proves
that the evolution of the preceding species took form in
another continent, and also proves that the missing species
passed from one to the other continent where its transforma-
tion took place, as is the case with the horse, which was not
in existence in America at the time of the Spanish explora-
tion ; yet, its fossil remains are found in both Americas, but
in larger number in South America. There are fifty species of
the primitive horse found in America, showing its evolution
up to the species of the present day, meaning that the horse
originated in America, which fact is attested by the various
fossil remains found throughout the vast territory lying be-
tween the Argentine Pampa and the State of Nebraska in
the United States of America, where all the evolutionary
species up to the horse of today are found.

The North American reader, in studying the evolution of

128 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

the borse at the Museum of Natural History in New York,
will notice the following five principal characteristics:

First — Eohippus, having five toes; second — Protorohip-
pus, with four toes; third — Mesohippus, with three toes;
fourth — Protohippus, with three toes (the two lateral toes
which formerly touched the ground, having become shorter,
no longer touched the ground) ; fifth — Equus, with onlj'^ one
toe like that of the horse of today. This evolution took place
during the tertiary epoch.

The ancestors of the camel are not fouud in Africa, the
home of the present species, but existed in South and North
America in form as follows, which are camel fossil remains :
Palaucheuia magna, Palacoloma Wedelli, Palacoloma Oweni,
Palacoloma Mayor, etc.

The ancestors of the anthropoid apes (Gorilla, Orang-
outang and Chimpanzee) of Asia and Africa, originated in
the I'ampa and not in Asia and Africa. (Consult Ameg-
hiuo's "Doctriiia y Descubrimientos" Buenos Aires, 1915,
and I'aleontologia Argentina, 1904. — The New York Public
Library.)

The Trigodon was a species of Toxodou much larger than
the rhinoceros of today, having an enormous triangular
head, a very large horn which protruded from the middle
of the forehead, and an exceedingly small brain, making this
l)robably the most stupid of animals.

The Edentates include many fossil species of pampean
formation, among them the Megatherium, which in some
cases attained a growth of eight meters in length. The
Mylodon had its whole body covered with exuding bony
l>ores arranged in the shape of paviug-stoues. One of these
animals, the Neonn/Iodon, appears to have lived recently, for
there have been found in the caves of Patagonia fresh bones
incased in dried meat and hide, with hair intact and in its
natural color, which can be seen at the Museum of Buenos
Aires and American Museum of Natural Historj'^, New York.

The Maorauchcnia was a species much larger than the
horse, neck longer than that of the giraffe, very long legs.

PRESENT AND FOSSIL FAUNA 120

three toes ou each foot like the tapir's, with a trunk like
that of the elephaut.

Certain animals appeared during the Pliocene epoch,
which are not of South American origin. There are several
strange forms, like the Felinos, and among them the Smilo-
don, a tiger much more formidable than the African lion, and
with unusually large saw-like canine-teeth; gigantic bears
as large as oxen; mastodons, some of African origin and
some American. These migrations have taken place alter-
nately and reciprocally between South America and the other
continents, as may have happened in the case of primitive
man. At the same time these migrations explain the changes
of fauna of the various continents. Thus, the Toxodon of
the Pampa reached Nicaragua ; the Gliptodon reached Ana-
huac in Mexico, near the site of the Mexican capital, and as
far as the States of Texas and New Mexico in the United
States; the Carpincho of Uruguay and Paranii traveled as
far as Florida ; the Megatherium and Milodonns, which had
become extinct in the Pampa, are found in the States of
California and Carolina and in places along the Mississippi
valley.

No fossil apes are found on tertiary soil of North America,
and the present species in Mexico and Central America are
South American types; in Europe and Asia, fossil apes of
the Miocene epoch have recently appeared, but they had
already been discovered on Patagouian tertiary soil (Ho-
munculus of Santa Cruz) the skull of which very closely re-
sembles that of man. Of all species of apes inhabiting the
Old World, none has its predecessors in the same continent,
which leads scientists to believe that they are descendants
of the fossil species found in South America, which conti-
nent they inhabited in the very remote past. The Homiin-
cuius of Santa Cruz combines a larger number of character-
istics common to man than any other of the apes, and it
appears to be the primitive trunk from which the American
species became separated from the anthropomorphus of
Asia and Africa, and the homiuideos. The belief that the

130 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

Pampa was the primitive home of man is further coufii'med
by the fact that among the fossil remains found, there are
two toxodons of the tertiary epoch — one with a spear point
imbedded in the trunk, between the ribs, and another with
an arrowhead through the bones of the leg. These indica-
tions of the existence of the man of the tertiary age, which
came to light during the years 1917 and 1918, confirm the
opinion of the late (died in 1911) naturalist, Ameghino, who
found traces of the tertiary man of the Pampa.

According to this Argentine naturalist, the honumculus
types, natives of South America, crossed to the Old AVorld
towards the end of the Eocene or at the beginning of the
Oligocene epoch, over the remaining part of the Arquelensis,
which, as we have stated, united South America and Africa.
This is proven by the discovery of small fossil anthropoids
at the oligocene period of Northern Africa, as was foretold
by Ameghino. There the species retrograded instead of ad-
vancing, giving place to the fossil and present anthropoids
of Europe, Asia and Africa.

The man of South America (homo pampaeus) invaded
North America during the same period as the mammoths
— Megatherium, Milodon, Toxodon and Gliptodon — of the
Argentine pampas. These perished, but man separated into
two branches, one invading the Northwest and the Asiatic
continent, and the other going in a northeasterly direction,
crossed the continental bridge, which at the beginning of the
quaternary epoch connected Canada and Europe, penetrated
the latter continent through the west and gave origin to
the man of Neanderthal, of Spy, and la Chapelle aux Saintes,
now extinct species. Other groups gradually occupied
Europe, and through evolution came the transformation into
the Caucasian. Amegliiuo in his book, "Doctrina y Des-
cubrimientos," says: "I consider it an impossibility for any
of the species of the apes of today to evolve into man, inas-
much as their evolutionary i)roeess has taken a divergent
course which at each step separates them farther from
man. All the fossil apes so far discovered in the Old World

PRESENT AND FOSSIL FAUNA IJil

belong to these diverging and retrograding branches. The
same applies not onlj- to the renowned Pitecantropo of
Java, but also to the man of Neanderthal, both of which
would represent extinct divergent lines which have become
separated from the central trunk, during a comparatively
recent period. The anthropomorphic apes are, in the opinion
of Ameghino, our degenerated or retrograded brothers and
not our first cousins, as Darwin believed.

Such is Ameghino's opinion regarding the races of man-
kind, and which opinion more closely coincides with the
information that is being gathered through the natural
sciences. We mentioned in chapter II the principal fossil
remains of the Panipa.

The Man of Chapalmalal — Full Sanction

"The Congress of Natural Sciences which met recently in
Tucum^n, and in which all the eminent scientists in our
country, both national and foreign, took part, has just given
recognition by unanimous vote to the authenticity of the
weapons, instruments and fossil remains found by Dr.
Carlos Ameghino at Chapalmalal, and which were presented
by him as an attestation of the existence of man during the
remote prehistoric ages."

The Congress which has recognized this authenticity as
well as that the objects were found in their proper place, and
that they were made and in use during that geological era
to which belong the animal fossil remains that have also
been found — backbone and femur of the Toxotlon, both with
incrusted quartz points of arrow and spear — thus gives the
fullest sanction that may be desired by our country (with
representation of the foreign scientific element) to the fruit-
ful labor and self-evident scientific knowledge of Dr. Carlos
Ameghino, Director of the Paleontological and Anthropolog-
ical departments of our museum,

"The matters herein referred to, received the special atten-
tion of the Congress, which on terminating its labors at one
of the sessions, gave a vote of thanks to the erudite Paleon-

182 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

tologist. Therefore^ the last investigations made at Mira-
mar and Chapalmalal, together with the proof of the ex-
istence of man during that geological epoch, have been
recognized."

"These facts had been formerly recognized by the commis-
sion appointed by Dr. Angel Gallardo as Director of the Na-
tional Museum of Natural History, and by Dr. Joaquin V.
Gonzalez, Rector of the La Plata University. The members
of this commission were: Dr. Santiago Roth, Director of
Mines and Geolog}' of the Province of Buenos Aires and In-
structor of Paleontology; Dr. Walter Schiller, Instructor of
Mineralogy and collaborator in the management of Mines
and Geology of the country ; Moises Kantor, Instructor En-
gineer; Dr. Lutz Witte, Geologist of the mines within the
province; Dr. Luis Maria Torres; Dr. Carlos Ameghino."

"This commission after a careful study, drew up an affi-
davit which has been published in Spanish and in French,
enumerating the articles found and asserting that 'The
ocular inspection of the site where the above liandiwork is
found does not show any indication which would lead any
one to suppose that the articles described were buried at a
period subsequent to the formation of the covering layer;
that they were in proper position and were therefore con-
sidered objects of human handicraft, contemporary to the
geological stratum where they were deposited.' "

"Taking in consideration," adds the affidavit, "all the cir-
cumstances surrounding these discoveries, as well as the con-
dition of the objects and the relative stratification of the
layers, the commission oi)ines that the objects in question
show traces of the hand of man who lived during the geo-
logical epoch corresponding to the Chapalmalense stratum."

"This closing declaration of the said scientific authorities
was afterwards adopted by another commission later ap-
pointed, and is now corroborated by the significative sanc-
tion of the Congress of Natural Sciences."

"Thus, scientific evidence asserts itself and leaves those
who would fain deny it in a lamentable state."

PRESENT AND FOSSIL FAUNA 133

Published in "La Nacion" (principal Argentine daily) of
Buenos Aires, issue of Dec. 15, 1916, regarding the de-
liberations of the Tuiornun Scientific Congress, which met a
few days before.

Extraordinary Fish Wealth op La Plata

Montevideo has, since the colonial epoch, been famous
lliroughout the civilized world for its extraordinary wealth
and variety of fishes, such as will satisfy the most exacting
taste. Its supply by far exceeds that of most of the seaport
town.*; of Europe, not excluding England, Holland and other
countries of northern Europe.

It is difficult to find better edible fish than the pescodilla
dc red, hrotula, pejerrcy, ancliou, corhina, sargo, etc., and
other varieties which abound in Montevideo, Maldonado, and
all along the coast of tlie Atlantic. Several of these species
come from South Atlantic waters as they migrate north,
seeking a warmer climate during the winter season, hatching
their eggs in the estuary of La Plata, where they find in the
sediment brought down by the waters of the Parancl and
Paraguay, an abundant supply of vegetable food or phyto-
plankton in the form of microscopic seaweed, which makes
an excellent fi.sh food. In Canada it is the sea-coralline
wrack that attracts the codfish of Terranova. The zoo-
plankton must necessarily be very abundant, inasmuch as it
is formed by microscopic animals like the foraminiferes,
nocticules, radiolares, etc., which abound in temperate
waters. Our book in Zoology, published in 1894, states that
certain species migrated, among them, the anchovy, which
is found near Montevideo only during the Autumn and
Winter. The immigrating species are still unknown, as the
Institute on Fishes, founded a few years ago, has not made
a complete study of them as yet. The French naturalist,
A. Bouyat, has included in his book, "Les Pecheries de la
Cote d'Afrique" (Challamel editeur, Paris, 1908), the life
of the fishes of the Atlantic. The said author, who is in-
structor of Zoology in the Institute of Agriculture in Monte-

134 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

video, says in his book, "Contribution al etude de la pec-he
maritime en Uruguay," that the abundance of sardines dur-
ing certain epochs seems to indicate that the coast is
frequently visited by shoals of sardines, and that a complete
study as to their migrating habits should be made. The
author of this book lives near the seashore of Montevideo,
and it has been his observation as well as that of the fisher-
men of that region, that there are certain periods of the year
when large schools of fish come from the South Pole as far
as the estuary of La Plata. Many species, such as the
pejerrey and the boga, find their way during the winter
months into the Paraml and Uruguay and their tributaries.
The supply of fish in Montevideo is sufficiently large for
home consumption and for exportation to the Buenos Aires
markets, large quantities being carried by all the night
steamers that leave Montevideo for the Argentine capital.
The fish bureau, under the direction of Don Juan Nelson
Wismer, a North American expert, sells the highest grade
fish on the street markets at six cents per kilo (less than
three cents per pound) . During certain days of the summer
season, the fish caught in nets reach such vast proportions
that it sells at the rate of twenty liters for one-half of a
peso (approx. a five gal. measure for about fifty cents) at
the Pocitos of Montevideo.

Bouyat says in his book, which we have already men-
tioned :

First — Fish is very abundant on the Uruguayan coasts.

Second — The edible species are abundant enough to make
the fish industry a profitable occupation under wise manage-
ment.

Third — The demand for fresh fish, due to the proximity
of the cities of Buenos Aires and Montevideo, makes it even
more attractive from a commercial standpoint.

Fourth — The conditions, which will be found for the future
exploitation of the industry, are to a great extent superior
to those to which all foreign enterprises will have to be sub-
ject in both the old and the new continents. In fact, the

PRESENT AND FOSSIL FAUNA 135

field of operations — the La Plata River — which is a veritable
sea at Montevideo, is at just a few hours' ride from the center
of consumption. The fishing boats, in case of storms, have
adequate shelter at Montevideo and Maldonado, and while
on duty at night have the advantage* of splendidly lighted
coast line, which receives its illumination from the light-
houses of Polonio, Santa Maria, Jos6 Ignacio, Punta del
Este, Islas de Lobos y Flores, Banco Ingles, and Punta
Brava.

A refrigerator has been recently constructed at the port of
Montevideo, in order to facilitate exportation to the interior
of the country. The city of Buenos Aires itself has developed
a profitable fishing industry and brings great quantities of
fish from Mar del Plata, a southern port, and from the lakes
of Chascomus. Montevideo exports from twenty to thirty
million kilos of fresh fish annually. There are plants in
Montevideo and Maldonado for the preparation of canned
and salt fish, which is intended for shipment to points in the
interior.

The Uruguay, the Parand and their tributaries have big
fish such as the snrubi, pacfl, pati, manguruyi^, etc., which
average as much aS 40 to CO kilos in weight each, delicious
eating and quite well adapted for canning purposes. The
Liebig plant of Fray Bentos, a port of the Uruguay, manu-
factures fish oil for its own machinery and for export pur-
poses. Schools of big fish are constant visitors at this port.

Tliere is no ostricultural plant at any point on the La
Plata. It is the opinion of many that a profitable business
could be developed by some North American concern which
would establish in Montevideo an oyster-farm on a big scale,
with two cities of a combined population of more than two
million inhabitants to feed.

The 20 to 30 million kilos of fish that Montevideo exports
should be increased to 80 or 100 million for consumption in
Buenos Aires and the rest of the Argentine Republic, which,
having no inland streams, the only fish to be had is from the
lake Chascomus and others of the province of Buenos Aires.

136 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

The Neuqueu aud other streams of Patagouia have iish
hatcheries (salmon, trout, etc.) for fish imported from the
United States, but the great distance to the Buenos Aires
market and the competition with the La Plata fish industry
right at the door of the consumer make the former a more
risky enterprise.

The wealth represented by the fish industry of the prin-
cipal fish markets of the world is represented by the statis-
ical figures of 1910 as given below, according to the Interna-
tional Council's report on activities on the sea :

Year 1910

Value —

Million Million

Country Kiloa Dollars

England 666 38

Norway 629 12

Scotland 442 14

France 230 22

Germany 166 8

Holland 137 8

Iceland 78 2

Sweden 119

Ireland 52

United States America , ... 70

See the synopsis of the species of vertebrates, cox^ied from
L. C. Bollo ''l^ociones de Zoologia" (published in Monte-
video, in 1890, in five volumes with 540 illustrations, at Li-
breria Nacional de Barreiros y Ramos).

PRESENT AND FOSSIL FAUNA

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138 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

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CHArTER X
DEMOGRAPHY

SUMMARY

Composition of the Present Population of South America — Demographic CocflBcients
Compared — Alcoholism, factor in the Mortality rate — Growth of the Large Cities of South
America.

Composition of the Present Population op
South America

The popiilatioii of South America as a whole, represents
the issue of the crossing of the Spanish and Portuguese with
the Aborigines. The purity of the indigenous race being
now found only in isolated districts of the Andean moun-
tains and on the plains drained by the Amazon, Paraguay
and Parana. Peru and Bolivia have a preponderance of in-
digenous population, the workingmen in the mines and on
the farms being Indians and Mestizos. The same thing is
true of Paraguay and Central Brazil where the Guaraui
Indian that makes up the bulk of the working population
retains his racial purity. The Indian and the Mestizo of
Chile, Bolivia, Peru and other countries of the Andean
region has by nature great physical strength and en-
durance, and the added fact that he is thoroughly acclimated
and is more frugal in his habits, makes him a more competent
worker in the mines than the European.

Brazil had for centuries imported negroes from Africa for
work in the fields, agriculture being at that time its main
industry, but slavery was finally abolished without having
to resort to a conflict such as the war of secession, which
caused so much bilteruess and sorrow in the United States
of America. The population in general represents a mix-

UO

DEMOGRAPHY 141

ture of IiidiaDS of the Guaranies family, uegroes aud
Eiiropeaus. During the last few years the European ele-
ment has increased considerably, particularly among the
Germans and Italians, the latter settling at San Paulo,
Minas and Rio de Janeiro, and the former at Rio Grande,
Santa Catalina, Parana and other places farther south. The
German immigrants and their descendants who have been
educated under Germanic methods, hoped aud expected to
see Germany triumphant in the world's greatest war, an<l
planned to secede from Brazil and form a separate state
under the dominion of the empire.

The Portuguese population held first place until 1873,
when it ceded to the Italian which now constitutes half of
the foreign population. Brazil has more than two and one-
half million foreigners out of a total of 24,000,000, or 10 per
cent of the whole. Ai-gentina, according to the census of
1914, had 2,358,000 foreigners, of whom there were 1,470,000
men and 884,000 women, or a total [topulatiou of 7,885,000,
the foreign element therefore representing 30 per cent of the
population. Buenos Aires, the capital, showed still a
larger proportion, for out of a total of 1.575,000 there were
777,000 foreigners, almost an even 50 per cent. In 191G, the
foreign element of Argentina was divided as follows:
Italians, 92l),000; Spaniards, 820,000; Russians, 93,000;
French, 79,000; Euglish, 27,000; Germans, 2G,000; Austria-
Hungarians, 38,000; Turks, 04,000; Swiss, 14,000, as per
data furuished by '*La Naciou" of Buenos Aires, January
1, 1917.

The Italians, who hold first place, are the most thorough
and efficient agriculturists, excepting the "golondrina" im-
migrants, who go to the La Pftita to engage specially in
agricultural pursuits during the farming season, returning
to Italy in April or May. Next to the Italians, the
Spaniards represent the largest number of any one nation-
ality, in fact they have been the only immigrants that South
America has had in recent years.

The Oriental Republic of Uruguay, with one and one-half

142 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

milliou inhabitants, has 250,000 foreigners, among whom the
Italians and Spaniards are in the majority. There are no
Indians in this republic as in the other countries of South
America, not excluding Argentina, which has many in the
Patagonia region and on the Chaco, the two northern and
southern extremities of the country.

In Montevideo, the majority of the inhabitants are
foreigners, but in the country the native or Creole element
is on the ascendancy. The Creoles are descendants of the
Spaniards and Italians principally, with a very small jier-
centage of Charrua blood among the gauchos. The latter
are a healthy and strong people, and as a rule superior
in intelligence to the European i^easants who come to the
La Plata, and can adapt themselves to all kinds of labor.
The disappearauce of the Indian from the Uruguayan repub-
lic is due to the fact that this region was the main battle
ground during the wars waged by the natives against the
Spaniards, Portuguese and Brazilians during the eight
years of struggle that Montevideo suffered at the hands of
the tyrant Rosas, at that time dictator of Buenos Aires,
as well as to the many civil wars which had taken place
within the republic from time to time. His passion for war,
linked with his love for freedom, were the fundameuiai
causes of his disappearance. In 1830, there yet remained
a large Indian population, numbering thousands, in the
northern part of Uruguay. They engaged in battle with the
army of Montevideo. General Rivera (Don Beruabe), who
was considered one of the most brilliant militarists of the
age, was killed. The Indians, after being defeated, scattered
throughout the whole country, finally settling among the
whites, and a new nation of vigorous and intelligent men was
born — the Gauchos.

Demographic Coefficients Comtarbd

Vegetative growth, or the difference between births and
deaths, is the essential force of young nations because it is

DEMOGRAPHY 143

the priucipal factor iu their growth. Immigratiou is an-
other contributiug factor, but this is not coutiuuous, for
there are periods, as for instance, that between the years
1914 and 1919, when this contributing factor is suspended.
The countries of South America mostly favored by nature
for the increase of the population are Argentina and
Uruguay, for reason of their exceptionally healthful
climate, their abundance of food products and their absence
of epidemic (smallpox, tj^^hus, diphtheria, malaria fever,
etc.) as the result of adequate hygienic measures. According
to data secured through the Demographic Bureau of Uru-
gxinj, founded by L. C. Bollo, the vegetative growth of the fol-
lowing countries is given on a basis of 1,000 inhabitants : Re-
public of Uruguay, 22; Argentina, 21; England, 13; Ger-
many, 12; Austria, 7; Italy, 7; Chile, 0.

Brazil was dreaded by the immigrants who were kept
away by the terrible diseases to which the country was sub-
ject. The mortality rate of Santos, Rio de Janeiro and
other ports had reached an alarming figure. Under the
American methods of hygiene of today, the yellow fever has
completely disappeared.

The Oriental Republic of Uruguay, with less than half the
population of Chile, shows a higher rate of increase. Chile
has 30 deaths to every 36 births per 1,000 inhabitants, or a
vegetative growth of (i per 1,000, while Uruguay has a growth
of 22, almost four times as much as Chile. Its birth rate is
higher than the latter and its mortality rate less than half
of its birth rate. Besides, the republic of Chile has little or
no immigration. It would be interesting to present the
demographic data of other countries, but though many may
have an established civil registry, they have no complete
demographic statistics. But it is a well-known fact that the
rest of the South American countries where the indigenes
are in the majority, pay little attention to hygiene and
the consequence is that they are decimated by typhus,
tuberculosis, small-pox, diphtheria, syphilis and other dread-
ful contagious diseases. The Republic of Uruguay has di-

144 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

rectecl the passage of a law compelling the construction of a
modern sewerage system in all towns or villages of over
10,000 population. This work of construction is under the
direction of the well-known American firm — Ulien of
Washington.

Alcoholism Factor in the Mortality Rate

Alcoholism, a world-wide evil, is, next to tuberculosis, the
biggest factor in the increase of the mortality rate. Ac-
cording to Mr. Fernet, 10 per cent of the mortality of Paris
is due to alcoholism, and according to Dr. Salterain of Mon-
tevideo, 5 per cent of the mortality of the latter city may be
attributed to the same cause, w^hich is low in comparison to
what it is in other parts of the world, as will be seen by the
figures below, which appear in Dr. Salterain's book entitled
"Sobre el Alcoholismo." The author of the said book is a
highly intellectual Uruguayan physician and one of the
leading anti-alcohol propagandists of the First Anti-alco-
holic Congress held in Montevideo in 1918.

Number of liters of pure alcohol per inhabitant con-
summed annually in the form of whiskey, beer, wine, etc.
Annual average from 1801 to 1895 inclusive:

Liters Liters

France 15.83 Roumania 9.74

Belgium 12.58 Germany 9.25

Spain 12.05 British Isles 8.17

Denmark 10 . 87 Austria-Hungary 7 . 99

Switzerland 10 . 73 Uruguay 5 . 30

Italy 10.30 Russia 5.21

Portugal 10.10 Sweden 4.43

Central Europe 10.39

It will be noticed that in Spain, Italy and Portugal,
though showing a high rate, not many drunkards are found,
due to the fact that they consume mostly wines to the
exclusion of the stronger alcoholic drinks like absinth,
whiskey, gin, cognac, etc.

According to notes by Dr. Etchepare, physician at the
hospital for the insane (Asylum of Montevideo), 21 per cent
of the mentally deranged owe their condition to alcoholism.

DEMOGRAPHY 145

We have no exact data regarding this matter on the other
countries of South America, but it is widely known that
Chile and a few other countries show a high rate of alco-
holic consumption. The mortality rate of 80 per 1,000 in-
habitants in Chile is largely due to alcoholism, while
Uruguay, which shows a small percentage of alcohol con-
sumed, has a mortality rate of less than 15 per 1,000. It is in
countries showing a constantly increasing mortality rate
where dry laws should be enacted, something that would be
almost impossible in Chile, as the biggest land-owners whose
large vineyards reijreseut a great deal of their wealth, would
consider themselves bankrupt the moment that any law
prohibited the use of wine and chicha. These same land-
owners now control and sit in Parliament to draft the
laws of the country. It is essential, in order that nations
may sweep away all obstacles which obstruct their progress,
to first eliminate from all law-making bodies, the commercial
strategists who enact laws for their own exclusive benefit
and with no thought of public health or morals. If the wel-
fare of mankind demands that no vineyards be planted be-
cause the wine and chicha therefrom are detrimental to the
health of the individual, -then why not plant apple, pear and
peach trees, which fruits have a sure market everywhere?

The wealthy land-holders of South America should not
lose sight of the fact that the condition of the working
people of the rural districts is bad, that it has to be im-
proved, and if this is not done they will be laying the founda-
tion for Bolshevism, and conditions then carried to the
other extreme causing the suppression of private property.
Experiments are being made in Chile in connection with the
preparation of raisins so that the exportation of grapes in a
dried form may be made easy, as is done in Spain. In
Uruguay and in Argentina the workers in the fields use the
infusion of "mate" leaves (ilex-paragnayensis) and no
alcohol. The workingman believes that cold water drinking
during fatigue produces discomfort and sickness at times,
and so whenever he can procure mate he will not drink

146 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT '

alcohol. This infusion is very healthful and even nutritious,
has a smaller quantity of the alkaloids found in coffee and
tea and is very economical.

The power of nations is not based on the number of its
inhabitants, but on the race which forms the kernel of its
population. One million white men are worth far more to
a nation than five or six million Indians or Creoles, the
cross between the Indian and the European. Thus, Uruguay
stands as the first among the countries of South America in
the evolution of modern ideas. It was the first to establish
the secularization of cemeteries formerly in the hands of the
Catholic church, as well as equality of civil rights among
foreigners and natives (1869) ; the first to establish laical
compulsory education (1879), compulsory registration and
civil marriages (1879), absolute divorce (1908), absolute
separation of church and state, and absolute religious
liberty (1918) embodied in the new constitutions, also pro-
portional representation and a collegiate government
wherein the functions of the Executive are divided between
the President of the Republic and an Administrative Board
of nine members. It is a form of transition between the
collegiate government of Switzerland and the presidential
system of the other republics of America.

Growth of Large Cities

No other countries in South America show as large an
increase in population as Argentina and Uruguay. The
latter country's steady and rapid growth is shown by the
following figures:

Uruguay

Yeax Population

1796 30,000

1829 74,000

1852 131,000

1860 '. 227,000

1873 450,000

1895 822,000

1919 1,500,000

DEMOGRAPHY 147

The City of Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina, shows
also a wonderful gradual increase as follows:

Buenos Aires

Year Population

1801 40,000

1822 55,000

1852 76,000

1869 117,000

1889 523,000

1919 1,600,000

Next to Buenos Aires, Montevideo shows a more rapid
growth than any other South American city, and the figures
below are self-explanatory:

Montevideo

Year Population

1803 4,700

1813 13,000

1852 33,000

1860 57,000

1884 164,000

1889 216,000

1919 450,000

Montevideo's population is approximately one-third that
of the whole country (Uruguay), while Buenos Aires has
about one-fifth of the population of Argentina. It must be
borne in mind that Montevideo is the capital and com-
mercial center of a country, the area of which is only about
200,000 square kilometers, and Buenos Aires is the capital
of a country covering 3,000,000 square kilometers.

Brazil has several important cities which show a large
increase in population during the last few years, particularly
Rio de Janeiro and San Paulo, the latter having grown from
250,000 in 1800, to more than 400,000 in 1919.

The city of Montevideo, besides having the advantageous
commercial position at the entrance of the La Plata estuary
and at the same time being on the route of steamers bound
for the Pacific via the Strait of Magellan, has a specially
attractive seashore, inasmuch as the improperly named Rio
de la Plata does not reach Montevideo, which is on a gulf
formed by the Atlantic, as its salty and clear waters indi-

148 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

cate. A large number of raisers of live-stock in Brazil, with
business interests in the state of Rio Grande, make their
home in Montevideo, and many others come from different
parts of Brazil to enjoy the many advantages which the
beaches of Montevideo afford the pleasure-seeker. Its
thoroughly modern and luxurious hotels compare with the
best in the world. The ''Casino del Parque," on the seashore,
is as sumptuous as that of Monte Carlo, and with its roulette
and other games contributes more than a million dollars
annually to the municipality, a large part being used for
charity purposes. Another very attractive Casino at a short
distance from the city on the Carrasco beach resembles that
of Ostend. This Casino, which cost |2,000,000 to construct,
compares with the best in Europe. Montevideo also enter-
tains large numbers of tourists from Buenos Aires, where
they have very warm summers. The large influx of tourists
into Montevideo during the summer season is also largely
due to the excellent accommodations offered by the comfort-
able steamers which cross the estuary of La Plata during
the night between the hours of 10 :00 p. m, and 6 :00 a. m. The
steamship lines, which have service along the Uruguay, per-
mit the inhabitants of Paraguay and those of the eastern
Argentine region, to change to Montevideo without any
difficulty or inconvenience, while at the same time the
Brazil trains bring large numbers of Brazilians who regu-
larly' spend their summers at the beaches of Montevideo, prop-
erly called the "Ostend" of Kouth America.

CHAPTER XI

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION OF THE VARIOUS
SOUTH AMERICAN STATES

Following the imlependeuce of the several South American
States which comprised Spanish America, came the dis-
ordered conditions which are a natural result in newly
formed nations born to independence without a previously
acquired political education. Consequently there were revo-
lutions after revolutions in all the different states until they
secured a definite organization. The Europeans above all,
have disdainfully looked upon these states which have lived
in almost constant strife, the Europeans failing to under-
stand the spirit of justice which has been the prime in-
stigator of the revolutionary convulsions among the South
American populace, who have revolted from time to time
against the powers which have been guilty of tyrannical
acts and which have violated the rights of the citizens, con-
trary to what their respective state constitutions prescribe.

A fraudulent election, or a violation of the rights of the
citizens, in some form or another, has nearly always served
as the spark that has kindled the revolutions. The Euro-
peans cannot understand the pride of the South Americans,
for the very simple reason that the former have been born
and reared in a servile school, a political school which trains
the individual to look upon his king or emperor, and the
powerful military government with its imposing army,
as an almost divine, superhuman entity.

The Parliaments of nearly all of the European nations
may be anything but the result of regularly conducted elec-
tions by the people in selecting the most honest, impartial
and patriotic of their citizens to serve in what should be a

U9

150 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

representative body. Instead, they are composed of the
most servile individuals whom the governing authorities can
possibly find, and who receive from the same authorities the
support of the oflScial element in order to be sure of winning
the elections. The government respects no scruples in pub-
licly recommending the official candidates.

The traveler, visiting the various European countries, can-
not but feel surprised at the almost unbelievable blind obedi-
ence of the masses, not necessarily to the laws enacted in
Parliament, but to the most trifling of police regulations and
the whims of minor authorities. Obey is tlie icatcJiword,
obey in silence and ivithoiit protest. Such was the govern-
ment of Germany, Austria and other European nations.

The unfairness of the accumulated vote, entitling each
citizen to as many as three votes, elections by cities, which
for reason of this or the other special privilege of nation-
ality can elect a certain number of deputies when some
other larger and more important city elects just one-half of
the number, and many other similar unjust regulations have
been in vogue in Austria and Germany, these regula-
tions having been tacitly tolerated by the so-called citizens.
Any of these extreme violations would have been the cause
of an anned revolution in South America.

We will not deny that many revolutions have not been
altogether justified, but it is more worthy of the man to
revolt against injustice even though the faults of govern-
ments be exaggerated, than to maintain an attitude of abject
servility which is characteristic of the European, tvith hut
a feio exceptions.

When Carlos V assumed the control of Spain in 1519, he
destroyed the power of the Cabildos, representative bodies
of national sovereignty, and when subsequent Indian legisla-
tion reduced the powers of these institutions to a complete
nullity by surrendering everything to the absolute and arbi-
trary system of the king's central government, Spanish lib-
erty ceased to exist, as did the party of the Comuneros of
Castilla under Don Juan de Padilla and his followers, who

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION 151

fought so nobly in defense of independence and freedom, and
against the imijerial and germanic system of him who dis-
played the double diadem of King of Spain and Emperor of
Germany.

It is true that on certain important occasions, the Open
Cabildos of America were the people's tribunals, but these
assemblies, where each and every citizen had the privilege
of being heard, met in session but few times.

It may be said that since the revolution of the party of
the Comuneros of Castilla, Carlos V, Felipe II and the
other kings governed South American possessions through
their viceroy just as they pleased, excepting a few times when
the people of the American colonies rose up in protest and
succeeded in securing an audience.

And so Spanish America was under an arbitrary form of
government inspired by what personally suited the king and
his delegates, as it is a well established fact that the South
American colonies did not belong to Spain but were the
exclusive property of the king. We read in the book entitled
"Memorias Sobre la Influeucia Social de la Conquista
Colonial de ios Espaiioles en Chile" (Treatise on the Influ-
ence of Spanish Colonial Conquest on Chilean Society), by
the eminent Chilean writer Lastarria, the following: "The
Cabildos of the Chilean part of the population had no other
sphere of action than the jurisdiction intrusted to the Town
Mayors and the police powers conferred upon the councilmeu
in such cases as the law prescribed, or on the will of the
official governing the colony in the name and as representa-
tive of the monarch. This institution was therefore of no
benefit to the people; on the contrary, it favored and was
devoted to the throne on which its existence depended.
It was in fact, though of secondary importance, an instru-
ment of the will of the king and his individual interests.
We can therefore establish beyond a doubt the fact that the
despotic monarchy in all its deformity and with all its vices
tvas the political form of government from lohich our society
sprang and developed, for such was its constitution and its

152 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

mode of being during all of the colonial era. This political
form of government spread its corrupting influence in our
society all the more energetically for the reason that to this
system alone was reserved the right to create, inspire and
direct our habits, and further, that it was supported by the
religious power with which it formed a confederacy on which
was founded the theoretic omnipotent despotism that con-
quers all."

The Cabildo of Buenos Aires consisted of twelve members,
four of whom were life appointees, and the balance for a
certain specified number of years. In smaller cities the
Cabildos had from six to twelve members according to their
importance, besides exercising duties in the administration
of justice, such as Mayor Ordinary, Judge of Festivals,
Police Judge, Prosecutor, Defender of the Poor, etc.

Another factor which robbed this assembly of the emi-
nently popular characteristic that the municipal spirit of
the institution required, was the presence of the Governor,
who was its President Inherent, and though he had no voice
in the proceedings, he had the right to vote in case of a tie.
Therefore, the influence that the presence of a magistrate
invested with such authority had on the members of the
Cabildo, can well be imagined. Notwithstanding this, the
Cabildos gave legal recognition to the struggle for inde-
pendence right at its incipiency, as they assumed the repre-
sentation of the people in the absence of the legal authority,
on the imprisonment of the sovereign.

"This deficiency in the guarantees offered by the Spanish
government, will be the cause for the first disturbance within
the patriotic government, the proceedings of which are a re-
production of the Colonial government; the same tyranny
over the masses by the small oligarchy in control of the
government; the same lack of respect for public opinion,
which is not in any way consulted in public matters; the
same dictatorial and despotic manner in dealing with the
various sections of the country, which compose the nation."

When the divers divisions of what once constituted the

POLITICAL OKGANIZATION 153

great domain belonging to the King of Spain, secured their
independence, the newly constituted governments followed
the same despotic methods of government. Buenos Aires
established since 1810, a government under the direction of a
society of influential individuals, who, though cultured, did
not understand the rudimentary principles of a free govern-
ment. This society was known as "Logia Lautaro," a secret
order founded by Miranda, which continued to rule despite
the fact that it did so in violation of the law, inasmuch as
public matters should not be carried on secretly.

This group of well-intentioned but politically unfit citizens
were the rightful heirs of Spanish political incompetence
based on despotism. All the civil wars which have taken
place can be attributed to the ineflSciency in governmental
afifairs, inherited from the mother country.

Yet practice and experience have enabled the South
American countries to become exemplary governments, many
of which could serve as models of progressivism for some of
the governments of Europe, specially as some of the latter
are just beginning their apprenticeship in the matter of
government organization deserving of popular approbation.
In this connection we ask : "How many lustrums will elapse
before they become thoroughly republican forms of govern-
ment?" Not long, let us hope, for the people have awakened
and buried the crowns deep in the ground.

Following their independence, the three northern repub-
lics— Venezuela, Nueva Granada and Ecuador — formed a
confederacy under the name of Colombia, selecting as their
first President, the Liberator Bolivar. This confederacy
was short-lived, as Bolivar's resignation brought about its
dissolution and the organization of three separate and in-
dependent states was effected, as follows: Venezuela, a fed-
eral republic; Colombia, a unitarian republic, formerly
federal ; Ecuador, a unitarian republic.

Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Uruguay and Paraguay are unitarian
republics. Argentina and Brazil, the two most important
countries of South America, have adopted a federal form

154 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

of government with a constitution patterned after that of
the United States of America.

As to the relations between Church and State, all these re-
publics exercise religious liberty, but in Argentina, in Chile,
and in the other Spanish-speaking countries, the Church
has maintained its influence to the extent that it has pre-
vented the enactment of laws granting divorce, with excep-
tion of Uruguay, which has the most progressive legislation
of all the countries of South America. Both Uruguay and
Brazil have separated the State from the Church.

Primary education is compulsory in all the different
South American states, and the university training in some
of them competes with leading European countries and with
the United States of America. The primary schools of Uru-
guay and Argentina show a superior rating over those of
France, Italy and Spain. Other places show a large per-
centage of illiteracy, particularly where the indigenes are in
the majority.

All the mediums that modern civilization has to offer for
the general advancement of the individual — primary and
technical institutions of learning, scientific societies, up-to-
the-minute illustrated magazines and dailies, fashion estab-
ments, municipal water plants, heating plants, sewerage
systems, comfortable public conveyances, luxurious theatres,
electric lighting systems, magnificent hotels, etc., etc. — are to
be found in all large cities and important commercial
centers of South America.

The large operatic companies of Milan, Italy, visit Buenos
Aires and Montevideo every winter, remaining during the
months of May, June, Julj^ and August. Dramatic, light-
opera and vaudeville companies frequently visit Buenos
Aires, Montevideo, Rio Janeiro, Santiago and other large
cities.

The modistes and tailors offer the very latest Parisian
creations, and as to general innovations, many new inven-
tions are introduced in South America before they become
known in Europe, for in order to avoid European competi-

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION 155

tion, the merchants turn to South America with all the
novelties that the mind of the inventor can conceive.

There is no restriction to the admission of men of all
nationalities and the use of passports is unknown. Every-
body enters and leaves the ports without permission of any
kind, provided the individual is not a notorious vagrant or
criminal. It is not supposed that the color of the skin im-
parts either intellectual or moral superiority, neither is it
feared that the labor of the foreigner will in any way hurt
that of the native, as is the belief of the North Americans,
Australians and South Africans, who bar the Japanese and
the Chinese. Intellectual superiority belongs to him who
studies and toils the hardest.

The member of the small negro population that remains
in the La Plata, is not only mentally and morally the equal
of the average European immigrant, but is far more in-
telligent than the immigrants who come from certain parts
of Russia, the Balkans and other backward countries of the
Old World. Some of these poor unfortunates are not only
ignorant but almost barbarians, while a large number of the
Negroes have been brought uji in the homes of cultured
people who have given them a thorough education. Nearly
all the Negroes of this region can read and write and are
unusually refined of manner.

The South Americans have not committed the error that
the North Americans did in building a Chinese wall between
white and black, in the way of barriers in hotels, barber-
shops, etc., and even on railroads where they arrange to
have separate ticket-oflSces for the colored people.

Had the blacks intermarried with the whites it would have
taken only a few generations of mulattos with each new
generation lighter-complexioned than the preceding one, for
the black coloring to have disappeared as it has in the La
Plata, and as it is gradually disappearing in Brazil, the
Negro being only a small fraction of the total white popula-
tion. If the barrier continues, in time there will be 15, 20,
30, 40 million and more men who will have consummate

156 SOUTH AMEEICA PAST AND PRESENT

hatred for the rest of their countrymen of another race, and
this causes the weakness of nations.

Political Heritage of Spain

It is in order to explain the idea that the Spaniards had
as to the functions of the State and the rights and duties of
the citizens, so that the reader may form an opinion and have
a clear understanding as to many of the historical events
which have taken place in the countries of South America.
We have been specially favored by the opportunity afforded
us to read about the events as described in the history of
Spain, whether it refers to Spain as the mother country in
its internal development, or in its relations with its col-
onies in America, written by English and American writers
of note, such as Hume, Prescott, Robertson, etc., who in our
opinion appear more impartial than the Spanish historians
who, imbued with erroneous ideas as to what patriotism
should be, are not sufficiently independent themselves to
speak authoritatively.

There has recently appeared a very interesting book by the
eminent Professor William R. Shepherd of Columbia Uni-
versity, in the city of New York, which book has been trans-
lated into Spanish by the distinguished VenezAielan pub-
licist Don R. Blanco Fombona. The reader, who is desirous
of a more thorough knowledge of the political history of
South America, should read this instructive volume entitled
'*La America Latiua" (Latin America). Professor Shep-
herd treats of Spanish psychology as a competent authority
only can, for besides being thoroughly conversant with
world history, he has lived in Spain and visited some of the
South American countries.

With reference to government. Professor Shepherd says:
"To the Spaniard, for example, his village, town or province
was his country. What lay beyond local bounds was some-
thing to be regulated by officials in whose appointment, pre-
sumably, he had no choice. An absolute monarchy and an
absolute church, that would safeguard the individual

POLITICAL OKGANIZATION 157

against a foreign foe, and alien faith, were all that could be
desired in larger concerns. Accordingly, whether he lived
in his native land or in a distant colony, he felt more or less
content, so long as his local privileges were undisturbed.
The spirit of individualism was strong, but its manifestation
worked within narrow lines. On this foundation Spain,
and to a great extent Portugal, based their respective
systems of colonial administration.

"On the other hand, following equally the Roman prin-
ciple of 'divide and rule,' powers, duties and privileges were
rather vaguely defined, with the result that officials, classes
and .individuals were set off deftly against one another."

"No colonial authority was permitted to grow too strong,
and no colonial counterpoise to become too weak to serve
the interests of the mother country. Every person, what-
ever his rank or station, and every governing body enjoyed
the privilege of communicating directly with the govern-
ment in Spain, and the exercise of the privilege was con-
stantly encouraged. By this means temptation to arbitrary
conduct could be restrained, no less than expressions of dis-
satisfaction checked or mollified which otherwise might
bring on a revolt. Where abuses existed, they were apt to
take the form of pecuniary corruption, rather than of willful
misrule."

Regarding the church Shepherd says: "No monarch of
the time was deemed to be so Catholic as his Majesty of
Spain, and none enjoyed in his dominions oversea so great
an amount of ecclesiastical power. By various papal
grants, within twenty years after the discovery of America,
the Spanish crown was given substantially complete juris-
diction there over the organization and activities of the
church. In exercise of the 'royal patronage' (real patro-
nato), it controlled appointments to benefices and other
holdings, regulated the conduct of the clergy, and disposed
of ecclesiastical property and revenues."

"The Church, in fact, was the greatest instrument of
authority which the crown possessed in the colonies. Just

158 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

as it had perpetuated in Europe the traditions of Rome, so
in the New World it perpetuated those of Spain. Rather
than secular agencies of any sort, it was the clergy who ad-
justed the relationship between the whites and the Indians,
who inculcated loyalty to the Spanish throne and contributed
in general to the maintenance and extension of Spanish rule.

"In order to prosecute the work of the Church more effec-
tually, the Inquisition was set up, in 1569. Thereafter con-
fining its attention exclusively to the European element in
the population, that dread tribunal punished heretical
Spaniards and foreigners, like sailors, smugglers and
pirates, who might have the misfortune to fall into its
clutches. But, except for its censorship of thought, the ac-
tivities of the Inquisition in America were much less per-
nicious than has been commonly supposed.

"So great were the wealth and influence of the Church that
it became customary to estimate the importance of a given
locality by the number of its ecclesiastical buildings."

wp=m

^Pl

J

8anta Fe (50,000), a very old city on the Parana; Bahia

159

c

CHAPTER XII
CITIES OF SOUTH AMERICA

The most important city of South America is Buenos Aires
on the banks of the La Plata river. It has a population of
more than 1,640,000, and next to Paris it is the largest Latin
city in the world. More than half of its population is of
foreign extraction, the largest percentage of which are
Italians and Spaniards. Therefore, it is Latin because of its
language, its Spanish origin and the majority of its in-
habitants. It possesses all the qualities of a big capital
city — magnificent palaces, university, museums, excellent
hotels, beautiful boulevards, and an unusually active and
extensive business district for the reason that it is one of
the most important of the world's ports. It is the federal
capital of Argentina.

Its skyscrapers are built on the American plan. Its
tower of Giiemes, with its attractive restaurant at 270 feet
from the ground, is one of its main structures and one which
no doubt would attract favorable comment if duplicated in
New York City, The congestion of traffic in the business
streets has compelled the construction of a subway.

Rosario is the second city of importance in Argentina, It
has more than 200,000 inhabitants, and as a port it is also
second in importance to Buenos Aires.

Other important cities are: La Plata (120,000), near
Buenos Aires; Cordoia (100,000), a very old city, which has
the oldest university of the La Plata; Tucumdn (80,000),
in the center of the republic in a sugar producing region;
Mendoza (50,000), often called the "California of Argen-
tina" on account of its large production of fruits and wines;
8anta Fe (50,000), a very old city on the Parand; Bahia

159

160 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

Blanca (40,000), a seaport of great importance in southern
Argentina.

In Uruguay, at the mouth of the La Plata river and at a
distance of 120 miles from Buenos Aires, is situated the City
of Montevideo (450,000), capital of the republic, noted for
its beautiful beaches, mild climate, splendid hotels with
special bathing accommodations, wonderful parks, its model
university, and thoroughly up-to-date private schools and
colleges. It is a port of exceptional importance, not only
commercially, but due to its geographical position, it is also
attractive from a residential standpoint, at the same time
combining as it does extraordinary educational advantages.

Other important cities in Uruguay are: Salto and Pais-
andu, two important ports also on the river Uruguay, with
a population of more than 30,000 each; Mercedes, on the
river Negro, with 25,000 population.

The second largest city in South America is Rio de
Janeiro with a population of 1,000,000. Its enviable loca-
tion, on a magnificent gulf surrounded by high mountains,
entitles it to first place among the panoramic cities of the
world. It is a highly cultured city and its importance as
one of the leading centers in the world of commerce, par-
ticularly in the exportation of cofifee, is well known.

The city of Bahia, or Sao Salvador (300,000), is one of
Brazil's principal ports, and so is the port of Recife, or
Pernambuco (250,000), through which large quantities of
cofifee and sugar are exported; Belen, or Para (170,000),
large city in northern Brazil, is another port of commercial
importance.

All these cities have been at one time or another infested
with yellow fever, but it has been eradicated, thanks to the
efforts of the health authorities.

The Paulistas, or first Portuguese settlers of Brazil, estab-
lished themselves in the state known as San Paulo, where
their intermarriage with the Indians produced an ener-
getic and venturesome race — the Mamelucos of San Paulo —
who undertook the conquest of lands in the interior, in

CITIES OF SOUTH AMERICA IGl

search of Indians whom they could enslave. They later at-
tacked the La Guayra Missions on the boundary line of
Paraguay, penetrating along the eastern side of Uruguay,
this time in search of live-stock. The Mamelucos were the
highwaymen of the colonial times and the dreaded foes of
the Spaniards, who were their direct opposite. The region
of San Paulo has furnished to Brazil this country's organiza-
tion, the largest number of men of note. The city of San
Paulo is the second city of importance in Brazil, with a popu-
lation of 400,000. It has one of the world's famous uni-
versities situated away from the coast, with Santos, the
world's largest coffee exporter, as the most convenient port.

Santiago (350,000), the capital of Chile, stands on the
bank of a small river. It is a famous center of culture, and
has among its institutions of learning a world-known uni-
versity and excellent preparatory schools. Valparaiso,
with a population of 170,000, is the port for Santiago, and
the most important on the Pacific coast of South America.

Other important cities in Chile: Iquique (40,000), a port
of importance in northern Chile; Coquimho, noted for its
rich copper mines; Goncepcion, Talcahuano, Valdivia and
Puerto Mont.

La Paz (94,000), the capital of Bolivia, is at 3,100 meters
elevation. Potosi (200,000), at 4,000 meters above sea-level,
is remarkable for its silver mines. Sucre, Chuquisaca or La
Plata, formerly the capital, is a city of great historical
interest.

Lima (150,000), the capital of Peru, is only 10 kilometers
from the port of Callao (48,000), and is also an interesting
historical center, having been the capital of the Viceroyship
of Peru. Other important Peruvian cities are: Ciizco
(30,000) and Arequipa.

Quito (50,000), the capital of Ecuador, stands on a high
plateau in the central part of the republic. It is surrounded
by high volcanic mountains, one of which is Mt. Cotopaxi.
Ouayaquil (51,000), on the gulf of the same name, is the
leading seaport,

162 SOUTH AMEKICA PAST AND PRESENT

Bogota (125,000), the capital of Colombia, is 2,650 meters
above the level of the sea. Barranquilla (50,000), on the
river Magdalena, is the second in importance and the leading
port of Colombia. Medellin and Cartagena are also im-
portant cities of the republic.

Caracas (75,000), capital of Venezuela, the home of the
Liberator Bolivar, is just a few kilometers distance from the
coast and from the port of La Guayra (25,000), the prin-
cipal port of Venezuela. Valencia and Maracaibo are two
leading commercial centers, and Ciudad Bolivar.

163

MAPA de: las grandes vias

:l Plata al Amaionas

#

CHAPTER XIII

TRANSPORTATION RAIL AND WATER ROUTES OF
SOUTH AMERICA

SUMMARY

Similar Configuration of Both Americas — The Large Navigable Rivers in the Interior
of the Continent — Principal Railroad Lines — The Future Great Commercial Route of
South America Across the Center of the Continent — Comparisons of Railroad Lines of
the CountrieB of South America — The North American Railroads.

Similar Configuration of Both Americas
(See Coiitinental Relief Map)

Both North America and South America are alike in
shape, both being triangular with the widest angle on the
side of the Atlantic (Labrador in North America and ex-
treme eastern Brazil in South America), and the longest
side, formed by the Rocky Mountain Range and the Andean
Mountain Range respectively. It will also be noticed that
the eastern range of mountains of the coast of Brazil corre-
sponds to the Allegheny mountains of North America, and
the Andes and the Rocky mountains correspond not only to
the general formation but even as to sub-divisions as for
instance: the Sierra Nevada corresponds to the Cordillera
Occidental of the Andean mountain system, while the Cordil-
lera Real, or Oriental of Peru and Bolivia, corresponds to
the main range of the Rocky mountain system.

The desert plateaus of the Salt Lake region correspond to
those in Bolivia in the region of Lake Titicaca. The great
river Parand and its tributary the Paraguay, conform to the
Mississippi and the Missouri rivers of the United States of
America, and like the latter, run from north to south through
both warm and temperate climes, but with the position of
the climatic belts reversed. In South America, the lands
in the northern part have a tropical and semi-tropical

163

164 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

climate, while the corresponding latitude north of the
equator embraces the southern portion of North America.

The Parang forms a delta at its mouth, but much larger
than that formed by the Mississippi. Conditions of naviga-
tion in the Parana and the Paraguay are superior to those
of the Mississippi, particularly the Paraguay, which with-
out any special arrangement or contrivance, is navigable
throughout its course.

The Mississippi-Missouri stream is 7,200 kilometers long.
The Parand itself measures 4,500 kilometers in length. The
volume of water which the La Plata river (that of the
joint streams of the Parand and Paraguay) empties into the
ocean is 42,000 cubic meters per second of time (debit) in
comparison to 17,000 cubic meters of the Mississippi stream,
or two and one-half times as large. The Amazon shows still
a larger volume — 80,000 to 120,000 cubic meters per second
of time.

The region of British Columbia and California on the
Pacific coast of North America is represented in South
America by the region in southern Chile with its many
archipelagos covered with immense virgin forests where
gigantic trees for building material may be found. Cali-
fornia's vineyards are duplicated in the Valle Central
(Central Valley), often referred to as the "Chilean Cali-
fornia."

Dr. Berg, naturalist and former Director of the Buenos
Aires and Montevideo Museums, following his return from
a trip of exploration which he made to the island of Chiloe
and others of southern Chile, stated that the forests of Chile
surpassed in grandeur those of Norway and Sweden, where
he had visited several times. The extreme southern part of
Chilean Patagonia has equally as heavy rainfall as the
region of British Columbia, and its fishing season corre-
sponds to that of Alaska.

The warm coast line of Peru, Ecuador and Colombia is a
rei)roduction of that of western Mexico with its occasional
affliction of yellow fever germs.

RAIL AND WATER ROUTES 165

The continent of South America has 25,000 kilometers of
coast-line divided thus: Atlantic Ocean — 16,000; Pacific
Ocean — 9,000, the Atlantic taking in two sides of the tri-
angle. It has not the solidity of either Asia or Africa over
which it has the advantage, like North America, of its large
navigable rivers through the interior of the continent. As
to the proportional ratio between length of coast-line and
continental surface, it occupies third place as follows:
Europe — 1 kilometer of coast-line to 289 square kilometers
of surface ; North America — 1 to 207 ; South America — 1 to
720; Asia— 1 to 763; Africa— 1 to 1,420.

Laege Rivers of South America

The interior of South America is drained by the Parand,
the Paraguay and the Amazon, which has tributaries 3,000
kilometers long, among them the Madeira, a large navigable
stream. Many of these streams are navigable for long
distances as will be noticed on the map "Means of Communi-
cation" appearing in this book, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru,
Ecuador and Colombia have communication with the At-
lantic Ocean through the Amazon.

Principal Railroad Lines

There are two interoceanic railroads: Buenos Aires to
Valparaiso, 1,200 kilometers long, and another one from
Bahia Blanca to Zapala at the foot of the Andes, to be ex-
tended to the Pacific at Valdivia.

The railroad line which connects Montevideo and Rio de
Janeiro, a distance of 3,100 kilometers, runs along the east-
ern coast of Brazil, and is to be extended to Bahia and
Pernambuco, where it will connect with Atlantic steamers,
thus shortening the time of travel from Europe to the La
Plata. On crossing the Atlantic to Dakar on the west
coast of Africa, a distance of 1,200 miles, it will in time be
possible to make connection with the railroad projected

166 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

across the Desert of Sahara to the Strait of Gibraltar and
across to Spain.

A new line has been recently completed across Brazil from
Corumb^, a port on the Paraguay, eastwardly to Rio de
Janeiro (2,200 kms.), via San Paulo and Santos. Thus,
the distance of fifteen days from Corumbd via the Parana
and the La Plata to the Atlantic, has been reduced to five
days. From Corumbd this line will cross the Chaco river
to Cochabamba in Bolivia, which has connections with
Pacific ports. This will be the most important interoceanic
railroad line in the continent.

Chile has a longitudinal railroad extending from Port
Mont in the southern part, via Iquique to Tacna, covering a
distance of 3,541 kilometers, according to the map by Don
Juan de Santa Cruz, cartographer. Ministry of Railways
of Chile.

The Central Argentino railroad extends from the port of
Rosario on the Paran<^ to the Argentine-Bolivian frontier
to Cordoba, Tucuman, Salta and Jujuy, as far as Quiaca,
which is 3,000 meters above sea-level. It will be constructed
across the Bolivian plateau to Tupiza and Uyuni (200 kms.),
over the line that goes to La Paz, the capital of Bolivia, and
which starts from the port of Antofagasta in Chile. Were
we to follow the meridian, the distance would be 12 degrees
with Rosario, 34° south latitude and Quiaca in latitude
22° south, a distance equal to 1,200 kms., but as the por-
tion that lies between Rosario and C6rdoba runs east and
west for a distance of 400 kms. or 4 degrees, and it has
numerous curves, its entire length is more than 3,000 kilo-
meters. (See map "Means of Communication.") From
Uyuni the line extends to Lake Titicaca at Guaqui, where
connection with steamers is made, crossing the lake (4,000
m. elevation) to Puno on the opposite side, the starting
point of the railroad to Cuzco, the famous city of the Incas.
There is no railroad connection from Cuzco to Huancayo,
the terminal point of the line from the port of Callao, only
650 kilometers. In fact there are only 850 kilometers that

RAIL AND WATER ROUTES 167

lack railroad communication from Buenos Aires on the
Atlantic to Callao on the Pacific, and to Lima, the capital
of Peru.

The railroads of Bolivia connect with three Pacific ports
— Antofagasta, Arica and Mollendo. The Antofagasta line
crosses the Andes at a height of 4,788 meters at the station
called Puuto Alto. The Bolivian Central railroad, which
runs across the plateau as far as Lake Titicaca, has branches
to Potosi, La Paz and Cochabamba and a short branch is to
be constructed to extend to port Chimore over the Mamore, a
very important navigable stream connecting with the
Madeira, a tributary of the Amazon.

The cataracts of the Madeira (Saltos Girau) impede the
navigation of this large stream and so it became necessary
to construct the railroad from Guajaramirin to Porto Velho
(200 kms.). The government of Brazil constructed this line
as compensation for the territory of Acre, which Bolivia
ceded to Brazil, and which is valuable for its plentiful
rubber production.

Bolivia plans the construction of another railroad line
from Riberalta, a port on the Beni river, which is navigable
from Port Pando near the city of La Paz, to the upper
terminus of the railroad to the Madeira, at a point on the
Beni river where navigation is obstructed. Bolivia has
better prospects in securing an outlet for its vegetable
products through the La Plata where freight rates are lower,
besides having the opportunity to dispose of a large portion
of the products which differ from those of the La Plata
region. Many of its minerals would also find there a ready
market, but the bulk of minerals should be exported to
Europe and North America. Port Suarez, Bolivia, on the
affluent Paraguay river, is situated opposite the Brazilian
port of Corumb^, which has direct regular steamer communi-
cation with Montevideo and Buenos Aires, and a few steamers
have occasional service from Port Suarez to La Plata ports.

A railroad is planned to connect Port Suarez with Cocha-
bamba in central Bolivia, in connection with the railroad

168 SOUTH AMEKICA PAST AND PRESENT

running through the plateau, thus establishing rapid com-
munication with the La Plata region.

Peru has, besides the railroad from Mollendo to Arequipa,
Puno and Cuzco, another one from Callao, its most important
port, to Lima, Oroya and Pasco, the last two situated in the
most productive mineral region of Peru.

This is the highest railroad in the world, its highest point
being Galera, near Oroya, 4,814 meters elevation (approx.
16,000 ft. ; the highest peak in Europe is Mt. Blanco at 4,810
m. elev.), and, in the short distance traversed, it runs
through three climatic belts — hot on the coast, temperate on
the plateau, and very cold on the lofty summits over 4,000
meters above sea-level. The line of perpetual snow in this
region is at 5,500 meters in the Cordillera Occidental and at
a lower altitude on the Oriental. On the Alps, the line of
perpetual snow in Switzerland is at 2,800 meters, reason
for the Jungfrau railroad operating at Interlaken only
during the summer, the last station being at 3,100 meters
elevation.

In order to complete the Pan-American railroad it will
be necessary to construct the lines north of Pasco in latitude
10° south, to Guayaquil, which has railroad connection with
Quito just below the equator, thence to Panama in latitude
9° north across Colombia, a total distance of 19 degrees or
1,900 kms. in a straight line. In all, there are more than
3,000 kilometers over which to construct a railroad that
will extend from Panama to the city of Buenos Aires. La
Paz, the capital of Bolivia, would be the central point of the
Pan-South American railroad, the distance from La Paz to
other important centers, in kilometers being: Lima, 1,800;
Rio Janeiro via Port Suarez, 3,000; Asuncion, capital of
Paraguay, along the Pilcomayo, 1,800 ; Montevideo via Salto
and Asuncion, 3,300; Buenos Aires via the Quiaca and
Central Argentina railroad, 2,640; Santiago, Chile, 2,600.

The construction of the Pan-American South American
railroad will not prove as diflScult a task as the railroad
which is being built by the English through Africa, and

RAIL AND WATER ROUTES 169

which will connect Cairo with the Cape of Good Hope at the
southernmost extremity of the African continent. This
railroad would have no doubt been completed by this time
had not the world-war interrupted its construction.

The distance to be covered across continental Africa from
Cairo to the Cape is 10,000 kms., with the following connect-
ing lines: Cape Town to Elisabethville near Lake Tanganyika
(5,000 kms.), already built; Elisabethville to Lake Tangan-
yika (500 kms.), under project; Lake Tanganyika to Lake
Albert (700 kms.), under project (distance across Lake
Tanganyika 750 kms.) ; Khartum to Cairo (2,000 kms.),
already built; Khartum to Lake Albert (1,800 kms.), under
project. Total 10,000 kms. ; 3,000 kms. of this distance are
yet without a railroad necessary to connect both the north-
ern and southern extremes of Africa, with steamer connec-
tion to cross Lake Tanganyika (750), as is done in making
the connection at Lake Titicaca (275).

We trust that the capital of enterprising Yankees will be
a contributing factor in the completion of what both
Americas have so long desired — the Pan-American Railroad
— by ' building it over the remaining 3,000 kilometers in
South American territory and joining it to the lines which
connect New York with Mexico and ultimately with the
countries of Central America.

The Future Great Commercial Route op South America

From the La Plata to Panamd route — the Parand, the Paraguay, the Tapajos, the
Amazon, the Rio Negro to Panam^.

The Pan-American railroad, which is planned to cross the
Andean region and into the Argentine republic, is badly
needed in order to facilitate the commercial relations be-
tween the countries of the Andes, as well as to more closely
bind their ties of friendship, but it will not be the best com-
mercial route for the interchange of business relations be-
tween the region of La Plata and that of the Amazon and
the United States of America.

The railroad from Buenos Aires to Lake Titicaca can

170 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

not possibly compete in the matter of freight rates with the
river transportation of the ParanA and the Paraguay to
Port Suarez and CorumM in latitude 19° south, and to
Cuyaba in Brazil, latitude 16° south, directly east of Lake
Titicaca, which is the route used by the Lloyd Brasiliero
Steamship Line. From Cuyaba, northwardly, the river of
the same name can be navigated as far as the land that
separates it from the source of the Arinos, a tributary of the
Tapajos which finds its way into the Amazon. It is at this
point, between the source of the Cuyabd and the Arinos, that
the canal uniting the La Plata and the Amazon should be
built, and which, according to Captain Bossi, who explored
the region, will not be a diflQcult task to accomplish. The
Tapajos river is obstructed for navigation by cataracts (see
corresponding map), which can be avoided by building a
lateral canal, finally connecting with the Amazon westwardly
to Rio Negro to the frontiers of Colombia and Venezuela,
from which place a railroad could be constructed across
Colombia towards Bogota and Panamd as the terminal
points. Not more than 1,200 kilometers of railroad would
have to be built across the republic of Colombia, which to-
gether with two canals on the Tapajos river would establish
an economical commercial route from the La Plata to the
Panama Canal. The reader will observe by the map that
the route Parand-Tapajos follows the Greenwich meridian
of longitude 58° west, starting from latitude 34° south, to
very near the equator, or a distance of a little over 3,G00
kilometers north and south. Therefore, the distance of G,000
kilometers from Buenos Aires to Panama is divided as
follows :

Buenos Aires to the Amazon 3,600

Point of entry, Amazon to Rio Negro 1,200

Raih-oad, Rio Negro to Panama 1,200

It is our opinion that this enterprise would receive the ap-
probation of Argentina, Colombia and Brazil. There is at
present a steamship line connecting Paisandu, Buenos
Aires and Montevideo with Manaos on the Amazon at the

RAIL AND WATER ROUTES 171

mouth of Rio Negro by a roundabout way via the Atlantic
and the Amazon, which is equal to about double the dis-
tance.

It will be noticed that this proposed great, commercial
route of South America (marked in blue on the map),
crosses lands in both the torrid and temperate zones, which
are not accessible by the routes now available. The La
Plata would ship wheat, flour, meat and other products and
would in turn receive lumber of all kinds, mate, tobacco,
tapioca, rubber, etc. In comparing this route with that of
the interior of Africa, which the English are about to com-
plete, we find that the latter passes through less fertile soil,
not as rich in either animal or vegetable life, besides, the
former is only half as long and its construction will be far
more economical. The length of the African route is 10,000
kms. ; the South American, 6,000 kms.

The distance over desert land, where the railroad of the
central African route is yet to be constructed, is 3,000 kilo-
meters, while there are only 1,200 kilometers of desert land
and sparsely settled district over which the railroad through
Colombia would have to be built.

It will be noticed that 4,800 kms. of the G,000 of the great
South American route, are through large streams where no
locks are needed, only a few small canals.

The central railroad of Colombia will cross the Guaviare
and Meta, navigable tributaries of the Orinoco, thereby
establishing communication with the Atlantic, Before the
Panama Canal was constructed, there was a plan to build
a canal connecting the Rio Negro and the Orinoco, a difficult
and expensive undertaking according to explorations made
by Michelena under instructions by the Venezuelan govern-
ment. From now on, the Panama route will be the logical
route for the western coasts of both Americas, for the com-
mercial intercourse between Australia and Europe and for
the principal north Atlantic ports dealing with the Pacific.
Considering this fact, the direction of the Central Colom-
bian© railroad might be changed to start from the ports of

172 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

Tabatinga or Iquitos, should it prove more economical or
convenient to operate.

SOUTH AMERICAN RAILROADS
Yeah 1919

Area Length of Per Each

Square Railroads — 100 Square

Kilometers Kilometers Kilometers

Brazil 8,550,000 23,000 270meter3

Argentine 2,950,000 33,000 1,120

Peru 1,769,000 2,780 150

Bolivia 1,470,000 1,800 120

Colombia 1,300,000 1,000 77

Venezuela 1,020,000 925 89

Chile 757,000 8,200 1,083

Ecuador 307,000 561 180

Paraguay 253,000 250 90

Uruguay 187,000 2,600 1,400

NORTH AMERICAN RAILROADS
Year 1919

• United States 9,386,000 410,000 4,300

Canada (Dominion of) 9,659,000 44,000 450

Mejdco 1,987,000 25,000 1,200

The railroad mileage of the leading South American coun-
tries, including the United States of America for purposes
of comparison, is as follows, in consecutive order of greatest
mileage: United States, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, etc., but
taking in consideration the area of each country and the
proportion of kilometers of railroad to square kilometers of
surface, they rank as follows: United States, Republica
Oriental del Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Brazil, etc.

The railroads of South America are private property, as
in the United States, England and Canada, and not govern-
ment property, as in the case in Germany, where the govern-
ment owns 90 per cent of the stock, in Austria 82 per cent,
in Russia 77 per cent, in Italy 73 per cent, and in France 17
per cent.

CHAPTER XIV

THE MEAT -PRODUCING REGION OF SOUTH
AMERICA— THE LA PLATA VALLEY

SUMMARY

Live Stock Inventory — Live Stock Killed in Uruguay and Argentina — Wool Production
of the La Plata.

The La Plata Valley comprises the republics of Argentina,
Uruguay and Paraguay, the Brazilian provinces of the
Matto Grosso region (which is crossed by the Paraguay, a
tributary of the Panama which, together with the Uruguay,
forms the great estuary of the improperly named "Rio de la
Plata"), and the province of Rio Grande del Sur, drained by
the Uruguay and its tributaries.

Inventory of Liue Stock, Including Cattle and Sheep in Argentina, Urugvay,
Paraguay and Brazil, in 1919

Number Number Head of Head of

per Sq. Kilo- per Sq. Kilo- Cattle Sheep

Cattle meter Sheep meter per Inhab. per Inhab.

Uruguay 8,000,000 48 20,000,000 112 5.3 13

Argentina 31,000,000 11 81,000,000 27 3.8 10

Brazil 30,000,000 4 1.2

Paraguay 5,000,000 20 500,000 2 5. 2

The foregoing figures plainly show that the republics of
Uruguay' and Argentina are the two leading live-stock coun-
tries of South America, in the production of both cattle and
sheep. The live stocli of Paraguay and Brazil is not as
heavy in weight, and the meat is not as high a grade as that
of the other two, and consequently sells at a lower price.
This is due principally to the fact that the live stock of the
La Plata consists almost exclusively of the Durham and
Hereford breeds of English stock. These breeds can not be
successfully raised in Brazilian and Paraguayan territory
on account of the excessively warm climate, the many differ-
ent varieties of insects that infest certain districts, and the
small nutritive value of its grasses, causing these breeds to

173

174 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

gradually depreciate, and very often starve. Brazil has
successfully tried the acclimation of the zebu of India, but
its meat is somewhat tough and not as palatable as that of
the native breeds, which, though not to be compared with the
stock imported from England, is fairly satisfactory. The
meat value of the native cattle is only about half of that of
the English breeds introduced, besides not attaining full
growth until the sixth or eighth year, while the English
cattle have a high grade market value at three or four years
of age. .

The belt of the La Plata region, which is better adapted to
the raising of live stock, lies between the parallels 30° to 40°
south latitude, which embraces the republic of Uruguay
lying between parallels 30° and 35°, a large portion of
Argentina which lies between the rivers Paran.'i and Uru-
guay, the provinces of Buenos Aires and Cordoba, and the
Pampa district. The leading live-stock states in Brazil are
the following:

Head

Rio Grande del Sur 6,500,000

Minas Geraes 6,300,000

Bahia 2,800,000

Matto Grosao 2,700,000

Goyaz 1,900,000

San Paulo 1,700,000

The State of Rio Grande, which heads the list, adjoins
the republic of Uruguay on the north, and has a milder
climate than central or northern Brazil. The other states
are in the central part of the republic, where it is exceed-
ingly warm and consequently not at all suitable for the
breeding of English stock.

In numbers, the United States of America shows a larger
production of live stock than Argentina, but their produc-
tion of 60,000,000 head is not sufficient for their 110,000,000
inhabitants, and therefore the necessity of importing large
quantities of meat from the La Plata region. Uruguay is
the largest producer and exporter in comparison to the
number of inhabitants, with 5.3 head of cattle and 13

THE MEAT-PRODUCING REGION 175

head of sheep for each inhabitant ; Argentina is second, with
3.8 and 10 per inhabitant, respectively. The proportion
per square kilometer: Uruguay, 48 head of cattle and 112
head of sheep ; Argentina, 11 and 27 respectively.

The price for a good steer in La Plata varies from 80 to
100 pesos, or at the rate of about $0.15 to |0.20 per kilo.
The average steer weighs from 600 to 700 kilos. In Matto
Grosso and in Paraguay, the price of steers varies from 30
to 40 dollars. The best Brazilian cattle are found in the
State of Rio Grande, but not as high a grade as that of the
La Plata. The provincial governments of San Paulo and
Rio Grande are taking steps to improve the tarious breeds.

The Republic of Argentina has an intensive live-stock in-
dustry and cultivates large alfalfa fields for the increase of
the market value of its cattle and sheep, while the Republic
of Uruguay, which nature has favored with specially attrac-
tive climatic conditions, heavier rainfall and milder summer
weather, has left it entirely to nature to supply the food for
its vast herds, but should Uruguay follow other methods, its
production of live stock could be doubled and perhaps quad-
rupled, inasmuch as its numerous river-streams could be
economically and profitably utilized in the irrigation of
lands, as is being done by Argentina on the Rio Negro,
Neuquen, Meudoza, San Juan, etc.

Thus, the La Plata districts could increase their live-stock
production with the improvement of the breeds and the
fields and the cultivation of forage. Brazil could likewise
increase its production, but the climate of the plains of
Matto Grosso and Goyaz, which have the best prairie land,
is too severe for the development of the English breeds.
The states of San Paulo and Minas can better afford to try
the improvement of their live stock in a general way, for
though in the same latitude as the other central states, the
climate of their high plateaus is much cooler and healthier
in everj-^ respect.

Uruguay exported in 1916 638,000 head of cattle which
were prepared in various packing houses and factories, in-

176 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

eluding that of Liebig of Fray Bentos; 846,000 were pre-
pared iu 1917, 273,000 of which came through the plant of a
North American concern. The Liebig factory, which makes a
specialty of extract of beef, prepared 101,000. The "sala-
deros" jjrepared jerked-beef which is cut in pieces in the form
of blankets, for exportation to Cuba and Brazil. The num-
ber and the value of the beef prepared at the various cold
storage plants, packing houses and factories for the year
1916 was 638,000 bovines and for 1917 816,000, with a price
of 126,636,000 and |35,329,000 respectively.

The total production in Uruguay, including local consump-
tion, was 797,000 bovines in 1916, and 863,000 in 1917. The
Liebig factories prepare the canned beef, beef extract and
tongue, and the cold storage plants also prepare these same
products with exception of the beef extract.

Sheep prepared in 1916 : 192,000. In 1918 the Swift plant
exported hog products such as ham, bacon, sausages, fats,
etc. The pig-breeding industry promises to have a regular
and rapid growth.

An increase in the preparation of meats in the cold-storage
plants is noticeable, and a diminution in the preparation of
jerked or dried beef. During the five years from 1891 to
1895 inclusive, the packing houses of Uruguay, Argentina
and Rio Grande in Brazil, prepared jerked beef from
9,891,000 animals or an average of about 1,978,000 per year.
The five years from 1911 to 1915 inclusive, the number de-
creased to 6,496,000, or a yearly average of 1,299,000. This
reduction may be attributed to the establishment of the
large cold storage plant of Swift at Montevideo and others
at Rio Grande, which had none before. The suet exported in
1916 from Uruguay, 35,000 tons.

Argentina exported in 1917, 71,000 bovines and 355,000
tons of frozen beef, 38,000 tons cold-storage beef, and 39,000
frozen mutton — a total of 432,000 tons and 71,000 bovines.

The exportation of meats has constantly increased since
1910, and the prices have also increased in proportion to the
demand. In Montevideo and Buenos Aires, high grade

THE MEAT-PKODUOING REGION 177

cattle sold for as much as fO.20 per kilo, bringing the price
of the average steer weighing 600 kilos, to |120 American
gold. Salt meats and jerked-beef will gradually disappear
from the Argentine and the Uruguayan market. Uruguay
exported in 1917 only 7,G00 tons valued at |2,000,000.

Price of Livestock ai the Ldniers Market in Buenos Aires on the 18th of Feb-
ruary, 1919
Value of the Argentine peso at the prevailing rate of exchange, $0.45

Oxen for consumption and packing-house purposes $150 to 231

High grade steers 280

Steers for packing-house purposes 219 to 230

Medium size steers 189 to 204

Medium fattened steers 167 to 186

Small steers for consumption 44 to 146

Cows 72 to 210

Heifers 35 to 126

Calves 25 to 108

The Matanza Market {Buenos Aires) had prices as follows

Geldings for cold storage $13 to 21

Geldings for slaughter house 21 to 25

Sheep for cold storage 14 to 24

Lamb 4 to 9

Lamb for cold storage 10 to 12

Montevideo market prices on the same day
Exchange, American $1.00 value; Uruguay, $0.82

For cold storage and factories — Per kilo

On the hoof $0.11 to $0.14

Per kilo
Cows $0,092 to $0,120

For local consumption:

Oxen $0,118 to $0,126

Steers 0.115 to 0.135

Cows 0.103 to 0.133

High grade cows 0.140

Calves 0.90 to 0.150

Value of the Uruguayan gold dollar — on the date last
above mentioned — 12.695 in Argentine currency; four Uru-
guayan gold dollars per £.

Live stock constitutes the principal and almost exclusive
exportation of the Republica Oriental del Uruguay. In
1916, the value of agricultural products exported amounted
to one and a half million dollars, against seventy-one million
dollars' worth of live stock. There has been a noticeable
annual increase since 1890, when the live stock exported

178 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

showed a value of |26,000,000, |37,000,000 in 1900,
171,000,000 in 1916, and more than |100,000,000 in 1917. This
rapid increase does not necessarily correspond to the in-
crease in the number of head, but to the higher prices paid
for correspondingly higher grade stock, the weight of which
has also increased materially with the improvement of the
breeds by the introduction of the Durhams and Herefords.
In order that the reader may form an idea of the difference
in value between the native and the mestizo cattle or the
native cattle improved vdth the English breeds, we give the
following figures as per data of the Argentine Rural Board
for the Buenos Aires market for the month of December,
1918, in Argentine money:

Mestizo steers 220, 200, 170 pesos

Native steers 140, 110 "

Mestizo cows 160, 115 "

Native cows 135, 75 "

The sheep production has decreased considerably in Uru-
guay within the last ten years, for though there was a total
of 28,000,000 head in 1908, there are at present only
20,000,000, with a slight increase in 1918 and 1919 over the
few years preceding. The Uruguayan wool sells at a higher
price than that of Argentina, because it is much cleaner.

The total exportation of meat of all kinds from Uruguay
during the year 1916, was 120,000 tonSy classified as follows:

On a basis of 1,000 kilos to a ton, and four Uruguayan
gold dollars per pound sterling, on February 15, 1919, at
the following rate of exchange — Change at par — 51 1/16
pence; 1 Uruguayan dollar==:|1.035 American, or |1.072
Argentineans Francs 36 cents (5.36 Francs).

1916

Frozen beef 63,000 tons $15,189,000 Uruguayan

Cold storage beef 8,000 " 2,291,000

Canned beef 20,000 " 5,800,000

Beef extract 210 " 504,000

Frozen mutton 3,700 " 843,000

Jerked beef 4,100 " 1,045,000

120,000 " Total, $25,682,00 "

THE MEAT-PRODUCING REGION 179

In 1917, the exportation of meats amounted to 125,000
tons and 74,000 live bo vines.

The decrease in sheep production is plainly shown by the

figures below, which represent the wool exported from

Uruguay :

Kilos

Annual average during the five years from 1906 to 1910 48,898,000

Annual average during the five years from 1911 to 1915 58,556,000

1914 44,587,000

1915 37,904,000

1916 30,602,000

1917 39,627,000

1918 45,000,000

Wool exported by Argentina during 1917 127,000,000

According to data published in the Argentina Statistical
Bureau, the wool exported from Argentina in 1917
amounted to 127,000 tons, which figures do not correspond
to the 81,000,000 head of sheep as shown by the Argentine
statistics. Figuring the weight in kilos to correspond to the
weight of the Uruguayan sheep, the Argentine sheep should
not have numbered more than 60,000,000.

Live Stock Sold in the North Montevideo Market in 1916 and 1917

Bovines Sheep

Con- Cold Con- Cold

sumption Storage Total sumption Storage

1916 219,165 419,340 638,505 51,000 192,000

1917 182,148 664,432 846,580 158,778 Nothing

The quantity of meat consumed by the city of Montevideo,

was 32,000,000 kilos in 1915 and 34,000,000 in 1916. Hides

exported through the port of Montevideo in 1916 and 1917,

as follows :

Salted Dried Salted Young Ox Dried Young Ox Grand

Bovines Bovines and Heifers and Heifers Total

1916 675,699 920,825 205,625 26,759 1,828,908

1917 920,825 809,110 250,379 60,304 2,040,618

In 1917, 5,349,000 kilos of fat, and 10,526,000 kilos of
tallow were exported: dried blood, 2,000,000 kilos; gut,
453,000 kilos.

Total value of exports from Uruguay for 1910, |73,000,000 ;

180 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

for 1917, 1103,000,000, of which 97 per cent represents live-
stock products.

Price of Meat in Montevideo
Price per kilo
1913 1916

Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

Roast $0.18 $0.24 $0.16 $0.40

Pulp 0.17 . 0.16 0.32

Loin 0.27 0.24 0.40

Livestock Killed in Slaughter-house in the Country Districts of Uruguay in

1916

Bovines 98,000

Sheep 80,000

The above figures do not include the live stock which is
exempt from taxation, as it is not destined for consumption
by the people living in the farming districts, but for con-
sumption in the towns and cities.

The live-stock industry of the Republica Oriental is
favored, as we have already stated, by its exceptionally mild
climate. Snow falls on an average of about every fifty
years. There are several old residents of that region who
had never seen snow until 1918, when it covered nearly the
whole republic. Therefore, no shelter is needed for the live
stock. That still bigger results are not shown, may be at-
tributed to the fact that the live-stock raisers do not cultivate
forage for consumption during the summer season, which is
the critical period, inasmuch as if there is an insufficiency of
rainfall there is naturally a scarcity of grasses, which causes
the stock to starve in the congested districts. So in order
to prevent this, the live-stock raisers arranged to graze no
stock on a certain part of their pastures, so that they may
utilize it in summer should the occasion require it, but which
will not be needed in case of sufficient rainfall. It means
that very valuable ground is going to waste, besides check-
ing what would undoubtedly be a much larger increase in
the production. The author happens to know of a big ranch
owner who lost 30,000 head of cattle just for neglecting to
plant forage, which would have saved his stock.

THE MEAT-PRODUCING REGION 181

Argentina has many extensive prairies devoted to the
cultivation of alfalfa hay where the livestock may roam at
will. This would be impos.sible in Uruguay, but alfalfa hay
could be cultivated, and in due time mowed, dried and
stacked. The alfalfa fields of Argentina are at quite a
distance from the ports, in some cases a distance of about
250 miles, which means of course considerable expense in
the transfer of either live stock or forage to the point of ship-
ment. In Uruguay the ports are a little distance from the
fields.

The Uruguayan alfalfa differs from that of Argentina, in
that the stalk of the former is shorter and more slender but
has more leaves, which makes it more valuable for feeding
purposes, the leaves being the nutritious part of the forage.
Its productive powers last for five years and in some cases
longer, which is suflScient time for it to yield good returns to
the land owner. The alfalfa which is cultivated in Brie,
France, and in all the Champagne region, lasts three years.
The soil of Uruguay has all the elements necessary for the
cultivation of alfalfa, such as potassium, lime and phos-
phorus, and as the air supplies the nitrogen it does not
need nitrates like other plants. As a fertilizer, use may be
made of the phosphate obtained from the bones to be had
from the "saladeros" at ten dollars per ton of 1,000 kilos,
which, when burnt and crushed, is sufficient for one hectare
of surface (2,471 acres). Its reaction is the same as in the
extraction of phosphorus, the phosphoric acid being slowly
replaced by carbonic acid and forms carbonate of lime and
frees the phosphoric acid dissolved in water and assimilated
by the plants.

The natural reaction lasts for five or six years, and there-
fore no fertilizer is needed during that time. Potassium
may be obtained by burning yuyo Colorado, an indigenous
plant similar to the salsola of Spain, and which had been
utilized in the making of soap, for ages past. If in addition
to this, advantage is taken of the opportunity that Uruguay
affords through its numberless small streams, which are not

182 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

to be duplicated by any other country in South America,
and the land properly irrigated, if necessary, it can be readily
appreciated that the scientific cultivation of forage will
materially increase the production of live stock.

The region of Brie in France, produces about 6,000 kilos
of alfalfa hay every year for three years, which quantity has
been surpassed in the same length of time by a field in Villa
Colon near Montevideo, and in addition, the Montevideo
alfalfa continues to yield for five years instead of three as
in Brie.

CHAPTER XV

THE CEREAL-PEODUCING REGION OF SOUTH
AMERICA— THE ARGENTINA

SUMMARY '
Agricultural Statistics of Chile, Uruguay and Argentina.

The republics of Chile and Uruguay produce wheat and
other cereals in sufficient quantities not only for local con-
sumption, but also for export, though the quantity exported
is very small in comparison to that exported by Argentina.

Chilean Agriculture

Chile has more than 700,000 square kilometers of surface,
but the portion which can be utilized for agriculture even
resorting to irrigation, is limited. The agricultural district
called Valle Central, is scientifically cultivated and pro-
duces cereals of all kinds, vegetables and fruits, and the
best of wines. According to the Chilean Bureau of Statis-
tics published by the Central Statistical Department, the
wheat production of Chile for the year 1916 was as follows :

Quantity of Wheat Quantity per

Hectares Cultivated Harvested Hectare

422,000 484,000 metric tons 1,100 kilos

Other agricultural products harvested in Chile in 1916 :

Metric Tons of 1,000
Kilos Each

Corn 39,000

Oats 92,000

Barley 94,000

Beans 52,000

Bean-pods 11,000

Chick-pea 1,200

Lentil 960

Potatoes 316,000

The 57,000 hectares of vineyards produced 1,145,000 hecto-
liters of wine and 294,000 hectoliters of chicha.

183

184 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

As to live-stock, Chile does not have enough for its own
consumption and therefore imports large quantities from
Argentina. Chile had in 1916, 1,869,000 bovines and
4,568,000 head of sheep which produced 14,300 metric tons
of wool. The southern region of Magallanes had almost
half of the number of sheep (2,071,000). The larger part of
the cattle is found in the austral provinces of Llanquihiie
and Valdivia, and the central provinces of Santiago and
Colchagua.

Uruguayan Agriculture

The Republica Oriental del Uruguay could develop into
a great agricultural center like Argentina, as its soil pro-
duces wheat, barley, oats and other grains, but being
sparsely settled, only enough for local consumption is culti-
vated. Irrigation is not necessary inasmuch as its one meter
of annual rainfall is evenly divided throughout the seasons
of the year, besides, it has more rivers than any other
region of the same area in South America. It produces high
grade wines, finest of fruits and vegetables, particularly
fruits such as oranges, peaches, plums, pears, apples, etc.,
which compare with the best of their kind in California. In
fact, it could be developed as a fruit center also, were the
industry to be exploited as it is in the United States of
America.

Lands cultivated in Uruguay in 1916-1917 :

Harvested
Tons of 1,000 Kilos

Wheat 315,000 hectares 146,600

Corn 253,000 " 175,400

Oats 57,000 " 27,900

Argentine Agriculture

The area under cultivation in Argentina in 1917 was much
smaller than what was under cultivation in 1913 immedi-
ately preceding the breaking out of the European war, or
12,000,000 and 13,000,000 hectares respectively. Products
exported in 1917:

THE CEREAL PRODUCING REGION 185

Year 1917

Oats 271,000 metric tons

Flax 141,000 "

Corn 893,000 " "

Wheat 935,000 "

Wheat flour 112,000 "

Total agricultural exports for 1917, 2,400,000 tons valued
at 144,000,000 gold pesos ; total live-stock products, 947,000
tons valued at 370,000,000, or a total valuation of 520,000,000
gold pesos. (|5 Argentine equals English pound.)

The agricultural products, which, since 1907, had been
gaining in value over the live stock, diminished in 1917, but
the increase in the prices of meat and wool covered the
agricultural deficit of that year. Wool sold for as much as
double the price paid in normal times, from 10 to 14 gold
pesos in 1917.

CHAPTER XVI

THE MINERAL-PRODUCING REGION OF SOUTH
AMERICA— CHILE, PERU AND BOLIVIA

SUMMARY
Mineral Wealth — Mineral Production of Peru, Bolivia and Chile — Commercial Activi-
ties of these Countries.

Mineral Wealth of Chile

After describing the wealth of the La Plata region which
can adequately be called the ''Region of Cereals, Meat and
Wool/' we next take np the study of the great Andean
Mineral Belt, which comprises central Peru, Bolivia and
northern Chile, and which region produces nearly all the
niter, and a large portion of the copper, lead, silver and a
few other metals of world-wide importance.

The northern part of Chile from Coquimbo to Iquique and
the whole Peruvian coast form a vast arid region which on
account of its having no rainfall had remained uninhabited
until valuable minerals such as copper, iron, lead, etc., were
discovered.

Mineral Production of the Andean Region in 1916

$1.00 Chilean peso= 18 d. =$0,222 Am. Del. 1 Bol.-=19>^ d. 1 Peruvian Pound = Eng-
lish Pounds.

Chile

Bolivia

Peru

Value in Chilean Pesos

Value in

Value in Peruvian

Gold

Bolivianos

Pound

Products

MilUons

MilUons

Millions

Niter

330

Copper

89

14

6.173

Coal

38

....

Iodine

20

Silver

2.2

2.9

0.038

Gold

1.6

0.3

Iron

1.2

Borate. . .

1.8

Sulphur

2

Common salt. .

1

is*

Guano

0.7

Antimony. . . .

Bismuth

3.6

Lead

0.3

0.051

Petroleum. . . .

1.182

Vanadium ....

0.309

Tungsten

0.099

Wolfran

i

186

MINEKAL-PKODUCING REGION 187

The principal minerals of Chile — Principal min- Principal Peru-
Niter and copper. erals of Bo- vian minerals

livia — Copper — Copper and

and antimony. Petroleum.

Mineral Wealth in Chile 1916

Niter constitutes the priucipal source of wealth of Chile,
and in 1916 it represented 66 per cent of the total value of
minerals exported from Chile, the Antofagasta district lead-
ing with 199,000,000 pesos, and Tarapacd second with
131,000,000. Next to Niter, Copper is the principal mineral
of Chile. Value of Chilean copper exported in 1916,
89,000,000 pesos, or 20 per cent of the total value of minerals
exported. Copper is found nearly throughout the whole of
central and northern Chile, from Tacna and Antofagasta to
Santiago and O'Higgins, Antofagasta and O'Higgins being
the best producing regions.

Coal ranks third, of which 1,400,000 tons valued at
138,000,000, were exported in 1916. The southern districts
of Concepcion, Arauco and Magallanes produce the most of
the coal of Chile.

Iodine is fourth in rank, with a production of 20,000,000
pesos, in the districts of Antofagasta and Tarapaca. Silver
comes next, the value of the quantity exported in 1916 hav-
ing amounted to 2,200,000 pesos. Sulphur is next in rank,
2,000,000 pesos value having been exported in 1916. (See
table of mineral production of Chile.)

The percentage of mineral wealth of the four principal
mining districts of Chile is divided as follows : Antofagasta
51 per cent; Tarapaca 29 per cent; Concepcion 6 per cent;
O'Higgins 5.4 per cent.

Niter exported to the United States of America in 1916,
165,000,000 pesos; Great Britain, 32,000,000; France and
other countries, 32,000,000. Total amount of other minerals
exported: United States, 239,000,000; Great Britain,
104,000,000 ; France, 35,000,000.

Nationalities represented in the mining industry of Chile,
based on the average value of production, rank as follows:

188 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

Chileans, 192,000,000; English, 136,000,000; North Ameri-
cans, 59,000,000 ; Germans, 44,000,000.

Antofagasta, a very important port of exportation, is
utilized by Bolivia by means of the railroad which connects
the said port with the city of La Paz, the capital of Bolivia,
over the Bolivian plateau. The traffic in minerals from
Bolivia through the port of Antofagasta is indeed of great
importance, as is also that through the ports of Mollendo
and Arica, which are north of Antofagasta, and are the
terminal points of railroads in Bolivia.

Principal minerals exported from Bolivia through the
port of Antofagasta in 1916, and their corresponding value,
as follows: Tin, 27,000,000; Antimony, 14,000,000 Chilean
pesos ; Woljran, about 1,000,000 ; Silver, 1,200,000. Through
the port of Mejillones also in northern Chile and just a few
miles north of Antofagasta, Bolivia exported: Tin,
15,000,000; Antimony and other minerals, 1,000,000 Chilean
pesos approximately. Through the port of Arica, another
Chilean port situated about half-way between Iquique and
Mollendo, Bolivia exported a total of 73,000,000 Chilean
pesos worth of Copper, Tin, Wolfran, Antimony, etc.

Principal ports for the exportation of minerals, in the
order of their importance, and value of exports in Chilean
pesos: Antofagasta, 83,000,000; Iquique, 83,000,000;
Mejillones, 64,000,000; Tocopilla, 42,000,000; Valparaiso,
40,000,000; Caleta Buena, 35,000,000; Taltal, 28,000,000;
Coloso, 18,000,000; Pisagua, 11,000,000.

Mineral Wealth of Peru in 1917

Peru is also very rich in minerals. The value of mineral
exports about equally balances that of vegetable exports, the
former averaging about 43,000,000 Peruvian pounds, which
are equal in value to English pounds sterling, and the latter
44,000,000 in 1916. The main source of mineral wealth is
derived from the copper and petroleum which are exported
chiefly to the United States of America, England and Chile,

THE MlNERAL-rKODUCING REGION 189

Minerals exported from Peru in 1917, value in Peruvian
pounds:

Peruvian pounds

Metallic copper 6,077,000

Petroleum and by-products 1,182,000

Vanadium 309,000

Tungsten 99,000

Copper 103,000

Silver 38,000

Lead 35,000

Lixiviated sulphides 101,000

Metallic silver 5,000

Metallic lead 16,000

Silver precipitate 16,000

Concentrated copper 70,000

Peru's percentage of imports and exports with its leading

clients in 1917 in millions £.

United
England Stales Chile

Imports 20 57 13

Exports 17 57 8

Next come Bolivia, with £1,990,000 imports and £1,660,000 in exports.

Routes for the Transportation of Peruvian Commerce

The 32,000,000 Peruvian pounds, which represent the
commercial activities of Peru during the year 1917, were
divided in the manner of routing, as follows : Maritime,
30,926,000; Fluvial, 1,092,000; Overland, 127,000.

The maritime traffic both on Peruvian importation and
exportation is distributed through four of the principal

ports, thus :

Percentage of Percentage of

Port Imports Exports

Callao 72% 53%

Mollendo 8 9

Paita 5 4

Eten 3 3

The fluvial ports: Iquitos of Amazon — Imports, 3%; exports, 3%.

The fluvial i)orts: Iquitos of Amazone, import 3 per cent;
export 3 per cent.

Peru has many other Pacific seaports besides those already
mentioned, to wit: Salaverri, Trujillo, Chiniboto, Corro
Azul, Pisco, etc., and on the Amazon, the ports of Iquitos,

190 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

Loreto and Leticia, the latter near the mouth of the Javary,
which is near the boundary line of Brazil. The large tribu-
taries of the Amazon in Peru are navigable to very close to
the Andes.

Peru principally imports among manufactured articles,
the following: tinctures, colors, chemical products, cotton,
wool and jute fabrics, paper and cardboard, iron and iron
supplies, electric, industrial and agricultural machinery,
powder, dynamite and other explosives.

Peru's exports in 1917 were divided as follows: Animal
products, 11 per cent; vegetable, 41 per cent; mineral, 43
per cent. The mineral and vegetable products chiefly ex-
ported in 1917, were: metallic minerals, sugar, cotton,
borate, gum and petroleum. The principal animal products
exported :

Peruvian Pounds

Alpaca wool 845,000

Sheep wool, washed 645,000

" , unwashed 219,000

Hides, sheep-skin and kid 343,000

Cattle 84,000

Principal vegetable products exported in 1917, and value
in Peruvian pounds:

Sugar 4,111,000 Cotton-seed oil 120,000

Cotton 4,878,000 Cotton-seed and paste. . . 96,000

Gums 598,000 Rice 187,000

Cocaine 36,000 Toquilla straw hats 40,000

Commercial Activities in Peru
(1 Peruvian Pound=Euglish Pound.)

The Peruvian pound as the standard unit of value was
adopted since 1897. It is equal in value to the English
pound sterling which is equivalent to 5 Argentine gold
dollars. The Sol of gold is the fifth part of 1 pound.

The augmented commercial activities in Peru during the
quinquennium of 1913-1918 were due to two essential
reasons : first — increase in the price of all commodities, and
second — increased production.

THE MINERAL-PRODUCING REGION 191

In studying the statistical records of the last 16 years
beginning with 1902, we notice a gradual, though slow in-
crease, as the following figures indicate — value in Peruviaji
pounds :

Years Imports (Pounds) Exports (Pouv/is)

1902 3,420,000 3,700,000

1917 13,500,000 18,137,000

or 293 per cent increase on imports, and 350 per cent on
exports in 16 years. The last five years computation shows
the following increase:

Years Imports (Pounds) Exports (Pounds)

1913 6,088,000 9,137,000

1914 4,827,000 8,767,000

1915 3,095,000 11,521,000

1916 8,683,000 16,541,000

1917 13,500,000 18,643,000

Principal Imports in 1917

Cotton fabrics 1,942,000 Peruvian pounds

Metals 3,689,000

Implements, etc 1,168,000 "

Food 1,537,000

Among the imported articles of food, we find : wheat
(404,000 Peruvian), fats, wines, fresh and dried fruits, and
canned milk.

Bulky articles and materials imported: lumber, mineral
coal, oils and cement.

Commercial Activities in Bolivia — 1915
(1 Boliviano— 19|d.)

The Bolivian statistics on raw material, show that
Bolivia produces all the principal minerals known, the min-
ing industry constituting its principal source of wealth.

The exports for 1915 amounted to 95,000,000 bolivianos.
One boliviano is equal to 19^ English pence.

The value of the raw material exported amounted to
90,000,000 bolivianos, which was nearly the entire value of
Bolivia's exports. Among the minerals, tin leads with 44,-
885,000 bolivianos out of a total of 90,000,000. Tin exported

192 SOUTH AMERICA TAST AND PRESENT

in 1912 and 1913 : 60 and 67 million bolivianos respectively.
Out of a total of 36 million kilos of tin, 35 million went to
England and 1 million to the United States of America.
Bolivia ranks second with 29 per cent of the world's produc-
tion of tin, the Straits Settlements leading with 55 per cent.
The copper (rosicler) exported in 1915 amounted to
9,000,000 bolivianos, or a total production of 17,000,000 kilos,
of which 13 million were exported to the United States of
America and 4 million to England. Copper in bars, which
was exported to the same countries, amounted to 4 million
bolivianos. Total copper production, 14,000,000 bolivianos.
Production of Wolfran, 792,000 kilos, valued at 1,000,000
bolivianos, exported to the United States and England.
Antimony produced, 17,000,000 kilos valued at 13,000,000 Bs.,
exported also to the United States and England. Bismuth
comes next with 600,000 kilos, valued at 3,600,000 Bs.,
exported to England. The production of Silver in 1915
was 2,982,000 Bs., and in 1918 it reached 8,000,000 Bs.
Lead and Gold were produced in smaller quantities —
362,000 and 306,000 Bs., respectively. The Gum elastic
or Rubber produced in 1915, reached 5,000,000 kilos worth
10,000,000 Bs., the greater part of which was exported to
the United States.

Lines of Communication in Bolivia

Bolivia utilizes the ports of Antofagasta, Arica and Mol-
lendo on the Pacific, for the exportation of its minerals,
being connected with these ports by the railroads, which
extend to the mining centers. Arica has more trafiic for
the reason that it is the shortest route, but the Bolivians
complain about the insufficiency of rolling stock to take
care of their shipments and the lack of shipping facilities
at the port, which is smaller than the port of Antofagasta,
the leading seaport of that region for south bound commerce.

The traffic with Argentina will not be of much importance
until the railroad from Quiaca on the frontier to the towns of
Tupiza and Uyuni is completed. The railroad Oran-Em-

THE MINERAL-PRODUCING REGION 193

barcacion tends to augment commercial traffic along the
eastern region.

The leading consumers of Bolivia's exports (in bolivianos)
rank as follows: England, 66,000,000; United States,
25,000,000; Argentina, 1,400,000; France, 817,000; Chile,
747,000. Bolivia imports from the United States, 4,770,000 ;
England, 3,600,000; Peru, 4,200,000; Chile, 3,300,000.

CHAPTER XVII

THE TROPICAL FRUIT-PRODUCING REGION OF

SOUTH AMERICA— BRAZIL, ECUADOR, COLOMBIA,

VENEZUELA AND PARAGUAY

Brazil

We have in previous chapters described the regions where
cereals and livestock are produced (Argentine and Uru-
guay) ; mineral producing region (the Andean republics of
Chile, Bolivia and Peru) ; and we will now describe the
regions where the tropical products of South America are
to be found. These products include : coffee, cotton, tobacco,
sugar, mate, bean cocoa, rice and lumber.

We learned that the agricultural industry of Peru is about
equal in importance to its mining industry, particularly in
the production of sugar and cotton. Ecuador, Colombia
and Venezuela also have like products which make the bulk
of the exports, but Brazil is the largest exporter of tropical
products, inasmuch as its area is larger than all the other
countries of the central region combined and the fertility of
its soil is such that everything is produced in vast quantities.
We have also learned that Brazil has 30,000,000 bovines,
but considering that it has a population of 24,000,00, and its
climatic conditions not being altogether suitable for the
development of the best breeds of cattle, it is reasonable to
believe that Brazil will not be a large exporter of meatvS,
and its southern region (Rio Grande and Santa Catalina)
and portions of the central plateaus (San Paulo, Matto
Grosso, Goyaz, etc.) will raise enough livestock to supply the
local markets. Out of 30 million bovines, exported 2G,000
tons in 1910 and 51,000 in 1917. The foregoing figures repre-
sent hardly half of the quantity of meats which Uruguay

194

THE TROnCAL FRUIT-rRODUCING REGION 195

exported in 1917, and less than one-fourth of the meat which
Uruguay exported in 1916.

However deficient the conditions might be for the raising
of livestock in Brazil, specially sheep, it is endowed with
exceptionally desirable conditions for the production of
tropical products of all descriptions. The celebrated natur-
alist Agassiz, whom we have mentioned quite frequently
and whose reports are worthy of repetition and belief, made
a thorough study of the fauna and flora of Brazil during a
trip of several years' duration in the Amazonian region, and
in describing its natural wealth he made it clear that
there was no other region in the world which could compare
with it in the variety and abundance of fine grade lumber,
which can be utilized for general and naval construction.

Brazil produces all the hard woods not subject to decay
in water, such as the nanduhay, which is used in the con-
struction of fences on the farms of the La Plata, also the
quebracho, lapacho and viraro of Chaco and Paraguay,
which are of equal hardness and incorruptibility. The pine
forests of Brazil, which pine is now being utilized on the La
Plata in the absence of Canadian pine, cover areas of hun-
dreds of thousands of square kilometers. Should Brazil at
any time control her own merchant marine and be in a posi-
tion to properly exploit her extraordinary wealth of lumber,
she will inundate the world with lumber which Europeans
have not even seen, and which lumber is adapted to all works
of construction not excepting marine.

The lumber now used in Europe and in the United States,
in the construction of piers, does not compare with the beams
of various kinds of hard wood (quebracho, urundey, fiandu-
bay, etc.), which trees are larger than any that grow in
Europe, and which last indefinitely under water. Notwith-
standing this enormous wealth, the exportation of lumber
from Brazil has just recently begun to show any importance,
particularly the pine and cedar forests, which produced
64,000 tons of lumber in 1916, and 144,000 tons in 1918.
These are very large forests all along the coast of the Atlau-

196 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

tic, on ranges not far from shipping points. The Brazilian
cedar has, on account of its low price, replaced the Canadian
pine in the construction of doors, windows and shutters.

Rubber, a product which has created world-wide demand,
is very abundant in the region along the tributaries of the
Amazon, specially on the Acre over territory drained by this
river, a tributary of the Purus, which territory Bolivia
ceded to Brazil in exchange for the railroad of the Madeira.
Rubber exportation has decreased during the last few years,
from 25,000 tons in 1914 to 15,000 in 1918.

Brazil has been exporting rice to the La Plata, replacing
that which had been coming from Italy and Spain. In 1916
she exported 36,000 tons to the La Plata markets. Flour
of Tapioca, known on the La Plata as farina, has shown the
largest increase in production, 45,000 tons of this product
having been shipped to Montevideo and Buenos Aires in
1918. This article of food is very popular in Uruguay, as
it is an excellent and exceptionally nutritive substitute for
the potato.

Though Brazil has very valuable minerals, only manganese
(two million pounds exported in 1918) and coal are ex-
ploited, the latter for the consumption of the Brazilian
railroads.

The following figures give Brazil's exports during the first
nine months of 1918 :

Nine Months
Value in Pounds
Product Sterling

Coffee 13,000,000

Rubber 2,600,000

Sugar 2,240,000

Tobacco 1,790,000

Mate 1,500,000

Bean 1,300,000

Cocoa 1,200,000

Carnauba (wax) 900,000

Rice 800,000

Lumber 800,000

Brazil's exports gradually increased from year to year
since 1914 till 1917, when the maximum value of £63,000,000

THE TROPICAL FRUIT-PRODUCING REGION 197

in 1917 was reached ($46,000,000 in 1914). The imports
also increased during the same period, from 35,000,000 in
1914 to 44,000,000 in 1917.

Tropical Regions of the Northern Andes — Ecuador_,
Colombia, Venezuela

ECUADOR

(1 Sucre = 10.50)

Next to Brazil, which is the largest region for the cultiva-
tion of tropical products, there is a smaller region composed
of the countries occupying the northern part of South
America, and which are Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela.
Though they are small compared with Brazil, they cover a
large expanse of territory. Ecuador has an area of 300,000
square kilometers, and the other two, more than one million
square kilometers of surface each ; in other words, Colombia
or Venezuela either one is larger than France and Germany
combined, but the production does not correspond to the
extent and wealth of its agricultural products — coffee, sugar,
cotton and cocoa.

Since 1877, Ecuador has quite methodically increased its
production of cocoa, exporting 45,000,000 kilos in 1917, of
which 37,000,000 were shipped to the United States. Total
valuation of cocoa exported that year, 26,000,000 sucres (1
Sucre equal in value to |0.50 American gold).

Coffee exported in 1917 : 2,669,000 kilos, of which quantity
2,400,000 went to Chile. Total coffee production for 1917 :
1,300,000 sucres.

Unpeeled tagua exported in 1917: 7,700,000 kilos, valued
at 616,000 sucres, nearly the entire quantity having been
exported to the United States. Peeled tagua exported dur-
ing the same year: 8,500,000 kilos, valued at 1,160,000 sucres,
the United States being the biggest consumer (over 5,000,000
kilos). England and Spain came next with more than
1,000,000 kilos each. The production in 1913 was much
larger, when the total quantity exported amounted to
31,000,000 kilos.

198 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

The rubber exported by Ecuador in 1917 amounted to
more than 412 tons with a valuation of 728,000 sucres.

The value of the hides exported during the same year was
1,320,000 snores. Value of straw hats exported: 1,918,000
sucres, most of which were sent to the United States. The
quantities of tobacco, quinine and cdscara de mangle ex-
ported, were of small importance, the largest being that of
tobacco, value 20,000 sucres.

The value of Ecuador's total exports for 1917, was 33,-
500,000 sucres, 28,000,000 of which represented the exports
shipped through Guayaquil. Besides the products above
mentioned, Ecuador exported (within the above valuation)
wool, 836,000 sucres; gold bars, 1,824,000, and 900,000 in
minerals (not specified, as the statistics only refer to
mineral ores) .

The value of Ecuador's imports for 1917 was 20,900,000
sucres of which 12,000,000 came from the United States,
5,000,000 from England and more than one million from
Spain. More than 19,000,000 came through Guayaquil.
Principal articles imported : Fabrics, 6,000,000 ; food,
3,000,000 ; metallic articles, 1,500,000 ; clothing, 1,000,000.

COLOMBIA

(1| Colombiano =z |1.00)

Colombia occupies fourth place in South America, in
extent of territory (see Table of Statistics). It is at pres-
ent in dispute with Ecuador and Peru regarding the question
of boundaries.

Brazil, Argentina and Bolivia rank first in the order
named. Colombia has an area of 1,300,000 square kilo-
meters, of which, more than two-thirds (805,000) comprise
the plains drained by the tributaries of the Amazon — large
navigable streams, among them the Caquetd, 2,200 kilometers
long, the Putumayo and the Yapura. The Orinoco forms
part of the boundary between Colombia and Venezuela. The

THE TROPICAL FRUIT PRODUCING REGION 190

principal tributaries of the Orinoco are the Ouaviare and
the Meta.

The plains of Colombia produce high grade lumber, rub-
ber, coffee, cocoa, cotton, tagua, etc. Cattle thrive well in
this region.

The mountains cover more than 400,000 square kilometers
of surface in the central part, and are more than 3,000
meters above sea-level. The highest points are Suma Paz
(4,810 meters) and Sierra de Cocul (5,784 meters). The
climate at 3,000 and 4,000 meters elevation is very mild and
agreeable, and in direct contrast with the very warm and
moist climate of the plains.

At the "Nevado de Tolima" the Central range attains a
height of 5,584 meters. It is in this mountain district where
the population is concentrated, and where the capital and
larger cities of Colombia are situated. Here we find the
bulk of the white population the descendants of the
Spaniards, of pure Spanish blood, and the mestizos. Ac-
cording to Don Rafael Uribe y Uribe, 66 per cent of the
population is composed of pure whites and mestizos, the
latter the cross between whites and Indians, called "criollos"
and whose skin shows the characteristics of the white race,
with a very slight tinge of a copperish hue. Indians comprise
14 per cent of the population, Negroes 4 per cent and the
cross between the Indians and Negroes 6 per cent.

The Andes in Colombia are divided into three small
ranges, called Occidental, Central and Oriental, which,
starting at the southern extremity, open up like the ribs of
a fan with large valleys between, running north and south,
and over which valleys the large rivers of Colombia flow —
the Magdalena (1,700 kms.) ; the Atrato (570) ; the Cauca,
a tributary of the Magdalena (1350). These three rivers
flow in a northerly direction into the Caribbean Sea. Ac-
cording to Humboldt, the Sierra Nevada of Santa Marta
forms an isolated mountain system near the Caribbean Sea,
terminating at Mt. Horqueta (5,847 m. elev.).

These ranges form the relief and the three zones of

200 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

Colombia : The dry and sultry coast with very little rainfall ;
the eastern plains, and the central plateau which is at 3,000
to 4,000 meters above sea-level.

Bogota is the principal and the capital city of Colombia.
Population, 150,000. Elevation, 2,650 meters. It has a
very pleasant climate, the average mean temperature being
14° centigrade, three degrees colder than Montevideo and
Buenos Aires, which cities are in latitude 35° south, while
Bogota is in latitude 4° north.

Bogota is a city of culture, its famous university having
won for it the title of the "Athens of the North." The
"Salto de Tequendama," one of the wonders of America, is
at a short distance from the city. Here the Bogota river
drops precipitately a distance of 146 meters. Another spot
of interest near the city is the "Abismo del Pandi," a crevice
or gulch 5 kilometers long and 85 meters deep.

Other important cities: Medellin (71,000 pop.) ; Barran-
quilla (48,000) ; Cartagena (36,000) ; Pasto (27,000) ; Call
(27,000) ; Manizales (34,000).

Colombia at one time formed a part of Greater Colombia,
which also included Ecuador and Venezuela, over which the
Liberator Bolivar presided, but which union was dissolved
in 1830, when it took the name of Republica de Colombia.
During the dominion by Spain it was called Nueva Granada.

Coffee represents 50 per cent of the exports of Colombia,
which in 1916 amounted to 31,000,000 pesos in value. The
exports of 1915, in Colombian x>esos — (rate of exchange, 1
Colorabiano is equal to fl.OO American at par) were:

Vegetable products 19,400,000

Mineral " 7,200,000

Animal " 3,100,000

Manufactured " 1,100,000

Live animals 520,000

The Colombian pound is equivalent to the English pound
sterling, or |5.00 gold.

The exports in either of the years 1912, 1913, 1914, and
1915, surpassed those of the year 1916, particularly in 1913,

THE TROPICAL FRUIT-PRODUCING REGION 201

when the value of the exports reached 34,300,000 pesos
Colombiauos.

Value of vegetable products exported: 1916, Coffee, 12,-
000,000; bananas, 2,000,000; tobacco, 011,000; tagua or vege-
table ivory, 300,000; rubber, 723,000.

Value of minerals exported : Gold, 5,200,000 ; platinum,
2,017,000. Emeralds did not make a good showing, although
the Muzo emeralds have become quite famous.

Value of animal products exported : Hides, 2,993,000 ;
sheep-skins and others, 83,000.

Value of manufactured products exported : Sugar, 211,000 ;
Panama hats, 871,000.

Value of live animals exported: Cattle, 514,000; horses,
2,400.

Colombia has 7,000,000 head of cattle.

Value of exports to the United States of America : Vege-
table products, 19,000,000; mineral products, 6,000,000;
animal products, 2,750,000; manufactured products, more
than 1,000,000.

Out of a total value of 31,000,000 of Colombia's exports,
27,000,000 went to the United States of America.

Value of Colombia's imports for 1916 : 29,000,000, of which
more than half (10,500,000) came from the United States.
Then followed England with 7,500,000; Spain, 700,000;
France, 600,000; Italy, 550,000. Principal articles im-
ported: Textiles, 13,400,000; metals, 2,240,000; food,
2,400,000; drugs and medicines, 1,300,000; agricultural and
mining machinery, 830,000; books and paper, 913,000; bev-
erages, wines and liquors, 000,000.

The three ranges of mountains make communication be-
tween central Colombia and the raclfic Ocean and the
Caribbean Sea extremely difficult. The Magdalena and the
Atrate rivers admit small ves.sels far into the interior of the
country. The capital has railway connection with the
Magdalena, at the port of Girardot.

There are ten short railroad lines with a total longitude
of 1,000 kilometers, connecting the cities in the interior with

202 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

the Pacific ports, and which lines run as follows: Buena-
ventura to Call on the Cauca valley ; Cartagena, a port on the
Caribbean Sea, to Calamar on th« Magdalena ; Santa Marta
on the Caribbean Sea to the banana producing region, and to
the Magdalena : Port Girardot on the Magdalena to Chicoral,
connecting with the railroad at Buenaventura, a port on the
Pacific; Cucuta to the Zubia river on the Venezuelan
frontier.

Principal ports: Barranquilla, Puerto Colombia or Saba-
nilla, ^anta Marta and Riohacha on the Caribbean Sea, and
Buenaventura on the Pacific.

VENEZUELA

(1 Bolivar equals 1 Franc gold, or |0.19)

Venezuela is a large country of more than 1,000,000 square
kilometers in area. (See Table of Statistics.) The Orinoco
river divides the country into two parts — the northern por-
tion comprises the valleys of which we have made mention
before in the chapter on orography, also a few mountain
chains, the last straggling ramifications of the Andes, and
which end on the Caribbean Sea.

We will leave the description to an eminent Venezuelan
writer, R. Blanco Fombona, who has been Governor of the
territory of the Amazon, the southern region lying between
Rio Negro and the Parima mountains:

"The Orinoco first flows in a northerly direction to Mai-
pures, where it suddenly comes upon a mountain of granite
which obstructs its way. A terrific struggle between two
veritable giants, the River and the Mount, takes place. The
Mount interposes, but the River persists and finally its
waters run over the promontories of stone. The River
passes but the Mount will not give in and so the Orinoco
(the River) is compelled to change its course by turning to
the right and continuing its journey to the sea, no longer
flowing north but from west to east. The field of struggle
is along a stretch 50 to GO kilometers in length. The Mount

THE TROPICAL FRUIT PRODUCING REGION 203

seems to advance against the stream which has beeo gradu-
ally demolishing its granite prows by the force of its rush-
ing waters. These rock crumbs, these fragments of stone,
are not merely pebbles or chipped stones, but gigantic
rounded boulders having the appearancee of cupolas of sub-
merged temples or raised but roofless stelas, obelisks or
ramparts, or even that of stumps of well-shaped trees in a
forest of lifeless vegetation.

"The Orinoco stream rushes precipitately over the rugged
rocky passes, dashes against the high walls of granite and
spreads over the sides, forming magnificent cataracts. The
thundering noise of its raging waters reechoes in the desert
many miles away, rhythmical, muffled, constant, as if that
continuous thunder were the throbbing heart of the far dis-
tant forest. Such are the rapids of Atures and Maipures: a
mountain of granite crumbling in the bed of the stream, a
massive gate of stone, a sealed gate placed there by nature
for the coming civilization, and it will not yield until the
power of dynamite pronounces its command to open up.

These rapids are avoided by the traveler who steps on laud
on reaching this point and connects with that part of the
river which lies separated from the field of struggle, then
continues on his way. The indigenous products of the upper
Orinoco and the Rio Negro, which are sent to Ciudad
Bolivar, as well as the merchandise which is sent back from
the latter place, are transferred, upon reaching the rapids,
to oxen drawn carts."

In speaking of the territory of the Amazon, Fombona says :
"That land is one of the most beautiful and fertile regions of
the globe, though jet unknown. It is drained by some of
the largest rivers — the Rio Negro and the Orinoco. The
latter connects with the Amazon, through the Rio Negro and
the Casiquiare. The yet virgin forests cover hundreds of
square leagues, where rubber, sarsaparilla, vanilla, zarrapia,
and a variety of tropical, resinous and medicinal woods of
the finest grade are produced,

"Rubber is the principal product exploited, and it yields

204 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

vast raturns. Rubber is bought from the Indian at 160
bolivares (francos) per quintal (one hundred kilo weight)
and it is sold in Europe for SOO bolivares. The 150 bolivares
are paid to the Indian, not in money but in merchandise of
prime necessity, sold to him at a profit of about 200 per cent.
It is a country of fables: it has large rivers of different
colors, one with dark waters, one with almost black — Rio
Kegro — (Black River), another with reddish water — the
Atadapo — another with green waters — the Cataniapo — and
still another with yellow waters — the Guaviare. Many
races of Indians inhabit Venezuela, and all are harmless,
most of them are of industrious habits, and some of them
very intelligent. In this region poverty is unknown and
gold is plentiful, and though only at a distance of eight
degrees from the equator, the climate which is tempered by
the coolness from the rivers and the constant fanning of
the numerous trees, is indeed very pleasant. Only one bad
thing exists there and that is — the white man — he of the
motley crowd who has gone there to amass a fortune in that
country. All lawless individuals who are seeking shelter
from the branch of society that pursues them, go there. All
merchants who have failed and wish to rebuild their fortunes
at the expense of scruples, go there. The territory of the
Amazon is, in the plain twentieth century, somewhat similar
to what all America may have been at the time of the first
conquest."

The exploitation of which the Indian workman is a victim
is general over all South America from the Putumayo and
the Orinoco to Paraguay. It suffices to read Barret's "El
Dolor Paraguayo" to form an idea of the barbarism and
iniquity with which the workingmen who prepare the yerba
mate in Paraguay are treated.

The tributaries of the Orinoco — Ventuari, Caura, Caroni
— are important streams which drain the mountainous terri-
tory in the southern part, covered by thick forests which
produce all kinds of fine lumber. The other tributaries —
Guaviare, Vichada, Meta and Apure — which drain to the

THE TROPICAL FKU IT PRODUCING REGION 205

left, are also large streams. The Meta aud the Guaviare
iiow for a considerable distance of their course over the
plains of Colombia, having their source at the foot of the
Oriental range. The Casiquiare river joins the Atabasco, a
tributary of the Orinoco, with the Rio Negro a tributary of
the Amazon. The tributaries of the Orinoco are navigable
for a long distance, as may be observed on the map ''Means
of Communication." The Orinoco offers navigable waters
for transatlantic traffic to near the mouth of the Apure, from
which point it becomes more shallow due to various cata-
racts which are found along its course though permitting the
navigation of small vessels, except at the rapids of Atures
and Maipures.

Communication between the Amazon and the Orinoco,
through the Rio Negro, the Casiquiare and Atabaspo, is
difficult. This route was studied by Micheleua and Rojas
through recommendation of the Venezuelan government.
The shortest route is through the Rio Negro aud the isthmus
of Pimichiu lying between this river and the Temi, a tribu-
tary of the Atabaspo. The land here is level, and within
the 60 kilometers of distance there are a few lakes. The
cities of Maroa and Yavite, which are on the line of the
projected canal, are daily increasing their operations.

The plains of the Orinoco, which we have described in the
continental orography at the beginning of this book, occupy
almost one-fourth of the territory of Venezuela. The Carib-
bean Hills, the Segovia Highlands and the Merida Range,
are to be seen on the northern and northwestern part of
these plains, near the coast. Near Caracas rises the Silla
to 2,800 meters, and greatest height is attained at Columna
on the Sierra Nevada, which is 5,000 meters above sea-level,
and has perpetual snow.

We stated in the orographical section that the mountain-
ous district of the northern part formed by the Andes is
divided into warm, temperate and cold belts, according to
the altitude, and that the products correspond to the three
climatic belts, ranging from cocoa in the lower valleys to

206 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

moss, which is only found in the high frozen regions or
paramos. La Guayan, or rather, all the territory to the
south called the territory of the Amazon, which includes all
the land between the Parima and the Rio Negro, is drained
by upper Orinoco. This region is exceptionally rich in
lumber, such as mahogany, silk-cotton-tree, balata or gum-
tree, cinchona, palms, cedars, etc. Shomburg's catalog
gives 2,500 species of plants in Venezuela which are the same
as are found in Brazil and on the plains of Colombia.

The similarity of the fauna of Venezuela and Brazil is
noticeable — gimnotus electric, alligators, 'boas, carpinchos
or capyhara, comadrejas or opossums, ant-hear, and even
the sheep-tick, which attacks not only sheep but cattle as
well and which kills so many animals in the La Plata, where
they find it necessary to bathe the live stock in water pre-
pared with insecticide in order to protect it from this hor-
rible plague. Even the Indians of Venezuela, called Caribes,
belong to the race of the Guaranies, who inhabit Brazil and
Paraguay.

The same gigantic skeletons of the Megatherium, which
inhabited the Pampa of Argentina, are found on the banks
of the tributaries of the Orinoco.

The gauchos or llaneros of the plains of the Orinoc.o re-
semble the gauchos of the La Plata in habits, indomitable
courage, in the earnestness displayed in the war of inde-
pendence, moral character, as they both descend from the
Guaranies and Spaniards.

These gauchos herd several million head of cattle, though
how many is not definitely known, but it is the opinion of
some Venezolanos, that there are eight or ten million, while
others claim that they own no more than two million head.
Leonardo V. Dalton, in a very interesting book published in
London in 1912, stated that according to data he received in
Venezuela, the number of cattle at that time would pot
exceed two million head, but that there were as many as
eight and one-half million in 1888.

We have not been able to obtain any additional data after

THE TROPICAL FRUIT rRODUCING REGION 207

visiting the Consulate General of Venezuela in New York,
and the same thing is true regarding inforjuation about
Colombia and Ecuador, inasmuch as the publication of
statistics in these three countries is limited. Among the
minerals, the following abound : Petroleum, gold, silver, cop-
per and iron, but on inspection of the table of exports, the
reader will notice that the mineral production is small con-
sidering the vast natural resources of the country.

Agriculture is the main industry of the country, large
quantities of coffee, cocoa, sugar and corn being produced;
the first three form the bulk of vegetable products exported.
Minerals exported : Melted gold, copper, asphalt, petroleum.

The exportation of meats is beginning to be of importance,
and it is believed that the plains of the Orinoco will in time
supply a good quantity of the meat to the packing industry.
The exports also include live cattle and hides.

Other miscellaneous articles exported : Fine pearls, pea-
nuts, goat-skins, sole-leather, fine lumber, beans, balata,
rubber. Traffic is handled mostly through La Guayra,
Maracaibo and Puerto Cabello, which are about equally im-
portant. Next in importance are the ports of Ciudad
Bolivar, Carupano, Puerto Sucre, La Vela and Cristobal
Colon.

Two-thirds of the exports of Venezuela go to the United
States, the balance mostly to France, Spain, Curacao and
Trinidad.

Imports received from the United States about 80 per cent,
the balance mostly from England, Spain and Italy.

There are under operation 925 kilometers of railroads.
The principal lines are: Caracas to the port of La Guayra;
Valencia to Puerto Cabello; Caracas to Valencia; Trujillo
to Seiba on Lake Maracaibo; Barquisimeto to Tucacas.
The standard unit of value is the bolivar, which is equiva-
lent to the franc (gold).

The total value of Venezuela's imports in 1916 were
13,000,000 dollars against 23,000,000 of exports. (See the
Table on South American Commerce.)

208 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

Principal articles exported in 1915, in bolivares:

Coffee 54,600,000 Cattle 1,400,000

Cocoa 22,039,000 Rubber 1,400,000

Hides 8,600,000 Sole-leather 600,000

Balata 2,900,000 Fine pearls 859,000

Melted gold 7,800,000 Dividive 680,000

Greda gold 1,300,000 Frozen and salt meat . . 600,000

Sugar . 2,900,000 Panela 530,000

Goat-skins 2,800,000 Feather 529,000

Copper 1,700,000 Tobacco 439,000

Asphalt 1,420,000 Auriferous sand 246,000

Lumber 160,000

Paraguay — Central and Tropical Region
|1 gold Paraguayo = 1 dollar)

Paraguay is an inland country without coastline the same
as Bolivia, lying as it does in the heart of the continent.
The Tropic of Cajjricorn crosses it at one and a half degrees
north of a point half-way between the northern and southern
boundaries, near where its historical capital city is situated
on the Paraguay river. This territory, lying between the
rivers Paraguay and Parana, was the cradle of civilization
of the La Plata region, and was also the principal center
of the Guaranies, who were scattered throughout the whole
continent as far as the Orinoco and the Antilles, as the
Caribes who inhabited these islands were slightly related
to the Guaranies, from whom they descended.

Though Paraguay is an inland country, it has communica-
tion with the whole world through the rivers Paraguay,
Parand and La Plata. There are Argentine navigation
lines which have service between Buenos Aires and Asun-
cion under regular schedule. There is also a Brazilian line
with service between the same points but which goes farther
north beyond Paraguay, as far as Matto Grosso, which in
Portuguese means "Large Forest," as that part of Brazil is
covered with magnificent forests of trees which can be
utilized for all kinds of work of construction.

The Brazilian port of Corumb;'\ on the Paraguay is in lati-
tude 19° south, that is, six degrees north of the city of

THE TROPICAL FKUIT-PRODUCING REGION 209

Asuncion. There is another city still farther north in
Brazil, the city of Cuyaba, which is in latitude 16° south, on
the river of the same name, which city also communicates
with the La Plata and Brazilian ports on the Atlantic,
through the same steamship line as above indicated. The
Paraguay river corresponds in the hydrography of South
America to the Mississippi river of the United States, the
Paraguay running parallel to the Parana, but navigable to
a greater extent than the latter, for the reason that it has
no cataracts or other obstructions to impede is navigation
for small vessels.

The Parand has a parallel 24° south, the celebrated catar-
acts of the Guayra, which together with those formed by the
Yguazu, are the two most magnificent in South America.
The Yguazu is a large tributary of the Parana. In regard
to navigation facilities, the Paraguay stands alone in South
America, for it is navigable to its very source, which is on
the Sierra I'arecis, which is the water-divide of the valleys
of the La I'lata and the Amazon.

At a short distance from the port of Cuyaba, 15 to 20
kms., is the source of the Arinos river, which flows iuto the
Tapajos, a tributary of the Amazon. This region has been
very thoroughly explored and described by Captain Bossi of
the Italian navy, in a book he had published in 1875, explain-
ing how easy it would be to construct a canal across this
stretch of territory in order to connect La Plata and the
Amazon. The Brazilians transported in time past cannons
through the Cuyaba route to Pard, a port at the mouth of
the Amazon. (See map on "Communications.")

The port of Corumbii in Brazil is opposite Port Suarez
in a tributary of the river Paraguay, Bolivia, the latter
being Bolivia's center of communication with the La Plata.
This port will be still of greater importance when it is
connected with Santa Cruz de la Sierra (425 miles by auto
road), a very rich agricultural section of Bolivia, where
sugar, cocoa, cotton, coffee and other tropical products
abound. This is the future great route of Bolivia for the

210 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

traDsportation of the vegetable produce of the most fertile of
its regions.

Its mineral products would have a better and more
economical outlet via the railroads to Antofagasta, Arica
and Mollendo, being that the minerals are exported to the
United States and Europe, but the vegetables will have a
better outlet via the La Plata, where a market will be found
for them in the exchange for La Plata products and for
goods which come from Europe. The construction of the
Central Argentine railroad will be much more expensive,
due to the long distance which it will traverse (1,500 miles
from La Paz to Buenos Aires), as explained in the chapter
on "Communications."

The distance from Corumba and Port Suarez to Plata is
covered in ten days, bj small vessels making only eight miles
per hour, stopping at ten or more ports before reaching
Montevideo and Buenos Aires, but that distance could be
covered in half of the time, as it is only a stretch of 15 de-
grees following the meridian of Greenwich (58) or 900 miles,
while via the Parana with its many bends the distance is
],200 miles, which could be traversed in 100 hours by steamers
making 12 miles per hour, and counting on 50 hours for stops,
it would mean 150 hours or six days. But taking the train
at Asuncion and traveling say at about 40 kms. (24 miles)
per hour, the trip from Asuncion, the capital of Paraguay,
to Montevideo can be made in 24 hours. By this route, via
Asuncion, Posadas, Salto and the Central Uruguayan rail-
road, the traveler can go from Sucre or Potosi in Bolivia
to Montevideo in 59 hours, as shown in the book "Ferro-
carriles Sud-Americanos" by the Uruguayan engineer Sr. J.
J. Castro, which book was very well received by the Railroad
Congress, which met in Buenos Aires in 1895. (We refer
the reader to our map on "Communications," the detailed
map of South America, and to the chapter "The Future
Great Route of South America," so that he may form an idea
as to the river connections through the continent, from the
La Plata to the Panama Canal.)

THE TROPICAL FRUIT PRODUCING REGION 211

What we have herein stated proves that Paraguay is not
what the superficial reader might imagine, who looks at the
map and sees a country isolated from the rest of the world.

The portion of Paraguay which lies east of the river which
gives this country its name is drained by the Paranii, which
stream is navigable all along the Brazilian and Argentine
frontier as far as the cataracts or Salto del Guayra.

Another portion of the territory of Paraguay lies be-
tween the rivers Paraguay and Pilcomayo, which is part of
the region called El Chaco, a vast plain which occupies
territory in Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and Brazil. There
is a dispute at present between Bolivia and Paraguay on the
question of the El Chaco boundaries. Thus, the exact area
that Paraguay covers can not be definitely ascertained, for
it varies from 253,000 to 445,000 square kilometers, the
latter figures with the boundary line of Bolivia at parallel
18° south, the former would be the undisputed territory.

The boundary between Paraguay and Argentina was fixed
by President Hayes of the United States of America, who
was selected as arbitrator, and he pointed out the Pilcomayo
river as the boundary between the two countries.

The Paraguayan territory is an undulated surface with
hills of a few hundred meters elevation, and is drained by
large streams which during the rainy season overflow and
leave certain portions of its soil covered with water. The
soil is very fertile and the climate, though warm, is never
extreme. The contrast between the opposing seasons of the
year is little. It has a heavy enough rainfall for its
agricultural products and no need of irrigation even for its
abundant supply of tropical products, such as cotton,
tobacco, sugar-cane, coffee, bananas, oranges, cocoa, timber
of aU kinds, .specially hardwoods among them, the que-
bracho, nandubay, algarrobo, viraro, lapacho, etc., which on
account of their lasting properties make them very valuable
in the construction of buildings, implements, wagons, and
fences. The hardwood region is in the Argentine and
Bolivian Chaco. Annual rainfall 1.G46 millimeters.

212 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

The most precious of the trees found in Paraguay is the
"yerba mate" (Brazilian holly, ilex paraguayensis), the
leaves of which when roasted and pulverized, or even whole,
make delicious tea substitute. The celebrated French
naturalist Bompland described the mate region thus : "The
geographical section of the 'yerba' is marked in as singular
a way as that of the jjrecious trees which yield the quinine
of Peru, and deserves mention. Take a ruler and place one
of its edges on the mouth of the Rio Grande, a river in
southern Brazil which flows into the Atlantic, and the other
edge on Villa Rica, a city of southern Paraguay; all along
this line and to the territory northeast of same for a con-
siderable distance may be found large fields of 'yerba' grow-
ing in its natural state, while on the soil lying southeast of
this line, whether at the foot of or within the mountains,
only a few widely scattered plants are found." The infusion
of "yerba mate" has thein and caffein in smaller quantities
than tea and cofifee, has stimulating properties, quenches
thirst and satisfies hunger as does the coca of Bolivia. Cases
are cited where soldiers have lived for two and three days
without any food and drinking "mate" only. It is more satis-
fying in summer, when it not only quenches thirst but makes
a cool and refreshing beverage.

Yet, notwithstanding the fact that Paraguay is one of the
most fertile countries of South America, the quantity of its
products is very small, as is the case also with its exports, due
principally to the scarcity of men, as the man power of Para-
guay was exhausted during the prolonged war which the
tyrant Lopez fought against Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay,
when 160,000 men were killed in battle and the rest were
subsequently decimated by various forms of disease —
cholera morbus, typhus and small-pox.

Principal products exported : Tobacco, timber, yerba mate,
oranges and bananas. Live bovines, salt meat and hides
are also exported.

CHAPTER XVIII

FUTURE SOUTH AMERICA

Oration Delivered by the Celebrated -Uruguayan Writer

Jose Enrique Rodo before the Chilean Congress

AT THE Centennial Anniversary of the

Independence of Chile

I should here be the voice of a people. I should be
capable to iustill it and maiutain it in my words in order to
transmit to you the intensity of emotion with which my
people share in the enthusiasm of this Centennial, for that
which this Centennial has that is American and for what
it has that is Chilean.

For that which it has that is American, permit me to
grant preeminence to this characteristic over the other.
Higher than the Centennial of Chile, than that of Argentina,
than that of Mexico, do I feel and perceive the Centennial
of Spanish America. In spirit and in facts of history there
is only one Spanish-American Centennial, for in spirit and
in facts of history there was only one Spanish-American
revolution ; and the unity of this revolution consisted not
alone in harmonious blending of men and events which con-
tributed to its realization and its dissemination over a whole
continent, but chiefly in that the historic destiny of that
revolution was not to enlighten an inorganic ensemble of
nations to remain separated by narrow sentiments of country
and nationality, but to spread over the face of the earth a
perennial harmony of peoples united by commonness of
origin, of tradition, of language, of customs and of institu-
tions, by geographical contiguity and by all things that can
possibly serve as a foundation for the unity of a collective
conscience.

213

214 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

These are, therefore, in America, the days of a great Cen-
tennial which single and complex will lengthen into two
decennials, evoking day by day in each American people, the
reminders of the independence and of the organization, that
variety of reminders which remains forever, as the most
exalted and the most sacred in the history of nations.

It could be said that an imposing assembly, which has
been gathering since the long ago, watches us and listens —
the assembly composed of those generations which created
for an everlasting future a liberated America. So, on this
unique occasion, the generations living today can make be-
fore this heroic restored past, two assertions which will
satisfy and comfort them. As testimonials to the first of
these — the unanimity and solemnity of this international
adhesion which the American Centennial incited in Argen-
tina yesterday and which in Chile it incites today, and which
assertion is to the effect that this, the so-much-discussed, so-
much-opposed, so-much-defiled Spanish America, by out-
sider's ignorance and pride and even by the scepticism of its
own children, now begins to live before the conscience of
the universe, and is beginning now to attract the attention
and the interest of the world, not for its resplendence and
spontaneity of culture as yet, not for its political influence
in the society of nations, but it has by the virtuality and
reality of its wealth, by the force and energy displayed in its
material development, which although it may not constitute
a definite proof of civilization, at least furnishes a solid
foundation as the rustic and strong origin in the organiza-
tion of peoples who some day will be giants in spirit.

For a long time after our emancipation the world failed
to recognize us, or knowing us slightly and disdainfully
refusing to know us better, it doubted us. Perhaps, some-
times, embittered by the apparent unfruitfulness of innu-
merable efforts of anguish, obscure sacrifices, we doubted our-
selves, and this cruel doubt did not forgive-^at the Geth-
semane of Santa Marta — the lacerated soul of the Liberator.
But after all, we have conquered doubt, and today our hopes

FUTURE SOUTH AMERICA 215

for the immediate future are lofty and firm and the faith
of the world begins to reward and confirm them. We were
until yesterday only a little more than a geographical name
and started to become a power ; we were a rash promise, and
started to become a reality.

Another encouraging assertion is permitted by the man-
ner in which this first century ends ; and it is, that the Span-
ish-American nations begin to show a resolute and clear
conscience in the unity of their fate, in the inviolable soli-
darity which takes root in what is fundamental of their past
and lasting with the extent of their infinite future. Auguste
Comte expressed his profound faith in the future conscience
of the solidarity of humanity, saying that humanity as a
collective being does not exist as yet, but that it will some
day. Let us suppose that America, our America, that of our
family, begins to exist as a collective being conscious of its
identity. The assembling of the various Congresses, the
building of railways connecting one country with another,
the settlement of international disputes, the closer com-
munion of intellectual ties, all tend to show that a well-
developed American conscience exists.

I have always believed that in our America it is not pos-
sible to speak of many distinct countries, but of a country
single and great. I have always believed that the idea of
country is lofty, that it is the expression of what is most
ennobling in man's sensibility — love of the soil, the poetry
of memories, the ecstasy of glory and the hope of eternal life.
In America more than anywhere else is there room without
denaturalizing the idea, to magnify it, to diffuse it, to cleanse
it of what is narrow and negative, and to elevate it for the
natural virtue of what it holds that is positive and prolific.
It is proper to build above the native country the American
country, and to hasten the day when the children of today
— the men of the future — on being asked the name of their
country, they will not reply with the name of Brazil, nor
the name of Chile, nor that of Mexico because they answer
with the name of America.

216 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

Any international American politics not guided toward
this end and not adjusted to the preparation of this harmony
will be void and misguided politics.

I will repeat here what I had occasion to say recently:
When America first joined the ranks of history, it was not
only a new geographical entity that appeared on the face
of the globe. We must realize that with America came a
new spirit, a new ideal — the spirit and the ideal of the fu-
ture. Europe, the master of civilization, which has in-
structed us and nursed us in her ideas of liberty and justice,
fruit of her experience and her genius, has the right to expect
that, once relieved of the wearisome load of tradition, we
will do something more besides repeating them. She has
the right to expect that we incorporate them in reality, or
at least, that we strive energetically to live up to them. If
there were no originality in our own civilization and if we
could add nothing in the actual course of life to what is
imitated and inherited, what would the revolution of 1810
mean, in a definite way, but a superficial convulsion, un-
worthy of such praise? What else could it mean but that
we would continue to be colonies in spirit after ceasing to
be colonies in political reality?

Those who considered it an unrealizable miracle for peo-
ples to interchange relations through other means than those
of international traditions, founded on force and deceit, and
that America should be the place for its accomplishment,
forget that a greater miracle is being realized and is tangi-
ble— the materialization of this Centennial.

If little more than a century ago, or in other words, if
previous to the time of the North American independence
and the French Revolution it had been affirmed that
Democracy and the Republic as permanent forms of social
and political organizations would not only become a realiza-
tion with great and powerful nations, but that they would
extend through the whole length and breadth of a continent
and that this prodigy would be the offspring of the obscure
European colonies then submerged in the soporiferous sleep

FUTURE SOUTH AMERICA 217

of infancy, the assertion would have appeared as the most
laughable paradox.

So, when the virtuality of ideas and the energy of young
and vigorous nations have been efficient enough to transform
obscure colonies into self-possessed nations, and to implant
from one to the other extremity of a continent the advanced
forms of organization and of government which a little more
than a century ago seemed to man's common sense mere
empty Utopias, why doubt that that virtuality of ideas and
that same energy of young and vigorous nations will some
day, internationally, accomplish in America that which the
sceptics of today hold in dreams and chimeras in opposition
to the fatal laws of history: An exaltation of the idea of
country; a future of peace and love among nations; inter-
national harmony founded on the accord of the interests
of all by the loyal respect of the rights of each separate
nation?

218 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT

STATISTICS

TRADE PER INHABITANT

Yeae 1911 — (In Dollars)

Belgium $200 Germany

Great Britain 174 United States . . .

Cuba 110 Brazil

Argentine 98 Italy

France 84 Austria-Hungary .

Uruguay 80 Spain

Chile 71

$62
38
36
29
20
18

SOUTH AMERICAN TRADE

Yeab 1915 — (Million Dollars)

Importation, SS5 Millions. Exportation, 1,176 Millions,

Importation Exportation

Argentina 220 541

BrazU 146 257

Chile 55 117

Uruguay 36 76

Colombia 18 29

Peru 15 68

Venezuela 13 23

Ecuador 8 15

Paraguay 2 8

SOUTH AMERICA— EXPORTATION

1913-1916 Compared

(Union Pan-American Review)

Total

United States.
Great Britain.

Germany

France

1913
Million
Dollars
1,547
481
324
193
128

Total

761

403

173

112

47

83

36

23

10

1916

Million

Dollars

1,875

850

396

SOUTH AMERICA— IMPORTATION

1913-1916 Compared 1913

Million

Dollars

1,326

328

314

219

110

Total

United States 24%

Great Britain 23%

Germany 16%

France 8%

51%

18%

■4%

156

1916

Million

DoUara

1,037

530

190

■47

CURRENCY. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
Linear or Long Measure
1 statute mile = 1,760 yards = 5,280 feet = 5280 x 0.3048 meter = 1,609 meters 244
millimeters = 1609.244 meters.

1 nautical mile ■= 6,085 feet = 1,855 meters. 1 sea mile >= 1,885 meters.

1 fathom = 6 feet = 1.828 meters. 1 yard = 3 feet = 0.914 meter. 1 meter = 3.280 feet.

1 acre = 4,840 square yards. Square Measure

1 hectare ■= 2.471 acres. 100 hectares = 247.1 acres = 1 square kilometer.
1 square mile = 258.9666 hectares = 2 square kilometers 5 896 meters = 2.5896 square
kilometers.

1 pound = 0 kilogram 450 gram. Weight

Thermometeh
0 degree centigrade = 32 Fahrenheit. 180 degrees Fahrenheit ■■

Monet (at par) (Gold)
Uruguay — SI = 1-035 American = SI. 072 Argentine (Gold).
ChiU — $1 = 0.222 dollar. Bolivia — Boliviano «= 2.06 francs.
Peru — 5 soles = 1 English pound.
Brazil — Milreis gold = 2.75 francs.
Ecuador — 1 Sucre = $0.50. Colombia — $1 = 1 dollar.
Venezuela — 1 boUvar = 1 franc. Paraguay — $1 = 1 dollar.

100 centigrade.

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