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SOUTH  AUSTBALIA: 


ITS  HISTORY,  RESOURCES,  AND  PRODUCTIONS. 


EDITED  BV 


WILLIAM  HARCUS,  Esq.,  J.P.    ^^»  S,  '/^ 


ILLUSTRATED  FROM  PHOTOGRAPHS  TAKEN   IN  THE  COLONY. 


V^ITH  MAPS. 


rUBUSHED  BY  AUTHORTTT  OF  THC  GOVEHNMENT  OF  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA,  AND  DEDICATED 
(BT  FERMISSIOK)  TO  HIS  EXCELLENCT  SiR  AHTHOHT  MUSGRAVE,  K.CJf.Gn  ^^* 

Governor  and  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Colony. 


LONDON: 
SAMPSON  LOW,  MABSTON,  SEABLE,  &  BIVINGTON, 

CROWN  BUILDINGS,  188  FLEET  STREET. 

1876. 


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DEDICATION, 


To  His  Excellency 
SIR  ANTHONY   MUSGRAVE,   K.C.M.G., 

<jrOVEBN0R    AND     CoMMANDER-IN-ChIEF    IN    AND    OVEB    HbR     MaJESTY's 

Province    op    South    Australia    and    the 
Dependencies  thereof,  &a  &c,  &c. 

Sir, — The  following  work  on  the  History,  Keeources,  and  Productions  of 
South  Australia  has  been  prepared  at  the  request  of  your  Government,  and 
is  published  in  the  hope  that,  by  giving  useful  and  accurate  information  on 
the  Colony,  its  advantages  as  a  home  for  intending  emigrants  from  the 
Mother  Country  may  be  more  fully  made  known. 

I  gladly  avail  myself  of  your  Excellency's  kind  permission  to  dedicate 
the  work  to  you.  The  interest  with  which  you  have  watched  the  progress 
of  the  Colony  during  the  years  you  have  represented  Her  Majesty  in  this 
I^rovince  gives  me  the  hope  that  your  Excellency  will  regard  a  work  of  this 
^ind  as  useful  and  well-timed  in  the  present  prosperous  period  of  the 
Colony's  History. 

I  have  the  honour  to  remain. 

Sir, 

Your  Excellency's  most  humble  and  obedient  servant, 

WILLIAM  HARCUS. 

Hackney,  January  1876. 


PREFACE. 


This  volume  on  the  History  and  Besources  of  the  Colony  of 
South  Australia  has  been  prepared  at  the  request  and  is  pub- 
lished by  the  authority  of  the  Government. 

The  Commissioners  appointed  to  collect  specimens  of  our 
products  and  industries  for  the  Philadelphia  Centenary  Exhi- 
Ibition  suggested  to  the  Government  the  advisableness  of  having 
a  Handbook  prepared  to  accompany  them,  indicating  the 
subjects  to  be  treated  and  the  gentlemen  who  might  be  en- 
trusted with  their  treatment.  The  Commissioners  did  me  the 
honour  to  suggest  that  I  should  write  that  portion  which  refers 
to  the  General  History,  Government,  and  Laws  of  the  Province. 
They  mentioned  Mr.  Josiah  Boothby,  Under  Secretary  and 
GoTcmment  Statist,  for  the  Statistical  portion;  Dr.  Schom- 
Imrgk,  the  Director  of  the  Botanic  Gardens,  for  the  Flora ; 
Mr.  F.  G.  Waterhouse,  Curator  of  the  Museum,  for  the  Fauna 
and  Mineralogy;  and  Mr.  C.  Todd,  C.M.G.,  the  Postmaster- 
General  and  Superintendent  of  Telegraphs,  for  the  portion 
referring  to  the  Meteorology  and  the  Observatory. 

The  Government  acceded  to  the  request  of  the  Commis- 
sioners, and  they  asked  me  to  take  the  Editorship  of  the  work, 
which  I  at  once  consented  to  do. 

In  the  portion  for  which  I  am  personally  responsible  I 
have  aimed  at  historical  accuracy,  while  giving  a  popular 
account  of  the  progress  and  resources  of  the  Province.  How 
well  my  coadjutors  have  done  their  portion  of  the  work  will 
be  seen  by  those  who  read  the  several  sections. 

In  the  chapter  on  the  Northern  Territory,  I  have  incorpo- 
rated some  useful  papers  written  by  residents  there,  and  pre- 


VI  PREFACE. 

pared  for  publication  by  Mr.  J.  G.  Knight,  one  of  the  officers 
in  the  Territory. 

The  work  is  sent  forth  to  the  public  with  the  hope  that,  by 
giving  trustworthy  information  as  to  the  history,  progress,  and 
resources  of  the  Colony,  it  may  direct  greater  attention  than 
has  yet  been  given  to  one  of  the  largest,  most  prosperous,  and 
most  promising  Colonies  under  the  sway  of  Her  Majesty  the 
Queen  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland ;  and  that  it  mav  be 
of  service  to  persons  in  the  old  country  who  may  be  contem- 
plating a  residence  in  the  fair  Provinces  of  Australasia. 

Three  years  ago  I  published,  by  request  of  the  Govern- 
ment, a  "Handbook  for  Emigrants,"  which  has  been  largely 
distributed  in  the  United  Kingdom.  So  rapidly,  however,  is 
history  made  in  a  new  Colony  that  some  of  the  information 
given  in  that  little  work  is  already  out  of  date.  The  present 
volume  is  more  ambitious  in  its  aim  and  more  complete  in  its 
finish  than  the  "  Handbook  "  -was, 

I  have  been  considerably  indebted  in  preparing  the  volume 
to  Mr.  Anthony  Forster's  well-written  and  comprehensive  work 
on  South  Australia,  published  in  1866 ;  and  I  am  pleased  to 
acknowledge  my  obligations  to  a  writer  whose  information  is 
generally  accurate  and  trustworthy. 

Though  the  volume  is  published  "By  authority  of  the 
Government,"  I  am  responsible  for  its  contents.  The  Ministry 
and  the  Officers  in  the  various  Departments  of  the  Government 
Service  have  assisted  me  in  every  possible  way,  for  which  I 
give  them  my  thanks.  I  am  afraid  I  have  tried  the  patience 
of  some  of  them — especially  that  of  the  Government  Printer. 


W.  H. 


Hackket,  South  Australia, 
1876. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTEE  I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

PAOB 

England  a  Colonizing  Nation— Difficulties  of  Planting  a  Young  Colony  — 

Progress  of  South  Australia V 


CHAPTER  IL 

EXTENT  OF  TflE  COUNTRY. 

'  ,  '       ■     ■  ■'  '  ' 

Continent  of  Australia— Extent  of  Territory —:  N\iml?er  pf  Qolpnies*T« 
People — Britisby  Irish,  Teutonic — Extent  of  South  Australia  in 
Square  Miles — Three  Divisions  —  South  Australia  Proper,  Central 
Australia,  and  Northern  Territory  . 5 


CHAPTEE  in. 

THE  FATHERS  AND  FOUNDERS  OF  THE  COLONY. 

Origin  of  the  Colony — The  Wakefield  System  —  pombination  of  Capital 
and   Labour — The  South    Australian  Association — The  Act  — 
Principles  on  which  the  Colony  was  established  —  To  be  no  Charge        ^ 
on  the  .Mother   Country — -No  State    Church  — No    Convicts '-r-. 
Family  Emigration — Mr.  G.  F.Angas     ........       7 

CHAPTEE  IV. 

PI0NE9RS.  *   ; 

Governors — Sir  John  Hindmarsh,  Colonel  GaWler,  Sir  George  Grey, 
Colonel  Robe,  Sir  Henry  Young,  Sir  H.  G.  MacDonnell,  Sir  Dominic 
Daly,  Sir  James  Fergusson,  Baronet,  Sir  Anthony  Musgrave — The 
Administration  of  each*  Governor    .     .  •  .     .     ....     .     . '  12 


Viii  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTEE  V. 

PHYSICAL  FEATURES  OF  THE  COLONY.  page 

Productions — Fruits  and  Flowers  —  Cereald  —  Cliraste  favourable  to 
Health  —  Rainfall 18 

CHAPTEE  VI. 

CENTRES  OF  POPULATION. 

Adelaide  the  Metropolis — Site  favourable — Handsome  Streets  and 
Buildings — Port  Adelaide,  Navigation  of  River  —  Shipping  — 
Country  Towns  and  Ports  —  Mining  Townshijis 22 

CHAPTER  VIL 

GOVERNMENT  AND  LAWS. 

Three  Estates  —  Grovemor,  Legislative  Council,  House  of  Assembly — 
Early  Government  —  First  Constitution  —  Two  Houses  —  Quali- 
fications of  Members  and  Electors — Manhood  Suffrage  —  Ministry, 
Titles  and  Offices  —  Civil  Service  —  Powers  and  Privileges  of  each 
House  —  Parliament  Supreme  —  Liberal  Constitution,  worked  well 
— Proceedings  in  Parliament — Governor  follows  advice  of  his 
Ministers .     30 

CHAPTEB  Vni. 

ELECnON     OF     MEMBERS. 

Mode  of  Election  for  each  House  —  The  Ballot  —  Political  Amenities    .     42 

CHAPTER  IX. 

LOCAL     GOVERNMENT. 

Corporations  and  District  Councils,  Powers  of  each  —  Road  Boards — 
Subsidizing  Local  Rates  by  Grants  from  Public  Funds    ....     46 

CHAPTER  X. 

TUB     JUDICATURE. 

Courts  —  Constitution  of  Supreme  Court — Judges,  their  Duties  and 
Salaries — Local  Court  of  Appeals  —  Court  of  Insolvency  —  Local 
Courts  —  Police  Court  —  Coroners  —  The  Grand  Jury  —  Justices  of 
the  Peace  —  Police  —  No  Military  or  Volunteer  Force  —  Rifle  Clubs 
aud  Drill 49 


CONTENTS.  IX 

CHAPTER  XI. 

THB  LAND.  paob 

Pastoral  Pursuite  —  Squatter^s  Life  —  Wealthy  Sheep-farmers,  their 
Hospitality  —  Yaloation  and  Assessment  of  Runs — Agriculture — 
JPIrst  Attempts  at  Wheat  Growing — Land  Sold  —  Land  under 
Cultivation  —  Table  of  Land  Cultivated  under  Wheat,  Yield  in 
Bushels,  and  Average  per  Acre  —  Small  Cost  of  cultivating  Wheat 

—  Ridley's  Reaping  Machine 55 

CHAPTER  Xn. 

THE  LAND  LAWS. 

Upset  Price  of  Land,  one  Pound  per  Acre — Division  of  Land  into 
Hundreds  —  Original  Land  Laws  —  Cash  Purchasers  —  Evils  of 
Land  Broking — Strangways*s  Act — Credit  Selections  —  Surveys 

—  Conditions  of  present  Land  System  —  Success    of  System    in 
Northern  Areas  —  New  Townships  and  Ports 62 

CHAPTER  Xin. 

THE  HILL  BIVER  ESTATE. 

Combining  Agriculture  with  Stockbreeding  —  Great  Farm  —  The 
Mechanical  Appliances  for  working  it  —  Regulation  for  Workmen 
on  Estate — Success 69 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE  BEAL  PBOPERTY  ACT. 

*  • 

Sir  R.  B.  Torrens  —  Early  Struggles  to  establish  Act — Opposition  of 
Legal  Profession — Principles  of  Act  —  Transferring  Real  Estate  by 
R^istration  of  Title — Indcfeasibility  of  Title  —  Simplicity  and 
Cheapness  —  Lands*  Titles  Commissioners  and  Solicitors — Assurance 
Fond — Amendment  of  Original  Act  ^  Great  Success  of  the  Law  — 
Value  of  Property  brought  under  the  Act  —  Taken  up  in  neigh- 
bouring Colonies 75 

CHAPTER  XV. 

RAILWAYS. 

DifBculties  of  Carriage  in  a  New  Country — Macadamized  Roads,  Extent 
and  Cost — First  Railway  to  Port  Adelaide  —  Extravagant  Cost  — 
Other  Lines — Present  Extent  of  Railways  — New  Lines  in  process 
of  Construction  —  New  Lines  proposed  to  be  carried  out  —  Proposal 
to  borrow  £3,000,000 80 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

MINES-    AND     MINING.  page 

South  Australia  rich  in  Minerals — First  Discoveries  —  The  Kapunda 
Copper  Mine — The  Burra  Burra — South  Australian  Mining 
Association  —  Yorke's  Peninsula  Mines —  Wallaroo,  Moonta,  Doora 
—  Immense  Value  of  Copper  raised — Smelting  Works  —  Mineral 
Laws  and  Leases  ^Getting  up  Companies  on 'Change — Mining  a 
great  Benefit  to  Colony *     .     86 

CHAPTEE  XVII. 

THE  BIVER  MURBAY  AND  ITS  TRADE. 

Discovery  of  the  Murray  by  Captain  Sturt  —  Opening  of  River  for 
Traffic  —  Sir  Henry  Young's  interest  in  the  RiveF — Goolwa,  Port 
Elliot,  and  Victor  Harbour  —  Neglect  of  Trade  —  Efforts  of  Victorians 
to  secure  it — Railway  to  the  Murray  from  Port  A<)elAiclo  —  The 
Murray  Mouth  —  A  proposed  Canal  to  Goolwa  —  Value  of  River  to 
the  Colony 92 

CHAPTER  XVnL 

THE  TRANS-AUSTRALIAN  TELEGRAPH. 

Origin  of  Idea  —  Stuart's  Travels  —  Cable  Company's  Proposal  —  Cono- 
mander  Noel  Osbom — Act  passed  for  Construction  —  Mr.  Todd's 
Preparations  —  Difficulties  of  the  Undertaking — First  Failures—* 
Mr.  Patterson's  Expedition  —  Mr.  Todd's  Expedition  —  Completion 
of  Work  —  First  Telegram  —  Banquet  in  Adelaide  to  celebrate 
Completion  of  Work — Great  Success  —  Conflicts  with  Natives  — 
Lines  and  Cables  to  New  Zealand  and  Western  Australia     .     .     .     9S 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

EXPLORATION^ 

Captain  Sturt  —  Mn  E.  J.  Eyre  —  Eyre's  Journey  to  King  George's 
Sound — J.  MacDouall  Stuart — Victoria  Exploring  Expedition: 
Death  of  Burke  and  Wills  —  Colonel  Warburton,  John  Forrest, 
Mr.  Gosse,  and  Mr.  Ijewis  —  Hon.  T.  Elder's  valuable  Assistance  in 
Work  of  Fixploration , 110 

CHAPTER  XX. 

COLONIAL  INDUSTRIES. 

Staple  Industries  — ^Wool,  Wheat,  and  Copper — Meat  Preserving— Manu- 
facture of  Leather —  Woollen  Manufactures  —  Wine-making,  Vine- 
yards— Other  Industries — Chamber  of  Manufactures 121 


CONTENTS.  XI 

CHAPTEE  XXI. 

IMMIQRATION*         '  page 

NeoeasJty  for  Importing  Labour  —  Efforts  of  Colony  in  this  Direction  — 
Temporary  Cessation  of  Immigration  —  Wages  high  —  Good  Colony 
for  Working  Men  —  Nationalities  —  Provisions  of  Emigration  Act 
— Voyage  and  Outfit — ^Hints  to  Immigrants  on  Arrival  ,     .     .     .  126^ 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

RELIGIOUS. 

Ko  State  Church  —  Strong  Religious  Feeling — Success  of  the  Churches 

—  Sects  and  Parties  —  Places  of  Worship 135 

CHAPTER  XXIIL 

'      EDUCATION. 

First  Education  Act  passed,  1851 — Its  Principles  and  Organization  — 
Good  done  by  it  —  Colony  outgrown  it  —  Attempts  to  pass  a  New 
Act —  Now  successful — Higher  Education — University — ^Princely 
Gifts  of  Mr.  W.  W.  Hughes  and  Hon.  T.  Elder  —  Council  of 
University — Institutes 131> 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

CONCLUSION. 

ColoDization  an  Imperial  Question  —  Federation  —  No  Degeneracy  in 
Population  in  Australia  —  Advantages  of  South  Australia — Wealthy 
Colonists  —  Comfort  of  Colonists  —  No  Poverty  —  Colony  needs  to 
be  better  known  —  A  great  Future  before  it 144 

SUPPLEMENTARY  CHAPTER. 

THE  NORTHERN   TERRITOBT. 

Acquisition  of  Territory  by  South  Australia  —  First  Attempts  at  Settle- 
ment—  Failure  of  first  Party — Recall  of  Government  Resident — 
Subsequent  History  —  Survey  of  Land  by  Mr.  G.  W.  Groyder — 
Country  rich  and  auriferous  —  Gold  Mining — Tropical  Industries- 
Wreck  of  the  Gothenburg  —  Papers  on  Territory  by  Residents: 
General  Sketch  by  Mr.  J.  G.  Knight ;  Settlement,  by  Mr.  G.  R. 
McMinn ;  Climate  and  Overland  Telegraph,  by  Mr.  J.  A.  G.  Little ; 
the  Goldfields,  by  Mr.  J.  A.  Plunkett;  Indigenous  Vegetation, 
Ac.,  by  Mr.  J.  G.  Knight ;  Conchology,  by  Mr.  W.  T.  Bednall       .  148 


XII  CONTENTS. 

ADDITIONAL  CHAPTER. 

CENTRi^L   AUSTRAIJA.  pack 

Mr.  J.  A.  Giles's  Paper  on  Central  Australia — Description  of  Country 
along  Telegraph  Line  —  Pine  Creek  —  Telegraph  Stations  at 
Katherine  River,  Daly  Waters,  Powell's  Creek,  Tennant'g  Creek, 
Barrow  Creek,  Alice  Springs,  Charlotte  Waters — The  MacDonnell 
Kangea— Natives  along  Route— Supply  of  Water 187 


Flora  of  South  Austbalia.  By  R.  Schombubgk,  Phil.  Dr.,  Director  205 

The  Fauxa  of  South  Australia.    By  F.  G.  Waterhouse,  Esq.     .  281 

Mikes  and  Minerals  of  South  Australia.    By  J.  B.  Austin,  Esq.  297 

Statistical   Sketch  of  South  Australia.     By  Josiau  Boothby, 

Esq.,  J.P.,  Under-Secretary  and  Government  Statist 313 

South    Australia  :    its    Observatory    and   Meteorology.      Bj* 

Charles  Todd,  Postmaster-General,  &c 395 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


I'AGK 

1.  P06T  Office  and  Town  Hall,  Adelaide      •    .    to  face  Title-page 

2.  F1B8T  Settlement  of  Adelaide  in  the  Year  1837 1 

3.  qovebnkekx  hpube,  adelaide 12 

4.  Febn  Waterfall,  in  the  Neighbourhood  of  Adelaide  ....  18 
6.  The  Town  Hall,  and  Kino  William  Street,  Adelaide.    ...  22 

6.  St.  Peter's,  Episcopalian  Cathedral  at  North  Adelaide  ...  24 

7.  Bridge  over  the  Onkaparinga  River  at  Clarendon,  South  of 

Adelaide 28 

8.  The  Parliament  House,  North  Terrace,  Adelaide  .....  32 

9.  Geenfell  Street,  Adelaide,  with  the  Publishing  Office  of 

the  *  Begistbr,*  the  principal  Daily  Newspaper  ..*,..  34 

10.  Corner  of  Weymouth  and  King  William  Streets,  Adelaide, 

with  the  Publishing  Office  of  the  'Advertiser'  Daily 

Paper 36 

11.  Hihdley  Street,  Adelaide 42 

12.  Another  View  of  the  Town  Hali.  and  adjacent  buildings    .    .  46 

13.  The  Supreme  Court,  Adelaide 48 

14.  I'hk  Local  Court  House,  Adelaide  . ' 50 

15.  Bundle  Street,  Adelaide i52 

16.  OuLLiNA  Gap,  Country  Scene 55 

17.  Lindsay  House,   Anoaston,  the   Residence  of  George  Fife  . 

Angas,  Esq.,  forty-five  miles  north  of  Adelaide 56 

18.  Field  of  Wheat,  showing  the  Reaping  Machines  at  work    .    .  61 

19.  Bush  Scene,  near  Angaston 64 

20.  Hill  River  Farm,  the  property  op  C.  B.  Fisher,  Esq.,  showing 

Ploughing  operations 68 

21.  The  same — Sowing  oPERAtioKs. 70 

22.  The  same.  Rolling 72 

23.  The  same.  Harrowing 74 

24.  The  Imperial  Chambers,  Kino  William  Street,  Adelaide     .    .  76 


XIV  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAQB 

25.  The  Railway  Station,  Adelaide 80 

26.  The  Hahley  Railway  Bridge 82 

27.  The  Kapunda  Oppeb  Mine,  sixty  miles  nobth  of  Adelaide  .    .  87 

28.  RrvBB  MuEEAY  Steamboat,  with  Wool  barge  in  tow    ....  92 

29.  Cattle  and  Bush  Scene  keab  Akgaston 94 

30.  The  Adelaide  Plains,  viewed  from    Mount    Lofty    Range, 

looking  west 96 

31.  PuBB  MebinoRams     .........,;. 120 

32.  Hebd  of  Mixed  Cattle  and  Bush  Soenbby 122 

33.  Anotheb  View  with  Cattle 124 

34.  The  Club  House,  Nobth  Tbbbace,  Adelaide     .......  134 

35.  Model  Schools,  Adelaide •   .    .    .  138 

36.  The    South    Australian    Institute    and    Library,     North 

Terrace,  Adelaide 142 

37.  Waterfall  Scenery,  Morialta,  near  Adelaide 143 

38.  The  Waterfall  Gully,  in   the  Mount  Lofty   Range,  near 

Adelaide 146 

39.  Views  in  the  Bo1:anical  Gardens,  Nobth  Tebbace,  Adelaide — 

(1)  The  Residence   of  Db.  Schombubgk,  Dibectob  of  the 

Gabdens * 204 

40.  (2)  The  Lake 206 

41.  (3)  Labge  Gum  Tbee,  and  Native  Shbub  Plantation  .    .    .  210 

42.  (4)  Anotheb  View  of  the  Lake 212 

43.  (5)  The  Cockatoo  House  on  the  Lake 218 

44.  (6)  The  Consekvatobt 222 

45.  (7)  The  Rose  Plantation 224 

46.  (8)  The  Plantation  of  Medicinal  Plants 228 

47.  (9)  The  VicTOBiA  Regia  House .    .    .  232 

48.  (10)  The  Middle  ^ath 240 

49.  Scenery  on  the  Mount  Barker  Road 250 

50.  The  Bubba  Bubba  Copfeb  Mine 298 

51.  Ditto  Ditto 300 

52.  I'he  New  Lunatic  Asylum,  Pabk  Side,  Adelaide 336 

53.  The  Govebnmbnt  Offices,  King  William  Stbeet,  Adelaide  .    .  342 

54.  The  Bank  of  Austbalasia,  King  William  Street,  Adelaide  .    .  348 

55.  The  National  Bank  of  Austbalasia,  same  street 350 

56.  Fabming  Scene,  on  the  Gawleb  Plains,  near  Adelaide,  with 

Reaping  Machines 352 

57.  Genebal  View  of  Fabming  Implements  and  Stock,  on  a  South 

AusTBAUAN  Fabm 355 

$8.  The  South  Auqtbaijan  Reaping  Machine,  obiginally  invented 

BY.  Mb  Ridley,  a  South  Austbauan  fabmeb,  and  miller  .    .  358 


I 

I 

I 
I 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.  xv 

PAGF. 

59.'Thb  Clarendon  Vineyard,  thirty  miles  south  op  Adelaide, 

THE.PROPERTY  OF  E.  J.  PeAKE,  EsQ.,  8.M 360 

60.  shekp-shearina  operations 363 

61.  Victoria  Flour  Mill,  the  property  of  the  Uon.  W.  Duffield, 

llJi.C.,  near  Gawler  Town,  twenty  miler  north  of  Adelaide  870 
62,' Flock  of  Sheep,  with  a  magnificent  Gum  Tree  (Eucalyptus 

Glodosa) 372 

63.  Gcjmbracha  Bridge,  thirty  miles  N.E.  of  Adelaide 377 

64.  Aqueduct,  connecting  the  Old  and  New  Water  Eeservoies  .    .  378 

65.  The  Old  Reservoir  for  supplying  Adelaide  with  Water.    •    .  380 

66.  General  Post  Office,  Adelaide 382 


SOUTH   AUSTKALIA. 


CHAPTEE    I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

England  a  Colonizing  Nation — Difficulties  of  Planting  a  Young  Colony — 

Progress  of  South  Australia. 

There  can  hardly  be  a  more  interesting  study  for  a  thoughtful 
mind  than  to  trace  the  progress  of  a  young  Colony  from  its 
early  settlement  until  it  obtains  a  position  of  something  like 
settled  stability  which  justifies  the  hope  of  future  advance- 
ment. Amongst  the  Colonies  and  dependencies  of  Great 
Britain,  we  find  many  opportunities  of  tracing  this  gradual 
and  steady  growth.  No  modem  nation  has  ever  attained  the 
art  of  successful  colonizing  as  England  has  done.  Other 
nations  have  tried  it,  but  with  very  little  success.  Spain, 
Holland,  and  France  have  each  in  its  turn  attempted  to  form 
many  offshoots  from  the  parent  stem;  and  though,  in  the 
beginning,  Holland  was  moderately  successful,  she  never 
learnt  the  art  as  it  has  been  brought  to  its  present  high  state 
of  development  by  Great  Britain.  Spain  won  the  New  World, 
but  failed  in  creating  a  second  Spain  in  the  far  wilds  of  that 
wondrous  land  across  the  Atlantic.  America  owes  its  present 
greatness  not  to  the  blue  blood  of  Spain,  but  to  the  energy, 
industry,  and  perseverance  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race.  A 
"  Greater  Britain  "  spr8mg  from  the  loins  of  the  Fatherland ; 
and  no  Englishman  can  look  upon  the  great  people  now 
constituting  the  American  nation  without  pride,  while  recog- 

B 


2  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  I. 

nizing  in  them  many  of  the  qualities  which  have  grown  up 
in  the  lapse  of  centuries  in  the  Northern  Island  of  the  sea. 
France  has  also  attempted  the  work  of  colonizing,  but  her 
Colonies  have  been  military  settlements,  with  but  small 
power  of  attracting  population.  Algeria  and  New  Caledonia 
come  far  short  of  an  Englishman's  idea  of  successful  colo- 
nization. 

To  successfully  plant  a  young  Colony,  and  to  carry  it 
on  through  its  earliest  struggles  and  difficulties,  seems  to 
require  special  qualities,  physical,  moral,  and  intellectual, 
which  are  possessed  in  their  highest  form  by  the  Anglo-Saxon 
people.  It  is  a  small  matter  to  supplant  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants  of  a  barbarous  country  and  to  secure  possession 
of  their  land.  The  superiority  which  comes  from  civilization 
is  soon  acquired,  and  the  feebler  race  bends  before  the 
stronger,  as  the  reeds  bend  to  the  sweep  of  the  winds.  The 
difficulties  of  successful  colonization  arise  from  very  diflferent 
causes  than  the  mere  conquest  of  native  races.  It  is  in 
battling  with  nature,  conquering  the  soil,  holding  on  against 
capricious  seasons,  fighting  with  the  elements  and  compelling 
the  earth  to  yield  what  it  never  yielded  before — a  reward 
for  man's  toil — that  the  real  triumphs  of  an  old  people  in 
a  new  land  are  seen.  The  pioneers  of  civilization  in  every 
new  country  have  to  work  on  in  the  midst  of  untold  diffi- 
culties and  trials,  which  test  courage,  faith,  and  patience. 
A  few,  who  are  but  ill-qualified  for  such  a  life,  fall  in  the 
unequal  strife,  but  the  majority  succeed.  Steady  perseverance, 
a  brave  courage,  an  unwavering  faith  in  the  virtue  of  hard 
work,  and  an  undinimed  hope  in  eventual  success — these  are 
the  high  qualities  possessed  by  the  hardy  pioneers  of  civil- 
ization in  new  countries ;  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
these  are  qualities  which  distinguish  the  British  people,  and 
which  have  made  them  the  most  successful  colonizers  the 
world  has  ever  seen.  Of  course,  the  hard  work  is  done  at 
first.  Some  labour  that  others  may  enter  into  the  results 
of  their  labour.  As  the  stability  of  the  building  depends 
on  the  foundation  being  well  laid,  as  the  fruit  of  the  tree 
depends  on  the  seed  that  is  sown,  so  the  future  of  a  new 


Chap.  L]  PROGEESS  OP  THE  COLONY.  3 

Colony  depends  greatly  on  the  character  of  those  who  were 
the  first  to  make  their  homes  in  the  wilderness,  to  break  up 
the  virgin  soil,  and  to  subdue  the  earth.  The  character  of 
the  Pilgrim  Fathers — brave  men  fleeing  from  persecution,  and 
preferring  civil  and  religious  liberty  in  the  desert  to  bondage 
in  the  city — impressed  itself  on  the  States  of  New  England. 
That  character  has  been  modified  by  time  and  surrounding 
circumstances,  but  in  its  root-power  it  is  still  there.  The 
same  thing  is  witnessed  in  these  southern  Colonies  of  the 
British  Empire. 

I  propose  to  give  some  account  of  one  of  these  young 
Colonies,  which  has  been  planted  and  has  grown  to  its  present 
dimensions  within  the  memory  of  men  now  living,  and  who 
had  much  to  do  with  its  earliest  history.  The  Colony  of 
South  Australia  is  not  yet  forty  years  old;  it  has  a  popu- 
lation of  not  more  than  210,000,  and  yet  it  has  done  a  brave 
work  in  the  interests  of  humanity,  and  already  possesses  a 
history  of  which  neither  we  nor  those  who  established  it  need 
be  ashamed,  as  I  shall  endeavour  to  show  in  this  brief  sketch. 
As  a  social  question,  having  relation  to  the  progress  and  wel- 
fare of  civilized  states,  the  story  of  this  young  Colony's  history 
is  worth  telling.  I  want  the  reader  of  this  work  to  see  how 
A  prosperous  community,  having  within  itself  all  the  elements 
of  future  development  and  national  greatness,  has  grown  up 
within  a  generation  from  very  small  beginnings,  how  much  of 
this  is  owing  to  natural  advantages,  and  how  much  to  the 
energy,  enterprise,  and  persevering  industry  of  the  early 
pioneers.  We  have  tried,  and  not  unsuccessfully,  the  experi- 
ment of  establishing  a  free  Colony  on  a  free  soil,  where 
liberty  may  flourish  without  running  into  licentiousness 
where  the  daring  expansiveness  of  the  energetic  present  has 
not  broken  away  altogether  from  the  wholesome  traditions 
of  the  past,  where  the  freest  of  the  free  political  and  religious 
institutions  may  flourish  harmoniously  with  a  profound  regard 
for,  and  attachment  to,  the  old  monarchical  institutions  with 
which  we  were  familiar  in  the  days  of  our  childhood.  I  think 
I  shall  be  able  to  show  that  this  experiment  has  been  to  a  large 

B  2 


4  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  I. 

extent  a  successful  one.  We  have  shown  how  the  broadest 
form  of  political  liberty  can  be  enjoyed  without  lawless  excess, 
how  religion  can  be  preserved  without  a  State  Church,  and 
how  the  government  of  the  people  can  be  carried  on  by  the 
people  without  losing  our  attachment  to  the  Throne  and  Person 
of  our  Queen. 


Chap,  n.]  EXTENT  OF  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA. 


CHAPTEE    11. 

EXTENT  OP  THE  COUNTBY. 

Continent  of  Australia — ^Extent  of  Territory — Number  of  Colonies — People 
— ^British,  Irish,  Teutonic — ^Extent  of  South  Australia  in  Square  Miles 
— ^Three  Divisions — South  Australia  Proper,  Central  Australia,  and 
Northern  Territory. 

The  vast  Island  Continent  of  Australia,  formerly  known  as 
New  Holland,  comprises  somewhere  about  3,000,000  square 
miles  of  territory — only  a  little  less  than  the  territory  of  the 
whole  of  Europe.  It  is  at  present  divided  into  five  Provinces 
— ^New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  South  Australia,  Queensland, 
and  Western  Australia,  with  an  aggregate  population  now 
approaching  two  millions  of  souls.  It  is  one  of  the  richest 
countries  in  the  world ;  and  the  settlers,  principally  British, 
Irish,  and  Teutonic,  have  shown  all  the  high  qualities  of 
courage,  perseverance,  industry,  and  hopefulness  which  cha- 
racterize the  iBjce  from  which  they  spring. 

South  Australia  is  neither  the  oldest  nor  the  youngest  of 
the  Australian  sisterhood  of  Colonies.  It  was  founded  in  the 
year  1836,  and  several  of  the  first  colonists  still  remain  to  see 
the  results  of  their  early  labours.  AlS  originally  settled,  the 
Colony  contained  383,328  square  miles,  or  245,329,920  acres ; 
but  since  then  it  has  received  two  large  accessions  of  territory 
— ^the  first,  a  strip  of  land  lying  between  its  western  boundary 
and  the  eastern  boundary  of  Western  Australia;  and  the 
second,  a  large  tract  of  country  stretching  northwards  from 
the  26th  peirallel  of  south  latitude  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  and 
from  the  129th  to  the  138th  degrees  of  east  longitude.  The 
first  addition  was  known  as  "No    Man's    Land,"   and  the 


6  SOUTH  AUSTEALIA.  [Chap.  II. 

second  is  now  known  as  the  Northern  Territory.  The  Colony- 
may  be  regarded  as  comprising  three  divisions — South 
Australia  proper,  Central  Australia,  and  the  Northern  Terri- 
tory— and  it  stretches  across  the  whole  continent  from  the 
Southern  Ocean  to  the  Indian  Ocean — the  total  area  com- 
prising 914,730  square  miles,  or  585,427,200  acres. 


Chap.  HI.]  ORIGIN  OP  THE  COLONY. 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE  FATHEBS  AND  POXJNDEBS  OP  THE  COLONY. 

Origin  of  the  Colony — ^The  Wakefield  System — Combination  of  Capital  and 
Labour — ^The  South  Australian  Association — ^The  Act — ^Principles  on 
which  the  Colony  was  Established — ^I'o  be  no  Charge  on  the  Mother 
Country  —  No  State  Chimih  —  No  Convicts  —  Family  Emigration — 
Mr.  O.  F.  Angas. 

The  settlement  of  South  Australia  as  a  separate*  and  distinct 
Colony  originated  with  a  few  gentlemen  in  London.  Nego- 
tiations were  opened  with  the  Imperial  Government  in  1831 
with  a  view  to  obtaining  a  charter  giving  certain  concessions 
to  the  projectors.  Possibly  from  the  affair  not  being  in 
proper  hands  in  the  first  instance^  the  negotiations  came  to 
nought.  They  were  resumed  in  1834,  when  a  meeting  was 
held  in  Exeter  Hall  for  discussing  the  principles  on  which 
the  new  Colony  was  to  be  established.  Mr.  Edward  Gibbon 
Wakefield,  an  advanced  political  economist  for  those  days, 
had  thought  out  a  system  of  colonization,  which  he  main- 
tained was  the  only  true  system  possessing  the  elements  of 
stability  and  success.  His  system  was  based  on  two  prin- 
ciples :  in  all  cases  to  sell  the  land  for  a  fair  and  reasonable 
value,  and  to  devote  the  proceeds  to  the  introduction  of  labour 
from  the  Mother  Country.  He  maintained  that  the  worst 
thing  that  could  happen  to  a  new  country  was  to  give  the 
land  away  in  large  blocks ;  and  he  found  a  striking  illustra- 
'  tion  of  this  in  the  history  of  Western  Australia.  Grants  of 
land  of  20,000  or  50,000  acres  had  been  made  to  favoured 
individuals,  but  they  had  turned  out  to  be  utterly  worthless. 
The  "  fathers  and  founders  "  of  the  Colony  of  South  Australia 


8  .    SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  m. 

resolved  to  start  it  on  the  principles  laid  down  by  Mr.  Wake- 
field, and  Colonel  Torrens  in  his  speech  at  the  Exeter  Hiill 
meeting  entered  into  an  elaborate  exposition  and  defence  of 
the  Wakefield  system.  Eeferring  to  Western  Australia,  the 
gallant  Colonel  said : — "  What  has  been  the  fate  of  the  Swan 
Eiver  Colony?  We  have  seen  that  the  combination  in  the 
Australian  Colonies,  and  in  Sydney  and  Van  Diemen's  Land, 
caused  them  to  flourish ;  but  there  were  no  convicts  sent  out  to 
Swan  Eiver,  and  the  principle  of  combining  labour  was  there 
abandoned.  Numerous  grants  were  made ;  a  single  individual 
had  50,000  acres ;  one  person,  I  believe,  had  500,000.  These 
immense  tracts  separated  the  people,  so  that  they  could  not 
communicate  at  all.  They  were  so  severed  that,  instead  of 
being  able  to  assist  each  other,  though  they  were  famishing, 
they  could  not  pass  through  the  unreclaimed  lands  to  tell 
their  state  of  destitution.  Capital  was  sent  there,  but  it  was 
unproductive.  Labourers  were  sent  there ;  some  of  these  died 
from  want,  and  the  others  went  to  Van  Diemen's  Land.  Out 
of  four  thousand  persons  only  fifteen  hundred  remain." 

Now,  the  object  of  the  originators  of  this  Colony  of  South 
Australia  was  to  combine  labour  and  capital*  They  who  had 
money  were  to  emigrate  by  means  of  their  own  resources, 
purchase  land  in  limited  blocks,  as  far  as  possible  within  given 
areas,  and  the  money  received  for  the  land  was  to  be  used  in 
bringing  out  labour.  By  this  means  it  was  believed  there 
would  be  a  healthy  combination  of  capital  and  labour,  and 
the  population  would  be  concentrated  within  certain  surveyed 
districts,  where  the  early  settlers  would  be  able  to  help  one 
another. 

At  the  outset  it  was  resolved  that  the  price  of  land  should 
be  128.  an  acre,  to  be  increased  after  a  fixed  time  to  £1  per 
acre.  Men  of  means  would  bring  out  their  money,  purchase 
land  on  which  they  would  settle,  and  with  the  money  paid 
for  it  immigrants  would  be  introduced  into  the  new  settlement, 
whose  labour  would  be  available  for  working  the  land  and 
making  it  productive.  These  preliminary  points  being  settled, 
an  application  was  made  to  the  Imperial  Parliament  for  an 
Act,  by  an  association  of  gentlemen  calling  themselves  "  The 


Chap.  HI.]      THE  SOUTH  AUSTBATJAN  ASSOCIATION.  9 

South  Australian  ALSSociation."  In  August  of  1834  the  Act 
was  passed.  This  Act  defined  the  limits  of  the  new  Colony, 
gave  power  to  persons  approved  by  the  Privy  Council  to 
frame  laws,  establish  courts,  appoint  ofScers,  chaplains,  and 
clergymen  of  the  Church  of  England  or  Scotland,  and  to  levy 
duties  and  taxes.  Three  or  four  Commissioners  were  to  be 
appointed  by  the  Crown  to  carry  the  Act  into  execution.  The 
lands  of  the  Crown  in  the  Colony  were  to  be  surveyed  and 
open  for  purchttse  by  British  subjects,  or  let  on  rent  for  three 
years — the  purchase-money  and  rent  to  be  employed  in  con- 
ducting the  emigration  of  poor  persons  from  Great  Britain  or 
Ireland  to  the  South  Australian  Province  or  Provinces. 

The  Act  was  favourable  to  the  family  emigration  system — 
a  clause  expressly  providing  that  "No  person  having  a 
husband  or  wife,  or  a  child  or  children,  shall,  by  means  of  the 
emigration  fund,  obtain  a  passage  to  the  Colony,  unless  the 
husband  or  wife,  or  the  child  or  children,  of  such  poor  person 
shall  be  conveyed  thither."  The  Commissioners  were  em- 
powered to  borrow  £50,000  for  emigration  until  the  sale  of 
lands  enabled  them  to  pay  the  cost  of  passages  for  the 
emigrants.  For  the  cost  of  founding  the  Colony  they  were 
also  empowered  to  borrow  £200,000  on  bonds,  which  were  to 
be  a  chflffge  on  the  future  revenue.  One  clause  deserves  to  be 
specially  mentioned,  because  to  it  the  Colony  owes  to  a  large 
extent  the  good  order  of  its  people  and  the  security  to  life  and 
property  which  have  distinguished  it  from  the  very  beginning. 
Clause  22  provides  "  That  no  person  or  persons  convicted  in 
any  Court  of  Justice  in  Great  Britain  or  Ireland,  or  elsewhere, 
shall  at  any  time,  or  under  any  circumstances,  be  transported 
as  a  convict  to  any  place  within  the  limits  hereinbefore 
described." 

In  the  Colonies  of  New  South  Wales  and  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  and  more  recently  in  Western  Australia,  the  taint  of 
convictism  seriously  deteriorated  the  pure  stream  of  social  and 
moral  health  of  the  community.  The  evils  of  this  system  of 
letting  the  penal  scum  and  felonry  of  Great  Britain  into  these 
new  lands  was  known  to  the  founders  of  South  Australia,  who 
were  not  ignorant  of  the  early  social  life  of  New  South  Wales 


10  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA.  [Chap.  III. 

and  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  they  resolved  that  from  the  first 
hour  of  its  history  the  new  Colony  should  be  preserved  from 
this  fatal  taint.  The  law  has  been  carried  out.  Indeed  no 
convicted  felon  from  any  part  of  the  world,  whose  sentence  has^ 
not  expired,  even  though  he  may  hold  a  ticket-of-leave,  is- 
allowed  to  live  in  South  Australia.  At  the  present  time  every 
passenger  landing  here  from  Western  Australia,  where  trans- 
ported convicts  are  still  found,  is  obliged  to  show  his  official 
clearance  before  he  is  permitted  to  take  up  his  residence  in 
the  Colony.  Another  clause  in  the  Act  provides  that  no  part 
of  the  expense  of  founding  and  governing  the  Colony  shall 
fall  on  the  Mother  Country ;  and  another,  that  if  at  the  end 
of  ten  years  the  population  of  the  Colony  shall  be  less  than 
20,000,  the  unsold  lands  shall  revert  to  the  Crown. 

This  Act  was  subsequently  amended  in  certain  particulars,, 
especially  repealing  the  authority  given  to  the  Commissioners, 
to  appoint  officers,  chaplains,  and  clergymen,  and  since  then 
the  State  has  had  no  connexion  with  any  form  of  religion  or 
church  organization.  The  first  Commissioners  appointed  were 
— Colonel  Torrens  (chairman),  Messrs.  George  Fife  Angas,. 
Edward  Barnard,  William  Hutt,  J.  G.  Shaw  Lefevre,  W.  A. 
Mackinnon,  Sam.  Mills,  Jacob  Montefiore,  Geo.  Palmer,  Geo. 
Barnes,  and  Eowland  Hill.  The  latter  gentleman  (afterwards. 
Sir  Kowland  Hill,  originator  of  the  penny  postal  reform)  sub- 
sequently  became  secretary  to  the  Commissioners.  Of  the- 
foundation  principles  on  which  South  Australia  was  established,, 
we  may  here  mention  these  three : — That  it  was  never  to  be  a 
charge  on  the  Mother  Country ;  that  there  was  to  be  no  State 
Church  recognized;  and  that  the  transported  prisoners  from 
Great  Britain  were  never  to  be  admitted  to  its  shores.  These 
three  principles  have  been  fully  carried  out.  The  Colony  has. 
been  no  expense  to  Great  Britain ;  there  is  no  State  Church ; 
and  convicts,  except  those  convicted  in  the  Colony,  are 
unknown. 

The  first  Commissioners  found  considerable  difficulty  in 
starting  their  scheme,  and  at  one  time  there  was  a  danger  of 
the  thing  falling  through  and  becoming  a  grand  failure.  To 
prevent  this,  Mr.  George  Fife  Angas,  one  of  the  Commissioners, 


Chap,  m.]  MB.  G.  F.  ANGAS.  11 

was  largely  instrumental  in  starting  the  South  Australian 
Company,  for  the  purchase  of  land  and  the  settlement  of  a 
population  on  the  land.  Mr.  Angas  is  one  of  the  best  and 
most  useful  colonists  the  Province  has  ever  had.  He  devoted 
time  and  labour  to  the  Colony  when  it  needed  the  best  assist- 
ance of  its  best  friends.  More  than  this,  he  risked  to  a  large 
extent  his  considerable  private  means  to  give  the  Province  a 
start  on  a  safe  footing.  This  venerable  gentleman  still  lives 
amongst  us,  and  he  has  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  prosperity 
of  the  community  which  he  did  so  much  to  aid  at  first.  In 
that  prosperity,  as  was  fitting,  Mr.  Angas  greatly  shared  ;  and 
now  full  of  years,  honours,  and  usefulness,  he  is  spending  the 
close  of  his  days  in  the  quietude  of  his  beautiful  Lindsay 
House,  one  of  the  loveliest  spots  in  the  whole  Colony.  When- 
ever the  history  of  South  Australia  is  written,  the  name  of 
George  Fife  Angas  must  occupy  a  prominent  position  in  its 
records. 


12  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  IV. 


CHAPTEE  IV. 

PIONEERS. 

Governors — Sir  John  Hindmarsb,  Colonel  Crawler,  Sir  George  Grey,  Colonel 
Robe,  Sir  Henry  Young,  Sir  R.  G.  MacDonnell,  Sir  Dominic  Daly,  Sir 
James  Fergusson,  Baronet,  Sir  Anthony  Musgrave  —  The  Adminis- 
tration of  each  Governor. 

The  first  Governor  of  South  Australia  was  Captain  (afterwards 
Sir  John)  Hindmarsh,  who  received  his  appointment  early  in 
1836.  Mr.  James  Hurtle  Fisher  (afterwards  Sir  James)  wajs 
appointed  Eesident  Commissioner  for  the  sale  of  Crown  Lands, 
and  Colonel  Light  was  appointed  Surveyor-General.  Colonel 
Light  arrived  at  Kangaroo  Island  in  August  of  that  year,  and 
on  December  28,  1836,  Governor  Hindmarsh  and  his  party 
landed  at  Holdfast  Bay  from  the  Buffalo,  and  under  a  venerable 
gum  tree,  a  short  distance  from  the  shore,  the  Members  of  the 
Council  and  other  officers  were  collected,  and  the  Orders  in 
Council  creating  South  Australia  a  British  Colony,  and  the 
Commission  of  Governor  Hindmarsh,  were  read.  This  is  our 
commemoration  day;  and  on  the  28th  of  December  every 
year  very  large  crowds  of  persons,  from  various  parts  of  the 
Colony,  assemble  at  Glenelg — a  marine  township  which  has 
sprung  up  in  Holdfast  Bay — to  celebrate  the  foundation  of 
the  Colony. 

When  the  oflScial  party  arrived,  there  were  considerable 
disputes  as  to  the  site  of  the  capital  city.  Colonel  Light  from 
the  first  fixed  upon  the  spot  where  the  City  of  Adelaide  now 
stands ;  although  an  influential  party  were  in  favour  of  En- 
counter Bay,  outside  the  Gulf  of  St.  Vincent.  Happily  the 
Surveyor-General  carried  his  point,  and  subsequent  experience 


Chap.  IV.]  HINDMAESH— GAWLER— GEEY.  13 

has  shown  that  he  was  right,  as  I  shall  prove  when  I  refer 
more  at  length  to  the  metropolis. 

The  dual  government  by  Governor  and  Eesident  Commis- 
sioner, as  might  have  been  expected,  did  not  work  well,  and 
grievous  divisions  soon  occurred  amongst  the  officials.  After 
only  fourteen  months'  term  of  oflSce,  Governor  Hindmarsh  was 
recalled,  and  was  succeeded  by  Colonel  Gawler,  in  whom  the 
sole  authority  vested — the  services  of  Mr.  Fisher,  as  Resident 
Commissioner,  being  dispensed  with.  During  Colonel  Gawler's 
administration,  the  Colony  passed  through  the  greatest  trials 
and  difficulties  it  has  had  to  encounter.  Financial  embarrass- 
ments— ^the  results  of  folly  and  extravagance — threatened  and 
almost  accomplished  the  complete  destruction  of  the  settle- 
m^it.  Money  was  scarce,  and  labour,  which  ought  to  have 
been  productively  employed  in  developing  the  resources  of 
the  Colony,  was  concentrated  in  the  city,  where  men,  instead 
of  producing  something  from  the  land,  lived  on  each  other. 
To  save  the  Colony,  Governor  Gawler  commenced  extensive 
public  works,  to  pay  for  which  he  drew  upon  the  Lords  of  the 
Treasury,  and  had  his  bills  returned  to  him  dishonoured. 
This  was  not  to  be  wondered  at,  for,  as  we  have  seen,  one 
principle  on  which  the  Colony  was  founded  was  that  it  was  not 
to  cost  the  Mother  Country  one  penny.  The  money  was  sub- 
sequently advanced  by  the  Imperial  authorities  as  a  loan,  and 
the  difficulty  was  tided  over.  Probably  Governor  Gawler  did 
the  best  he  could  under  the  circumstances;  but  the  Home 
Government  were  dissatisfied  with  his  administration,  and 
treated  him  in  a  somewhat  scurvy  manner.  Captain  George 
Grey,  a  young  officer  who  had  been  exploring  in  Western 
Australia,  on  May  10,  1841,  walked  into  Government  House, 
and  presented  to  Colonel  Gawler  a  commission  appointing  him 
(Captain  Grey)  Governor  of  the  Province  in  succession  to 
Colonel  Gawler. 

However  hard  this  might  have  been  for  Governor  Gawler, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  it  was  of  great  advantage  to  the 
Colony.  Captain  Grey  began  his  administration  by  the  dis- 
play of  those  high  qualities  of  prudence,  firmness,  and  decision 


14  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  IV. 

which  he  subsequently  exhibited  at  the  Cape  and  in  New 
Zealand.  He  commenced  a  policy  of  retrenchment,  which,  as 
a  matter  of  course,  exposed  him  to  a  great  deal  of  obloquy 
and  misrepresentation.  The  wages  of  those  employed  by  the 
Oovemment  were  cut  down  to  the  lowest  point ;  and  this 
forced  the  labour,  which  was  far  too  much  concentrated  in  the 
"city,  into  the  hands  of  private  employers.  The  eflfect  of  this 
wholesome  action  was  soon  seen.  Working  men,  who  had 
been  hanging  about  the  city,  went  into  the  country,  and  the 
land  was  brought  under  cultivation.  One  important  improve- 
ment in  the  government  of  the  Colony  was  made  at  the  time 
Oaptain  Grey  became  Governor.  The  Commissioners  were  dis- 
pensed with,  and  the  Home  Government  undertook  the  direct 
management  of  the  Colony.  A  new  direction  was  given  to  the 
industry  of  the  colonists;  and  when  they  became  convinced 
that  their  success  lay  in  subduing  the  earth,  in  cultivating  the 
soil,  and  in  pastoral  pursuits,  a  new  impulse  was  given  to  their 
•energies.  The  necessaries  of  life  became  cheap  ;  and,  although 
money  was  not  over-plentiful,  beef,  mutton,  and  flour  were 
•cheap,  and  there  was  neither  want  nor  complaining  amongst 
the  people.  Governor  Grey's  administration  will  always  be 
remembered  with  satisfaction  and  gratitude.  He  first  inspired 
the  people  with  a  feeling  of  self-reliance,  and  taught  them  to 
live  within  their  means. 

He  was  succeeded  by  Colonel  Eobe,  a  man  very  diflferent 
from  Captain  Grey.  Governor  Eobe  was  a  respectable, 
honourable,  upright  English  Tory.  All  his  prepossessions 
and  traditions  were  on  the  side  of  authority,  which  his  mili- 
tary training  had  deepened  and  intensified.  He  looked  with 
something  like  contempt,  which  he  took  no  pains  to  disguise, 
at  the  liberal  tendencies  of  the  handful  of  people  he  had  been 
sent  to  govern  in  the  Queen's  name.  He  tried  to  govern  by  a 
small  clique  of  men  who  had  but  little  sympathy  with  the 
bulk  of  the  colonists.  The  poor  Governor  lived  in  hot  water 
during  the  whole  of  his  administration.  The  colonists  refused 
to  be  treated  as  children;  and,  as  he  did  not  respect  their 
rights,  they  paid  no  attention  to  his  feelings.    He  was  very 


Chap.  IV.]  ROBE—YOUNG— MACDONNELL.  15 

weary  of   his  office  before  he  was  relieved  by  the  Home 
Goveniinent. 

He  was  succeeded  by  Sir  Henry  Young,  who  was  a  different 
stamp  of  man  altogether  from  his  predecessor.  He  entered 
very  heartily  into  all  those  schemes  which  were  likely  to  assist 
in  the  government  and  development  of  the  Colony.  One  of 
the  most  important  events  that  took  place  in  Governor 
Young's  time  was  the  opening  of  the  River  Murray  for  navi- 
gation. I  shall  have  something  to  say  of  this  noble  river  later 
on,  and  may  only  remark  here  that  up  to  Sir  Henry  Young's 
time  it  had  not  been  turned  to  any  useful  account.  With 
properly  constructed  steamboats,  the  river  can  be  navigated 
for  something  like  2000  miles ;  but  imfortunately  the  outlet 
to  the  southern  ocean  is  dangerous,  and  often  impracticable. 
Besides  assisting  to  open  up  the  river,  Sir  Henry  set  his  mind 
on  establishing  a  great  port  near  to  its  mouth.  A  large  sum  of 
money  was  uselessly  wasted  on  this  fruitless  attempt ;  and  the 
few  stones  which  now  lie  at  what  was  ambitiously  called  Port 
Elliot  will  remain  a  lasting  monument  to  Govertior  Young's 
unwise  zeal.  / 

Sir  Henry  Young  was  succeeded  by  Sir  Kichard  Graves 
MacDonnell;  a  man  of  very  considerable  ability  and  great 
energy  of  character.  More  than  any  Governor  who  had  pre- 
ceded him,  he  came  into  close  contact  with  the  colonists  as  a 
whole.  He  had  a  pleasant  manner,  considerable  tact,  and 
warm  sympathy  with  all  the  interests  of  the  Colony,  public 
and  private.  He  was  exceedingly  popular  during  the  whole  of 
his  administration,  and  he  left  the  Colony  amidst  the  regrets 
of  those  who  knew  him.  During  his  government,  as  I  shall 
show  more  fully  subsequently.  Constitutional  Government  was 
^tablished,  with  two  branches  of  Legislature,  both  elective. 
During  his  administration  the  Colony  made  rapid  strides  of 
progress.  The  full  energies  of  the  people  were  brought  out, 
and  wisely  directed  towards  objects  of  public  usefulness.  Our 
Bailway  system  was  greatly  extended,  the  Electric  Telegraph 
was  established,  and  Exploration  was  pushed  forward  to  a 
remarkable  degree.  New  and  valuable  copper  mines  were 
discovered  on  Yorke's  Peninsula,  which  now  support  a  popula- 


16  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  IY- 

tion  of  some  20,000  persons,  and  farming  operations  were 
largely  extended. 

In  March,  1862,  Sir  Eichard  was  succeeded  by  Sir  Dominic 
Daly,  a  man  of  great  official  experience,  an  excellent  adminis- 
trator, and  a  very  popular  Governor.  He  wais  a  Roman 
Catholic ;  he  kept  his  religious  views  to  himself,  and  never 
obtruded  them  into  the  region  of  politics.  He  was  accessible 
to  all  classes  of  the  community,  and  identified  himself  with 
everything  likely  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  colonists.  He 
died  in  the  Colony,  and  was  deeply  mourned  by  all  classes, 
whose  loving  esteem  he  had  won  by  his  urbanity  and  quiet 
English  hospitality.  During  his  administration  the  Colony 
was  visited  by  H.R.H.  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh,  who,  it  is 
weU  known,  formed  a  high  opinion  of  the  cheery  and  kind- 
hearted  old  gentleman. 

During  the  interregnum  between  Sir  Dominic's  death  and 
the  arrival  of  his  successor,  the  Eight  Honourable  Sir  James 
Fergusson,  Bart.,  the  Government  was  administered  by 
Lieutenant-Colonel  Hamley,  who  was  the  senior  officer  in 
command  of  Her  Majesty's  forces  in  the  Colony  at  the  time 
of  Governor  Daly's  death.  Sir  James  was  appointed  by  the 
Conservative  Government,  in  whose  ranks  he  had  held  office 
as  Under-Secretary  for  India  and  the  Home  Department. 
For  several  years,  he  represented  Ayrshire  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  Sir  James  was  free  and  open-handed  in  his 
expenditure,  and  very  liberal  in  all  his  personal  dealings 
with  the  Colony.  He  is  a  man  of  very  considerable  ability, 
a  clear  thinker,  and  an  effective  speaker.  Though,  perhaps, 
his  higher  qualities  were  not  recognized  as  they  ought  to 
have  been,  he  was  regarded  as  an  intelligent  and  a  high- 
minded  gentleman,  who  maintained  the  dignity  of  his  re- 
sponsible position,  and  creditably  represented  Her  Majesty 
by  the  liberal  administration.  The  establishment  of  tele- 
graphic commimication  between  Australia  and  Europe  was 
carried  out  during  His  Excellency's  term  of  office:  his 
efforts  to  aid  in  the  accomplishment  of  this  great  work  were 
fully  recognized;  and  shortly  after  its  completion  he  was 
promoted,  by  Mr.   Gladstone,  to  the  governorship  of  New 


Chap.  IV.]  DALY— FERGUSSON— MUSGKAVE.  17 

Zealand.  Sir  James  suffered,  while  in  Adelaide,  a  serious 
family  affliction  in  the  death  of  his  wife,  Lady  Edith  Kamsay, 
daughter  of  the  late  Marquis  Dalhousie. 

In  the  interval  between  the  departure  of  Sir  James  and 
the  arrival  of  his  successor,  the  administration  of  affairs  was 
in  the  hands  of  the  Chief  Justice,  Sir  R.  D.  Hanson,  whose 
long  residence  in  the  Colony  and  thorough  acquaintance 
with  its  public  affairs  and  history  eminently  qualified  him 
for  the  position  he  temporarily  occupied.  I  may  add  that 
Mr.  G.  M.  Stephen  and  the  Honourable  B.  T.  Finniss  each 
discharged  the  duty  of  Acting  Governor,  at  different  times, 
under  circumstances  similar  to  those  under  which  Sir*  R.  D. 
Hanson  acted. 

The  present  Governor  of  the  Colony  is  Sir  Anthony  Mus- 
grave,  K.C.M.G.,  about  whom  it  would  not  be  fitting  that 
much  should  be  said  here.  He  is  a  quiet,  scholarly  gentle- 
man, who  does  his  work  without  ostentation ;  and  those  who 
are  brought  into  close  official  contact  with  him  speak  highly 
of  his  urbanity  and  ability.  We  may  state  that  the  salary 
paid  to  the  last  three  Governors  has  been  £5000  a  year,  the 
Private  Secretary  receiving  £500,  and  the  Aide-de-Camp  £150, 


18  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  V. 


CHAPTEE    V. 

PHYSICAL  FEATURES   OF  THE  COLONY. 

ProducCions — ^Fruits  and  Flowers — Cereals — Climate  favourable  to  Health — 

Bainfall. 

I  HAVE  already  stated  that  the  total  area  of  the  Colony, 
stretching  from  ocean  to  ocean,  comprises  914,730  square 
miles,  or  585,427,200  acres.  A  country  so  large,  covering 
so  many  square  miles,  has,  as  a  matter  of  course,  a  great 
diversity  in  its  physical  features.  Magnificent  plains  of 
agricultural  land,  mountain  ranges,  stretching  for  hundreds 
of  miles,  and  often  covered  with  large  timber,  chiefly  euca- 
lyptus, and  lovely  and  enchanting  valleys,  through  which 
in  winter  creeks — in  some  instances  deserving  the  name  of 
rivers — run.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  in  several  parts 
of  the  Colony  long  stretches  of  arid  plains  on  which  vege- 
tation is  stunted  and  cultivation  difficult,  if  not  impossible. 
On  these  plains,  however,  the  greatest  mineral  wealth  of 
the  Province  has  been  found,  and  there  is  every  reason  to- 
believe  that  the  earth  is  still  full  of  riches,  which  only 
wait  the  employment  of  capital  and  labour  to  develop. 

For  many  years,  indeed  ever  since  Stuart  completed 
his  journey  across  the  continent,  it  was  supposed  that  Central 
Australia,  as  a  whole,  was  a  wretched  country,  which  could 
never  be  turned  to  any  profitable  account.  One  result^ 
however,  of  the  spirited  enterprise  of  South  AustraUa,  in 
carrying  a  telegraph  line  from  Port  Augusta  to  Port  Darwin,, 
has  been  to  prove  that  there  is  an  immense  territory  fully 
capable  of  carrying  large  herds  of  horses  and  cattle ;  and 
already  some  spirited  young  men  have  gone  out  far  beyond 


Fbun  Waterfall. 


Chap.  V.]  FRUITS  AND  FLOWERS—CEREALS.  19 

the  fonnerly  recognized  frontier  to  commence  pastoral  pursuits, 
with  every  prospect  of  success. 

The  southern  part  of  the  Colony  is  wonderfully  productive. 
The  finest  wheat  ever  grown  in  the  world  has  been  grown 
within  a  few  miles  of  Adelaide.    At  international  exhibitions, 
both  in  England  and  on  the   Continent,  South  Australian 
wheat  obtained  the  gold  medalfor  the  finest  exhibited  by  any 
country.     But  wheat  is  only  a  part  of  our  produce.    All  the 
fruits  that  flourish  in  England  wUl  grow  well  in  this  Province. 
Apples,  pears,  almonds,  cherries,  strawberries,  currants,  rasp- 
berries, gooseberries,  rhubarb,  and  filberts  have  been  produced 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  Colony.    But,  in  addition  to  these, 
we  can  grow  in  abundance  those  fruits  which  are  only  pro- 
duced in  hothouses  in  England.    Grapes,  peaches,  apricots, 
nectarines,  and  figs  grow  in  the  open  air  with  a  small  amount 
of  culture.     Oranges  do  wonderfully  well  in  the  Colony,  with 
only  a  little  care.    I  have  seen  whole  acres  of  healthy  orange 
trees   laden  to  the  very  ground  with  the  golden  fruit.    At 
the  same  time  may  be  seen,  on  the  same  tree,  the  lovely 
orange  blossom,  the  green  fruit,  and  the  oranges  fully  ripe. 
Some  of  the  colonists  have  gone  to  great  expense  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  orange,  and  their  labour  and  enterprise 
have   been    amply  rewarded.    AJl    these    fruits,  which    are 
luxuries  to  the  poor — and  even  to  a  large  section  of  the 
middle  class — in  England,  are,  during  the  sisason,  the  daily 
food  of  the  poorest  in   South  Australia.     When  the  fruits 
are  ripe,  there  are  but  few  tables  on  which  several  pounds 
of  grapes  or  dozens  of  peaches  and  apricots  are  not  found. 
A  dozen  pounds  of  grapes  can  be  bought  in  the  market  for 
sixpence,  and  a  dozen  peaches  for  threepence  or  fourpence. 
Another  delicious  luxury  in  hot  weather  is  the  water-melon, 
which  grows  freely,  and  is  eaten  with  avidity  to  any  extent — 
especially  by  children — without  the  slightest  evil  effect.    It 
would   do  an  Englishman's    heart  good  to  look  upon  the 
breakfast-table  of  a  South    Australian  of  moderate  means, 
groaning  under  the  weight  of  the  most  luscious  fruits. 

In  the  northern  part  of  the  Colony  tropical  fruits  can  be 
produced  to  any  extent,  and  tropical  industries  carried  on  with 

c  2 


20  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  V. 

suitable  labour.  The  pine-apple  and  banana,  amongst  fruits, 
and  the  sugar-cane,  the  cotton  plant,  rice,  tea,  and  coffee  may 
all  be  produced  there — in  fact,  all  tropical  products  will 
flourish  :  and  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  these  industries 
will  be  cultivated  to  a  large  extent  with  the  facilities  which 
are  now  offered  to  settlers  by  the  Groverament,  and  to  which 
I  shall  refer  at  greater  length  by  and  by. 

The  climate  of  South  Australia  is,  unquestionably,  salu- 
brious. For  eight  months  in  the  year,  nothing  can  be  more 
delightful.  During  the  summer  months,  from  December  to 
March,  the  heat  is  sometimes  intense:  on  many  days  the 
thermometer  registers  from  105°  to  110°  in  the  shade.  But 
the  heat  is  dry^  and  therefore  does  not  produce  the  same 
exhausting  effect  upon  the  colonists  that  a  moist  heat  would 
do.  On  such  days  people  wisely  doff  their  woollen  clothing, 
and  dress  all  in  white — even  to  their  helmets  and  boots. 
Cases  of  sunstroke  sometimes  occur  in  spite  of  all  precautions  ; 
but  these  are  very  rare  compared  with  the  large  number  of 
persons  who,  without  due  precaution,  expose  themselves  to  the 
fierce  rays  of  the  burning  sim.  As  the  result  of  experience 
and  observation  I  can  say  that  even  on  the  hottest  day  men 
can  follow  their  ordinary  employments  without  excessive 
exhaustion :  indeed,  to  be  fully  employed  appears  to  be 
necessary  to  enable  them  to  bear  the  great  heat.  On  a  very 
hot  day,  the  worst  thing  is  to  lie  kicking  one's  heels  and 
doing  nothing  else.  But  a  hot  wind,  attended  with  a  dust- 
storm,  such  as  we  have  twice  or  thrice  during  the  hot  season, 
cannot  be  apologized  for — it  is  an  unmitigated  nuisance. 
These  hot  north  winds,  however,  are  happily  rare,  and  they 
never  continue  more  than  a  day  or  two.  When  the  change 
comes,  the  temperature  is  sometimes  lowered  thirty  or  forty 
degrees  in  the  course  of  an  hour  or  two:  and  the  unhappy 
wight  who  was  melting  in  the  morning  may  be  shivering  in 
the  evening.  This  is  what  we  have  to  expect  occasionally  in 
our  hot  months. 

But  nothing  can  be  more  delightful  than  the  other  eight 
months  of  the  year.  Even  when  the  heavy  winter  rains  come, 
which  flood  our  streets  and  swell  our  rivers  from  contemptible 


Chap.  V.]  RAINFALL.  21 

waterholes  to  mighty  torrents,  South  Australians  can  afford 
to  be  jolly.  In  this  Colony  rain  is  always  a  blessing.  It 
gives  the  promise,  and  is  the  cause,  of  future  wealth;  and 
the  more  rain  we  have,  the  more  abundant  is  our  agricultural 
and  horticultural  produce.  The  average  rainfall  at  Adelaide 
is  about  twenty-one  inches  during  the  year,  falling  principally 
in  the  months  of  May  to  October,  on  about  110  days.  In  the 
hilly  districts  the  fall  is  from  eight  to  ten  inches  greater.  In 
England  the  average  is  twenty-four  inches.  On  the  days 
during  the  months  when  it  does  not  rain,  the  climate  is  un- 
surpassably  beautiful ;  the  air  is  pure,  soft,  balmy,  and  cool — 
such  as  one  might  imagine  would  blow  over  "the  plains  of 
heaven."  On  such  days  mere  existence  is  enjoyment.  And 
the  climate  has  been  found  to  be  most  beneficial  in  chest 
complaints  with  persons  of  tender  lungs :  medical  testimony 
of  the  first  class  has  shown  that  the  Australian  climate  is 
quite  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  that  of  Madeira  for  persons 
with  weak  lungs.  Several  invalids  have  come  to  the  Colony 
suffering  from  asthma,  bronchial  affections,  and  consumption, 
whose  days  have  been  lengthened,  if  their  lives  have  not  been 
ultimately  saved,  by  the  dry,  pure,  and  salubrious  atmosphere. 
Of  course  persons  do  die  of  consumption  in  South  Australia ; 
but  this  is  generally  when  they  arrive  too  late,  the  disease 
having  taken  too  great  a  hold  upon  their  system. 


22  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  VL 


CHAPTEE    VL 

CENTRES  OF  POPULATION. 

Adelaide  the  Metropolis— Site  favourable — Handsome  Streets  and  Biiildings 
— Port  Adelaide,  Navigation  of  River — Shipping — Country  Towns  and 
Ports — Mining  Townships. 

The  City  of  Adelaide  is  the  metropolis  of  the  Colony ;  and, 
as  I  have  stated  before,  the  site  was  selected  and  the  city  laid 
out  by  Colonel  Light,  the  first  Surveyor-General.  It  is  situ- 
ated a  few  miles  inland  from  the  shores  of  St.  Vincent's  Gulf, 
discovered  by  Lieutenant  Matthew  Flinders  in  the  early  part 
of  the  present  century,  which  is  divided  from  Spencer's  Gulf 
by  a  narrow  tongue  of  land  running  from  the  north  to  within 
a  few  miles  of  Kangaroo  Island.  This  slip  of  land  is  caUed 
Yorke's  Peninsula,  on  which  the  world-famous  Wallaroo  and 
Moonta  Copper  Mines  were  discovered  some  fifteen  years  ago. 
A  few  miles  to  the  north  of  Holdfast  Bay  there  is  an  arm  of 
the  sea  which  runs  inland  for  ten  or  twelve  miles,  on  which  the 
principal  port  of  the  Colony,  Port  Adelaide,  stands.  Eight 
miles  from  the  Port  is  the  City  of  Adelaide.  It  Hes  on  a 
fine  plain  about  five  miles  below  the  picturesque  hills  known 
as  the  Mount  Lofty  Eange — the  Mount  itself  being  2300  feet 
high,  and  a  conspicuous  object  from  the  Gulf  and  from  the 
surrounding  country.  Adelaide  is  divided  into  two  parts — 
north  and  south — by  the  Eiver  Torrens,  which  is  spanned  by 
two  or  three  substantial  bridges.  The  main  traffic,  however, 
is  over  what  is  called  the  City  Bridge,  which  has  been  found 
too  limited  in  size  for  the  demands  made  upon  it.  A  new  and 
much  larger  one  will  shortly  be  erected  on  the  site  it  now 
occupies.     South  Adelaide  is  at  present  the  skeleton  of  a  large* 


Chap.  VI.]  ADELAIDE :  ITS  STEEETS.  23 

and  imposing  city,  though  the  vacant  streets  are  filling  up 
very  fast,  and  but  for  the  high  price  of  building  labour  it 
would  grow  much  faster.     The  city  is  about  one  mile  and 
one-third  one  way,  and  something  less  than  a  mile  the  other. 
Three  sides  form  straight  lines,  and  are  called  North,  South, 
and  West-terraces ;  the  fourth.  East-terrace,  is  irregular  in 
its  shape.     The  streets  are  all  laid  out  at  right  angles — fol- 
lowing the  points  of  the  compass.     The  city  is  surrounded 
by  a  belt  of  land  about  half  a  mile  wide,  which  is  called  Park 
Lands ;  and  the  fine  open  space  thus  secured  outside  the  city 
is  favourable  for  health.    The  citizens  are  allowed,  for  a  small 
consideration,  to  depasture  cattle  on  these  Park  Lands;  and 
on  the  eastern  side  lies  the  old  Adelaide  racecourse,  which, 
however,  is  to  be  partly  abandoned  for  a  new  one  near  to 
Glenelg,  and  on  the  line  of  railway.     La  South  -Adelaide  there 
are  five  squares,  the  principal  one  being  in  the  centre  of  the 
city,  neatly  planted  with  flowers  and  ornamental  shrubs.     This 
is  situated  between  the  Treasury  Buildings  and  the  Courts  of 
Law,  and  a  vast  number  of  pedestrians  pass  through  it  every 
day. 

Some  of  the  streets  in  South  Adelaide  are  very  handsome. 
King  William-street,  which  runs  from  north  to  south,  bisects 
the  city  in  its  centre,  and  is  one  of  the  handsomest  streets  in 
the  Southern  Hemisphere.  Here  are  found  the  Government 
OflSces — a  fine  substantial  pile  of  buildings,  forming  a  solid 
block  which  covers  a  large  area.  This  block  contains  the 
Treasury,  the  offices  of  the  Chief  Secretary,  and  Public  Works 
offices ;  the  offices  belonging  to  the  Crown  Lands  Department, 
the  Education  Department,  and  the  offices  appropriated  to  the 
Governor,  in  which  he  holds  his  Executive  Council  meetings. 
Adjoining  the  Government  buildings  stands  the  handsome 
Town  Hall,  belonging  to  the  City  Council,  with  a  lofty  tower 
of  considerable  architectural  beauty.  On  the  opposite  side  of 
the  street  is  the  Post  Office,  also  a  fine  building  with  a  lofty 
tower,  which  acconmiodates  both  the  Post  Office  and  the  Tele- 
graph Departments.  The  Town  Hall  and  Post  Office  are  built 
of  a  fine  white  freestone,  found  in  valuable  quarries  about 
fifteen  miles  from  the  city.     In  the  same  street  there  are 


24  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  VI. 

other  imposing  structures — including  the  Eagle  Chambers, 
the  offices  of  the  Advertiser,  Chronicle,  and  Express  newspapers, 
the  warehouses  of  Messrs.  D.  and  W.  Murray,  the  Bank  of 
Australasia,  the  National  Bank,  and  the  Savings  Bank — all 
buildings  that  would  do  credit  to  any  city  in  the  world.  In 
another  street  the  commodious  premises  of  the  Register,  Oh- 
server,  and  Journal  newspapers  are  situated.  I  may  state  that 
the  principal  business  is  carried  on  in  South  Adelaide — North 
Adelaide  being  a  favourite  place  for  merchants'  and  trades- 
men's residences,  'for  which  the  elevated  situation  makes  it 
admirably  suited. 

Amongst  the  most  striking  buildings  in  the  city  are  the 
churches,  some  of  which  are  very  handsome,  and  have  cost  a 
large  amount  of  money.  A  new  cathedral,  dedicated  to  St. 
Peter,  is  now  in  course  of  construction  for  the  English  Church. 
Only  part  of  the  original  design  is  at  present  being  carried 
out,  at  a  cost  of  something  like  £14,000.  When  completed,  it 
will  be  worthy  of  the  large  and  influential  body  for  whose  use 
it  is  being  erected.  Hitherto  that  Church  has  been  far  behind 
some  of  the  others  in  the  character  of  their  ecclesiastical 
architecture.  St.  Paul's  and  Christ  Church  are  good-sized 
buildings,  but  they  have  little  architectural  display ;  while  St. 
Luke's  and  St.  John's  are  very  humble  in  style.  The  Eoman 
Catholics  have  one  fine  building-— their  cathedral  church — 
dedicated  to  St.  Francis  Xavier.  It  is  possessed  of  but  little 
external  ornament,  but  its  proportions  are  fine  and  shapely ; 
and  when  it  is  completed,  by  the  erection  of  the  tall  and 
beautiful  spire,  which  is  part  of  the  design,  it  will  be  a  very 
imposing  edifice.  The  Congregationalists,  Baptists,  Wesleyans, 
and  Presbyterians  have  taken  the  lead  in  Church  architecture 
— these  bodies  having  several  noble  churches.  The  Stow 
Memorial  Church  and  the  North  Adelaide  Congregational 
Church  are  stately  and  costly  buildings  belonging  to  the 
Congregationalists,  while  the  Hindmarsh  Square  Church, 
belonging  to  the  same  body,  though  somewhat  vulgar  in 
style,  is  nevertheless  a  large  and  commodious  building.  The 
Baptists  have  two  fine  buildings,  one  in  North  and  the  other 
in  South  Adelaide,  each  of  which  has  been  erected  at  a  cost 


^ 


Chap.  VI.]  BUILDINGS  OF  ADELAIDE.  25 

of  many  thousands  of  pounds.  The  Wesleyans  covet  in  their 
places  of  worship  size,  convenience,  and  comfort,  rather  than 
outer  display ;  but  some  of  their  more  recently  erected  churches 
are  by  no  means  deficient  in  architectural  grace.  They  have 
several  good  buildings  in  Adelaide.  There  are  three  Presby- 
terian churches  in  the  city,  somewhat  pretentious  in  style,  and 
convenient  and  commodious  for  the  purposes  of  worship. 

Amongst  the  handsome  private  residences  in  the  city  the 
doctors  have  shown  most  taste.  North-terrace  is  the  site  which 
they  have  selected  as  their  local  habitation,  and  something  like 
half  a  dozen  elegant  houses  have  sprung  up  there  within  the 
last  ten  or  twelve  years — two  of  the  handsomest  recently. 
Taking  the  city  altogether,  and  remembering  that  it  is  not 
forty  years  old,  it  will  be  admitted  that  it  presents  an  exceed- 
ingly creditable  appearance.  Immediately  around  it  and  on 
its  border  line  are  some  of  our  public  benevolent  institutions. 
The  Destitute  Asylum,  the  Lunatic  Asylum,  and  the  Public 
Hospital,  are  on  North-terrace.  There  is  a  second  Lunatic 
Asylum  a  little  way  out  of  the  city,  which  is  a  striking  build- 
ing regarded  from  an  architectural  point  of  view.  But  the 
glory  of  Adelaide,  and  the  pride  of  her  citizens,  is  our  beautiful 
Botanic  Garden,  which,  under  the  magic  wand  of  the  accom- 
plished Director,  Dr.  Kichard  Schomburgk,  has  grown  into  a 
thing  of  beauty  which  will  be  a  joy  for  ever.  We  are  a  quiet 
undemonstrative  people,  not  much  given  to  what  Mr.  Anthony 
TroUope  called  "  Australian  blowing,"  but  we  do  boast  of  our 
gardens ;  and  if  this  be  a  weakness,  it  is  one  in  which  we  are 
encouraged,  if  not  justified,  by  all  visitors  who  see  them.  They 
who  have  seen  all  the  Botanic  Gardens  in  the  other  Colonies 
without  a  moment's  doubt  or  hesitation  give  the  palm  to  ours. 
Dr.  Schomburgk  has  the  clear  insight  and  creative  power  of  a 
poet ;  and  he  has  created  a  scene  of  beauty  on  which  the  eye 
can  never  feast  itself  suflSciently.  When  H.E.H.  the  Duke  of 
Edinburgh  was  in  Adelaide,  he  visited  the  Garden  again  and 
again,  and  always  with  increasing  delight. 

Immediately  around  Adelaide  there  are  several  towns  and 
villages,  the  principal  of  which  is  Port  Adelaide,  to  which  I 
have  already  referred.    Like  other  shipping  towns,  it  has  but 


26  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  VI. 

little  that  is  picturesque  or  beautiful.  Its  origin  was  a  swamp 
in  a  creek — a  most  unwholesome  and  unsavoury  spot.  But 
skilly  enterprise,  and  money  have  made  the  port  what  it  is. 
Like  some  of  the  towns  of  Holland,  it  has  been  literally  built 
up  out  of  the  sea.  Millions  of  tons  of  silt,  obtained  by  dredg- 
ing the  river  and  the  harbour,  have  been  piled  up  on  the  old 
treacherous  swamp.  Huge  sombre  warehouses  have  been 
erected,  where  the  merchants  carry  on  their  business.  Sub- 
stantial wharfs  have  been  built  at  great  cost  along  the  shores 
of  the  creek,  or,  as  it  is  now  called,  the  river.  Alongside 
these  wharfs,  three  or  four  deep,  lie  every  year  magnificent 
vessels,  whose  crowded  tapering  masts  look  like  a  forest.  The 
progress  of  the  Colony  has  attracted  a  fleet  of  fine  vessels  to 
the  Port,  many  of  them  equal  in  size  and  elegance  to  any 
vessels  in  any  part  of  the  world — ^from  1000  to  1700  tons 
register.  Until  within  the  last  year  or  two,  our  exports  have 
been  chiefly  copper  and  wool;  but  to  these  are  now  added 
wheat,  tallow,  preserved  meats,  and  mimosa  bark.  The  wool 
ships  were  long  favourite  vessels  for  passengers,  the  masters 
and  owners  laying  themselves  out  for  this  branch  of  trade. 
Very  many  colonists  go  "  Home,"  as  the  old  country  is  still 
called,  every  year,  and  the  captains  of  the  clipper-ships  who 
have  been  long  in  the  service  are  as  well  known  as  any 
Adelaide  merchant.  The  friendly  terms  on  which  the  colonists 
are  with  many  of  these  shipmasters  makes  a  voyage  home  in 
one  of  their  handsome  ships  something  like  a  pleasure  trip.  , 
The  tonnage  of  vessels  usually  trading  with  Port  Adelaide 
will  be  given  elsewhere  in  this  work ;  I  need  only  say  that  a 
stranger  would  be  greatly  astonished  to  see  what  a  large  fleet 
of  vessels  is  required  to  carry  away  the  produce  of  210,000 
people,  and  to  bring  them  those  supplies  from  the  old  countries 
of  Europe  on  which  they  are  still  to  a  large  extent  dependent. 
The  navigation  of  the  river  was  much  impeded  by  a  bar  of 
limestone  crust  about  two  miles  long,  which  prevented  vessels 
of  deep  draft  from  getting  into  the  harbour.  At  a  consider- 
able expense  this  bar  has  been  removed  by  dredges,  to  a  width 
of  200  feet,  along  the  whole  two  miles ;  and  now  vessels  draw- 
ing nineteen  or  twenty  feet  can  pass  in  and  out.     The  Marine 


Chap.  VI.]         NAVIGATION  OF  KIVEB— SHIPPING.  27 

Board,  who  have  charge  of  the  river  and  the  Port,  now  propose 
dredging  another  100  feet  off  the  bar,  which  will  give  a  channel 
of  300  feet  clear.  A  little  over  a  mile  from  the  Port,  on  the 
beach  of  the  open  Gulf,  is  the  Semaphore  Station,  where  the 
pilot  service  is  centred,  and  where  the  daily  papers  have  the 
establishment  of  their  Shipping  Eeporter.  Outside  the  Sema- 
phore Beach  is  the  anchorage  for  vessels  which  arrive  when  the 
state  of  the  tide  will  not  allow  them  to  pass  up  the  river  to  the 
Port.  They  lie  from  three  to  five  miles  off,  but  constant  com- 
munication with  the  shore  is  obtained  by  the  fine  boats  and 
steam  launches  of  Mr.  Jagoe,  the  Shipping  Reporter.  There  is 
now  a  proposition  before  Parliament  to  make  an  outside 
harbour,  with  a  jetty  and  railway  accommodation. 

About  six  and  a  half  miles  from  the  city,  in  the  opposite 
direction,  is  the  watering-town  of  Glenelg,  situated  in  Holdfast 
Bay,  where  the  Colony  was  proclaimed  in  1836.  This  is  a 
pretty  and  convenient  little  town,  with  several  handsome 
streets.  It  is  always  crowded  with  visitors  during  the  summer 
season,  and  is  now  connected  with  the  city  by  a  light  railway, 
having  trains  frequently  nmning  in  the  course  of  the  day,  so 
that  hot  and  dusty  citizens  are  constantly  running  down  to  the 
seaside  for  a  breath  of  fresh  air.  Glenelg  is  the  calling-place 
for  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Company's  mail  steamers  on 
their  voyage  both  to  and  from  Point  de  Galle.  The  steamers 
Jie  at  anchor  in  the  Gulf,  about  two  miles  from  the  jetty,  and 
the  mails  and  passengers  are  conveyed  to  and  fro  in  a  small 
steamer  chartered  for  the  purpose.  About  a  couple  of  miles  to 
the  southward  of  Glenelg  is  the  quiet  and  pleasant  little  town 
of  Brighton,  with  seaside  residences  dotted  about  here  and 
there.  Should  the  railway  be  extended  to  Brighton,  as  has 
been  proposed,  it  will  become  a  favourite  place  of  resort  for  the 
people  of  Adelaide.  Several  suburban  townships  and  villages 
lie  under  the  hills.  The  principal  of  these  are  Norwood  and 
Kensington,  Mitcham  and  Glen  Osmond.  These  townships 
being  very  pleasantly  situated,  most  of  the  handsome  residences 
command  a  fine  view  of  the  waters  of  the  Gulf — having  for  a 
background  the  Mount  Lofty  range  of  hills.  Many  of  the 
suburban  gardens  are  rich  and  beautiful,  and  vineyards  and 


28  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  VI. 

orangeries  abound.  When  the  fruit  trees  are  in  bloom,  or 
covered  with  the  ripening  fruit,  they  present  a  scene  of  rare 
beauty,  while  the  air  is  fragrant  with  the  mingled  odours  of 
"  Araby  the  blest." 

Several  of  the  country  towns  have  reached  considerable 
dimensions,  and  are  still  growing  in  importance.  Amongst 
these  I  may  mention  Gawler,  Xapimda,  Eiverton,  Clare,  and 
the  Burra  to  the  north,  which  have  been  established  for  many 
years.  But  lying  far  away  beyond  these,  on  what  are  called 
the  northern  agricultural  areas,  important  townships  are  spring- 
ing  up  where  five  or  six  years  ago  the  whole  country  was  only 
a  series  of  sheep  runs  and  cattle  stations.  Amongst  these  I 
may  mention  George  Town,  James  Town,  Caltowie,  Laura^ 
Gladstone,  and  Port  Pirie.  Four  years  ago  there  was  not 
a  house  at  Port  Pirie.  Vessels  loading  wool  lay  off  in  tho 
Gulf,  and  lighters  came  up  the  dirty  choked-up  creek  and 
carried  off  a  few  bales  at  a  time.  Now  Port  Pirie  is  an  impor- 
tant town,  with  streets  laid  out,  handsome  shops,  commodious 
warehouses,  seven  wharfs,  and  a  splendid  steam  flour-mill.  A 
railway  is  now  being  constructed  to  connect  the  Port  with  the 
country  inland,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  first  section  of  this 
line  will  soon  be  open  for  traflSc.  At  the  head  of  St.  Vincent's 
Gulf  is  Port  Wakefield,  with  a  railway  running  upwards  of 
twenty  miles  inland,  and  at  the  head  of  Spencer's  Gulf  is  Port 
Augusta,  where  several  ships  load  wool  every  year  for  the 
English  market. 

Between  the  two  Gulfs,  as  I  have  previously  said,  lies  the 
great  mining  district  of  Yorke's  Peninsula,  and  on  it  there  are 
three  fine  townships,  and  a  railway  eighteen  miles  long.  Port 
Wallaroo  is  a  thriving  place,  with  a  considerable  amount  of 
shipping,  and  very  large  copper  smelting  works,  which  support 
many  families.  It  contains  some  good  and  substantial  build- 
ings, and  a  jetty  alongside  which  vessels  of  considerable 
tonnage  can  lie.  Many  of  these  are  colliers  constantly  em- 
ployed in  carrying  coal  from  Newcastle,  New  South  Wales,  for 
consumption  in  the  Smelting  Works.  Kadina  is  six  miles 
from  Port  Wallaroo,  and  is  immediately  contiguous  to  the 
famous  Wallaroo  Mines,  which  were  first  discovered  in  1860. 


Chap.  VI.]  MINING  TOWNSHIPS.  29 

It  too  is  a  flourishing  township.    Twelve  miles  distant  to  the 

southward  is  Moonta,  one  of  the  richest  copper  mines  ever 

worked  in  any  part  of  the  world.     Here  are  two  townships 

— what  is  called  the  mining  township  and  the  Government 

township,  or  Moonta  proper.    This  is  the  largest  and  most 

important  town  on  the  Peninsula,  and  the  largest  place  of 

worship  in  the  Colony  is  a  chapel  recently  erected  for  the 

use  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodists.    Most  of  the  miners  are 

Comishmen,  who  have  a  great  attachment  to  the  religious 

body  founded  by  John  Wesley.    The  southern  portion  of  the 

Peninsula  has  been  taken  up  for  agricultural  purposes,  and  a 

considerable  population  is  settling  there.    They  have  already 

got  one  good  port  called  Edithburgh ;  and  it  is  proposed  to 

establish  a  second,  called  Ardrossan. 

To  the  east,  south-east,  and  south  of  Adelaide,  there  are 
some  important  townships  which  have  been  long  established, 
though  they  have  not  made  so  much  progress  as  those  in  the 
north  and  on  the  Peninsula.  Amongst  these  I  may  mention 
Woodside,  Mount  Barker,  Strathalbyn,  Goolwa,  Port  Elliot, 
and  Port  Victor.  Farther  to  the  south-east,  approaching  the 
border  line  between  South  Australia  and  Victoria,  are  the  towns 
of  Naracoorte,  Penola,  Mount  Gambler,  and  Port  MacDonnell, 
in  addition  to  two  other  ports — Eobe,  in  Guichen  Bay,  and 
Kingston,  in  Lacepede  Bay.  The  coimtry  around  Mount  Gam- 
bier  is  wonderfully  rich,  and  the  land,  because  of  its  fruit- 
fulness,  has  sold  at  high  prices.  Indeed  this  district  has  not 
inappropriately  been  called  "  The  Garden  of  South  Australia." 
In  addition  to  these  I  may  mention  that  there  are  a  few 
German  townships  where  our  Teutonic  fellow-colonists  have 
settled,  and  where  they  follow  various  industrial  pursuits  with 
the  perseverance  and  success  which  are  characteristic  of  the 
country  from  which  they  spring.  Hahndorf^  Lobethal,  and 
Tanunda  are  the  chief  of  these  German  towns.  The  houses 
are  built  in  the  quaint,  gable-roofed  style  which  the  Teutons 
so  much  affect,  and  present  an  exceedingly  pleasant  and 
picturesque  appearance. 


30  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  VII. 


CHAPTER    VIL 

GOVERNMENT  AND  LAWS. 

Three  Estates — Governor,  Legislative  CJouncil,  House  of  Assembly — Early 
Government  —  First  Constitution  —  Two  Houses  —  Qualifications  of 
Members  and  Electors  —  Manhood  Suffrage  —  Ministry,  Titles  and 
Offices — Civil  Service — Powers  and  Privileges  of  each  House — Parlia- 
ment Supreme  —  Liberal  Constitution,  worked  well  —  Proceedings  in 
Parliament — Governor  follows  advice  of  his  Ministers. 

The  Government  of  the  Colony  is  to  a  certain  extent  after  the 
model  of  the  British  Constitution.  We  have  not  exactly  three 
Estates — Sovereign,  Lords,  and  Commons — but  we  have  the 
representative  of  the  Sovereign  and  two  Houses  of  Parliament 
— the  Legislative  Council  and  the  House  of  Assembly.  Both 
Houses  are  elective,  but  only  the  Assembly  can  be  dissolved 
at  the  will  of  the  Governor.  Every  four  years  one-third  of  the 
members  of  the  Council  retire,  but  they  can  offer  themselves 
for  re-election.  I  have  already  pointed  out  that  in  the  begin- 
ning the  mtmagement  of  the  Colony's  affairs  was  in  the  hands 
of  a  Board  of  Commissioners  in  London,  who  were  represented 
here  by  a  Kesident  Commissioner  for  Lands.  The  Act  con- 
stituting the  Colony  provided  that  local  government  should  be 
granted  as  soon  as  there  was  a  population  of  50,000  souls  in 
the  Province.  I  need  hardly  say  that  the  attempt  to  -govern 
the  new  settlement  by  a  Board  16,000  miles  away  was  a  de- 
cided failure.  Indeed,  it  was  not  possible  that  it  could  be 
a  success.  Communication  between  London  and  the  Colony 
was  infrequent  and  irregular;  and  it  must  be  admitted  that 
for  a  few  years  the  outlook  for  the  Province  was  a  very  dark 
one.     Provoking  misunderstandings  and  unseemly  quarrels 


Chap.  VH.]  FIRST  CONSTITUTION.  31 

amongst  the  oflScers,  which  sometimes  led  to  public  scandals^ 
were  far  too  common.  Until  the  year  1851  the  Executive 
power  vested  with  the  Governor  and  a  Council  of  eight,  all 
appointed  by  the  Governor — four  of  them  being  official  and 
four  non-official  members.  The  official  members  were  really 
paid  officers  in  the  Governor's  department,  and  were  directly 
responsible  to  him.  The  real  power  was  in  his  hands — he 
possessed  supreme  control  over  the  Grown  lands,  and  he  was 
immediately  responsible  only  to  the  Imperial  authorities. 

In  1851,  however,  the  first  Constitution  was  granted  to  the 
Colony.  An  Act  was  passed  authorizing  the  formation  of  a 
Legislative  Coimcil,  consisting  of  twenty-four  members,  one- 
third  of  whom  were  to  be  nominated  by  the  Governor,  and  the 
other  two-thirds  to  be  elected  by  the  people.  The  qualification 
for  members  of  the  Council  was  a  freehold  property  of  the 
annual  value  of  £200,  or  of  the  total  value  of  £2000.  Voters 
must  possess  a  small  property  or  house  qualification,  and  a 
man  could  vote  in  as  many  separate  districts  as  he  had  the 
qualification  in.  This  Council  had  power  to  make  laws  for 
good  government,  but  it  could  not  touch  the  land.  That 
remained  under  the  personal  control  of  the  Governor.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  this  first  Council — partly  elected  and 
partly  nominated — did  a  good  work  for  the  Colony  during  its 
existence.  It  made  some  mistakes,  6ind  squandered  a  good 
deal  of  money  for  unnecessary  and  useless  purposes ;  but  on 
the  whole  it  deserved  well  of  the  Colony  during  the  few  years 
of  its  existence. 

Very  soon,  however,  the  people  began  to  agitate  for  fuller 
parliamentary  representation  and  responsible  government  in  its 
widest  scope.  The  men  who  drew  up  the  present  Constitution 
Act  held  very  liberal  views  in  politics,  and  they  went  boldly 
for  manhood  suffrage,  and  vote  by  ballot.  In  England  at  that 
time  such  a  suffrage  was  regarded  as  the  wild  dream  of  unprac- 
tical political  Chartists  and  visionaries.  There  were  a  few  of 
the  old  Tory  school  in  this  Colony  who  held  very  much  the 
same  view ;  and  great  and  glorious  battles  were  fought  by  the 
Liberals  on  one  side  and  the  Conservatives  on  the  other,  over 
the  form  which  the  infant  constitution  should  assume.    Hap- 


32  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA,  [Chap.  VH. 

pily  for  the  Colony,  however,  the  men  of  broad  and  liberal 
views  were  largely  in  the  majority,  and  the  present  Constitn- 
tion  Act  was  passed.  It  has  indeed  been  slightly  modified  in 
formal  matters  within  the  last  year  or  two,  but  in  its  essential 
principles  it  is  the  same  as  that  which  received  the  Royal 
Assent  in  1856. 

The  Act  provided  for  two    branches  of   Legislature — a 
Legislative  Council  and  House  of  Assembly;  the  former  to 
consist  of  eighteen  members,  and  the  latter  of  thirty-six.    The 
Government  is  now  vested  in  the  Governor,  representing  the 
Throne,  and  the  two  Houses  of  Parliament.     The  Parliaments 
are   triennial,  with    annual    sessions,  although    in    cases  of 
emergency  there  may  be  more  than  one  session  in  the  year. 
The  qualifications  for  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Council  are 
that  he  must  be  thirty  years  of  age,  and  must  have  resided  in 
the  Colony  three  years.    The  electors  for  the  Council  must  be 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  must  have  a  freehold  estate  of  the 
value  of  £50,  or  a  leasehold  of  £20  annual  value,  having  three 
years  to  nm,  or  must  occupy  a  dwelling-house  of  25Z.  annual 
value.     The  whole  Colony  votes    as    one   constituency  for 
members  of  the  Council — the  elections  for  one-third  of  the 
number  of  members  taking  place  every  four  years.    In  the  case 
of  the  death  or  resignation  of  a  member,  and  on  the  vacancy 
being  declared  by  the  House,  a  new  election  takes  place. 
There  are  two  admitted  defects  in  the  constitution  of  the 
Legislative  Council  which  it  is  not  easy  to  rectify.    The  first 
is,  that  in  the  event  of  their  being  pertinaciously  obstructive 
to  necessary  legislation,  there  is  no  means  of  bringing  public 
opinion  to  bear  upon  them — there  is  no  power  to  dissolve  the 
House,  and  send  the  Council  as  a  whole  to  the  constituency. 
In  this  respect  their  power  is  greater  than  that  of  the  House 
of  Lords.    If  that  august  body  proves  obstructive,  the  Sove- 
reign, by  the  creation  of  new  peers,  can  introduce  fresh  blood, 
and  thus  overcome  the  vis  inertise  of  the  obstructionists ;  but 
the  Governor  of  this  Colony  cannot  create  new  members.    The 
second  defect  is  the  expense  which  must  necessarily  be  in- 
curred in  filling  up  a  vacancy.     The  cost  of  putting  the  whole 
electoral  machinery  throughout  the  Colony  into  operation  for 


Chap.  TH.]      THE  TWO  HOUSES  OF  PAELIAMENT.  33 

the  election  of  a  single  member  is  very  considerable.  It  has 
been  proposed^  in  order  to  meet  the  first  difficulty,  that  at 
every  general  election  for  the  House  of  Assembly,  one-third 
of  the  members  of  the  Legislative  Council  should  go  to  the 
constituency,  so  that  public  opinion  on  any  question  of  special 
interest  before  the  country  might  be  brought  to  bear  on  the 
Cooncil  as  well  as  on  the  Assembly.  This  proposal  has  not, 
however,  been  very  cordially  accepted.  It  is  held  that  the 
object  of  a  second  Chamber  is  to  be  a  check  upon  hasty 
legislation,  and  that  it  ought  not  to  be  amenable  to  public 
opinion,  which  on  some  occasions  may  be  unwisely  excited. 

The  House  of  Assembly,  as  at  first  constituted,  consisted  of 
thirty-six  members,  returned  by  seventeen  districts — the  City 
of  Adelaide  returning  six,  two  districts  one  each,  and  the  rest 
two  each.  The  Electoral  Act  was  subsequently  amended, 
Adelaide  being  divided  into  two  districts,  and  the^  Colony 
being  re-arranged,  so  that  there  should  be  eighteen  districts 
in  all,  each  returning  two  members.  It  was  found,  however, 
after  the  lapse  of  a  few  years,  that  by  the  shifting  of  popula- 
lation  and  the  Opening  out  of  new  country  for  settlement,  the 
old  electoral  divisions  were  very  unequal ;  and  in  the  Parlia- 
ment of  1873  a  new  Electoral  Act  was  passed,  increasing  the 
number  of  members  of  the  Assembly  from  thirty-six  to  forty- 
six,  with  a  new  arrangement  of  the  districts.  The  Parliament 
now  sitting  is  the  first  elected  under  the  new  Act ;  and,  so  far, 
there  is  every  reason  to  be  satisfied  with  the  Act. 

The  only  qualification  for  an  elector  for  the  House  of  As- 
sembly is  that  he  shall  be  a  British-bom  or  naturalized  subject 
of  Her  Majesty,  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  and  that  his 
name  shall  have  been  on  the  electoral  roll  of  the  district  in 
which  he  votes  for  six  months.  Aliens  can  be  naturalized  by 
taking  the  oath  of  allegiance,  and  paying  a  fee  of  half  a 
guinea,  after  which,  when  they  have  been  on  the  roll  six 
months,  they  are  eligible  to  vote.  The  qualification  for  a 
member  of  the  Assembly  is  the  same  as  that  for  an  elector. 
Any  man  qualified  to  elect  is  qualified  to  be  elected,  with  two 
exceptions.  According  to  the  Constitution  Act,  Judges  and 
Ministers  of  Keligion  of  all  sects  cannot  sit  in  either  branch  of 

D 


34  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  Vn. 

the  Legislature.  There  are  sound  reasons  for  this  restriction. 
It  is  always  wise  to  keep  the  legislative  and  the  judicial  func- 
tions apart.  The  Judges  are  to  interpret  and  administer  the 
law,  and  not  to  make  it.  Nor  would  it  increase  the  wise  legis- 
lation of  the  Province  to  admit  clergymen  to  the  ranks  of 
practical  legislators.  Indeed,  we  do  not  think  that  there  are 
many  clergymen  who  would  care  to  leave  their  higher  duties 
to  come  down  and  mingle  in  the  ranks  of  those  who  fight  the 
fierce  political  battles  by  which  a  young  community  pushes  its 
way  to  national  progress  and  success. 

The  Executive  usually  consists  of  the  Grovemor  and  the 
sii  Eesponsible  Ministers  of  State,  the  Chief  Justice,  Sir 
Eichard  Davies  Hanson,  who  administered  the  Government  as 
Acting  Grovemor  before  Governor  Musgrave  arrived,  being  at 
present  the  only  person  in  the  Colony  not  a  Minister  who 
occupies  a  seat  in  the  Executive  Council.  Formerly  there 
were  only  five  Ministers  of  State — ^the  Chief  Secretary,  with  a 
salary  of  £1300 ;  the  Attorney-General,  £1000 ;  the  Treasurer, 
£900 ;  the  Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands  and  Immigration, 
and  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works,  £800  each.  An  Act 
recently  passed,  however,  increased  the  number  of  Ministers  to 
six,  and  fixed  all  the  salaries  at  £1000  each.  The  Chief  Secre- 
tary is  the  official  medium  of  communication  between  the 
Ministry  and  the  Governor  on  all  departmental  matters,  and 
has  official  precedence  in  Executive  Council  and  in  all  State 
ceremonies.  Although,  in  England,  the  person  whom  the 
Queen  sends  for  to  form  a  Government  is  almost  always  the 
Premier,  it  often  happens  otherwise  in  South  Australia.  The 
gentleman  forming  the  Ministry  can  select  what  office  in  the 
Ministry  he  thinks  proper,  and  often  elects  not  to  be  the  head 
of  the  Grovernment ;  but  if  a  member  of  the  Assembly,  he 
usually,  but  not  invariably,  leads  the  House  and  represents 
the  Government  there.  It  is  generally  held  that  one  of  the 
Ministry  ought  to  be  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Council, 
whatever  office  he  may  hold  in  the  Government.  At  the 
present  time  the  Chief  Secretary  is  a  member  of  the  Council, 
and  the  Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands  and  Immigration  is  the 
acknowledged  Premier  and  leader  of  the  Assembly.   During  the 


Chap.  Vn.]  THE  MINISTKY.  35 

last  Administration  the  Chief  Secretary  was  leader  in  the 
House  of  Assembly,  and  the  Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands 
and  Immigration  represented  the  Government  in  the  Legisla- 
tive Council,  The  offices  at  present  held  by  the  Ministers  are 
— Chief  Secretary,  Attorney-General,  Treasurer,  Commissioner 
of  Crown  Lands  and  Immigration,  Commissioner  of  Public 
Works,  and  Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Education.  The 
titles  of  the  first  five  are  fixed  by  law,  but  that  of  the  sixth 
Minister  depends  upon  the  Governor.  At  first  the  sixth 
Minister  was  called  Minister  of  Justice  and  Education;  at 
present  he  is  called  Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Education. 

Each  of  these  Ministers  is  at  the  head  of  a  department, 
having  a  staff  of  officers  under  him,  with  a  confidential 
Secretary,  who  is  a  permanent  officer.  The  Chief  Secretary 
has  an  Under-Secretary,  the  Attorney-General  a  Secretary, 
the  Treasurer  an  Under-Treasurer,  and  the  two  Commissioners 
and  Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Education  each  a  Secretary. 
In  addition  to  these  Secretaries,  the  most  important  officers 
in  the  Civil  Service  are  the  Auditor-General,  and  the  Post- 
master-General, responsible  to  the  Chief  Secretary;  the 
Engineer-in-Chief,  responsible  to  the  Commissioner  of  Public 
Works;  the  Surveyor-General,  responsible  to  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Crown  Lands  and  Immigration ;  the  Crown  Solicitor, 
responsible  to  the  Attorney-General ;  and  the  President  of 
the  Marine  Board,  responsible  to  the  Treasurer.  The  Agent- 
Oeneral  in  London  is  also  responsible  to  the  Treasurer. 

The  frequent  changes  of  Ministries  have  been  the  subject  of 
unfavourable  remarks  from  those  who  are  not  intimately  ac- 
quainted with  the  actual  working  of  Constitutional  Government 
in  these  Colonies.  There  is  no  doubt  that  there  are  blemishes 
in  our  political  system,  which  sometimes  lead  to  waste  of  time 
and  neglect  of  public  business.  The  real  fact  is,  political 
parties  in  this  colony  are  not  strongly  defined,  and  we  have 
not  yet  reached  the  wholesome  system  of  governing  by  party, 
which  has  worked  so  successfully  in  the  old  country.  We 
have  but  few  of  those  "  burning  questions  **  which  so  strongly 
divide  parties  at  home.  We  have  no  ecclesiastical  questions 
*to  trouble  us,  and  no  foreign  relations  to  disturb  us.    There 

D  2 


36  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  VH. 

is  but  little  of  what  is  known  as  loyalty  to  party.  Any  man 
who  is  strong  enough  to  get  a  majority  of  members  to  join 
him  on  any  question  has  no  hesitation  in  turning  out  any 
Government  in  order  that  he  may  be  "sent  for"  by  the 
Governor  to  form  a  new  administration.  The  result  of  this 
is  that  few  Ministries  remain  in  office  more  than  about 
eighteen  months  or  two  years.  Hence  our  frequent  changes 
of  Ministries. 

The  power  of  the  two  Houses  of  Parliament  is  co-ordinate 
in  all  respects  but  one,  and  that  is  an  important  one. 
According  to  the  Constitution  Act,  the  Bills  for  appropriating 
any  part  of  the  revenue,  or  for  imposing  taxation,  must 
originate  in  the  House  of  Assembly.  The  Assembly  have 
given  a  wide  interpretation  to  this  clause,  and  claim  for 
themselves  the  supreme  control  of  the  finances  of  the  Colony. 
They  deny  the  right  of  the  Council  to  alter  a  Money  Bill  in 
any  way,  but  claim  that  they  must  either  approve  it  as  it  is  or 
reject  it  altogether.  The  Council  deny  that  they  are  pro- 
hibited from  altering  a  Money  Bill,  so  long  as  they  do  not 
interfere  with  those  clauses  providing  for  raising  or  appro- 
priating money.  The  contentions  between  the  two  Houses 
on  this  point  have  frequently  led  to  long  and  energetic 
discussions,  and  have  sometimes  threatened  something  like 
a  dead-lock  in  legislation.  Conferences  between  the  Houses, 
however,  and  the  exercise  of  good  sense  and  a  spirit  of 
conciliation — a  slight  giving  way  on  each  side — have  hitherto 
been  sufficient  to  prevent  differences  reaching  an  extreme 
point.  If  a  crisis  of  this  kind  were  to  arise,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  sooner  or  later  the  Legislative  Council  would 
have  to  give  way.  All  the  traditions  of  Constitutional 
Government  in  England,  on  which  our  system  is  based, 
and  by  which  it  is  interpreted,  go  to  show  that  the  power 
of  the  purse  must  rest  with  that  branch  of  the  Legislature 
directly  responsible  to  the  country,  and  on  which  the  voice 
of  the  country  can  be  immediately  brought  to  bear.  I  do 
not  think,  however,  that  there  is  much  danger  of  a  question 
of  privilege  being  forced  to  its  ultimate  issue.  The  good 
sense  of  each   House    will    prevent    this.     Difficulties   will 


Chap.  VH.]  PAEUAMENT  SUPREME.  37 

arise  in  the  future  as  thoy  have  arisen  in  the  past,  but 
they  will  be  tided  over.  The  state  machine  may  jar  and 
creak  occasionally,  but  a  little  common-sense  oil  to  lubricate 
the  frictional  parts  will  soon  make  it  run  smooth  again. 

The  power  of  the  Parliament  in  the  Colony  is  as  nearly 
as  possible  absolute.  It  is  true  that  the  Governor  represents 
the  Imperial  authority,  and  that  all  Acts  passed  in  the  Colony 
have  either  to  be  assented  to  by  him  in  the  name  of  the 
Queen,  or  be  sent  home  for  the  signification  of  Her  Majesty's 
pleasure,  before  they  can  have  the  force  of  law.  But  the 
Imperial  power  of  disallowance  is  very  rarely  exercised.  Our 
Parliament  is  too  wise  to  pass  measures  repugnant  to  the 
principles  of  Imperial  legislation,  and  the  practical  result  is 
that  our  legislation  is  not  interfered  with.  We  have  success- 
fully worked  out  the  experiment  of  a  wholesome  democracy — 
the  government  of  the  people  by  the  people — as  nearly  as 
possible  to  its  ultimate  issues.  We  hold  that  the  people  can 
govern  themselves,  and  ought  to  govern  themselves,  without 
any  foreign  intervention  whatever.  The  Imperial  authorities 
tacitly  acknowledge  this,  and  practically  leave  us  to  manage 
our  affairs  in  our  own  way,  without  anything  approaching  to 
irritating  interference.  There  is  no  country  in  the  world 
where  more  political  freedom  exists  than  in  South  Australia. 
The  English  Government  have  given  us  this  great  Colony  to 
do  the  best  we  can  with  it — to  people  it  and  to  develop  its 
resources.  We  pay  nothing  to  the  Mother  Country  for  the 
privileges  we  enjoy ;  all  our  public  funds  are  spent  in  the 
Colony  and  for  carrying  on  its  advancement.  The  confidence 
reposed  in  us  has  not  been  misplaced.  We  have  caused  no 
anxiety  to  the  Home  Government,  and  that  Government  has 
exercised  no  arbitrary  power  over  us.  We  are,  as  I  have  said 
before,  a  practical  democracy,  and  yet  there  is  not  a  more 
loyal  people  in  the  British  Empire  than  we  are.  We  are 
proud  of  our  nationality  and  privileges  as  Britons — we  are 
unwavering  in  our  attachment  to  the  Person  and  Throne  of 
the  Queen.  We  are  as  much  interested  in  all  that  relates  to 
Her,  and  to  the  safety,  dignity,  and  progress  of  Great  Britain, 
as  the  people  who  live  in  Middlesex  or  Yorkshire  are.     We 


38  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA :  [Chap.  VH. 

have  always  resented  the  representations  made  by  a  knot 
of  fussy  people  in  England,  who  have  taken  upon  themselves 
to  complain  of  the  grievances  of  the  Colonies,  and  to  threaten 
the  Home  Government  with  their  secession  from  British  rule. 
We  know  little  of  these  grievances;  we  seldom  complain 
of  ill-treatment,  and  we  deprecate,  as  an  insult  to  our  inex- 
tinguishable loyalty,  any  hint  that  we  wish  to  separate  from 
the  grand  old  country,  of  whose  history  we  feel  proud,  and 
with  which  it  is  our  highest  boast  to  be  identified.  We  have 
shown  that  the  most  liberal  political  institutions  are  not 
incompatible  with  the  profoundest  loyalty  to  the  Queen  and 
Government. 

On  the  whole  our  liberal  institutions  have  worked  well. 
Good  government  has  been  carried  out,  and  the  country  has 
made  progress.  Indeed  the  marvel  is  that  our  State  Machine 
has  worked  so  smoothly  and  successfully  ss  it  has.  We  have 
no  professional  legislators.  The  men  who  have  been  called  to 
the  Parliameilt  are,  for  the  most  part,  plain  men,  who  know 
but  little  of  politics  as  a  science,  and  as  a  rule  are  but 
moderately  educated.  They  are,  I  suppose,  much  on  a  par 
with  the  men  who  first  assumed  the  Government  of  the 
United  States,  when  they  separated  from  the  Mother  Country. 
Some  of  our  members  have  shown  singular  aptitude  for 
political  work,  and  have  educated  themselves  up  to  a  high 
state  of  efficiency  and  usefulness.  Not  a  few  of  them  are  able 
speakers — strong  in  debate,  and  liicid  in  exposition.  They 
have  shown,  too,  a  large  amoimt  of  administrative  power,  as  I 
shall  show  later  on ;  they  have  brought  out  and  put  to  the 
test  of  practical  success  laws  which  have  excited  the  surprise 
and  admiration  of  other  nations,  and  have  been  imitated  by 
them.  But  perhaps  the  one  fact,  which  more  than  all  others 
redounds  to  their  credit,  is,  that  during  a  Parliamentary 
Government  of  nearly  twenty  years  no  whisper  of  corruption 
has  been  breathed  against  a  single  member.  It  is  said  that 
democratic  institutions  necessarily  lead  to  political  corruption. 
I  can  only  say  that  it  has  not  been  so  in  this  Colony. 
Members  have  schemed,  finessed,  log-rolled,  to  serve  their 
districts,  but  never    to    put  money  in  their  own  pockets. 


Chap.  VIL]  PEOCEEDINGS  IN  PARLIAMENT.  39 

Indeed  so  jealously  have  they  guarded  the  political  business 
of  the  Parliament  that,  to  avoid  all  suspicion  of  seeking  their 
private  ends,  a  majority  has  never  been  obtained  large  enough 
to  vote  for  a  moderate  payment  of  members.  We  have 
members  in  very  humble  circumstances,  who  willingly  devote 
their  time  and  labour  to  the  business  of  the  country,  without 
fee  or  reward,  and  not  a  breath  of  suspicion  has  been  raised 
against  their  public  honesty. 

The  order  observed  with  respect  to  the  introduction  and 
passing  of  Bills  through  Parliament  is  the  same  as  that  which 
prevails  in  the  Imperial  Legislature.    Where  Bills  touch  the 
revenue,  a  message  has  to  come  down  from  the  Governor,  and 
leave  to  introduce  this  has  to  be  obtained  in  committee  of  the 
House  of  Assembly.     If  leave  is  granted,  the  Bill  is  then 
presented  and  read  a  first  time  without  discussion,  the  debate 
on  the  principles  of  the  measure  being  reserved  for  a  second 
reading.    When  the  second  reading  is  carried,  the  Speaker 
leaves   the   chair,   and  the  House  goes  into   committee  for 
the  consideration  of  the  separate  clauses;   the  Chairman  of 
Committees  taking  the  place  of  the  Speaker.     When  the 
clauses  have  been  carried,  the  House  resumes,  and  the  Chair- 
man reports  to  the  Speaker  that  the  Bill  has  passed  through 
committee.     A  day  is  then  fixed  for  the  adoption  of  the 
report,  when  a  clean  reprint  of  the  Bill,  certified  by  the 
ChaLrman  of    Committees,  is  placed   in  the  hands  of   the 
Speaker,  and  either  the  report  is  adopted  or  the  Bill  is  re- 
committed for  further  consideration.     When  the  report  is 
finally  adopted,  a  day  is  fixed  for  the  third  reading,  on  which 
discussion  is  allowed,  though,  as  a  rule,  the  third  reading  is 
carried  without  debate.    The  Bill  is  then  finally  passed  and 
sent  up  to  the  Legislative  Council,  where  it  is  immediately 
read  a  first  time.    Its  subsequent  course  through  the  Council 
is  similar  to  that  through  the  Assembly.    At  the  end  of  the 
Session  the  Governor  comes  down  to  prorogue  Parliament, 
and  in  the  presence  of  the  two  Houses  he  assents  to  all  Bills 
that  have  been  passed,  reserving  such  as  he  deems  necessary 
for  Her  Majesty's  pleasure. 

On  all  general  questions  of  public  policy  and  administra- 


40  SOUTH  AUSTBATiTA.  [Chap.  VH. 

tion  the  Governor  follows  the  advice  of  his  Responsible 
Ministers.  If  his  opinion  is  at  variance  with  theirs  on  any 
matter  of  importance,  he  can  advise  with  them ;  but  in  the 
end  he  is  bound  to  follow  their  advice,  or,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  they  resign  their  positions,  and  the  Governor  has  to 
find  other  advisers.  There  is  a  good  reason  for  this.  The 
Ministry,  and  not  the  Governor,  are  responsible  to  the  Parlia- 
ment and  the  country  for  their  measures  and  administration. 
So  well  is  this  principle  acknowledged  that  members  are  not 
allowed  to  refer  in  Parliament  to  the  Governor  in  such  a  way 
as  in  the  slightest  manner  to  influence  votes.  In  practical 
working  the  Governor  invariably  follows  the  advice  of  his 
Ministers,  leaving  them  to  justify  to  the  House  the  advice 
they  tender.  There  is  one  point  on  which  the  Governor  is 
instructed  by  the  Queen  to  exercise  his  own  judgment,  even 
though  it  be  against  the  advice  of  his  Ministers ;  that  is  in 
the  exercise  of  the  prerogative  of  pardon.  When  a  man  is 
found  guilty  of  a  capital  oflPence,  and  sentenced  to  be  hanged, 
the  case  is  reviewed  in  Executive  Council,  and  the  Council 
are  furnished  with  the  advice  of  the  Judge  who  tried  the  case. 
Ministers  then  express  their  opinion  as  to  whether  the  law 
shall  take  its  course,  or  whether  there  is  any  around  for 
litigating  ^  sentence.  A,  .  ™le  the  Gove^fr  ^  hi. 
advisers  agree  on  the  matter ;  but  in  the  event  of  a  disagree- 
ment the  Governor  is  authorized  by  his  instructions  to  follow 
his  own  judgment,  but  in  such  a  case  he  has  immediately  to 
report  the  whole  of  the  circumstances,  with  the  reasons  which 
led  him  to  differ  from  his  advisers,  to  the  Colonial  Office  in 
London.  I  am  not  aware  that  any  difficulty  of  this  kind  has 
ever  arisen  between  the  Governor  and  his  Ministers  since  the 
establishment  of  Constitutional  Government  in  this  Colony. 
When  prisoners  have  obtained  the  royal  clemency,  it  has  been 
on  the  advice  of  Ministers. 

The  supreme  authority  is  vested  in  the  Parliament,  and  is 
exercised  through  the  Executive.  The  Governor,  like  the 
Queen  at  home,  has  very  little  actual  power  in  the  govern- 
ment, though,  if  he  be  a  wise  man,  he  exerts  very  considerable 
influence  both  political  and  social.     He  is  bound,  however. 


Chap.  VIL]  GOVEENOR  FOLLOWS  ADVICE  OF  MINISTERS.     41 

to  follow  the  advice  of  his  Ministers,  or  they  resign,  and  a 
Governor  who  allowed  his  Ministers  to  resign  for  such  a 
reason  would  have  great  diflSculty  in  finding  other  gentlemen 
to  take  their  places.  No  dead-lock  of  this  kind  has  ever 
arisen,  or  is  likely  to  arise,  under  the  administration  of  such 
Governors  as  are  sent  out  to  these  Colonies  now. 


1 


42  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA.  [Chap.  VIIL 


CHAPTEE  Vin. 

ELECTION  OF  MEMBERS. 
Mode  of  Election  for  each  House — ^The  Ballot— Political  Amenities. 

Our  system  of  election  is  very  simple,  and  eminently  cal- 
culated to  prerent  political  excitement  and  to  maintain  good 
order.  It  was  not  so  in  the  beginning,  for  we  brought  with 
us  the  popular  old  English  system  of  nomination  on  the 
hustings  and  open  voting  on  the  day  of  election.  I  need 
hardly  say  that,  amongst  a  people  springing  from  the  British 
stock,  we  had  at  our  elections  a  repetition  of  the  scenes  which 
used  to  make  an  English  election  such  an  amusing  and  a 
lively  affair.  Party  feeling  ran  very  high  on  the  establish- 
ment of  Representative  Government.  There  was  one  question 
which  more  than  any  other  sharply  defined  parties,  and  ex- 
cited a  good  deal  of  political  antagonism  until  it  was  finally 
settled ;  I  mean  the  State  Church  question.  I  have  already 
stated  that  one  principle  on  which  the  Colony  was  founded 
was  the  entire  separation  of  the  Church  from  the  State. 
When,  however.  Constitutional  Government  was  established, 
a  strong  effort  was  made  to  obtain  a  modified  form  of  State 
aid  to  churches.  The  most  of  the  old  colonists  resisted  this 
attempt,  and  they  were  bravely  supported  by  many  who  had 
come  to  the  Colony  later  on.  The  issue,  however,  became  the 
battle  cry  at  some  of  the  early  elections ;  and  the  scenes  which 
took  place  were  lively,  if  not  somewhat  rowdy.  The  sup- 
porters of  the  two  parties  were  ranged  on  separate  sides  on 
the  day  of  nomination;  and  when  feeling  rose  high,  sticks 
and  stones  were  freely  used  instead  of  arguments.    Not  much 


Chap.  Vm.]       MODE  OF  ELECTION—THE  BALLOT.  43 

mischief  was  done,  however;  and  a  few  broken  heads  and 
bloody  noses  were  all  the  scars  of  honour  which  excited  voters 
bore  from  the  field  of  battle. 

But  when  written  nominations  of  candidates  were  sub- 
stituted for  nominations  on  the  hustings,  and  vote  by  ballot 
was  substituted  for  open  voting,  the  rowdy  element  at  once 
disappeared  from  the  elections,  and  everything  became  quiet 
and  orderly.  Indeed,  the  complaint  now  is  that  our  elections 
are  tame  and  lifeless  to  a  fault,  and  that  political  apathy  is  in 
some  respects  worse  than  political  excitement,  even  though 
attended  with  a  few  broken  heads.  Still,  no  one  would  like  to 
go  back  to  the  old  system. 

In  an  election  for  the  Legislative  Council  the  candidates  are 
nominated  bi  writing  by  the  Returning  Officer  for  the  Pro- 
vince (at  present  Mr.  Sheriflf  Boothby),  who,  in  a  public 
meeting  called  for  the  purpose,  reads  out  the  names  of  the 
candidates  with  the  names  of  their  proposers  and  seconders.  If 
there  are  more  candidates  than  vacancies,  which  is  usually  the 
case,  the  proceedings  are  adjourned  till  a  day  named,  when  the 
election  is  to  take  place.  Candidates  are  not  allowed  to 
address  the  electors  within  twenty-four  hours  of  the  beginning 
of  the  election.  The  Setuming  Officer  for  the  Province  has 
his  deputies  in  every  polling  place  to  receive  the  votes.  In 
the  polling  room  there  are  several  private  booths,  into  which 
one  elector  only  is  allowed  to  pass  at  ^  time  to  record  his  vote. 
The  elector  enters  a  polling  booth,  and  gives  his  name  and 
residence  to  the  clerk.  If  his  name  is  on  the  roll,  he  obtains  a 
voting  paper  containing  the  names  of  all  the  candidates  in 
alphabetical  order,  opposite  to  which  are  squares — thus  Q. 
All  he  has  to  do  is  to  place  a  cross  inside  the  square  opposite 
the  names  of  the  candidates  for  whom  he  wishes  to  record  his 
vote — thuj*  1^.  If  a  voter  crosses  more  squares  than  there  are 
vacancies,  or  places  the  cross  otUside  the  square,  or  places  any 
other  mark  or  writing  on  the  voting  paper  except  the  cross 
inside  the  square,  his  paper  is  informal,  and  his  vote  is  lost. 
The  instructions  are  clear  and  simple  enough,  and  yet  at  every 
election  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  papers  are  found  on 
scrutiny  to  be  informal,  and  are  of  course  rejected.    Some 


44  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  Vm. 

enthusiastic  electors  sign  their  names  to  the  paper,  others  draw 
lines  through  some  of  the  names ;  others  record  their  effusive 
political  feeling  by  such  remarks  as  "  Jones  is  a  duffer/*  or 
"Smith  for  ever."  All  such  papers  aye  incontinently  con- 
demned and  rejected  at  the  scrutiny,  for  the  very  obvious 
reason  that  the  object  of  the  ballot  is  to  preserve  absolute 
secrecy  as  to  the  manner  in  which  any  elector  votes.  The 
elector  having  obtained  his  voting  paper,  and  his  name  having 
been  ticked  off  on  the  roll,  he  retires  into  one  of  the  private 
booths,  where  he  finds  a  pencil,  and  there,  in  complete  privacy, 
he  puts  his  cross  against  the  candidates  he  wishes  to  see 
returned.  He  then  folds  his  paper  and  hands  it  to  the 
Returning  OflScer,  who  in  his  presence,  without  opening  it, 
places  it  in  a  locked  box.  The  key  of  this  box  is  held  by 
the  Returning  OflBcer  for  the  Province,  who  alone  can  open 
the  box.  When  the  voting  paper  has  been  placed  in'  the 
box,  the  elector's  duties  are  over.  His  vote  is  recorded,  and 
the  act  is  irrevocable.  All  these  boxes  are  sealed  by  the 
Deputy  Returning  OfiScer  and  forwarded  to  Adelaide  as  soon 
as  possible. 

On  the  day  appointed  for  the  scrutiny  the  Returning 
Officer,  attended  by  as  many  clerks  as  he  requires,  proceeds  to 
open  the  boxes.  Each  candidate  may  be  represented  at  the 
scrutiny  by  a  person  to  whom  he  gives  written  authority  to  act 
on  his  behalf,  but  he  cannot  be  present  in  person.  His  per- 
sonal interference  at  an  election  ceases  some  hours  before  the 
voting  begins,  and  he  appears  on  the  scene  no  more  until  the 
result  of  the  election  is  publicly  declared. 

The  scrutiny  is  a  long  and  tedious  affair,  extending  in  the 
case  of  elections  for  the  Legislative  Council  over  several  days. 
When  the  work  is  done,  a  day  is  appointed  for  the  declaration 
of  the  poll,  and  the  result  is  made  known.  The  candidates 
present,  successful  and  unsuccessful,  then  return  thanks;  a 
vote  of  thanks  is  moved  to  the  Returning  Officer,  who 
responds ;  and  three  cheers  for  the  Queen  close  the  elections. 
The  successful  candidates  are  from  that  time,  and  during  the 
period  they  are  in  the  Council,  entitled  to  the  designation  of 
**  Honourable  '*  within  the  Colony ;   and  when  the  Governor 


Chap.  VIH.]  POLITICAL  AMENITIES.  45 

addresses  the  two  Houses,  he  addresses  them  as  "  Honourable 
Grentlemen  and  Gentlemen." 

The  order  observed  in  the  election  of  members  for  the 
Assembly  is  substantially  the  same  as  that  I  have  described, 
except  that  the  scrutiny  takes  place  and  the  poll  is  declared  at 
the  head  polling  place  in  each  district.  It  may  be  asked  how 
candidates  are  brought  into  contact  with  the  electors,  so  that 
they  may  have  the  opportunity  of  expounding  their  political 
sentiments.  This  is  done  before  the  day  of  nomination. 
Public  meetings  are  held  in  the  several  districts,  sometimes 
two  of  them  in  one  day,  when  .the  candidates  make  their 
speeches,  and  are  interrogated  by  the  free  and  independent 
electors.  Some  of  these  meetings  are  racy  enough,  and  are 
amongst  the  few  excitements  enjoyed  by  the  people  living  in 
the  remoter  districts.  As  a  rule  candidates  travel  in  company, 
and  are  on  terms  of  perfect  good  humour  and  fellowship.  They 
often  ride  in  the  same  conveyances,  stay  at  the  same  inns,  eat 
at  the  same  tables,  and  "shout"  for  each  other  and  their 
friends  in  pleasant  "nobblers."  But  on  the  platform  they 
speak  of  each  other  freely  enough — pointing  out  each  other's 
political  sins  and  shortcomings  in  vigorous  language,  and 
chaffing  each  other  unmercifully.  It  is,  however,  as  a  rule  all 
done  in  a  "  Pickwickian  "  sense,  and  difference  of  opinion  and 
keen  political  strife  do  not  generally  destroy  personal  friend- 
ship and  good  fellowship.  The  bitter  rancour  of  political 
antagonism  which  is  seen  in  some  countries  is  comparatively 
unknown  in  South  Australia.  It  is  not  that  our  public  men 
do  not  feel  strongly  on  political  questions,  but  we  are  so  closely 
mixed  up  in  social  and  business  life  that  we  cannot  afford  to 
allow  political  asperities  to  pass  beyond  the  region  of  politics. 
I  have  often  seen  two  or  more  gladiators  denouncing  each  other 
in  the  House  in  the  strongest  language  allowed  by  rules  of 
Parliamentary  debates  meet  immediately  after  in  the  refresh- 
ment room,  when  one  would  smilingly  say  to  the  other,  "  Have 
a  drink  ?"  and  the  men  who  a  few  minutes  ago  were  figura- 
tively flying  at  each  other's  throats  are  hobnobbing  like  old 
friends,  as  they  probably  are.  This  is  one  of  the  pleasantest 
and  most  creditable  features  in  a  political  life. 


•46  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  IX. 


CHAPTEE  IX. 

LOCAL  GOVERNMENT. 

Corporations  and  District  Councils,  Powers  of  each — Road  Boards — Sub- 
sidizing Local  Rates  by  Grants  from  Public  Funds. 

We  have  two  kinds  of  institutions  for  local  self-government 
— Corporations  and  District  Councils,  and  for  the  latter  the 
Colony  is  indebted  to  Governor  Sir  Henry  Young.  Very 
^arly  in  the  history  of  the  Colony  the  City  of  Adelaide  pos- 
sessed a  corporation  for  the  control  and  management  of  muni- 
cipal affairs.  At  first  it  was  divided  into  councillors  and 
aldermen — ^the  mayor  being  chosen  by  the  council  as  the  chief 
magistrate.  The  corporation  system  was  adopted  by  other 
centres  of  populations — the  Adelaide  model  being  followed. 
In  1862,  however,  a  new  Corporation  Act  was  passed,  which 
made  two  essential  alterations ;  the  office  of  alderman  was 
abolished,  and  the  mayor  was  to  be  elected  by  the  whole 
body  of  ratepayers,  and  not  by  the  council.  The  result  of 
this  has  been  that  mayors  are  sometimes  selected  from 
members  of  the  council,  but  more  frequently  from  outside. 
District  councils  consist  of  bodies  of  men  elected  by  the  rate- 
payers living  within  a  proclaimed  district.  They  have  charge 
of  public  matters  within  the  district,  more  especially  with 
district  roads.  These  dbtricts  may  be  proclaimed  on  the 
memorial  of  a  certain  number  of  ratepayers,  addressed  to  the 
Oovemor,  and  published  in  the  Gazette.  Counter  memorials 
may  be  presented  by  those  opposed  to  the  establishment  of 
a  council  in  a  given  district.  When  a  district  council  is 
formed,  it  is  invested  with  power  to  levy  a  rate  not  exceeding 


Chap.  EL]  LOCAL  GOVEENMENT.  47 

one  shilling  in  the  pound  on  the  assessed  value  of  the  pro- 
perty in  the  district.  This  amount  is  supplemented  by  an 
equal  funount — pound  for  pound — from  the  public  Treasury. 
They  who  tax  themselves  for  roads  and  public  works  are 
assisted  out  of  the  general  revenue.  The  same  rule  applies 
to  corporations — ^the  Government  must  have  proof,  however, 
that  the  money  has  been  actually  expended  on  such  works 
before  they  grant  the  subsidy.  The  system  has  worked  re- 
markably well.  It  has  fostered  the  important  principles  of 
self-government,  and  has  trained  the  people  to  help  themselves 
if  they  would  obtain  help  from  the  public  funds  of  the  Colony. 
The  members  of  the  Council  are  elected  annually,  and,  on 
the  whole,  they  do  their  work  very  well.  There  is  a  large 
number  of  these  councils  scattered  all  over  the  Colony,  and 
they  have  exercised  an  important  influence  on  the  progress 
of  tiiie  Province. 

In  addition  to  these  district  councils,  who  have  charge  of 
local  roads,  there  are  road  boards,  who  have  charge  of  what 
are  called  the  main  roads  of  the  Colony,  and  who  are  supplied 
with  funds  to  make  and  maintain  in  repair  these  trunk  lines. 
In  the  first  instance,  there  was  only  one  central  main  road 
board,  which  had  charge  of  all  the  main  roads,  and  the  members 
of  which  were  appointed  partly  by  the  district  councils,  and 
partly  nominated  by  the  Government.    This  board  has  been 
of  immense  service  to  the  Colony.    The  hundreds  of  miles 
of  fine  macadamized  roads  radiating  in  all  directions  from  the 
metropolis,  and  extending  for  hundreds  of  miles,  are  the  admi- 
ration of  all  strangers  who  visit  South  Australia.    We  owe 
these  to  the  gratuitous  labours  of  members  of  the  Central 
Bead  Board,  who  have  done  their  work  well.    As  the  Colony 
extended  its  settlement,  however,  the  fact  was  realised  that  one 
board  was  not  sufficient  for  the  duties  thrown  upon  it ;  there- 
fore an  Act  which  has  recently  passed,  and  which  has  just  come 
into  operation,  has  created  several  of  these  boards — the  first 
members  of  which  have  been  appointed  by  the  Government. 
Provision  is  made  for  their  future  appointment  by  election. 
There  is  a  growing  feeling,  however,  that,  wherever  prac- 
ticable, iron  railways  should  take  the  place  of  macadamized 


48  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA.  [Chap.  IX. 

roads.  The  roads  inyolve  a  continual  annual  expense  for 
maintenance,  which  grows  in  proportion  as  the  roads  are 
extended.  The  railways,  after  a  very  short  time,  support 
themselves.  I  shall  have  something  more  to  say  on  this 
subject  when  I  come  to  deal  with  our  railway  system  as  it  is, 
and  as  it  is  intended  to  be. 


If'':':; 


!■,  ■;( 


Chap.  X.]  CONSTITUTION  OF  COURTS.  49 


CHAPTEE    X. 

THE  JUDICATUBE. 

Courts  —  Constitution  of  Supreme  Court  —  Judges,  their  Duties  and  Salaries 
— Local  Court  of  Appeals — Court  of  Insolvency  —  Local  Courts  — 
Police  Court — Coroners — The  Grand  Jury — Justices  of  the  Peace  — 
Police  —  No  Military  or  Volunteer  Force  —  Rifle  Clubs  and  DrilL 

As  a  matter  of  course  no  community  can  exist  without  laws, 
and  laws  are  of  no  use  unless  they  are  faithfully  administered. 
Judicial  oflScers  for  the  administration  of  these  laws  were 
therefore  very  early  appointed  in  the  history  of  the  Colony. 
We  have  several  classes  of  courts,  the  highest  of  which  is 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  Province.  It  possesses  the  powers 
of  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas, 
and  the  Court  of  Exchequer,  though  these  are  modified  to 
some  extent  to  meet  the  special  circumstances  of  the  Colony. 
We  have  also  a  Court  of  Equity,  answering  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable to  the  Court  of  Chancery  at  home.  The  Supreme 
Court  has  Three  Judges  —  a  Chief  Justice,  and  a  Second 
and  a  Third  Judge.  In  addition  to  his  other  duties,  one 
of  the  Judges,  at  present  the  Second,  has  also  to  discharge 
the  duties  of  the  Judge-in-Equity.  The  Chief  Justice  is  at 
present  also  Judge  of  the  Vice-Admiralty  Court,  though  his 
duties  in  this  respect  are  by  no  means  bnerous.  The  salary 
of  Chief  Justice  is  £2000  a  year,  and  the  salaries  of  the  Second 
and  Third  Judges  £1700  a  year.  The  duties  of  the  present 
Second  Judge  are  very  much  confined  to  the  Court  of  Equity, 
though  he  sits  in  banco  with  the  other  Judges.  The  ordinary 
oriminal  and  civil  business  is  divided  pretty  equally  between 
the  Chief  Justice  and  the  Third  Judge.    The  character  of  the 

£ 


50  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  X. 

Bench  is  decidedly  high,  the  whole  of  the  Judges  being  men 
of  eminent  ability,  in  whose  judgment  and  impartiality  the 
highest  confidence  is  placed.  There  is  a  Local  Court  of 
Appeals,  consisting  of  the  Governor  and  the  Executive  Council, 
except  the  Attorney-General.  This  Court  rarely  sits,  but  its 
simple  machinerj^  can  be  put  in  operation  at  any  time.  The 
highest  Court  of  Appeal  for  the  Colonies  is  the  Judicial  Com- 
mittee of  the  Privy  Council;  and  cases  are  frequently  sent 
home  on  appeal  to  that  Court.  As  in  other  civilized  com- 
munities, we  have  sometimes  to  complain  of  the  expensive 
delays  in  the  Supreme  Court ;  and  to  remedy  this,  it  is  pro- 
posed to  adapt  the  English  Judicature  Act  to  this  Colony—^ 
fusing  law  and  equity ;  and  doing  what  is  necessary  to  cheapen 
and  simplify  legal  proceedings. 

We  have  also  a  Court  of  Insolvency,  presided  over  by  a 
highly  competent  legal  gentleman,  with  a  salary  which  has 
just  been  raised  to  £1200  per  annum.    In  several  districts  of 
the  Colony  Local  Courts  are  established,  having  both  criminal 
and  civil  jurisdiction,  and  combining,  to  some  extent,  the 
English  County  Courts  and  the  Eecorders'  Courts.    These 
Courts  are  presided  over  by  paid  Special  Magistrates,  who,  for 
the  most  part,  are  laymen,  not  technically  learned  in  the  law. 
These  Local  Courts  can  adjudicate  on  personal  actions  up  to 
£100.    A  Special  Magistrate  and  two  Justices,  or  a  Special 
Magistrate,  with  a  jury  of  four,  constitutes  a  Court  of  Full 
Jurisdiction.    A  Special  Magistrate  alone  constitutes  a  Court 
of  Limited  Jurisdiction,  and  can  hear  and  decide  cases  where 
the  amount  at  issue  is  under  £20.     On  its  criminal  side,  a 
Court  of  Full  Jurisdiction  can  hear  and  determine  cases  of 
felony  and  petty  larceny,  where  the  punishment  does  not  ex- 
ceed two  years,  or  the  fine  does  not  exceed  £100 ;  and  also  mis- 
demeanors and  minor  ofiences.    Attempts  have  been  made  to 
enlarge  the  powers  of  Local  Courts,  where  the  procedure  is 
very  simple  and  inexpensive,  but  so  far  they  have  not  been 
successful.    It  has  been  considered  by  some  that  it  would  be 
wiser  to  simplify  and  cheapen  the  procedure  in  the  Supreme 
Court  than  to  enlarge  the  jurisdiction  of  the  liocal  Courts, 
which  are  presided  over  by  non-professional  gentlemen.    The 


Chap.  X.]  LOCAL  COURTS.  51 

class  of  Special  Magistrates,  as  a  whole,  are  men  of  consider- 
able attainments,  who  bring  great  intelligence  to  bear  on  the 
discharge  of  their  judicial  functions.  Cases  of  appeal  from 
their  decisions  to  the  higher  Courts  are  not  frequent,  and  on 
the  whole  substantial  justice  is  done.  Still  it  is  questionable 
whether  it  would  be  wise  to  trust  them  with  enlarged  juris- 
diction. It  would  be  better  to  have  justice  cheaply  and  quickly 
administered  in  the  Supreme  Court,  by  thoroughly  qualified 
Judges,  than  to  give  much  larger  powers  to  the  Local  Courts 
as  they  are  at  present  constituted. 

In  the  City  of  Adelaide  there  is  a  Police  Court,  constituted 
under  a  special  Act,  and  presided  over  by  an  able  Magistrate. 
This  Court  sits  from  day  to  day,  and  deals  with  minor  offences,, 
such  as  are  common  enough  in  all  centres  of  population,  and 
dispenses  summary  justice  on  offenders.  Serious  crimes  are 
investigated  in  this,  as  well  as  in  the  Magistrates'  Courts  in 
the  country,  and  persons  charged  with  such  crimes  are  com- 
mitted to  take  their  trial  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  Colony. 
In  these  preliminary  investigations  the  evidence  is  recorded,, 
and  witnesses  are  bound  over  in  their  own  recognizances  to 
appear  at  the  trial  and  to  give  evidence.  The  Police  and 
other  Magistrates  are  empowered  to  grant  bail  in  certain 
classes  of  offences,  and,  if  they  decline  to  do  so,  an  application 
can  be  made  to  a  Judge  in  Chambers,  who  can  grant  it  at  his 
discretion. 

There  is  no  official  Coroner  in  the  Colony,  though  for 
many  years  there  was  such  an  officer  for  the  City  of  Adelaide 
and  its  suburbs.  All  Justices  of  the  Peace  are,  in  virtue  of  their 
commission,  Coroners,  and  any  one  of  them  can  hold  an  inquest 
into  the  cause  of  death  or  fire  on  being  moved  thereto  by  the 
police.  Indeed  a  Justice  can,  of  his  own  authority,  summon  a 
jury  and  hold  an  inquest ;  but  the  rule  is  that,  imtil  a  case  of 
death  or  fire  is  reported  to  him  by  the  police,  he  does  not 
move.  After  investigating  any  case  reported  to  him,  he  can,  if 
he  think  proper,  give  a  certificate  to  the  police,  a  copy  of 
which  is  transmitted  to  the  Attorney-General,  to  the  effect 
that  having  investigated  the  circumstances  he  does  not  con- 

£  2 


52  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  X. 

sider  an  inquest  necessary.  When  an  inquest  is  held,  the 
Coroner  takes  down  the  evidence,  and  transmits  it  to  the 
Attorney-General.  Under  the  Act  he  has  power  to  commit 
any  person  criminally  implicated  in  the  cause  of  a  death, 
for  trial  either  on  the  charge  of  murder  or  manslaughter ;  and, 
on  his  warrant,  the  person  so  implicated  is  committed  to  gaol 
to  await  his  trial.  He  has  the  same  power  with  reference  to  a 
person  who  has  criminally 'caused  a  fire. 

The  Grand  Jury  system  has  long  been  abolished  in  the 
Colony,  the  Attorney-General  now  discharging  the  functions 
onee  resting  with  the  jury.  It  is  his  business  to  carefully  look 
through  the  depositions;  and  if,  in  his  opinion,  there  is  not 
sufficient  ground  for  putting  a  person  committed  by  a  Magis- 
trate or  Coroner  on  his  trial,  he  reports  it  to  the  Judge  in 
Court,  and  the  prisoner  is  discharged.  I  may  state  that  the 
distinction  between  barristers  and  solicitors  does  not  obtain  in 
this  Colony.  Any  lawyer  can  act  in  the  double  capacity. 
English  barristers  can  act  as  solicitors,  and  Colonial  solicitors 
as  barristers.  In  legal  firms  a  common  rule  is  to  have  one 
member  for  the  office  work  and  another  for  court  business — 
one  to  write  and  the  other  to  talk.  The  men  at  the  head  of 
the  bar  at  the  present  time  are  Colonially  trained  lawyers. 
None  of  the  present  Judges  were  English  barristers :  two  were 
English  attorneys,  and  one  a  Colonial  practitioner. 

A  great  deal  of  the  magisterial  business  of  the  Colony  is 
performed  by  unpaid  Justices  of  the  Peace,  especially  in  the 
country  districts.  The  Justices,  as  a  rule,  are  men  of  sound 
sense,  though  making  no  pretension  to  superior  education  or 
technical  legal  knowledge.  They  principally  deal  with  com- 
mon offences,  where  they  can  hardly  go  wrong.  For  their 
general  guidance  a  "  Justice's  Manual "  has  been  prepared  by 
the  Government,  and  each  Justice  on  his  appointment  receives 
a  copy  of  this  useful  work.  Unlike  the  county  magistrates  in 
England,  they  have  no  clerk  to  advise  them,  so  that  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  laws  they  are  left  solely  to  the  exercise  of 
their  own  judgment,  which  is  generally  sufficient  to  guide  them 
to  a  fair  and  just  decision  on  the  cases  on  which  they  have  to 
adjudicate.    These  gentlemen  do  a  large  amount  of  work  for 


Chap.  X.]  THE  POLICE  FOKCE.  63 

the  country  gratuitously,  for  which  the  social  distinction  con* 
ferred  by  the  position  is  considered  a  sufficient  reward. 

The  police  force  of  the  Colony  is  under  the  supreme  con- 
trol of  a  Commissioner,  who  hfiis  inspectors  under  him.  The 
force  is  divided  into  two  classes,  mounted  troopers  and  foot 
police.  The  pay  of  the  troopers  is  higher  than  that  of  the 
ordinary  constables,  and  the  result  is  that  the  position  is  much 
sought  after.  They  are  a  remarkably  fine  body  of  intelligent 
men — some  of  them  being  of  good  education  and  family.  They 
are  well  mounted  on  valuable  horses — Commissioner  Hamilton 
taking  great  pride  in  his  men  and  their  horses.  Something 
approaching  to  military  discipline  is  maintained  in  the  force. 
The  uniform  of  the  troopers  is  very  handsome  and  imposing. 
Indeed,  so  struck  was  H.E.H.  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh  with  it 
that  at  his  request  a  full  suit  was  prepared  for  him  to  take 
home.  The  men  are  all  supplied  with  swords  and  revolvers ; 
and  when  on  parade,  they  present  a  fine  picture  of  athletic 
strength  and  careful  drill.  The  bulk  of  the  troopers  are  dis- 
persed through  the  Colony — inspectors  having  charge  of  given 
districts. 

The  foot  police,  who  are  chiefly  employed  in  the  city,  are 
also  a  fine  body  of  men,  though  not  equal  to  the  troopers. 
They  are  under  the  immediate  charge  of  the  Metropolitan 
Inspector,  who  lays  and  conducts  informations  in  the  Police 
Court.  A  portion  of  the  foot  police,  who  have  shoXni  extra 
skill  and  intelligence,  are  told  off  for  detective  duty,  and  some 
of  them  have  displayed  considerable  ingenuity  in  the  detection 
of  serious  crimes.  Indeed  the  whole  force  is  a  credit  to  the 
Colony.  Their  numbers  seem  very  disportionate  to  the  popu- 
lation, and  especially  to  the  wide  area  which  they  have  to  cover  ; 
but  the  community  is  a  very  orderly  one,  and  needs  but  little 
police  supervision  or  control. 

We  have  no  military  or  volunteer  force  in  the  Colony.  For 
some  years  a  company  of  regulars  were  kept  here,  and  at  one 
time  the  volunteer  movement  was  taken  up  with  great  enthu- 
siasm. The  troops,  however,  were  removed  and  the  volunteers 
died  out.  There  is  at  the  present  time  a  growing  feeling  in 
favour  of  reviving  the  volunteer  force,  and  it  is  not  at  all  im- 


54  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  X. 

probable  that  it  may  be  reorganized.  Rifle  clubs  are  kept  up  in 
some  parts  of  the  Colony  for  competition  in  rifle  practice ;  and  we 
have  several  very  superior  marksmen  amongst  us  who  would  not 
be  afraid  to  compete  at  Wimbledon  if  it  were  not  so  far  away. 
In  friendly  competitions  here  some  great  scores  have  been  made 
by  our  crack  marksmen.  It  is  felt  that  it  is  hardly  creditable 
that  a  wealthy  Colony  like  this  should  be  absolutely  without 
Any  defensive  force  at  all.  We  have,  however,  amongst  us  a 
K3onsiderable  number  of  young  men  who  have  been  trained  to 
the  use  of  arms,  and  know  something  of  drill ;  and,  if  the 
•necessity  should  arise  to  organize  a  force,  they  would  form  a 
useful  nucleus  around  which  others  could  gather,  and  from 
-whom  they  could  leam  something  of  soldiership.  The  present 
Government  intend  to  give  great  prominence  to  drill  in  the 
New  Education  Regulations. 


CJhap.  xij  pastokal  puesuits.  65 


CHAPTEE   XL 

THE  LAND. 

Pastoral  Pursuits  —  Squatter's  Life — ^Wealthy  Sheep-fanners,  their  Hospitality 
—  Valuation  and  Assessmefat  of  Runs — Agriculture  —  First  Attempts  at 
Wheat  Growing  —  Land  Sold  —  Land  under  Cultivation  —  Table  of  Land 
Cultivated  under  Wheat,  Yield  in  Bushels,  and  Average  per  Acre  — 
Small  Cost  of  Cultivating  Wheat  —  Ridley's  Reaping  Machine. 

PASTORAL  PURSUITS. 

I  HAVE  already  referred  to  the  immense  area  of  land  now 
^comprised  in  the  Colony  of  South  Australia.  Sir  Charles 
Wentworth  Dilke,  Baronet,  in  his  "  Greater  Britain,"  describes 
it  as  "  The  widest  of  all  the  British  Colonies,  and  nearly  as 
large  as  English  Hindostan."  Very  early  in  the  history  of  the 
Colony  land  was  taken  up  in  what  were  then  considered  very 
jremote  districts  for  pastoral  pursuits,  including  the  breeding 
•of  sheep  and  cattle.  The  settlement  of  the  country  in  this 
way  was  closely  connected  with  that  daring  exploration  for 
which  the  Colony  has  obtained  a  high  and  deserved  reputation, 
as  I  shall  show  in  a  subsequent  chapter  on  South  Australian 
•explorers  and  exploration.  The  beginning  of  this  industry 
was  very  simple  and  unpretentious.  Young  men,  with  just 
-capital  suflScient  to  purchase  a  few  hundreds  or  thousands  of 
^heep,  a  dozen  horses,  a  year  or  two's  rations,  and  to  hire  a 
.shepherd  or  two,  sallied  out  into  what  was  then  a  terra  incognita 
to  seek  their  fortune.  They  settled  on  suitable  country,  erected 
a  rude  hut,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  their  fortunes.  The 
life  at  first  was  a  hard  and  rough  one,  involving  many  priva- 
tions ;  but  it  was  not  altogether  without  its  compensating  plea- 
^sures.    There  was  plenty  of  work,  and  that  of  itself  keeps  life 


56  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  XI. 

from  stagnating.  There  was  the  pleasure  of  seeing  the  flocks 
and  herds  increase.  The  lambing  season  brings  a  pressure  of 
work  which  requires  the  best  energies  of  all  hands  on  the 
station.  Shearing  too  is  always  a  scene  of  busy  activity,  and 
getting  the  wool  'to  the  market  before  roads  were  known  taxed 
the  ingenuity  of  the  cleverest  of  the  "  squatters,"  as  pastoral 
lessees  of  the  Crown  were  early  called,  and  the  designation 
sticks  to  them  to  the  present  day,  and  will  do  so  so  long  as 
pastoral  pursuits  are  carried  on. 

The  squatter's  life  in  the  beginning  was  not  without  a  spice 
of  danger,  which  required  continual  vigilance  and  activity  to 
guard  against,  and  a  brave  heart  and  a  strong  arm  to  meet  when 
it  actually,  came.  In  those  days  the  natives  were  enemies  not 
to  be  despised ;  and  before  they  learnt  to  fear  or  trust  the  white 
man,  they  were  not  slow  to  resent  his  intrusion  upon  their  hunt- 
ing grounds.  They  plundered  his  huts,  killed  his  sheep  and 
cattle,  and  sometimes  attacked  hirdself  or  his  shepherds.  He 
had,  therefore,  to  be  always  on  the  watch  to  protect  himself 
and  his  property.  The  aborigines  had  been  accustomed  to  kill 
for  food  all  the  indigenous  animals  found  in  their  country  :  aud- 
it was  hard  to  teach  them  that  they  had  no  right  to  touch  the 
sheep  and  cattle  of  the  squatter.  They  learned  this  in  the  end 
by  a  rough  and  bitter  kind  of  experience;  but  in  the  early 
days  of  squatting  they  were  a  constant  dread  and  annoyance 
to  the  settler. 

As  the  flocks  increased,  the  squatter  had  to  push  out  into 
new  country,  and  runs  were  extended  farther  and  farther 
inland.  Leases  of  wide  stretches  of  country,  comprehending 
in  some  cases  hundreds  of  square  miles,  were  granted  on  a 
mere  nominal  payment,  and  many  of  the  squatters  grew  rich 
rapidly.  All  petstoral  leases  are  held  with  the  condition  that 
whenever  the  land  is  required  for  agricultural  purposes,  the 
squatter  must  turn  out  on  receiving  six  months'  notice,  he 
being  paid  for  the  substantial  improvements  made  on  his  run. 
The  squatter  is  therefore  the  pioneer  of  the  agriculturist. 
When  the  land  is  wanted  for  agriculture,  he  has  to  retire 
farther  into  the  interior. 

Many  of  the  wealthiest  men  in  the  Colony  at  the  present 


Chap.  XI.]  WEALTHY  SHEEP-FABMERS.  57 

time^  and  several  who  have  returned  to  spend  their  handsome 
fortunes  and  to  end  their  days  in  the  old  country,  began  here 
in  a  very  humble  way.  Some  of  them  went  out,  as  I  have 
mentioned,  with  a  few  himdreds  or  thousands  of  sheep,  and 
lived  far  from  the  abodes  of  men  for  years,  and  only  occasion- 
ally visiting  Adelaide  to  purchase  rations  or  to  dispose  of 
their  wool;  and  some  did  not  even  do  that,  but  trusted  all 
to  agents  in  town.  Others  were  only  shepherds,  and  by 
saving  their  earnings — there  were  neither  temptations  nor 
means  of  spending  them  at  first — they  got  a  few  sheep  to- 
gether, and  were  eventually  enabled  to  take  up  a  small  run 
for  themselves;  and  the  first  start  made,  in  many  cases 
success  came  rapidly.  Shepherds  who  knew  all  about  the 
management  of  sheep  made  good  squatters ;  they  went  on 
increasing  their  flocks  and  taking  up  new  country,  and  their 
wealth  increased  in  geometrical  ratio.  They  lived  in  the 
quietest  possible  way,  spending  but  a  mere  fraction  of  their 
income.  I  could  point  to  a  score  of  such  men  who  have  made 
large  fortunes,  which  they  have  well  earned,  and,  having 
handed  over  the  hard  work  of  the  station  to  their  sons,  have 
retired  to  enjoy  their  well-earned  leisure  and  to  spend  their 
ample  fortunes.  As  a  class,  they  are  honourable  and  kind- 
hearted  men.  A  squatter's  hospitality  has  become  proverbial 
in  Australia.  Having  had  many  opportunities  of  testing  it 
in  the  far  bush,  I  can  speak  from  personal  experience.  The 
best  the  station  aflbrds — accommodation,  food,  and  horses — 
are  freely  placed  at  the  disposal  of  any  one  who  knows  how 
to  behave  himself.  There  are,  of  course,  exceptions,  and  a 
churlish  squatter  may  sometimes  be  met  with,  but  very  rarely. 
I  have  more  than  once  been  surprised  and  delighted  to  meet  in 
some  far-distant  and  out-of-the-way  place  an  elegant  and  hos- 
pitable family — the  sons  manly  and  intelligent  young  fellows, 
and  the  daughters  possessing  the  accomplishments  of  elegant 
young  ladyhood,  and  a  few  other  accomplishments  which  are 
only  to  be  picked  up  in  the  bush,  such  as  catching  and  saddling 
a  half  wild  horse  and  joining  in  a  kangaroo  hunt  on  his  back. 
This  is  not  often  the  case,  for  young  ladies'  horses  on  a  station 
are  generally  not  as  well  broken  as  they  are  well  ridden. 


58  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  XI. 

A  few  years  ago  the  leases  which  the  squatters  had  held 
on  exceedingly  low  terms  were  subjected  to  a  new  valuation 
on  their  renewaL  The  Surveyor-General,  Mr.  G.  W.  Goyder, 
a  highly  competent  man,  was  appointed  valuator,  and  he  per- 
formed this  onerous  and  unpleasant  duty  with  great  impar- 
tiality. His  work  was  a  very  important  one,  and  required  for 
its  proper  discharge  not  only  high  professional  ability,  but 
integrity  and  firmness  of  character ;  and  these,  it  is  admitted, 
Mr.  Goyder  possessed  in  an  eminent  degree.  His  largely 
increased  valuations  astonished  some  of  the  squatters,  and 
made  them  indignant;  but  he  was  supported  by  public 
opinion  throughout  the  Colony,  and  the  result  has  shown 
that  the  poor  oppressed  squatters,  as  they  represented  them- 
selves, were  very  well  able  to.  pay  the  increased  assessment. 
Unfortunately  for  the  squatters,  but  fortunately  for  the 
Government,  the  valuations  weriB  succeeded  by  two  years  of 
drought,  which  tried  the  lessees  severely,  and  under  which 
some  of  them  fell  poor  and  almost  hopeless.  Had  the  valua- 
tions been  made  during  the  years  of  drought,  they  would 
have  been  fixed  much  lower  indeed  than  the  actual  value 
would  have  justified.  Indignant  as  the  squatters  were,  none 
of  them  were  killed  by  the  valuations.  Some  of  them  fell 
from  the  drought,  but  those  who  were  able  to  live  over  the 
bad  times  became  wealthier  than  ever.  At  the  present  time 
the  pastoral  interest  is  in  a  highly  prosperous  state.  A  sub- 
sequent part  of  this  work  gives  the  full  statistics  of  this 
industry,  from  which  it  will  be  seen  how  wonderful  has  been 
the  progress  made  by  our  "  Shepherd  Kings." 

AGBICULTURE. 

When  the  first  colonists  arrived,  the  country  was  parched 
up,  the  ground  hard-baked  and  apparently  unworkable.  For 
some  time  the  early  settlers  were  content  to  sit  dovm  with  the 
conviction  that  agriculture  on  such  a  soil,  and  with  such  a 
climate,  was  impossible.  A  great  deal  of  suflfering  resulted 
from  this  false  inference.  The  most  important  of  all  the 
necessaries  of  life  had  to  be  imported  at  a  ruinous  cost  from 
Tasmania;   and  flour  was  actually  sold  in  Adelaide  at  £100 


Chap.  XI.]      FIRST  ATTEMPTS  AT  WHEAT-GROWING.  69 

per  ton.  Some  daring  colonists,  however,  thought  they 
would  honestly  try  whether  wheat  could  not  be  produced  on 
the  Adelaide  plains.  The  land  was  tilled,  the  seed  deposited, 
and  the  result  anidously  looked  for.  Happily,  wheat-growing 
became  a  success  from  the  beginning.  Writing,  as  I  do  now, 
when  the  result  of  the  last  harvest  enabled  us  to  export  some- 
thing like  180,000  tons  of  breadstuffs,  after  supplying  our 
o\?n  wants,  it  seems  almost  absurd  to  think  that  the  early 
fathers  and  founders  of  the  Colony  should  even  have  enter- 
tained a  doubt  as  to  the  productiveness  of  the  soil  and 
climate.  For  a  long  time,  agriculture  was  confined  within 
&  radius  of  say  twenty  miles  of  Adelaide,  and  persons  "  who 
ought  to  know"  gravely  asserted  that  beyond  that  radius 
agriculture  was  impossible.  These  persons,  however,  proved 
to  be  false  prophets.  During  the  last  harvest,  country  150 
miles  and  more  to  the  north  of  the  metropolis  has,  without 
the  cultivation  necessary  in  England,  produced  splendid 
wheat,  averaging  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  bushels  to  the  acre. 
And  along  the  whole  distance  from  Adelaide  to  these  northern 
areas,  the  land  is  covered  with  industrious  and  prosperous 
farmers. 

Up  to  the  close  of  the  year  1874  the  total  area  of  land 
alienated  from  the  Crown  amounted  to  4,621,956  acres, 
4,504,197  acres  having  been  purchased  in  fee  simple  for  cash, 
and  416,650  acres  under  the  system  of  deferred  payments — 
showing  twenty-two  and  one-third  acres  per  head  of  the 
population.  Through  the  kindness  of  the  Government 
Statist,  I  am  able  to  bring  down  these  figures  to  the  present 
-date.  The  total  area  alienated  by  cash  sales  is  4,319,102J 
acres,  fon  which  has  been  realised  £5,452,581  Qs.  5d.  Selec- 
tions of  land  on  credit  have  been  made  to  the  number  of 
2076,  comprising  an  area  of  714,232^  acres,  the  purchase- 
money  of  which  amounted  to  £934,519  13*.  At  the  close 
of  the  year  there  were  1,330,484  acres  under  cultivation,  of 
which  there  were  under  wheat  839,638  acres.  The  climate 
is  capricious  for  wheat,  and  the  average  yield  per  acre  from 
year  to  year  varies  considerably.  The  plagues  from  which 
farmers  suflTer  are  drought,  red  rust,  takeall,  and,  very  rarely. 


62  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  XIL 


CHAPTER   XIL 

THE  LAND  LAWS. 

tJpset  Price  of  Land,  One  Pound  per  Acre  —  Division  of  Land  into  Hundreds 
—  Original  Land  Laws  —  Cash  Purchasers  —  Evils  of  Land  Broking  — 
Strangways's  Act — Credit  Selections  —  Surveys  —  Conditions  of  Present 
Land  System  —  Success  of  System  in  Northern  Areas — New  Townships 
and  Ports. 

One  principle  on  which  South  Australia  was  started  as  a 
Colony  was  the  sale  of  the  Crown  lands  at  a  price  not  under 
one  pound  per  acre,  the  proceeds  from  the  sale  to  be  devoted 
to  the  introduction  of  immigrants. 

This  principle,  however,  was  soon  modified,  and  a  large 
portion  of  the  money  obtained  for  the  lands  was  devoted  to 
the  construction  of  roads  and  other  public  works,  and  sub* 
sequently  to  meeting  the  claims  of  the  National  Debt.  The 
minimum  price  of  one  pound  per  acre  has  been  strenuously 
adhered  to.  Waste  lands,  as  the  unsold  Government  lands  are 
called,  divided  into  Hundreds,  and  sub-divided  into  sections  of 
about  eighty  acres  each,  were  offered  at  auction  at  the  upset 
price  of  one  pound.  Competition  often  ran  up  the  price  much 
beyond  this  amount,  and  hard-working  farmers  had  but  little 
chance  in  competition  with  mere  speculators,  who  bought  the 
land  at  a  price  which  the  farmer  could  not  afford  to  give  in 
cash,  and  subsequently  let  it  to  him  at  a  good  rental,  with  a 
right  of  purchase  at  twice  or  three  times  the  amount  of  what  it 
had  originally  cost.  On  the  fall  of  the  hammer,  twenty  per 
cent,  of  the  purchase  money  had  to  be  paid  down,  and  the 
remainder  in  one  month  from  the  sale.    Lands  that  had  been 


C5HAP.  XII.]  LAND  LAWS.  68 

oflfered  at  auction  and  passed  the  hammer  could  be  taken  up 
at  any  time  at  one  pound  per  acre. 

Several  attempts  were  made  to  alter  the  whole  syistem  of 
the  land  laws,  which  had  been  worked  so  as  to  benefit  only  a 
very  small  class  of  speculators  at  the  expense  of  the  agri- 
culturists. The  average  price  per  acre  which  the  Government 
had  received  for  the  large  territory  alienated  from  the  Crown 
was  under  258.,  but  the  price  to  the  farmer,  who  had  in  many 
instances  to  purchase  second-hand,  was  50s.  or  608.,  or  more— 
the  diflference  between  the  two  prices  going  into  the  hands  of 
the  speculators,  for  the  accommodation  they  gave  to  the  agri- 
culturists who  had  no  money.  Objectionable  as  the  system 
was,  it  is  only  fair  to  say  that  many  farmers  have  grown  rich 
under  it,  and  several  speculators  have  done  both  themselves^ 
and  the  farmers  good,  by  rendering  assistance  to  poor  men 
who  wanted  to  get  on  the  land. 

It  was  felt,  however,  that  the  Government  might  do  for 
moneyless  farmers  what  the  capitalists  and  speculators  had 
been  doing,  and  might  do  it  on  much  more  reasonable  terms. 
Instead  of  demanding  cash,  it  was  resolved  to  sell  the  lands  on 
credit,  with  deferred  payments,  taking  sufficient  precautions  of 
course  that  the  land  so  disposed  of  should  be  occupied  and 
cultivated.  After  great  consideration,  a  measure  was  at  last 
carried  through  the  Legislature  for  this  purpose,  and  became^ 
law.  It  is  not  necessary  that  I  should  encumber  these  pages 
with  a  minute  description  of  what  is  known  as  "  Strangways's 
Act,"  which  has  been  set  aside  for  one  more  liberal,  and  better 
adapted  to  the  requirements  of  poor  men.  It  will  be  better  to 
give  a  popular  description  of  the  law  now  in  force,  which  will 
show  intending  immigrants  how,  on  their  arrival  in  thia 
Colony,  they  can  get  possession  of  the  land. 

The  Land  Act  of  1872.— Under  this  Act  (amended  in  1874) 
the  whole  of  the  Waste  Lands  of  the  Colony  south  of  the  26th 
parallel  of  south  latitude  forms  one  area,  from  which,  as  fast  aa 
it  is  surveyed  and  declared  open  to  the  public,  intending  pur- 
chasers can  make  their  selections.  There  is  no  selection  before 
survey,  but  an  efficient  staff  of  survey  officers  is  always  at 
work  surveying  the  land  as  fast  as  it  is  required.    Hundreds  of 


64  SOUTH  AUSTBALTA.  [Chap.  XH. 

thousands  of  acres  are  always  open  for  selection,  and  the  work 
of  the  surveyors  is  still  going  forward. 

Price. — ^AU  waste  lands,  other  than  township  and  suburban, 
have  a  fixed  value  put  upon  them  by  the  Commissioner  of 
Crown  Lands,  not  less  than  £1  per  acre.  In  improved  or  re- 
claimed lands  the  cost  per  acre  of  the  improvements  and 
reclamation  is  added  to  the  upset  price  of  £l  per  acre.  Those 
lands  which  have  been  open  for  selection,  or  which  have  been 
ofiTered  at  auction,  and  neither  selected  nor  sold,  may  at  the 
end  of  five  years  be  offered  for  sale  in  blocks  of  not  more  than 
3000  acres,  on  lease  for  ten  years,  at  an  annual  rental  of  not 
less  than  6d.  per  acre,  with  a  right  of  purchase  at  any  time 
during  the  currency  of  the  lease  at  £1  per  acre. 

How  to  get  on  the  Land, — ^When  any   lands  are  declared  ^ 
open  for  selection,  by  proclamation  in  the  Government  Gazette^ 
at  a  fixed  price,  a  day  is  appointed  for  receiving  applications 
for  sections,  not  to  exceed  in  the  aggregate  640  acres,  or  one 
square  mile.    The  person  making  the  application  shall  pay  at 
the  time  a  deposit  of  ten  per  cent,  on  the  fixed  price,  which 
sum  shall  be  taken  as  payment  of  three  years'  interest  in 
€tdvance  upon  the  purchase  money.    If  the  price  of  the  land  is 
£100,  the  selector  would  have  to  pay  a  deposit  of  £10,  which 
will  be  all  he  will  be  required  to  pay  to  the  Grovemment  for 
three  years — about  three  and  three-quarters  per  cent,  per 
cmnum.    At  the    end  of  three  years  he  will  have  to  pay 
another  ten  per  cent.,  which  will  also  be  received  as  interest 
for  the  next  three  years.     If  at  the  end  of  six  years  he  is  not 
prepared  to  pay  the  whole  of  the  purchase  money,  he  can 
obtain  other  four  years'  credit,  on  payment  of  half  the  pur- 
chase money,  and  interest  in  advance  on  the  other  half  at  the 
rate  of  four  per  cent.  per.  annum.    Lands  which  have  been 
open  for  selection  two  yeara  and .  not  taken  up  may  be  pur- 
chased for  cash.    The  scrub  lands  may  also  be  taken  up  on 
very  favourable  terms,  on  long  leases. 

Occupation  and  Improvements, — A  credit  selector  may  re- 
side on  his  land  either  personally  or  by  substitute.  The 
personal  resident,  however,  has  advantages  which  he  who 
resides  by  deputy  has  not.    In  cases  of  simultaneous  appli- 


Chap.  XH.]       CONDITIONS  OF  PEESENT  LAND  SYSTEM.         65 

cations  for  the  same  block,  the  personal  resident  has  the 
preference  over  the  other ;  and  at  the  end  of  five  years,  the 
selector  who  has  resided  on  the  land  and  made  all  the  required 
improvements,  and  complied  with  all  the  conditions,  may,  by 
paying  his  purchase  money,  obtain  the  fee  simple  of  his  .selec- 
tion. The  selector  who  occupies  by  substitute  cannot  get  the 
freehold  until  the  end  of  six  yeajs. 

Purchasers  upon  credit  will  be  required  to  reside,  either 
personally  or  by  deputy,  upon  the  land  at  least  nine  months 
in  the  year;  and  absence  for  any  longer  time  than  three 
months  in  one  year  renders  the  agreement  liable  to  forfeiture. 

The  credit  purchaser  will  be  required  to  make  substantial 
improvements  upon  the  land  before  the  end  of  the  second  year, 
to  the  extent  of  5^.  per  acre ;  before  the  end  of  the  third  year, 
7a.  6d,  per  acre ;  before  the  end  of  the  fourth  year,  10s.  per 
acre.  "  Such  improvements  to  consist  of  all  or  any  of  the  fol- 
lowing, that  is  to  say : — Erecting  a  dwelling-house  or  farm 
building,  sinking  weUs,  constructing  water  tanks  or  reservoirs, 
putting  up  fencing,  draining,  or  clearing  or  grubbing  the  said 
land."    The  fences  must  be  of  a  substantial  char£u2ter. 

CidHvation. — The  credit  purchaser  is  required,  during  each 
year  until  the  purchase  money  is  paid  ofT,  to  plough  and  have 
under  cultivation  at  least  one-fifth  of  the  land;  but  in  the 
event  of  his  not  cultivating  this  quantity  during  the  first 
year,  he  will  be  required  to  cultivate  two-fifths  during  the 
second  year. 

These  are  the  principal  provisions  of  the  Land  Act  neces- 
sary to  be  known  by  persons  wishing  to  settle  upon  the  land 
on  the  most  favourable  terms.  The  land  is  cheap,  the  terms  of 
payment  are  easy,  and  the  £tmoimt  of  cultivation  required  not 
more  than  any  man  intending  to  farm  would  attempt  if  the 
matter  were  left  to  his  own  option. 

This  Act  has  worked  with  signal  success,  so  far  as  regards 
placing  people  on  the  land ;  but  it  has  been  found  defective  in 
two  or  three  points,  which  it  was  proposed  to  alter  by  fresh 
legislation  during  the  late  Session  of  Parliament.  It  has  been 
found  that  640  acres  is  not  enough  to  enable  a  man  to  farm 
profitably,  by  uniting  stock-keeping  with  wheat-growing,  and 


66  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  XU. 

it  was  proposed  to  enlarge  the  area  which  one  man  may  hold 
to  1000  acres.  Then  it  has  been  found  that  the  present  system 
is  not  sufficient  to  prevent  men  "  dummying  "  the  land,  that  is^ 
taking  it  up  on  credit  under  false  pretences,  and  by  using 
"  dummy  "  selectors  getting  possession  of  more  land  than  they 
are  entitled  to.  The  new  Bill  provided,  under  stringent  means,, 
for  preventing  and  punishing  those  men  who  abuse  their 
position  and  violate  the  law.  But  the  most  serious  defect  of 
all  in  the  Act  is  what  is  known  as  "  limited  auction."  It  is 
provided  in  the  Act  that  if  two  or  more  applications  are  made 
for  the  same  block  of  land,  it  shall  then  be  put  up  to  auction 
at  the  price  offered — the  competition  to  be  limited  to  the 
applicants  who  offered  the  same  amount.  This  seemed  a  very 
fair  arrangement  to  make,  but  in  practice  it  has  worked  mis- 
chievously. In  the  heat  of  competition  men  have  run  up  the 
price  to  an  unreasonable  amount,  and  the  land  has  been  taken 
at  prices  far  beyond  its  actual  value.  It  is  not  the  policy  of 
the  Colony  to  make  land  too  dear.  The  attracting  of  popular 
tion  and  the  settlement  of  an  industrious  population  on  the 
land  are  accoimted  of  far  more  importance  than  getting  high 
prices  for  it  The  proposal  in  the  new  Bill  was  to  make  the 
idtimate  price  of  all  land  sold  on  credit  11.  per  acre.  In  the 
case  of  simultaneous  applications  for  the  same  blocks,  the  com- 
petition would  be  on  the  annual  rental,  and  not  on  the  prin- 
cipal. As  soon  as  the  fact  is  known  that  there  are  two  or  more 
offering  for  the  same  block,  each  will  be  invited  to  write  on  a 
paper  what  rental  per  acre  he  is  willing  to  give.  If  one  offers. 
Is.  3d.y  and  the  other  Is.  6d.,  the  latter  will  obtain  the  block. 
If,  however,  they  should  again  offer  the  same  amoxmt,  the 
matter  will  be  decided  by  lot.  The  Bill,  however,  proposing 
these  amendments  has  not  been  carried,  and  the  land  law 
remains  as  it  was. 

I  have  said  that  the  present  law  has  worked  with  singular 
success.  Immense  areas  of  land  in  the  North  have  been 
surveyed  and  offered  for  sale  on  credit.  HaK-a-dozen  years 
ago  most  of  this  land  was  used  as  sheep  nms — supporting  a 
dozen  or  a  score  of  persons.  Now  it  is  covered  with  smiling 
homesteads  and  prosperous  farms,  on  which  many  himdreds  of 


Chap.  XH.]    SUCCESS  OF  SYSTEM  IN  NORTHEEN  AREAS.       67 

families  are  settled^  with  every  prospect  of  future  success.  In 
the  course  of  a  few  years,  these  farms  will  be  the  freehold 
estates  of  a  steady  and  intelligent  class  of  farmers,  farming 
their  own  land,  who  will  constitute  the  pith  and  strength  of 
the  Colony.  A  few  thousands  of  farmers,  each  farming  his 
own  freehold  estate  of  a  square  mile,  or  a  thousand  acres, 
would  form  an  independent  and  prosperous  class,  of  which  any 
country  may  well  feel  proud. 

The  amount  of  money  due  to  the  Government  for  these 
lands  purchased  on  credit,  which  will  be  due  within  the  next 
six  years,  amoimts  to  over  £2,225,000.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that  most  of  the  purchases  will  be  completed ;  but  if 
they  are  not,  the  land,  greatly  improved  by  the  erection  of 
buildings  and  cultivation  during  the  six  years,  will  revert  to 
the  Government,  and  can  be  sold  again. 

I  had  an  opportunity  of  visiting  these  northern  areas  just 
before  the  last  harvest,  when  they  were  loaded  with  magnificent 
crops  of  golden  grain.  I  had  seen  the  country  three  years 
before,  when  only  a  small  portion  was  devoted  to  agriculture  ; 
the  rest  was  still  immense  sheep  runs.  I  travelled  for  miles 
day  after  day  amongst  the  finest  crops  of  wheat  I  ever  wit- 
nessed. In  some  places  the  reaping  had  commenced,  and  the 
farmers  were  cleaning  up  from  14  to  18  bushels  per  acre.  In 
other  more  favoured  spots  it  reached  from  25  to  30  bushels. 
I  saw  several  towns  which  had  sprung  up  as  if  by  magic,  on 
sites  where  three  years  before  there  was  not  a  soul  to  be  seen, 
and  where  my  companions  and  I  lighted  a  fire,  boiled  our 
"billy,"  and  made  tea  for  our  midday  refreshment.  A  fine 
port  in  Spencer's  Gulf,  for  the  outlet  of  the  produce  of  the 
district,  had  risen  up  from  what  used  to  be  something  like  a 
dismal  swamp.  Wharfs  were  erected,  large  stores  built,  banks 
and  churches  founded ;  and  all  this  was  the  work  of  less  than 
three  years !  And  as  far  as  can  be  seen,  we  are  just  tapping 
that  great  agricultural  district  which  lies  to  the  north  of  the 
Burra  and  Clare.  The  squatter  has  to  give  place  to  the  agri- 
culturist and  move  backward.  Happily  for  some  of  the 
wealthiest  of  them,  but  unfortimately  for  the  country,  they 
have  purchased  magnificent  estates  of  from  40,000  to  100,000 

p  2 


1 


68  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  XH. 

acres  of  fine  land.  Some  of  these  gentlemen  have  entered 
into  competition  with  the  fanners  and  have  gone  largely  into 
wheat-growing.  Last  year  a  gentleman,  specially  representing 
an  influential  Melbourne  journal — The  Leader — ^visited  this 
Colony  and  published  an  interesting  and  well-written  report  of 
what  he  saw.  I  transcribe  to  these  pages  his  account  of  the 
Hill  Kiver  Estate,  the  private  property  of  Mr.  C.  B.  Fisher,  as 
an  example  of  how  men  of  capital  and  enterprise  are  now 
combining  the  two  pursuits  of  wool-growing  and  agricultural 
farming. 


Chap.  Xm.]  THE  HILL  EIVER  ESTATE.  69 


CHAPTEE   XIIL 

THE    HILL    BIYEB    ESTATE. 

Combining  Agriculture  with  Stock  Breeding — Great  Farm — The  Mechanical 
Appliances  for  "Working  it — Begulations  for  Workmen  on  Estate  — 
Success. 

Hill  Kiveb  Estate,  the  property  of  Mr.  C.  B.  Fisher,  is 
situated  in  the  CSounty  of  Stanley,  two  miles  eastward  of  Clare, 
the  furthest  agricultural  township  to  the  north  previous  to  the 
opening  up  of  the  new  areas.  The  total  distance  of  Hill  Kiver 
from  Adelaide  is  88  miles,  and  railway  commuiiication  is 
obtained  by  taking  the  Burra  line  at  Farrell's  Flat,  13  miles 
to  the  east.  The  property  is  60,000  acres  in  extent,  lying 
north  and  south  in  a  valley  between  two  tiers  of  hills — the 
eastern  tier  being,  like  the  country  in  that  direction — ^tree- 
less; but  the  western  one,  together  with  some  of  the  un- 
dulating land  in  the  valley  approaching  its  base,  is  lightly 
timbered  with  sheaoak  and  gum.  The  valley  is  on  an  average 
about  seven  miles  broad,  and  the  estate  extends  about  25 
miles  in  length ;  the  Hill  Kiver,  a  permanent  creek,  which 
takes  its  rise  to  the  south,  running  along  the  centre.  The 
valley  is  composed  of  a  rich  deep  chocolate  soil  washed  from 
the  surrounding  high  land,  which  is  of  slaty  conglomerate 
formation  set  on  edge,  and  running  in  reefs  mixed  with  quartz 
north  and  south,  along  the  crests  of  the  boundary  ridges. 
The  property,  which  is  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  E. 
W.  Pitts  (formerly  of  Victoria),  who  is  general  manager  for 
the  whole  of  Mr.  Fisher's  property  in  South  Australia,  and 
of  Mr.  J.  Emery,  who  is  resident  manager,  is  worked  as  a 


70  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  XHI. 

sheep-breeding  establishment  and  wheat-growing  farm  on  a 
large  scale,  the  latter  being  carried  on  with  the  ultimate  end 
in  view  of  preparing  the  soil  for  the  sowing  down  of  lucem 
and  prairie  grass.  The  station  is  divided  into  four  different 
establishments,  viz.,  the  wool-shed  and  drafting-yards,  seven 
miles  down  the  valley  to  the  north;  a  new  series  of  farm 
buildings,  two  miles  to  the  east,  being  prepared  for  harvest ; 
another  large  farming  establishment  nearer  home;  and  the 
homestead,  a  stone  residence  and  stabling,  surrounded  by 
well-kept  grounds,  orangery,  and  orchard,  comprising  in  all 
twelve  acres.  Lx  the  kitchen-garden  of  four  acres  every 
description  of  vegetable  is  produced  in  abxmdance,  and  this 
portion  of  the  establishment  is  found  to  be  very  valuable, 
where  so  many  hands  are  employed.  The  drafting-yards  at 
the  wool-shed  are  of  a  complete  kind  for  the  handy  working 
of  the  sheep,  and  are  flagged  in  the  race  and  crush  dens  with 
slate  obtained  on  the  property.  The  buildings  for  the  shearers 
are  of  stone,  divided  into  dining,  sleeping,  and  cooking  depart- 
ments, the  latter  fitted  with  the  latest  appointments,  and  a 
separate  stone  cottage  is  provided  for  the  overseer.  The 
number  of  sheep  shorn  is  50,000 — the  shearing  floor  accom- 
modating 40  shearers.  The  Hill  Kiver  wool  is  of  the  Merino 
combing  description,  and  for  length  and  strength  of  staple 
combined  with  weight  of  fleece  has  not  been  exceeded  by  any 
other  nm  in  the  Colony,  except  Bundaleer,  Mr.  Fisher's  other 
run  further  north,  where  the  same  breed  of  sheep  are  kept. 
The  clip  last  year  was  from  9  lbs.  in  the  wether  to  3 J  lbs.  in 
the  lambs  in  the  grease,  or  an  average  all  through  of  about 
7  lbs.,  for  which  an  average  of  14Jd.  was  obtained.  Sheep- 
washing  is  not  usual  in  South  Australia,  through  the  scarcity 
of  water ;  but  the  chief  drawback  on  Hill  Kiver  is  its  hard- 
ness, being  brackish  and  metaUic  from  the  mineral  nature  of 
the  watersheds.  Amongst  some  fleeces  selected  during  the 
late  shearing  for  the  Sydney  Exhibition,  one  two-tooth  Merino 
ram's  fleece  weighed  17J  and  a  four-tooth  21  lbs.  About  200 
cattle,  some  of  which  are  of  superior  shorthorn  blood,  have 
lately  been  introduced,  and  the  intention  is  to  obtain  a  good 
bull  and  begin  that  department  of  breeding.     The  new  farm 


Chap.  Xin.]  GREAT  FARM.  71 

buildings  are  being  erected  handy  to  the  cultivated  land, 
which  is  about  midway  in  the  valley,  the  furrows  running 
lengthwise.  The  buildings  comprise  a  quadrangle  of  10  feet 
high,  stone  walling  120  feet  long .  each  side,  roofed  with  gal- 
vanized iron,  with  a  slope  inwards,  and  divided  off  into  10 
by  10  loose-boxes  for  horses,  each  box  containing  close  feed- 
manger  for  bruised  peas,  bran,  and  cut  hay,  with  which  all 
the  horses  on  the  place  are  systematically  fed.  A  well  and 
trough  for  watering  occupy  the  middle  of  the  square,  which 
will  be  built  upon  further,  so  as  to  accommodate  200  horses, 
the  total  number  at  present  employed  on  the  estate.  The 
other  buildings  consist  of  men's  stone  buildings,  with  dining, 
sleeping,  and  cooking  departments  separate,  overseer's  resi- 
dence, large  hay-cutting  and  corn-bruising  house,  and  bam 
106  feet  by  34,  and  15-foot  walls,  with  a  holding  capacity  of 
60,000  bushels  of  wheat,  besides  compartments  at  the  rear  for 
two  blowers  and  screens  for  finishing  the  wheat  off  in  a  uniform 
sample  after  it  passes  through  the  winnowers  in  the  field. 
These  blowers,  which  are  worked  by  horse  power,  and  have 
self-acting  elevators  for  passing  the  wheat  from  the  fans  to 
the  revolving  screen,  get  through  at  the  rate  of  700  bushels 
per  day  each.  The  cultivated  land  is  in  large  fields,  one  of 
which  is  three  miles  long,  and  contains  this  year  4250  acres 
of  wheat,  besides  40  acres  of  peas  grown  for  horse  feed  and 
a  quantity  of  barley,  and  1800  acres  new  land  turned  up  for 
fallow.  Next  year  the  land  first  ploughed  will  be  three  years 
in  crop,  when  it  is  proposed  to  yearly  lay  down  that  which 
has  yielded  three  crops  in  lucem  and  prairie  grass,  and  shift 
the  wheat  ground  further  on  to  new  land.  The  ploughing  was 
performed  by  thirty-four  horse  teams  drawing  a  double  plough 
each,  doing  from  two  or  three  acres  per  day,  according  to  the 
time  lost  in  travelling  to  and  from  the  wojk,  and  five  single 
ploughs  striking  out.  It  is  estimated  that  with  the  teams 
nearer  their  work  3}^  acres  per  day  will  be  accomplished.  One 
man  is  allowed  to  each  plough  to  manage  both  driving  and 
guiding.  Ploughing  is  done  eight  inches  deep  at  first,  so 
that  the  land  can  be  turned  over  afterwards  in  the  dry  season 
immediately  after  the  removal  of  the  crop.    The  seed,  which 


72  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  XHI. 

is  of  several  kinds,  to  ascertain  the  best,  was  sown  the  first 
week  in  June,  with  six  of  Adamson's  twenty-two-foot  broadcast 
machines,  sowing,  under  the  management  of  one  man,  forty 
acres  per  day  each.  The  pickling  used  is  bluestone,  and  an 
ingenious  dipping  apparatus  is  used  by  which  a  bag  at  a  time 
can  be  done  with  much  rapidity.  The  lands  are  ploughed 
one  chain  wide,  and  are  harrowed  by  fifteen  sets  of  six-leaved 
harrows,  doing  a  land  in  two  turns.  The  first  sets  are  heavy 
and  drawn  by  six  horses,  and  the  second,  which  are  lighter, 
go  across  and  finish.  The  harrowing  is  finished  at  the  rate  of 
500  acres  per  day.  As  harvest  approaches  two-chain  wide 
strips  are  cut  by  the  mowing  machines  at  intervals,  cutting 
the  wheat  into  200-acre  blocks,  and  then  strips  (upon  the 
removal  of  the  wheat  for  hay)  are  ploughed,  together  with  strips 
right  round  the  crop,  for  protection  against  fire.  When  the 
wheat  is  ripe,  the  strippers  are  then  set  to  work,  emptying  on 
the  roads  at  each  end  of  the  200-acre  blocks.  Each  stripper 
is  drawn  by  four  horses,  driving  and  guiding  being  managed 
by  one  man  ;  and  each  machine  does  from  seven  to  eight  acres 
per  day,  according  to  the  weather.  Last  year  twenty-seven 
strippers  were  employed,  but  this  harvest  ten  additional  new 
ones  will  be  required.  About  one  winnower  to  three  strippers 
is  required  on  the  headlands  for  cleaning,  which  is  done  by 
piece  work,  the  men  obtaining  Id.  per  bushel  for  putting  the 
wheat  through  once,  and  2d.  for  twice.  From  the  winnowers 
in  the  fields  it  is  carted  in  bags  to  the  blowers  and  screens, 
from  which  it  is  bagged,  sewed,  and  passed  into  the  bam. 
The  land  imder  wheat  last  year  was  3050  acres,  which  yielded 
at  the  rate  of  fifteen  bushels,  thirty-five  acres  of  peas  yielding 
forty  bushels  per  acre,  and  sixty  acres  of  barley  giving  thirty 
bushels.  The  quantity  of  wheat  cut  for  hay  last  year  for 
home  consumption  was  600  tons,  and  this  year  800  tons  will 
be  required.  The  wheat  grown  on  this  farm  took  the  challenge 
cup,  value  £50,  in  Adelaide,  for  the  best  100  bushels  in  1873 ; 
the  prize  at  the  late  show  for  the  best  bushel  with  a  sample 
of  purple  straw  weighing  sixty-eight  poimds ;  and  the  present, 
harvest  at  the  time  of  my  visit  promised  to  eclipse  any  former 
effort.    At  the  farm  steading  near  the  home  station,  a  similar 


.  1 


Chap.  XHI.]  MECHANICAL  APPLIANCES.  73 

stabling  accommodation  to  that  described  exists,  and  as  the 
supply  of  Clydesdales  increases  at  another  station  of  Mr. 
Fisher's  devoted  to  breeding,  it  is  proposed  to  increase  the 
working  capacity  of  the  Hill  Eiver  farm  by  two-thirds,  or 
three  steadings  in  all,  with  200  horses  each.  At  this  steading 
there  is  another  series  of  men's  buildings,  together  with  chaff 
house,  with  chaff-cutter,  cutting  one  ton  per  hour,  implement 
yard  and  sheds,  containing  in  addition  to  the  ploughs  and 
strippers,  htmrows  and  sowers,  already  mentioned,  fourteen 
waggons,  six  scarifiers,  four  hayrakes,  ration  carts,  waggonettes, 
and  other  vehicles  and  implements ;  a  blacksmith's  shop  con- 
taining two  forges,  carpenter's  shop  and  saddler's  shop  for 
repairing,  overseer's  residence  and  a  large  number  of  cottages 
for  the  married  men  who  permanently  stay  on  the  place. 
Two  large  dams  of  water  supply  the  home  station  and  home 
farmstead  with  water,  and  there  are  six  others  in  various  parts 
of  the  run.  This  work,  which  is  constantly  being  carried  on,  is 
done  by  plough  and  scoop.  Sixteen  acres  of  trees  have  been 
planted  in  two-acre  blocks  in  various  parts  of  the  run,  the  kinds 
found  to  do  best  being  the  Tasmanian  red  gum,  Pinvs  inaiffnis, 
and  sterculias.  A  large  plantation  of  about  seventy  acres  for 
trees  is  in  course  of  preparation  above  the  house,  and  olive 
planting  is  carried  on  annually.  The  large  quantity  of  manure 
made  by  such  a  quantity  of  stable  horses  is  carefully  looked  after, 
and  is  to  be  put  on  the  land  along  with  the  lucem.  Pigs  are 
profitably  kept  upon  the  waste  wheat ;  and  on  a  small  experi- 
mental farm,  maize,  millet,  and  sorghum  have  been  tried  with 
success,  and  various  kinds  of  wheats  are  planted  in  drills  to 
try  their  relative  merits.  The  purple  straw  so  far  has  been 
found  best.  On  one  portion  of  the  farm  also  experiments  to 
prove  the  efficiency  of  subsoil  ploughing  and  other  matters 
are  attended  to.  Amongst  the  improvements  to  be  eventually 
carried  out,  a  public  reading  room  and  library  are  to  be  added 
to  each  homestead,  and  other  measures  of  an  educative  and 
elevating  character  are  to  receive  attention.  The  hands 
employed,  apart  from  shearing  and  harvest  seasons,  average 
about  seventy..  When  these  latter  operations  are  on,  the 
number  is  over  200.    Young  draught  horses  are  constantly 


74  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  XHI. 

being  brought  from  the  breeding  establishment  near  Adelaide, 
and  broken  by  means  of  waggon,  plough,  scoop,  or  other  of 
the  numerous  kinds  of  work  constantly  going  on. 

The  following  rules  of  the  establishment  are  posted  in  the 
various  buildings: — Working  hours:  All  hands  to  rise  at 
five  A.M.,  when  the  bell  rings ;  horses  to  be  fed,  watered,  and 
cleaned ;  breakfast  at  six ;  all  teams  to  be  afield  at  seven ;  dinner 
hour  at  noon ;  work  to  commence  again  at  one  p.m.,  to  continue 
to  six  in  summer  and  five  in  winter ;  supper  at  seven ;  horses 
to  be  fed  and  watered  at  half-past  eight,  and  the  dining-room 
to  be  cleared  and  locked  up  at  ten  p.m.  Wages :  First-class 
men  will  be  paid  at  the  rate  of  20«.  per  week ;  second-class  at 
18«. ;  third-class  at  168.  Any  one  by  good  and  industrious 
■conduct  can  raise  himself  to  the  highest  class.  Wages  paid 
every  fourth  week,  and  at  no  other  time.  Any  one  in  charge 
of  horses  neglecting  to  feed  and  tend  them  properly,  or  found 
abusing  them,  will  be  discharged  at  once,  and  forfeit  all  his 
wages  due.  Any  one  wilfully  disobeying  orders  or  neglecting 
his  duty  will  be  discharged,  and  will  forfeit  two-thirds  of  the 
wages  due.  Any  one  found  in  a  state  of  drunkenness  will 
be  instantly  discharged,  and  absolutely  forfeit  all  wages  due. 
Any  one  bringing  intoxicating  liquors  on  the  premises,  as  well 
.as  those  partaking  of  them,  will  forfeit  all  the  wages  due,  and 
be  instantly  discharged.  Any  one  found  smoking  near  the 
stables  or  stacks  will  be  at  once  discharged  and  proceeded 
against  under  the  Bush  Fires  Act.  Each  man  at  the  time  of 
hiring  is  required  to  sign  the  above  rules,  binding  himself  to 
abide  by  them  in  all  respects. 


Chap.  XIV.]  SIB  R  E.  TOKRENS.  75 


CHAPTEE    XIV. 

THE  BEAL  PBOPEBTY  ACT. 

Sir  R.  R.  TorrenB — Early  Struggles  to  establish  Act — Opposition  of  Legal 
Profession — Principles  of  Act — Transferring  Real  Estate  by  Registration 
of  Title — Indefeasibility  of  Title  —  Simplicity  and  Cheapness — Lands' 
Titles  Commissioners  and  Solicitors  —  Assurance  Fund  —  Amendment  of 
Original  Act — Great  Success  of  the  Law  —  Value  of  Property  brought 
imder  the  Act  —  Taken  up  in  Neighbouring  Colonies. 

A  GREAT  measure  of  legal  refonn,  on  which  the  people  of 
South  Australia  justly  pride  themselves,  is  the  Eeal  Property- 
Act,  devised  by  Mr.  (now  Sir  E.  E.)  Torrens,  a  gentleman  then 
holding  a  public  position  in  the  Colony.  Mr.  Torrens  had  seen 
and  felt,  as  many  more  have  done,  the  scandalous  delay  and 
expense  of  transferring  real  property  under  the  old  law  of 
England.  This  system  of  transferring  real  estate  by  deed  we 
of  course  brought  with  us  to  this  new  Colony,  where  it  was 
soon  found  to  be  productive  of  many  of  the  evils  which  at- 
tended it  in  the  old  country.  In  every  fresh  transaction  in 
real  property  a  new  deed  was  necessary,  which  recapitulated  all 
the  deeds  that  had  gone  before,  and  which  was  both  cumbrous 
and  costly.  It  was  thought  that  it  might  be  possible  to  invent 
a  simpler,  cheaper,  and  safer  system ;  and  the  merit  of  think- 
ing out  and  formulating  this  system  belongs  to  Sir  E.  E.  (then 
Mr.)  Torrens.  He  had  formerly  been  Collector  of  Customs  at 
Port  Adelaide,  and  his  official  employment  made  him  familiar 
with  the  laws  relating  to  shipping,  having,  as  he  states  in  a 
pamphlet  published  by  him,  "just  such  an  acquaintance  with 
the  English  Constitution  and  laws  as  ordinarily  entered  into 
the  education  of  an  English  gentleman." 


76  SOUTH  AUSTEALIA.  [Chap.  XIV. 

His  starting-point  was  to  apply  to  the  transfer  of  land  the 
principles  which  regulated  the  transfer  of  shipping  property, 
by  means  of  registration.  The  idea  was  a  correct  one,  but 
between  its  conception  and  its  formulation  into  a  code  of  law 
there  was  a  long  and  painful  interval.  He  consulted  the  then 
Chief  Justice,  Sir  Charles  Cooper,  and  other  legal  gentlemen,  and 
they  gave  him  but  little  encouragement.  He  was  not  a  lawyer. 
Many  technical  difficulties  would  arise  which  would  need  a 
lawyer's  trained  skill  to  surmount,  and  they  warned  him  that 
he  might  expect  no  help  or  support  from  the  profession.  Mr. 
Torrens,  however,  was  one  of  the  few  men  who  are  not  to  be 
discouraged  by  want  of  sympathy,  or  beaten  by  opposition. 
The  subject  was  near  his  heart,  and  he  pondered  over  it  night 
and  day,  until  it  assumed  shape  and  form  in  his  mind.  He 
then  drafted  a  Bill,  submitted  it  to  some  of  his  friends,  listened 
to  their  suggestions,  and  adopted  them  where  he  thought  it 
wise  to  do  so,  and  then  brought  it  before  Parliament*  The  Bill 
was  laughed  to  scorn  by  the  profession,  but  it  was  eagerly  and 
enthusiastically  welcomed  by  the  public.  Most  of  the  lawyers 
stood  aloof.  For  a  laym«tn  to  attempt  to  alter  the  whole  system 
of  transferring  real  estate  by  deed  which  had  the  prestige  of 
immemorial  usage  in  its  favour,  and  to  deal  with  real  estate  as 
if  it  were  a  mere  chattel,  was  as  absurd  as  if  a  tailor  were  to 
invent  a  new  method  of  cutting  for  fistula,  or  an  illiterate 
ploughman  ^  new  method  of  calculating  an  eclipse!  Mr. 
Torrens,  however,  made  light  of  both  opposition  and  ridicule. 
There  was  a  crying  evil  to  be  remedied ;  he  had  undertaken  to 
remedy  the  evil,  and,  in  spite  of  all  opposition,  he  would 
do  it. 

Mr.  Torrens  was  returned  to  Parliament  as  one  of  the  mem- 
bers for  the  city  for  the  express  purpose  of  carrying  the  Bill 
through  the  Assembly.  The  legal  members  opposed  him  tooth 
and  nail,  but  he  had  a  large  majority  of  willing  supporters  at 
his  back,  and  the  Bill  was  literally  forced  through  the  House 
by  "the  brute  force  of  a  tyrannical  majority."  There  was 
greater  opposition  in  the  Legislative  Council,  which  has  always 
been  found  more  conservative  of  old  institutions.  But  public 
opinion  and  the  sense  of  the  community  were  too  strong  to  be 


Chap.  XIV.]         PRINCIPLES  OF  REAL  PROPERTY  ACT.  77 

resisted,  and  the  Bill  passed  the  Council,  was  assented  to  by 
the  Governor  on  January  27, 1858,  and  became  law. 

When  the  measure  became  law,  at  the  request  of  his  friends, 
Mr.  Torrens  resigned  his  seat  in  Parliament,  and  became  the 
official  head  of  the  department.  He  suggested  or  superin- 
tended all  the  machinery  required  for  practically  working  the 
new  system.  He  laboured  at  it  unceasingly,  and  when  the 
Act  came  into  operation  on  July  2,  1858,  all  the  office 
machinery  was  ready  to  work  it. 

The  first  great  principle  of  the  Act  is  the  transferring  of 
real  property  by  registration  of  title  instead  of  by  deeds; 
the  second  is  absolute  indefeasibility  of  title.  The  system  is 
very  simple  and  very  inexpensive.  The  certificate  of  title  is 
registered  in  the  official  registry  at  the  Lands'  Titles  Office, 
the  owner  obtaining  a  duplicate  certificate.  All  transactions 
under  the  land  appear  on  the  face  of  the  certificate,  so  that  at 
a  glance  it  may  be  seen  whether  the  property  is  encumbered, 
or  any  charges  are  made  upon  it.  If  an  owner  wishes  to  mort- 
gage his  land,  he  takes  his  certificate  to  the  office,  and  has  the 
transaction  marked  upon  it.  If  he  wants  to  sell,  he  passes  over 
the  certificate  to  the  purchaser,  and  the  transaction  is  regis- 
tered. Any  man  of  ordinary  intelligence  can  do  all  that  is 
necessary  for  himself  when  once  his  property  is  brought  under 
the  Act.  The  only  difficulty  is  in  getting  the  title  registered 
at  first.  After  that  it  is  all  plain  sailing.  When  a  man  hold- 
ing property  under  deed  wishes  to  have  it  placed  under  the 
Act,  he  takes  his  deeds,  which  are  his  title  to  the  property,  to 
the  office.  The  deeds  are  carefully  examined  by  the  solicitors 
to  the  Lands'  Titles  Commissioners ;  and  if  there  is  no  diffi- 
culty, and  after  all  due  publicity  is  given  and  precautions 
taken  to  prevent  firaud  or  mistake,  a  certificate  is  issued,  and 
the  old  deeds  are  cancelled.  From  the  moment  the  land  is 
brought  under  the  Act  and  a  certificate  granted,  the  title  of 
the  person  holding  the  certificate  becames  indefeasible,  unless 
it  has  been  fraudulently  obtained ;  and  he  can  hold  the  property 
against  the  world. 

Provision  is  made  for  errors  that  may  possibly  occur,  by 
which  persons  may  be  damnified  or  deprived  of  their  property. 


78  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  XIV. 

Even  though  a  wrong  may  have  been  done,  yet  an  innocent 
holder  of  a  certificate  cannot  be  dispossessed  of  his  property. 
But  to  compensate  persons  who  may  through  error  or  fraud 
have  been  deprived  of  their  property,  an  assurance  fund  has 
been  created  by  a  percentage  of  one  halfpenny  in  the  pound 
being  levied  on  all  property  brought  under  the  Act.  This 
fund  now  amounts  to  between  £30,000  and  £40,000,  and  aU  the 
claims  that  have  been  made  upon  it  during  the  seventeen  years 
the  Act  has  been  in  operation  do  not  amount  to  £300,  which  is 
a  sufficient  proof  of  the  carefulness  exercised  in  the  examina- 
tion of  old  titles  before  the  certificate  was  issued  in  the  first 
instance. 

Since  this  Act  came  into  operation,  all  land  grants  issued 
from  the  Crown  have  been  registered  under  it,  and  a  large 
amount  of  property  formerly  held  under  deed  is  now  registered. 
Confidence  in  the  Act  has  gradually  gone  up.  The  lawyers 
very  soon  withdrew  active  opposition,  and  the  simplicity  of  the 
scheme  commended  it  even  to  the  legal  mind.  Up  to  the  close 
of  1874  the  value  of  the  property  brought  under  the  operation 
of  the  Act,  including  land  grants,  was  £9,260,186.  The 
benefit  to  the  community  of  having  a  cheap,  simple,  and 
expeditious  method  of  dealing  with  land  is  incalculable.  Mr. 
Dudley  Field,  the  well-known  American  jurist,  who  was  re- 
cently on  a  visit  to  his  daughter,  the  wife  of  our  Governor, 
expressed  his  great  admiration  at  the  simplicity  of  our  Eeal 
Property  Act,  which  was  much  in  advance  of  any  system  of 
dealing  with  real  estate  with  which  he  was  acquainted.  The 
Act  has  been  amended  more  than  once,  to  render  it  more 
workable,  but  its  essential  principles  have  been  jealously 
guarded. 

Soon  after  it  was  set  into  healthy  operation,  Mr.  Torrens 
obtained  leave  from  the  Government  to  visit  the  neighbouring 
Colonies  at  their  request  to  explain  and  help  to  initiate  this 
Act  there,  and  now  all  the  Colonies  have  adopted  the  Torrens 
Act  of  registration  of  title.  The  principle  of  the  Act  has  also 
been  accepted  by  the  first  jurists  at  home,  and  several  attempts 
have  been  made  to  get  it  into  legal  operation.  Lord  West- 
bury 's  Act  was  a  step  towards  it,  but  it  had  some  serious  defects 


Chap.  XIV.]  GREAT  SUCCESS  OF  THE  LAW.  79 

which  have  prevented  its  being  a  success.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  it  is  much  easier  to  introduce  the  system  into  new  Colonies, 
where  titles  are  easily  traced,  than  into  old  countries,  where, 
during  the  lapse  of  generations,  they  have  become  compli- 
cated. 

As  the  Act  has  been  administered,  certedn  grave  defects  in 
some  of  its  provisions  have  been  discovered  and  pointed  out 
by  the  Judges.  It  was  subjected  to  a  thorough  revision  in 
1862  by  a  Commission,  presided  over  by  the  present  Chief 
Justice,  who  was  then  Attorney-General,  and  as  the  result  of 
that  Commission  an  amended  Act  was  passed.  Other  defects 
have  been  discovered,  and  a  very  complete  amending  and 
consolidating  Bill,  prepared  by  Mr.  H.  Gawler,  one  of  the 
solicitors  to  the  Lands'  Titles  Commissioners,  has  twice  passed 
through  the  House  of  Assembly,  but  has  failed  to  pass  through 
the  Legislative  Council.  This  Bill  has  received  the  support  of 
two  Ministries,  and  as  it  is  urgently  required,  it,  or  something 
like  it,  must  become  law. 


80  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  XV. 


CHAPTEE   XV. 

BAILWAYS. 

Difficulties  of  Carriage  in  a  New  Country  —  Macadamized  Roads,  Extent  and 
Cost — First  Railway  to  Port  Adelaide — Extravagant  Cost — Other  Lines 
— Present  Extent  of  Railways^ New  Lines  in  Process  of  Construction— 
New  Lines  proposed  to  be  carried  out  —  Proposal  to  borrow  £3,000,000. 

One  of  the  most  serious  difficulties  a  new  country  has  to 
contend   ag&inst  is  that  of  obtaining  feasible  means  of  com- 
munication between  the  interior  and  the  seaboard.    This  has 
been  much  felt  in  South  Australisty  where,  with  one  exception, 
we  are  entirely  without  water  communication.    Our  only  river 
is  the  Murray,  and  that  is  available  for  only  one  part  of  the 
Colony.    Pastoral  settlement  lies  principally  in  another  direc- 
tion, and  agricultural    settlement  entirely  so.    At  first  we 
were  satisfied  with  macadamized  roads,  which  have  been  con- 
structed to  a  large  extent,  and  at  a  great  cost  to  the  com- 
munity.   The  extent  of  main  roads,  excluding  all  those  under 
the  charge  of  District  Councils,  is  2707  miles,  of  which  884 
miles  have  been  thoroughly  made  with  metal.    The  cost  of 
our  main  roads  during  the  last  twenty-two  years  has  been 
about  £1,800,000.     It  is  now  proposed  to  extend  the  road 
system  where  railways  cannot  be  made,  for  which  a  consider- 
able sum  of  money  is  proposed  to  be  borrowed. 

There  is,  however,  a  growing  opinion,  as  I  have  mentioned 
before,  in  favour  of  substituting  railways  for  metalled  roads  in 
all  practicable  cases.  The  first  locomotive  railway  line  was 
one  of  eight  and  a  half  miles,  between  Adelaide  and  the  Port, 
which  was  constructed  at  a  frightful  and  wasteful  cost.    In 


Chap.  XV.]  FIRST  RAILWAYS.  81 

the  making  of  that  line  the  colonists  paid  heavily  for  their 
experience  in  railway  construction.     A  line  running  north 
as  far  as  Gawler  was  next  undertaken,  and,  after  a  few  years, 
it  was  continued  to  Kapunda,  a  distance  of  about  fifty  miles. 
Subsequently  it  was  extended  to  the  Burra,  a  distance  of  100 
miles.    These  lines  have  been  well  built,  and  are  now  in  very 
successful  working  order.    In  addition  to  these  the  Govern- 
ment have  three  tramways,   worked  by  horse  power.     The 
oldest  of  these  is  a  line  between  Goolwa  and  Port  Victor.    It 
was  built  in  Sir  Henry  Young's  time  as  far  as  Port  Elliot, 
when  it  was  expected  that  this  port  would  be  the  grand  outlet 
for  the  Murray  trade.    Port  Elliot  was  superseded  by  Port 
Victor,  and  the  line  was  extended  to  that  harbour.    This  short 
line  has  done  good  service  to  the  Colony  in  past  times.    The 
next  tramway  was  a  very  expensive  one,  from  Strathalbyn  to 
Middleton,  a  station  on  the  Groolwa  line.     The  engineering 
difficulties  on  this  line  made  it  a  very  costly  one,  and  it  has 
never  yet  paid  the  expenses  of  working,  leaving  out  of  account 
altogether  the  interest  on  its  original  cost.    This  line  is  one 
of  our  "  magnificent  failures,"  the  construction  of  which  is 
now  greatly  deplored. 

Of  a  very  different  character  is  a  tramway  between  Port 
Wakefield  and  Hoyleton,  which  has  subsequently  been  ex- 
tended, and  is  now  thirty  miles  long:  a  further  extension 
of  the  line  is  now  in  progress.  This  is  one  of  those  lines 
of  railway  which  are  of  the  greatest  service  to  the  country. 
It  connnects  a  rich  and  an  extensive  agricultural  district  with 
a  port  of  shipment ;  and  the  traffic  which  passes  over  it  annu- 
ally, both  passenger  and  produce,  is  very  large. 

Three  additional  lines  of  railway  are  now  in  progress ; 
the  most  important  of  which  is  one  between  Port  Pirie,  in 
Spencer's  Gulf,  and  Gladstone,  a  new  township  in  the 
northern  areas.  It  is  hoped  that  a  portion  of  this  line,  as 
far  as  Crystal  Brook,  will  be  opened  in  the  course  of  a  few 
months.  It  is  intended,  ultimately,  to  carry  it  as  far  as 
James  Town,  the  centre  of  the  immense  agricultural  area  in 
the  North.  It  is  impossible  to  over-estimate  the  value  of  a 
line  of  this  kind,  which  will  tap  one  of  the  most  productive 

o 


82  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA,  [Chap.  XV. 

districts  in  the  Colony.  Another  short  line  of  fourteen  miles 
is  in  course  of  construction  from  Port  Broughton,  also  in 
Spencer's  Gulf,  to  a  block  of  agricultural  land  which  forms 
one  of  the  earliest  agricultural  areas  proclaimed  by  the  Go- 
vernment. The  third  line  is  from  Port  Wakefield  to  Kadina, 
about  the  necessity  for  which  there  is  some  grave  doubt.  The 
Government  lines  which  have  been  finished — leaving  out  of 
account  those  now  in  progress — have  cost  £1,093,497,  in 
addition  to  £198,793  for  rolling-stock.  I  have  omitted  to 
mention  amongst  the  lines  now  in  course  of  construction  an 
important  one  from  Kingston  to  Naracoorte,  in  the  South- 
Eastem  District,  which  is  fast  approaching  completion;  it  is 
nearly  fifty  miles  long. 

Our  railways  have  been  constructed  on  different  gauges — 
the  5-foot  3-inch,  however,  predominating.  The  shorter  lines 
are  on  the  3-foot  6-inch  gauge.  The  "  Battle  of  the  Gauges  " 
has  been  fought  here,  as  it  was  in  England,  and  it  is  not  yet 
ended.  The  idea  we  seem  to  be  slowly  reaching  is,  that  for 
all  trunk  lines  capable  of  extension  the  broad  gauge  is  pre- 
ferable ;  while  for  shorter  independent  lines  the  narrow  one 
is  sufficient.  The  cost  of  the  lines  has,  of  course,  varied  to  a 
large  extent.  The  Port  Eailway,  constructed  in  1856,  cost  the 
enormous  sum  of  £17,500  per  mile;  but  a  short  extension, 
connecting  it  with  the  northern  lines,  carried  out  in  1867,  was 
made  at  under  £5000  per  mile.  Our  latest  railways  have  cost 
from  £4000  to  £6000  per  mile. 

Besides  the  Government  railways  there  are  two  private 
lines,  constructed  by  private  companies — one  in  the  mining 
district  on  Torke's  Peninsula,  connecting  Kadina  with  Wallaroo 
and  Moonta ;  this  is  about  eighteen  miles  long,  and  is  worked 
by  horse  power.  It  has  been  wonderfully  profitable,  owing  to 
a  favourable  contract  which  the  Company  made  with  the 
proprietors  of  the  mines  for  the  conveyance  of  their  ores.  The 
fortunate  shareholders  in  this  railway  have  from  the  very  first 
enjoyed  very  large  dividends,  besides  spending  a  considerable 
proportion  of  tiie  profits  in  improving  and  extending  their 
works.  The  second  private  line  is  one  between  Adelaide 
and  Glenelg,  six  and  a  half  miles  long,  and  which  is  almost 


Chap.  XV.]  EATLWAY  EXTENSION.  83 

exclusively  confined  to  passenger  traffic.  This  line,  worked 
by  locomotive  power,  has  been  working  for  about  two  years, 
and  has  returned  handsome  dividends  to  the  shareholders.  It 
is  worked  on  the  cheap  principle — there  being  neither  stations 
nor  platforms.  The  passengers  enter  from  the  street,  as  they 
would  get  into  an  omnibus ;  and  the  working  expenses  have 
been  reduced  to  a  minimum.  It  is,  however,  amply  sufficient 
for  the  traffic,  and  is  creditably  conducted.  A  scheme  is  just 
now  starting  by  a  private  company  for  a  street  tramway  from 
the  centre  of  the  city  to  the  eastern  suburbs,  about  three 
miles  in  length.  The  capital  has  been  raised,  and  the  work  is 
to  be  set  in  hand  at  once. 

Some  years  ago  an  ambitious  project  was  started  to  carry  an 
overland  line  of  railway  right  across  the  continent  from  south 
to  north — ^from  Adelaide  to  Port  Darwin.  It  was  proposed 
by  English  capitalists,  on  obtaining  blocks  of  land  on  each 
side  of  the  line,  amounting  to  200  millions  of  acres  in  all,  to 
construct  a  line  of  railway  2000  iniles  long  to  cross  the 
continent.  The  terms,  however,  were  considered  too  high  by 
the  colonists,  and  there  was  a  strong  objection  to  alienating 
such  a  large  amount  of  territory ;  so  the  matter  fell  through. 
There  are  sanguine  and  enterprising  men  amongst  us,  however, 
who  still  anticipate  the  construction  of  such  a  work  before 
many  years  have  elapsed. 

The  present  Government  have  initiated  a  grand  policy  of 
railway  extension,  which  has  already  been  brought  before 
Parliament.  It  is  to  borrow  £3,000,000  for  the  construction 
•of  railways  and  other  public  works.  By  pushing  out  the 
settlement  of  the  country  we  have  reached  this  position,  that 
we  must  greatly  extend  our  main  road  system,  or  construct 
railways  on  a  large  scale.  The  settlers  in  the  interior  must 
have  means  of  communication  with  the  seaboard,  and  so  with  a 
profitable  market.  The  great  advantage  of  railways  over 
rofiUls  is  that  when  they  are  made  in  suitable  localities  they 
are  self-supporting,  while  roads  involve  a  continual  annual 
expense  to  keep  them  in  repair.  Apart  then  from  the  greater 
facility  for  conveyance  afforded  by  railways,  on  economical 
pounds  they  are  preferable  to  metalled  roads. 

G  2 


84  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA.  [Chap.  XV. 

Amongst  the  lines  recommended  by  the  Government  is 
one  200  miles  north  of  Port  Augusta,  to  connect  the  rich 
copper  mines  of  the  North  with  the  sea.  It  is  believed  that 
some  of  these  mines  are  more  valuable  than  any  that  have  yet 
been  discovered  in  the  Colony.  But  no  copper  mine  in  the 
world,  unless  under  very  exceptional  circumstances,  will  afford 
a  cost  of  £10  per  ton  for  carriage  to  the  seaboard.  While 
copper  was  higher  in  value  than  it  is  now,  some  of  these 
northern  mines  were  carried  on  even  with  this  ruinous  charge 
for  carriage.  The  importance  of  a  line,  such  as  it  is  proposed 
to  construct,  has  been  admitted  for  years,  but  difficulties  stood 
in  the  way  which  prevented  its  being  carried  out.  I  have  no 
hesitation  in  saying  that  the  necessary  work  will  be  carried 
out ;  and  that  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  years  we  shall 
have  connected  the  rich  mineral  district  of  the  North  with 
Port  Augusta,  at  the  head  of  Spencer's  Gulf.  In  addition  to 
the  facilities  it  will  give  for  the  conveyance  of  copper  and 
copper  ore,  it  will  be  of  great  use  to  the  sheep  farmers  in  the 
North,  who  will  be  able  to  send  down  their  wool  and  to  get  up 
their  supplies  at  a  reasonable  cost. 

Another  line  which  the  Government  propose  to  carry  out 
is  one  to  bring  the  Murray  trade  direct  to  Port  Adelaide.  I 
shall  refer  more  particularly  to  this  in  a  subsequent  chapter 
on  the  Murray  and  its  trade.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  here  that 
the  Government  propose  constructing  a  line  of  railway  from 
Kapunda,  already  reached  by  our  northern  railway,  to  the 
North-West  Bend  in  the  river.  The  distance  will  be  about 
fifty  miles,  and  the  advantages  of  such  a  line  are  pretty 
generally  admitted.  Other  lines  of  no  small  importance  are 
also  embraced  in  the  Government  scheme.  This  bold  policy 
has  been  fully  appreciated  by  the  colonists  generally,  and  I 
have  no  doubt  the  main  features  of  the  scheme  will  be  carried 
out. 

A  question  has  been  raised  as  to  whether  the  Colony  is 
justified  in  adding  three  millions  to  the  national  debt.  About 
this,  however,  the  most  thoughtful  minds  amongst  us  see  no 
difficulty.  We  have  the  smallest  debt  per  head  of  the  popula-^ 
tion  of  any  of  the  Colonies ;  our  taxation  is  lighter  than  in  any 


Chap.  XV.]  NEW  LINES  PEOPOSED.  85 

of  the  Colonies ;  and  we  can  easily  bear  more ;  tlie  value  of 
our  exports  and  imports  is  increasing  every  year ;  the  country 
has  almost  illimitable  resources  only  waiting  to  be  developed ; 
and  in  addition  to  all  this,  there  is  due  to  the  Government  at 
the  present  time  for  land  taken  up  on  credit,  and  payable 
within  the  next  six  years,  no  less  a  sum  than  £2,225,000. 
This  amount  will  increase  every  year,  as  new  lands  are  sur- 
veyed and  purchased  by  the  agriculturists.  Our  credit  stands 
deservedly  high  in  the  English  money  market,  and  our  bonds 
touch  the  top  figure  amongst  those  of  the  Colonies. 

In  connexion  with  this  large  proposed  expenditure  on 
railways,  the  Government  propose  spending  a  considerable 
sum — £100,000  at  least — on  immigration.  They  have  wisely 
reached  the  conclusion  that  the  introduction  of  labour  must 
keep  pace  with  the  construction  of  great  public  works.  It 
would  not  be  well  for  the  Colony  to  withdraw  labour  from 
private  employers,  and  it  is  perfectly  legitimate,  when  public 
works  on  a  large  scale  are  to  be  undertaken,  to  introduce 
labour  at  the  public  cost  to  carry  them  out.  All  the  reasons 
which  justify  the  further  development  of  the  great  resources  of 
the  Colony  justify  the  introduction  of  more  man-power  at  the 
public  expense. 


86  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA.  [Chap.  XVL 


CHAPTEK   XVL 


MIKES  AND  MINING. 


South  Australia  rich  in  Minerals —  First  Discoveries  —  The  Eapunda  Copper 
Miue  —  The  Burra  Burnt  —  South  Australian  Mining  Association  — 
Yorke's  Peninsula  Mines — Wallaroo,  Moonta,  Doora — Immense  Value 
of  Copper  raised  —  Smelting  Works — Mineral  Laws  and  Leases  — 
Getting  up  Companies  on  'Change  —  Mining  a  great  Benefit  to  Colony. 

That  the  province  of  South  Australia  was  rich  in  mineral 
deposits  was  believed  very  early  in  its  history.  Soon  after 
the  City  of  Adelaide  was  laid  out,  a  rich  vein  of  silver-lead 
ore  was  discovered  a  few  miles  distant,  which,  however,  in  its 
subsequent  working,  has  signally  disappointisd  the  expecta- 
tions which  were  formed  of  it.  Other  mines  of  a  similar 
character  were  discovered  in  the  southern  district,  on  which 
large  sums  of  money  were  expended,  but  they  have  not  been 
worked  with  success.  Gold  has  also  been  discovered  in  several 
parts  of  the  Colony,  which  have  attracted  a  large  number  of 
diggers,  and  where  considerable  quantities  of  the  precious 
metal  have  been  obtained.  So  far,  however,  gold  digging  has 
not  taken  its  place  as  one  of  our  great  staple  industries. 
Hundreds  of  diggers  have  made  good  wages  in  several  pro- 
claimed districts,  and  some  very  handsome  specimens  have 
been  obtained.  It  is  generally  believed  that  gold  will  be 
found  in  larger  quantities  than  have  yet  been  obtained,  and 
that  by  the  expenditure  of  adequate  capital  the  auriferous 
treasures  which  are  believed  to  exist  will  be  brought  to  light. 
Some  half-dozen  very  likely  districts  have  been  tried,  and  in 
every  instance  with  encouraging  results.  Bismuth  has  also 
been  found  at  Balhannah,  a  place  about  twenty  miles  from 


Chap.  XVI.]  FIKST  DISCOVERIES.  87 

Adelaide,  and  the  property  promises  to  become  a  very  valu- 
able one. 

But  copper  has  been  our  great  mineral  product,  and  some 
of  the  richest  mines  now  worked  appear  to  be  almost  inex- 
haustible. The  first  copper  mine  in  the  Colony  was  dis- 
covered on  a  sheep  run  at  Eapunda,  and  has  been  worked 
since  its  discovery  with  a  fair  amount  of  success.  It  was 
thrown  into  the  shade,  however,  by  the  discovery  of  the 
famous  Burra  Burra  Mine,  which,  for  its  richness,  has  obtained 
a  world-wide  celebrity.  Copper  was  discovered  there  in  1845, 
and  a  company,  called  the  South  Australian  Mining  Associa- 
tion, was  formed  to  work  it.  The  capital  of  the  Association 
was  raised  by  the  issue  of  12,320  shares  of  £5  each,  and  the 
total  dividends  paid  have  amounted  to  £782,320.  For  several 
years  past  but  little  has  been  done  at  this  once  famous  mine, 
but  under  new  management,  and  by  improved  means  of  work- 
ing, it  is  more  improved. 

This  mine,  however,  great  as  it  was,  was  eclipsed  by  the 
marvellous  discoveries  made  on  Yorke's  Peninsula  in  1860. 
A  shepherd  employed  on  the  run  of  Mr.  W.  W.  Hughes,  on 
the  Peninsula — an  enthusiastic  settrcher  after  copper — found 
a  specimen  in  the  beginning  of  that  year.  Claims  were 
immediately  taken  out,  and  the  Wallaroo  Mines  were  com- 
menced. The  Wallaroo  has  been  a  private  company  from 
the  beginning,  and  no  report  of  its  actual  earnings  has  been 
made  public.  It  is  well  known,  however,  to  have  greatly 
enriched  its  fortunate  proprietors,  and  it  is  now  a  property  of 
immense  value.  Only  three  years  ago  the  proprietors  agreed 
to  pay  a  fine  of  £18,000  to  the  Government  for  the  renewal 
of  two  of  their  leases,  and  it  is  said  that  the  profits  of  one  year 
more  than  covered  the  amount  of  the  fine. 

This  discovery  was  followed  up  by  one  of  even  greater 
value,  about  ten  miles  south  of  the  Wallaroo  Mines,  and  now 
known  as  the  Moonta  Mines.  From  the  time  that  ore  was- 
first  found,  the  mine  was  sufficiently  remunerative  to  pay 
all  expenses  of  working.  Not  a  penny  of  capital  was  ever 
subscribed ;  and  within  two  years  a  dividend  was  paid.  The 
compemy  is  a  public  one,  and  the  property  is  divided  into 


88  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  XVI. 

32,000  shares.  Their  price  is  nov  quoted  at  £19  per  share. 
Thus  a  property  which  cost  the  shareholders  nothing  is  now 
valued  at  over  £500,000.  On  tiiese  mines  dividends  have 
been  paid,  amounting  to  £728,000;  and  last  year,  six  divi- 
dends were  paid — two  of  20a.,  one  of  15».,  and  three  of  10a., 
amounting  for  the  year  to  £136,000.  In  addition  to  this, 
very  expensive  buildings  and  machinery  have  been  con- 
structed out  of  the  profits,  and  at  the  present  time  a  very 
large  population  is  employed  on  the  mines.  The  proprietors 
have  just  paid  a  fine  of  £10,000  to  the  Government  for  a 
renewal  of  their  leases.  The  most  successful  of  the  other 
mines  on  the  Peninsula  are  the  Paramatta,  with  5000  shares 
—2600  with  5«.  and  2400  with  £1  paid  up ;  and  the  Telta, 
with  3920  shares,  on  which  £7  has  been  paid  up.  The  Doora 
is  the  private  property  of  Mr.  W.  W.  Hughes,  and  gives  the 
promise  of  equalling  some  of  the  Peninsula  mines  in  value. 
It  has  only  been  worked,  however,  a  year  or  two. 

On  other  parts  of  the  Peninsula  a  large  amount  of  money 
has  been  expended  in  legitimate  and  illegitimate  mining.  At 
the  present  time  some  of  the  more  recent  ventures  give  the 
promise  of  remunerative  results.  Fifteen  years  ago  Wallaroo 
was  an  almost  uninhabitable  sheep  run,  on  which  there  were 
only  a  few  shepherds*  huts ;  now  it  has  large  smelting  works, 
railways,  jetties,  three  large  and  increasing  townships,  a  whole 
fleet  of  colliers,  carrying  coals  from  Newcastle,  New  South 
Wales,  for  the  smelting  works,  churches,  schools,  reading- 
rooms  and  libraries,  two  newspapers,  and  a  population  of 
about  20,000  souls. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Colony  is  only  on  the 
threshold  of  its  mineral  discoveries.  It  is  believed  that 
copper  is  freely  scattered  over  a  large  portion  of  this  im- 
mense territory.  In  the  North  mines  of  great  wealth  have 
been  discovered,  and  some  of  them  worked  at  a  profit, 
although  the  cost  of  carriage  to  the  seaboard  is  very  great. 
The  mines  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Blinman  have  been 
worked  even  when  the  price  of  copper  was  unusually  low. 
Two  hundred  or  more  miles  north  of  Port  Augusta  the  country 
is  full  of  copper;   and  if  some  cheap  means  could  be  dis- 


Chap.  XVI.]  MINERAL  LAWS  AND  LEASES.  89 

covered  for  getting  it  to  a  port,  a  large  population  would 
settle  there.  Attempts  are  being  made  to  construct  a  light 
railway  200  miles  northward,  and  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  this  work  will  very, shortly  be  commenced,  as  I  have 
shown  above. 

Iron  ores  of  a  rich  percentage  of  the  best  iron  exist  in 
great  abundance  within  an  easy  distance  of  the  seaboard.  Ee- 
cent  attempts  have  been  made  to  smelt  and  work  the  iron, 
and  on  a  small  scale  they  have  been  very  successful.  Pig 
irop,  of  a  quality  said  by  judges  to  be  equal  to  the  best 
Swedish,  has  been  exhibited  in  Adelaide,  and  was  very  highly 
spoken  of.  In  many  places  the  ironstone  is  found  in  the 
midst  of  large  timber,  from  which  charcoal  for  smelting 
purposes  could  be  obtained  without  stint.  Now,  when  the 
price  of  iron  has  risen  so  high  in  Europe,  the  question  of 
investing  capital  in  iron  ore  smelting  in  South  Australia  is 
worth  consideration.  The  supply  both  of  the  ore  and  of 
timber  for  reducing  it  is  practically  unlimited  for  years  to 
come.  This  is  an  industry  which  ought  to  be  turned  to 
profitable  account.  It  would  add  to  the  wealth  of  the 
Colony,  while  it  would  assist  in  meeting  the  growing  demand 
in  Europe. 

The  terms  on  which  leases  of  waste  lands  may  be  obtained 
for  mineral  purposes  are  very  liberal.  The  payment  of  a  small 
annual  fee  gives  a  right  of  search ;  and  leases  of  lands  to  be 
worked  by  lond  fide  miners  are  obtained  for  ten  shillings  an 
acre.  Indeed  every  facility  is  given  for  developing  the 
mineral  resources  of  the  Colony,  both  in  copper  and  gold. 
What  has  already  been  accomplished  in  this  respect  shows  how 
easy  it  is  for  enterprising  men  to  take  up  and  work  mineral 
sections.  Very  large  fortunes  have  been  made,  and  the  re- 
sources of  the  Colony  in  this  respect  seem  almost  illimitable. 
A  great  drawback  at  present  is  the  scarcity  of  labour.  If  the 
price  of  copper  keeps  up  to  its  present  quotation,  thousands  of 
miners  might  be  profitably  employed  in  this  important  enter- 
prise. Hundreds  of  families  are  now  living  in  the  mining 
townships  on  Torke's  Peninsula  in  respectability  and  comfort 
which  could  hardly  be  dreamt  of  in  the  old  country.     There  is 


90  SOUTH  AUSTKAUA.  [Chap.  XVL 

every  reason  to  believe  that  copper  mining  will  be  one  of  the 
most  permanent  and  productive  of  our  industries. 

It  is  difficult  to  form  any  trustworthy  estimate  of  the 
amount  of  capital  which  has  been  invested  in  mining.     It  has? 
however,  amounted  to  many  hundreds  of  thousands  of  pounds^ 
a    great    portion  of   which  has  been  hopelessly  lost.    The 
colonists  are  subject  to  periodical  fits  of  mining  mania  which 
runs  like  wildfire  through  the  community,  infecting  all  classes. 
It  is  difficult  to  know  how  these  fits  originate.     Something 
promising  is  discovered  in  some  likely  locality.    Mysterious 
hints  are  whispered  about  on  'Change  about  a  "  big  thing  " 
being  discovered.    Curiosity  is  excited,  and  mining  brokers 
are  on  the  qui  vive.    They  who  are  in  the  secret  wear  an  air  of 
mysterious  importance.    Knots  of  knowing  hands  gather  on 
the  "  flags."    There  are  secret  conferences,  rushing  of  brokers 
to  and  fro ;  hansom  cabs  are  summoned,  and  one  or  two  of  the 
smartest  of  the  brokers  drive  off  in  haste.    All  this  indicates 
that  something  is  up.   Keen  mining  men,  undeterred  by  past 
experience,  are  drawn  into  the  excitement.   A  prospectus  (more 
or  less  truthful)  is  drawn  up,  shares  are  offered  and  taken  up. 
After  a  while  the  shares  are  "  bulled  "  or  "  bear'd  "  as  occasion 
may  arise.    Often  the  discovery  is  a  genuine  one,  and  samples 
are  shown  to  prove  its  value.    Then  the  country  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  discovery  is  examined  and  becomes  imme- 
diately valuable.     Where  the  lode  is  rich  in  a  given  loccdity, 
it  must  be  rich  all  around  it    If  the  original  discovery,  of 
which  the  value  has  been  proved,  is  called,  say,  the  "  Nil  Des- 
perandum,"  there  is  soon  started  the  "North  Nil  Desperan- 
dum,'*  the  "  West  Nil  Desperandum,"  the  "  Great  Extended 
Nil  Desperandum,"  and  such  like.    There  is  then  a  rush  for 
shares,  the  brokers  put  money  into  their  purses,  and  in  a  few 
days  the  excitement    is  at  fever  heat.      Most  of  the  con- 
tiguous claims  prove  "  duffers,"  or  "  shicers ; "  and  the  imfor- 
tunate  shareholders,  having  rushed  into  the  speculation  in 
haste,  have  opportunity  to  repent  at  leisure. 

Though  a  great  deal  of  mischief  has  been  wrought  by  these 
headlong  panics,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  mining  enter- 
prise has  often  been  pushed  forward  by  such  means.    Some 


Chap.  X\1.]      MINING  A  GEEAT  BENEFIT  TO  COLONY.  91 

have  suffered,  but  others  by  risking  their  property  have  helped 
to  open  out  useful  mines.  The  prizes,  however,  in  this  mining 
lottery  are  much  fewer  than  ike  blanks ;  and  while  a  few  have 
grown  rich  by  mining,  the  many  have  been  cleared  out  of  their 
hard  earnings  by  thoughtlessly  yielding  to  the  excitement  and 
being  carried  away  in  the  rush.  Mining  at  best  is  but  a  risky 
kind  of  business ;  and  yet  legitimate  mining  has  done  much  to 
make  the  Colony  as  prosperous  as  it  now  is.  More  detailed 
information  on  the  mines  and  mining  in  South  Australia  will 
be  found  in  a  subsequent  division  of  this  work,  by  Mr.  F.  G* 
Waterhouse. 


92  SOUTH  AUSTKALI/L  [Chap.  XVH. 


CHAPTEK    XVII. 

THE   RIVER  MURRAY  AND  ITS   TRADE. 

Discovery  of  the  Murray  by  Captain  Sturt  —  Opening  of  River  for  Traffic  — 
Sir  Henry  Young's  interest  in  the  River  —  Goolwa,  Port  Elliot,  and  Victor 
Harbour  —  Neglect  of  Trade — Efforts  of  Victorians  to  secure  it  —  Railway 
to  the  Murray  from  Port  Adelaide  —  ITic  Murray  Mouth  —  A  proposed 
Canal  to  Goolwa  —  Value  of  River  to  the  Colony. 

The  only  river  in  South  Australia  deserving  of  the  name  is 
the  Murray.  We  owe  its  discovery  to  Captain  Sturt,  one  of 
the  bravest  and  most  successful  of  Australian  explorers.  In 
1828  this  intrepid  gentleman  was  appointed  by  the  Sydney 
Government  to  trace  the  River  Macquarie  to  its  source.  He 
ran  it  into  another  river,  which  was  named  the  Darling,  after 
the  Governor  of  New  South  Wales.  The  following  year  Cap- 
tain Sturt  was  dispatched  to  follow  up  the  discovery  he  had 
made  the  year  before,  and  fortunately  for  him  and  for 
Australia  he  diverged  from  his  former  route,  and  instead  of 
following  the  Macquarie  and  the  Darling,  he  explored  the 
Murrumbidgee.  Mr.  Anthony  Foster,  in  his  interesting  and 
useful  work  on  South  Australia,  thus  describes  Captain  Sturt's 
discovery  of  the  Murray : — "  This  river  (the  Murrumbidgee) 
Captain  Sturt  and  his  companions  followed  down  for  nearly 
four  hundred  miles,  where,  from  its  increasing  narrowness, 
they  were  afraid  they  were  about  to  lose  it,  and  with  it  anti- 
cipated the  loss  of  all  their  toil.  But  just  as  their  hopes  had 
been  depressed  to  the  lowest  point,  and  they  were  about  to 
give  way  to  despair,  they  found  themselves  suddenly  projected 
by  the  contracting  current  into  a  magnificent  stream,  350  feet 
wide,  and  from  15  to  20  feet  deep.    And  this  proved  to  be  the 


Chap.  XVH.]    OPENING  OF  KIVER  MUKEAT  FOB  TEAFFIC.     93 

Murray,  the  Antipodean  Nile,  the  prince  of  Australian  rivers, 
which  has  since  been  found  to  have  a  navigable  course  of 
nearly  2000  miles.  Such  a  discovery  was  sufficient  to  have 
immortalized  the  name  of  any  single  explorer,  but  it  was  only 
the  prelude  to  one  of  much  greater  importance — the  discovery 
of  the  Adelaide  Plains,  and  the  extensive  tracts  of  agricultural 
land  which  have  since  constituted  South  Australia  the  granary 
of  the  Southern  Hemisphere.*' 

It  was  not  until  during  the  administration  of  Sir  Henry 
Young  that  a  vigorous  attempt  was  made  to  navigate  the  great 
river.  The  Government  offered  a  bonus  of  £4000  for  the  first 
two  iron  steamers,  of  not  less  than  40-horse  power,  and  not 
more  than  two  feet  draught  of  water  when  loaded,  that  should 
successfully  navigate  the  Murray  from  the  Goolwa  to  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Darling.  The  Murray  Steam  Navigation  Company 
was  originated  by  Captain  Cadell,  a  man  of  considerable 
energy  and  enterprise,  and  the  late  Mr.  Younghusband,  a 
wealthy  merchant,  who  was  subsequently  Chief  Secretary  of 
the  Colony.  This  Company  soon  placed  a  steamer,  the  Lady 
Augusta^  called  after  the  wife  of  the  Governor,  on  the  waters,  and 
she  commenced  her  trial  trip  amidst  great  eclai.  In  1853  she 
started,  under  the  command  of  Captain  Cadell,  with  a  party  of 
ladies  and  gentlemen  on  board,  including  Sir  Henry  and  Lady 
Young,  to  put  to  the  test  the  practicability  of  navigating  the 
Murray.  The  little  steamer  safely  pursued  her  course  to 
Swan  Hill,  distant  1300  miles  from  Adelaide,  from  which  His 
Excellency  wrote  a  despatch  to  the  Secretary  of  State  for 
the  Colonies,  announcing  the  triumph  he  had  achieved,  and 
informing  him  that  the  steamer  carried  back  to  Adelaide  a 
cargo  of  wool  grown  in  the  district,  which  was  the  opening  of 
a  great  trade  that  would  be  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole 
of  Australia  through  all  future  time. 

This  successful  beginning  was  as  successfully  followed  up 
for  a  time  by  other  steamers  being  placed  on  the  river,  and 
a  very  considerable  trade  was  begun.  Ultimately,  however, 
there  was  a  collapse ;  money  was  lost  in  the  trade — some  who 
took  part  in  it  having  been  almost  ruined,  amongst  whom  was 
the  enthusiastic  Captain  Cadell ;  the  Company  dissolved ;  and 


94  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA.  [Chap.  XVH. 

all  the  bright  visions  of  the  Murray  being  the  Mississippi  and 
Port  Elliot  the  New  Orleans  of  Australia  vanished  as  the 
morning  mists  vanish  before  the  rising  sun. 

The  Murray  trade  then  got  into  other  hands^  and  it  has 
been  carried  on  with  more  or  less  success  until  the  present 
time.  There  are  now  several  steamers  on  the  river,  and  they 
are  on  the  whole  well  supported.  They  not  only  navigate  the 
Murray,  but  when  the  seasons  allow,  which  is  far  more  frequent 
now  than  when  the  trade  at  first  began,  they  steam  up  the 
Darling  as  far  as  Fort  Bourke,  a  distance  of  800  miles  from 
Wentworth,  the  junction  of  the  two  rivers. 

The  one  drawback  to  this  noble  stream  is  the  difficulty  and 
■danger  of  exit  and  entrance  through  its  mouth.  The  Murray 
mouth  has  been  a  standing  difficulty  and  disappointment  to 
the  Colony.  It  is  continually  shifting,  silting  up  in  one 
channel  and  opening  out  another.  It  is  exposed  to  the  full 
sweep  of  the  gigantic  waves  of  the  Southern  Ocetm.  Though 
river  steamers  have  been  navigated  in  and  out  hundreds  of 
times,  there  is  always  some*  measure  of  risk  about  it. 

What  is  wanted  is  a  safe  and  commodious  harbour  for  large 
vessels,  where  they  can  lie  in  security  and  be  loaded  with  the 
upper  river  produce  brought  down  by  the  shallow-bottomed 
steamers.  To  a  certain  extent,  Victor  Harbour  has  answered 
this  purpose;  one  or  two  good  vessels  do  indeed  load  wool 
there  during  the  season  for  the  London  market,  and  the 
Melbourne  steamers  call  every  voyage.  But,  however  good  the 
harbour  itseK  may  be,  it  has  this  serious  defect — that  river- 
borne  wool  has  to  be  landed  from  the  steamers  at  Goolwa,  then 
conveyed  about  twelve  miles  by  rail  to  Port  Victor,  put  on 
board  lighters,  and  then  transhipped  from  the  lighters  to  the 
ocean-going  vessels.  All  this  causes  serious  expense,  and  up 
to  the  present  time  htis  hampered  and  hindered  the  trade. 
Shippers  are  not  willing  to  send  first-class  vessels  to  Victor 
Harbour,  where  they  have  sometimes  to  lie  for  months  before 
they  fill  up.  Wool-growers  up  the  river  refuse  to  send  their 
produce  down  while  imcertainty  exists  as  to  finding  vessels  to 
take  it  off.  The  practical  result  has  been  that  the  produce  of 
the  river,  which  ought  to  have  come  to  our  seaboai*d,  has  been 


(.4 


Chap.  XVH.]  EAILWAY  FEOM  POET  ADELAIDE  TO  MURKAY.    95 

gradually  drifting  away  to  Melbourne.  The  large  and  sin- 
gularly productive  tract  of  country  lying  between  the  Upper 
3Iurray  and  the  Murrumbidgee,  called  Kiverina,  ought  to  send 
its  produce  by  water  carriage  to  the  mouth  of  the  Murray ; 
our  Victorian  neighbours,  however,  have  determined — appa- 
rently, at  any  cost — to  secure  this  trade  for  Hobson's  Bay. 
A  railway  has  been  carried  from  Melbourne  to  Echuca,  a  point 
on  the  Upper  Murray ;  and  tha  Victorian  Government  are 
actually  conveying  the  wool  at  a  loss  to  the  revenue.  Much 
of  the  trade,  it  is  feared,  is  hopelessly  lost  to  this  Colony; 
and  our  object  now  is  to  retain  that^  which  still  remains  in 
our  hands. 

There  are  two  methods  by  which  this  is  sought  to  be 
effected.  The  first,  and  most  popular,  is  to  connect  the  river 
direct  with  Port  Adelaide  by  means  of  a  railway.  All  the  year 
round  there  are  magnificent  vessels  at  the  Port  waiting  for 
freight;  and  when  the  produce  is  once  brought  to  Port 
Adelaide,  it  can  be  immediately  dispatched  for  the  home 
market.  This  cannot  be  done  if  it  is  sent  down  to  Port  Victor, 
where  it  may  lie  for  weeks  or  months,  before  it  can  be  shipped. 
To  the  sheepfarmer  much  depends  on  getting  the  produce 
early  to  market ;  and  wool  will  not  be  sent  to  any  port  where 
it  cannot  get  quick  dispatch. 

A  railway  to  connect  the  Murray  with  the  Port  has  been 
talked  about  for  many  years ;  but  there  is  now  a  probability  of 
its  becoming  an  accomplished  fact.  One  great  difficulty  has 
"been  to  fix  upon  a  route  for  the  line.  Local  jealousies  have 
prevented  unanimity.  The  present  Government  have  fixed  the 
Toute,  as  I  have  mentioned  already,  between  Eapunda  and  the 
North-West  Bend,  and  it  is  probable  that  this  route  will  be 
adopted  by  the  Parliament.  There  is  a  strong  and  influential 
party,  however,  in  favour  of  a  line  over  the  Mount  Lofty  range 
of  hills,  which  would  pass  through  a  fruitful  and  settled  district. 
The  two  great  arguments  in  favour  of  this  line  are — first,  that 
it  would  secure  a  good  trade  from  the  very  beginning ;  and, 
secondly,  that  it  would  be  the  commencement  of  a  great  over- 
land line  of  railway  connecting  Adelaide  with  Melbourne  and 
Sydney.    These  two  arguments  have  great  force.    The  time  is 


96  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA.  [Chap.  XVn. 

not  far  distant  when  we  shall  have  the  three  Colonies  joined 
by  railway  communication ;  and  if  we  must  tap  the  Murray, 
something  valuable  would  be  gained  by  tapping  it  in  such  a 
direction,  and  the  line  constructed  would  be  the  beginning  of 
an  overland  route; 

But  the  strongest,  if  not  the  only,  argument  against  a  line 
over  the  hills  is  its  enormous  cost.  The  lowest  computation 
makes  it  about  £1,200,000  for  the  seventy-five  miles,  which  is 
more  than  the  Colony  can  afford  in  its  present  circumstances. 
We  want  lines  of  railway  in  other  parts  of  the  Colony  where 
there  is  less  accommodation  for  the  conveyance  of  produce  to 
the  seaboard.  At  £4000  per  mile  we  could  make  300  miles  for 
the  cost  of  the  seventy-five  miles  over  the  range ;  or  at  £5000 
per  mile,  240  miles.  And  it  is  considered  much  wiser  at  the 
present  time  to  open  out  new  country  with  300  or  240  miles  of 
railway  than  to  spend  £16,000  per  mile  over  a  line  of  only 
seventy-five  miles  over  a  country  where  excellent  roads  already 
exist.  It  is  this  consideration  that  outweighs  the  many  advan- 
tages which  a  line  to  the  river  over  the  hiUs  undoubtedly 
possesses. 

But  apart  from  railways  altogether,  there  is  another  great 
scheme  before  the  public,  which  is  enthusiastically  advocated 
by  the  people  in  the  south.  That  is  to  make  a  new  mouth  to 
the  Murray,  which  would  enable  ocean-going  vessels  of  large 
tonnage  to  pass  in  and  out  without  difficulty  or  danger.  The 
harbour  of  Goolwa  on  the  river  is  large  and  commodious,  and 
has  a  sufficient  depth  of  water  to  enable  a  considerable  fleet  of 
large  vessels  to  lie  safely,  if  once  they  were  inside.  This 
harbour  is  not  more  than  a  mile  from  the  ocean  in  a  straight 
line  across  the  sandhills.  The  scheme  proposed  is  to  cut  a 
canal  through  the  sand  of  sufficient  depth  and  width  to  permit 
large  vessels  to  pass  in  and  out.  The  question  is  one  of 
engineering  and  cost;  and  these  two  are  closely  connected. 
Engineers  say  that  if  a  cutting  were  made  the  fall  in  the 
river  would  be  quite  sufficient  to  scour  the  channel  and  to 
keep  it  always  clear.  The  great  difficulty,  however,  is  the 
fact  that  the  mouth  of  the  canal  would  have  no  protection 
against  the  full  Bwell  of  the  Southern  Ocean,  and  that  there 


Chap.  XVn.]       PEOPOSED  CANAL  TO  GOOLWA.  97 

would  l;>e  times  when  it  would  be  impossible  for  vessels  to 
attempt  the  passage  in  safety.  The  answer  to  this  is,  that 
such  times  are  by  no  means  frequent,  and  that  when  the 
weather  was  too  stormy  for  vessels  to  make  the  entrance,  they 
could  run  for  Victor  Harbour,  a  few  miles  off,  where  they 
could  lie  safely  until  the  weather  moderated.  The  Engineer- 
in-Chief  cannot  recommend  the  Government  to  undertaJce  the 
work  of  making  a  canal ;  but  the  people  in  the  South  have 
obtained  an  Act  to  enable  a  private  company  to  undertake  the 
work,  and  Mr.  B.  Boothby,  C.E.,  has  prepared  plans  showing 
how  it  can  be  carried  out  at  a  moderate  cost. 

Whether  the  scheme  is  feasible,  it  is  not  my  business  to 
say,  as  it  is  really  a  matter  of  engineering ;  but  if  it  is,  and  is 
carried  out,  it  will  be  one  of  the  greatest  works  ever  accom- 
plished in  the  Colony.  It  will  be  the  creation  of  a  new  port, 
and  will  secure  the  upper  river  trade  to  an  extent  which  it  is 
impossible  to  estimate.  There  is  untold  wealth,  agricultural, 
pastoral,  and  mineral,  in  the  immense  river  territory,  which 
cannot  be  fully  developed  in  consequence  of  the  cost  of 
conveying  the  produce  to  a  market  which  would  be  developed 
within  a  very  few  years  if  the  river  were  opened  to  sea-going 
vessels. 

If  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  we  have  not  turned  the  one 
great  river  we  possess  to  full  account  as  a  highway  for  the 
conveyance  of  produce.  A  port  at  its  mouth  which  would 
receive  large  vessels  would  more  than  anything  else  enable  us 
to  use  the  river  as  we  ought ;  and  if  the  southern  colonists  are 
successful  in  their  bold  and  spirited  scheme,  they  will  do  more 
for  the  substantial  prosperity  of  the  Province  than  has  ever 
yet  been  accomplished.  Without  being  over-sanguine,  I 
believe  a  great  future  lies  before  the  Colony  in  the  fuller 
development  of  the  river  trade. 


98  SOUTH  AUSTBAUA.  [Chap.  XXIU. 


CHAPTEK  XVIIL 

THE  TBANS-AUSTRALIAN  TELEGRAPH. 

Origin  of  Idea  —  Stuart's  Travels  —  Cable  Company's  Proposal  —  Commander 
Noel  Osbpm — Act  passed  for  Construction  —  Mr.  Todd's  Preparations  — 
Difficulties  of  the  Undertaking  —  First  Failures' — Mr.  Patterson's  Expe- 
dition —  Mr.  Todd's  Expedition — Completion  of  Work  —  First  Telegram 

—  Banquet  in  Adelaide  to  celebrate  Completion  of  Work  —  Great  Success 

—  Conflicts  with  Natives  —  Lines  and  Cables   to  New  Zealand  and 
Western  Australia. 

Probably  nothing  that  has  been  done  during  the  history  of 
South  Australia  has  more  strikingly  brought  out  the  enter- 
prise of  the  Colonists  than  the  construction  of  the  Overland 
Telegraph.  A  few  years  ago  the  heart  of  the  continent  was  a 
terra  incoffnita,  about  which  there  were  strange  dreams  and 
speculations.  Now  a  well-built  line  of  telegraph  has  been 
carried  nearly  2000  miles  from  Adelaide  in  the  south  to  Port 
Darwin  in  the  north,  and  this  great  work  has  brought  the 
whole  of  Australia  into  telegraphic  communication  with  every 
part  of  the  civilized  world.  We  owe  this  great  work  primarily 
to  Charles  Todd,  C.M.Gr.,  the  accomplished  and  indefatigable 
Superintendent  of  Telegraphs  in  the  Colony.  I  purpose 
giving  here  a  brief  accoimt  of  the  construction  of  this  bold 
undertaking. 

So  far  back  as  1857,  Mr.  Todd  brought  forward  the 
question  of  connecting  Australia  with  the  old  world  by  means 
of  telegraphic  communication.  The  first  idea  was  to  connect 
Java  with  the  GuK  of  Carpentaria  by  a  submarine  cable, 
and  Java  with  Singapore.  Queensland  had  pushed  her  lines 
to  a  considerable  extent  northwards,  and  they  could  easily  have 


Chap.  XYIH.]      THE  TRANS-AUSTKALIAN  TELEGEAPH.  99 

been  carried  to  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria.  After  Stuart's 
successful  journey  across  the  continent  to  South  Australia,  the 
thought  occurred  to  Mr.  Todd  that  a  land  line  from  Port 
Augusta  to  North  Australia  was  quite  practicable  and  might 
be  constructed  at  a  moderate  cost.  He  brought  the  question 
ofScially  before  Sir  E.  G.  MacDonnell,  the  Governor,  in  1859, 
who  immediately  communicated  with  the  Secretary  of  State 
on  the  subject.  The  question,  however,  slept  for.  som6  years, 
and  was  revived  and  brought  into  prominent  notice  again 
in  1869,  when  various  schemes  were  suggested  for  carrying 
out  the  scheme.  Amongst  these,  however,  three  obtained 
prominence ;  the  first  to  join  the  North- West  Cape  to  Ceylon, 
and  the  second  to  connect  it  with  Java;  and  a  third,  and 
perhaps  more  favourite  scheme  was  to  connect  Normanton  on 
the  north-east  with  Java. 

At  this  time  the  British-Australian  Telegraph  Company 
was  launched,  and  proposed  to  bring  the  cable  to  our  doors 
without  subsidy  or  guarantee.  Fortunately  at  that  time  Mr. 
K.  Dalrymple  Eoss,  a  gentleman  who  had  been  connected  with 
the  Imperial  Commissariat,  and  who  had  taken  a  lively 
interest  in  opening  out  North  Australia  for  purposes  of  trade 
with  British  India,  was  in  London,  and  he  wrote  an  able  letter 
to  the  Times,  pointing  out  the  importance  of  opening  our 
facilities  for  trade  between  Australia  and  India.  He  also 
demonstrated  the  probability  of  a  telegraph  cable,  connecting 
Australia  with  India  and  Europe,  becoming  in  a  very  few 
years  highly  remunerative  to  the  company  who  would  imder- 
take  it.  Mr.  Eoss  placed  the  whole  advantages  of  the  scheme 
very  clearly  and  forcibly  before  the  British  public,  and  his 
letter  had  much  to  do  with  hastening  the  progress  of  the  work. 
There  was  a  cable  already  to  Singapore,  and  a  land  line  from 
Batavia  through  Java  to  Banjoewangie ;  and  the  plan  of  the 
British- Australian  Company  was  to  lay  a  cable  from  Singapore 
to  Batavia,  and  from  Banjoewangie  to  Port  Darwin,  with  a 
land  line  thence  to  Normanton.  It  was,  however,  by  no  means 
a  settled  fact  that  the  cable  would  come  to  Port  Darwin  at  all. 
There  was  a  doubt  as  to  the  land  route  thence  to  Normanton, 
which,  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  country,  would  be  difficult 

P2  : 


100  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  XYHT. 

to  construct  and  expensive  to  maintain.  There  was,  therefore, 
a  feeling  in  favour  of  leaving  out  Port  Darwin  and  carrying 
the  cable  direct  to  Normanton. 

In  order  to  make  all  necessary  inquiries.  Commander  Noel 
Osbom  was  sent  by  the  Company  to  Australia.  This  gentleman 
came  on  to  Adelaide,  and  Mr.  Todd,  in  repeated  interviews 
with  him,  put  the  advantages  of  a  line  from  Adelaide  to  Port 
Darwin  before  him  over  one  through  Queensland.  He  showed 
that  our  line  would  be  much  shorter,  and  that  Queensland 
could  easily  tap  it  by  a  short  line  from  Normanton.  Mr. 
H.  B.  T.  Strangways,  then  at  the  head  of  the  Government  in 
South  Australia,  took  the  matter  up  very  warmly,  and  offered, 
on  behalf  of  the  Government,  to  construct  an  overland  line 
from  Port  Augusta  to  Port  Darwin.  The  British- Australian 
Company  would  therefore  finish  their  work  when  they  landed 
their  cable  at  Port  Darwin,  and  they  would  escape  all  the 
trouble  and  cost  of  carrying  a  land  line  through  a  difficult  and 
comparatively  unknown  country.  Commander  Osbom  saw  that 
this  proposal  would  relieve  the  Company  of  what  was  likely  to 
prove  their  greatest  difficulty,  and  he  accepted  it.  A  Bill  was 
introduced  into  Parliament  to  authorize  the  construction  of 
the  line,  and  though  there  was  a  change  of  Ministry  at  the 
time,  public  feeling  was  so  strong  in  its  favour  that  the  Bill 
was  carried  with  something  approaching  to  enthusiasm.  Our 
Government  pledged  themselves  to  have  the  line  completed 
in  eighteen  months,  and  open  for  traffic  on  January  1st,  1872. 

The  Colony  was  thus  committed  to  the  work,  and  it  was 
only  then  that  Mr.  Todd,  who,  as  the  head  of  the  department, 
was  responsible  for  carrying  it  out,  began  to  realize  the  re- 
sponsibility he  had  undertaken.  Only  a  few  months  before  the 
duties  of  Postmaster-General,  in  addition  to  the  management 
of  the  Telegraph  Department,  had  been  transferred  to  him. 
With  increased  official  duties  pressing  very  heavily  upon  him, 
he  had  undertaken  to  carry  a  line  of  telegraph  nearly  200O 
miles  long  through  a  country,  the  greater  portion  of  which  was 
unknown,  and  for  an  extent  of  1350  miles  unsettled  by  white 
men.  Stuart,  indeed,  had  passed  over  a  barren  strip  of  this 
coimtrv,  and  had  thus  proved  that  its  passage  was  practicable 


Chap.  XVin.]         ME.  TODD'S  PEEPAEATIONS.  101 

in  certain  seasons  of  the  year  to  a  small  and  lightly  equipped 
party.  For  hundreds  of  miles  this  country  was  entirely  bare 
of  timber,  and  posts  would  have  to  be  carted  over  the  whole 
distance  where  there  were  no  roads.  More  than  this,  all  the 
wire  was  to  be  transported  from  England  by  ship,  and  then 
carted  over  the  distance.  Insulators  were  to  be  brought  from 
Berlin ;  and  when  the  order  for  them  went  home,  the  Franco- 
German  war  had  broken  out,  and  serious  delay  occurred  in 
getting  the  insulators  through  Denmark.  Mr.  Todd  soon  dis- 
covered, too,  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  have  iron  posts  for 
a  great  portion  of  the  line,  and  these  had  also  to  be  imported 
from  England.  Some  of  the  materials  were  landed  at  Port 
Augusta,  and  some  at  Port  Darwin,  so  that  the  work  might  be 
simultaneonsly  commenced  at  each  end. 

To  convey  them  from  the  seaboard,  an  extensive  system  of 
dray  parties  had  to  be  organized.  Horses  and  carts  had  to  be 
purchased,  men  selected,  tents  and  provisions  conveyed  to  the 
very  heart  of  the  Continent.  Two  thousand  miles  of  posts  and 
wire  had  to  be  erected,  and  all  this  within  eighteen  months 
from  the  time  the  contract  was  signed.  More  than  this,  a 
practicable  route  was  to  be  selected;  and  Mr.  John  Ross, 
a  clever  and  an  experienced  bushman,  with  a  flying  expedition, 
was  dispatched  to  run  down  the  coimtry  and  mark  out  the 
route.  Various  sections  of  the  line  were  let  under  contract ; 
the  Government  retaining  those  most  difficult  in  their  own 
hands.  The  first  northern  section  started  from  Port  Darwin 
as  a  basis,  and  the  next  from  the  Roper  River.  Parties  were 
to  work  from  each  of  those  points  and  meet  in  the  centre.  The 
southern  portion,  starting  at  Port  Augusta,  was  also  let  on 
contract ;  and  the  central,  which  the  Government  themselves 
undertook,  and  which  presented  the  greatest  difficulty,  was 
entrusted  to  a  fine  lot  of  young  men,  who  entered  upon  their 
work  with  great  enthusiasm. 

When  all  was  ready  for  a  beginning,  the  Government 
parties  started  from  Adelaide  in  August,  1870,  and  the  first 
pole  was  planted  at  Port  Darwin  about  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember, and  the  first  at  Port  Augusta  on  the  1st  October,  1870. 
Having  organized  all  his  forces,  and  made  provision  for  ob- 


102  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA.  [Chap.  X\Tn. 

taining  all  his  necessary  material,  Mr.  Todd  started  northward 
as  far  as  the  Peake,  which  had  been  chosen  as  a  central  base 
of  operations.  There  he  met  Mr.  Boss,  and  made  final  arrange- 
ments for  the  disposition  of  his  forces.  The  thing  was  soon 
fairly  started,'  and  Mr.  Todd  returned  to  Adelaide  to  watch 
with  anxiety  the  progress  of  the  work,  and  to  arrange  for  the 
continuous  dispatch  of  materials  and  provisions  as  they  were 
needed. 

For  a  time  everything  went  on  very  successfully,  and  there 
was  every  prospect  of  the  work  being  carried  out  within  the 
contract  time.  It  was  supposed  that  the  northern  end,  starting 
from  Port  Darwin,  would  present  fewest  difficulties,  but  here 
was  the  only  serious  breakdown.  Early  in  July,  1871,  when  it 
was  hoped  that  a  considerable  portion  of  the  northern  section 
had  been  completed,  we  were  startled  and  disappointed  by 
Mr.  W.  McMinn,  the  Government  overseer,  returning  to  Ade- 
laide with  the  melancholy  news  that  the  contractor's  expedition 
there  had  collapsed ;  and  that,  in  virtue  of  the  power  given  to 
him,  he  had  terminated  the  contract.  This  was  a  heavy  blow 
and  sgre  discouragement.  The  other  parts  of  the  line  were 
being  constructed  with  great  success,  and  no  one  dreamt  of  a 
failure  at  the  Port  Darwin  end.  Besides  this,  only  six  months 
remained  of  the  contract  time,  within  which  the  Government 
Avere  pledged  to  finish  the  work. 

In  this  emergency,  the  Government  dispatched  Mr.  B.  C. 
Patterson,  assistant  engineer,  with  a  large  party  of  men  and 
an  ample  supply  of  materials,  to  complete  the  work.  Mr. 
Patterson  and  Mr.  Todd  were  strongly  in  favour  of  sending 
the  new  expedition  to  the  Boper  Biver,  and  forming  a  new 
base  of  operations  there.  They  were  overruled,  however,  and 
the  fatal  mistake  was  made  of  sending  the  expedition  to  Port 
Darwin.  It  arrived  at  an  unfortunate  time;  the  stock  died, 
and  it  was  found  almost  impossible  to  get  the  materials  trans- 
ported. Mr.  Patterson  sent  back  a  melancholy  report  from 
Port  Darwin,  which  cast  a  gloom  over  the  whole  Colony.  He 
did  what  ought  to  have  been  done  at  first — dispatched  a  vessel 
with  his  materials  to  the  Boper,  and  in  course  of  time  followed. 
With  reference  to  this  period  of  bitter  disappointment,  Mr. 


Chap.  XVni]       ME.  PATTEBSOITS  EXPEDITION.  103 

Todd  writes: — "Numbers  of  horses  and  one-third  of  the 
bullocks  died,  and  the  loads  had  to  be  lightened  or  abandoned 
on  the  road  before  the  Katherine  was  reached,  and  further  on 
it  was  necessary  to  sink  wells  before  the  teams  could  advance 
with  safety ;  and  ere  this  was  accomplished,  down  came  the 
I'ains,  and  a  monsoon  of  unusual  severity  set  in  almost  before 
the  work  could  be  renewed,  and  stopped  all  further  progress 
for  months." 

The  men  were  locked  in  by  floods,  chafing,  and  fretting, 
and  eating  their  hearts,  during  their  enforced  idleness.  The 
precious  time  was  passing  away.  The  whole  out-look  at  that 
time  was  very  black;  and  Mr.  Todd  needed  all  his  bright, 
hopeful,  and  sanguine  spirit  to  sustain  him. 

At  this  very  juncture,  in  the  midst  of  our  bitter  disappoint- 
ment, the  cable  fleet  arrived  at  Port  Darwin.  The  shore  end 
of  the  line  was  fixed,  and  the  vessels  began  to  pay  out  the 
cable  to  Banjoewangie,  and  the  work  was  completed  and  com- 
munication established  with  London  in  November.  One  of 
the  first  messages  flashed  along  the  line  was  the  humbling 
one  for  us,  "  South  Australijm  land  line  not  nearly  completed." 
Some  of  our  neighbours  began  to  taunt  us  with  our  vanity  and 
foolish  temerity  in  undertaking  a  work  which  we  had  not  the 
ability  to  complete,  instead  of  leaving  it  to  one  of  the  other 
Colonies.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  people  in  Melbourne, 
we  found  none  to  offer  us  a  word  of  sympathy,  or  to  give  us  a 
word  of  encouragement. 

At  this  time,  when  things  looked  darkest,  when  Mr. 
Patterson  wrote  in  a  somewhat  desponding  tone,  reporting 
his  losses  and  asking  for  the  inmiediate  dispatch  of  large 
reinforcements,  the  Government,  who  never  lost  heart,  and 
who  were  determined  to  complete  the  work  whatever  it  might 
cost,  asked  Mr.  Todd  himself  to  proceed  to  the  scene  of  action, 
and  do  what  was  necessary  to  close  up  the  work.  This  was  a 
serious  undertaking  for  a  gentleman  who  had  no  acquaintance 
Avith  bush  life ;  but  he  accepted  the  duty  at  once.  He  had 
a  deep  personal  interest  in  the  completion  of  the  work  which 
had  been  suggested  by  himself>  and  he  felt  that  his  reputation 
to  some  extent  depended  on  its  being  successfully  carried  out. 


104  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  XVIH. 

With  his  usual  energy  and  enthusiasm,  he  collected  large  re- 
inforcements, which  he  dispatched  in  well-appointed  steamers 
to  the  Koper  Eiver,  he  sailing  in  one  of  them. 

The  very  day  before  he  started,  he  received  the  welcome 
intelligence  that  communication  had  been  established  with  the 
MacDonnell  Kanges,  that  the  central  portion  of  the  line  was 
finished,  and  that  the  section  beyond  was  making  rapid  pro- 
gress. But  for  the  unfortunate  break-down  in  the  Northern 
Territory,  the  conditions  of  the  contract  would  have  been 
fulfilled  almost  to  the  very  letter. 

On  reaching  the  mouth  of.  the  Eoper  in  the  Omeo  steamer, 
Mr.  Todd  was  met  by  Mr.  Patterson.    The  steamer  passed  up 
the  river,  Mr.  Todd  giving  the  Captain  an  indemnity  against 
damage  on  the  part  of  the  Government  if  he  would  force  the 
bar,  and  they  at  length  reached  the  jetty  which  had  been 
constructed  for  unloading  the  vessels.     The  materials  and 
horses  were  landed,  but  their  faith  and  patience  were  again 
to  be  tested.    All  through  February  and  March  heavy  con- 
tinuous rains  fell,  and  the  party  could  do  nothing.    As  soon, 
however,  as  the  fine  weather  set  in,  they  loaded  up  teams  and 
started  on  their  final  work — Mr.  Patterson  again  taking  charge 
of  the  working  parties.    Mr.  Todd,  having  seen  a  commence- 
ment again  made,  went  round  to  Port  Darwin  to  complete  the 
necessary  arrangements  there — to  inspect  the  telegraph  oflSces, 
and  to  make  a  thorough  inspection  of  the  line  between  Port 
Darwin  and  the  Katherine.    Unfortunately  he  found  that  a 
great  number  of  the  poles  had  suffered  from  the  ravages  of 
white  ants,  and  he  arranged  to  have  them  replaced  with  iron 
poles.     Having   accomplished    all  this,  he  returned  to  the 
Eoper,  which  he  reached  on  May  31.    The  work  now  went 
on  very  successfully,  and  Mr.  Todd  resolved  to  return  to 
Adelaide  overland  along  the  whole  line  of  telegraph  that  he 
might  judge  for  himself  of  the  manner  of  its  construction. 
He  arrived  at  Daly  Waters  Station  on  Jime  22. 

Between  that  point  and  Tennant's  Creek  there  was  a  gap 
in  the  line  still  to  be  finished.  Until  it  was  completed,  Mr. 
Todd  established  a  pony  estafette,  to  ride  express  with  messages 
and  keep  up  a  weekly  communication  between  Adelaide  and 


Chap.  XVin.]  COMPLETION  OF  WOKK.  105 

the  Old  World.  He  telegraphed  to  our  Agent-General  in 
London,  informing  him  of  the  progress  of  the  work  and  its 
approaching  completion.  Several  messages  came  through  from 
London  on  the  next  day,  and  then  there  was  silence  for  some 
months.  The  cable  between  Port  Darwin  and  Java  had  broken, 
and  it  was  a  long  and  weary  time  before  it  could  be  restored. 
This  was  not  altogether  unfortunate  for  us.  The  Cable  Com- 
pany had  threatened  to  enforce  the  penalties  for  non-completion 
of  the  contract  within  the  specified  time  ;  but  when  their  own 
cable  broke,  we  heard  no  more  of  these  penalties.  Meanwhile 
the  gap  was  gradually  covered  by  the  line,  and  a  field  operator 
accompanied  the  working  parties  and  kept  up  constant  com- 
munication with  Adelaide.  On  August  22, 1872,  the  two  ends 
of  the  wire  were  joined,  and  the  construction  of  the  telegraph 
line  across  the  continent  was  an  accomplished  fact.  After  all 
our  difficulties  and  heart-breaking  disappointments,  the  work 
was  done.  On  the  day  the  wires  were  joined  and  messages 
were  flashed  direct  between  Adelaide  and  Port  Darwin,  we 
were  rewarded  for  all  our  money,  labour,  and  anxiety.  In 
lecturing  on  this  work,  Mr.  Todd  said: — ^''Thus  the  great 
work,  notwithstanding  all  disasters  and  mishaps,  was  success- 
fully completed  within  two  years ;  and  he  thought  he  might 
with  confidence  assert  that  no  line  passing  through  a  similar 
extent  of  uninhabited  country,  where  the  materials  had  to  be 
imported  and  carted  over  such  long  distances,  or  coimtry  re- 
presenting similar  natural  obstacles,  had  been  constructed  in 
the  same  short  space  of  time."  It  should  be  borne  in  mind, 
too,  that  this  great  work  was  undertaken  at  the  sole  cost  of  a 
people  numbering  at  the  time  less  than  200,000  souls.  The 
audacity  of  the  enterprise  was  no  less  than  the  success  with 
which  it  was  carried  out. 

When  the  work  was  completed,  Mr.  Todd  was  at  Central 
Mount  Stuart,  the  very  heart  of  the  continent,  equidistant 
from  north  and  south ;  from  east  and  west.  There  was  some- 
thing singularly  appropriate  in  his  receiving  the  news  of  the 
completion  of  the*  great  work  in  the  centre  of  the  continent. 
It  was  evening  when  the  first  message  passed  through,  and  im- 
mediately he  received  kind  congratulatory  messages  from  the 


106  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA.  [Chap.  XVni. 

Government,  and  all  sorts  of  people,  expressing  their  joy  at 
the  completion  of  the  work  which  he  suggested,  and  which  he 
did  so  much  to  carry  out.  These  messages  came  flashing 
through,  and  he  replied  to  them  in  high  delight,  until  from 
sheer  weariness  of  hand  and  brain  he  had  to  wish  his  friends 
in  Adelaide  "  Good  night,"  and  shut  oflf  the  communication. 
If  he  had  not  done  so,  he  would  have  been  kept  receiving  and 
answering  messages  all  through  the  night. 

Mr.  Todd  now  hastily  pursued  his  journey  to  Adelaide, 
accompanied  by  Mr.  Knuckey,  a  fine  young  fellow,  who  had 
shown  himself  to  be  one  of  his  most  eflScient  and  faithful  co- 
adjutors in  the  work.  He  was  followed  by  his  party,  and  he 
and  they  received  a  cordial  welcome  in  the  city.  A  grand 
banquet  was  given  to  them  in  the  Town  Hall,  presided  over 
by  His  Excellency  Sir  James  Fergusson,  Bart.,  who  gracefully 
announced  the  fact  that,  in  recognition  of  the  importance  of 
the  work  achieved.  Her  Majesty  had  conferred  on  the  Chief 
Secretary,  Mr.  Ayers,  the  honour  of  K.C.M.G.,  and  on  Mr. 
Todd  and  the  Agent-General  of  the  colony  in  London,  Mr. 
Francis  S.  Button,  the  honour  of  C.M.G.  At  that  banquet 
messages  were  sent  from  the  room  to  London  and  Washington, 
and  answers  received  in  due  course. 

When  the  work  was  completed  and  the  line  successfully 
opened,  its  immense  importance  was  at  once  recognized. 
Some,  indeed,  who  were  envious  at  our  success  and  unjust  in 
their  criticisms,  asserted  that  the  line  was  little  better  than  a 
sham — that  it  was  ill-constructed,  and  that  it  would  tumble  to 
pieces  in  a  few  months.  Mr.  Todd  indignantly  refuted  these 
mendacious  statements.  He  had  travelled  over  the  whole  line, 
and  he  stated  that  it  was  well  and  substantially  built ;  and  the 
result  has  shown  that  he  was  right.  It  has  been  in  operation 
upwards  of  three  years,  and  we  have  never  yet  had  seven  days* 
interruption.  Heavy  storms  have  occasionally  torn  down  por- 
tions of  the  line,  but  these  have  been  replaced  in  a  day  or  two. 
Indeed,  communication  between  Australia  and  England  has 
suflfered  much  more  from  breaks  in  the  cable  than  from  any 
faults  in  our  land  line. 

It  was  feared  that  the  line  might  suffer  from  the  wild 


Chap.  XVin.]      GKEAT  SUCCESS  OF  TELEGRAPH  LINE.        107 

natives  in  the  interior,  who,  from  malice  or  ignorance,  might 
cut  the  wires.  Singularly  enough,  however,  there  has  been  no 
instance  of  their  doing  so.  They  seem  to  have  a  wholesome 
dread  of  the  telegraph.  During  the  process  of  building,  the 
operators  gave  several  of  the  curious  blackfellows  electric 
shocks,  which  alarmed  them  beyond  measure,  and  vividly 
appealed  to  their  imagination.  They  learnt  to  associate  the 
peculiar  sensation  caused  by  the  shock  with  the  line,  and  this 
has  prevented  them  interfering  with  it.  The  terror  caused  by 
reports  of  "  whitefellow's  devil "  spread  like  wildfire  amongst 
the  timorous  savages.  They  have  attacked  the  operators  at 
the  stations,  and  sometimes  with  fatal  consequences,  but  they 
fight  shy  of  the  wires.  I  cannot  do  better  than  conclude  this 
chapter  on  the  Overljmd  Telegraph  with  a  quotation  from  Mr. 
Todd's  lecture  as  reported  in  the  newspapers : — "  The  work 
which  they  undertook  and  successfully  consummated,  though 
single-hsmded,  had,  it  is  true,  proved  a  costly  one — far  more 
costly  than  they  anticipated ;  but  repayment  would  be 
speedy.  To  take  one  fact — without  the  telegraph  it  would 
have  been  impossible  for  South  Australia  to  have  disposed  of 
the  large  surplus  produce  of  last  harvest,  except  at  such  a 
sacrifice  as  would  have  ruined  their  farmers.  With  the  tele- 
graph, the  wants  and  prices  of  all  the  markets  of  the  world 
were  known  to  them  without  delay ;  and,  beyond  that,  they 
possessed  the  means  of  securing  ships  from  every  quarter,  till 
their  ports  were  crowded  with  the  finest  fleet  ever  seen  in 
South  Australian  waters,  ready  to  carry  away  their  golden 
grain  to  the  millions  who  were  eager  to  consume  it.  He  was 
assured  by  merchants,  most  competent  to  form  an  opinion,  that 
the  telegraph  had  realized  for  the  Colony  at  least  £150,000,  in 
the  advanced  price  it  had  enabled  us  to  obtain  for  our  wheat. 
The  telegraph  might  check  unhealthy  speculation,  but  it  made 
commerce  safer — tended  to  equalize  prices,  put  the  farmer, 
merchant,  and  consumer  on  a  footing  of  equality,  and  by  the 
more  speedy  liberation  of  capital  it  cheapened  all  commodities 
and  the  necessaries  of  daily  life." 

I  may  say  that,  in  addition  to  the  advantages  of  the  tele- 
graph thus  referred  to  by  Mr.  Todd,  its  construction  has  led  to 


108  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  XVm. 

the  opening  out  and  settlement  of  the  interior  country,  as 
nothing  else  could  have  done.  Land  has  been  taken  up  for 
grazing  far  beyond  what  only  a  few  years  ago  was  thought 
possible.  It  has  been  discovered  that  Central  Australia  is  not 
such  a  bleak  and  barren  desert  as  it  was  once  thought  to  be. 
But  the  benefits  secured  by  the  overland  line  are  not  confined 
to  this  Colony.  Victoria  uses  it  more  largely  than  all  the 
other  Colonies  put  together ;  indeed,  I  believe,  she  sometimes 
gets  the  credit  of  having  undertaken  and  constructed  the 
work.  Renter's  agency  has  its  head-quarters  in  Melbourne, 
from  which  all  public  messages  are  sent ;  and  this  has  given 
the  impression  that  the  line  belongs  to  Victoria  instead  of  to 
South  Australia.  Victorians  themselves  would  be  the  last  to 
grudge  us  the  credit  to  which  we  are  entitled  for  our  pluck 
and  enterprise ;  but  English  people,  in  their  ignorance  of 
Australian  Geography,  persist  in  regarding  Victoria  as 
Australia,  instead  of  keeping  it  in  mind  that  it  is  the 
smallest  Province  in  the  whole  of  Australia,  though  perhaps 
the  most  wealthy. 

There  are  now  only  two  great  works  necessary  to  bring  the 
whole  of  these  Colonies  of  the  South  into  telegraphic  commu- 
nication with  the  whole  civilized  world,  and  these  are  about  to 
be  completed.  The  most  important  is  a  cable  to  connect  New 
Zealand  with  Australia;  and  a  contract  has  already  been 
signed  by  the  New  Zealand  Government  and  the  English 
Company  for  this  work,  which  will  be  finished  in  the  course  of 
a  few  months.*  The  second  is  a  line  to  connect  South  and 
West  Australia;  and  this  too  is  in  process  of  construction. 
The  Western  Australian  Government  are  bringing  on  their 
line  from  Perth  to  Eucla — ^the  boundary  township  in  the 
Great  Australian  Bight ;  and  our  Government  are  carrying 
a  line  to  join  them  there.  When  these  two  works  are  finished, 
all  the  Colonies  will  be  in  communication  with  the  Old  World 
and  America.  It  is  our  pardonable  boast  that  no  country  in 
the  world,  with  such  a  small  population  and  such  limited 

♦  The  New  Zealand-Australia  Cable  was  successfully  laid  and  completed 
early  in  February  1876,  and  communication  opened  to  the  pubUc  on  the  15th  of 
that  month. 


Chap.  XVHI.]       LINES  WITH  OTHEK  COLONIES.  109 

resources,  has  done  as  much  in  the  way  of  telegraphic  exten- 
sion as  South  Australia  has  done. 

In  a  work  which  professes,  as  this  does,  to  give  accurate 
information  respecting  a  Colony  which  hitherto  has  be^n  but 
little  known,  I  thought  it  desirable  to  give  a  somewhat  lengthy 
account  of  a  work  which,  had  it  been  accomplished  by  an  old 
and  long-established  people,  would  have  been  regarded  as  a 
great  undertaking,  but  when  carried  out  by  a  mere  handful  of 
people,  in  spite  of  many  and  grievous  discouragements  which 
could  not  be  foreseen  or  guarded  against,  assumes  an  import- 
ance which  cannot  very  well  be  over-estimated.  The  bulk  of 
the  men  who  carried  it  through  were  young-bom  and  bred 
South  Australians ;  and  the  brave  way  in  which  they  set  them- 
selves to  the  work,  and  encountered  and  over-mastered  all 
difficulties,  shows  that  the  new  generation,  bom  and  brought 
up  here,  have  lost  none  of  the  high  qualities  of  courage, 
energy,  and  endurance  which  have  always  characterized  the 
Anglo-Saxon  race.  This  is  the  class  of  men  whom  we  may 
safely  trust  to  advance  the  future  progress  of  the  Colony — men 
full  of  pluck,  patient  and  hopeful  under  difficulties,  and  fruitful 
in  resources  in  the  face  of  danger  or  unforeseen  obstacles.  The 
construction  of  the  Overland  Telegraph  may  be  regarded  as  a 
test  of  the  capabilities  of  yoimg  Australia,  and  as  a  satisfactory 
answer  to  the  question  whether  they  inherit  the  high  qualities 
which  have  made  their  fathers  great. 


1 10  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  XIX. 


CHAPTER     XIX. 

EXPLORATION. 

Captain  Sturt  —  Mr.  E.  J.  Eyre" — Eyre's  Journey  to  King  George's  Sound  — 
J.  MacDouall  Stuart  —  Victoria  Exploring  Expedition :  Death  of  Burke 
and  Wilb— -  Colonel  Warburton,  John  Forrest,  Mr.  Goese,  and  Mr.  Lewis 
—  Hon.  T.  Elder's  valuable  Assistance  in  Work  of  Exploration. 

When  the  first  colonists  settled  in  South  Australia,  but  little 
was  known  of  the  immense  territory  which  had  been  ceded  to 
them  by  the  Crown.  Captain  Sturt's  adventurous  voyage 
down  the  Murrumbidgee  and  the  Murray  (to  which  I  have 
referred  elsewhere)  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  fine  country 
which  is  now  so  well  settled,  and  where  the  early  colonists 
selected  their  homes.  It  was  soon  foimd  that  the  new  Colonv 
was  admirably  adapted  for  pastoral  pursuits ;  and  the  country 
within  some  fifty  miles  of  Adelaide  was  taken  up.  Enter- 
prising men  went  out  farther  into  the  interior  to  look  for  new 
country.  The  whole  of  the  land  more  than  fifty  miles  north  of 
the  metropolis  was  a  terra  incognita.  Our  first  explorers  were 
young  men  in  search  of  good  country  for  sheep  runs.  Great 
hardships  were  often  endured  by  these  men,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  valuable  lives  were  sacrificed  in  the  search  for  countrj-. 
The  explorers  had  to  be  on  their  guard  against  the  natives, 
some  of  whom  were  crafty  and  cruel,  and  resented  what  they 
regarded  as  an  unwarrantable  intrusion  on  their  territory.  But 
the  want  of  water  in  a  hot  and  barren  land  was  often  a  worse 
enemy  than  a  whole  tribe  of  blacks.  To  tell  of  the  sufTerings 
endured  by  some  of  the  first  explorers  would  occupy  more 
space  than  I  can  afford  in  this  work.    For  the  same  reason  I 


Chap.  XIX.]  EXPLOBATION :  STUBT— EYRE.  1 1 1 

cannot  attempt  to  give  any  account  of  the  great  explorers 
which  the  other  Colonies  have  produced. 

One  of  the  first  and  bravest  of  South  Australian  explorers 
was  Edward  John  Eyre,  who  occupied  the  position  of  Resident 
Magistrate  and  Protector  of  Aborigines  at  Moorundee,  and  who 
subsequently  became  Governor  of  Jamaica,  where  it  is  admitted 
he  committed  some  mistakes  of  administration,  for  which  he 
paid  more  than  an  adequate  penalty.  Mr.  Eyre  was  an  able 
man  and  a  splendid  bushman.  He  had  large  experience  in 
conducting  expeditions  in  charge  of  stock  from  one  Colony 
to  another,  and  his  humanity  towards  and  care  for  the 
natives,  while  he  held  the  oflSce  of  Protector,  were  generally 
recognized. 

On  behalf  of  a  number  of  gentlemen  in  South  Australia, 
Mr.  Eyre  undertook  the  leadership  of  a  party  to  explore  the 
unknown  country  lying  between  this  Colony  and  Western 
Australia.  The  funds  were  subscribed  by  the  projectors  of  the 
expedition — Mr.  Eyre  himself  contributing  in  money  and 
horses  more  than  half  the  amount.  The  first  object  was  to 
push  on  northward,  and  then  strike  off  in  a  westerly  direction. 
The  expedition  consisted  of  E.  J.  Eyre,  as  leader ;  E.  B.  Scott, 
assistant  and  companion ;  J.  Baxter,  overseer ;  Corporal  Coles, 
T.  Houston,  R.  McRobert,  and  two  native  boys.  They  started 
from  Adelaide  on  June  18th,  1840,  in  an  imposing  cavalcade — 
several  ladies  and  gentlemen  accompanying  them  some  short 
distance  on  horseback.  The  Government  had  placed  at  their 
disposal  a  small  cutter,  to  convey  their  stores  to  the  head  of 
Spencer's  Gulf  and  Streaky  Bay.  Unexpected  diflSculties  pre- 
vented their  pushing  their  way  northward,  and  the  party  pro- 
ceeded to  Streaky  Bay.  This  was  made  the  base  of  operations ; 
and  a  month  was  employed  by  Mr.  Eyre  and  one  of  the  natives 
in  a  fruitless  attempt  to  get  beyond  the  Great  Australian  Bight, 
in  which  he  lost  three  of  his  horses.  Prudence  would  have 
suggested  an  abandonment  of  the  expedition  and  a  return  to 
Adelaide.  Mr.  Eyre,  however,  felt  that  he  must  do  something 
to  justify  the  confidence  placed  in  him ;  and  while  pondering 
over  the  situation,  he  formed  the  bold  resolution  to  land  his 
stores,  send  back  his  party  in  the  cutter  to  Adelaide,  and,  with 


112  SOUTH  AUSTEALIA.  [Chap.  XIX. 

one  white  man  and  three  blacks,  push  his  way  through  to 
King  George's  Sound,  in  Western  Australia,  or  to  perish  in  the 
attempt.  He  fully  knew  the  danger  which  he  was  about  to 
incur ;  but  his  overseer,  Baxter,  was  willing  to  accompany  him, 
and  the  perilous  journey  begem. 

About  ten  years  ago  Henry  Kingsley  told  the  story  of  that 
remarkable  expedition  in  the  pages  of  MacmiUan's  Moffazine, 
in  his  own  graphic  style.  Poor  Eyre  suffered  the  greatest 
privations;  but  he  bore  up  with  a  brave  heart,  until  his 
faithful  overseer  was  cruelly  murdered  by  two  of  his  natives, 
and  then  he  almost  broke  down.  The  natives  deserted  him 
after  murdering  his  overseer  and  robbing  him  of  a  considerable 
quantity  of  his  provisions,  and  he  was  left  alone  with  a  little 
black  lad  as  his  only  attendant.  He  was  not  able  to  bury  the 
body  of  Baxter,  but  wrapped  a  blanket  round  it  and  left  it 
where  it  fell,  and  rushed  "  from  the  melancholy  scene,  accom- 
panied by  Wylie  (the  boy),  imder  the  influence  of  feelings 
which  neither  time  nor  circumstances  will  ever  obliterate." 
Mr.  Eyre  adds  in  his  journal : — "  At  this  time  I  had  nothing 
on  but  a  shirt  and  a  pair  of  trousers,  and  suffered  most  acutely 
from  the  cold;  to  mental  anguish  was  now  added  intense 
bodUy  pain.  Suffering  and  distress  had  weU  nigh  over- 
whelmed  me,  and  life  seemed  hardly  worth  the  efforts  necessary 
to  prolong  it."  He  appeared  to  be  now  alone  in  the  world. 
Two  out  of  the  three  natives  had  betrayed  the  confidence  he 
placed  in  them,  and  murdered  his  only  white  companion.  A 
single  act  of  treachery  on  the  part  of  his  native  boy,  Wylie, 
might  have  ended  his  days,  and  left  his  bones  to  whiten  in  the 
desert ;  but  the  poor  boy  was  faithful  to  the  last.  What  a 
picture  for  an  artist  would  Eyre  and  Wylie — ^representatives  of 
the  highest  and  lowest  forms  of  humanity — pushing  on  their 
weary  way  over  hitherto  imtrodden  deserts,  afford  !  Hungry, 
thirsty,  fainting,  6md  naked,  they  pushed  on,  until  at  last  they 
reached  the  little  town  of  Albany,  in  King  George's  Sound, 
where  they  had  been  expected,  but  long  given  up  for  lost. 

In  his  journal  Mr.  Eyre  tries  to  describe  his  feelings  on 
terminating  his  journey.  He  says  : — "  For  a  moment  as  I 
stood  gazing  at  the  town  below  me,  that  goal  I  had  so  long 


Chap.  XIX.]  EYRE'S  JOUBNEY  TO  KING  GEORGE'S  SOUND.      113 

looked  forward  to,  had  so  laboriously  toiled  to  attain,  was  at 
last  before  me,  a  thousand  confused  images  and  reflections 
crowded  through  my  mind,  and  the  events  of  the  past  year 
were  recalled  in  rapid  succession.  The  contrast  between  the 
circumstances  under  which  I  had  commenced  and  terminated 
my  labours  stood  in  strong  relief  before  me.  The  gay  and 
gallant  cavalcade  that  accompanied  me  on  my  way  at  starting, 
the  small  but  enterprising  band  that  I  then  commanded,  the 
goodly  array  of  horses  and  drays,  with  all  their  well-ordered 
appointments  and  equipment,  were  conjured  up  in  all  their 
circumstances  of  pride  and  pleasure ;  and  I  could  not  restrain 
a  tear  as  I  called  to  mind  the  embarrassing  difficulties  and 
sad  disasters  that  had  broken  up  my  party,  and  left  myself  and 
Wylie  the  two  sole  ^^^derers  remaining  at  the  close  of  an 
undertaking  entered  upon  under  such  hopeful  auspices."  This 
perilous  journey  was  of  little  use  from  a  commercial  point  of 
view.  The  country  passed  over  was  worthless  for  pasture, 
although  the  country  this  side  of  Fowler's  Bay  has  been  taken 
up  for  pastoral  pursuits.  But  Eyre's  bravery,  endurance,  and 
perseverance  are  none  the  less  to  be  commended  on  this 
account. 

Thirty  years  after  this  journey  was  made,  it  was  repeated 
from  the  opposite  side  by  Mr.  John  Forrest,  a  fine  young  West 
Australian  explorer,  who  with  a  small  party  paissed  over  it  with 
but  little  inconvenience  or  difficulty.  Mr.  Forrest  told  me  that 
again  and  again  he  camped  on  Eyre's  old  camping  ground, 
which  he  recognized  at  once,  and  which  seemed  to  have  re- 
mained undisturbed  from  the  time  he  and  Wylie  left  it.  I 
shall  have  something  more  to  say  of  this  brave- yoimg  West 
Australian  explorer,  who  in  crossing  the  continent  in  the  lati- 
tude where  Eyre  hoped  to  have  crossed  it  when  he  first  started 
from  Adelaide,  endured  very  great  privations. 

The  next  explorer  of  note  who  attempted  to  penetrate  the 
mystery  of  Central  Australia  was  Captain  Sturt,  a  man  whose 
name  should  never  be  mentioned  without  respect.  He  had 
won  his  spurs  as  an  explorer,  but  the  heart  of  the  continent 
had  a  fascination  for  him,  and  he  was  resolved  to  find  out  what 
it  contained.    There  was  an  idea  prevalent  that  somewhere  in 

I 


114  SOUTH  AUSTKAUA.  [Chap.  XDL 

the  centre,  would  be  found  a  great  inland  sea,  and  Captain 
Sturt  determined  that  he  would  prove  or  disprove  this  idea  by 
actual  observation.    In  1844  he  started,  with,  a  well-equipped 
party,  on  an  exploration  to  the  north.    His  surgeon  was  Mr. 
J.  H.  Browne,  now  a  wealthy  squatter,  and  his  draughtsman, 
Mr.  J.  McDouall  Stuart,  who  was  destined  to  be  the  first  white 
man  who  travelled  across  the  continent  from  south  to  north.  His 
journey  would  be  worth  describing  if  I  had  space  here  to  de- 
scribe it.    No  party  ever  suffered  more  than  this  did.    For  six 
months  they  were  shut  up  far  away  to  the  north,  able  neither 
to  advance  nor  retreat,  in  a  temperature  averaging  100  degrees. 
Again  and  again  Captain  Sturt  and  Mr.  Browne  struck  out  in 
various  directions,  trying  to  find  a  practicable  outlet  from  the- 
miserable  trap  into  which  they  had  fallen.      The  water  in  the 
creek  on  which  they  were  camped  was  gradually  disappearing,, 
and  the  prospect  was  a  very  gloomy  one.     One  of  the  party,. 
Mr.  Poole,  became  very  ill,  and  the  leader  of  the  exploration 
resolved  to  send  him  and  Mr.  Browne  back  to  Adelaide ;  but 
Mr.  Bro>vne  resolutely  resisted,  and  wished  to  remain  to  share 
the  fate  of  his  intrepid  chief.    Poor  Poole  sunk  under  priva- 
tion and  disease,  and  was  buried  in  the  far  distant  bush,  another 
martyr  to  scientific  discovery.    Captain  Sturt  still  refused  te 
return.     At  length  sickness  broke  down  the  little  remaining 
strength  of  the  party ;  Captain  Sturt  became  so  feeble  that  he 
lost  the  use  of  his  limbs.      Sturt  succumbed  at  last,  and  the 
party  had  reluctantly  to  retrace  their  steps.      On  reaching 
Murrundee  the  party  rested  for  a  while,  and  Mr.  Browne  pushed 
on  to  Adelaide  to  announce  their  return.    In  1866,  after  an 
absence  of  eighteen  months.  Captain  Sturt  arrived  in  Adelaide. 
Mr.  Foster,  to  whom  I  am  much  indebted  for  this  chapter,  says^ 
in  his  work  on  South  Australia : — "  The  results  of  an  exploring^ 
expedition  depend  so  much  upon  the  nature  of  the  seasoi^ 
when  it  is  undertaken  that  it  is  difficult  to  say  whether  or  not 
Captain  Sturt  might  have  succeeded  in  crossing  the  continent 
had  he  followed  up  some  of  the  advantages  he  had  gained. 
Cooper's  Creek,  which  he  discovered,  is  now  found  to  be  the 
key  to  the  route  across  to  Port  Darwin  and  the  Gulf  of  Car- 
pentaria.   Had  he  traced  it  further  in  its  easterly  course,  it 


Chap.  XIX.]  STUART'S  EXPLORATIONS.  US- 

must  have  brought  him  to  the  Barcoo,  and  from  thence  the 
country  would  have  been  open  to  him  either  to  the  north  or  to* 
the  north-east." 

For  a  while  after  Sturt's  journey  South  Australian  explora- 
tion appeared  to  rest ;  but  several  expeditions  were  undertaken 
by  the  Government  between  1857  and  1859,  without  adding^ 
very  much  to  our  knowledge  of  the  interior.  In  1859,  Mr.. 
Stuart,  Sturt's  former  companion  and  draughtsman,  commenced 
that  grand  series  of  exploring  journeys  which,  after  many 
difiSculties  and  disappointments,  at  length  terminated  so 
successfully.  In  the  first  instance  he  went  out  as  the  agent  of 
Messrs.  Chambers  and  Finke,  gentlemen  interested  in  pastoral 
pursuits ;  but  the  tale  he  had  to  tell  on  his  return  from  these 
journeys  induced  the  Government  to  fit  out  an  expedition  for 
further  exploration  of  the  continent,  of  which  they  gave  Mr.. 
Stuart  the  command.  He  failed  in  his  first  attempt ;  but  the* 
Government  had  confidence  in  his  prudence  and  determi- 
nation, and  they  sent  him  out  again.  Again  he  failed,  simply 
because  under  the  circumstances  it  seemed  impossible  to- 
succeed.  For  a  third  time  he  offered  his  services  to  the 
Government,  which  were  again  accepted.  He  had  an  ex- 
cellent party  fitted  out  at  the  expense  of  the  Government,  con- 
sisting of  himself  in  command ;  W.  Kekwick,  second ;  F.  G^ 
Waterhouse,  naturalist;  F.  W.  Thring,  third  officer;  W.  P. 
Auld,  assistant ;  S.  King,  J.  Billiat,  J.  Frew,  H.  Nash,  and 
J.  McGorger}%  They  pushed  on  from  the  terminus  of  Stuart's- 
former  journey,  and  on  the  whole  the  difficulties  were  fewer 
than  they  anticipated.  On  July  10,  1862,  they  struck  the 
Adelaide  Eiver,  and  Stuart  then  knew  that  his  triumph  was- 
near.  In  his  journal  he  says: — "July  24.  Started  twenty 
minutes  to  eight  o'clock,  course  north.  I  have  taken  this- 
course  in  order  to  make  the  sea-coast  as  soon  as  possible^ 
which  I  suppose  to  be  distant  about  eight  and  a  half  miles ; 
by  this  I  hope  to  avoid  the  marsh.  I  shall  travel  along  the 
beach  to  the  north  of  the  Adelaide.  I  did  not  inform  any 
of  the  party  except  Thring  and  Auld  that  I  W6is  so  near  the 
sea,  as  I  wished  to  give  them  a  surprise  on  reaching- 
it.     .     .     .     At  eight  and  a  half  miles  came  up  in  a  broad 

I  2 


116  SOUTH  AUSTBAUA.  [Chap.  XIX. 

valley  of  black  alluvial  soil,  covered  with  long  grass ;  from 
this  I  can  hear  the  wash  of  the  sea.  .  .  .  Stopped  the 
horses  to  clear  the  way  whilst  I  advanced  a  few  yards  on  to 
the  beach,  and  was  delighted  and  gratified  to  behold  the  water 
of  the  Indian  Ocean  in  Van  Piemen's  GuK  before  the  party 
with  the  horses  knew  anything  of  its  proximity.  Thring,  who 
rode  in  advance  of  me,  called  out,  *  The  sea ! '  which  so  took 
them  all  by  surprise  that  he  had  to  repeat  the  call  before  they 
imderstood  what  was  meant ;  hearing  which  they  immediately 
gave  three  long  and  hearty  cheers.  .  .  .  Thus  have  I 
through  the  instrumentality  of  Divine  Providence  been  led  to 
accomplish  the  great  object  of  the  expedition,  and  to  take  the 
whole  party  through  as  witnesses  to  the  fact,  and  through  one 
of  the  finest  countries  man  would  wish  to  pass — good  to  the 
coast,  and  with  a  stream  of  running  water  close  to  the  sea." 

It  is  impossible  to  over-estimate  the  value  of  Stuart's  last 
and  crowning  expedition.    It  threw  daylight  upon  a  country 
of  which  little  or  nothing  was  previously  known ;  it  showed 
that  it  was  possible  to  cross  this  coimtry,  and  in  ordinary 
seasons  to  find  water  at  easy  distances;   and  it  led  to  the 
commencement  of  the  great  work  of   the  transcontinental 
telegraph  line,  which  has  brought  the  whole  of  the  Australias 
into  daily  commimication  with  the  old  world.     Mr.  Stuart  was 
rewarded  by  the  Government  and  the  Parliament  for  the 
magnificent  work  he  had  accomplished ;  and  full  of  honours 
he  returned  to  the  old  country  to  end  his  days.     He  received 
the  Gold  Medal  of  the  Eoyal  Geographical  Society  for  his 
important  discoveries ;  but  he  did  not  live  long  to  enjoy  his 
honours  and  rewards.    The  hardships  he  suffered  told  even- 
tually even  on  his  iron  constitution.    His  name,  however, 
is  imperishably  connected  with  exploration  in  Australia.     He 
led  the   way  which  it  is  comparatively  easy  now  to  follow. 
He  was  the  pioneer  in  a  land  which  had  never  before  been 
trodden  by  the  foot  of  white  man;   and  to-day  there  are 
thriving  cattle  stations  where  a  dozen  years  ago  Stuart  urged 
his  weary  way  amidst  the  unbroken  stillness  of  Nature,  when 
it  was  doubtful  whether  he  would  succeed  or  lie  down  in 
the  desert  to  die. 


Chap.  XIX.]    COLONEL  WAEBUKTON'S  EXPEDITION.  117 

It  does  not  come  within  the  scope  of  this  work  to  describe 
at  length  the  melancholy  and  disastrous  history  of  the  ex- 
pedition fitted  out  by  the  Victorietn  Government  to  find  a  way 
across  the  continent,  and  of  which  a  brave  man — Eichard 
O'Hara  Burke — was  the  leader.  The  Burke  and  Wills  ex- 
pedition was  sadly  mismanaged,  and  resulted  in  the  sacrifice  of 
the  lives  of  the  leaders,  who,  almost  within  sight  of  home,  lay 
down  in  the  bush  and  died,  utterly  worn  out  and  exhausted. 
These  men  crossed  the  continent  to  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of 
Carpentaria,  and  returned  as  far  as  Cooper's  Creek,  where 
their  strength  gave  way,  and  they  fell  vanquished  in  the  strife 
by  hunger,  thirst,  and  fatigue.  The  Victorietn  Government 
nobly  sent  out  6tn  expedition  to  bring  back  the  remains  of 
these  brave  men  to  Melbourne  for  sepulture,  and,  strtuagely 
enough,  Mr*  A,  Howitt,  the  officer  in  charge  of  the  precious 
burthen,  arrived  in  Adelaide  on  the  very  day  the  colonists 
here  were  welcoming  Stuart  on  his  return  from  his  successful 
journey. 

Our  most  recent  exploration  was  that  of  Col.  Warburton, 
who  was  commissioned  by  the  Hon.  T.  Elder  (who  has  shown  a 
spirit  of  large-hearted  enterprise,  not  only  with  reference  to 
exploration,  but  in  relation  to  the  progress  of  the  Colony 
in  various  ways)  to  search  for  cattle  country  to  the  west  of  the 
Telegraph  line,  in  the  centre  of  the  continent.  The  gallant 
Colonel  was  an  old  explorer,  and  in  spite  of  his  many  years  he  . 
undertook  the  trying  work.  Several  camels  were  placed  at 
his  disposal,  and  he  had  a  small  and  carefully  selected  petrty  to 
accompany  him.  He  started  from  one  of  the  stations  on  the 
Telegraph  line  in  high  hope  for  the  west.  Many  months 
passed  without  any  news  being  heard  of  him,  and  grave 
misgivings  were  felt  as  to  the  fate  of  the  expedition.  At 
length,  however,  after  a  silence  of  something  like  twelve 
months,  news  was  heard  of  him.  One  of  his  party  turned  up 
at  one  of  the  most  northern  stations  in  Western  Australia  and 
reported  that  the  brave  old  Colonel  was  camped  many  miles 
away,  with  no  provisions  but  camel's  flesh — and  very  little  of 
that ;  ill,  wasted  to  a  shadow,  gaunt,  and  half-starved.  Imme-* 
diate  assistance  was  sent  to  him,  and  it  was  just  in  time.    The 


118  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA.  [Chap.  XIX. 

party  could  not  have  survived  many  days  longer.  Nothing 
<5onld  exceed  the  kindness  and  humanity  of  the  Western 
Australian  Government  and  people.  The  Chief  Secretary,  the 
Hon.  W.  Barlee,  made  the  expedition  his  special  care,  supplied 
them  with  all  that  was  necessary  for  their  comfort — and  that 
included  almost  everything — and  then  sent  them  on  to 
Adelaide,  where  the  gallant  Colonel  was  received  with  enthu- 
siasm. He  subsequently  visited  England,  received  the  Gold 
Medal  of  the  Eoyal  Geographical  Society,  and  was  made 
O.M.G.  in  1875. 

Happily  this  Colony  had  an  opportunity  of  returning  the 
ikindness  of  our  western  neighbours  to  Colonel  Warburton 
And  his  party.     I  have  already  mentioned  the  fact  that  Mr. 
John  Forrest,  a  young   West  Australian,   some   years  ago 
travelled  from  King  George's   Sound    to  Adelaide  on  the 
route  which  Mr.  E.  J.  Eyre  travelled  thirty  years  before. 
Proud  of  his  success,  the  Western  Australian  Government 
commissioned  him  again  to  find  a  way  from  the  westward 
to   South  Australia,  in  a  latitude  nearer  the  centre  of  the 
continent;   in  fact,   somewhere  on  the  liiie  which  Colonel 
Warburton  contemplated  when  he  set  out.    Mr.  Forrest  had 
a  very  small  party,  consisting  of  his  brother  Alexander,  two 
assistants,  and  two  black  fellows.     This  small  party  endured 
great  hardship,  and   were  exposed  to  many  dangers.     The 
.country  through  which  they  passed  was  wretched    in   the 
extreme  until  they  got  within  a  few  hundred  miles  from  the 
Telegraph  line.    Nothing  but  indomitable  pluck  and  careful 
management  on  the  part  of  the  leader  could  have  saved  the 
party.    But  at  length,  after  four  months'  weary  travelling, 
they  struck  the  line,  and  ran  it  down  until  they  came  to  a 
telegraph  station,  where  they  received  from  the  master  in 
charge  such  a  welcome  as  brave  men  were  entitled  to.     The 
news  of  their  safe  arrival  was  telegraphed  to  Adelaide  the 
same  day,  and  caused  the  greatest  delight  to  the  people  here. 
It  was  resolved  that  they  should  have  a  public  reception,  and 
that  something  should  be  done  to  show  how  we  appreciated 
*the  kindness  of  the  West  Australian  people  to  our  veteran 
explorer,    Colonel  Warburton.      The  day  of   Mr.  Forrest's 


Chap.  XIX.]  FORREST — GOSSE — LEWIS.  119 

entrance  into  Adelaide  was  kept  as  a  general  holiday. 
Thousands  of  persons  crowded  into  the  city  from  all  parts 
of  the  Colony ;  the  streets  through  which  the  little  party 
passed  were  gaily  decorated;  they  were  greeted  with  en- 
thusiasm as  they  rode  in  their  travelling  equipage  on  their 
poor  lean  horses ;  and  congratulatory  addresses  were  presented 
to  them.  Not  even  when  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh  entered 
Adelaide  was  there  a  greater,  or  a  more  enthusiastic,  crowd  to 
welcome  him. 

We  have  had  other  explorers  of  late  years  also,  who, 
through  no  fault  of  their  own,  have  been  less  successful  than 
those  we  have  referred  to.  Mr.  Gosse  and  Mr.  Lewis  have 
made  some  valuable  discoveries  of  country  to  the  west  of  the 
Telegraph  line,  and  they  have  added  considerably  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  country;  but  their  discoveries  have  not 
been  of  a  character  so  vividly  to  strike  the  imagination  as 
those  I  have  briefly  attempted  to  describe.  They  have  had 
their  uses,  however,  and  their  value  will  be  acknowledged 
in  time  to  come. 

As  a  Colony  we  are  very  proud  of  what  we  have  accom- 
plished in  the  way  of  exploration.  No  community  so  small 
has  ever  done  what  we  have  in  this  respect,  and  the  cost  has 
been  very  trifling  to  the  Colony.  Our  explorers  soon  learnt 
the  important  lesson,  that  to  be  successful  they  must  travel 
lightly,  with  as  few  impedimenta  as  possible.  Some  of  the 
earlier  expeditions  broke  down  by  their  own  weight;  and  it 
was  found  that  a  lightly  equipped  party  of  about  haK-a-dozen 
men  of  the  right  sort  could  accomplish  a  great  deal  more 
than  one  provided  on  a  more  ambitious  scale.  Poor  Burke 
discovered  this,  and  he  left  his  cumbersome  party  behind,  and 
made  a  dash  across  the  continent  with  only  two  or  three 
companions. 

Australia  has  a  beadroll  of  martyrs  to  scientific  exploration 
of  which  any  country  might  feel  proud  ;  and  we  feel  proud  of 
them.  Their  material  rewards  have  been  but  little,  but  their 
names  are  written  in  inefiaceable  letters  on  the  annals  of  the 
Colony,  and  future  generations  will  point  to  them  as  amongst 
the  bravest  and  noblest  of  Australia's  sons.     Amongst  the 


120  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  XIX. 

Colonies  who  have  furnished  some  of  the  bravest  of  these. 
South  Australia  occupies  a  prominent  place.  Indeed,  when- 
ever a  man  has  been  needed  for  any  special  work,  requiring 
peculiar  gifts  and  qualities,  that  man  has  been  forthcoming ; 
and  in  nothing  has  this  been  more  manifest  than  in  the 
number  and  character  of  our  explorers. 


s  s 


Chap.  XX.]  STAPLE  INDUSTBIES.  121 


CHAPTEB      XX. 


COLONIAL  INDUSTEIES. 


Staple  Industries  —  Wool,  Wheat,  and  Copper— Meat  Preserving — Manu- 
facture of  Leather  —  Woollen  Manufactures — Wine-makmg ;  Vineyards 
—  Other  Industries  —  Chamber  of  Manufactures. 

I  HAVE  already  mentioned  the  three  great  staple  industries  of 
the  Colony  which  over  a  series  of  years  have  been  the  source 
of  our  wealth— pastoral,  agricultural,  and  mining  pursuits. 
All  these  are  established  on  a  permanent  basis,  and  bid  fair 
to  enrich  us  for  ages  to  come.  The  immense  tracts  of  country 
which  lie  far  away  in  the  interior  must  be  devoted  to  pastoral 
occupation  with  yearly  increasing  flocks  and  herds,  the  source 
of  untold  wealth  to  the  squatters  or  sheep-farmers.  The 
quantity  of  agricultural  land  taken  up  for  industrial  settle- 
ment is  increasing  year  by  year,  and  there  are  millions  of 
acres  which,  with  the  manifest  changes  now  taking  place  in 
our  cUmate,  will  yet  be  surveyed  and  purchased  for  agri- 
cultural  industry.  All  that  is  wanted  to  open  out  a  large 
portion  of  this  valuable  territory  is  facile  means  of  communi- 
cation with  a  market.  Unless  carriage  of  produce  be  made 
cheap,  we  shall  soon  reach  the  boundary  beyond  which  wheat 
cannot  be  profitably  cultivated.  The  Colony  is  awakening  to 
the  importance  of  this  subject,  and  there  is  a  determination 
to  build  light  and  cheap  lines  of  railway  to  various  parts  of 
the  province,  by  which  the  produce  can  be  carried  at  a 
moderate  rate.  Wheat-growing  is  certain  to  extend,  and  we 
shall  have  to  look  more  steadily  to  the  old  countries  of  Europe 
for  a  market.    As  the  shipping  charges  for  freight  to  England 


122  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  XX. 

amount  to  something  like  haW  the  value — sometimes  consider- 
ably more — of  the  grain  as  sold  here,  every  means  will  have 
to  be  tried  to  cheapen  carriage  within  the  Colony.  Our  great 
•copper  mines  on  the  Peninsula  show  no  signs  of  failure,  but  are 
AS  rich  now  as  ever  they  were.  In  addition  to  these  there  are 
vast  tracts  of  country  which  are  full  of  minerals,  and  which 
will  be  developed  as  mining  property  so  soon  as  we  can  get 
•over  the  serious  cost  of  transit  to  the  seaboard.  Our  three 
^eat  staple  industries,  then,  bid  fair  to  be  permanent. 

But  there  are  other  industries  which  are  slowly  taking 
root  amongst  us,  and  which  only  want  a  little  fostering  care 
to  develop  into  something  greater  and  more  profitable. 
Amongst  these  I  may  mention  the  preserving  of  meat,  which 
lias  become  a  very  important  trade.  Its  progress,  however, 
is  dependent  on  the  price  of  sheep.  When  they  fetch  a  good 
price  in  the  open  market,  it  does  not  pay  to  preserve  them. 
So  far  as  the  sheep-farmer  is  concerned,  one  of  the  uses  of 
preserving  is  to  keep  the  price  of  sheep  from  falling  below  a 
•certain  price.  In  this  way  the  price  can  always  be  kept  up  to  a 
•certain  remunerative  figure.  Of  course  this  is  better  for  the  pro- 
ducer than  for  the  consumer,  and  of  late  complaints  have  been 
made  that  the  price  of  butcher's  meat  is  altogether  too  high. 
The  squatters  started  a  meat-preserving  company  for  them- 
^selves,  with  a  view  of  obtaining  what  they  regarded  as  a  fair 
value  for  their  sheep;  but  they  made  a  sad  mess  of  it  as  a 
•commercial  speculation,  and  the  business  is  now  in  private 
hands.  A  few  years  ago  beef  and  mutton  were  very  cheap. 
Hind  quarters  of  mutton  could  be  bought  for  2d.  to  2Jei.  per 
lb.,  and  fore  quarters  at  l^d.  These  prices  are  quite  doubled 
now.  Of  course  compared  with  London  prices  meat  is  stUl 
'Cheap  enough,  and  people  here  eat  a  great  deal,  most  persons 
having  it  twice  or  three  times  a  day.  At  one  time,  when, 
•owing  to  long  continued  drought,  feed  was  scarce,  thousands 
of  sheep  were  boiled  down  simply  for  the  tallow,  the  meat 
being  buried  or  turned  into  manure.  I  believe  this  is  some- 
times done  now,  but  not  to  any  great  extent. 

The  manufacture  of  leather  has  also  become  a  very  impor- 
tant industry.   Skins  and  hides  are  plentiful,  and  tanneries  on 


Chap.  XX.]  MANUFACTURES.  123 

a  very  extensive  scale  exist  in  and  around  Adelaide.  With 
the  increase  of  this  business  has  also  come  the  establishment 
of  boot  and  shoe  manufactories,  employing  large  numbers  of 
persons.  In  these  all  the  latest  improvements  in  use  in  Eng- 
land have  been  adopted,  and  an  article  is  turned  out  which  is 
in  no  way  inferior  to  what  used  to  be  imported.  Though  the 
price  of  labour  is  much  higher  here  than  at  home,  colonial- 
made  boots  and  shoes  equal  in  quality  to  those  made  in  Eng- 
land can  be  sold  quite  as  cheap  as  the  imported  article.  The 
manufacture  of  slop  goods  has  also  become  an  important  in- 
dustry of  late  years,  employing  great  numbers  of  young  women, 
And  as  a  necessary  consequence  limiting  the  supply  of  good 
domestic  servants.  Imported  slops  are  at  as  great  a  discount 
now  as  imported  boots.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  esta- 
blish a  system  of  protection  here.  The  farthest  we  have  gone  is 
to  have  an  ad  valorem  duty  of  5  per  cent,  and  in  a  few  cases 
10  per  cent,  on  imported  goods,  and  to  allow  what  may  be 
regarded  as  the  raw  material  used  in  our  manufactures  to 
"Come  in  free  of  duty.    This,  however,  is  not  carried  out  fully. 

We  have  also  commenced  the  manufacture  of  woollen 
fabrics  on  a  limited  scale,  a  woollen  mill  having  been  esta- 
blished at  a  little  German  village  called  Lobethal,  about  twenty 
miles  from  Adelaide.  Tweeds,  flannels,  and  blankets  have  been 
made ;  and  although  they  lack  the  finish  of  imported  goods, 
they  are  substantial  fabrics  for  ordinary  wear.  By  the  intro- 
duction of  new  machinery  and  higher  skill,  there  will  be  an 
improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  manufactures.  Seeing  we 
grow  the  wool  in  abundance,  there  is  no  reason  why  this 
industry  should  not  become  a  flourishing  one  in  the  course  of 
a  few  years. 

The  manufacture  of  wine  may  now  be  regarded  as  an 
established  industry,  although  it  has  not  been  so  pecuniarily 
successful  as  it  was  once  expected  to  be.  But  this  has  arisen 
from  want  of  skill  in  making  it,  and  in  managing  it  in  the 
<5eUar.  Thousands  of  acres  of  vines  have  been  planted,  and 
hundreds  of  acres  have  again  been  pulled  up.  When  vine 
culture  first  began  in  the  Colony,  there  was,  as  a  rule,  no  care 
exercised  as  to  the  selection  of  the  proper  kinds  for  wine- 


124  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA.  [Chap.  XX, 

makings  Everybody  knew  that  wine  was  made  from  grapes, 
and  one  kind  of  grape  was  considered  to  be  about  as  good  as 
another.  In  the  same  vineyard  there  would  be  a  dozen  different 
sorts  of  vines,  and  the  grapes  were  all  pressed  together  and 
made  into  wine.  Of  course  wine  so  made,  though  probably 
wholesome  enough,  was  wanting  in  character.  This  is  altered 
now.  Our  vignerons  have  learnt  that  there  is  a  difference  in 
the  quality  of  grapes,  and  that  they  should  be  kept  distinct  in 
the  manufacture  of  good  wine.  Then  they  have  learnt  by  ex- 
perience, observation,  and  reading,  the  best  methods  of  making 
and  cellaring  the  wine ;  and  we  have  vineyards  in  the  Colony 
which  produce  as  good  and  wholesome  a  wine  as  any  man  could 
desire  to  drink.  After  years  of  labour  and  much  bitter  dis- 
appointment, we  are  now  getting  a  good  market  for  our  native 
wines  in  England.  There  is  one  thing  in  their  favour — they 
are  the  juice  of  the  grape,  without  adulteration,  and  in  most 
cases  without  being  brandied.  The  taste  for  pure  wine  needs 
to  be  formed  and  cultivated  in  England,  and  when  that  is  done 
there  will  undoubtedly  be  a  great  demand  for  it.  Much  mis- 
chief was  done  to  the  trade  at  first  by  sending  home  ill-made, 
immature,  and  unsound  samples,  which  caused  a  prejudice,  if 
not  a  disgust,  against  them.  Our  vignerons  have  learnt  wisdom 
since  then,  and  it  may  be  safely  said  that  no  wines  go  home 
now  which  are  not  pure,  clean,  and  wholesome. 

For  the  encouragement  of  special  industries,  we  owe  a  great 
deal  to  a  useful  Society  which  has  grown  up  during  the  last 
two  or  three  years,  called  the  Chamber  of  Manufactures.  It 
consists  of  gentlemen  warmly  interested  in  the  cultivation  of 
native  industries,  who  have  devoted  a  large  amount  of  time 
and  trouble  to  the  work.  They  have  had  useful  papers  read 
and  printed,  and  have  kept  persistently  before  the  public  mind 
questions  which  but  for  them  would  have  been  neglected.  The 
growth  of  mulberry  trees  for  sericulture,  of  olives  for  the 
manufacture  of  olive  oU,  and  several  other  smaller  and  un- 
pretending industries,  have  been  carefully  fostered  and  en- 
couraged by  the  Chamber. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  future  of  the  Colony  will 
greatly  depend  on  the  establishing  and  carrying  on  of  such 


Chap.  XX.]        A  FIELD  TOE  OTHEE  INDUSTEIES.  125 

manufactures  as  are  suitable  to  a  young  community,  and  as 
we  are  able  to  undertake.  We  have  a  young  generation  grow- 
ing up  amongst  us,  for  whom  profitable  employment  must 
be  found.  Neither  pastoral,  agricultural,  nor  mining  pursuits 
will  absorb  them  all ;  but  manufactures  will.  Nothing  more 
fatal  can  happen  to  a  community  than  for  its  young  men  to  be 
driven  away  to  other  countries  in  search  of  employment  which 
their  own  country  does  not  afford  them.  No  country  that  has 
been  purely  pastoral  or  agricultural  has  ever  made  progress ; 
there  must  be,  in  order  to  secure  success,  combined  with  these 
pursuits  a  moderate  amount  of  manufacturing  activity.  We 
are  coming  to  this  state  of  things — somewhat  slowly,  it  is  true — 
but  we  are  coming,  and  when  we  reach  it,  we  shall  make  another 
long  step  towards  future  permanent  prosperity  and  success. 
There  are  many  industries  inviting  capital  and  labour  for  their 
development,  and  in  due  time  both  will  be  provided.  We 
have  in  the  Colony  aU  that  is  requisite  to  make  us  great ;  and 
we  only  want  an  increase  of  labour  and  capital  for  our  rapid 
progress.  The  labour  we  are  importing,  though  not  so  rapidly 
as  to  meet  the  immediate  pressing  claims.  Our  present 
Government,  however,  fully  realize  the  importance  of  this 
question,  and  have  determined  to  spend  large  sums  of  money 
to  increase  the  man-power  of  the  Colony ;  the  capital  we  are 
creating  year  by  year. 


126  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  XXL 


CHAPTEE     XXI. 

IMMIGEATION. 

Necessity  for  Importing  Labour — Efforts  of  Colony  in  this  Direction  — 
Temporary  Cessation  of  Immigration  —  Wages  High  —  Good  Colony  for 
Working  Men  —  Nationalities — Provisions  of  Emigration  Act — Voyage 
and  Outfit — Hints  to  Immigrants  on  Arrival. 

All  new  Colonies  are  as  a  matter  of  course  dependent  for 
their  prosperity  on  a  plentiful  supply  of  labour.  However 
fruitful  the  land  and  rich  in  natural  resources,  it  is  nothing 
without  labour.  Its  treasures  will  be  hidden,  its  wealth  remain 
undeveloped,  until  the  toil  of  man  brings  them  to  light  and 
translates  the  possible  into  the  actual.  As  we  have  seen,  the 
Wakefield  system  of  colonizing  was  to  combine  capital  and 
labour,  the  capitalist  purchasing  the  land  and  the  money  paid 
for  it  being  devoted  to  the  introduction  of  men  to  work  it. 
For  many  years  the  Government  of  South  Australia  carried 
on  a  large  system  of  immigration  in  a  somewhat  improvident 
way.  Many  persons  who  were  brought  out  here  at  a  cost  of 
from  £15  to  £16  per  head  made  Adelaide  simply  a  port  of  caU, 
and  as  soon  as  opportunity  offered  passed  on  to  the  other 
Colonies,  especially  to  Victoria,  where  the  discovery  of  gold 
created  a  great  demand  for  all  sorts  of  labour. 

So  strongly  was  it  felt  that  we  were  spending  our  money 
to  provide  immigrants  for  Victoria  that  for  some  years  no 
provision  was  made  for  the  introduction  of  labour  at  the  public 
expense.  During  that  time  the  Colony  passed  through  a 
period  of  trial.  Unfavourable  seasons,  extending  over  a  few 
years,  retarded  our  progress  to  some  extent,  and  the  demand 
for  labour  was  less  than  it  had  ever  been.    This  period  of 


Chap.  XXL]  NECESSITY  FOE  IMMIGRATION.  127 

depression,  however,  was  only  temporary,  and  very  soon  the 
demand  for  labour  very  much  exceeded  the  supply.  It  was- 
then  felt  that  a  great  Colony  like  South  Australia,  with  untold 
wealth  awaiting  development,  could  never  prosper  as  it  ought 
by  the  mere  increase  to  its  population  from  the  excess  of  births 
over  deaths.  Even  they  who  had  been  most  opposed  to  immi- 
gration at  the  public  expense  felt  that  it  would  never  do  to 
go  on  without  immigration  any  longer.  The  Legislature  was 
compelled  by  outside  pressure  to  pass  an  Act  for  its  resump- 
tion, which  Act  is  now  in  force.  Something  considerable  has 
been  done  during  the  few  years  the  Act  has  been  in  existence ; 
but  up  to  the  present  time  the  Government  have  proceeded 
very  cautiously  in  introducing  labour.  It  is  now  proposed  to 
advance  more  rapidly,  and  during  the  present  year  the  Govern- 
ment have  £120,000  at  their  command  for  carrying  on  immi- 
gration on  a  more  extended  scale.  A  very  large  supply  of 
labour  is  required  to  carry  out  the  great  public  works  which 
are  now  in  progress,  and  which  are  contemplated.  Private 
enterprise  is  also  very  much  cramped  and  fettered  by  the 
scarcity  of  man-power. 

Wages  are  as  high  as  in  any  of  the  Colonies,  and  generally 
are  at  the  least  50  per  cent,  higher  than  they  are  in  England. 
In  the  present  prosperous  state  of  the  Colony,  thousands  of 
working  men  might  be  introduced  and  find  employment 
without  the  slightest  danger  of  reducing  the  price  pf  labour. 
A  principle  which  regulates  the  immigration  system  is  to 
maintain  the  proportion  of  the  nationalities — English,  Irish> 
and  Scotch — according  to  the  proportion  in  the  United  King- 
dom, so  that  there  shall  not  be  a  preponderance  of  any  one 
people.  The  principle  is  not  very  steadily  adhered  to;  nor 
is  it  necessary.  It  is  found  that  all  classes,  as  a  rule,  make 
good  immigrants ;  and  the  Irish,  who  half-starve  at  home 
become  well-to-do  colonists  when  they  get  a  fair  start  here. 
From  the  beginning  the  Colony  has  obtained  a  considerable 
number  of  families  from  Germany  —  and  they  make  good 
colonists.  Greater  facilities  are  now  being  giyen  for  the  intro- 
duction of  German  immigrants,  whose  industry  and  thrift 
make  them  desirable  colonists.    The  following  explanation  of 


128  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  XXI. 

the  provisions  of  the  Lnmigration  Act  I  transcribe  from  my 
"  Handbook  for  Emigrantfi,"  published  a  few  years  ago,  which 
I  hope  will  be  found  useful  to  those  who  may  be  looking  to 
the  Southern  Colonies  as  their  future  homes,  and  who  wish  for 
information  to  guide  them : — 

"  Persons  coming  cmt  to  the  Colony  at  their  Own  Expense. — 
Emigrants  who  have  been  approved  by  the  Emigration  Agent 
in  England,  and  paying  the  whole  cost  of  their  passage,  or 
persons  paying  the  passages  of  such  persons,  will  be  entitled 
to  a  land  order  warrant.  On  their  arrival  in  the  Colony,  they 
will  receive  from  the  Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands  a  land 
order,  in  exchange  for  their  warrant,  of  the  value  of  £20  for 
each  adult,  and  £10  for  each  child  between  the  ages  of  one 
and  twelve  years.  This  order  will  be  immediately  available 
in  cases  where  the  holder  desires  to  occupy,  reside  on,  and 
cultivate  the  Crown  land,  and  will  be  received  as  payment,  or 
part  payment,  of  interest  on  the  purchase-money  of  any  land 
then  open  for  selection.  The  land  order  will  be  available  for 
the  pv/rehase  of  any  land  open  for  sale,  after  two  years'  con- 
tinuous residence  in  the  Colony.  An  emigrant  and  his  wife 
and  four  children  between  the  ages  of  one  and  twelve  years, 
paying  their  own  expenses  to  the  Colony,  would  be  entitled  to 
land  orders  of  the  value  of  £80  in  all.  If  they  wished  to  take 
up  land  on  credit  under  the  system  of  deferred  payments,  their 
orders  would  become  immediately  avttilable  as  payment  of  the 
interest ;  but  in  that  case  they  must  reside  on  the  land  and 
cultivate  it.  If  they  wish  to  purchase  the  fee  simple  of  any 
lands  open  for  purchase,  they  can  use  their  land  orders  for  this 
purpose  after  they  have  been  two  years  in  the  Colony. 

"Land  Orders  Granted  to  Shippers,  Companies,  Associations, 
or  Societies, — ^The  following  is  in  full  the  clause  in  the  regu- 
lations which  refer  to  this  provision : — '  Any  person  or  persons, 
company,  association,  or  society  desirous  of  bringing  out  to 
South  Australia,  at  his  own  or  their  own  expense,  suitable 
emigrants  from  Europe,  approved  by  any  emigration  agent, 
for  the  purposes  of  settling  on  the  Crown  lands  thereof,  and 
cultivating  the  same,  or  for  engaging  in  any  colonial  industry, 
and  who  shall  enter  into  an  agreement  with  the  Commissioner 


Chap.  XXI.]      PKO VISIONS  OF  EMIGRATION  ACT.  129 

of  Crown  Lands  and  Immigration  for  the  conveyance  of  'such 
emigrants  from  Europe  to  South  Australia  for  the  purposes 
aforesaid,  and  also  enter  into  a  covenant  with  the  said  Com- 
missioner that  such  emigrants  shall  reside  continuously  in  the 
said  Colony  for  two  years,  at  the  least,  from  the  date  of  their 
arrival,  shall  be  entitled  to  receive,  on  the  arrival  of  such 
suitable  emigrants  in  the  said  Colony  (and,  if  aliens,  after 
naturalization),  a  land  order,  in  the  form  contained  in  the 
Third  Schedule  hereto,  which  land  order  shall  be  of  the  value 
of  £16  sterling  for  each  adult  emigrant,  and  a  land  order  of 
the  value  of  £8  sterling  for  each  child  between  the  ages  of 
one  and  twelve  years ;  and  every  such  land  order  shall  be  im- 
mediately available  for  the  purchase  of  any  waste  lands  of  the 
Crown  which  may  be  offered  for  sale,  or  which  may  be  open 
to  selection  for  cash  or  on  credit,  in  any  part  of  the  said 
Colony.'  This  regulation  is  intended  to  encourage  the  em- 
ployers of  labour  in  any  new  or  established  industry  to  bring 
out  suitable  labour  to  assist  them  in  their  enterprise. 

"  Assisted  'EmiffrcUton. — Under  the  Act,  the  classes  of  per- 
sons eligible  for  assisted  emigration  are— Artisans, agricultural 
and  other  labourers,  miners,  and  gardeners,  under  50  years  of 
age ;  single  female  domestic  servants,  or  widows  (without  chil- 
dren under  12),  not  exceeding  35  years  of  age,  the  wives  and 
children  of  married  emigrants.  Eligible  candidates  are  further 
described  as  being  *  in  the  habit  of  tvorJcinff  at  one  of  the  call- 
ings mentioned  above,  and  must  be  going  out  with  the  inten- 
tion of  working  at  one  of  the  occupations.  They  must  be 
sober,  industrious,  of  good  moral  character,  in  good  health, 
free  from  all  mental  and  bodily  defects,  within  the  ages  speci- 
fied, appear  physically  to  be  capable  of  labour,  and  have  been 
vaccinated  or  had  the  smallpox.' 

"  Ineligible  Candidates. — Passages  cannot  be  granted  to  per- 
sons intending  to  proceed  to  any  other  Australian  Colony  than 
South  Australia,  to  persons  in  the  habitual  receipt  of  parish 
relief,  to  children  under  twelve  without  their  parents,  to  hus- 
bands without  their  wives,  or  wives  without  their  husbands 
(unless,  in  the  last  three  instances,  the  parents,  husband,  or 

K 


130  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  XXI. 

wife  be  in  SoutR  Australia),  to  single  women  who  have  had 
illegitimate  children,  or  to  persons  who  have  not  arranged  with 
their  creditors. 

"  Towards  the  expenses  of  the  passages  of  eligible  candi- 
dates, the  following  sums  must  be  paid  : — Under  twelve  years 
of  age,  £3 ;  twelve  years  and  under  forty,  £4 ;  forty  years  and 
under  fifty,  £8.  This  amount  may  be  paid  either  in  London 
to  the  Emigration  Agent,  or  in  Adelaide,  at  the  office  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands  and  Lnmigration.  The  candi- 
date for  assisted  immigration,  or  the  person  who  nominates 
him,  must  apply  to  Mr.  F.  S.  Button,  C.M.G.,  Agent-General 
of  the  Colony,  8,  Victoria  Chambers,  Westminster,  from  whom 
all  necessary  information  will  be  obtained.  He  must  fill  up  a 
form  which  will  be  supplied  by  Mr.  Dutton,  giving  the  Chris- 
tian and  surname  of  the  persons  nominated,  or  their  proposed 
transferees,  the  names  of  all  children  under  twelve,  whether 
they  have  been  nominated  in  the  Colony  or  not,  the  ages  of 
each  person  at  last  birthday,  the  day  and  year  when  each  per- 
son was  bom,  whether  single  or  married,  and  where  the  hus- 
band or  wife  does  not  emigrate  the  reason  must  be  stated ;  the 
trade  or  calling,  whether  the  applicant  has  been  in  the  Colony 
before,  whether  he  has  any  relations  in  Australia,  or  in  any 
other  Colony,  and  if  in  Australia,  the  other  Colonies  where 
they  reside.  In  addition  to  this,  there  must  be  a  certificate  by 
a  physician  or  surgeon,  testifying  that,  after  examination,  the 
applicants  show  no  signs  of  heart  disease  or  pulmonary  affec- 
tions, that  they  are  of  sound  mental  and  bodily  health,  that 
they  are  entirely  free  from  every  disease  usually  considered 
infectious  or  contagious,  and  that  each  person  appears  to  be  of 
the  age  set  against  his  or  her  name ;  that  none  of  them  are 
either  lunatic,  idiotic,  deaf,  dumb,  blind,  mutilated,  or  de- 
formed in  person,  or  otherwise  infirm,  and  that  they  are 
capable  of  earning  a  livelihood  in  the  Province,  at  their 
declared  callings.  A  certificate  is  also  required,  from  a  magis- 
trate, clergyman,  or  Eoman  Catholic  priest,  testifying  that  the 
applicants  are  of  good  moral  character.  Li  the  case  of  any 
difficulty  arising,  the  intending  emigrant  should  place  himself 
at  once  in  communication  with  Mr.  Dutton,  at  the  address 


Chap.  XXI.]  VOYAGE  AND  OUTFIT.  131 

mentioned  above,  from  whom  all  necessary  information  will  be 
obtained. 

"  Voyage  and  Outfit. — Supposing  the  candidate  and  his 
family  accepted,  the  next  matter  is  to  prepare  for  the  voyage, 
which  will  occupy  about  ninety  days — during  which  every 
extreme  of  climate  will  be  experienced.  Suitable  clothing 
must  therefore  be  provided,  at  the  expense  of  the  emigrant- 
The  outfit  will  be  inspected  before  sailing  by  an  officer  ap- 
pointed by  the  agent.  The  smallest  quantity  that  will  be 
allowed  is — For  each  male  over  twelve,  six  shirts,  six  pairs  of 
stockings,  two  warm  flannel  shirts,  two  pairs  of  new  shoes  or 
boots,  two  complete  suits  of  strong  exterior  clothing,  four 
towels,  and  two  pounds  of  marine  soap ;  and  for  each  female 
over  twelve,  six  shifts,  two  flannel  petticoats,  six  pairs  of  stock- 
ings, two  pairs  of  strong  boots  and  shoes,  two  strong  gowns 
(one  of  which  must  be  of  warm  material),  four  towels,  and  two 
pounds  of  marine  soap.  Two  or  three  coloured  shirts  for  men, 
and  an  extra  supply  of  flanne]  for  women  and  children  are 
very  desirable.  The  quantity  of  luggage  for  each  person 
•over  twelve  must  not  exceed  twenty  cubic  (or  solid)  feet,  nor 
half  a  ton  in  weight ;  it  must  be  closely  packed  in  one  or  more 
strong  boxes,  or  cases,  not  exceeding  fifteen  cubic  .feet  each. 
Larger  packages  and  extra  luggage,  if  taken  at  all,  must  be 
paid  for.  Mattresses  and  feather  beds,  fire-arms  and  offensive 
weapons,  wines,  spirits,  beer,  gunpowder,  percussion  caps, 
lucifer  matches,  and  any  dangerous  and  noxious  articles, 
cannot  be  taken  by  emigrants.  I  would  suggest,  however, 
that  in  addition  to  the  articles  of  wearing  apparel  actually 
required  by  the  regulations,  emigrants  would  do  well  to  pro- 
vide themselves  with  materials  for  increasing  their  stock.  A 
few  extra  yards  of  flannel,  calico,  and  print,  with  an  extra  pair 
or  two  of  shoes  or  boots,  would  be  found  very  useful  on  the 
voyage.  Where  there  are  children,  a  number  of  cheap  caps 
.should  be  provided,  as  young  people  are  apt  to  lose  their  head- 
coverings  overboard.  A  good  ham  and  a  cheese  would  also  be 
found  very  useful  as  a  change  from  the  ship's  diet ;  and  a  few 
pounds  of  jam  would  be  acceptable  to  the  children. 

"There  is  no  doubt  that  a  three  months'  voyage  in  an 

K  2 


132  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA.  [Chap.  XXI. 

emigrant  ship,  under  the  most  favourable  circumstances,  will 
make  large  demands  upon  the  patience,  temper,  forbearance, 
and  hopefulness  of  the  emigrants.  Inconveniences  such  as 
they  may  not  have  suflTered  before  will  have  to  be  endured ; 
and  the  best  thing  emigrants  can  do  is  to  make  up  their  minds 
to  bear  them  cheerfully.  As  a  rule,  in  well-appointed  ships, 
the  food  is  good,  and  the  accommodation  as  fair  as  can  be 
expected.  Emigrants,  too,  generally  enjoy  excellent  health. 
They  would  do  well  to  provide  themselves  with  useful  and 
interesting  books — especially  school  books  for  their  children  : 
intelligent  parents  may  lay  the  foundation  of  a  respectable 
education  in  the  minds  of  their  children  during  the  spare 
hours  of  the  voyage. 

''  On  their  arrival  in  the  Colony,  immigrants  wiU  probably 
feel  somewhat  strange.  The  consciousness  that  they  are 
15,000  miles  away  from  the  land  of  their  birth,  and  from  the 
friends  whom  they  have  left  behind — the  conviction  that  they 
are  amongst  entire  strangers,  and  that  they  will  probably  see 
the  old  land  no  more,  may  sadden  them  for  a  moment.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  they  will  find  that  in  many  respects  the 
new  country  is  but  little  diflTerent  from  the  old.  The  streets,^ 
wharves,  railways,  telegraph  lines,  gas  lamps,  water  fountains, 
public  buildings,  shops,  carriages,  omnibuses,  and  cabs,  will  all 
remind  them  of  what  they  have  been  accustomed  to  at  home. 
If  they  are  careful,  industrious,  and  respectable,  they  will  soon 
make  friends,  and  find  associations  which  will  bring  back  the 
scenes  of  the  past.  They  will  find  that  our  political  institu- 
tions are  most  liberal ;  and  very  soon  after  their  arrival  they 
will  be  able  to  exercise  their  voting  power  for  Members  of  Par- 
liament, and  to  exercise  some  influence  on  the  public  affairs  of 
the  Colony.  With  whatever  religious  body  they  sympathise, 
they  will  find  representatives  of  that  body  in  almost  every  part 
of  the  Colony  :  the  Anglican  Church,  with  its  bishop,  priests,^ 
and  deacons ;  the  Eoman  Catholic  Church,  with  its  handsome- 
edifices  and  charitable  institutions ;  the  Presbyterian  Church, 
with  its  able  and  energetic  ministers ;  the  Congregationalists 
and  Baptists,  who  have  some  of  the  handsomest  churches  and 
most  eloquent  preachers  in  the  Colony ;  the  Methodists,  as  full 


Chap.  XXL]  HINTS  TO  TMMTGBANTS.  133 

of  fire  and  zeal  as  they  are  in  the  old  country — the  sister- 
hood of  denominations  who  trace  their  parentage  to  the 
old  Methodist  stock ;  Unitarians,  New  Church,  and  Jews  are 
all  found  in  the  Colony ;  so  that  the  stranger,  whatever  his 
religious  views  may  be,  is  certain  to  find  members  of  his  own 
body  with  whom  he  can  sympathize  and  hold  fellowship.  Con- 
nected with  all  these  religious  institutions  there  are  well- 
attended  and  well-conducted  Sunday  Schools,  with  a  noble 
band  of  earnest  and  devoted  teachers. 

"  He  will  want  education  for  his  children,  and  he  will  find 
day  schools  all  over  the  Colony,  in  which  a  fair  education  may 
be  obtained;  or  if  he  aims  at  something  higher  than  these, 
there  are  many  excellent  private  schools,  which  would  do  no 
discredit  to  the  old  country.  From  St.  Peter's  Collegiate 
School  several  young  men  have  gone  home  and  taken  good 
positions  in  the  English  Universities;  and,  as  we  have 
intimated  elsewhere,  our  own  University  will  be  in  full  opera- 
tion before  long. 

"  Does  the  newly  arrived  immigrant  wish  to  keep  himself 
acquainted  with  the  literature  of  the  world?  He  will  find 
means  of  doing  so  in  the  local  institutes,  which  are  kept  well 
supplied  with  the  best  works  of  modern  times.  Does  he  wish 
to  know  what  is  taking  place  in  the  Colony  which  he  has  made 
his  new  home  ?  He  will  find  it  in  the  morning,  evening,  and 
weekly  newspapers  published  in  the  city,  and  in  the  journals 
published  in  the  country. 

"  If  he  feels  an  interest  in  the  drama,  he  will  find  a  pretty 
little  theatre,  respectably  conducted,  and  in  which,  from  time 
to  time,  actors  and  actresses  of  high  professional  standing  are 
found.  If  he  loves  music,  he  will  occasionally  get  a  taste  of 
English  and  Italian  opera  ably  rendered,  while  amateur  per- 
formances of  music  are  frequent  enough.  If  he  has  a  penchant 
for  the  turf,  for  manly  sports  and  pastimes,  he  will  find  racing 
well  encouraged,  hunting  during  the  season,  cricket,  football, 
and  boating.  If  he  is  a  freemason,  an  oddfellow,  a  forester,  or 
BJi  ancient  druid,  he  will  find  lodges,  courts,  and  other  trysting- 
places.  If  he  likes  his  beer,  he  will  find  respectable  inns ;  or 
if  he  takes  kindly  to  colonial  wine,  he  will  be  able  to  get  it 


134  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA.  [Chap.  XXI. 

almost  as  cheap  as  ale.  If  he  is  a  teetotaller,  rechabite,  or 
good  templar,  he  will  find  brothers  and  co-workers  all  here 
before  him.  It  is  really  curious  to  see  how  soon  and  how 
carefully  the  people  of  South  Australia  have  reproduced  the 
institutions  of  the  mother  country.  In  cases  of  accident  or 
misfortune  the  hospitals,  asylums,  and  public  charities,  as  in 
the  old  country,  are  easily  accessible. 

"There  are  three  things  to  be  carefully  avoided  by  tho 
newly  arrived  inmiigrant — the  immoderate  use  of  strong  drink,, 
which  leads  to  poverty ;  gambling,  which  leads  to  dishonesty ; 
and  idle  loafing,  which  leads  to  disgrace.  The  great  thing  is- 
to  get  work  soon,  to  eat  plenty  of  good  food,  which  is  cheap 
enough,  to  cultivate  habits  of  industry  and  economy,  and  so  to 
encourage  the  pleasant  conviction  that  he  is  getting  on,  and 
surely  working  his  way  to  independence.  That  conviction  will 
be  one  of  the  greatest  luxuries  a  working  man  can  enjoy." 


Chap.  XXIL]  NO  STATE  CHURCH.  135 


CHAPTEE     XXIL 

RELIGIOUS. 

No  State  Church  —  Strong  Religious  Feeling  —  Success  of  the  Churches  — 

Sects  and  Parties  —  Places  of  Worship. 

I  HAVE  already  said  that  the  foundations  of  the  Colony  were 
laid  on  the  principle  of  the  entire  separateness  between  State 
and  Church,  It  was  determined  that  no  form  of  religion 
should  be  distinctively  recognized  by  the  State,  but  that  all 
churches  should  be  on  the  same  footing  of  equality,  none  being 
specially  honoured  or  subsidized,  and  none  being  pljwied  under 
any  civil  disabilities.  This  did  not  arise  from  any  feeling  of 
indifference  to  religion  on  the  part  of  the  founders  of  the 
Colony,  but  from  a  conviction  that  the  sphere  of  civil  govern- 
ment and  the  sphere  of  church  organization  and  action  were 
entirely  separate.  The  vigorous  attempts  made  by  the  earliest 
settlers  to  supply  themselves  with  church  ordinances  according 
to  which  they  might  worship  the  Creator  as  they  had  been 
accustomed  to  do,  showed  that  a  very  deep  interest  in  religion 
was  compatible  with  a  very  strong  feeling  against  State 
religion.  I  am  not  called  upon  here  to  say  whether  the 
determination  was  right  or  wrong.  I  have  to  deal  with  the 
matter  historically. 

One  or  two  attempts  were  made  years  ago  to  obtain  some 
recognition  from  the  State  of  one  or  two  churches,  but  public 
feeling  was  so  strongly  against  it  that  the  attempt  has  never 
been  repeated.  The  question  is  now  settled,  and  the  Church 
and  the  State  have  agreed  to  pursue  their  own  separate 
courses,  without  jostling  each  other,  or  intruding  upon  each 


.  136  SOUTH  AUSTEALIA.  [Chap.  XXn. 

other's  domains.  Writing  as  an  historian,  I  am  bound  to  say 
that  the  result  has  been  satisfactory.  Voluntary  effort  and 
private  benevolence  have  been  sufficient  to  provide  the  whole 
community  with  churches  and  the  ordinances  of  religion.  The 
amount  of  money  and  religious  zeal  expended  in  this  way 
would  be  remarkable  in  any  community,  but  is  especially  so  in 
a  small  and  not  very  wealthy  community  likeH)urs. 

The  Church  of  England  in  Australia,  or  the  Episcopal 
Church,  is  numerically  at  the  head  of  all  the  denominations, 
and  in  South  Australia  as  elsewhere  is  a  very  important  and 
influential  body.  The  head  of  the  Church  is  the  Eight  Kev. 
Augustus  Short,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  South  Australia,  who  was 
appointed  by  Letters  Patent  as  the  first  Bishop  in  1847. 
Bishop  Short  is  a  fine,  hale  old  gentleman  of  70,  with  a  robust 
physique  and  a  vigorous  mind.  He  is  the  heau  ideal  of  a 
missionary  Bishop,  working  as  hard  as  the  most  hard-worked 
curate  in  his  Church.  He  is  indeed  "  in  labours  more  abund- 
ant."  His  career  in  the  Colony  has  been  a  very  honourable 
and  successful  one.  He  is  a  Churchman  to  the  backbone,  and 
has  defended  his  Church  when  occasion  called  for  it  with  great 
vigour ;  but  he  is  respected  by  all  sections  of  the  religious 
community  for  his  ability,  consistency,  and  kindness  of  spirit. 
He  is,  too,  a  thorough  man  of  business,  with  high  adminis- 
trative powers. 

The  present  respectable  position  occupied  by  the  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  Colony  is  very  much  owing  to  his  intelligence, 
unwearying  zeal,  and  true  Christian  character.  His  life  has 
been  an  eminently  useful  one ;  and  now,  full  of  years  and 
honour,  he  has  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  Church,  of  which 
he  is  the  official  head,  in  a  high  state  of  efficiency  and 
prosperity.  The  bishop  has  under  him  in  his  diocese  the 
Dean  of  Adelaide,  two  archdeacons,  two  canons,  something 
like  fifty  clergymen  in  holy  orders,  and  a  large  staflf  of 
licensed  lay  readers,  who  conduct  religious  services  in  various 
parts  of  the  Colony.  The  property  of  his  Church  is  valuable, 
and  has  been  so  wisely  invested  as  to  produce  an  annually 
increasing  revenue  for  Church  purposes. 

The  Boman  Catholic  Church  in  the  Colony  is  also  an 


Chap.  XXIL]         RELIGIOUS  SECTS  AND  PARTIES.  137 

important  and  a  numerous  body.  The  first  Bishop  was  Dr. 
Murphy,  who  was  respected  by  the  whole  Colony  and  beloved 
by  his  own  people.  He  was  succeeded  by  Bishop  Geohegan, 
who,  after  a  few  years  of  service,  gave  place  to? Bishop  Shiel, 
A  genial,  fine-spirited  old  ecclesiastic,  who  died  in  the  Colony 
amidst  general  expressions  of  regret.  The  present  Bishop  is 
Dr.  Reynolds,  a  quiet,  hard-working  clergyman,  who  served 
his  Church  in  the  Colony  for  many  years  as  an  industrious, 
toiling  priest.  His  co-religionists  are  proud  of  the  fact  that 
one  of  their  own  priests,  whose  self-denying  labours  were  so 
well  known  to  them,  was  selected  by  His  Holiness  the  Pope 
for  the  highest  ecclesiastical  honours  in  the  Colony.  Bishop 
Beynolds  has  a  large  staff  of  priests  and  sisters  under  him,  a 
considerable  portion  of  them  being  connected  with  the  Society 
of  Jesus.  The  Jesuits  devote  themselves  very  largely  to  the 
work  of  education,  and  they  have  a  college  in  the  North  for 
religious  and  secular  students,  which  is  said  to  be  very  ably 
conducted.  There  is  also  a  convent  in  Adelaide,  under  the 
management  of  Dominican  nuns,  which  is  devoted  to  the 
education  of  young  ladies.  The  ordinary  schools  are  con- 
ducted by  several  sisterhoods,  members  of  which  also  devote 
themselves  extensively  to  works  of  charity. 

The  Wesleyan  Methodists  are  a  large  body,  and  the 
country  districts  owe  much  to  them  for  the  religious  ordi- 
nances which  they  enjoy.  In  this  work  they  are  ably  sup- 
ported by  the  Primitive  Methodists  and  Bible  Christians,  who 
have  erected  chapels  in  and  supplied  religious  teaching  to 
every  little  village  and  hamlet  in  the  Province.  Their 
ministers,  regular  and  lay,  work  hard,  and  the  sparsely  popu- 
lated districts  owe  much  to  them.  The  Wesleyans  have  a 
large  number  of  churches  and  preaching  places,  a  numerous 
body  of  preachers  and  Sunday  School  teachers,  and  they 
constitute  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  all  the  religious  bodies. 
The  other  two  bodies  I  have  mentioned,  who  have  a  close 
resemblance  in  doctrine  and  organization  to  the  old  Wesleyans, 
have  less  influence  in  society  than  the  old  Wesleyans,  but  in  the 
extent  of  their  self-denying  labours  they  are  second  to  none. 

The  Congregationalists,  Baptists,  and  Presbyterians,  occupy 


138  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  XXIL 

a  different  ecclesiastical  position,  and  aim  at  a  more  restricted 
work  than  the  churches  I  have  already  referred  to.    Their 
work  lies  principally  in  the  centres  of  population,  where  they 
manage  to  attract  the  intelligent,  hard-headed,  and  practical 
men  amongst  us.    Members  of  these  Churches  are  foremost  in 
political  life,  and  they  come  to  the  front  in. business  and 
political  organizations.    They  are  rich  in  handsome  churches, 
and  strong  in  social  influence.    Their  ministers  are  amongst 
the  best  educated  and  the  most  eloquent  preachers  in  the 
Colony,  and  their  people  amongst  the  well-to-do  colonists. 
The  conduct  of  the  Press  of  the  Colony  has  been  very  much  in 
their  hands.    Possibly  the  freedom  of  thought  engendered  by 
democratic  ecclesiastical  institutions  has  something  to  do  with 
the  position  they  take  in  the  politics  and  Press  of  the  Province. 
Amongst  the  smaller  denominations,  the  Unitarians,  who  have 
one  pretty   little  church   in  the  City,  occupy  a  prominent 
position  for  their  intelligence  and  social  influence.    All  these 
Churches  build  their  places  of  worship,  support  their  ministers, 
carry  on  their  Sunday  Schools,  and  engage  in  many  works  of 
benevolence,  without  receiving  one  penny  from   the  State. 
I  ought  to  say  also  that  the  Jews,  who  form  a  very  respectable 
and  influential  section  of  the  community,  have  erected  a 
handsome  synagogue  in  Adelaide,  which  is  presided  over  by 
an  accomplished  minister. 


(^) 


Chap.  XXIII.]         FIBST  EDUCATION  ACT,  1851.  13^ 


CHAPTEE     XXIII. 

EDUCATION, 

First  Education  Act  passed,  1851  —  Its  Piinciples  and  Organization  —  Good 
done  by  it  —  Colony  outgrown  it  —  Attempts  to  pass  a  New  Act  —  Now 
successful  —  Higher  Education — University  —  Princely  Gifts  of  Mr. 
W.  W.  Hughes  and  Hon.  T.  Elder  —  Council  of  University  —  Institutes. 

The  system  of  public  education  in  South  Australia  has  existed 
for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century,  the  Act  constituting  it 
having  been  passed  in  1851.  Its  original  intention  was  to- 
assist,  by  Government  grants,  the  people  to  educate  their 
children,  giving  them  "  a  good  secular  instruction,  based  on 
the  Christian  religion,  but  apart  from  all  theological  and  con- 
troversial diflferences  on  discipline  and  doctrine."  The  Act 
has  been  administered  by  an  Education  Board,  with  paid 
secretary  and  inspectors.  The  Board  licenses  schoolhouses 
and  teachers,  and,  within  certain  restrictions,  assists  teachers 
by  annual  grants  which  they  receive  in  addition  to  the  school 
fees.  Though  over  a  series  of  years  the  system  worked  mode- 
rately ^ell,  and  under  it  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 
population  have  received  a  fair  amount  of  elementary  instruc- 
tion, it  has  been  felt  of  late  that  something  better  6Uid  more 
adapted  to  the  present  state  of  the  Colony  was  needed.  Under 
the  old  system  the  teachers  were  miserably  paid,  and  the 
qualifications  of  many  of  them  far  below  the  growing  necessi- 
ties of  the  community.  Several  attempts  have  been  made  to 
pass  an  improved  Bill  through  Parliament,  but  until  the  pre- 
sent time  these  have  not  been  successful.  It  has  been  difficult 
to  settle  the  principles  of  a  great  and  comprehensive  measure, 
and  until  these  were  settled,  no  further  step  could  be  taken. 


140  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  XXHI. 

This  year,  however,  the  Government  introduced,  and  have 
carried  through  Parliament,  a  greatly  improved  measure,  which 
has  received  the  Governor's  assent,  and  is  now  the  law  of  the 
land.  The  future  management  of  the  public  education  will 
be  in  the  hands  of  a  Council  of  Education,  with  a  paid  presi- 
dent, secretary,  and  inspectors,  directly  responsible  to  the 
Minister  of  Education.  Schools  will  be  established  wherever 
there  is  a  certain  number  of  children  of  a  school  age,  who  will 
pay  a  moderate  fee  to  the  teachers.  In  addition  to  the  fees, 
the  teachers  will  be  paid,  by  the  Government,  through  the 
Council,  salaries  varying  from  £100  to  £300  per  annum. 
Schoolhouses  will  be  provided,  and  the  necessary  education 
material.  Grants  of  public  lands  will  be  set  apart  every  year, 
and  placed  under  the  control  of  the  Council,  the  rents  from 
which  will  be  devoted  to  school  purposes.  Four  and  a  half 
hours  each  day  will  be  devoted  to  secular  instruction,  previous 
to  which  the  Bible  may  be  read  without  note  or  explanation  : 
practically,  the  instruction  will  be  secular.  All  children  of 
school  age  will  be  required  to  be  under  instruction  until  a 
certain  standard  of  attainment,  to  be  fixed  by  the  Council,  is 
reached :  so  far,  the  system  will  be  compulsory.  Provision  is 
made  for  the  gratuitous  instruction  of  children  whose  parents 
can  show  that  they  are  not  able  to  pay  for  it ;  but  fees  may 
be  enforced  in  all  cases  where  inability  to  pay  them  has  not 
been  proved.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  three  great  prin- 
ciples of  public  education  which  are  now  so  much  in  vogue 
are  adopted  in  the  Bill,  with  certain  modifications.  The 
education  is  secular — but  not  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Bible ; 
free  to  those  who  cannot  a£ford  to  pay  a  small  fee ;  and  com- 
pulsory wherever  practicable.  Provision  is  also  made  for  the 
establishment  of  model  and  training  schools,  of  boards  of 
advice,  and  for  the  systematic  examination  of  teachers,  and 
their  classification  according  to  their  attainments  and  pro- 
ficiency. The  Government  propose  to  borrow  for  the  present 
erection  of  schoolhouses,  and  has  voted  a  large  sum  for  the 
payment  of  teachers'  stipends  out  of  the  general  revenue. 
No  one  claims  anything  like  perfection  for  the  measure,  but 
it  is  the  best  that  could  be  carried  under  the  present  circum- 


Chap.  XXIH.]       NEW  ACT-HIGHEE  EDUCATION.  141 

stances  of  the  Colony,  and  it  is  a  very  great  improvement  on 
the  system  which  it  is  intended  to  supplant. 

For  higher  education  we  have  some  admirable  educational 
institutions,  at  the  head  of  which  stands  St.  Peter's  Collegiate 
School,  belonging  to  the  Church  of  England,  and  under  the 
very  efficient  management  of  the  Kev.  Canon  Farr,  M.A. 
This  school  was  established  in  1848,  mainly  by  the  exertions 
of  the  Bishop,  and  it  was  incorporated  the  following  year. 
It  occupies  very  handsome  and  commodious  premises  in  a 
pleasant  suburb  about  a  mile  from  Adelaide.  The  course  of 
education  is  liberal,  and  some  valuable  exhibitions  and 
scholarships  are  connected  with  it.  Several  of  the  youths 
trained  in  it  have  taken  good  positions  at  the  English  Uni- 
versities. It  is  pursuing  a  career  of  usefulness  which  will 
increase  every  year. 

Prince  Alfred  College  belongs  to  the  Wesleyan  Methodists, 
and  is  a  more  recent  institution.  The  fine  pile  of  buildings, 
a  portion  of  which,  however,  is  only  completed,  occupies  a 
pleasant  site  a  little  way  out  of  town ;  and  the  first  stone  was 
laid  in.  1867  by  H.E.H.  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh,  on  his  first 
visit  to  the  Colony.  The  branches  of  a  liberal  education  are 
taught,  under  the  head  mastership  of  Mr.  J.  A.  Hartley,  B.A., 
who  vacates  his  position  shortly  in  order  to  enter  upon  the 
responsible  duties  of  President  of  the  Council  of  Education ; 
and  the  institution  has  been  well  supported  from  the 
beginning. 

In  addition  to  these  two  public  institutions,  there  are 
several  high-class  private  schools  in  the  Colony,  several  of 
which  have  been  eminently  successful  in  turning  out  fairly 
educated  young  men,  many  of  whom  are  now  occupying 
honourable  positions  in  the  Colony. 

Our  most  recent  success  in  education  has  been  the  esta- 
blishment of  the  Adelaide  University,  which  is  now  in  process 
of  formation.  We  owe  this  institution  to  the  generosity  and 
public  spirit  of  a  wealthy  colonist,  Mr.  W.  W.  Hughes,  who 
has  been  very  successful  in  connection  with  copper  mining 
on  Yorke's  Peninsula.    A  few  gentlemen  anxious  to  found  a 


142  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  XXHI. 

-college,  primarily  for  the  education  of  candidates  for  the 
Christian  ministry,  waited  upon  Mr.  Hughes  to  ask  for  a  con- 
tribution in  aid  of  the  movement.  The  intimation  they 
received  of  Mr.  Hughes's  proposed  benevolence  pointed  to 
A  sum  so  much  beyond  their  largest  expectations  that  for  a 
moment  they  were  somewhat  bewildered  by  the  munificence 
■of  the  proposed  gift.  Mr.  Hughes  offered  £20,000 ;  and  the 
projectors  of  the  Union  College,  principally  clergymen  of 
various  denominations,  very  much  to  their  credit,  suggested 
the  establishment  of  a  University  rather  than  a  college. 
Mr.  Hughes  consented,  and  endowed  two  chairs  of  £600  per 
annum  each,  simply  reserving  the  right  of  nominating  the 
two  first  professors.  The  movement  grew,  an  Act  was  passed 
by  Parliament  for  the  incorporation  of  the  University,  and  a 
grant  of  50,000  acresof  land  was  made  towards  its  support,  with 
A  building  site  of  five  acres  on  North-terrace ;  and  an  annual 
grant  of  5  per  cent,  from  the  public  funds  on  all  sums  contri- 
buted for  the  University.  The  only  conditions  required  were 
that  no  religious  tests  should  be  required  of  either  students  or 
professors,  and  that  the  first  coimcil  should  be  nominafted  by 
the  Governor  as  soon  as  the  Bill  was  carried  through  Parlia- 
ment. The  'Hon.  Thomas  Elder,  a  wealthy  merchant  and 
«heep-farmer,  spontaneously  gave  a  donation  similar  to  that  of 
Mr.  Hughes,  £20,000,  without  any  conditions  or  restrictions 
ivhatever.  These  acts  of  princely  generosity  are  creditable  to 
gentlemen  who  have  made  their  wealth  in  the  Colony,  and  will 
no  doubt  be  followed  by  others  on  whose  industry  Providence 
has  smiled.  The  whole  control  of  the  University  is  vested  in 
a  council  of  twenty  members.  The  Chief  Justice,  Sir  Richard 
Davids  Hanson,  Knight,  has  been  elected  Chancellor ;  and  the 
Bishop  of  Adelaide,  Dr.  Short,  Vice-Chancellor.  These  ap- 
pointments gave  general  satisfaction.  The  two  "Hughes 
Professors,"  the  Rev.  John  Davidson  and  tlie  Rev.  Henry 
Bead,  M.A.,  occupy  the  chairs  of  English  Ijanguage  and 
Literature  and  Mental  and  Moral  Philosophy,  and  Classics 
and  Comparative  Philology.  The  Council  have  secured  in 
England  a  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Mr.  Horace  Lamb,  and 


Watebfall,  Mobtauta,  Adilaidb. 


Chap.  XXIH.]    ADELAIDE  UNIVEESITY— INSTITUTES.  143 

another  of  Natural  Sciences,  Mr.  Tate,  who  are  expected  to 
arrive  in  the  Colony  early  in  1876.  The  University  is  at 
present  in  its  infancy,  but  it  will  soon  be  in  full  working  order. 
My  short  sketch  of  our  educational  means  and  appliances 
would  be  incomplete  without  some  reference  to  the  South 
A,ustralian  Institute  and  Museum.  It  was  incorporated  by 
Act  of  Parliament  in  1855,  to  promote  the  general  study  of 
the  arts,  sciences,  literature,  and  philosophy.  It  possesses  a 
valuable  library,  and  a  good  museum.  A  part  of  the  library  is 
circulating,  and  a  part  for  reference  and  perusal  in  the  read- 
ing-room. The  Museum  is  under  the  competent  management 
of  Mr.  Waterhouse,  whose  interesting  chapter  on  the  Fauna 
and  Minerology  of  South  Australia  will  be  found  in  this 
volume.  Both  the  Institute  and  Museum  are  sadly  crippled 
for  want  of  space,  but  this  will  be  remedied  shortly,  as  plans 
for  a  new  building  have  been  selected  by  the  Government. 
The  Institute  is  supported  by  an  annual  vote  from  the  public 
funds,  and  by  the  personal  subscriptions  of  members.  The 
Society  of  Arts  and  the  Philosophical  Society  are  aflSliated  to 
the  Institute,  and  have  a  share  in  its  management. 

Country  Institutes,  which  are  widely  spread  over  the 
Colony,  are  branches  of  the  principal  Institute  in  the  city, 
and  are  supplied  with  books  and  periodicals  from  town.  The 
Parliament  have  always  contributed  pound  for  pound  raised  by 
voluntary  subscriptions  towards  the  erection  of  the  country 
Institutes,  and  to  assist  towards  the  annual  expenses. 

Looking  at  all  these  facts,  I  think  it  will  be  admitted  that 
for  so  young  a  Colony,  with  so  limited  a  population  as  South 
Australia,  it  is  to  our  credit  that  we  have  not  forgotten  the 
necessity  and  importance  of  having  trained  up  amongst  us  an 
intelligent  and  well-taught  people.  The  results  have  been 
satisfactory  on  the  whole.  The  majority  of  our  young  people 
are  fairly  educated  and  fitted  for  the  positions  which  they 
occupy,  or  to  which  they  aspire.  Several  of  our  Members  of 
Parliament  were  bom  and  have  been  educated  in  the  Colony, 
and  they  shape  well  in  the  performance  of  their  legislative 
duties. 


144  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Chap.  XXIV. 


CHAPTER     XXIV. 

CONCLUSION* 

Colonization  an  Imperial  Question  —  Federation  —  No  Degeneracy  in  Popula- 
tion in  Australia  —  Advantages  of  South  Australia  —  Wealthy  Colonists 
—  Comfort  of  Colonists  —  No  Poverty  —  Colony  needs  to  he 'better 
known  —  A  great  Future  before  it, 

Thebe  is  no  doubt  that  colonization  will  continue  to  be  a 
question  of  the  greatest  interest  to  the  British  people.  Our 
old  island  home  in  the  North  Sea  is  getting  over-crowded,  and 
an  outlet  is  wanted  for  its  surplus  population.  This  has  been 
felt  for  years  past,  and  some  millions  of  the  Queen's  subjects 
have  been  forced  out  of  the  land  of  their  fathers  to  find  or 
make  a  "  Greater  Britain  "  in  the  lands  of  the  west  and  the 
south,  and  to  reproduce  there — shall  I  say  with  amendments 
and  improvements  ? — the  institutions  under  which  they  were 
nurtured.  Most  of  these  have  settled  in  the  United  States  of 
America,  and  have  been  lost  to  the  nation  as  British  subjects. 
Great  numbers,  however,  have  settled  in  Canada,  where  the 
separate  Colonies  now  form  one  great  confederated  people,  with 
a  history  before  them  the  magnificence  of  which  it  is  impossible 
to  forecast.  These  Colonies  of  Australia  are  of  more  recent 
origin;  but  their  progress  has  been  great  and  remarkable. 
We  must  bear  in  mind  that  we  are  15,000  miles  away  from 
the  mother  country,  and  that  under  ordinary  circumstances 
about  three  months  must  be  spent  on  the  ocean  by  those  who 
immigrate  before  they  can  reach  the  new  country  of  their 
adoption.  This  fact,  of  course,  places  the  Colonies  of  Australia 
at  a  disadvantage  when  compared  with  Canada  or  the  United 
States.    Notwithstanding  this,  however,  we  have  made  large 


Chap.  XXIV.]      ADVANTAGES  OF  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  145 

progress  during  the  last  forty  or  fifty  years.  The  foundation 
of  future  greatness  has  been  well  laid ;  and  when  we  become  a 
confederated  nation,  which  must  happen  within  a  very  few  years, 
we  shall  reproduce  in  the  Southern  Pacific,  with  such  modifica- 
tions as  are  due  to  soil  and  climate,  another  Britain,  which  will 
play  its  part  in  the  future  history  of  the  world. 

So  far  we  see  no  signs  of  degeneracy  in  the  race.  There 
are  differences  slowly  going  on,  and  probably  in  the  course  of 
a  few  years  the  physical  peculiarities  of  Australians  will  be  as 
distinctively  marked  and  separate  from  the  native-born  Britons 
as  the  American  type  has  become  in  200  years.  There  may  be 
alteration  without  deterioration  ;  and  I  believe  the  intellectual 
and  moral  life  of  the  people  here  will  suffer  no  decline.  We 
shall  differ  in  accidentals  from  the  old  stock,  as  the  man 
differs  from  the  child — but  the  real  manhood  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  race  will  remain,  in  spite  of  all  accidental  changes ;  and 
those  qualities  which  have  made  our  fathers  great  will  not  be 
lost  by  their  far-off  children.  So  I  believe  it  will  be  with  our 
political  institutions  and  our  social  life.  We  shall  modify 
these  without  destroying  their  higher  qualities.  In  some 
respects  the  new  generation  of  the  south  may  improve  upon 
the  old  type,  while  we  hold  fast  by  the  underlying  principles 
which  have  made  it  famous. 

Amongst  the  CJolonies  which  are  destined  to  greatness,  I 
believe  South  Australia  is  in  the  foremost  rank.  She  possesses 
most  of  the  elements  of  expansion  and  progress.  I  know  no 
Colony  which  presents  greater  attractions  or  gives  a  higher 
promise  of  success  to  careful,  industrious,  hopeful  settlers  than 
South  Australia  does.  It  has  a  magnificent  and  salubrious 
climate,  a  fruitful  soil,  an  abundance  of  mineral  wealth, 
millions  of  acres  of  unoccupied  land  inviting  the  industry  of 
man.  It  has  a  free  Government,  liberal  institutions,  the 
smallest  amount  of  taxation,  and  the  necessaries  of  life  are 
obtainable  at  the  cheapest  rate.  Its  land  laws  will  enable  any 
industrious  man  to  get  on  the  soil,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years  to  make  a  handsome  estate  his  own  with  only  hard  work 
and  moderate  seK-denial.  No  man  in  South  Australia  who 
has  health,  and  is  willing  to  work,  need  be  poor — as  poverty  is 

L 


146  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Chap.  XXIV. 

understood  and  felt  in  the  older  countries  of  Europe.  There 
are  hundreds  who  came  here  with  nothing  who  are  now  wealthy 
men,  whpse  families  are  growing  up  around  them  in  positions 
of  respectability  and  honour.  Some  haye  returned  to  the  old 
country  to  educate  their  children,  and  to  show  them  something 
of  the  refinements  which  belong  to  the  more  settled  states  of 
society ;  but  most  of  them,  after  a  few  years'  absence,  return 
to  the  land  where  they  have  acquired  their  wealth,  made  their 
homes,  and  formed  those  associations  which  are  most  abiding. 
With  a  wise  forethought,  the  Imperial  Government  have  from 
time  to  time  recommended  some  of  the  most  useful  of  the 
Colonists  to  Her  Majesty  for  special  distinction,  as  those  who 
have  served  their  country  well ;  and,  as  a  rule,  honours  thus 
conferred  have  been  worthily  worn.  Some  names  have  already 
taken  root  amongst  us,  brought  by  worthy  settlers  in  the 
beginning  of  the  Colony's  history,  which  will  go  down  witli 
honour  to  the  coming  generation  as  the  names  of  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers  are  now  honoured  in  New  England. 

While  large  fortunes  have  been  acquired  by  a  special  class, 
the  savings  of  the  poorer  have  been  considerable.  More  than 
three-quarters  of  a  million  sterling  is  deposited  in  the  Savings 
Bank,  the  interest  on  which  varies  from  4  per  cent,  to  5  per 
cent.  Most  of  this  belongs  to  the  humbler  classes,  and  repre- 
sents a  portion  of  their  savings.  It  is,  however,  only  a  small 
portion.  Many  of  the  artisan  class  have,  through  the  aid  of 
building  societies,  erected  for  themselves  comfortable  cottages, 
surrounded  by  pretty,  fruitful  gardens,  and  they  are  thus  able 
to  live  rent-free — a  matter  of  no  small  moment  in  a  country 
where  house  rent  is  high.  For  real  substantial  comfort  there 
are  few  countries  more  highly  favoured  than  South  Australia. 
The  large  sums  of  money  which  have  been  raised  voluntarily 
for  the  building  of  churches  and  the  support  of  religious  and 
educational  institutions,  show  a  well-to-do  people,  who,  after 
supplying  their  own  wants,  can  spare  considerable  sums  for 
such  objects. 

I  have  been  many  years  in  the  Colony,  and  I  can  honestly 
say  I  have  never  seen  anything  approaching  to  the  terrible 
poverty  and  consequent  suffering  which  I  remember  existing 


Chap.  XXIV.]  THE  COLONIAL  QUESTION.  147 

in  such  towns  as  Liverpool,  Birmingham,  Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
and  London.  When  I  have  seen  the  comfort  in  which  the 
poorest,  who  can  work  and  are  willing  to  work,  live  in  this 
Province,  the  abundance  of  good  food — not  to  mention  the 
luxuries — which .  they  enjoy,  I  have  wished  that  we  could 
transport  to  our  shores  such  of  the  suffering  English  poor  as 
are  willing  to  work  if  they  could  only  obtain  remunerative 
employment. 

I  honestly  believe  that  if  the  Colony  of  South  Australia 
were  better  known ;  if  the  advantages  it  offers  to  the  working 
classes  and  industrious  men  with  some  little  capital  were  under- 
stood, thousands  of  families  would  soon  be  attracted  to  its 
shores.  Very  much  land  remains  to  be  possessed  and  subdued 
and  brought  into  use.  For  this,  above  all  things,  we  want 
people,  and  I  believe  the  people  will  come  when  they  know 
what  we  have  to  offer  them.  The  "  Colonial  Question  "  is  one 
for  the  Empire  as  well  as  for  the  Colonies.  As  the  father  lives 
again  in  his  children  and  grandchildren,  so  Great  Britain 
lives  again,  perhaps  a  more  vigorous  and  a  grander  life,  in  her 
Colonies.  All  we  ask  from  home  is  a  word  of  encouragement 
now  and  then,  and  a  spirit  of  forbearance  and  a  forgiving 
sympathy  if  we  do  occasionally  make  a  mistake  or  two.  To 
make  mistakes  belongs  to  the  period  of  youth,  and  as  we  grow 
older  we  shall  grow  wiser.  We  do  not  ask  for  money — we  can 
make  plenty  of  that  for  ourselves ;  but  we  sometimes  hunger 
for  a  kind  word  of  recognition,  and  we  do  ask  that  our  efforts 
— blundering  as  they  may  sometimes  prove — to  raise  up  a  new 
England  in  the  south,  not  unworthy  of  the  old  stock  from 
which  we  came,  may  be  treated  with  respect.  We  are  even 
now  the  best  customers  England  has  for  her  merchandise ;  we 
supply  her  with  a  great  deal  that  she  needs,  and  without  which 
she  would  be  less  prosperous  than  she  is.  We  take  her  as  our 
model,  and  try  to  be  what  she  has  been  in  her  grandest  days, 
and  we  say,  "  Do  not  look  coldly  upon  us ;  for  one  day  you 
will  be  as  proud  of  us  as  a  father  is  proud  of  his  brave  and 
stalwart  sons." 


L  2 


148  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Supp.  Chap, 


SUPPLEMENTAKY  CHAPTER. 

THE  NOBTHEBN  TERRITORY. 

Acquisition  of  Territory  by  South  Australia — First  Attempts  at  Settlement 
—  Failure  of  first  Party  —  Recall  of  Government  Resident  —  Subsequent 
History  —  Survey  of  Land  by  Mr.  G.  W.  Goyder  —  Country  rich  and 
auriferous  —  Gold  Mining  —  Tropical  Industries  —  Wreck  of  the  Gothen- 
6w»7  — Papers  on  Territory  by  Residents  —  General  Sketch  by  Mr. 
J.  G.  Knight ;  Settlement,  by  Mr.  G.  R.  McMinn ;  Climate  and 
Overland  Telegraph,  by  Mr.  J.  A.  G.  Little ;  the  Goldfields,  by  Mr.  J.  A. 
Plunkett;  Indigenous  Vegetation,  &c.,  by  Mr.  J.  G.  Knight;  Con- 
chology,  by  Mr.  W.  T.  Bednall. 

The  Northern  Territory,  or  Alexandra  Land,  comprises  the 
immense  tract  of  country  which  was  made  over  to  South 
Australia  as  one  of  the  results  of  the  explorations  of  Mr.  J. 
McDouall  Stuart.  It  contains  an  area  of  531,402  square  miles, 
or  340,097,280  acres.  It  is  bounded  on  the-  north  by  the 
Indian  Ocean ;  on  the  south  by  the  26th  parallel  of  south 
latitude ;  on  the  east  by  the  138th  meridian  of  east  longitude  ; 
and  on  the  west  by  the  129th  meridian  of  east  longitude. 

When  Stuart  returned  from  his  last  journey  across  the 
Continent,  after  having  successfully  shown  the  practicability 
of  the  overland  route,  our  Government  entered  into  negotiations 
with  the  Imperial  Government  for  the  cession  of  the  newly 
discovered  territory  to  South  Australia.  Whether  it  was  wise 
for  the  Colony,  having  ample  territory  already,  and  possessing 
but  a  limited  population,  to  undertake  the  responsibility  of 
settling  a  new  and  immense  district,  may  admit  of  grave 
doubt.  The  matter,  however,  was  taken  up  with  considerable: 
enthusiasm  at  the  time.  It  was  resolved  to  survey  and  oflfer 
for  sale  a  considerable  quantity  of  land  on  the  north-western 


Supp.  Chap.]        FIRST  ATTEMPTS  AT  SETTLEMENT.  149 

portion  of  the  Continent.  The  land  sales  took  place  in 
Adelaide,  in  March,  1864,  before  the  surveys  had  commenced. 
The  land  was  divided  into  country  sections  and  town  blocks — 
the  proprietor  of  a  section  being  entitled  to  a  town  block.  The 
land  was  sold  in  order  that  the  funds  might  be  devoted  to  the 
cost  of  surveying  and  settling  the  country  in  the  first  instance. 
A  considerable  number  of  sections  were  purchased  by  English 
speculators,  who  risked  their  money  on  the  chance  of  its 
becoming  a  profitable  investment  in  the  future.  Priority  in 
choice  of  selections  amongst  the  purchasers  was  to  be  deter- 
mined by  lot ;  and  the  Government  entered  into  an  arrange- 
ment with  the  selectors  to  have  the  land  surveyed  and  ready 
for  selection  within  five  years  of  the  time  of  the  sale.  The 
land  was  readily  taken  up,  and  preparations  were  immediately 
made  for  dispatching  a  party  to  North  Australia  to  carry  on 
the  work  of  survey,  and  to  protect  life  and  property  there. 

The  most  important  question  the  Government  had  to  deter- 
mine was  the  choice  of  a  Government  Resident,  who  should  be 
at  the  head  of  the  party,  and  under  whom  the  surveys  were  to 
be  carried  out,  and  by  whom  the  first  little  community  of 
settlers  were  to  be  governed.  The  gentleman  selected  for  this 
responsible  position,  Lieut.-Colonel  Boyle  Travers  Finniss,  was 
believed  to  possess  high  qualifications  for  the  office.  He  was 
an  old  colonist,  who  had  large  experience  in  public  life.  He 
had  been  Treasurer  of  the  colony,  and  at  one  time  Acting- 
Governor.  He  was  an  officer  of  high  rank  in  the  volunteer 
force,  and  he  was  a  surveyor  by  profession.  The  Government 
who  appointed  him  were  highly  commended  for  their  judicious 
selection ;  and  the  general  impression  was  that  a  better  choice 
could  not  have  been  made.  Mr.  Finniss  set  to  work  imme- 
diately to  prepare  for  the  departure  of  the  first  expedition,  in 
which  he  was  liberally  assisted  by  the  Government.  The 
officers  of  the  party  were  : — B.  T.  Finniss,  Government  Resi- 
dent ;  J.  F.  Manton,  Engineer  and  Surveyor ;  F.  E.  Goldsmith, 
Surgeon  and  Protector  of  the  Aborigines;  Ebenezer  Ward, 
Clerk  in  charge  and  Accountant ;  Stephen  King,  Storekeeper ; 
John  Davis,  Assistant  Storekeeper  and  Postmaster;  W.  Pearson, 
J.  Wadham,  and  A.  R.  Hamilton,  Surveyors ;  R.  Watson  and 


150  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Supp.  Chap. 

J.  W.  O.  Bennett,  draughtsmen.  In  addition  to  these  there  was 
a  strong  party  of  chainmen,  labourers,  and  able-bodied  seamen. 
It  is  worth  noticing  that  Mr.  Ward,  who  went  out  as  Clerk  in 
charge,  is  at  the  present  time  the  Minister  in  the  Government 
who,  from  his  position,  has  official  charge  of  the  Northern 
Territory. 

The  Government  chartered  a  good  vessel — the  Henry  Ellis 
— ^for  the  first  expedition,  and  fitted  her  up  in  such  a  way  as  in 
all  respects  to  promote  the  comfort  of  the  men  during  the 
voyage,  and  amply  supplied  her  with  stores,  instruments,  and 
weapons  for  the  protection  of  the  party  on  their  arrival.  In 
the  instructions  given  to  the  Government  Resident,  Adam  Bay 
was  suggested  as  a  likely  place  for  the  first  town ;  but  he  was 
left  with  full  discretion  to  select  another  site  if,  after  examina- 
tion, he  found  that  unsuitable.  Mr.  Finniss  was  also  instructed 
to  establish  and  cultivate  friendly  and  confidential  relations 
with  his  party,  and  especially  to  see  that  no  injustice  was  done 
to  the  natives  of  the  country. 

Before  the  expedition  sailed  a  luncheon  was  given  to  the 
party  at  Port  Adelaide,  presided  over  by  the  Chief  Secretary, 
Mr.  (now  Sir  Henry)  Ayers,  and  in  the  presence  of  Governor 
Sir  Dominic  Daly.  It  was  an  exceedingly  interesting  gather- 
ing, and  high  hopes  were  cherished  of  the  Success  of  this  bold 
attempt  to  establish  a  new  settlement  in  Northern  Australia. 
Mr.  Finniss  made  an  admirable  speech,  in  the  course  of  which 
he  expressed  the  fullest  confidence  in  his  officers.  A  few  days 
afterwards  the  expedition  sailed,  carrying  with  it  the  best 
wishes  of  the  whole  people  of  the  Colony.  In  June,  1864,  the 
Henry  EUis  cast  anchor  in  Adam  Bay,  and  the  party  landed. 
Unfortunately,  before  the  voyage  was  over,  misunderstandings 
had  grown  up  between  the  head  of  the  party  and  some  of  his 
officers,  and  these  misunderstandings  became  more  serious  after 
the  party  had  taken  possession  of  the  Territory!  The  first 
river  camp  was  fixed  on  July  1,  and  the  men  celebrated  what 
they  regarded  as  the  actual  commencement  of  their  work  by 
broaching  a  barrel  of  beer  which  some  one  of  the  party  had 
brought  to  the  tent. 

It  is  not  my  business  here  to  refer  at  any  length  to  the 


Supp.  Chap.]  BECALL  OF  MR.  FINNISS.  151 

unfortunate  disasters  which  attended  the  first  attempt  to  settle 
the  Northern  Territory,  or  to  pronounce  any  judgment  as  to 
the  causes  of  these  disasters.  I  have  to  describe  results  rather 
than  causes.  The  expedition  resulted  in  a  decided  failure. 
Quarrels  between  the  Government  Resident  and  his  officers 
led  to  a  state  of  utter  disorganization.  The  head  of  the  party 
seemed  to  lose  all  control  over  it.  Mr.  Finniss  selected 
Escape  Cliffs  as  the  site  of  the  town  against  the  protests  and 
remonstrances  of  some  of  his  officers  and  gentlemen  who  repre- 
sented the  selectors.  But  little  progress  was  made  with  the 
survey  ;  the  party  became  dissatisfied,  insubordinate,  and  idle. 
Quarrels  took  place  with  the  natives,  who  stole  the  insuffi- 
ciently protected  stores,  and  who  were  punished  without  dis- 
crimination. The  reports  which  came  from  the  Territory  to 
Adelaide  were  of  the  most  disheartening  character.  The 
Government  Resident  complained  of  his  officers,  and  his 
officers  complained  of  him.  Meanwhile  precious  time  was 
beinff  wasted,  and  but  little  was  beinsr  done  towards  the  survey 
of  the  country. 

Some  of  the  settlers  purchased  a  small  boat — the  Forlorn 
Hope — with  which  to  leave  the  settlement.  In  this  boat  they 
sailed  1600  miles  to  Champion  Bay,  and  proceeded  thence  to 
Adelaide,  where  they  brought  before  the  Gx)vemment  what 
they  averred  to  be  the  actual  state  of  things  at  Adam  Bay. 
The  Colony  was  indignant  at  what  they  heard.  Mr.  Finniss 
was  called  upon  for  explanations,  which,  being  deemed  unsatis- 
factory, he  was  finally  recalled  to  Adelaide,  and  Mr.  IVIanton 
was  left  in  command.  A  Court  of  Inquiry  was  appointed  by 
the  Government  to  investigate  certain  charges  which  had  been 
laid  against  Mr.  Finniss,  and  the  evidence  was  fully  reported. 
The  Court  found  that  the  Government  Resident  was  wanting 
in  tact  in  the  management  of  his  men,  that  he  had  not  shown 
skill  in  organizing  their  labour,  and  that  he  had  not  taken 
sufficient  care  to  protect  the  stores  upon  which  the  party  were 
dependent.  A  majority  of  the  Commission  also  blamed  Mr. 
Finniss  for  selecting  such  an  unsuitable  site  as  Escape  Clifis 
for  the  township.  They  also  found  that  he  had  not  shown 
sufficient  tact  and  care  in  his  dealings  with  the  natives,  and 


152  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Supp.  Chap. 

that  he  had  unnecessarily  left  the  Territory  without  leave. 
The  report,  however,  stated  that  the  party  entrusted  to  Mr. 
Finniss  included  many  persons  unfitted  for  the  work  for  which 
they  were  engaged,  and  that  some  of  the  witnesses  called 
manifested  so  much  personal  animosity  towards  Mr.  Finniss  as 
to  render  their  testimony  of  comparatively  little  value.  The 
result  of  the  inquiry  was  the  removal  of  the  Government 
[Resident  from  his  position. 

Under  the  administration  of  Mr.  Manton  there  was  not 
much  improvement.  The  impression  became  stronger  and 
more  pronounced  that  Adam  Bay  was  not  the  proper  place 
for  the  settlement;  and  the  question  was  gravely  discussed 
whether  it  would  not  be  better  to  pay  back  to  the  selectors 
their  money  with  interest,  withdraw  the  expedition,  and 
abandon  the  settlement — thus  confessing  that  we  had  failed  in 
our  first  attempt  at  colonizing.  Looking  back  now,  many 
persons  believe  that  this  would  have  been  the  best  course 
to  adopt;  but  neither  our  pride  nor  our  self-interest  would 
allow  us  to  come  to  this  determination. 

The  next  step  taken  by  the  Government  was  to  find,  if 
possible,  a  better  site  for  a  new  settlement.  Captain  Cadell 
was  dispatched  to  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  to  see  what  advan- 
tages offered  there.  With  his  usual  enthusiasm  he  undertook 
the  congenial  work,  and  on  his  return  he  presented  a  highly 
poetical  report  of  his  explorations  and  investigations,  which 
was  received  with  ridicule,  almost  amounting  to  contempt. 

The  state  of  things  was  now  becoming  serious.  The  five 
years  within  which  the  Government  had  pledged  themselves ' 
to  have  the  surveys  completed,  and  the  land  open  for  selection, 
were  rapidly  petssing  away,  and  nothing  practical  had  been 
done.  Escape  Cliffs  was  abandoned,  and  the  party  recalled, 
and  the  Government  were  at  their  wits'  end  to  know  what  was 
to  be  done.  The  London  selectors  banded  themselves  together, 
and  somewhat  insolently  demanded  back  their  money  with 
interest.  This  demand  was  resisted  by  the  Government,  who 
still  hoped  to  finish  the  survey.  They  passed  a  Bill  through 
the  Parliament  to  give  to  the  original  selectors  a  greatly 
increased  area  over  that  to  which   they   were  entitled,   in 


Supp.  Chap.]  SURVEY  BY  MB.  G.  W.  GOYDER.  153 

consideration  of  the  delay  which  had  taken  place  in  the 
surveys ;  but  this  offer  was  limited  to  those  who  undertook  to 
withdraw  the  threatened  legal  action  against  the  Government. 
Many  of  the  selectors  accepted  this  offer,  but  the  bulk  of 
those  in  London  refused  it,  and  persisted  in  their  demand  for  a 
return  of  their  money. 

At  this  time  Mr.  G.  W.  Goyder,  the  energetic  Surveyor- 
General  of  the  Province,  was  requested  by  the  Government  to 
go  personally  to  the  Northern  Territory  with  a  competent  and 
thoroughly  equipped  party,  to  select  a  site,  and  to  complete 
the  survey  without  delay.  Mr.  Goyder  undertook  this  re- 
sponsible work,  and  soon  got  a  fine  party  together.  The 
Government  justly  had  confidence  in  his  judgment  and 
energy,  and  left  the  work  very  much  to  his  discretion.  He 
selected  Port  Darwin  for  the  site,  and  laid  the  foundation  of 
Palmerston  as  the  chief  town.  As  soon  as  he  arrived,  without 
allowing  one  day  for  idleness,  he  set  his  band  of  surveyors  to 
work  in  various  parties,  he  himself  moving  amongst  them  from 
place  to  place,  directing,  encouraging,  and  animating  them  all 
by  his  personal  presence  and  labours.  There  was  no  dissatis- 
faction, grumbling,  or  insurbordination ;  and,  under  the 
controlling  spirit  of  one  energetic  man,  the  great  work,  which 
five  years  had  failed  to  accomplish,  was  completed  in  a  few 
months.  Had  Mr.  Goyder  been  dispatched  in  the  first  instance, 
the  Colony  would  have  been  saved  the  shameful  disasters 
which  attended  the  first  attempts  to  settle  the  Northern 
Territory,  and  the  large  sums  of  money  which  they  cost,  and 
which  were  extravagantly  wasted  in  the  most  reckless  way. 

In  another  part  of  this  work  I  have  described  the  con- 
struction of  the  Overland  Telegraph,  which  has  its  northern 
terminus  at  Port  Darwin.  In  the  course  of  its  construction 
ample  evidence  was  given  of  the  auriferous  nature  of  much  of 
the  Territory,  and  when  the  surveys  were  completed,  a  con- 
siderable number  of  settlers  went  there  principally  with  a 
view  to  gold  digging.  A  form  of  government  was  provided 
for  the  settlement,  which  still  exists,  and  which  has  been 
modified  to  some   extent  especially  in  the  judicial  and  ad- 


154  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Supp.  Chap. 

ministrative  departments.  The  papers  which  follow — and  to 
which  these  remarks  are  intended  as  an  introduction^-which 
have  been  written  by  competent  gentlemen  in  the  Territor}% 
and  edited  by  Mr.  J.  G.  Knight,  describe  better  than  I  could 
do  the  present  condition  and  prospects  of  the  Territory.  They 
may  be  accepted  as  perfectly  trustworthy,  as  they  are  the 
result  of  personal  observation  and  experience. 

That  the  Northern  Territory,  notwithstanding  all  its  disas- 
trous and  humiliating  history,  is  a  rich  country,  and  destined 
to  become  a  great  settlement,  every  one  who  knows  it  is 
convinced.  It  has  been  grossly  mismanaged,  and  therefore  it 
has  so  far  been  a  huge  failure.  Its  resources,  however,  only 
need  to  be  prudently  and  energetically  developed  to  bring 
wealth  to  the  settlers.  The  Parliament  has  made  Palmerston 
a  free  port,  with  a  view  to  encourage  trade  with  other  countries. 
In  this  respect  it  possesses  greater  advantages  than  Singapore. 
It  is  almost  certain  to  become  the  entrepot  from  which 
Australian  horses  will  be  supplied  to  the  Indian  Government 
as  remounts  for  the  army.  Mr.  E.  D.  Boss  pointed  out  the 
advantages  of  Port  Darwin  for  such  a  purpose  years  ago,  and 
went,  accredited  from  Governor  Fergusson  to  the  Governor- 
General  of  India,  in  order  to  point  out  the  advantages  of  the 
place  as  a  remount  station  for  collecting  and  dispatching 
Australian  horses,  and  the  matter  has  not  been  lost  sight  of. 
The  Northern  Territory  has  cost  this  Colony  a  great  deal  of 
money,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  every  penny  will  one 
day  be  paid  back  with  interest.  The  adoption  of  a  wise  and 
energetic  policy  for  the  encouragement  of  semi-tropical  pro- 
ducts and  for  developing  the  mines  will  give  it  a  start; 
and  a  fair  start  is  all  that  it  really  needs  to  ensure  ultimate 
success. 

Before  allowing  the  residents  in  the  Northern  Territory  to 
speak  for  themselves  in  the  papers  which  follow,  there  is  one 
more  point  to  which  I  must  refer.  I  have  mentioned  above 
that  a  new  scheme  of  law  administration  is  to  be  adopted  in 
North  Australia.  Until  now  the  system  in  existence  in  South 
Australia  had  necessarily  to  be  applied  in  the  North.   Prisoners 


Supp.  Chap.]  WRECK  OF  THE  «  GOTHENBUKG;'  155 

charged  with  serious  offences,  which  could  not  be  dealt  with  in 
the  Local  Court  at  Palmerston,  had  to  be  brought  down  to- 
Adelaide,  with  all  the  expense  of  conveying  witnesses,  and  all 
the  delays  consequent  on  the  distance  of  the  Territory  from 
Adelaide.     This  year  the  Government  determined  to  hold  a 
Circuit  Court  at   Palmerston,  presided  over  by  one  of  the 
Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  Province.    Mr.  Justice 
Wearing,  the  Third  Judge,  was  therefore  dispatched  to  hold  a 
Court,  and  was  attended  by  the  necessary  officers.    He  and  his. 
party  reached  Port  Darwin  in  safety  ;  the  Court  was  held,  and 
they  embarked  in  the  steamer   Gothenburg  for  the   return 
voyage.    Unfortunately,  however,  the  steamer  ran  on  a  reef 
lying  off  the  coast  of  Queensland,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few 
hours  became   a  total    wreck — the  greater    portion  of   her 
passengers  and  a  crew  thus  meeting  with  an  untimely  death* 
Over  a  hundred  persons — men,  women,  and  little  children — 
were  ruthlessly  swept  from  the  deck  of  the  ill-fated  vessel.    A 
few  escaped  in  boats,  but  the  great  majority  went  down  making 
no  sign.    Amongst  the  sufferers  were  Judge  Wearing ;  his- 
Associate,  Mr.  Pelham ;  Mr.  Whitby,  acting  Crown  Prosecutor ; 
the  Honourable  T.  Keynolds,  who  for  many  years  had  been  a. 
leading  politician  of  the  Province,  and  his  wife;   and  the 
Captain  and  his  chief  officers.    No  calamity  that  ever  befel 
the  Colony  produced  such  a  feeling  of  sorrow  or  such  a  kind 
expression  of  heartfelt  sympathy  as  this.    For  a  time  we  were 
stunned  by  the  news,  and  walked  like  those  in  a  dream.    But 
when  the  first  shock  passed  away,  there  was  an  immediate  cry 
for  help  for  the  families  of  those  who  had  gone  down  in  the 
sea.    The  Parliament  took  care  of  the  families  of  those  who 
died  in  the  service  of  the  Government,  and  made  liberal 
provision  for  them;   and  the  generous  benevolence  of  the 
public  took  charge  of  the  rest.    A  sum  of  between  £9000  and 
£10,000  was  at  once  contributed  and  judiciously  distributed 
amongst  the  sufferers ;    and   when  this  act  of  justice  was- 
done,  the  Colony  breathed  more  freely. 

The  law  is  now  so  altered  that  all  offences  except  felonies 
punishable  by  death  shall  be  dealt  with  by  a  Local  Court,  at 
Palmerston,  and  other  cases,  of  which  it  is  not  probable  there 


156  SOUTH  AUSTEALIA.  [Supp.  Chap. 

will  be  many  for  some  time  to  come,  will  be  brought  down  to 
Adelaide  for  trial.  With  these  introductory  remarks,  I  now 
give  the  Papers  on  the  Northern  Territory,  which  have  been 
edited  by  Mr.  Knight. 


IThe  whole  of  the  following  Section  is  edited  by  Mr,  J,  G.  Knight."] 

GEOGRAPHICAL  SITUATION. 

The  Northern  Territory,  of  which  Port  Darwin  is  the  har- 
bour for  shipping,  is  situate  in  latitude  (of  Fort  Hill)  12° 
28'  30"  south ;  longitude  130°  52'  east.  The  harbour  is  very 
spacious,  comprising  many  square  miles  of  water,  varying  in 
depth  from  four  to  fifteen  fathoms.  It  is  high  water,  at  full 
and  change,  5  hours  25  minutes.  Springs  rise  from  sixteen  to 
twenty-four  feet;  neaps,  two  to  twelve  feet.  The  tides  are 
irregular — the  ebb  stream  making  40  minutes  before  high 
water. 

There  are  numerous  branches  from  the  Port,  as  will  be  seen 
on  reference  to  the  charts — one  of  the  principal  being  that 
running  to  Southport,  twenty-four  miles  from  Palmerston,  and 
the  chief  inland  depot  for  landing  and  forwarding  goods  to  the 
goldfields.  This  tributary  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  large 
burthen.  A  substantial  jetty  is  erected  at  Southport  for  the 
accommodation  of  shipping  and  lightering.  At  Port  Darwin 
preparations  are  being  made  for  the  construction  of  a  jetty,  to 
be  carried  out  so  as  to  afford  a  depth  of  twenty  feet  at  low 
water  spring  tides.  Two  causeways  have  already  been  formed 
for  present  use,  by  which  lighters  can  discharge  into  drays  at 
almost  any  time  of  tide.  The  charge  now  made  for  Ughtering 
and  landing  goods  from  vessels  is  fourteen  shillings  per  ton. 
The  largest  ships  afloat  can  easily  enter  and  safely  anchor  in 
Port  Darwin. 

THE  SETTLEMENT. 
By  G.  B.  McMiNN,  Esq.,  Senior  Surveyor. 

Two  hundred  and  seventy  years  have  elapsed  since  the 
Dutch  navigators  first  explored  the  north  coast  of  Australia, 
making  many  discoveries  in  the  shape  of  rivers  and  harbours. 


Supp.  Chap.]     SETTLEMENT  OF  NORTHERN  TERRITORY.       157 

that  to  the  present  day  are  little  further  known.  Even  pre- 
vious to  this  date  the  Portuguese  are  supposed  to  have  been 
acquainted  with  the  existence  of  the  present  country.  In  the 
year  1772  Captain  Cook  circumnavigated  Australia,  adding 
further  to  the  geographical  knowledge  previously  obtained. 
After  this  but  very  little  appears  to  have  been  done  on  the 
north  coast  until  the  settlement  at  Port  Essington  (one  of  the 
best  harbours  within  the  limits  of  the  Northern  Territory)  was 
formed  in  1831,  by  Sir  Grordon  Bremer.  The  settlement  at 
Port  Essington  was  established  by  the  Imperial  Government 
as  a  military  post  and  harbour  of  refuge  for  distressed  vessels. 
It  received  no  support  from  private  settlers ;  consequently  it 
secured  very  little  public  attention.  No  attempt  appears  to 
have  been  made,  on  any  extensive  scale,  to  test  the  producing 
capabilities  of  the  country.  This  establishment  existed  for 
nineteen  years,  being  finally  abandoned  in  1850.  It  was  during 
that  period  that  Leichardt  made  his  memorable  journey  from 
Sydney  to  Port  Essington. 

In  1862  Mr.  John  McDouall  Stuart,  a  South  Australian 
explorer  (whose  name,  with  the  names  of  Gregory  and 
Leichardt,  is  historically  associated  with  the  Northern  Terri- 
tory, and  well  deserves  remembrance),  succeeded  in  crossing 
the  continent  from  Adelaide  to  Adam  Bay  on  the  north  coast ; 
and  having  reported  the  country  as  suitable  for  settlement, 
an  application  was  made  to,  and  a  grant  obtained  from,  the 
Imperial  Government,  by  which  all  that  portion  of  Australia 
lying  between  the  129th  and  138th  meridians  of  east  longitude, 
and  north  of  the  26th  parallel  of  south  latitude,  together 
with  the  adjacent  islands,  was  ceded  to  the  Colony  of  South 
Australia;  containing,  independently  of  the  islands,  an  area 
of  about  531,402  square  miles. 

In  1864  the  South  Australian  Government,  for  the  purpose 
of  inducing  settlement  on  the  north  coast,  sold  a  large  quantity 
of  land  at  a  low  rate ;  and  Colonel  Finniss,  first  Government 
Resident  of  the  Northern  Territory,  was  sent  out  with  a  large 
staff  to  execute  the  surveying.  This  expedition,  from  various 
causes,  but  chiefly  from  the  land-owners  objecting  to  the  site 
selected  by  Mr.  Finniss  for  settlement  (Escape  Cliffs),  proved 


158  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Supp.  Chap. 

a  total  failure,  and  was  recalled,  after  having  undergone  many 
changes,  in  1868,  without  having  accomplished  the  survey, 
thus  causing  an  immense  waste  of  valuable  time. 

In  1869  another  expedition  was  fitted  out  under  the  com- 
mand of  Mr.  G.  W.  Goyder,  Surveyor-General  of  South 
Australia,  by  whom  the  whole  of  the  survey  required  was 
made  in  the  following  year.  The  site  selected  this  time 
was  Port  Darwin  and  its  immediate  neighbourhood.  Gold  was 
•discovered  in  different  localities,  during  the  execution  of  the 
work,  by  some  of  the  survey  parties,  but  not  in  suflScient 
•quantities  to  warrant  any  one  at  that  time  in  saying  a  payable 
goldfleld  existed.  Shortly  after  this.  Captain  Douglas  was 
Appointed  Government  Resident  of  the  Territory,  and  a  per- 
manent staff  selected  to  assist  in  the  official  management  of 
the  new  settlement.  Captain  Douglas  retired  in  May,  1874, 
and  Dr.  Millner  became  Acting-Eesident  till  the  end  of 
October,  1874,  when  the  present  Government  Eesident,  Mr. 
G.  B.  Scott,  assumed  the  direction  of  affairs. 

As  before  mentioned,  the  area  of  the  Northern  Territory  is 
<3omputed  at  531,402  square  miles,  the  greater  portion  of  which 
is  admirably  adapted  for  pastoral  purposes,  being  well-grassed 
and  watered.  At  present  about  7000  miles  are  held  by  intend- 
ing settlers.  The  amount  of  land  surveyed  was  653,000  acres  ; 
of  this  274,000  have  been  selected,  leaving  the  balance  of 
379,000  acres  open  for  selection.  The  whole  of  this  lies  imme- 
diately around  Port  Darwin,  and  contains  some  very  valuable 
blocks  suitable  for  tropical  agriculture. 

The  goldfields  of  the  Northern  Territory  are  now  ascer- 
iained  to  be  very  extensive.  At  present  gold  is  known  to 
•exist  over  a  block  of  country  containing  about  1700  square 
miles,  which  has  been  indifferently  prospected ;  and  as  country 
of  a  similar  character  extends  for  a  much  greater  distance,  it 
is  more  than  probable  that,  when  it  has  been  prospected,  the 
area  already  known  will  be  but  a  small  portion  of  the  whole 
auriferous  country.  Many  valuable  gold-bearing  quartz  reefs 
have  been  discovered  and  worked;  about  ninety  leases  for 
mining  have  been  granted,  the  larger  portion  of  which  are  at 
present  lying  idle,  owing  to  want  of  capital  to  develop  them. 


Supp.  Chap.]    MINERAL  WEALTH  OF  N.  TEKRITORY.  159 

Eich  deposits  of  alluvial  gold  have  also  been  found ;  but  it  is 
believed  that  the  main  lead  or  deposit  has  not  yet  been 
struck ;  many  competent  mining  authorities  who  have  visited 
the  Northern  Territory  giving  it  as  their  unqualified  opinion 
that  ultimately  this  will  be  one  of  the  largest  and  best  pro- 
ducing goldfields  known. 

At  present  there  are  several  prospecting  parties  out  at 
considerable  distances;  some  of  these  have  been  largely 
assisted  by  Government,  and  considerable  interest  is  evinced 
in  connexion  with  their  movements.  Should  the  parties  who 
are  now  prospecting  happen  to  find  a  good  alluvial  goldfield, 
their  success  will  be  no  more  than  is  expected  by  a  great 
number  of  experienced  persons.  Rich  deposits  of  copper,  iron, 
and  lead,  are  known  to  exist  throughout  the  country.  These, 
however,  wiU  remain  comparatively  valueless  until  the  con- 
struction of  a  railway  to  a  place  of  shipment  reduces  the  cost 
of  carriage.  The  coast  is  annually  visited  by  a  large  number  of 
Malay  proas  from  Macassar,  their  object  being  "  trepang  fish- 
ing;" and,  judging  from  the  perseverance  displayed  by  these 
people  in  making  a  long  yearly  voyage,  and  the  risks  they 
encoimter  from  other  sources,  they  must  find  it  a  profitable  occu- 
pation.  Pearl-shell  is  also  knowA  to  exist  in  many  of  the  waters. 

It  should  have  been  mentioned  before  that  settlements 
were  formed  by  Sir  Gordon  Bremer,  both  on  Melville  Island, 
in  1824,  and  also  at  Baffles  Bay,  near  Port  Essington,  previous 
to  the  final  adoption  of  Port  Essington.  At  each  of  these 
places  a  number  of  buffalo  were  turned  out,  and  these  have 
increased  to  such  an  extent  that  at  the  present  day  large  herds 
may  be  met  with  for  more  than  100  miles  along  the  coast  in 
^  the  neighbourhood  of  Port  Essington  (where  there  are  also  a 
few  English  cattle  and  Timor  ponies),  also  for  a  considerable 
distance  along  the  coast. 

THE  LAND  ACT 

for  the  Northern  Territory,  as  will  be  seen,  has  been  framed 
with  a  view  to  liberality,  and  ofiers  the  following  advantages 
to  intending  settlers : — Any  applicant  may  apply  for  and  re- 
ceive the  fee  simple  of  any  unselected  country  land  which  has 


160  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Supp.  Chap. 

been  first  offered  at  auction  and  passed  the  hammer,  or  which 
has  been  declared  open  for  selection,  on  payment  of  seven 
shillings  and  sixpence  per  acre.  Persons  so  desirous  may  pur- 
chase land  to  the  extent  of  1280  ftcres  upon  "  credit,"  that  is, 
the  land  is  applied  for  at  the  same  price  as  before-mentioned  ; 
but,  instead  of  paying  the  purchase-money  down,  the  purchaser, 
obtains  a  lease  of  the  land  for  ten  years  at  an  annual  rental  of 
sixpence  per  acre,  and  the  purchaser  has  the  option  of  paying 
the  full  amount  of  purchase-money  at  any  time  during  the 
currency  of  the  term,  and  on  so  doing  receives  a  grant  of  the 
l{md.  Any  person  applying  to  the  Commissioner  for  a  special 
survey  of  10,000  acres  in  any  locality  may  obtain  the  same  on 
paying  the  cost  of  survey,  and  receive  the  fee  simple  on  pay- 
ment of  seven  shillings  and  sixpence  per  acre. 

A  special  clause  of  the  Act  that  will  unfortimately  be  of  no 
avail  after  the  expiry  of  the  present  year,  but  which  it  is  hoped 
may  be  re-enacted,  provides  that  whenever  any  applicant  for 
eoimtry  land  states  in  his  application  that  he  intends  to  use 
the  land  applied  for  in  the  cultivation  of  rice,  sugar,  coffee, 
tea,  indigo,  tobacco,  or  cotton,  or  any  other  tropical  or  semi- 
tropical  productions,  he  shall  be  allowed  to  select  a  block  of 
country  land  not  less  than  320  acres  nor  more  than  1280  at  an 
annual  rental  of  sixpence  per  acre ;  and  if  such  applicant  shall 
prove  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Commissioner,  at  the  expira- 
tion of  five  years,  that  he  had  at  the  expiration  of  two  years 
cultivated  one-fifth  of  the  land  selected,  and  after  the  second 
year  an  additional  one-tenth  of  the  entire  area,  and  at  the  ex- 
piration of  five  years  he  had  one-half  of  the  whole  of  the  land 
selected  under  cultivation  with  any  of  the  aforesaid  produc- 
tions, and  that  the  whole  is  enclosed  with  a  fence,  then  the 
money  that  has  been  paid  for  rent  will  be  considered  to  be 
the  purchase-money  for  the  land,  tmd  on  application  the  pur- 
chaser can  obtain  the  grant  thereof.  Thus  the  fee  simple  of 
such  land  only  costs  the  applicant  two  shillings  and  sixpence 
per  acre.  Land  may  also  be  leased  for  pastoral  purposes  at  a 
rental  of  sixpence  per  square  mile  for  a  term  of  twenty-five 
years ;  blocks  applied  for  not  to  consist  of  less  than  twenty- 
five  square  miles  nor  more  than  300  square  miles.    The  run 


Supp.  Chap.]    CHARACTEK  OP  NOKTHERN  TERRITORY.  161 

must  be  declared  stocked  within  three  years  from  the  quarter 
date  next  succeeding  the  date  of  the  application,  at  the  rate 
of  two  head  of  large  cattle  or  ten  head  of  small  for  every 
square  mile  of  country  applied  for. 

CHARACTER  OP  THE  COUNTRY, 

The  land  bounding  the  coast  is  in  a  great  measure  low 
and  iminteresting,  in  very  few  instances  being  more  than 
100  feet  above  the  sea  level ;  wherever  the  coast  is  high,  it 
is  generally  in  the  nature  of  cliffs,  composed  of  sandstone, 
marl,  and  ironstone ;  the  lower  portions  are  partly  sandy 
beaches,  but  principally  mud  flats,  thickly  fringed  with  man- 
groves.  The  country  inland  is,  generaUy  speaking,  of  a  very 
level  character,  over  which  railways  could  be  easily  con- 
structed, and  is  in  a  great  measure  destitute  of  conspicuous 
landmarks.  At  a  distance  of  from  30  to  100  miles  from  the 
coast  a  tableland  is  met  with,  varying  in  height  from  300  to 
900  feet,  and  near  the  Victoria  River  it  attains  a  height  of 
nearly  1700  feet. 

The  rivers  of  the  Northern  Territory  must  not  be  over- 
looked, for  many  of  them — the  "  Roper,"  "  Adelaide,**  "  South 
Alligator,"  **  Liverpool,"  and  "  Victoria  " — will  hereafter  prove 
to  be  of  considerable  importan(5e  for  inland  navigation. 

THE  CLIMATE. 

By  J.  A.  G.  Little,  Esq.,  Senior  and  Inspecting  Officer  of  the  Post  and 

Telegraphic  Department,  Port  Darwin. 

The  year  has  two  climatic  divisions,  consisting  of  the  wet 
season,  from  October  to  April,  and  the  dry  period,  from  May 
to  September.  The  different  changes  of  these  seasons  are  so 
uniform  and  regular  that  they  may  be  predicted  almost  to  a 
day.  Signs  of  the  approach  of  the  wet  season  appear  imme- 
diately after  the  sun  has  crossed  the  equator  during  the  spring 
equinox,  in  September,  when  the  strong  E.S.E.  monsoon — 
which  has  been  blowing  continually  throughout  the  dry  season 
—ceases,  and  is  succeeded  by  calms  and  light  variable  winds ; 
the  weather  becomes  intensely  hot,  and  small  thunder  clouds 
gather  over  the  land,  increasing  in  size  and  density  day  by 

u 


162  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Supp.  Chap. 

day,  until  they  burst  in  terrific  thunderstorms,  accompanied 
by  hurricane  squalls  of  wind  and  rain.  These  storms  at  first 
take  place  every  four  or  five  days,  gradually  increasing  in 
number  until  the  end  of  November,  when  they  occur  almost 
daily.  They  come  up  in  a  dense  blftck  bank,  and  travel  so 
very  rapidly  that  they  are  generally  out  of  sight  on  the 
western  horizon  within  forty  minutes.  About  an  inch,  or 
sometimes  more,  of  heavy  driving  rain  accompanies  each 
storm  ;  but  in  the  year  1871  the  writer  of  this  article  saw  two 
inches  and  three  quarters  of  rain  gauged  within  ten  minutes 
during  one  of  these  squalls. 

During  December  the  N.W.  monsoon  gradually  gains  the 
ascendency,  and  blows  steadily,  with  an  occasional  break  of 
calm  weather.  The  thunderstorms  disappear,  the  sky  becomes 
overcast  and  clouded,  and  the  atmosphere  gets  thoroughly 
saturated  with  moisture,  so  much  so  that  leatherwork  becomes 
green  with  mildew,  if  not  constantly  attended  to ;  the 
binding  of  books  becomes  soft,  and  sugar  or  salt,  if  exposed 
in  an  open  vessel,  will  soon  liquefy.  This  is  felt  to  be  an 
agreeable  change  after  the  intensely  hot  weather,  during  the 
change  of  the  monsoon  in  October  and  November;  and 
although  the  humid  atmosphere  induces  profuse  perspiration,, 
the  effects  of  the  weather  are  not  nearly  so  unpleasant  or 
severe  as  those  attending  the  dry  heat  experienced  in  the 
soutliem  portion  of  Australia  during  the  same  and  two  suc- 
ceeding months. 

The  N.W.  monsoon  is  accompanied  by  rain  almost  daily* 
and  increases  in  force  until  the  latter  end  of  January  or  be- 
ginning of  February,  when  it  is  blowing  in  full  heart,  and 
penetrates  \nth  its  copious  and  fertilizing  showers  into  the 
very  centre  of  Australia.  During  this  period  thick,  damp 
weather  prevails,  the  clouds  being  very  low,  and  scud  and 
banks  of  nimbus  pass  over  almost  constantly  from  the  N.W. 
to  the  S.E.  with  great  rapidity.  The  maximum  temperature 
in  the  shade  during  the  day  in  this  weather  is  96°,  and  the 
minimum  during  the  night  is  65°. 

On  the  approach  of  the  autumn  equinox,  the  N.W.  mon- 
soon gradually  dies  away,  and  is  succeeded  again  by  the  calms^ 


Supp.  Chap.]    CLIMATE  OF  NORTHERN  TERRITORY.  163 

yariable  winds,  thunderstorms,  and  oppressive  weather,  until 
about  the  end  of  April,  when  cooler  weather  is  felt,  the  S.E. 
monsoon  sets  in,  and  the  dry  season  may  be  said  to  have  fairly 
commenced.  This  wind  is  characterized  by  a  clear  sky,  enjoy- 
able weather,  heavy  dews,  and  cold  mornings  and  nights,  so 
much  so  that  blankets  can  be  used  when  sleeping.  It  blows 
off  the  coast  without  intermission,  and  with  great  force,  almost 
throughout  the  season,  being  in  full  heart  during  June  and 
July.  At  Port  Darwin  and  other  places  adjacent  to  the  coast 
the  monsoon  generally  drops  in  the  afternoon,  and  is  some- 
times succeeded  by  a  sea  breeze,  which  is  merely  local,  and 
only  extends  a  few  miles  inland.  The  atmosphere  is  clear 
and  dry,  and  rather  hot  during  the  middle  of  the  day.  The 
maximum  temperature  in  the  day  being  89*^,  and  the  minimum 
during  the  night  56^. 

With  regard  to  the  suitability  of  the  country  for  European 
labour,  the  writer  of  this  article  can  aJBSrm — ^after  four  years' 
experience — that  a  man  cannot  perform  the  amount  of  con- 
stant work  that  he  is  capable  of  accomplishing  in  a  more 
temperate  climate;  but  still  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  a 
moderate  day's  work  being  done — ^and  further,  there  is  an 
almost  entire  absence  of  those  enervating  influences  which 
prostrate  the  European  labourer  in  other  tropical  countries, 
such  as  India,  Java,  Singapore,  or  Africa.  Workmen  carry 
out  their  various  avocations  throughout  the  day  without 
taking  any  precaution  to  ward  off  the  rays  of  the  sun — the 
eight  hours'  system  being  usually  adopted,  as  in  other  parts 
of  Australia.  The  climate,  in  fact,  may  be  said  to  be  more  of 
that  type  which  is  generally  known  as  Australian,  rather  than 
tropical ;  and  the  same  remark  will — with  very  few  exceptions 
— also  apply  to  the  jlwa^fauna^  and  perspective  of  the  country. 
It  is  free  from  cholera  and  other  scourges  of  hot  countries,  and 
on  the  whole  may  be  considered  healthy.  Intermittent  fever, 
commonly  known  as  fever  and  ague,  is  prevalent  at  times, 
especially  in  low-lying  localities,  or  immediately  after  the  wet 
season ;  but  this  complaint  is  not  dangerous  in  itself,  and  can 
often  be  prevented  by  a  moderate  and  judicious  use  of  medicine 
and  a  small  amount  of  bodily  exercise. 

M  2 


164  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA.  [Supp.  Chap. 

The  insect  nuisances,  such  as  flies,  mosquitos,  or  sandflies, 
disappear  very  quickly  on  any  extent  of  timber  and  grass 
being  cleared  away.  Clothing  of  a  light  description  is  worn 
throughout  the  year — ^white  being  the  best ;  but,  owing  to  the 
absence  of  "  dobies,"  or  native  washerwomen,  any  new  comers 
should  for  the  present  bring  a  plentiful  supply  of  coloured 
articles.  Cloth  or  tweed  clothing  is  not  often  used,  and 
flannel  is  not  recommended,  as  it  produces  attacks  of  prickly 
heat.  Persons  contemplating  planting  any  kind  of  tropical 
produce  should  arrange  to  have  their  ground  cleared  in  the 
dry  season,  and  ready  for  seed  during  the  commencement  of 
the  rains  in  October,  so  that  the  plants  may  have  the  full 
benefit  of  the  wet  season  and  humid  weather.  Vegetable 
growth  is  very  rapid  immediately  after  the  rains  set  in,  and 
the  country  becomes  covered  with  grass  knee-deep  in  the 
course  of  a  few  weeks.  This  grass  runs  up  to  a  height  of  about 
six  or  eight  feet  during  the  wet  season,  and  ripens  early  in 
May,  when  it  is  burnt.  It  springs  again  on  flats  or  damp 
places,  and  generally  continues  green  and  fit  for  fodder 
throughout  the  year.  The  following  is  a  statement  of  the 
rainfall  for  the  last  four  seasons : — 


Wet  season— 1871-72  77  801  inches. 

„  1872-78  62-254     „ 

1873-74   57-550 


IJ        1874-75  !!.'.!*.'.!!!!!'.*.!!!!!!!  56-ooo    r> 


THE  OVEBLAND  TELEGBAPH. 
By  J.  A.  6.  Little,  Esq. 

On  the  return  of  Mr.  John  McDouall  Stuart,  the  explorer, 
to  Adelaide  in  the  year  1862,  after  having  successfully  crossed 
the  Australian  Continent  from  the  southern  seaboard  to  the 
northern  coast,  in  the  course  of  which  journey  he  proved  the 
existence  of  a  practicable  route  interspersed  with  tracts  of 
valuable  country  in  a  region  hitherto  considered  an  impassable 
desert,  the  idea  of  constructing  a  line  of  telegraph — two 
thousand  miles  in  length — through  to  the  northern  coast,  and 
so  opening  up  and  utilising  the  coimtry  discovered  by  Mr. 
Stuart,  and  also  to  connect  with  an  Anglo-Australian  cable  to 


Supp.  Chap.]  THE  OVERLAND  TELEGRAPH.  165 

be  brought  down  to  meet  it  from  Singapore  or  Java,  was  at 
once  grasped  by  Mr.  Charles  Todd,  the  present  Postmaster- 
General  of  the  Colony,  and  speedily  cast  into  form  by  him  and 
brought  before  the  authorities  of  the  day. 

The  measure,  though  generally  approTed  of,  was  considered 
a  little  too  large  for  the  then  resources  of  the  Colony,  which  at 
that  time  contained  a  population  of  only  about  150,000  people, 
and  yielded  an  annual  reyenue  of  £500,000  sterling ;  so  the 
question  was  postponed  from  year  to  year  in  an  indefinite  form, 
although  Mr.  Todd  never  lost  sight  of  it,  and  frequently  urged 
the  importance  of  the  matter  on  the  Government. 

In  the  meantime  the  Colony  had  formed  a  small  settlement 
under  the  management  of  Lieut.-Colonel  Finniss  on  the 
northern  coast  at  Escape  Cliffs,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Adelaide 
River,  which  after  two  or  three  years  had  to  be  abandoned  in 
favour  of  another  at  Port  Darwin,  under  the  control  of  Mr. 
G.  W.  Goyder,  Surveyor-General  of  the  Colony;  and  sub- 
sequently of  Captain  B.  Douglas,  Collector  of  Customs  of 
South  Australia. 

These  settlements  suffered  very  much  from  their  isolated 
position  and  want  of  communication  with  the  settled  districts 
in  the  more  southern  portion  of  Australia,  and  so  the  idea 
of  a  line  of  Telegraph  from  Adelaide  to  Port  Darwin  slowly 
and  steadily  found  favour  until  1870,  when  the  successful  and 
profitable  working  of  the  Atltmtic  and  Anglo-Indian  cables 
gave  an  impetus  to  telegraph  extension  all  over  the  world, 
resulting  in  the  formation  of  the  British- Australian  Telegraph 
Company,  for  the  purpose  of  putting  down  a  cable  from 
Singapore  to  Port  Darwin  via  Java. 

The  South  Australian  Government,  acting  under  the  power- 
ful advice  of  the  Governor — Sir  James  Fergusson — and  also  of 
Messrs.  Strangways,  Ayers,  and  other  leading  politicians  of  the 
day,  decided  at  once  to  carry  out  the  scheme  of  the  Overland 
Telegraph  recommended  by  Mr.  Todd,  and  imdertook  to  com- 
plete the  whole  and  have  it  ready  to  meet  the  cable  on 
January  1, 1872,  a  period  of  about  twenty  months.  The  work 
was  then  placed  in  the  hands  of  Mr.  Todd  for  execution,  and 
he,  with  an  admirable  system  of  organization  and  ingenuity, 


1C6  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Supp.  Chap. 

tided   it  over  many  great   and  unforeseen  difficulties,  and 
brought  it  to  a  successful  completion. 

Six  hundred  miles  of  the  work  at  each  end  were  let  to 
public  contractors,  acting  under  Government  Superintendents, 
no  great  difficulty  being  anticipated  on  either  of  these  two 
sections ;  but  Mr.  Todd  reserved  the  section  in  the  centre — 
about  six  hundred  miles — eventually  extended  to  nearly  eight 
hundred  miles,  and  which,  it  must  be  remembered,  had  only 
been  traversed  by  one  lightly  equipped  party  of  white  men — 
Mr.  Stuart's — ^to  be  constructed  under  his  own  immediate 
supervision. 

He  divided  the  work  on  this  central  portion  into  five 
different  parts,  and  commenced  organizing  parties  of  officers 
and  men  for  each  section.;  five  officers  of  known  ability  and 
experience,  viz. : — Messrs.  Knuckey,  G.  R.  McMinn,  W.  W. 
Mills,  A.  T.  Woods,  and  W.  Harvey — all  of  whom  had  taken 
leading  parts  in  the  pioneer  expedition  to  the  Northern 
Territory — being  selected  to  take  command  of  the  different 
parties. 

Every  care  and  forethought  wa.  exercised  in  the  prepara- 
tion  and  outfit  of  these  parties,  who,  it  must  be  remembered, 
had  to  travel  for  months,  with  their  waggons  loaded  with  wire, 
material,  rations,  tools,  and  every  other  article  required,  over 
long  stages — the  furthest  nearly  twelve  hundred  miles  in 
length — before  they  got  on  to  their  ground ;  and  over  an 
uninhabited  region,  where  water  was  supposed  to  be  scarce, 
where  roads  had  to  be  made,  bridges  constructed,  wells  sunk, 
high  precipitous  ranges,  and  belts  of  desert  and  lofty  sandhills 
crossed ;  the  three  latter  obstacles  having  proved  in  previous 
times  almost  insurmountable  difficulties  to  Mr.  Stuart's  ex- 
ploratory expeditions.  This  region  was  so  utterly  unproductive 
Avith  regard  to  game  and  other  articles  of  sustenance  that  every 
ounce  of  food  required,  until  the  completion  of  the  work,  and 
also  for  the  return  journey,  had  to  be  taken  with  them. 

The  parties  proved  to  be  so  well  organized  and  ably  led 
that  they  arrived  on  their  ground  without  any  hitch  whatever, 
nnd  not  only  completed  their  portion  of  the  line,  within  the 
estimated  time,  but  also  erected  one  hundred  miles  extra  of 


Supp.  Chap.]  THE  OVERLAND  TELEGRAPH.  167 

poles,  and  on  the  arrival  of  more  wire,  finished  off  in  all  about 
two  hundred  miles  of  line  in  addition  to  their  legitimate 
portion.  Great  difficulty  was  experienced  throughout  the  sec- 
tions owing  to  the  scarcity  of  suitable  timber  for  poles,  but  by 
traversing  the  coimtry  in  every  direction,  and  carting  the 
poles  great  distances — sometimes  over  one  hundred  miles — 
the  requisite  number  was  at  last  obtained. 

While  everything  was  progressing  so  very  satisfactorily  and 
smoothly  on  the  most  difficult  portion  of  the  works,  the  con- 
tractors at  both  ends  were  encountering  difficulties.  Assistance 
was  promptly  rendered  to  the  Southern  contractor,  which 
enabled  him  to  complete  the  works  within  a  few  weeks  after 
time;  but  the  expedition  of  the  Northern  contractor,  after 
erecting  about  220  miles  of  poles,  collapsed  entirely — most  of 
the  draught  stock  required  for  transit  having  died,  and  nearly 
all  the  men  returned  to  Adelaide. 

The  Government  immediately  sent  round  to  Port  Darwin 
by  sea  a  large  and  most  powerfully  equipped  expedition  under 
the  command  of  Mr.  R.  C.  Patterson,  the  Assistant  Engineer- 
in-Chief  of  the  Colony,  to  promptly  finish  off  the  work ;  and, 
as  an  additional  inducement,  offered  the  Assistant  Engineer  a 
bonus  of  £1500  if  he  managed  to  get  the  work  done  in  time ; 
but  this  party  also  encountered  difficulties,  which  rendered  the 
completion  of  the  work  within  the  specified  time  hopeless. 
The  Government  therefore  sent  Mr.  Todd  himself  roimd  with 
reinforcements,  and  he  very  wisely  took  his  steamers  100  miles 
up  the  River  Roper  in  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  and  made  that 
place  the  base  of  operations,  instead  of  Port  Darwin,  thus 
saving  about  300  miles  of  carting,  and  obtaining  a  better  road. 
An  unprecedentedly  wet  season  was  encountered  immediately 
after  his  arrival,  rendering  the  country  impassable  for  loaded 
teams  for  some  time ;  but  as  soon  as  the  weather  improved, 
great  activity  took  plftce,  and  Mr.  Todd  completed  the  line  on 
August  22nd,  1872,  being  a  little  over  eight  months  after  time. 

The  British- Australian  Cable,  after  being  successfully  laid, 
broke  for  some  little  time,  and  was  not  repaired  until  October 
22nd,  1872,  when  telegraphic  communication  was  established 
between  Australia  and  all  parts  of  the  World — the  firist  recipients 


168  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Supp.  Chap. 

of  a  message  from  London  being  Messrs.  MacEwans  &  Co.,  of 
Melbourne.  The  beneficial  results  of  this  great  work  became 
apparent  at  once.  Within  six  months  after  the  opening 
of  the  line  the  Colony  netted  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  million 
sterling  extra  on  their  wheat  harvest  through  the  telegraph 
enabling  sales  to  be  made  in  foreign  markets. 

Gold,  discovered  in  payable  quantities  by  the  Northern 
contractors'  party,  led  to  the  opening  up  of  valuable  goldfields 
and  the  settlement  of  a  considerable  nimiber  of  people  in  the 
Northern  Territory.  Fine  deposits  of  copper,  lead,  and  iron, 
have  since  been  discovered,  and  will  no  doubt  at  some  future 
time  prove  highly  remunerative.  Stockholders  quickly  pushed 
their  herds  out  along  the  line,  and  at  the  present  moment  the 
country  near  the  centre  of  Australia  is  being  rapidly  taken  up 
for  pastoral  purposes.  All  classes  were  directly  or  indirectly 
benefited,  seeing  at  once  the  utility  of  this  great  reproduc- 
tive work,  which  it  is  hoped  will  soon  be  followed  by  a 
railway  along  the  same  route,  and  which,  with  a  corresponding 
measure  for  the  introduction  of  a  proportional  amount  of  popu- 
lation, will  still  further  develop  the  fine  resources  of  the  whole 
country.  Since  the  completion  of  the  line,  iron  poles  have 
been  gradually  introduced  to  replace  the  wooden  ones,  which, 
when  finished,  will  render  the  work  thoroughly  substantial,  and 
reduce  the  medntenance  expenditure  to  a  minimum. 

THE  GOLDFIELDS. 
By  J.  A.  Plunkett,  Esq.,  Chief  Warden. 

From  Palmerston,  the  chief  town  of  the  Northern  Territory, 
to  the  nearest  oflScially  recognized  gold-bearing  reefs— those  at 
Stapleton — the  distance  is  about  sixty-four  miles  in  a  south- 
south-eastern  direction.  To  avoid  a  long  detour  by  land,  the 
first  part  of  this  journey — as  far  as  Southport,  which  is  twenty- 
five  miles,  is  usually  made  by  water,  up  an  estuary  of  Port 
Darwin  Bay.  For  the  remainder  of  the  distance — and,  indeed, 
all  the  way  to  the  most  southern  and  distant  reefs — there  is  an 
excellent  bush  road ;  which,  moreover,  has  been  improved  in 
various  places,  and  is  maintained  in  good  order  by  road  parties 
employed  by  the  Government.     Here  it  may  be  observed  that 


Scpp.  Chap.]    GOLDFIELDS  OP  NORTHERN  TERRITORY.         Ip9 

all  through  the  settled  parts  of  the  Territory  the  bush  roads 
are  exceedingly  good,  and  generally  keep  in  excellent  order 
for  traffic — except,  of  course,  during  the  four  or  five  months  of 
the  rainy  season,  when  they  are  nearly  impassable. 

From  Stapleton  to  the  most  southern  reefs — those  at  Pine 
Creek — the  road  is  about  ninety  miles :  it  runs  the  entire  way 
close  to  the  Overland  Telegraph  Line ;  and  though  it  winds 
about  here  and  there,  it  takes  on  the  whole  a  south-eastern 
course.  All  the  quartz  reefs  in  the  Territory  on  which  any 
work  worth  mentioning  has  been  done,  and  all  the  alluvial 
diggings,  lie  either  east  or  west  of  this  road — most  of  them 
being  within  a  few  miles  of  it,  and  the  furthest  from  it  not 
being  more  than  twelve  miles  to  the  east.  From  this  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  whole  of  the  gold-bearing  country  which,  as  yet, 
has  been  proved  to  be  of  any  value  stretches  away  in  a  south- 
eastern direction  from  Stapleton;  though  it  must  be  added 
that  small  qutmtities  of  gold  have  been  discovered  in  many 
other  parts  of  the  Territory.  In  a  brief  sketch  like  this,  it 
would  be  impossible  to  notice  separately  the  fifteen  or  sixteen 
different  places  in  which  gold-mining  operations  have,  at  some 
time  or  other,  been  carried  on ;  and  so  the  remarks  made  here 
must,  for  the  most  part,  be  of  a  general  nature.  In  none  of 
the  places  just  mentioned  has  the  search  for  gold  been  entirely 
unsuccessful ;  and  nothing  surprises  one  more  than  the  little 
difficulty  people  appear  to  have  had  in  discovering,  anywhere 
in  the  country  between  Stapleton  and  Pine  Creek,  either 
auriferous  quartz  or  auriferous  clay.  It  must,  though,  be 
admitted  that  the  amount  of  success  has  been  far  from  uniform, 
and  that  in  many  instances  the  gold  obtained  has  been 
altogether  inadequate  to  compensate  for  the  labour  expended 
in  getting  it :  but,  as  will  be  shown  further  on,  the  ill  luck  in 
these  cases  has  been  more  than  counterbalanced  by  fortunate 
results  in  others. 

Except  one  or  two  reefs,  which  run  nearly  due  north,  the 
reefs  for  the  most  part  extend  in  a  north-western  or  a  north- 
north-western  direction,  and  in  several  instances  they  can  be 
traced  for  two  or  three  miles.  They  lie,  generally,  in  ranges  of 
somewhat  rugged  lulls ;  though  in  one  or  two  places  they  are  in 


170  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Supp.  Chap. 

flat  ground.     Those,  however,  in  the  hills  have  hitherto  proved 
far  more  valuable  than  the  others.     As  might  be  expecte<l, 
there  is  great  diversity  in  the  size  and  quality  of  the  different 
reefs.   Some  of  them  are  several  feet  wide,  while  others,  properly 
speaking,  should  not  be  called  "  reefs"  at  all,  being  only  narroAv 
**  leaders  " — though  the  latter  are  usually  more  clearly  defined, 
and,  in  proportion  to  size,  much  richer  than  the  former.     Gene- 
rally speaking,  the  owners  of  a  quartz  claim  in  the  Territory 
obtain  auriferous  stone  from  the  very  surface  of  their  ground, 
but  find  that,  as  they  sink,  the  reef  or  leader,  as  the  case  may  be, 
widens  considerably,  but  decreases  in  richness :  hence  it  hap- 
pens that  the  results  of  the  first  crushings  are  usually  much 
richer  in  proportion  to  the  stone  operated  on  than  those  of 
subsequent  crushings — though,  owing  to  the  increased  quantity 
of  stone,  and  the  increased  ease  with  which  it  is  obtained,  the 
latter  crushings  are  generally  more  remunerative  in  proportion 
to  the  money  and  the  labour  expended.     This  last  remark 
applies  more  especially  to  some  of  the  hill  claims,  where,  to 
facilitate  operations,  tunnels  have  been  driven  to  meet  the 
bottoms  of  the  shafts.    It  may  be  said  of  all  the  reefs  in  the 
Territory  that,  whether  the  gold-bearing  stone  in  them  is  rich 
or  not,  there  are  but  few  difficulties  to  contend  with  in  getting 
it :  in  fact,  if  some  means  could  be  devised  for  storing,  during 
the  wet  season,  large  quantities  of  water  sufficient  to  last  the 
different  batteries  through  the  remainder  of  the  year,  the 
engineering   difficulties   connected    with    quartz    mining    in 
the  Territory  would  be  very  small  indeed.     No  very  deep 
sinking  has  been  necessary  as  yet ;  the  shafts,  even  in  the 
midst  of  the  rainy  season,  are  quite  free  from  water;  and 
nowhere  are  there  any  obstacles  to  prevent  the  making  of  a 
good  road  or  tramway,  either  to  a  battery  already  erected  or 
to  a  convenient  site  for  a  battery. 

Up  to  the  present,  though  a  great  deal  of  money  has  been 
expended  in  quartz-reefing  on  the  goldfields,  and  a  good  deal 
of  stone  raised  and  crushed,  it  cannot  be  said  that  as  an 
industry  quartz-mining  has  been  fairly  tried  in  the  Territory, 
The  fact  is,  the  work  done  has  been  distributed  over  too  many 
places ; — too  many  claims  have  been  tested  in  a  superficial  and 


Supp.  Chap.]     GOLDFIELDS  OF  NORTHEEN  TERRITORY.       171 

desultory  way,  and  too  few  systematically  worked.  Notwith- 
standing this,  however,  it  is  an  undeniable  fact  that,  counting 
all  the  stone  crushed  in  the  Territory  from  the  very  first  till 
now,  the  average  yield  of  gold  has  been  more  than  one  ounce 
for  every  ton  of  stone  crushed ;  and,  if  we  take  as  a  criterion 
the  more  recent  crushings  only — that  is,  those  of  the  last  seven 
months — ^there  is  good  reason  for  expecting  that  in  future  the 
average  yield  will  be  considerably  greater. 

At  present  the  only  reefs  to  which  any  attention  is  being 
devoted  are  (taking  them  in  order  from  north  to  south)  the 
Stapleton  Reefs,  the  Howley  Reefs,  the  Britannia  Reef,  the 
Yam  Creek  Reefs,  the  Extended  Union  Reef,  the  Union  and 
the  Lady  Alice  Reefs,  and  the  Pine  Creek  Reefs.  But  of 
these,  the  Union  and  the  Lady  Alice  Reefs,  and  the  Pine 
Creek  Reefs,  are  the  only  ones  on  which  work  is  being  done  on 
anything  like  an  extensive  system.  As  has  been  already  indi- 
cated, it  is  impossible  in  this  sketch  to  notice  specially  the 
different  claims ;  but  the  following  facts  will,  it  is  hoped,  help 
the  reader  to  form  something  like  a  correct  estimate  of  the 
value  of  the  quartz  reefs  generally. 

The  present  writer,  in  his  capacity  as  Chief  Warden,  has 
made  it  his  business  to  collect  from  time  to  time,  for  his  official 
reports,  all  the  information  he  possibly  could  about  the  gold- 
fields  ;  and  in  this  way  he  has  managed  to  obtain  full  and,  he 
believes,  pretty  accurate  accounts  of  no  less  than  thirty-three 
crushings,  all  of  which  have  taken  place  since  the  resumption  of 
crushing  operations  in  the  early  part  of  last  December.  For 
some  of  these  crushings,  no  doubt,  care  was  exercised  in  select- 
ing the  stone ;  while  in  other  instances  quartz  and  mullock 
were  indiscriminately  collected  and  passed  through  the  bat- 
teries. From  some  of  the  crushings,  the  yield  of  gold  was  as 
low  as  a  few  pennyweights  to  the  ton  of  stone ;  but  from  others 
it  was  four,  or  five,  or  six  ounces  to  the  ton ;  while  in  one  in- 
stance, a  few  tons  of  quartz  yielded  eighty-one  ounces  of  gold 
to  the  ton  of  stone. 

The  total  result,  however,  of  the  thirty-three  crushings  is 
as  follows : — 2732^  tons  of  stone  have  yielded  4327  oz.  18  dwt. 
of  gold,  or  a  little  more  than  1  oz.  12  dwt.  for  every  ton  ; — a 


172  SOUTH  AUSTEALIA.  [Supp.  Chap. 

result  which  speaks  for  itself,  and  goes  far  to  warrant  the  good 
opinion  which  many  persons  still  entertain  respecting  the 
Northern  Territory  quartz  reefs.  This  calculation  does  not 
include  all  the  crushings  in  the  Territory  since  the  1st  of 
December ;  but  it  includes  every  one  since  then  of  which  the 
writer  has  been  able  to  obtain  the  particulars,  and  there  have 
been  but  few  others.  There  are  at  present  ten  crushing- 
machines  in  the  Territory ; — one  at  Stapleton,  one  at  Howley, 
four  at  Yam  Creek,  two  at  Union,  and  two  at  Pine  Creek. 

So  much  having  been  said  about  quartz-reefing,  it  becomes 
necessary  now  to  say  a  few  words  about  the  alluvial  diggings. 
Alluvial  digging  has  been  tried  in  a  small  way,  and  with 
varying  success,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  several  of  the  reefs ; 
but  the  only  diggings  that  can  be  noticed  here  are  the  prin- 
cipal ones — those  at  Sandy  Creek,  at  Stewart's  Gully,  and  at 
Sailor's  Gully,  all  of  which  lie  near  the  Yam  Creek  reefs. 
Sandy  Creek  and  Stewart's  Gully  extend  north  and  south,  but 
Sailor's  Gully  runs  east  and  west.  The  first-named  place  is  on 
a  confined  flat  in  a  valley,  while  the  two  other  diggings  are — 
as  their  names  imply — in  narrow  glens.  In  these  places  about 
fifty  people  are  engaged  in  alluvial  mining ;  but  only  very 
few  of  the  claims  can  be  said  to  pay  well,  and  from  many  of 
them  the  yield  of  gold  is  very  small  indeed.  The  ground 
seems  to  be  what  diggers  call  "very  patchy,"  that  is,  the 
owners  of  a  claim  may  find  a  fair  amount  of  gold  one  day,  but 
after  that  work  for  several  days  without  getting  any.  Up  to 
the  present,  there  has  been  no  deep  sinking  on  any  of  these 
diggings.  A  nugget  weighing  over  twenty-two  ounces — the 
largest  ever  discovered  in  the  Territory — was  found  recently 
in  Stewart's  Gully ;  but  this  piece  of  luck  must  be  regarded 
as  somewhat  exceptional,  and  Stewart's  Gully  is  gradually 
being  deserted  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  water,  the  diggers 
moving  for  the  dry  season  to  Sandy  Creek,  where  there  is 
water  all  the  year  round.  There  exists  great  diversity  of 
opinion  as  to  the  value  of  these  diggings.  Some  persons 
of  good  experience  maintain  that,  if  the  claims  were  smaller 
and  the  number  of  diggers  increased,  the  more  thorough 
examination  of  the  ground  which  this  would  cause  would  be 


Supp.Chap.]    GOLDPIELDS  of  NOKTHEBN  TiJRRITOBY.         173 

siire  to  result  in  some  valuable  discoveries.  There  are  others, 
however,  of  equally  good  experience,  who  hold  quite  the 
opposite  opinion,  and  consider  the  ground  to  be  naturally 
very  poor.  The  writer  ventures  to  think  that  the  latter 
persons  are  correct  in  their  opinion;  and  though  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  many  persons  have  done  pretty  well  on  these 
diggings,  he  considers  that,  on  the  whole,  alluvial  digging  in 
the  Territory  has  so  far  resulted  in  but  little  success. 

It  only  remains  now  to  say  a  few  words  about  the  Gold 
Mining  Law  and  Begulations. 

A  gold-mining  claim  in  the  Territory  can  be  held  under 
either  a  miner's  right  or  a  lease.  A  miner's  right  costs  lOs., 
and  remains  in  force  till  the  first  of  December  following  the 
date  on  which  it  is  issued.  It  can,  of  course,  be  renewed  like 
any  other  licence.  It  empowers  a  man  to  hold  as  an  "  ordinary 
claim  "  an  area  of  ground,  25  yards  by  25  yards  for  an  alluvial 
claim ;  or  30  yards  by  30  yards  (in  old  ground)  for  a  puddling 
claim  ;  or  200  yards  by  250  yards  for  a  quartz-reef  claim.  In 
the  event  of  fresh  discoveries  being  made  at  certain  con- 
siderable distances  from  ground  already  worked  on,  "pro- 
specting claims  "  are  graijted  varying  in  size  according  to  the 
distance  from  the  old  claims ;  but  the  smallest  "  prospecting 
claim"  is  double  the  area  of  an  ordinary  claim.  Besides 
complying  with  a  few  necessary  formalities,  the  holder  of  a 
claim  has  only  to  work  it  properly  in  order  to  retain  it,  and 
for  every  three  months'  work  done  on  it,  he  is  entitled  to 
obtain  three  months'  exemption  from  working  it.  If  he  does 
not  comply  with  the  formal  regulations,  or  if  he  does  not  work 
his  claim,  he  is  liable  to  forfeit  it ;  while,  if  he  abandons  it 
altogether  for  a  certain  time,  anyone  else  having  a  miner's 
right  can  go  on  the  claim  and  take  possession  of  it. 

Under  the  Begulations,  too,  very  liberal  provisions  are 
made  for  enabling  the  holders  of  miners'  rights  to  obtain,  on 
the  payment  of  certain  fees,  the  right  to  take  up  areas  of 
ground  for  residence  sites,  business  sites,  dam  and  machine 
sites,  &c.  &c.  All  disputes  respecting  ground  held  under 
miners'  rights  are  settled  by  the  Warden,  from  whose  decision, 
however,  an  appeal  to  the  Palmerston  Local  Court  is  allowed. 


174  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Scpp.  Chap. 

The  holders  of  quartz  claims^  or  of  "  deep  dnhing  "  alluvial 
claims  (of  which  latter,  however,  there  are  none  in  the  Terri- 
tory), by  applying  to  the  Government  Eesident,  through  the 
Warden,  can  obtain  leases  for  their  claims,  varying  in  duration 
from  seven  to  twenty-one  years,  and  at  a  yearly  rent  of  10«.  aii 
acre.  Leases  for  similar  periods,  and  at  a  similar  rent,  can 
also  be  obtained,  for  machine,  race,  dam,  or  reservoir  sites,  of 
areas  of  ground  varying  in  extent  from  ten  to  twenty  acres. 
The  regulations  respecting  the  working  of  leased  claims  are 
nearly  the  same  as  those  for  the  working  of  claims  held  under 
miners'  rights.  The  great  advantage  of  having  a  lease  is — 
that  the  holders  cannot  be  compelled  to  give  up  their  ground, 
unless  by  the  Warden's  taking  proceedings  against  them  in 
the  Local  Court  at  Palmerston,  which,  of  course,  would  not  bo 
done  for  any  mere  technical  breach  of  the  Begulations,  or 
unless  there  were  very  good  cause. 

In  concluding  this  brief  sketch,  the  writer  wishes  to  say 
that,  in  the  space  allotted  to  him,  he  has  not  been  able  to  give, 
nor  has  he  aimed  at  giving,  anything  more  than  a  general 
account  of  the  goldfields.  He  hopes,  however,  that  notwith- 
standing this  his  remarks  may  be. found  useful  in  assisting 
persons  at  a  distance  to  form  some  idea  about  the  prospects  of 
gold-mining  in  the  Northern  Territory. 

INDIGENOUS  VEGETATION. 
By  J.  0.  Kniqht,  Esq. 

The  indigenous  products  of  the  Northern  Territory,  like 
the  rest  of  the  Australitm  Colonies,  yield  little  or  nothing 
adapted  to  sustain  civilized  life,  while  they  afiford  sufficient  to 
support  the  aboriginal  population.  The  native  grasses  have, 
however,  been  practically  tested,  and  found  to  yield  abundant 
nutrition  to  fatten  horned  cattle  and  horses.  When  it  is 
stated  as  a  fact  that  for  hundreds  of  miles  inland  there  is 
scarcely  a  foot  of  ground  which  is  uncovered  by  trees,  plants, 
or  herbage  of  one  kind  or  another,  growing  in  rank  luxuriance 
(in  some  cases  on  rocky  strata,  without  aiiy  apparent  soil  to 
sustain  vegetable  existence),  and  that  such  &uits  as  the  banana, 
cocoa-nut,  custard-apple,  pine-apple,  and  tamarind,  thrive  on  a 


Supp.  Chap.]     WOODS  OF  NOETHERN  TEKRITORY.  175 

hard  clayey  or  iron-stone  soil,  within  a  few  yards  of  the  sea,  it 
may  not  be  unreasonable  to  infer  that  the  jungle  and  swamp 
might  be  speedily  reclaimed  and  made  to  yield,  under  the 
genial  tropical  influence  of  this  peculiar  clime,  productions  of 
great  commercial  value. 

NATIVE  WOODS. 

[TAw  Article  refers  particularly  to  Specimenit  of  Timler  fonuarded  to  the 

Philadelphia  Exhibition,'] 

The  coast  of  the  Northern  Territory  does  not  appear  to  be 
so  abundantly  furnished  with  useful  and  ornamental  woods  as 
some  other  of  the  Australian  Colonies ;  but  as  no  steps  have 
yet  been  taken  to  explore  the  country  for  timber,  it  would  be 
premature  to  speak  very  positively  on  the  subject.  In  starting 
to  make  a  collection  of  native  timber,  the  writer  has  been 
agreeably  surprised  at  the  variety  and  beauty  of  some  of  the 
specimens  he  has  met  with.  They  have  been  obtained  in 
haste,  and  do  not  represent  a  fiftieth  part  of  the  different  kinds 
growing  in  the  Territory;  allowance  must  also  be  made  for 
the  specimens  being  cut  from  the  growing  trees,  and  forwarded 
without  the  slightest  chance  of  "  seasoning." 

Notwithstanding  these  drawbacks,  some  of  the  samples 
will  be  found  well  worthy  of  examination,  particularly  the 
following : — 

No.  1.  Locally  called  "  paper  bark  " — is  one  of  the  most 
abundant  as  well  as  one  of  the  best  woods  in  the  Territory ; 
it  grows  to  a  diameter  of  three  to  four  feet,  and  is  admirably 
adapted  for  piles,  girders,  bed-plates  for  engines  and  stamping 
machinery,  ship's  knees,  and  heavy  carpentering  in  general. 
This  is  one  of  the  few  timbers  not  attacked  by  the  white  ant. 

No.  2.  Termed  "  iron  bark  " — is  an  excellent  wood,  very 
dense  and  durable;  might  be  used  in  many  cases  as  a  sub* 
stitute  for  lignum  vitse.  The  tree  grows  to  an  average  diameter 
of  eighteen  inches,  and  is  pretty  plentiful.  I  think  the  wood 
is  superior  to  the  iron  bark  of  the  Southern  and  Western 
Colonies  of  Australia,  and  it  is  certainly  handsomer  in  grain. 
It  is  proof  against  the  white  ant. 

No.  3.  Known  as  cypress  pine — is  an  excellent  timber,  well 


176  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA.  [Sdpp.  Chap. 

adapted  both  for  carpenter's  and  joiner's  work,  being  clean  in 
the  grain  and  easily  wrought.  The  tree  grows  to  a  diameter 
of  twelve  to  eighteen  inches,  and  is  rariely  touched  by  the 
ant  pest. 

No.  4.  Called  bloodwood — ^is  one  of  the  most  abundant  of 
the  useful  woods — ^both  it  and  paper  bark,  being  chiefly  used 
in  the  construction  of  bridges  on  the  road  to  the  goldfields.  It 
is  a  fine  sound  timber,  and  is  found  up  to  two  feet  six  inches 
in  diameter. 

No.  5.  Tecoma — is  worthy  of  special  examination  as  a 
handsome  wood  for  furniture,  resembling,  as  it  does,  the 
much  admired  tulip  wood  of  Queensland.  It  is  found  near 
Palmerston,  and  in  many  of  the  jungles.  The  bark  of  this 
tree  is  said  to  yield  valuable  tannin  matter  for  medical 
purposes. 

No.  6.  Termed  red  cedar — ^is  another  showy  furniture  wood, 
capable  of  being  successfully  introduced  in  decorative  work. 

No.  7.  Usually  called  cedar — is  a  furniture  wood,  suitable 
to  be  worked  in  with  No.  6. 

No.  8.  Called  milkwood,  from  the  fact  of  the  tree,  on  being 
tapped,  yielding  a  fluid  resembling  milk.  This  wood,  being 
easily  wrought,  is  adapted  for  many  kinds  of  cabinet  work. 

No.  9.  White  cedar.  The  texture  of  this  wood  is  very 
similar  to  pine ;  it  may,  therefore,  be  classed  as  a  useful  and 
inexpensive  timber. 

No.  10.  Blackwood.  This  timber  does  not  grow  to  a  very 
large  size,  the  trees  usually  met  with  not  exceeding  fifteen 
inches  in  diameter ;  it  is  a  sound  and  valuable  wood,  and,  for 
some  purposes,  a  not  inelegant  substitute  for  walnut. 

No.  11.  Banyan.  This  tree  yields  but  a  small  quantity 
of  straight  wood,  the  trunks  and  branches  being  always  greatly 
contorted.     It  might  be  tried  for  wood  engraving. 

No.  12.  Mangrove.  This  most  extraordinary  tree  forms  a 
dense  belt  of  vegetation  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  as 
well  as  on  the  sea  coast.  It  appears  to  flourish  under  tidal 
influence — its  numerous  roots  branching  from  the  trunk  above 
ground  and  appearing  as  resting  on  the  surface,  rather  than 
penetrating  the  soil.    There  are  many  varieties  of  this  timber. 


Sopp.  Chap.]  ACCLIMATIZED  VEGETATION.  177 

some  of  which  show  wood  of  great  beauty  in  the  variations 
of  colour,  those  being  apparently 'due  to  the  chemical  action  of 
the  sea  water  upon  the  fibrous  structure  of  the  timber,  and  not 
to  changes  of  tint  due  to  the  annular  growth  of  the  tree.  The 
bark  of  the  mangrove  is  valuable  for  tannin,  and  is  believed 
to  be  rich  in  potash,  but  I  have  not  yet  had  the  means  of 
testing  it.  It  also  yields  a  good  dye.  A  sample  of  the  bark 
is  exhibited,  to  which  the  attention  of  chemists  and  tanners  is 
particularly  invited. 

No.  13.  Called  cedar-a  good  useful  wood. 

No.  14.  A  rich  yellow  wood. 

No.  15.  Plum  tree. 

No.  16.  Eugene  apple ;  a  curiously  striped  wood. 

No.  17.  Called  lance  wood,  useful  for  boat-building. 

No.  18.  Satinwood,  a  bright  yellow  timber,  useful  for  fur- 
niture. 

No.  19.  Prickly  ash. 

No.  20.  Honeysuckle. 

No.  21.  Called  the  quinine  tree.  A  decoction  of  the  wood 
yields  a  strong  bitter,  said  to  be  good  in  cases  of  fever. 

No.  22.  Fan  Palm.  This  wood  is  prized  for  making  walk- 
ing-sticks, picture-frames,  &c. 

No.  23.  Wild  nutmeg  tree. 

No.  24.  Cabbage  Palm.  This  wood  is  much  sought  after 
for  making  walking-sticks,  billiard  cues,  and  the  like. 

No.  25.  Prickly  ash. 

No.  26.  He-oak. 

No.  27.  A  wood  plentiful  in  the  jungles. 

No.  28.  Bamboos  grow  to  a  diameter  of  four  or  five  inches, 
and  often  used  in  the  interim  for  making  houses.  Some  very 
pretty  cottages  have  been  built  entirely  (including  the  roof) 
of  bamboo. 

ACCLIMATIZED  VEGETATION. 

Nature  appears  to  have  bequeathed  to  Art  a  soil  and  climate 
capable  of  yielding,  under  proper  treatment,  a  prodigal  return 
for  skilled  cultivation.  Nearly  all  the  kinds  of  tropical  fruits 
ttnd  vegetables  which  have  been  fairly  tried  are  found  to  thrive 

N 


178  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Scpp.  Chap. 

and  flourish  in  these  latitudes.  The  plantain  and  banana  grow 
wherever  they  are  stuck  in  the  ground,  and  produce  excellent 
fruit.  A  number  of  cocoa-nut  trees  planted  three  or  four  years- 
ago  look  in  splendid  condition.  Pine-apples  of  delicious  flavour 
reach  maturity  with  great  rapidity  in  the  Government  Botanic- 
Garden.  The  "  custard  apple,"  also  known  as  "  sour  sop,"  and 
the  papaya  yield  most  delicious  fruit.  The  tamarind  tree- 
grows  well.  The  guava  thrives  also,  as  likewise  the  rosella. 
Splendid  specimens  of  the  mango  are  obtained  at  Port  Essing- 
ton.  The  lemon  and  orange  trees  in  the  Government  Garden 
are  growing  rapidly,  and  appear  to  take  kindly  to  the  soil  and 
climate.  In  vegetables,  the  melon  tribe  succeeds  admirably,, 
and  will  soon  grow  as  weeds  in  certain  favourable  localities. 
The  yam  and  sweet  potato  are  being  cultivated  with  great 
success.  Arrowroot  has  been  tried  on  a  small  scale,  and  thrives- 
exceedingly  well. 

Excellent  "  sugar  cane  '*  is  grown  at  the  Government  Gar-^ 
dens.  It  is  believed  that  the  tea  plant  would  thrive  well  in 
certain  districts,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  spices,  but  none^ 
have  yet  been  planted.  One  or  two  cotton  trees  in  the  grounds- 
of  the  Government  Kesident  have  yielded  excellent-looking 
staple.  "  Indian  com  "  has  been  sown  in  several  portions  of 
the  Territory,  and  from  the  success  which  has  attended  the- 
experiments  its  cultivation  will  soon  be  greatly  extended.  In 
provender  for  cattle,  the  couch  grass  thrives  in  a  wonderful 
manner,  and  is  eaten  with  avidity.  The  buffalo  grass  also- 
promises  to  grow  both  rapidly  and  well. 

The  few  fruits  and  vegetables  above  referred  to  afford  but 
a  faint  idea  of  what  is  capable  of  being  successfully  culti- 
vated, for,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  there  has  not  yet  been  any  ex- 
perimental  gardening  attempted  beyond  the  little  done  at  the 
Government  Botanical  Garden  and  in  the  grounds  of  Mr. 
Little,  the  Sub-Inspector  of  the  Telegraph.  However,  the 
trifling  amount  of  work  already  done  has  shown  such  excellent 
results  that  gardening  is  now  beginning  to  be  thought  of  in 
earnest.  Gardens  have  been  formed  on  the  principal  quarts^ 
mines  at  the  goldfields,  and  the  benefits  of  having  a  supply  of 
fresh  vegetables  are  being  manifested  in  the  improved  health 


Supp.  Chap.]        NATI\"E  ANIMALS  IN  N.  TERKITOEY.  179 

of  those  engaged  on  the  claims.  All  the  cultivation  np- 
country  is  being  performed  by  Chinese  Coolies — white  labour 
being  by  far  too  expensive  for  such  work. 

NATIVE  ANIMALS. 

The  ordinary  types  of  the  Australian  Fauna  are  found 
here.  The  irrepressible  kangaroo  and  emu,  bustard  (wild 
turkey) ;  the  pelican,  wild  goose,  and  duck,  teal,  widgeon, 
plover,  quail,  and  several  varieties  of  beautiful  pigeons,  king- 
fishers, black  and  white  cockatoos,  and  parrots,  are  met  with, 
and  plentiful  in  their  particular  haunts. 

The  waters  of  Port  Darwin  may  be  said  to  be  full  of  fish, 
but,  unfortunately  for  the  people,  they  are  very  diflScult  to 
catch  with  hook  and  line.  The  supply  of  the  local  market  is 
now  in  the  hands  of  one  or  two  Malay  boatmen,  who  frequently 
manage  to  net  in  the  course  of  an  hour  as  many  fish  as  they 
can  sell  for  £4  or  £5.  With  this  money  they  retire  to  enjoy 
themselves,  and  only  return  to  marine  pursuits  when  they 
require  fresh  funds,  leaving  the  townspeople  in  the  interval 
craving  for  this  kind  of  food,  so  suitable  for  a  hot  climate.  A 
steady  and  constant  fisherman,  properly  equipped,  would  soon 
realize  a  fortune  in  Port  Darwin.  Fine  large  turtle  are  often 
seen  in  the  harbour,  but  are  rarely  caught.  Oysters  of  excellent 
flavour  are  plentiful  at  Port  Essington,  where  an  establishment 
for  curing  tfepang  has  been  started  by  some  enterprising 
settlers. 

Snakes  are  not  so  frequently  met  with  in  the  Northern 
Territory  as  in  many  other  parts  of  Australia.  Those  of  the 
Python  kind  appear  to  be  the  most  numerous.  They  are  found 
sometimes  fifteen  feet  in  length,  and  are  very  fond  of  visiting 
hen-roosts.  The  writer  has  never  heard  of  any  fatal  case  of 
snake  poisoning. 

Crocodiles  abound  in  some  of  the  rivers,  especially  the 
Eoper  and  the  Adelaide ;  they  are  sometimes  seen  and  have 
also  been  felt  in  Port  Darwin  and  in  the  river  to  Southport. 
Some  small  specimens  are  exhibited  in  bottles,  and  also  the 

eggs. 

Centipedes,  big  spiders,  and  scorpions  are  sometimes  met 

K  2 


180  SOUTH  AUSTEALIA.  [Supp.  Chap. 

with  when  not  sought  for — chiefly  in  old  wooden  buildings. 
Cockroaches  and  crickets  are  pretty  plentiful  and  very  de- 
structive. However,  as  good  stone  buildings  with  cemented  or 
tile  floors  supersede  those  of  wood,  these  domestic  nuisances 
will  become  less  and  less.  Our  old  friend,  the  "  rodent,"  has 
not  neglected  visiting  the  Northern  Territory.  One  of  his 
favourite  nocturnal  pastimes  is  to  run  along  the  framing  of 
your  roof  and  tumble  on  the  sleeper  in  his  hammock. 

The  white  ant  pest  deserves  a  special  paragraph  ;  in 
appearance  it  is  fat  and  yellow,  about  the  size  of  the  gentles 
used  by  anglers — the  creature  is  rarely  seen  imless  unearthed, 
always  working  under  cover,  protecting  itself  by  a  shield  of 
glutinous  earth  as  a  shelter  from  the  attacks  of  its  constant 
enemy,  the  small  black  ant.  The  white  ant  appears  to  have 
a  wide  margin  for  taste — it  eats  through  almost  anything — 
leather,  wood,  tobacco,  soap,  books,  clothes, — nothing  short  of 
sheet-iron  will  arrest  its  ravages.  Ordinary  fir  or  pine,  or 
ordinary  hard  wood,  afford  this  ravenous  insect  a  special  feast, 
and  no  timber  except  cypress,  pine,  and  paper-bark,  iron-bark, 
bloodwood,  and  a  few  other  woods,  obtained  in  the  Northern 
Territory,  or  the  jairah  from  Western  Australia,  is  capable  of 
withstanding  its  attacks.  Some  specimens  of  ant-eaten  wood 
are  exhibited,  as  well  as  a  portion  of  the  ant-hill.  There  are 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  these  hills  in  the  Territory,  many 
being  upwards  of  25  feet  in  height,  and  6  feet  to  10  feet  in 
diameter.  They  are  very  strong,  resisting  the  heavy  pressure 
of  tropical  rains,  the  larger  ones  appearing  to  be  of  great  age 
— possibly  some  hundreds  of  years.  There  is  another  destruc- 
tive insect  called  the  "  borer,"  not  met  with  near  the  sea- 
coast,  but  very  active  and  mischievous  inland,  its  attacks 
being  chiefly  levelled  against  tiniber.  This  creature  is  about 
the  size  of  a  small  fly.  Its  head  is  armed  with  a  kind  of 
auger,  which  it  drives  with  great  force  against  the  wood  pro- 
posed to  be  attacked.  The  point  of  the  auger  is  inserted 
while  the  body  performs  a  series  of  rapid  revolutions,  perhaps 
a  thousand  in  a  minute,  and  thus  bores  a  hole  into  the  timber 
as  perfectly  as  could  be  executed  by  a  carpenter's  gimlet. 
On  a  still  night  the  noise  of  this  boring  operation  can  be  dis- 


Supp.  Chap.]      LIVE  STOCK  IN  NORTHERN  TERRITORY.         181 

tinctly  heard.  In  consequence  of  the  destruction  caused  to 
wooden  buildings  by  the  ravages  of  the  white  ant,  the  Govern- 
ment authorities  have  determined  on  erecting  all  future  struc- 
tures of  stone,  with  concrete  floors  faced  with  Portland  cement. 
Mosquitos  and  sandflies  are  very  troublesome,  especially  be- 
tween the  months  of  January  to  April,  and  mosquito  nets 
are  very  generally  used ;  the  best  material  for  this  purpose  is 
cheesecloth — muslin  not  being  strong  enough  to  stand  the 
wear  and  tear  to  which  they  are  liable.  These  nets  are  usually 
made  about  6  feet  6  inches  long,  and  3  feet  high,  with  a  strong 
calico  top  and  bottom — a  slit  being  made  along  the  centre  of  the 
bottom,  through  which  the  person  enters,  and  as  the  body 
covers  the  opening  thus  made,  the  curtain  is  proof  against  the 
inroads  of  all  insects ;  it  is  like  getting  into  a  cage,  and  placing 
your  back  against  the  door.  Travellers  in  the  bush  usually 
have  a  fly,  i.e,  a  light  awning,  nine  or  ten  feet  square,  over 
their  curtains,  to  keep  oflf  the  night  dew,  and  with  this  arrange- 
ment over  a  hammock,  slung  between  two  trees,  enjoy  the  most 
healthy  and  undisturbed  repose.  The  writer  has  been  nearly 
as  much  troubled  with  mosquitos  in  South  Australia,  Victoria, 
and  New  South  Wales,  as  in  the  Northern  Territory,  but  not 
for  so  many  months  in  the  year. 

LIVE   STOCK. 

The  buffalo  appears  to  thrive  well  in  the  Northern  Territory ; 
large  herds  are  met  with  on  Melville  Island,  thirty-five  miles 
from  Port  Darwin.  At  Port  Essington  they  are  so  numerous, 
together  with  Timor  ponies,  that  large  tracts  of  country  (over 
1200  square  miles)  have  lately  been  taken  up  under  lease  by 
Messrs.  Lewis,  Levi,  and  Way  for  the  purpose  of  collecting 
these  wild  possessions  of  the  soil,  to  supply  the  market  at 
Port  Darwin.   It  is  also  intended  to  form  a  cattle  station  there. 

Imported  homed  cattle  fatten  well;  a  herd  of  bullocks, 
brought  over  from  Queensland  by  Mr.  de  Lautour,  were  in 
splendid  condition,  which  was  further  improved  by  grazing  for 
a  time  at  Knuckey's  Lagoon,  thirteen  miles  from  Palmerston. 
The  sheep  driven  from  Queensland  to  the  inland  stations  of 
the  Telegraph  Department  thrive  well,  but  do  not  appear  to 


182  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Supp.  Chap. 

pet  on  so  favourably  near  the  sea-coast.  The  Saxon  merino 
sheep  seem  to  take  more  kindly  to  the  pasturage,  and  will  pro- 
bably be  selected  as  the  sort  best  fitted  to  the  Territory.  A 
solitary  deer  brought  from  Timor  became  quite  fat,  when  it 
was  sacrificed  to  the  demand  for  fresh  meat.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  some  deer  will  be  introduced  and  set  loose  for  the  benefit 
of  the  sportsmen,  as  well  as  for  the  purposes  of  trade. 

■ 

BUILDING  MATERIALS. 

The  woods  having  been  already  referred  to,  a  few  words 
may  be  devoted  to  some  other  of  the  materials  used  in  building. 

Orantte  is  met  with  in  immense  masses  at  the  Finniss 
Eiver,  forty-six  miles  from  Palmerston,  and  over  hundreds  of 
square  miles  beyond. 

Sandstone  is  abundant,  especially  along  the  coast;  the 
town  of  Palmerston  rests  on  a  bed  of  this  material,  which 
appears  to  consist  of  a  fine  loamy  sand  or  marl,  hardened  by 
pressure  and  chemical  action,  and  interspersed  with  nimierous 
fossil  impressions.  Fossils  are  very  rarely  met  with;  the 
samples  marked  A  show  two  or.  three,  which  are  -all  that  could 
be  found  after  a  good  deal  of  searching.  The  stone  makes  ex- 
cellent rubble  masonry,  but  is  too  full  of  shakes  and  veins  to 
admit  of  its  being  wrought  into  large  ashlar.  The  harder  seams 
yield  fair  road  metal. 

Clays. — Fine  micaceous  clays  of  a  marly  character,  both 
white  and  yellow,  are  readily  found.  These  days,  when  mixed 
with  ironstone  sand,  make  excellent  bricks,  and  will  no  doubt 
be  largely  used  when  the  real  City  of  Palmeraton  begins  to  be 
erected. 

Lime, — No  limestone  has  yet  been  met  with  in  the  settled 
districts,  and,  so  far  as  a  superficial  examination  of  out-cropping 
strata  enables  one  to  judge,  it  is  not  likely  to  be  found.  In  the 
absence  of  limestone.  Nature  has  provided  some  large  deposits 
of  shells  close  to  the  town,  from  which  excellent  lime  is  made. 

Sand. — After  several  experiments  made  by  the  writer  of 
drift  and  pit  sands,  it  has  been  found  that  the  dark-coloured 
ironstone  detritus  with  lime  makes  the  best  setting  mortar.  A 
fair  substitute  for  lime  mortar  is  found  in  the  earth  of  which 


Supp.  Chap.]        THE  TOWNSHIP  OF  PALMERSTON.  183 

the  ant-hills  are  formed,  the  ant  producing  a  glutinous  sub- 
stance to  bind  the  earthy  particles  together.  This  material, 
when  moistened  and  beaten  up,  makes  an  excellent  floor,  and 
-answers  for  bedding  brick  or  stone. 

Bark, — ^Rough  buildings  and  settlers'  huts  are  usually 
Toofed  with  bark,  which  is  cut  and  brought  in  by  the  blacks. 
This  bark  makes  a  cool  and  weather-proof  roof  for  two  or  three 
years,  but  looks  rough  and  unsightly.  The  better  class  of 
buildings  are  covered  with  galvanized  corrugated  iron,  No.  26 
gauge,  which,  when  coated  with  white  on  the  outside,  is  found 
to  be  the  best  kind  of  roofing. 

The  new  settler  can  readily  make  for  himself  a  comfortable 
log-hut  by  using  upright  poles  about  six  inches  diameter,  two 
feet  in  the  ground  and  ten  feet  above,  and  covered  with  a  roof 
•of  bark. 

PALMERSTON. 

The  township  of  Palmerston  is  well  ^elected  on  the  margin 
of  Port  Darwin.  A  plan  of  the  town  shows  that  it  occupies 
-an  area  of  about  800  acres,  including  roads  and  reserves,  and 
embraces  946  allotments,  each  being  half  an  acre.  The  prin- 
•cipal  buildings  are  the  Government  Residence,  the  offices  of 
the  British-Australian  Telegraph  Company,  the  offices  of  the 
South  Australian  Overland  Telegraph,  and  residences  for  the 
officers,  the  new  Police  Station  and  Gaol,  the  Government 
Offices,  Local  Court  House,  and  residence  of  Colonial  Surgeon, 
the  Palmerston  Hospital.  Several  of  the  Government  officers 
liave  quarters  in  a  place  called  the  Camp,  at  the  foot  of  Fort 
Hill.  The  principal  stores  are  those  belonging  to  Mr.  Lindsay, 
Mr.  Adcock,  Mr.  Allen,  and  Mr.  Skelton.  A  large  auction 
joom  is  established  by  Messrs.  Cohen  and  Solomon.  The  only 
bank  is  a  branch  of  the  English,  Scottish,  and  Australian 
Ohartored  Bank. 

The  geographical  situation  of  Port  Darwin  is  superior  to 
that  of  Singapore  or  Macassar  for  trading  with  the  neighbour- 
ing islands,  as  vessels  can  sail  to  the  northern  groups  either  in 
the  east  or  west  monsoons,  whereas  in  the  case  of  Singapore 
or  Macassar  the  proas  can  only  visit  them  once  in  the  course  of 
.a  year.    Many  of  the  islands  within  a  week  or  two's  sailing 


1 84  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Supp.  Chap. 

<lLstance  from  Port  Darwin  contain  large  and  intelligent  popu- 
lations ready  to  trade  with  English  Colonies  in  preference  to 
the  Dutch.  Valuable  products,  such  as  tortoiseshell,  pearl- 
shell,  trepang,  nutmegs,  palm  wine,  &c.,  are  obtainable  from 
these  places,  as  well  as  valuable  and  cheap  labour  of  the  kind 
so  much  needed  in  the  Northern  Territory. 

The  wages  paid  to  mechanics  in  Palmerston  are  15«.  per 
day,  labourers  10«. ;  those  working  up  the  country  receive 
higher  rates ;  good  working  miners  on  the  goldfields  are  paid 
£3  per  week,  with  their  board,  or  £4  10s.  per  week  without 
board.  A  few  steady  domestic  servants  would  find  ready 
engagements  at  £1  per  week  or  more. 

The  charge  made  for  board  and  lodging  at  the  hotels  is 
338,  per  week.    Of  course  where  two  or  three  live  together, 
and  cater   for  themselves,  the  cost  is  less  than  the  above 
amount.    The  following  are  about  the  average  prices  of  pro- 
visions : — ^Fresh  meat  per  lb.,  l8.  3d. ;  bread  the  2  lb.  loaf, 
9d. ;  preserved  meat  in  tins,  per  lb.,  Is, ;   fresh  potatoes  per 
cwt.,  £1  5«. ;  fresh  onions  per  lb.,  9d.  to  Is,;  flour  per  cwt., 
£1  6s.    Few  people  pay  rent,  mostly  living  in  tents,  huts,  or 
houses  built  by  themselves.   A  good  deal  of  domestic  drudgery 
is  saved  by  the  labour  of  the  aborigines,  who  cut  wood,  carry 
water,  and  wash  clothes,  in  return  for  which  they  receive  a 
little  flour,  and  the  scraps  from  the  table.     The  foregoing 
plain  and  unvarnished  facts  and  figures  are  submitted  alike 
for  the  information  of  the  capitalist  and  the  working  classes. 
To  the  former  it  is  suggested  that  there  are  few  places  in  the 
world  which  offer  land  capable  of  yielding  all  kinds  of  tropical 
and  subtropical  products  so  readily  and  on  such  advantageous 
terms  as  this  Northern  Territory  of  South  Australia ;  and  with 
regard  to  its  resources  in  gold,  there  is  an  immense  area  known 
to  be  auriferous,  in  which  hundreds  of  quartz  reefs  have  already 
been  found,  many  of  them  having  been  proved,  even  by  in- 
adequate machinery  and  too  costly  labour,  to  be  remunerative. 
To  the  latter,  if  belonging  to  the  really  industrious  classes, 
it  may  be  said  that  no  man  able  and  willing  to  do  a  fair  day's 
work  for  good  wages  is  likely  to  remain  unemployed. 

To    another — unfortunately    too    numerous — class,   which 


Supp.  Chap.]        CONCHOLOGY  OF  PORT  DARWIN.  183 

includes  neither  the  capitalist,  the  trader,  nor  the  bond  fide 
working  man,  the  earnest  advice  of  the  compiler  of  this  sketch 
is — stay  away.  As  to  the  climate,  the  writer  with  his  son 
have  been  two  years  in  the  Territory,  and  have  never  had  an 
hour's  sickness. 

CONCHOLOGY  OF  PORT  DARWIN. 
By  W.  T.  Bednall,  Esq. 

The  northern  coast  of  Australia  forms  the  southern  boundary 
of  the  Indo-Pacific  molluscan  province,  and  Port  Darwin  is 
situated  about  the  centre  of  it — having  New  Guinea  to  the 
north-east,  and  the  islands  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago  to  the 
north  and  north-west.  The  harbour  of  Port  Darwin  was  visited 
by  King  in  his  survey  of  the  north  coast  in  1818  to  1822, 
with  whom  sailed  the  now  celebrated  Dr.  Darwin,  after  whom 
the  Port  has  been  named.  It  is  a  splendid,  deep,  and  tranquil 
harbour,  and  would,  no  doubt,  if  the  dredge  were  used,  yield 
a  splendid  harvest  to  the  naturalist.  There  are  many  reefs  in 
it,  which  are  left  uncovered  at  low  water.  The  coast  line  is 
formed  of  high  cliffs,  and  large  masses  of  broken  rocks  and 
immense  boulders,  alternating  with  of  patches  sandy  beach — 
tropical  vegetation  luxuriantly  growing  to  the  water's  edge ; 
and  in  the  indented  arms  it  is  thickly  fringed  with  the  man- 
grove. The  molluscan  fauna  of  this  (natural)  province  are 
mostly  camivOTOus,  the  vegetable  feeders  being  very  poorly 
represented — probably  owing  to  the  absence  of  any  large 
extent  of  seaweed. 

The  pearly  nautilus  is  found  outside  the  heads.  The 
genus  Murex  is  well  represented,  including  the  beautiful  M, 
inonodon ;  so  also  is  FusuSy  by  a  giant  species — probably  F. 
colo88eu8  (Lk.) ;  the  lovely  Scalaria  pretiosa  is  also  occasionally 
taken  here ;  and  the  pearl  oyster  occurs  too,  but  has  not  yet 
been  found  in  large  quantity — the  specimens  taken,  however, 
are  very  fine.  The  mangrove  swamps  are  the  home  of  Cfen- 
tliium  telescopium,  Pyrazvs  palvMre  and  sulcatum,  Cerithidea 
Kieneri,  AuricvUa  auris-judw,  Cassidula  angvliferay  a  species  of 
Placuna,  &c.  &c. 

The  following  genera    occur    in   Port  Darwin : — Murex, 


186  .  SOUTH  AUSTKALL\.  [Sdpp.  Chap. 

Trophon,  Fums,  PugUinaj  Pleurotoma,  Triton,  RaneUa,  Buc- 
cinum,  Nassa,  Purpura,  Ancillaria,  Fasciolarta,  TurhineHa, 
VoliUa,  Melo,  Miira,  ColumheUa,  Cassis,  Bolium,  Naiica,  Ruma  (?), 
Scalaria,  Terebra,  Solarium,  Conus,  Strombus,  OypraBa,  Volvuy 
Cerithium,  Vertagus,  Pyrazus,  Ceriihidea,  Littorina,  Planaxis, 
TurriteUa,  Vennetus,  SUiquaria,  Onustrus,  Calyptrma,  Nerita, 
Turbo,  Trochus,  Delphinula,  Polydonta,  Clanculus,  Monodonta, 
Euchelus,  Monilea,  Stomatia,  Haliotris,  FissureUa,  Emarginula, 
Parmaphorus,  Dentalium,  Patella,  Chiton,  Pholas,  Solen,  Cul- 
ieUus,  Saxicava,  Corbvla,  Anatina,  Madra,  Psammobia,  TeUina, 
TeUineUa,  Donax,  Venus,  Chione,  Cytherea,  Circe,  Cardium, 
Hemicardium,  Chama,  Lucina,  Pythina,  Cardita,  Mytilus,  Modis- 
laria,  Lithodomus,  Meleagrina,  Pema,  Malleus,  Pinna,  Area, 
Pecten,  Spondylus,  Plaeunanomia,  Placuna,  Vulsella,  and  Ostrea. 
The  following  species  are  common  to  Ceylon  and  Port 
'  Darwin  : — Psammobia  cserulescens,  Tellina  (Phylloda)  foliacea, 
Cytherea  gibbia,  Venus  corbis,  Cardium  rugosum,  Meleagrina 
margaritifera  (the  pearl  oyster),  Pecten  pleuronectes,  Delphinula 
laciniata,  Monodonta  lahis,  Turbo  versicolor,  Pyrazus  palustre, 
Cerithium  telescopium,  and  Cyprma  tigris.  Three  species  of 
land  shells  are  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Port  Darwin — 
Hdix  pomum  (Fer.) ;  a  brown,  homy  species  of  the  same  type 
as  H.  Orayi ;  and  H.  pseudo-Meadei  (Brazier),  intennediate 
between  H.  Pomum  and  H,  Meadei  (H.  Eduxirdsi,  Cox.),  a 
Queensland  species :  it  differs  from  H,  pomum,  in  the  surface 
of  the  columellar  margin,  in  being  stippled  like  the  surface  of 
a  thimble — and  from  H.  Meadei  in  colour.  The  fresh- water 
species  comprise  Paludina,  Lymnea,  Physa,  Cyclas,  and  Unio, 

Altogether  the  moUuscan  fauna  obtained  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  Port  Darwin  is  of  a  very  interesting  charac- 
ter ;  comprising  many  shells  worthy  of  our  notice  from  their 
beautiful  and  curious  forms,  and  also  their  rarity  in  the  cabinet 
of  the  collector. 


Add.  Chap.]  CENTRAL  AUSTRALIA.  187 


ADDITIONAL  CHAPTER 


CENTRAL  AUSTRALIA. 


Mr.  J.  A.  Giles's  Paper  on  Central  *Australia  —  Description  of  Country  along 
Telegraph  Line  —  Pine  Creek  —  Telegraph  Stations  at  Katherine  River, 
Daly  Waters,  Powell's  Creek,  Tennant's  Creek,  Barrow  Creek,  Alice 
Springs,  Charlotte  Waters  —  The  MacDonnell  Ranges  —  Natives  along 
Route — Supply  of  Water. 

Since  the  foregoing  was  in  type,  the  following  interesting  and 
well-written  account  of  Central  Australia,  along  the  line  of 
telegraph,  has  appeared  in  the  Register,  The  writer,  Mr. 
J.  A.  Giles,  is  well  acquainted  with  the  whole  of  the  country 
which  he  describes.  It  is  the  best  and  most  trustworthy  ac- 
count of  Central  Australia  which  has  yet  been  published,  and 
I  gladly  transfer  it  to  these  pages.  It  will  be  seen  that  Cen- 
tral Australia  is  by  no  means  the  barren  desert  which  it  was, 
and  is,  supposed  to  be.  There  is  an  immense  tract  of  country, 
with  good  feed  for  cattle,  and  water  to  be  depended  on,  over 
almost  the  whole  of  the  line.  The  description  of  the  several 
telegraph  stations  is  worth  reading.  With  these  few  prefatory 
remarks,  I  now  reprint  Mr.  Giles's  interesting  and  instructive 
paper : — 

"  The  country  from  Palmerston  to  the  reefs  at  Pine  Creek 
has  been  so  often  described  that  repetition  would  be  simply 
tedious,  and  as  Pine  Creek  is  the  last  settlement  south  of  Pal- 
merston on  the  overland  route,  it  will  suffice  to  take  that 
locality  as  a  starting-point.  A  description  of  the  coimtry, 
with  the  waters  and  distances,  may  not  be  only  interesting,  but 
of  material  service  to  those  likely  to  undertake  the  journey. 

"  Starting  from  Pine  Creek,  the  first  water  is  at  *  Stuck-up 


188  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA.  [Add.  Chap. 

Camp/  four  miles  distant,  the  road  passing  through  low  slate 
hills,  with  numerous  quartz  reefs.  The  hills  are  lightly  tim- 
bered with  gum,  bloodwood,  and  other  trees,  and  tolerably 
well  grassed.  *  Stuck-up  Camp,'  so  called  by  the  telegraph 
party,  they  having  been  detained  there  by  the  wet  season,  is 
on  the  head  of  the  CuUen  Kiver.  There  is  a  fine  hole  of  per- 
manent water  here,  and  the  road  to  the  CuUen  Crossing,  nine 
miles  off,  is  through  a  granite  country,  with  low  timbered  rises, 
and  broad,  open,  and  well-grassed  flats  between.  There  is 
plenty  of  permanent  water  at  the  crossing,  where  the  river  is  a 
deep  sandy  channel.  On  the  south  side  open  and  well-grassed 
country  extends  to  a  distance  of  eight  miles  to  the  Fergusson 
River.  The  route  is  also  marked  by  the  same  characteristics. 
The  Fergusson  is  a  broad  -and  deep  river,  running  for  several 
months  in  the  year.  Plenty  of  water  is  to  be  obtained  in  the 
driest  seasons,  and  the  surrounding  land  is  good.  The  stream, 
after  meeting  the  CuUen  about  eight  miles  to  the  westward, 
joins  the  Katherine  River,  about  forty  miles  further  to  the 
south-west.  From  the  Fergusson  Crossing  to  DriflSeld's  Creek, 
four  miles  away,  the  road  passes  over  slate  and  quartz  hills, 
splendidly  grassed  and  timbered  with  gums,  stringybark, 
bloodwood,  and  other  trees.  The  DriflSeld  is  a  tributary  of 
the  Fergusson,  with  a  deep  sandy  bed,  and  some  good  water- 
holes  above  the  crossing.  From  here  to  the  Edith  River,  ten 
miles  on,  the  road  passes  through  another  hilly  region  of  slate, 
quartz,  and  ironstone,  thickly  timbered  in  places,  and  well 
grassed. 

"  The.  Edith  is  a  small  stream  flowing  to  the  west,  and 
running  throughout  the  year.  There  are  fine  paper-barks, 
gums,  and  palms  growing  along  the  banks ;  the  surrounding 
country  being  hilly,  open,  and  splendidly  grassed,  with  black- 
soil  flats  along  the  river.  The  locality  is  similar  for  the  next 
four  miles  to  the  Phillips  Creek,  a  tributary  of  the  Edith. 
Here  the  land  changes,  becoming  very  stony,  with  high  broken 
ranges  of  slate,  quartz,  ironstone,  and  trap  rock.  This  con- 
tinues for  about  three  miles,  and  then  come  very  rough  broken 
hills  covered  with  honeycombed  boulders  of  basaltic  rock. 
The  road  winds  through  these,  ascending  gradually  for  about 


Add.  Chap.]  KATHEKINE  STATION.  189 

three  miles  to  the  top  of  the  tableland,  from  which  the  country 
has  a  gradual  fall  to  the  Katherine  Kiver,  a  distance  of  twenty 
miles.  '  Bay  of  Biscay '  Plains,  covered  with  quartz,  ironstone, 
agate,  and  flint  pebbles,  are  now  met  with,  and  the  soil  gra- 
dually becomes  richer  towards  the  Katherine,  the  hills  being 
capped  with  immense  masses  of  blue  limestone,  and  here  and 
there  are  huge  isolated  rocks  of  sandstone.  The  soil  is  a  rich 
chocolate  loam,  magnificently  grassed  and  lightly  timbered, 
while  nearer  the  Katherine  are  flats  of  rich  black  soil. 

"  The  Katherine  Kiver  is,  at  the  crossing,  about  500  yards 
broad,  from  cliff  to  cliff,  and  90  to  100  feet  in  depth.  The 
stream  itself  is,  at  the  driest  time  of  the  year,  about  150  feet 
wide,  and  has  an  average  depth  at  the  fording-place  of  2^  feet. 
This  is  at  the  driest  time  of  the  year,  but  during  the  wet  season 
the  water  often  rises  to  within  a  few  feet  of  the  tops  of  the 
cliffs.  From  what  I  know  of  this  river,  and  from  information 
obtained  from  others  who  have  lived  for  some  time  on  it,  I  am 
strongly  of  opinion  that  it  will,  when  explored,  be  found 
navigable,  at  a  moderate  flood,  to  the  Telegraph  Station. 
Should  it  be  so,  it  will  save  200  miles  of  land  carriage.  The 
land  on  either  side  is  magnificent,  consisting  of  rich  black 
loam,  chocolate,  and  brown  clay,  with  lighter  soils,  all  splen- 
didly grassed  and  timbered.  From  the  Katherine  Station  the 
road  passes  through  similar  country  to  that  on  the  northern 
bank,  but  with  more  limestone,  which  is  piled  up  in  the  most 
singular  manner,  forming  pillars,  arches,  and  passages.  All 
this  limestone  country  is  full  of  caves.  At  12  miles  from  the 
Katherine  the  road  enters  a  sandy  tableland,  well  grassed,  and 
heavily  timbered  with  gums,  bloodwood,  ironbark,  &c.,  with 
here  and  there  belts  of  large  pines.  It  is  about  six  miles 
across  this  tableland,  from  which  the  road  descends  into  heavy 
forest  country,  well  grassed.  At  four  miles  the  country  changes 
to  thick  ragged  scrub,  scantily  grassed.  The  soil  is  of  a  light 
description,  covered  with  small  brown  ironstone  gravel.  This 
extends  to  the  King  Creek — three  miles.  This  creek  rises  in 
the  rough  hills  to  the  eastward,  and  flows  to  the  westward,  and 
is  permanently  watered.    At  the  crossing  the  country  is  poor 


190  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Add.  Chap. 

and  scrubby,  but  a  few  miles  down  the  creek  are  fine  open  blue- 
grassed  plains,  with  fine  lagoons. 

"  From  this  creek  to  Abraham's  Lagoon,  a  distance  of  40 
miles,  the  road  passes  through  alternate  patches  of  good  and 
inferior  country,  crossing  three  creeks.     The  Roper  Creek  is 
three  miles  from  the  King,  the  Gum  Billabongs  14,  and  thence 
to  the  Stirling  the  distance  is  15  miles.     None  of  these  creeks 
contain  permsment  water.   Abraham's  Billabongs  are  long  deep 
ponds,  in  heavy  paper-bark  and  gum  forests,  and  are  permanent, 
and  well  stocked  with  several  kinds  of  fish,  including  black  cod, 
catfish,  and  a  small  white  fish.     There  is  a  splendid  black  soil 
all  along  these  lagoons.     Three  miles  from  here  is  the  Bitter 
Spring,  close  to  the  road,  in  a  small  hollow  on  the  banks  of  the 
Roper  River.    An  immense  volume  of  water  issues  from  under, 
a  ledge  of  limestone  rock,  and  the  water  is  of  a  slightly  bitter 
and  sweet  taste.     It  is  a  dangerous  place  to  water  stock.     The 
channel  is  only  about  three  feet  wide,  and  of  great  depth,  with 
a  thick  growth  of  corkscrew  palms  overhanging.     There  is  a 
small  extent  of  open  well-grassed  plains  on  the  west  side  of 
the  road.     To  the  east,  about  200  yards  distant,  is  one  of  the 
branches  of  the  Upper  Roper,  rendered  conspicuous  by  the 
lofty  and  dense  mass  of  vegetation  growing  along  the  banks, 
consisting  of  gigantic  paper-barks,  gums,  corkscrew  palms,  and 
in  places  the  tall  stately  fan  palm,  which  here  grows  to  the 
height  of  60  feet.    At  Bitter  Spring  the  road  branches  into 
two,  the  left  hand  track  following  the  river  to   the  Ropet' 
Depot,  and  the  Leichardt's  Bar,  130  miles,  the  overland  tn^t 
turning  off  to  the  right,  to  the  Warlock  Ponds  on  the  Upper 
Elsie,  12  miles,  through  rather  sandy  and  heavy  timbered 
country,  well-grassed. 

"  The  Warlock  Ponds,  in  the  Elsie  Valley,  are  large  deep 
ponds  of  permanent  water  from  two  to  three  hundred  yards  long 
and  from  eighty  to  a  hundred  yards  broad  in  the  dry  season. 
In  the  wet  Reason,  and  for  a  month  or  two  after,  the  valley 
is  full,  and  is  two  hundred  yards  broad  and  about  three  to  four 
feet  deep.  Some  few  miles  down  the  Elsie  are  vast  paper- 
bark  swamps,  the  sources  of  the  Elsie  proper,  which  is  a  strong 


Add.  Chap.]  DALY  WATERS  STATION.  191 

running  stream.  At  the  lower  crossing  on  the  Eoper  road  the 
bed  is  composed  of  minute  white  shells  of  a  great  depth,  and  is 
worse  to  cross  than  a  quicksand.  From  the  Warlock  Ponds 
the  road  crosses  undulating  country  for  25  miles  to  the  Birdum 
Creek,  timbered  with  stringybark,  gum,  bloodwood,  ironbark, 
and  other  trees.  The  Birdum  Creek  is  in  a  broad  shallow 
valley,  rising  at  Stuart's  Swamp  and  Daly  Waters,  and  run- 
ning north  to  the  Elsie,  a  distance  of  from  95  to  100  miles. 
There  are  plenty  of  fine  clay  waterholes  all  the  way,  but  none 
are  permanent.  In  the  wet  season  the  whole  valley,  which  is 
from  half  a  mile  to  three  or  four  miles  broad,  is  inundated.  It 
is  timbered  with  box  and  gutta-percha  trees,  and  covered  with 
a  thick  growth  of  blue  grass.  About  20  miles  from  the  Daly 
it  is  covered  with  wild  rice,  which  grows  to  the  height  of  seven 
or  eight  feet,  and  bears  a  grain  a  little  smaller  than  the  com- 
mon rice,  and  with  a  black  husk.  On  either  side  of  the  valley 
the  country  is  undulating,  and  in  some  places  sandy,  with 
thick  clumps  of  trees  and  shrubs  interlaced  with  creepers  and 
vines.  The  ebony  tree  is  first  met  with  here,  and  towards  the 
Daly  dense  belts  of  hedge  trees  and  open  forast  country  weU- 
grassed  are  met  with.  The  road  from  the  Elsie,  after  striking 
the  Birdum,  follows  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  valley  for 
about  70  miles,  then  crossing  it  and  following  the  western 
bank  for  20  miles  to  Daly  Waters  Telegraph  Station,  which  is 
situated  on  the  Daly  Creek  at  Stuart's  Camp.  The  station  is 
a  strong  wooden  building  of  sawn  slabs  of  bloodwood  and 
ironbark,  roofed  with  galvanized  iron,  and  contains  officers* 
quarters,  office,  store,  and  kitchen.  There  is  also  a  large  iron 
store  used  for  the  telegraph  construction  stores.  In  front  of 
the  building  is  a  securely  fenced  garden  well  stocked  with 
sweet  potatoes,  Timor  pears,  bananas,  pine-apples,  lettuces, 
radishes,  beans,  &c.,  and  a  tamarind  tree,  grown  from  seed 
planted  in  1872  by  Mr.  E.  C.  Burton.  It  is  now  about  ten 
feet  high.  There  is  also  a  well-grassed  paddock,  a  mile 
square,  enclosed  by  a  wire  fence.  The  stock  at  this  station 
consists  of  horses,  cows,  sheep,  and  goats,  all  of  which  do 
remarkably  well,  and  are  in  splendid  condition.  The  region 
round  the  station  is  open  forest,  splendidly  grassed.    A  road 


192  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Add.  Chap. 

goes  from  here  to  Leichardt's  Bar,  on  the  Roper  River.  From 
Daly  Waters  to  Frew's  Ironstone  Pond,  a  stretch  of  50  miles, 
the  route  passes  through  alternate  patches  of  open  forest  land, 
well  grassed,  and  dense  hedge-tree  and  mulga  scrubs.  The 
usual  halting-places  on  the  journey  are  McGrorrorey's  Pond, 
14  miles  on  Auld's  Pond,  three  miles  further  Millner's  Lagoon, 
another  14  miles  then  Johnston's  Lagoon  (12  miles  distant), 
and  next  on  eight  miles  to  Frew's  Pond.  None  of  these 
waters,  however,  are  permanent. 

"  Frew's  Pond  is  a  circular  basin,  about  300  yards  in  cir- 
cumference, with  a  depth  of  about  twenty  feet  for  a  third  of 
the  circumference  on  the  west  side,  where  the  bank  slopes 
gradually  into  the  water.  On  the  other  side  are  perpendicular 
walls  of  conglomerate  ironstone.  When  full,  the  pond  is  a  fine 
one,  but  as  the  water  gets  low,  it  becomes  almost  undrinkable 
in  consequence  of  the  thousands  of  divers  and  cormorants 
which  frequent  it.  There  are  some  splendid  sturdy  old  box 
trees  growing  round,  and  the  ground  is  covered  with  a  thick 
short  green  grass  like  a  carpet,  making  it  one  of  the  prettiest 
and  best  camps  on  the  road.  To  the  east  the  country  is 
scrubby,  and  to  the  west  and  south  are  open  plains  of  black 
*  Bay  of  Biscay,'  subject  to  inundation.  The  drainage  is  all  to 
the  westward.  Four  miles  firom  Frew's  Pond  the  road  enters 
Sturt's  Plains,  crossing  it  in  seventeen  miles.  To  the  east  the 
forest  runs  parallel  to  the  road  at  a  distance  of  about  six 
miles,  but  on  the  west  not  a  tree  is  to  be  seen  as  far  as  the  eye 
can  reach,  until  the  traveller  is  about  halfway  over,  when  a 
point  of  forest  appears  in  the  distance.  This  plain  is  entirely 
composed  of  black  soil,  and  during  the  wet  season  is  com- 
pletely under  water  to  a  depth  of  a  foot,  with  a  very  gradual 
flow  to  the  westward.  After  the  water  has  drained  oflF,  the 
herbage  and  grass  is  most  luxuriant. 

"  The  plains  having  been  crossed,  belts  of  hedge  tree  with 
fine  open  stretches  of  land  are  met  with  for  seven  miles  to  the 
north,  when  the  Newcastle  Waters  are  reached.  This  water- 
course rises  to  the  eastward  of  the  Ashburton  Range,  comes 
close  round  to  the  north  end,  flows  south  for  thirty-five  miles, 
and  finally  empties  itself  into  Lake  Woods.    Along  the  whole 


Add.  Chap.]  POWELL'S  CREEK  STATION.  193 

of  its  course  tkere  are  magnificent  reaches  of  permanent  water, 
varying  in  length  from  one  to  two  miles  and  from  100  to  200 
yards  in  breadth,  with  broad,  open,  and  gently  sloping  banks 
covered  with  a  short  green  grass.  There  are  thousands  of 
pelicans,  ducks,  geese,  and  immense  numbers  of  cormorants 
in  the  vicinity.  The  district  is  also  thickly  populated  with 
natives,  who  have  always  shown  a  hostile  feeling  to  the 
whites.  They  are  a  fine  race,  tall  and  well-made,  with  faces 
free  from  beard  or  moustache — a  peculiarity  observable  in  all 
the  tribes  from  the  north  coast  to  the  MacDonnell  Eanges. 
The  Ashburton  Eange  runs  parallel  to  the  Newcastle  the 
whole  way,  and  is  from  two  to  four  miles  distant  from  it, 
the  road  going  between  the  two,  through  splendidly  grassed 
country.  The  range  is  rough  and  stony,  composed  of  a  hard 
white  sandstone.  The  camping-places  along  here  are  the 
North  Newcastle  Reach,  thence  nine  miles  to  the  Express 
Reach,  twelve  miles  to  the  South-East  Bend,  and  ten  miles 
to  the  South  Newcastle  Reach.  From  the  South  Newcastle  to 
the  Lawson  Creek  is  six  miles.  The  creek  rises  in  the  Ash- 
burton Range,  and  flows  to  the  west  into  Lake  Woods,  which 
is  about  two  miles  from  the  crossing  of  the  creek.  There  is  no 
permanent  water  at  the  crossing,  but  about  a  mile  and  a  half 
up  the  creek  in  the  range  is  a  fine  spring.  There  is  good  land 
on  both  sides.  From  here  to  the  Fergusson  Creek,  twelve 
miles  oflf,  the  route  passes  over  good  country,  lightly  timbered 
and  well  grassed,  and  skirting  the  foot  of  the  range.  The 
Fergusson  is  a  large  deep  creek  rising  in  the  range,  and 
emptying  into  Lake  Woods.  It  has  some  fine  waterholes  and 
several  springs  in  the  range,  and  is  surrounded  by  splendidly 
grassed  valleys  and  flats. 

"  From  the  Fergusson  Crossing  to  Powell's  Creek  Station 
is  fourteen  miles,  the  intermediate  territory  being  patchy. 
The  way  leads  through  the  ranges,  and  a  short  distance  to  the 
westward  good  land  opens  out  into  extensive  well-grassed 
plains.  The  station  on  the  Powell's  Creek  is  a  fine  substantial 
stone  building,  roofed  with  galvanized  iron.  There  is  a  fine 
spring  of  good  water  within  fifty  yards  of  the  station.  On  the 
east  and  south  sides  are  high  rocky  hills,  with  a  valley  to  the 

o 


194  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Add.  Chap. 

south-east,  through  which  the  creek,  which  is  plentifully  sup- 
plied with  permanent  water,  comes.  The  stock  here  consists 
of  horses,  cows,  and  sheep,  and  they  all  do  well. 

"From  Powell's  Creek  to  Kenners  Springs  is  nineteen 
miles,  the  road  for  the  first  seven  miles  winding  through  the 
Powell  s  Creek  Valley.  It  then  ascends  a  small  range,  and 
after  four  miles  crosses  the  Eingwood  Creek,  which  is  the  first 
creek  faUing  to  the  eastward  from  the  Eingwood  to  Renner*s 
Springs,  a  distance  of  eight  miles,  mostly  through  scrub  and 
spinifex. 

"  Eenner's  Springs  are  close  to  a  high  pile  of  rocks,  and 
consist  of  mounds  covered  with  reeds.  There  are  several  fine 
gum-trees  growing  round,  and  on  the  east  is  a  fine  open  well- 
grassed  plain  with  a  range  of  hills  beyond,  about  two  miles 
from  the  springs.  From  here  for  the  next  forty  miles  the  land 
is  poor,  with  patches  of  scrub  and  spinifex  and  stony  hills. 
Three  creeks  are  met  with,  all  running  to  the  westward,  but 
without  permanent  water.  The  first  is  the  North  Tomkinson, 
sixteen  miles  from  starting-point.  The  Middle  Tomkinson  is 
seven  miles  on,  the  South  Tomkinson  seven  miles  further,  and 
ten  miles  from  this  are  Kirchner's  Ponds.  These  are  not  per- 
manent, but  hold  water  for  a  long  time  after  rain.  The  sur- 
rounding district  is  good  and  well  grassed  with  several  different 
varieties.  Permanent  water  also  is  obtainable  by  following 
the  creek  to  the  eastward  for  about  six  miles.  From  these 
ponds  to  the  Morphett  Creek — eight  miles — the  country  is  for 
the  first  four  or  five  miles  very  good ;  but  it  then  becomes 
scrubby,  and  in  places  stony.  The  Morphett  is  a  very  broad 
gravelly  creek  running  to  the  eastward,  with  permanent  water 
obtainable  about  three  miles  down  it,  and  with  some  good  land 
on  both  sides.  From  here  it  is  three  miles  to  Attack  Creek, 
the  region  being  open  and  well  grassed  to  the  eastward,  with  a 
low,  rocky  range  about  a  mile  on  the  west  side  of  and  parallel 
to  the  road.  Attack  Creek  is  large,  rising  in  high  ranges  to 
the  westward,  and  running  to  the  north-east.  There  are  fine 
holes  of  water  in  it,  but  they  are  not  permanent. 

"  From  Attack  Creek  it  is  forty  miles  to  Tennsmt's  Creek 
Telegraph  Station,  the  journey  winding  through  stony  hills 
covered  with  spinifex  for  the  first  twenty  miles,  and  crossing 


Add.  Chap.]  TENNANT'S  CREEK  STATION.  .  195 

"the  North  Hay  ward  Eiv6r  after  eight  miles ;  the  South  Hay- 
ward  two  miles  further,  and  the  Gibson  at  the  end  of  another 
five  miles.  All  these  creeks  flow  to  the  eastward,  and  have 
no  permanent  water  near  the  crossings.  The  Phillips  Creek, 
five  miles  from  the  Gibson,  is  in  better  country,  and,  though 
not  permanent,  contains  water  for  several  months  after  rain. 
There  is  no  water  between  this  and  Tennant's  Creek,  twenty 
miles  away,  and  the  country  is  scrubby  and  poor.  Tennant's 
Oreek  Telegraph  Station  is  another  creditably  and  sub- 
:8tantially  built  stone  structure,  situated  on  rising  ground 
^bout  a  quarter  of  a  mile  on  the  western  bank  of  the  creek,  in 
which,  however,  there  is  no  permanent  water ;  but  a  well  has 
l)een  sunk,  and  a  suflScient  supply  obtained  for  station  pur- 
poses. The  surrounding  district  is  open,  and  well  grassed 
along  both  sides  of  the  creek.  There  are  horses,  cows,  and 
sheep  here,  and  all  in  fine  order.  About  twelve  miles  down 
the  creek  there  is  splendid  country.  From  the  station  to 
BeUy's  Well,  a  thirty-two  miles'  stage,  the  way  passes  through 
a  wretched  locality  of  nearly  all  scrub  and  spinifex,  and 
destitute  of  water  close  to  the  road.  Near  Mount  Samuel 
there  is  a  small  patch  of  good  grassed  land  and  a  little  water, 
but  it  is  not  permanent.  Mount  Samuel  is  a  high  hill  with 
an  immense  dome-shaped  mass  of  shiny  black  magnetic  iron 
on  the  summit,  which  gives  it  a  most  peculiar  appearance.  At 
Belly's  Well  there  is  plenty  of  water  to  be  had  by  clearing  out 
the  sand  which  washes  in  after  every  rain,  the  well  being  sunk 
in  the  bed  of  a  small  creek.  The  vicinity  is  well  grassed. 
From  here  the  road  passes  through  fair  country  to  the  Gilbert 
•Creek,  excepting  one  or  two  patches  of  spinifex,  and  there  is  a 
high  range  all  the  way  about  five  miles  to  the  east  of  the  road. 
The  Gilbert,  twenty  miles  from  Kelly's  Well,  is  a  large  sandy 
•creek,  rising  in  the  range,  where  there  is  permanent  water  and 
running  to  the  westward.  There  is  no  permanent  water  at  the 
crossing,  but  large  holes  are  met  with,  and  these  hold  water 
for  a  long  time  after  rains.  The  district  is  good  and  well 
grassed  on  both  sides  of  the  creek. 

"  From  here  to  the  Bonney,  fourteen  miles,  the  country  is 
tolerably  open  and  well  grassed,  with  one  creek,  the  McLaren, 

o  2 


1^6  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Add.  Chap. 

but  it  has  no  water.    The  Bonney  is  a  very  large  rocky  creek 
rising  in  high  ranges  to  the  east,  and  running  to  the  westward. 
There  is  no  permanent  water  at  the  crossing,  and  the  sur- 
rounding region  is  very  inferior,  being  scrubby  and  covered 
with  spinifex.     From  the  Bonney  the  route  passes  up  a  narrow 
valley,  and  after  five  miles  passes  the  Dickson  Creek,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Bonney,  and  passes  over  a  rough  stony  range,  and 
descends  on  to  the  Sutherland  Creek,  where  so  many  sheep 
have  been  poisoned — Mr.  Ealph  Millner  having  lost  1500  in 
1871,  and  Mr.  Alfred  Giles  500  in  1873,  and  400  more  in  1875. 
The  skeletons  are  lying  all  along  the  road  for  several  miles. 
From  the  Sutherland  the  track  crosses  a  low  rocky  spur,  and 
also  the  Wauchope  Creek,  small  and  dry,  fifteen  miles  from 
the  Bonney.     The  next  twelve  miles  are  through  good  land  to 
the  Wickliflfe  Creek,  where  there  are  two  camping-places — one 
about  two  miles  west  of  the  telegraph  line  at  a  deep  clay 
waterhole,  and  the  other  a  mile  to  the  east  of  the  line  at 
Thring's  Swamp,  which  is  about  two  miles  in  circumference. 
The  water  is  not  permanent  at  either  place,  and  the  surround- 
ing country  scrubby  and  inferior.    For  the  next  twenty-eight 
miles,  from  the  Wickliffe  to  the  Taylor,  the  chief  character- 
istics are  scrub  and  spinifex.     The  Taylor  is  a  large  sandy 
creek,  rising  in   the  Forster    Eange,  which,   running  in  a 
northerly  course  for  forty  miles,  gradually  trends  away  to  the 
westward.     The  route  now  follows  the  northern  bank  of  the 
Taylor  for  ten  miles,  and  then  crosses  it  and  takes  the  western 
bank  for  thirty  miles.     Some  good  waterholes  are  fallen  in 
with,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  are  perm6uient.     From 
the  Taylor  to  Barrow  Creek,  a  nine  miles'  stretch,  the  traveller 
passes  through  good  grassed  land,  with  open  plains  and  high 
ranges  to  the  east,  west,  and  south.     Barrow  Creek  Telegraph 
Station  is  situated  round  the  western  end  of  a  high  cliff- 
capped  range  close  to  its  foot,  and  nearly  facing  the  Forster 
Bange.     It  is  a  strong  stone  building,  built  in  the  form  of 
a  square,  having  a  square  court-yard  inside.     The  only  en- 
trance is  by  a  gate  at  the   rear  opening  into  the  court-yard> 
whence  doors  lead  into  the  oflScers'  rooms,  store,  kitchen,  and 
men's  quarters.    There  is  no  permanent  surface  water,  but  a 
well  has  been  sunk,  and  a  plentiful  supply  of  brackish  water 


Add.  Chap.]  BARROW  CREEK  STATION.  197 

Las  been  obtained.  For  drinking  purposes  the  water  has  to  be 
carted  nine  miles  from  the  Taylor.  Splendid  grassed  country 
surrounds  all  Barrow  Creek.  There  are  horses,  cows,  and 
sheep  at  the  station. 

"  Besuming  the  journey,  the  road  passes  through  good  land 
for  three  or  four  miles,  which,  however,  gradually  becomes 
hilly,  stony,  and  covered  with  spinifex.     After  ten  miles  the 
track  ascends  the  western  end  of  the  Forster  Eange,  winding 
up  a  steep  spur.     On  the  summit  of  the  range  an  extensive 
view  is  obtained  to  the  east,  south,  and  west.    To  the  south,  at 
a  distance  of  about  thirty  miles,  is  Central  Mount  Stuart,  high 
and  massive  looking,  and  high  ranges  stretch  out  to  the  S.W., 
W.,  N.,  and  N.E.,  some  within  a  few  miles  of  the  road,  and 
others  a  long  way  off,  with  open  grassy  plains  and  deep  green 
serpentine  lines  running  through  them,  the  latter  indicating 
gum  creeks.    There  are  also  large  patches  and  belts  of  the 
black  and  sombre-looking  mulga  spread  out  like  a  map  before 
the  traveller's  eye.    From  the  top  of  the  Forster  Eange  the 
road  descends  in  spurs  about  two  miles  in  length,  at  the 
foot  of  which  is  the  Stirling  Creek,  which  the  road  follows 
for  about  eight  miles,  through  a  level,  open,  and  splendidly 
grassed  region.    After  leaving  the  Stirling,  a  good-grassed  and 
lightly  timbered  locality  is  traversed  for  twelve  miles  to  the 
Hanson,  a  very  broad,  sandy,  gum  creek,  which  rises  in  the 
Mount  Freeling  Eanges,  and,  running  in  a  northerly  course, 
rounds  the  eastern  end  of  Central  Mount  Stuart,  6knd  gradually 
trends  to  the  westward.     There  is  very  little  surface  water  in 
the  creek,  but  abundance  can  be  procured  by  digging  from  six 
inches  to  a  foot  in  the  sand.     The  route  follows  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Hanson  for  twelve  miles,  and  Central  Mount 
Stuart  is  then  about  two  miles  off  on  the  opposite  side.    From 
here  to  the  Tea-tree  Well,  fourteen  miles  off,  very  fair  land  is 
traversed.    This  well  is  about  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  deep,  with 
a  splendid  supply  of  water.     It  is  surrounded  with  a  good 
strong  fence,  and  has  a  large  gum  trough  by  it.    A  lever  has 
been  erected  for  raising  water,  but  the  natives  pulled  it  down 
and  threw  it  into  the  well,  along  with  a  lot  of  iron  telegraph- 
poles,  which  they  carried  from  the  line,  and  a  lot  of  rubbish. 
"From  Tea-tree  Well  to  the  Woodforde  Creek — twelve 


198  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Add.  Chap. 

miles — the  country  is  very  good,  fine,  open,  short-grassed 
plains,  with  here  and  there  a  few  clumps  of  trees.  The  Wood- 
forde  is  a  deep  sandy  creek  rising  in  the  Mount  Freeling 
Banges,  and  running  to  the  eastward.  There  is  no  surface 
water  at  this  crossing,  and  only  a  small  supply  obtainable  by 
digging  in  the  sand.  The  route,  after  crossing  the  creek,, 
follows  the  eastern  bank  for  three  miles,  crossing  again,  and 
then  following  the  west  side  for  nine  miles,  6knd  re-crosses. 
Plenty  of  water  is  to  be  got  by  digging  in  the  sand  at  this- 
crossing.  The  locality  on  both  sides  of  the  creek  is  excellent. 
The  road  now  leaves  the  Woodforde  and  enters  a  long  valley 
formed  by  the  Mount  Freeling  Eange  on  the  west,  and  the- 
Mount  Boothby  Banges  on  the  east.  This  valley  is  about 
twelve  miles  through,  and  water  may  be  obtained  by  turning 
off  when  about  nine  miles  up,  and  making  for  Mount  Freeling^ 
striking  a  creek  after  about  half  a  mile,  and  following  it  up 
into  a  deep  rocky  gorge,  where  there  is  a  plentiful  supply  of 
the  pure  element.  The  route,  before  leaving  the  valley,  passes, 
the  foot  of  Mount  Boothby — ^a  very  high,  black-looking,  and 
frightfully  rugged  elevation.  Coming  out  of  the  valley,  the- 
traveller  skirts  along  the  foot  of  the  western  range  to  the- 
Native  Well,  an  irregular-shaped  hole  about  ten  feet  deep. 
There  is  a  slight  soakage  from  the  bottom  of  this  weU,  but  not 
more  than  a  few  gallons  in  the  twenty-four  hours ;  probably,, 
if  it  were  sunk  a  few  feet,  a  good  supply  might  be  obtained^ 
as  it  is  favourably  situated,  being  in  the  centre  of  a  gap  in  a 
high  range  running  east  and  west,  and  through  which  the  road 
])asses.  From  this  point  thirty-six  miles  on  to  Burt  Creek^ 
the  district  traversed  is  extremely  poor,  the  first  sixteen  miles- 
being  spinifex  and  sand,  with  poplar  trees  scattered  about,  and 
/the  remaining  twenty  miles  are  characterized  by  thick  mulga 
scrub,  but  the  land  is  tolerably  well  grassed.  The  Burt  is  a 
small  creek  rising  in  the  Strangways  Eange  to  the  eastward,^. 
and  emptying  out  on  to  open  plains ;  there  is  no  water  here,, 
but  nevertheless  the  surrounding  region  is  magnificent,  and 
would  do  splendidly  for  sheep,  being  thickly  grassed  with  shorty 
line  grass,  tolt  and  blue  bush,  and  geranium  and  other  herbs. 

"From  the  Burt  to  Alice  Springs  Telegraph  Station  is^ 
thirty-six  miles,  the  first  six  miles   being   through   country 


Add.  Chap.]  ALICE  SPRINGS  STATION.  199 

similar  to  that  just  described.    The  next  four  or  five  miles 
are  covered  with  rather  scrubby  rises ;  then  follow  eight  miles 
of  open  mulga  scrub,  splendidly  grassed,  and  with  plenty  of 
geranium  and  other  herbage,  the  soil  being  a  rich  red  loam. 
The  next  two  miles  consist  of  open  and  splendidly  grassed  land, 
with  saltbush  and  herbage;    and  here  also  is  the  Ten-Mile 
Creek,  the  water  of  which  is  slightly  impregnated  with  soda. 
The  creek  is  on  the  top  of  the  MacDonnell  tableland,  over 
2000  feet  above  the  sea  level.     From  this  point  the  road 
descends  for  ten  miles  to  the  Alice  Springs,  winding  about 
in  every  possible  direction  through  a  perfect  jumble  of  granite 
hillocks,  the  last  descent  being  down  a  very  steep  hill  covered 
with  immense  granite  boulders,  with  only  just  room  enough 
for  a  dray  to  pass  between.      From  the  hilltop  a  most  magni- 
ficent view  is  obtained.     Bight  in  front  is  an  immense  range 
stretching  to  the  east  and  west  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach, 
having  the  appearance  of  an  enormous  red  walL     No'  animal, 
excepting  the  rock  wallaby,  could  scale  it.    At  intervals  of 
several  miles  there  are  gorges,  through  which  creeks  find  their 
way,  but  it  is  only  through  one  or  two  of  these  gorges  that  it 
is  possible  to  take  a  dray,  and  then  only  when  the  creeks  are 
dry.    After  descending  this  hill,  the  track,  after  winding  about 
a  little  further,  reaches  the  Alice  Springs.      The  station  is 
situated  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Todd  Creek.    On  the 
opposite  side  is  a   rocky  hill    composed    of   large    granite 
boulders,  at  the  foot  of  which  is  a  large  and  deep  waterhole. 
Close  behind  the  building  is  another  high  hill  of  huge  boulders, 
and  all  round  are  rocky  hills.    In  front  of  the  station,  about 
half  a  mile  off,  are  two  gaps,  through  one  of  which  goes  the 
Todd  Creek,  and  the  road  to  Messrs.  Bagot  and  Smith's  station 
through  the  other,  a  high  rocky  hill  dividing  them.     Through 
these  gaps  a  view  of  the  before-mentioned  red  range,  distant 
about  three  miles,  is  obtained.    The  station  is  built  on  the 
same  principle  as  that  at  Barrow  Creek.    Messrs.  Bagot  and 
Smith's  property  is  twelve  miles  east  of  the  telegraph  station 
on  the  Jessie  Creek.     About  200  yards  at  the  back  of  the 
station  is  a  high  rocky  range,  in  which  the  Jessie  takes  its 
rise,  running  over  ledges  of  rock  and  falling  into  a  most  re- 
markable gorge,  the  mouth  of  which,  close  to  the  station,  is 


200  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Add.  Chap. 

about  thirty  yards  wide,  the  walls  rising  up  perpendicularly 
to  a  great  height.  On  entering  the  range,  the  gorge  opens 
out  in  a  circular  form  with  perpendicular  cliflfs  over  a  hundred 
feet  in  height  all  round.  The  bottom  is  filled  with  enormous 
boulders.  Where  the  creek  comes  from  seems  to  be  a  complete 
mystery,  and  it  is  only  by  threading  your  way  amongst  the 
rocks  right  up  to  the  very  foot  of  the  cliflF  at  the  end  of  the 
gorge  that  the  traveller  solves  the  problem  by  discovering  a 
very  narrow  passage  leading  skywards,  and  down  which  a  nice 
little  stream  of  clear  water  is  always  running.  In  front  of  the 
station,  about  four  miles  away,  is  the  red  range  through  a  gorge 
of  which  the  Jessie  Creek  flows.  The  gorge  referred  to  is  only 
to  be  got  through  by  swimming  a  deep  pool  of  water  occupy- 
ing the  whole  width  of  the  gorge,  and  the  cliffs  rise  from  the 
water  perpendicularly  to  a  height  of  200  feet.  Six  miles  further 
along  the  range  towards  the  Alice  Springs  is  another  gorge, 
the  Emily,  also  full  of  water,  but  not  deeper  than  about  three 
feet.  This  is  about  300  yards  through  and  about  thirty  yards 
wide.  The  eastern  cliff  is  a  solid  mass  of  rock,  rising  up  quite 
smoothly  and  perpendicularly  for  300  feet.  The  western  wall 
is  the  same  height,  but  more  broken.  Five  miles  from  this 
along  the  range  is  the  Heavitree  Gorge,  through  which  the 
Todd  Creek  runs.  This  gorge  is  eighty  yards  wide,  and  the 
creek  which  occupies  the  whole  width,  is  dry  here,  with  a 
smooth  bed  of  white  sand.  The  cliffs  are  very  rough,  and  rise 
perpendicularly  to  the  height  of  500  feet.  The  next  gap — 
Temple  Bar— is  twelve  miles  away.  The  Eoe  Creek,  the  over- 
land telegraph  line,  and  the  road  go  through  it.  The  creek 
is  dry,  and,  like  the  Todd,  has  a  level  sandy  bed.  The 
cliffs  here  are  not  so  high,  and  slightly  sloping.  The  country 
between  this  range  and  the  northern  one  forms  the  finest  grazing 
land  in  Australia.  The  northern  range  is  composed  of  coarse, 
grey  hornblende,  granite,  blue  slate  and  trap  rock,  steatite,  and 
several  other  rocks ;  and  the  southern  of  a  hard,  close-grained 
red  and  white  sandstone,  the  grains  highly  crystalline.  A 
complete  jumble  of  low  sharp-pointed  slate  hills  make  up  the 
intervening  district,  covered  with  ironstone,  quartz,  and  mica. 

"After  passing  through  Temple  Bar,  twelve  miles  from 
Alice   Springs,  the  traveller  turns  to  the  westward,  crossing 


Add.  Chap.]    ALICE  SPRINGS  TO  CHARLOTTE  WATERS.        201 

limestone  ranges,  and  descending  into  a  deep  valley  about  a 
mile  wide,  with  another  high  parallel  range  on  the  south 
side.  The  valley  is  well  grassed,  and  the  route  follows  it  for 
about  eight  miles,  and  then  turns  through  Fenn's  Gap  in  the 
southern  range,  entering  another  parallel  valley  about  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  wide,  with  a  very  high  rocky  range  on  the  south  side. 
The  road  now  tracks  this  valley  for  about  fourteen  miles  to  the 
Jay  Creek,  close  under  an  immense  range,  the  highest  points  of 
which  are  Mount  Conway,  a  stupendous  dome-shaped  mountain, 
Brinkley's  Bluff  to  the  west,  and  Mount  Charles  on  the  east. 
It  is  said  that. they  have  been  estimated  as  being  over  4000 
feet  above  the  sea  level.  The  road,  after  crossing  the  Jay 
Creek,  passes  over  a  low  hilly  region  to  the  Hugh,  an  immense 
gum  creek  rising  in  the  range  and  flowing  to  the  south.  There 
is  abundance  of  water  here.  Following  along  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  Hugh  for  eight  miles — about  three  miles  through  a 
splendid  district  belonging  to  Mr.  Gilbert — the  track  crosses 
over  lightly  timbered  mulga  rises,  well  grassed,  for  five  miles 
to  Messrs.  Gilbert  and  Conway's  station,  Owen  Springs,  on  the 
Hugh,  at  the  Waterhouse  Eange,  which  is  long  and  composed 
of  dark-red,  cross-graiaed  sandstone.  The  station  is  pleasantly 
situated  on  rising  ground,  at  the  foot  of  the  range,  close  to  the 
gorge  which  the  Hugh  passes  through.  The  locality  is  fine 
and  open  to  the  north-east.  From  here  the  road  follows  the  bed 
of  the  Hugh  through  the  gorge  for  about  two  miles,  thence  across 
open  country,  striking  the  creek  again  after  five  miles,  and 
crossing  it,  passes  through  mulga  country  for  ten  miles,  again 
reaches  the  creek  at  McClure's  Springs,  in  the  James  Bange, 
and  follows  it  through  gorges,  crossing  it  repeatedly  for  seven 
miles  to  Stuart  s  Waterhole.  From  here,  the  route  passes  over 
spinifex  country  for  twenty-eight  miles  to  the  Long  Waterhole, 
where  there  is  good  country.  Four  miles  further  on,  the  track 
agaiQ  crosses  the  Hugh  at  the  Deep  Crossing,  thence  passing 
through  a  fine  region  to  Moimt  Burrell,  on  the  Hugh,  fourteen 
miles  distant.  This  is  a  fine  open  hilly  district,  watered,  well 
grassed,  and  with  plenty  of  herbage  and  cotton-bush. 

"  The  next  water  from  here  is  Percy's  Hill,  a  distance  of 
seventeen  miles,  on  the  Hugh,  the  journey  being  through  the 
same  description  of  country.    From  Percy's  Hill  to  the  double 


202  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Add.  Chap. 

crossing  of  the  Hugh — ten  miles — the  road  passes  over  a 
miserable  sandhill  region  covered  with  spinifex  in  most  places. 
The  creek  here  runs  down  to  the  foot  of  high  broken  cliffs, 
under  which  plenty  of  water  is  to  be  obtained  by  digging  in 
the  sand.  Bunning  along  the  foot  of  the  cliffs  for  about  half 
a  mile  the  creek  suddenly  turns,  and  doubles  back,  almost  on 
its  former  course.  There  being  no  way  round  the  bend  by  the 
cliffs,  the  track  has  to  cross  it  twice,  and,  continuing  through 
high  sandhills  for  twenty-two  miles,  reaches  the  B  Depot,  on  the 
Hugh,  near  its  junction  with  the  Finke  Biver,  crossing  it  here 
for  the  last  time.  The  [whole  course  of  the  Hugh  is  thickly 
timbered  with  splendid  gums,  from  three  to  four  inches  in  dia- 
meter, to  several  feet,  growing  to  a  great  height,  and  perfectly 
straight.  From  the  B  Depot  to  the  Horseshoe  Bend,  on  the 
Finke  Biver,  is  twelve  miles,  the  intermediate  country  con- 
sisting of  sandhills /for  the  first  three  or  four  miles,  though 
the  remainder  is  well  grassed  open  mulga  land. 

"  The  Finke  at  this  point  is  considerably  over  a  mile  in 
width,  and  the  main  channel  has  a  clear  smooth  bed  of  fine 
white  sand  over  half  a  mile  wide.  There  is  plenty  of  surface 
water,  which  towards  the  dry  season  becomes  brackish.  The 
river  rises  in  the  northernmost  of  the  MacDonnell  Banges,  and 
runs  to  the  S.E.  for  400  miles,  passing  to  the  east  of  the  Char- 
lotte Waters  Station,  about  nine  miles  off,  gradually  trending 
to  the  eastward,  and  beyond  is  unexplored.  It  was  supposed 
that  it  emptied  itself  into  Lake  Eyre.  But  the  explorations  of 
the  lake  by  Mr.  Lewis  give  no  clue  to  the  supposition.  There 
must  be  a  much  larger  lake  to  the  north  of  Lake  Eyre,  as  there 
is,  besides  the  Finke,  Todd,  Boe,  and  several  other  streams — all 
of  which  are  very  large  gum  creeks — the  whole  of  the  drainage 
from  the  MacDonnell  Banges  east  of  the  Alice  Springs,  and 
which  extends  for,  as  far  as  is  at  present  known,  over  a  hun- 
dred miles. 

"  From  the  Horseshoe  Bend  to  the  Finke  at  Mount  Mus- 
grave,  fifteen  miles,  the  road  passes  through  the  mulga  forest, 
well-grassed,  and  with  a  few  sandhills,  for  about  seven  miles,  and 
then  comes  open  grassed  country  and  high-peaked  hills  to  the 
east,  north,  and  west,  the  summits  covered  with  gypsum  and 
liaving  a  snow-capped  appearance.     From  3Iount  Musgrave, 


Add.  Chap.]         CHAELOTTE  WATERS  STATION.  203 

where  there  is  plenty  of  water,  both  salt  and  fresh,  the  way 
passes  over  stony,  undulating,  well  grassed,  and  open  territory 
to  the  Finke.  Crossing  ten  miles  thence,  it  goes  to  the  Groyder 
Creek,  thirty  miles,  through  a  fairly  grassed,  hilly,  and  rather 
stony  region,  with  here  and  there  patches  of  mulga  scrub. 
Crossing  the  Goyder,  a  large  sandy  creek  running  into  the 
Finke  from  high  ranges  to  the  westward,  the  road  for  the  next 
thirty  miles,  to  Charlotte  Waters  Telegraph  Station,  is  charac- 
terized by  mulga  scrub,  open  plains,  sandhills,  and  stony  rises 
poorly  grassed. 

"  Charlotte  Waters  Station,  situated  on  the  creek  of  that 
name,  is  a  fine  substantial  building  of  white  freestone,  and 
erected  on  the  same  plan  as  the  Alice  Springs  and  Barrow 
Creek  Stations.  The  surrounding  country  is  open,  level,  and 
thickly  strewn  with  fragments  of  brown  clinker-looking  iron- 
stone and  gypsum.  From  this  point  200  miles  on  to  the 
Peake  Station  the  district  is  stony,  barren,  and,  with  one  or 
two  exceptions,  the  picture  of  desolation.  The  redeeming 
features  are  the  Adminga  Creek  locality — eighteen  miles  from 
Charlotte  Waters — and  the  Macumba  Creek,  about  102  miles 
further  on,  both  of  which  are  well  grassed ;  and  at  the  latter 
there  is  a  horse  station  belonging  to  Mr.  Gilbert,  of  Pewsey 
Vale,  from  whence  to  the  Peake  the  country  is  exceedingly 
stony.  About  two  miles  from  and  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Peake  Creek  is  Messrs.  J.  and  C.  M.  Bagot's  cattle  station.  All 
the  buildings  are  substantial  stone  structures,  and  situated  on 
the  side  of  a  stony  range  iminediately  above  a  cluster  of' fine 
springs.  Although  the  country  has  a  stony  and  barren  appear- 
ance, the  cattle  are  in  excellent  condition.  From  the  Peake 
to  Beltana,  a  distance  of  270  miles,  the  same  stony  indications 
are  met  with.  The  road  passes  several  mound  springs,  some 
of  which  are  thirty  or  forty  feet  in  height,  with  a  circular 
basin  on  the  top,  from  which  the  water  runs  in  streams  to  the 
plain  beneath.  To  the  left  of  the  road  is  Lake  Eyre,  and  on 
the  right,  several  miles  distant,  are  high  bold  ranges. 

"  The  MacDonnell  Bange  country,  from  the  James  Bange 
to  Barrow  Creek,  250  miles,  is,  as  far  as  climate,  water,  grasses, 
and  herbage  are  concerned,  admirably  adapted  for  sheep,  cattle, 
and  horses,  but  the   carriage  of  stores  constitutes  a  serious 


204  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  [Add.  Chap. 

drawback  both  in  regard  to  price  and  time.  This  must  form 
a  decided  obstacle  to  the  introduction  of  sheep.  Should  ever 
the  railway  to  Port  Darwin  be  started,  the  whole  of  this  country 
would  be  available  for  pastoral  purposes.  The  climate  is  much 
milder  than  in  the  Northern  runs  of  South  Australia,  and  the 
country  is  infinitely  better  grassed.  With  regard  to  the  natives 
on  the  overland  route,  there  is  this  difference  observable 
between  them.  From  the  MacDonnell  Eanges  to  the  north 
coast  they  are  hostile  and  treacherous  to  the  whites.  This  is 
especially  the  case  along  the  Newcastle,  where  they  are  very 
numerous.  The  men  are  generally  tall  and  well  formed,  with 
faces  destitute  of  beard  and  whiskers.  The  women  and  children 
are  rarely  to  be  seen,  and  then  only  by  coming  upon  them 
unawares.  The  MacDonnell  Banges  tribes  are  the  very  oppo- 
site to  this.  The  men  have  long  sharp-pointed  beards,  with 
the  head  shaved  from  the  forehead  to  near  the  top  of  the  head. 
Their  foreheads  are  painted  jet  black  with  some  filthy  com- 
pound of  grease,  charcoal,  and  gum,  and  they  are  the  most 
villainous-looking  rascals  on  the  whole  route.  The  Finke 
natives  are  a  much  finer  looking  race,  but  have  the  same  long 
pointed  beard.  All  the  tribes  south  of  the  MacDonnell  Eanges 
are,  so  far,  peaceably  disposed  towards  the  whites. 

"  In  conclusion,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  foregoing  de- 
scription faithfully  represents  the  country  and  the  waters  as 
they  actually  are  on  the  route  of  the  Overland  Telegraph  line 
in  comparatively  dry  seasons.  In  ordinary  wet  seasons  there 
is  water  in  abundance  for  nine  months  out  of  the  year ;  but  in 
many  of  the  places  above  alluded  to  it  is  not  permanent,  as, 
for  instance,  on  the  Tomkinson  Creek  and  between  Daly  Waters 
and  Frew's  Pond.  Water  in  abundance  is  often  found  from 
one  season  to  the  other  in  Attack  Creek  and  the  Phillips. 
All  to  east  of  the  line  from  Charlotte  to  Daly  Waters  the 
region  is  a  terra  incognita.  All  the  best  country  appears  to 
be  to  the  eastward,  there  being  more  ranges  and  open  country, 
and  it  ought  to  be  worth  exploring.  From  Barrow  Creek  on 
the  west  of  the  line  the  country  is  also  unexplored,  and  there 
must  be  an  extensive  lake  country  west  of  Lake  Woods,  as  the 
drainage  in  that  direction  is  immense." 


ITS  FLORA.  205 


FLORA  OF  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

By  E.  Schomburgk,  Piiil.Dr,,  Director, 

KKIGHT  OF  THE  IMPERIAL  ORDEB  OP  THE  CROWN;  OF  THE  ORDER  OF  »1ER[T  OF 
PHILIPPE  THE  MAGNANIMOUS,  AND  THE  ORDER  OF  THE  CROWN  OF  ITALT;  MEM. 
OF  THE  IMPERIAL  CAROL.  LEOPOLD.  ACADEMY  ;  HON.  MEM.  BOT.  60C.  MAGDEBURG ; 
COR.  MEM.  ZOOL.  SOC.  LONDON ;  C.M.R3.S.  LOND.  ;  C.M.B.8.  EDIN. ;  C.M.G.S.  BERL. 
AND  DRE8D.;  CM.  SOC.  NAT.  CHERB.  FRANCE;  C.M.H.8.  BERL.  AND  FRANK.  ON  M.; 
CM.  SOC.  PHT8.  MEDICA,  ERLANGEN  ;  H.M.R.S.  N.  8.  WALES  ;  ETC  ETC. 

South  Australia  does  not  offer  the  contrasts  and  changes  in 
its  configuration  and  climatical  condition  that  are  found  to 
exist  in  the  east,  north,  and  west  of  the  vast  continent.  It  is 
deficient  in  high. wooded  mountain  chains  and  deep  moist 
gullies ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  Kiver  Murray,  has  no 
great  rivers,  and  but  few  lakes  or  swamps.  The  rainy  season 
is  of  short  duration,  and  its  rainfall  limited,  the  average  being 
only  19  to  21  inches  during  the  year.  Its  climate  also,  with 
the  exception  of  the  intra-tropical  part,  is  of  a  more  equal 
character  than  that  of  the  other  parts  of  Australia.  All  these 
characteristics  may  account  for  the  flora  of  South  Australia 
being  less  numerous  in  genera  and  species  of  plants,  compared 
with  those  of  the  other  parts  of  Australia. 

Throughout  its  varied  zones  there  is  not  a  greatly  marked 
diversity  in  the  physiognomy  of  its  vegetation,  and  its  exhibits 
on  the  greater  part  of  its  area  are  of  a  similar  character.  In 
character  the  South  Australian  flora  is  intermediate  between 
the  south-eastern,  south-western,  and  the  tropical  floras  of 
Australia.  The  absence  of  high  mountain  chains  imparts  to 
the  country  and  vegetation  a  degree  of  monotony  from  the 
absence  of  the  umbrageous  forest  region. 

The  most  predominant  orders  of  the  South  Australian  flora, 
like  those  of  the  other  parts  of  the  Continent,  are — Legu- 
minosfey  Myrtaceee,  Compositae^  Proteacete,  Cruciferaey  Rvhiaceae, 
and  Graminess;  abundant  in  genera,  species,  and  individuals. 


206  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

Very  singularly  circumscribed  are  the  genera  and  species  in 
area ;  many  are  found  in  one  spot  alone,  and  a  diversity  in 
soil  and  locality  brings  forth  other  genera  and  species;  the 
rapid  succession  of  forms  and  the  contrast  in  this  respect 
between  the  northern  and  southern  parts  being  remarkable. 

The  bark  of  most  of  the  trees  is  usually  smooth  and  of  a 
greyish  colour,  which  no  doubt  is  accounted  for  by  the  slight 
atmospheric  changes — the  contrast  not  being  so  sudden  and 
great  as  in  colder  climates.  Most  of  the  leaves  of  the  trees 
and  shrubs  are  coriaceous,  rigid,  and  pungent,  and  of  a  shining 
glaucous  colour,  which  is  especially  perceptible  in  the  orders 
Proteacese  and  Epacrideee.  Yellow-coloured  flowers  are  the 
most  predominant. 

The  preponderance  of  the  two  great  genera  of  the  Austra- 
lian flora,  viz..  Eucalyptus  and  Aoaday  also  prevails  over  the 
whole  area  of  South  Australia,  but  with  a  deficiency  in  species 
in  comparison  with  those  of  the  west  and  east  flora.  The 
number  of  species  of  Eu>calypt$  known  at  present  in  Australia 
is  about  134 ;  of  these  only  30,  and  of  Aeacia,  of  which  300 
species  are  described,  only  70  appear  in  South  Australia. 

The  trees  of  South  Australia  do  not  reach  so  great  a  height 
as  those  in  the  east,  north,  and  west ;  the  average  that  our 
tallest  trees,  the  Eucalypts,  obtain  being  from  100  feet  to  120 
feet,  with  a  stem  of  from  4  feet  to  5  feet  in  diameter ;  and 
such  trees  are  only  found  in  districts  favoured  by  good  soil, 
or  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers ;  but  these  heights  sink  into 
insignificance  compared  with  those  of  trees  indigenous  to 
Victoria,  Tasmania,  and  Western  Australia,  where  it  is  stated 
that  Eucalyptus  gh^ulus  reaches  300  feet  and  E.  coUosa,  F. 
MuelL,  of  Western  Australia,  400  feet ;  but,  more  astonishing 
still,  that  a  fallen  tree  of  E.  amygdalina^  Labill.,  in  the 
Dandenong  Mountains,  Victoria,  measured  420  feet  in  length. 

The  presfence  of  different  species  of  trees  in  South  Australia 
is  also  limited  in  comparison  to  the  other  parts  of  Australia^ 
According  to  Baron  von  Mueller,  the  list  of  trees  above  30  feet 
in  height  in  Australia  comprises  950  kinds.  Of  these  88  are 
found  in  South- Western  Australia,  pnly  63  in  South  Australia, 
146  in  Victoriti,  385  in  New  South  Wales,  526  in  Queensland, 


ITS  FLORA.  207 

212  in  North  Australia,  and  29  in  Central  Australia.  Only 
the  Eucdlypts  furnish  South  Australia  with  timber.  They  are 
found  in  all  parts  over  the  area  of  the  Colony,  and  constitute 
most  useful  timber-producing  trees. 

Amongst  the  eighteen  to  twenty  species  of  Eucalypts 
appearing  in  the  extra-tropical  part  of  South  Australia,  there 
are  only  four  to  six  kinds  which  are  most  valued.  These  are 
distinguished  by  certain  colonial  names,  such  as  red,  white, 
and  blue  jgum,  stringy  bark,  and  peppermint,  Eucalyptus  rostrcUa, 
Schlecht. ;  viminaliSy  LabilL  ;  odoratay  Behr.  Their  timber  is 
highly  valued  for  building,  railway,  water,  and  wheelwright 
work,  as  naves,  felloes,  and  spokes,  and  as  posts  for  fencing 
and  other  purposes.  The  stringybark,  Eucalyptus  obliqtm, 
Lher.,  is  much  valued,  being]  the  only  kind  fit  for  shingles, 
and,  as  a  free-splitting  wood,  the  best  for  forming  rails ;  but 
it  is  not  so  durable  as  the  other  kinds. 

The  wood  of  the  Acacia  tribe  is  only  useful  for  cabinet- 
work and  turning,  for  which  purpose  the  blackwood.  Acacia 
melanoxylon,  K.  Br.,  is  very  much  valued.  The  wattle  of  the 
colonists.  Acacia  pycnantha,  Benth.,  is  very  valuable,  on  account 
of  its  freely  exuding  gum,  and  also  for  its  bark,  the  latter 
containing  excellent  tanning  qualities;  and  both  these  pro- 
ducts form  a  very  important  article  of  export.  The  wood  of 
the  so-called  sheaoak,  Casuarina  stricta^  Ait.,  is  of  an  excellent 
character  and  used  for  cabinetwork,  turning,  and  handles  for 
tools. 

The  tea-trees,  a  name  applied  by  the  colonists  to  the  genera 
Melaleuca  and  Leptospermum,  constitute  a  class  of  hardwood 
usually  found  in  low,  moist  situations,  and  on  the  banks  of 
creeks ;  is  valuable  on  account  of  its  imperishable  nature  when 
used  underground,  or  even  in  water.  The  timber  is  remarkably 
close-grained,  extremely  hard  when  dry,  very  heavy,  and  gene- 
rally sound  in  the  heartwood,  which j^^is  not  always  the  case 
with  other  hard-wooded  trees. 

The  pretty  mottled  wood  of  the  [native  pines  of  South 
Australia,  Frenela  robusta,  A.  Cunn.,  and  rhomboideay  Endl., 
lack  durability,  and  are  mostly  used  for  fencing  stuff  and  fuel. 
The  native  cherry,  Exocarpus  cupressiformisy  LabilL,  the  honev- 


208  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

suckle,  Bankna  marffincUa,  Cav.,  furnish  also  handsome  woods 
for  cabinetwork ;  and  Myoporum  acuminatum,  K.  Br.,  has  a  white 
soft  timber,  extremely  tough,  forming  excellent  knees  for  boats. 

A  most  remarkable  fact  in  South  Australian  vegetation  is 
the  absence  of  native  eatable  fruits,  of  which  there  are  none  de- 
serving the  name,  except  a  few  berry-bearing  shrubs  belonging 
to  the  order  of  Epacrideas  and  SantalacesSy  Astroloma,  and  Leu- 
cojx>ffon,  the  principal  species  of  which,  the  native  currant  of 
the  colonists,  Astroloma  humifiMum,  E.  Br.,  and  the  so-called 
native  peach,  Fusanus  acuminatus,  K.  Br.,  bearing  a  globular 
fruit  of  the  size  of  a  small  peach,  with  a  succulent  epicarp  and 
a  hard,  bony,  much-pitted  endocarp,  are  all  South  Australia 
can  boast  of.  There  is  also  a  deficiency  in  eatable  root-bearing 
plants. 

A  great  many  genera  of  plants  of  other  countries  which 
possess  valuable  and  powerful  medicinal  properties  have 
numerous  congeners  in  the  extra-tropical  and  more  especially 
in  the  intra-tropical  portions  of  South  Australia,  of  which  I  will 
only  mention  the  following  orders,  viz. — Euphorhiacem,  Urticeas, 
Campanviaceae,  Solanem,  Apocyneas,  Leguminosae,  Asclepiadeas, 
OerUianeae,  Scrophvlariness,  &c. ;  containing  numerous  genera 
and  species,  probably  possessing  similar  valuable  properties, 
which  may  be  considered  as  so  much  buried  riches  hitherto  un- 
heeded, and  therefore  not  utilized.  Only  lately  the  wonderful 
febrifugal  properties  of  the  Eucalypis  have  been  discovered  in 
Europe.  The  polygonaceous  plant,  Muehlenbeckia  ddpressay 
Meisn.,  called  by  the  colonists  "Native  Sarsaparilla,"  produces 
the  same  effects  as  the  true  Smilax  Sarsaparilla,  Lin. ;  and  the 
Erythraea  australis,  K.  Br.,  contains  the  same  bitter  as  its  con- 
gener in  Europe,  Erythrasa  Centaurium,  Pers.  There  are,  no 
doubt,  many  trees  of  the  orders  TJrticeae  and  Sapindacea  con- 
taining also  that  valuable  substance  caoutchouc,  especially  the 
species  of  Ficm,  so  abundant  in  the  intra-tropical  part  of  South 
Australia. 

The  same  ignorance  prevails  also  with  regard  to  the  fibrous 
and  dye  plants.  Of  the  first  I  will  only  mention  the  Linum 
m^rginale,  A.  Cunn. ;  Hibiscus  tiliaceus,  Lin. ;  the  Crotalaria 
dissitijlora,  Benth.,  from  the  fibres  of  which  the  natives  pre- 


ITS  FLORA. 


209 


pare  their  fishing  nets  and  cordage.  Several  other  plants  are 
known  to  possess  the  same  properties,  especially  Pimelea  strictay 
Meisn. ;  axiflora,  F.  Muell. ;  and  microcephala,  K.  Br. 

Gum  and  resin-bearing  trees  are  also  abundant.  I  have 
already  mentioned  the  valuable  gum  of  the  waXtle,  Aeacia  pyc- 
nantha,  but  there  are  several  more  species  producing  gum,  as 
Accuna  acuminata,  Benth.,  &c. 

The  conspicuous  plants  which  greatly  contribute  to  the 
interesting  character  of  the  Australian  Flora,  the  grass  trees 
of  the  colonists — Xanthorrhoea  quadrangrulatay  F.  Muell.,  and 
semiplanay  F.  Muell.,  exude  a  resin,  which  contains  nitro- 
picric  acid,  from  which  a  valuable  dye  may  be  prepared. 

The  flora  of  South  Australia  provides  copious  material  for 
the  manufacture  of  the  best  paper.  Not  alone  a  great  number 
of  representatives  of  the  Oraminew  and  Cyperaceas,  viz. : — 
Bichdagne  crinitay  Hof.,  Xerotes  longifolia,  R.  Br.,  Cyprus  lu- 
ciduSy  R.  Br.,  vaginatus,  R.  Br.,  Scirptts  lacustris,  Lin.,  but  also 
the  bark  of  EucalyptSy  and  the  leaves  and  bark  of  Caauarina, 
provide  splendid  material  for  paper. 

Poisonous  plants  are  known,  though  there  are  not  many  in 
South  Australia.  One  of  the  most  dangerous  to  the  sheep 
stock  is  the  Lotus  avMrdlts,  Andr.,  which  is  very  generally  dis- 
tributed, and  does  great  injury ;  but  I  consider  the  poisonous 
principle  lies  mostly  in  the  seed.  The  River  Darling  Pea, 
Swainsona  Orayanay  Lindl.,  produces  also  poisonous  effects  on 
the  cattle,  especially  on  horses.  A  Lobeliay  L,  pra^tioides, 
Benth.,  fortunately  is  not  frequently  seen  in  South  Australia, 
but  it  appears  more  plentiful  in  Victoria,  to  the  great  injury  of 
stock. 

Although  the  injurious  weed  Solanum  nigrum  is  common  in 
most  tropical  and  temperate  parts  of  the  globe,  I  think  it  has 
been  introduced  into  Australia  with  cultivation.  Lawrencia 
apieata.  Hook.,  is  also  considered  by  the  stockholders  on  the 
Peninsula  injurious  to  cattle  and  sheep.  But  as  the  plant  is 
eaten  by  the  cattle  before  seeding  without  injury,  I  believe 
that  the  rigid,  pungent,  bracteate  leaves  with  which  the  flower- 
spike  is  densely  covered,  especially  in  the  upper  part,  and 
which,  as  the  seed  ripens,  become  more  coriaceous  and  pungent, 

p 


210  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA. 

are  the  dangerous  parts  of  the  plants,  and  these  parts,  when 
eaten  in  quantity,  will,  no  doubt,  injure  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  stomach,  and  produce  inflammation.  As  the  xmiform 
character  of  the  order  of  McUvaceas  is  that  it  abounds  only  in 
mucilage,  and  is  totally  destitute  of  all  unwholesome  qualities, 
it  would  be  very  peculiar  should  this  species  contain  poisonous 
properties, 

A  very  peculiar  phenomenon  of  the  South  Australian  vege- 
tation is,  that  most  kinds  of  trees  and  shrubs,  when  dying,  die 
from  the  tops  downwards.  It  is  also  a  remarkable  character- 
istic that  by  age  the  common  habit  of  plants  is  often  much 
changed,  which  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  during  the  period  of 
development  and  subsequently  the  individual  parts  of  those 
which  are  not  flowering  and  fruit-bearing  are  difi'erent.  This 
anomaly,  caused  by  age  and  time,  not  only  refers  to  the  dimen- 
sions of  leaves  and  flowers,  but  also  to  their  nature. 

If  we  review  the  several  orders  of  plants  of  South  Australia, 
we  find  that  the  extra-tropical  part  is  characterized  by  the  re- 
markable absence  of  several  orders,  although  it  is  not  impossible 
that  by  further  discoveries  in  the  central  part — as  this  part  has 
as  yet  been  but  imperfectly  explored — a  few  representatives 
of  one  or  the  other  order  may  yet  be  found  ;  but  probably  the 
number  will  not  be  extensive.  The  extra-tropical  part  of  South 
Australia  is  destitute  of  the  following  orders,  viz.: — Sima- 
rvhem,  Buraeracese,  Meliacese,  Salicineae,  Cdastrinese,  Ampdidse, 
Anaeardiaeem^  Magnoliaceae,  Bixinem,  AraJidcess,  Malpighiacese, 
OuttiferaSy  Ericaceie,  Pltmhaffineas,  Myrsineae,  Sapotacese,  Ebe- 
nacese,  StyriacesBy  HydrophyllctcesSy  OesnericicesSy  SaxifragesBy 
Samydacese,  Elasagneas,  Cwpvlifermy  Piperacemy  Selaginess, 
Scitaminese. 

Although  the  order  Orchideas  is  represented  by  numerous 
species  of  terrestrial  ones,  there  is  an  entire  absence  of 
epiphital  Orchids  in  the  extra-tropical  part.  So  are  also 
Cryptogamie  plauts  extremely  rare;  even  the  order  Filicea  is 
poorly  represented. 

The  orders  most  abundantly  distributed  over  the  whole 
area  are : — Leguminosss,  MyrtaoeaSy  ComposUae,  Chenopodiaceas, 
CrticiferaSy  Proteaceas,   Qoodenoviaceas,  Euphorhiaoeaey  Serophvr 


ITS  FLOKA.  211 

larinese,  Ficoideaey  BoraginesSy  LahtcUeas,  Amarantacew,  Con- 
volvuldcese,  Epdcrideae,  Urticesey  Orchidew,  Amaryllidese,  Liliacesey 
Restiaceas,  Cyperaceae,  and  GramineaB. 

Having  given  a  general  description  of  the  flora  of  South 
Australia,  I  proceed  now  to  its  special  peculiarities  in  the 
several  localities  or  regions  individualized  and  distinguished 
by  the  predominance  of  one  or  more  families,  although  the 
boundary  is  in  no  way  so  sudden  as  to  preclude  certain  species 
from  spreading  over  all  regions,  especially  trees,  which,  at  the 
same  time,  are  equally  common  in  the  scrub  and  grass  lands  ; 
and  also  herbaceous  plants,  a  great  number  of  which  appear  in 
the  grass  land,  scrub,  and  forest  region. 

Notwithstanding  the  little  apparent  difference  in  the  for- 
mation of  its  surface  soil  and  climate,  the  flora  of  South 
Australia  introduces  itself  to  the  observer  in  its  geographical 
extension  by  special  and  peculiar  forms  of  plants  in  regions. 
These  are  the  regions  of  the  forest  land,  scrub  land,  grass  land, 
and  the  intra-tropical  region. 

Forest  Land  Eegion. — The  region  of  the  forest  land 
in  South  Australia  occupies  mostly  the  mountainous  districts, 
and  extending  along  the  base  of  the  mountain  chains.  The 
forests  have  not  the  fulness  and  lofty  growth  of  those  of  other 
countries.  The  underwood  is  of  a  medium  size,  more  open 
and  less  difficult  to  penetrate ;  the  forests  are  of  less  extent, 
and  are  intercepted  by  tracts  of  grass  land.  The  EucaJypts  are 
the  most  predominant  forest  trees — the  stringybark  forming 
often  whole  forests  in  some  mountainous  districts,  but  seldom 
seen  on  the  plains.  EtiecUyptua  panicnlcUa,  Sw. ;  mminalis, 
Labill.  ;  rostrata,  Schlecht.  ;  odorata,  Behr.,  are  the  most 
prevalent  species. 

The  trees  of  the  forest  do  not  appear  crowded,  and  seldom 
do  the  branches  of  a  tree  reach  those  of  a  neighbouring  one. 
The  declivities  of  the  mountain  ranges  are  for  the  most  part 
similarly  timbered,  the  trees  sometimes  extending  to  the  sum- 
mits, often  only  haW  or  two-thirds  of  the  remaining  part 
being  grassed,  here  and  there  with  copses  of  low-growing 
shrubs,  and  stunted  and  much  ramified  trees ;  often  the  whole 
declivities  are  grassed  without  even  a  shrub  or  tree. 

p  2 


212  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA. 

Another  feature  of  the  tableland  in  the  hilly  districts  is 
the  appearance  of  occasional  hills,  clothed  only  with  a  scanty 
covering  of  tussocky  grasses,  among  fragments  of  ironstone, 
quartz,  and  sand,-  destitute  of  all  other  vegetation,  except 
small  scattered  trees  of  the  Casuarina  stricta,  Ait.,  and  glauca, 
Sieb.,  and  the  peppermint.  Eucalyptus  odorata,  Behr. 

The  level  tableland  is  generally  covered  with  grass,  but 
deficient  in  shrubs.  Here,  scattered,  are  to  be  seen  the  most 
stately  and  majestic  trees  of  Eucalypts;  such  tablelands 
appearing  more  like  a  park — the  trees  standing  seemingly 
at  measured  distances,  single  or  in  small  clumps,  as  if  planted 
by  the  hands  of  a  landscape  gardener.  The  soil  of  such 
tableland  is  generally  speaking  very  rich,  and  produces 
abimdant  crops  of  cereals.  The  underwood  of  the  forests  is 
mostly  represented  by  the  following  genera,  viz.,  Correa, 
Alyxiaj  Prostranihera,  Orevillea,  Hakeay  hopogouy  Exocarpus, 
Acaciay  Banksia,  Cassia,  Calythrix,  Pommaderis,  Leucopogouy 
Leptospermuniy  Daviesia,  Dillwynia,  Eutaxia,  Platylohium,  Pul- 
tensea,  and  shrubby  Eucalypts. 

The  beautiful  genus  Epacris,  which  is  only  represented  in 
South  Australia  by  one  species,  E.  impressa,  Labill.,  frequently 
covers  whole  mountain  ridges  and  declivities ;  when  in  bloom, 
the  different  shades  of  colour  of  its  flowers  produce  an  effect 
not  easily  described. 

The  most  prominent  and  striking  effect  of  the  mountain 
forest  region  is  produced  by  the  grass  trees,  Xanthorrhcea  quad- 
rangvlatay  F.  Muell. ;  and  semiplanay  F.  Muell.  These  plants 
have  a  peculiar  grotesque  appearance  of  a  type  unknown  in 
other  countries,  at  once  arresting  every  traveller's  attention  by 
their  strangeness. 

They  appear  mostly  on  the  ridges  and  declivities  of  rocky 
and  stony  hills,  almost  devoid  of  any  other  vegetation,  and  are 
also  found  on  some  wooded  lands,  but  never  on  the  plains. 
Xanthorrhoea  quadrangulata  grows  from  10  to  12  feet  high, 
often  with  a  trunk  about  one  foot  or  eighteen  inches  in  diameter, 
and  the  flower  stalk  from  6  to  10  feet  high.  Sometimes  speci- 
mens are  found  repeatedly  branched  in  a  dichotomous  manner, 
all  the  branches  of  equal  thickness,  which  gives  them  a  most 


(^: 


y 


ITS  FLORA.  213 

grotesque  appearance.  This  species  appears  only  in  hilly 
districts  on  the  most  rocky  declivities;  they  drive  their 
straggling  roots  into  the  crevices  of  the  rocks  several  feet 
down  amongst  the  accumulated  vegetable  soil.  The  grass  trees 
are  of  slow  growth ;  the  largest  specimens  must  be  several 
hundred  years  old.  The  second  species,  Xanthorrhcea  semiplana, 
is  often  found  at  the  base  of  the  hills  in  sandy  soil ;  it  forms 
its  stem  underground,  which  extends  often  two  to  three  feet 
before  the  few  straggling  roots  appear,  and  the  leaves  lie  close 
on  the  ground.  This  species  is  also  of  an  ornamental  character. 
The  valuable  brownish  yellow,  resinous  exudation  of  the  root 
and  lower  part  of  the  stem,  I  have  already  mentioned. 

The  deep  gullies  formed  by  the  ridges  and  hilk,  in  which 
the  dew  most  frequently  supplies  the  pla,ce  of  rain  during  the 
dry  season,  are  covered  with  shrubs  and  ferns.  The  soil  is 
generally  formed  of  black  or  sandy  peat  of  a  very  humid 
nature,  being  watered  by  streamlets  running  throughout  the 
year,  and  forming,  in  some  rocky  situations,  picturesque  cas- 
cades. In  such  gullies  are  associated  the  most  delicate  and 
beautiful  plants  the  flora  of  South  Australia  produces.  Only 
in  such  places  do  we  find  assembled  the  handsomest  ferns  in 
great  profusion,  the  stately  Todea  africana,  Willd.,  with  trunks 
often  5  feet  to  6  feet  in  circumference,  often  forming  im- 
penetrable thickets  along  the  rocky  banks  of  the  streamlets ; 
Gleichenia  microphylla,  B.  Br.,  thriving  luxuriantly  in  the 
crevices  of  the  rocks ;  with  the  elegant  Adiantum  sethiopicumy 
Lin.,  Botrychium  tematum,  Swartz,  Lomaria  discolor^  Willd., 
and  capensia,  Willd.,  Aspidium  molley  Sw.,  Orammitis  lepto- 
phylla,  Swartz,  and  riUifolia,  B.  Br.,  interspersed  with  the 
lovely  Viola  letonicaefolia,  Sw.,  and  hederacea,  Labill.,  which 
border  the  water  edges ;  and  the  blue  flowers  of  Cassia  and 
white  of  Burehardia  give  a  great  charm  to  such  waterfalls  not 
easily  described. 

The  declivities  of  the  gullies  are  mostly  taken  possession  of 
by  the  luxuriant-growing  Pteris  esculenta,  Forst.,  massed  toge- 
gether  and  forming  often  impenetrable  thickets,  while  the 
graceful  Cheilanthes  tenuifolia,  Swartz,  is  generjtlly  found  in 
the  grass  land  at  the  base  of  the  hills,  extending  even  a  short 


214  SOUTH  AUSTEALIA. 

distance  into  the  plains.     There  also  grow  magnificent  trees  of 
Eucalypts, 

In  such  gullies,  with  their  fertile  soil  and  cool  clime,  the 
greatest  part  of  our  culinary  vegetables  are  grown  for  the 
market  to  a  degree  of  perfection  unknown  elsewhere,  and  un- 
interruptedly supplied  throughout  the  year.  Not  vegetables 
alone,  but  fruits,  viz. : — Gooseberries,  strawberries,  raspberries 
and  currants,  &c.,  are  raised  in  the  same  perfection. 

At  the  base,  and  also  extending  further  up  on  the  slopes  of 
the  hills  generally,  in  spots  least  covered*  with  underwood, 
appear  the  various  and  beautiful  terrestrial  Orchids^  with  their 
delicate  and  quaint  flowers,  together  with  other  monocotyle- 
donous  plants,  viz. : — Paiersonia  loTigiscapa,  Sweet,  Hypoxis 
glabella^  E.  Br.,  Ceesia  parviflora,  E.  Br.,  Arthropodium  laxum,, 
E.Br. 

The  most  conspicuous  Orchids  are : — Glossodia  major^  E. 
Br.,  Cahdenia  Patersoni,  E.  Br.,  latifolia,  E.  Br.,  camea,  E.  Br., 
Cyrtostylis  reniformis,  E.  Br.,  Pterostylts  ciicullata,  E.  Br., 
reflexa,  E.  Br.,  barlata,  LindL,  hngifolia,  E.  Br.,  Thelymitra 
aristata,  E.  Br.,  camea,  E.  Br.,  Diuris  palustris,  LindL,  macu- 
lata,  Sm.,  longifolia,  E.  Br.  The  genus  Pterostylts  is  repre- 
sented by  numerous  species.  This  aspect  of  the  forest  region 
applies  to  the  Barossa  Eange,  the  most  prominent  near  the 
coast.  Other  mountain  ranges  in  the  far  north  may  present 
different  features. 

The  Scrub  Land  Eegiok. — The  regions  of  the  so-called 
scrub  land  appear  over  the  whole  area  of  South  Australia,  ex- 
tending more  or  less  in  the  different  district ;  but  more  so  in  the 
north  and  east,  occupying  about  one-eighth  of  the  whole  area 
of  the  Colony.  They  form  long  stretches  of  desolate  arid 
plains — the  soil  being  of  the  poorest  description,  and  unfit  for 
cultivation,  changing  from  loamy  clay  to  pure  sand;  the 
surface  is  covered  with  fragments  of  silicious  rock,  ferrugi- 
nous sand,  and  ironstone ;  of  water  in  these  tracts  there  is  na 
indication.  The  vegetation  is  of  a  stunted  character,  and  the 
scrub  is  nearly  destitute  of  grasses  and  other  herbage ;  the 
few  genera  of  the  first  are  mostly  Neurachne,  Stipa,  Isolepsisy 
Spinifeor,  the  well-known  kangaroo  grass,  Anthistiria  ciliata^ 


ITS  FLOEA.  215 

and  a  few  Juncacese,  viz.,  Xerotea  glatica,  E.  Br.,  and  fiUformis, 
E,  Br. ;  and  these  grow  only  in  tufts,  considerably  apart  from 
each  other.  The  absence  of  other  herbage  is  as  great  during 
the  summer ;  but  this  almost  entire  deficiency  is  compensated 
by  an  endless  variety  of  genera  and  species  of  shrubs.  The 
general  impression  given  by  the  scrub  is  dismal,  although  the 
great  variety  of  shrubby  plants  associated  there  makes  it  highly 
interesting  to  the  botanist.  These  shrubs  reach  generally  the 
height  of  four  to  six  feet,  interspersed  with  stunted  and  rami- 
fied trees  of  the  genera  Castuirina,  JEucalyptus,  Santalum,  Mela- 
leuca,  Exocarpus,  Camphoromyrtus,  Bodonsea,  Frenela,  BanksiUy 
&c.  Smaller  shrubs  of  the  genera  Pimelea,  Leucopogon,  DiU- 
ivynia,  Hihhertiay  Acrotriche,  Calythrix,  cover  the  ground,  and 
are  overtopped  by  higher  growing  ones,  such  as  Hakea,  Loganiuy 
Alyxia,  Myoporum,  Stenoehilus,  Euphrasia,  Thomasia,  Bursaria, 
Pomaderris,  Haloragis,  Melaleuca^  Leptospermum,  Eutaxia, 
Acacia,  Isopogon,  Oorrea,  Rhagodia,  &c.,  forming  sometimes 
impenetrable  thickets ;  in  other  localities  the  scrub  consists 
only  of  Eucalyptus  dumosa,  A.  Cunn. ;  sometimes  formed  by 
other  bushy  Eucalypts,  viz..  Eucalyptus  uncinata,  Turcz. ;  hi- 
color,  A.  Cunn. ;  and  incrassata,  Labill.,  growing  only  six  to 
eight  feet  high,  and  extending  hundreds  of  miles. 

The  most  predominant  colour  of  the  leaves  of  the  scrub 
is  a  glaucous  green,  interspersed  here  and  there  with  whitish 
leaves  of  the  Bhagodia  and  other  shrubs,  having  reddish  brown 
leaves.  Most  of  the  leaves  are  ovate,  entire,  coriaceous, 
and  pungent;  shrubs  with  pinnated  leaves  are  seldom  met 
with. 

The  monotonous  and  dismal  look  of  an  extensive  scrub  is 
depressing,  especially  when  viewed  from  an  eminence.  The 
equal  height  of  the  vegetation,  the  dull  glaucous  colour  of 
the  foliage,  look  in  the  distance  like  a  rolling  sea  reaching  the 
horizon — at  least  the  fij^t  sight  of  the  Murray  scrub,  extend- 
ing hundreds  of  miles,  produced  this  impression  on  my  mind. 
Everyone  avoids  the  scrub  as  much  as  possible — many  have 
lost  their  way  there  and  perished  for  want  of  water. 

All  the  scrubs  in  the  different  districts  produce  the  same 
common  impression,  but  the  plants  comprising  them  are  not 


216  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

the  same  genera  and  species,  locality  and  soil  alBfecting  the 
character  of  the  flora. 

Shrubs  of  one  kind  or  another  are  found  in  flower  in  the 
scrub  throughout  the  year.  Most  kinds  produce  their  flowers 
in  September  and  October,  the  rainy  season  therefore  alters  the 
physiognomy  of  the  scrub  very  little ;  but  it  calls  into  life 
numerous  terrestrial  orchids,  of  which  a  good  many  kinds 
inhabit  the  scrub,  viz. : — EroehUus,  Caladenia,  Diuris,  Prasao- 
phyllum,  Dipodium,  Microtis^  Cyrtostylis,  &c.  These  appear 
with  some  perennial  and  annual  plants,  viz.: — Hdichrysum, 
Droaera,  Hdipterum^  Scsevola,  Brunatiia,  ThysonanthuSy  Euphra- 
sia, Goodenia,  Hypoxisy  Senecio,  &c.,  and  annual  grasses;  but 
their  duration  is  short,  as  with  the  setting  in  of  the  dry  season 
they  disappear  as  rapidly  as  they  appeared. 

A  most  valuable  scrub  plant,  at  least  for  the  pastoral  com- 
munity, and  appearing  copious  in  the  northern  districts,  is  the 
so-called  salt  bush,  Atriplex  nummularia,  B.  Br.,  on  which 
during  the  summer  and  in  times  of  drought  the  sheep  subsist. 
If  all  other  vegetation  is  suffering  from  the  drought,  the  salt 
bush  alone  withstands  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun  and  main- 
tains it  freshness,  and  saves  thousands  of  sheep  from  starvation. 

The  Grass  Land  Begion. — The  so-called  grass  land  forms 
the  principal  part  over  the  whole  area  of  South  Australia, 
consisting  in  endless  undulating  plains,  stretching  from  the 
coast  towards  the  north  and  east.  Along  the  coast  and  hun- 
dreds  of  miles  inland  the  grass  plains  haye  mostly  disappeared, 
and  now  form  agricultural  districts  producing  the  finest 
cereals  known — the  soil  varying  from  the  best  to  some  indif- 
ferently good. 

But  the  grass  plains  of  the  interior,  especially  towards  the 
north,  so  extensive  as  to  be  lost  in  the  horizon,  are  like 
deserts,  emphatically  monotonous  and  desolate.  Only  here 
and  there  will  be  found  some  fertile  spots  of  grass  land,  but 
not  of  large  extent,  alternating  with  bare  sandstone  ridges  or 
rolling  sandhills,  interspersed  with  gravelly  and  waterless 
flats.  Their  surface  is  often  saline,  covered  with  sharp  angular 
or  weatherworn  fragments  of  various  sizes  of  ironstone,  quartz, 
reddish-coloured  sandstone,  and  conglomerate,  supporting  only 


ITS  FLOKA.  217 

a  scanty  herbage  of  Atriplex,  Eochia,  SdlicomtOy  and  Scdsola, 
Spinifex  and  other  perennial  grasses,  growing  in  tufts,  tinging 
the  sandy  surface.  Groups  of  stunted  shrubs  and  small 
ramified  trees,  sometimes  of  a  limited  extent,  rise  from  the 
plains  like  islands  of  the  ocean.  They  mostly  consist  of  the 
sheaoak,  Castiarina  stricta,  Ait.,  glauca,  Sieb.,  and  distyla, 
Vent.,  Eucalyptus  odorcUa,  Behr.,  dumosay  A.  Cunn.,  virgatay 
Sieb.,  wattle,  Acacia  pycnantha.  The  plains  near  the  coast  are 
of  a  diflferent  character,  the  soil  mostly  fertile,  extending  often 
to  the  sea,  and  constituting  a  great  part  of  our  arable  land. 

The  stratum  of  humus  or  fertile  soil  covering  these  plains 
occasions  also  an  essential  alteration  in  their  vegetation. 
The  grasses  consist  of  more  nourishing  kinds,  viz. : — Poa, 
Panicum,  Festuca,  AgrostiSy  Airia,  AndropogoUy  Cynodon,  Stipay 
Pennisetumy  BromuSy  Ertachney  Anthistiriay  Hordeuniy  &c.  Here 
appear  also  a  great  number  of  low-growing  shrubs,  such  as 
Buraera,  OreviUea,  and  small  ramified  trees  of  peppermint, 
MyoporuMy  PiUosporumy  Caauarinay  and  Acacia,  either  single, 
or  sometimes  forming  groves,  without  underwood,  like  oases  in 
the  desert.  The  banks  of  the  rivers  and  creeks,  which  mostly 
cease  running  during  the  summer,  are  lined  with  majestic 
gum  trees,  often  of  immense  dimensions,  and  shrubs  extending 
more  or  less  upon  the  plains,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
soil.  This  vegetation,  on  both  sides  of  the  rivers,  appears  like 
green  ribbons,  following  their  curves ;  these  banks  have  their 
peculiar  flora;  here  appears  Viminariay  Leptospermumy  Mela- 
leuca,  Myoporunty  Hardenbergiay  &c. ;  herbaceous  plants,  Sium, 
MimvluBy  MyriogynCy  SeneciOy  Loheliay  Petroselinwrriy  Eryngiunty 
LotuSy  and  the  following  Jvaicaceae  and  Oramineae — JuncuSy 
LuzulUy  XeroteSy  NeurachnCy  DeyemciUy  Stipa,  &c. 

The  grass  land,  in  fact  the  whole  configuration  of  the 
plains,  has  a  great  similarity  to  the  Savannas  of  British 
Guiana — naturally  there  is  a  great  discrepancy  with  regard  to 
the  two  vegetations;  but  the  Savannas  have  mostly  the 
undulating  ground,  the  scattered  ramified  trees,  the  oases, 
the  rivers  lined  with  a  green  belt ;  and  the  appearance  of  the 
grasses  and  herbage  covering  the  area,  has,  during  the  dry 
season,  the  same  sunburnt  yellow  character,  and  is  destitute  of 


218  SOUTH  AUSTEALIA. 

all  green  herbage.  After  the  setting  in  of  the  rainy  season^, 
there  is  the  same  magic  appearance  of  the  grasses  and 
herbage. 

In  the  month  of  May  the  rainy  season  generally  com* 
mences,  which  has  a  magical  effect  upon  the  herbage  of  the 
plains ;  a  few  heavy  showers  change  the  aspect  of  the  dried-up 
grasses  and  herbage  into  a  green  and  beautiful  carpet. 

The  rapidity  with  which  especially  the  annual  grasses 
spring  up  is  such  that  in  a  few  days  the  plains  appear  clothed 
with  luxuriant  verdure,  which  only  northern  countries  ordi- 
narily produce.  With  the  grass  are  also  recalled  to  new  life 
the  yellow  flowers  of  Ranunculus  aquatilis,  Lin. ;  lappaceuSy 
Sm. ;  rivularis,  Banks ;  Oxalis  coffnata,  Steud. ;  Hypoxia 
glabella,  E.  Br. ;  with  the  white  flowers  of  Drosera  rosulatay, 
Lehm. ;  the  blue  of  the  Wahlenhergia  gracilisy  Dec. ;  Anguih 
laria  higlandulosa,  R.  Br. ;  Stackhousia  ohium,  Lindl.,  with  its^ 
perfume-spreading  flowers. 

Every  week  adds  new  colours  to  the  beautiful  carpet.  The 
scarlet  flowers  of  Kennedya  prostrata,  the  violet  ones  of  Stoain* 
sona  procumhens,  F.  Muell. ;  and  lessertifolia,  Dec. ;  the  delicate 
flowers  of  Thysanotus  Patersoni  climbing  up  the  dry  grass 
stalks,  or  overrunning  small  shrubs.  The  flowers  of  the 
isolated  trees  or  copses  of  the  wattles  soon  glitter  in  their 
yellow  clothing.  The  Loranthus  Exocarpi,  Behr.,  and  Miqudiy 
Lehm.,  growing  parasitical  of  the  Casuarinas  and  Eucalyptus 
odorata,  adorned  with  their  red  .flowers  hanging  in  the  air. 
The  small  shrubs  of  Bursera  spinosa  are  covered  with  their 
white  flowers,  mingled  with  the  red  of  different  shrubby 
Grevilleas,  CompositaSy  are  seen  blooming  over  the  plains  in  all 
colours ;  and  every  week  brings  new  representatives  of  floral 
beauty. 

But  by  the  middle  of  November  the  number  of  flowering 
plants  already  lessens  considerably,  the  annual  grasses  and 
other  herbaceous  plants  begin  to  dry  up,  droop,  and  disappear^ 
and  in  January  the  grass  land  resembles  a  ripe  thinly  sown 
cornfield,  and  we  find  only  solitary  shrubs  covered  with  a  few 
flowers  or  a  few  plants  of  Convolvulus  ervhescens,  Lobelia  gibbosa, 
LabilL,  the  latter  with  their  leafless  and  fleshy  stalks,  and 


ITS  FLOEA.  219 

Mesembryanthemum  atistrale,  Soland.    In  some  localities  this- 
period  appears  earlier  or  later. 

The  seeds  of  the  annual  plants  have  been  scattered^ 
perennial  herbage  returned  to  its  dormant  state,  to  awake  to 
new  life  at  the  setting  in  of  the  following  rainy  seasons ;  and 
the  plains  have  during  the  summer  months  a  dismal  dried  up 
appearance. 

There  is  another  kind  of  grass  land,  appearing  here  and 
there  in  large  tracts  called  "Bay  of  Biscay  land."  Such 
tracts  have  a  peculiar,  undulating  surface,  and  look  like  a 
waving  sea  which  has  suddenly  become  motionless.  The  soil 
is  considered  very  good,  of  a  chocolate  colour  and  produces, 
fine  wheat  crops,  but  it  must  be  ploughed  several  years  before 
the  surface  becomes  level. 

The  flora  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay  land  too  has  its  peculiarity ; 
the  Eucalypts  shunning  such  tracts,  which,  however,  are  rich 
in  Compositse  and  grasses,  but  poor  in  Monocotyledons. 

The  sea  beach  is  mostly  bordered  with  a  belt  of  arborescent 
shrubs  and  small  trees  of  ramified  growth,  viz.: — Melaleuca^ 
Preissiana,  Schau,  decvssata,  E.  Br.,  Alyoda,  shrubby  IkicalyptSy 
Myoporum,  Pittosporumy  and  Santalum,  interrupted  with  a  thick 
belt  of  Avicennia  offidnalisy  Lin.,  extending  along  the  coast. 
The  sandy,  often  saline,  tracts  stretching  towards  the  plains, 
are  covered  with  AtripleXy  Tetragona^  Aster,  Apium,  Euphrasiay 
Zygophyllum,  Niiraria,  Erigeron,  Cotula,  Podolepis,  Erodiuniy 
Helichrysum,  Leptorhynchm,  Dianella,  Arthropodium,  Salsohy. 
and  Mesembryanthemum,  which  are  often  supplanted  by  tracts- 
of  Spinifex,  Xerodes,  Juncus,  Anthistiria,  Lepidosperma,  IsolepiSy 
Chsetospora,  Cladiumy  and  Carex. 

Intba-tbopioal  Eegion. — According  to  G.  W.  Goyder,. 
Esq.,  Surveyor-General,  the  country,  especially  near  the  coast 
of  the  intra-tropical  part  of  South  Australia,  consists  prin- 
cipally of  tableland  of  from  60  to  150  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  falling  thence  gently  towards  the  sea,  although  form- 
ing here  and  there  into  cliffs,  which  are  fringed  with  dense 
thickets  of  various  sized  timber,  matted  together  with  bamboo,, 
and  a  variety  of  climbing  plants  and  shrubs.  The  low  lands- 
near  the  sea,  especially  such  as  are  under  the  influence  of  the 


220  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

tide,  are  covered  with  dense  mangroves,  Avicennia  officinalis, 
Lin.,  and  Bhizophora  mtusronata,  Lam.  These,  as  the  land 
ascends  to  a  higher  level,  give  place  to  palms,  Pandanus, 
Melaleucas,  Leptospermums,  Grevilleas,  Eucalypts,  and  Acacias, 
forming  an  open  forest.  Amongst  the  underwood  are  found 
ferns,  Aroids,  as  Amorphophallus  campanvlaius,  Dec,  and 
Tacc<iceas,  Tacca  pinnatijida,  Lin. 

The  grass  over  the  whole,  or  nearly  the  whole,  of  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  grows  luxuriantly,  of  which  the  most 
prominent  genera  are  the  following : — Fuirena,  Cyprus^  Eleo^ 
charis,  Cimbopogon,  Fimbristylis,  Panicum,  Setaria,  Spordbolus, 
Anthistiria,  Eriachne,  &c.  The  soil  is  mostly  good,  and  of  a 
dark  brown  colour,  with  small  nodules  of  ferruginous  sandstone 
upon  the  surface. 

Near  the  sea,  and  generally  upon  a  watercourse  near  its 
junction  with  the  sea,  swampy  flats  occur,  containing  timber  of 
lai-ge  growth  and  rank  vegetation.  The  lakes  and  waterpools 
are  covered  with  waterlilies,  Nymphma  gigarUea  and  Nelumbium 
speciosum,  Willd.,  showing  their  beautiful  flowers  in  various 
shades  of  blue,  pink,  or  crimson.  The  flats  on  either  side  of 
large  rivers  also  contain  good  soil,  except  where  they  join  the 
higher  land,  where  there  is  a  belt  of  sandy  character,  poor  to 
look  at,  though  covered  with  timber  and  grass.  The  same  kind 
of  open  forest,  undulating  and  flat  land,  exists  over  the  area, 
sometimes  the  soil  changing  suddenly  from  a  dark  brown  to 
a  very  light  loam,  the  soil  improving  and  the  vegetation  along 
the  rivers  becoming  luxuriant. 

-  Judging  from  the  plants  collected  by  Mr.  Schultz,  who  was 
employed  for  about  two  years  there  as  a  naturalist,  during 
which  time  he  obtained  about  700  species  of  plants,  the  intra- 
tropical  flora  of  South  Australia  does  not  present  the  luxuriant 
growth  and  umbrageous  foliage  we  are  used  to  see  in  other 
tropical  floras.  The  number  of  species  is  also  very  small, 
owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  dryness  of  the  climate ;  and  from  the 
same  cause  it  is  deficient  in  Epiphytal  Orchids,  palms  and  ferns. 
Acacias,  Eucalypts,  Fums^  Bombax,  Cupania,  Terminaha,  Psyclto^ 
tria,  Grevilleay  form  the  prevailing  timber  trees,  and  line  the 
rivers ;  but  the  Eucalypts  and  Acacias  do  not  reach  the  gigantic 


ITS  FLOKA.  221 

size  of  their  brethren  in  the  extra-tropical  region.  The  follow- 
ing orders  are  well  represented,  viz. : — Euphorbiacese,  ComposUae, 
Convolvuldcese,  Bvbidcem,  Qoodencyviacese,  Leguminosae^  Urticeae. 

The  representatives  of  the  intra-tropical  flora  of  South 
Australia  seem  to  extend  towards  the  east,  as  a  great  number 
of  genera  and  species  reach  to  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  and 
even  further.  A  great  many  species  of  the  Indian  flora  appear 
along  the  coast  of  the  intra-tropical  part,  viz.: — Strychnos, 
Tamarindus,  the  Cajuput  tree,  Melaleuca  lev^adendron,  appear 
abundant  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  and  even  over  the  dry- 
sandstone  tableland,  but  of  less  luxuriant  growth. 

The  Naturalized  Plants  op  South  Australia. — It  is 
an  historical  fact  that  whenever  man  settles  in  a  new  country, 
he  not  only  carries  the  weeds  that  are  most  troublesome  in 
cultivated  ground  along  with  him,  but  he  also  exercises  a 
potent  influence  over  the  indigenous  vegetation,  especially 
when  he  engages  in  agricultural  and  pastoral  pursuits.  The 
plough,  the  axe,  the  flocks  and  herds,  are  enemies  to  existing 
vegetation;  and  as  cultivation  advances  one  representative 
after  another  succumbs  to  the  foreign  influence.  But  the 
plough,  axe,  and  herds  are  not  the  sole  destroyers  of  the 
native  herbage,  for  with  cultivation  are  introduced  noxious 
weeds,  and  the  new  comers,  finding  a  suitable  soil  and  climate, 
spread  with  alarming  rapidity,  and  become  possessors  of  the 
ground — ejecting  the  native  plants,  or  taking  their  places  by 
them  as  if  they  were  truly  indigenous. 

In  proof  of  this  I  will  only  mention  the  names  of  a  few  of 
such  intruders,  not  only  upon  cultivated  ground,  but  also  over 
the  uncultivated  districts,  to  the  great  injury  of  the  native 
herbage,  viz. : — The  Cockspur,  Centaurea  meliiensisy  Lin. ;  the 
Scotch  thistle,  Cardutts  Marianus^  Lin.,  and  Onopordon  Acan- 
thivm,  Lin. ;  the  Cape  Dandelion,  Cryptostemma  calendulacea,  E. 
Br. ;  the  Bathurst  burr,  Xanthium  spinosum,  Lin. ;  the  French 
catchfly,  SHeite  gallica,  Lin. ;  the  Stink  Aster,  Anthemis  Cotula, 
Lin. ;  the  so-called  sheepweed,  Lithospermum  davuricum^  Lehm. ; 
and  arvense,  Lin.,  which  already  cover  large  tracts  of  pasture 
land,  and  will  extend  further  and  further,  to  the  destruction  of 
the  native  herbage.    Legislation  has  not  succeeded,  notwith- 


222 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


standing  large  sums  have  been  expended,  in  extirpating  the 
two  most  injurious  intruders,  viz.,  the  Scotch  thistle  and  the 
Bathurst  burr,  and  it  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the  altered 
•circumstances,  which  seem  to  be  so  favourable  to  their  growth, 
will  prove  permanent,  or,  by  an  over-stimulation,  a  change 
will  be  gradually  effected  in  the  constitution  of  the  intruders, 
bringing  about  degenertwjy  and  subsequent  extinction. 

It  will  not  be  uninteresting  to  give  here  a  list  of  the  more 
troublesome  weeds  naturalized  in  South  Australia,  in  addition 
to  those  already  mentioned : — 


Lepidinm  mderale,  Lin. 
CapseUa  Bursc^pastoris,  Lin. 
Atriplex  patnia,  Lin. 
Urtica  urens,  Lin. 
Polygonum  aviculare,  Lin. 
Onions  lanceolatus,  Lin. 

arvensis,  Hoffm. 

palustris,  Willd. 
Cynara  Scolymns,  Lin. 
AnagaUis  arvensis,  Lin. 
Onaphalium  luteo-album,  Lin. 


Cerastium  Tolgatum.  Lin. 
Fumaria  officinaUa,  Lin. 
BaphanuB  Baphanistrum,  Lin. 
SteUaria  media,  Lin. 
Lythmm  hysBopifolium,  Lin. 
Portnlaca  oleracea,  Lin. 
Foeniculnm  ynlgare,  Lin. 
Sonchus  asper,  vill. 
Solanum  nigrum,  Lin. 
Oireium  lanoeolatum.  Scop, 
arvense,  Scop. 


A  good  many  grasses  from  other  countries,  especially 
lEuropean,  have  become  domiciled  in  South  Australia,  which 
have  improved  the  pasture  near  the  coast  materially. 

The  South  Australian  cereals  are  considered  to  be  the 
:finest  grown  in  the  world ;  and  it  is  a  fact  that,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  intra-tropical,  all  fruits  from  other  parts  of  the 
globe  thrive  most  luxuriantly  in  South  Australia,  and  come 
to  a  perfection,  in  size  and  flavour,  in  the  different  localities  of 
the  Colony,  hardly  knov/n  in  other  countries ;  and  most  fruits, 
vegetables,  and  useful  plants  are  found  to  improve  materially 
by  the  change,  as  the  climatic  conditions  often  succeed  in 
modifying  and  improving  their  condition.  The  finest  grapes 
are  grown  on  the  plains ;  here  they  ripen  to  great  perfection, 
and  the  South  Australian  wine  must  soon  obtain  a  high 
•character  in  the  foreign  markets.  On  the  plains  also  grow 
apricots,  peaches,  nectarines,  oranges,  citrons,  lemons,  and 
shaddocks,  plums,  cherries,  figs,  almonds,  mulberries,  olives, 
Ac;  while  in  the  hills  and  gullies  are  grown  straw- 
berries, raspberries,  currants,  walnuts,  chestnuts,  filberts,  &c., 
of  the  best  quality.      In  such  gullies  are   also  raised  the 


ITS  FLOKA.  223 

finest  vegetables  and  other  culinary  herbs,  at  all  seasons,  in 
great  abundance,  as  also  on  the  plains  during  the  rainy  season ; 
cauliflowers,  often  two  feet  in  diameter,  are  not  seldom  seen ; 
cabbage,  turnips,  asparagus,  artichoke,  leeks,  onions,  beet, 
carrots,  potatoes,  endive,  lettuce,  radish,  celery,  &c. ;  cucumber^, 
the  luscious  fruits  of  the  sweet  and  water  melon,  pumpkins,  &c., 
growing  to  a  flavour  and  size  which  at  home  would  be  con- 
sidered as  an  exaggeration  when  described. 

The  advancement  in  the  taste  for  horticulture  and  flori- 
culture in  South  Australia  is  most  praiseworthy  and  on  the 
increase,  as  proved  by  the  many  tasteful  gardens  which  are 
now  seen,  not  only  in  town,  but  in  the  environs  and  country  ; 
therefore  the  importation  and  acclimatization  of  the  most  choice 
foreign  plants,  especially  florists'  flowers,  is  marvellous,  and 
most  of  these  newcomers  improve  so  in  size  and  the  perfection 
of  their  flowers  as  to  astonish  any  European  gardener.  At  the 
Botanic  Gardens  are  cultivated  about  5000  outdoor  plants, 
mostly  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  Alpine  plants  will  not  prosper  in  the  gardens  of  the 
plains,  but  find  a  genial  clime  in  the  hills  and  gullies  (from 
about  1000  feet  to  2000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea),  where 
we  find  the  camellias,  azaleas,  rhododendrons,  and  other  Alpine 
plants  in  great  profusion.  In  such  situations  thrive  also  our 
northern  forest  trees,  oaks,  beeches,  birch,  abies,  &c. ;  while 
the  elms,  ash,  poplars,  Robinias,  &c.,  luxuriate  in  the  plains. 
In  the  same  localities  the  Califomian  pines,  cypresses,  and 
some  of  the  European  pines  thrive,  but  the  Himalayan  and 
several  of  the  European  pines  succeed  only  in  the  hills. 


[The  oUervations  contained  in  the  following  pages  have  been  extracted  ftvm 
papers  read  hy  me  "before  tJie  Chamber  of  Manufactures,  in  Addaide, 
with  Hie  object  of  giving  greater  publicity  to  several  undeveloped  resources 
of  South  Australia.'] 

The  following  vegetable  productions,  although  not  yet 
forming  articles  of  export,  or  of  much  colonial  consumption, 
might  be  raised  with  advantage  by  immigrants  who  may  not 
be  in  possession  of  large  capital.  The  lands,  especially  the 
gullies  in  the  hilly   districts,  are  adapted  for  many  other 


224  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

braoches  of  agriculture  than  the  all-engrossing  object — the 
cultivation  of  cereals — and  from  amongst  those  mentioned 
the  less  wealthy  cultivator  can  make  his  selection. 

Sericulture. — The  importance  of  introducing  sericulture 
into  South  Australia  is  undeniable,  as  we  have  clear  evidence 
of  the  adaptability  of  our  climate  to  the  production  of  an 
excellent  quality  of  silk,  for  which  the  demand  is  now  un- 
limited, in  consequence  of  the  disease  amongst  the  silkworms 
prevailing  in  the  silk-producing  countries  in  Europe,  which 
is  unknown  here.     Considering  how  silk  manufacture  has  in- 
creased for  centuries,  and  still  continues  to  do  so,  the  demand 
can  never  fail.    For  many  years,  with  all  my  energy,  I  have 
advocated  sericulture  as  a  paying  industry,  and  advised  the 
extensive  planting  of  the  mulberry.     To  facilitate  the  scheme, 
I  made  inquiries  in  Europe  as  to  what  kind  of  mulberry  was 
now  considered  the  best  for  feeding  the  silkworm,  and  intro- 
duced the  seeds,  and  oflfered  for  distribution  the  young  plants 
of  the  most  approved  kinds ;  but  I  am  sorry  to  say  the  demand 
for  these  was  very  limited,  and  I  hailed  with  delight  the 
judicious  act  of  the  Government  in  providing  the  means  for 
laying  out  the  first  mulberry  plantation  in  South  Australia 
at  the  Magill  Orphanage,  where  my  surplus  stock  could  be 
used.    The  object  aimed  at  in  this  scheme  will  prove  in  future 
most  advantageous  to  that  establishment.     There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  production  of  silk  will  become  one  of  our  most  im- 
I>ortant  industries,  which  will  at  the  same  time  be  a  practical 
and  useful  aid  to  the  ordinary  occupation  of  our  farmers.     As 
the  silk  manufacturers  now  prefer  the  cocoons  to  the  reeled 
silk,  this  will  save  a  good  deal  of  the  tedious  work  of  seri- 
culture.   Many  will  say  I  am  too  sanguine  in  regard  to  the 
result  of  sericulture  in  South  Australia,  but  I  think  I  see 
my  way  clearly ;  and  I  am  more  and  more  convinced  by  the 
favourable  letter  Mr.  G.  Francis  received  some  time  ago  from 
the  Silk  Supply  Association,  London.     This  gentleman  had 
sent  different  cocoons  of  his  raising  to  that  body  to  test  their 
value,  and  received  the  gratifying  news  that  they  were  worth 
from  3s.  to  5s.  6d.  per  pound.     If  we  consider  that  6«.  per 
pound  is  the  highest  price  obtainable  for  the  best  cocoons  in 


ITS  FLORA.  225 

England,  is  not  os.  6d,  per  pound  a  most  encouraging  fact  in 
regard  to  the  quality  of  the  South  Australian  cocoons  ?  I  am 
informed  by  another  gentleman,  an  enthusiastic  sericulturist, 
Mr.  Wurm,  that  by  receiving  68.  per  pound  cocoons  would 
pay  well.  In  regard  to  the  growth  of  the  inulberry  through- 
out the  Colony,  I  may  say  it  grows  eyerywhere.  We  find  the 
trees  growing  at  Glenelg  and  Brighton,  close  to  the  beach  in 
sand,  as  luxuriant  even  as  in  the  hills  or  elsewhere.  In  Italy, 
as  I  understaiid,  sericulture  is  divided  into  three  different 
branches — namely,  the  growing  and  selling  of  the  mulberry 
leaves,  the  rearing  of  the  cocoons,  and  the  reeling  of  the  silk  ; 
and,  in  comparison  with  the  work  employed,  one  pays  as  well 
as  the  other.  But  it  is  not  my  intention  to  give  a  scientific 
description  of  the  manufacture  of  silk,  or  the  culture  of  the 
mulberry ;  and,  in  order  not  to  trespass  too  much,  I  will  not 
go  into  the  dry  details  of  figures  as  to  the  enormous  amount 
of  money  which  is  spent  in  producing  silk,  but  will  only  call 
your  attention  to  the  extraordinary  fact  that  the  sum  paid 
for  silkworm  eggs  from  China  and  Japan  is  about  £100,000 
yearly.  Although  I  feel  aware  that  in  giving  bonuses  great 
caution  must  be  exercised,  yet  I  feel  confident  that  a  bonus 
for  the  first  half  ton  of  cocoons,  in  four  bales  of  250  lbs.  each, 
would  be  worth  the  consideration  of  our  Parliament.  I  have 
mentioned  half  a  ton,  feeling  that,  limited  to  a  smaller  quan- 
tity, it  might  only  lead  people  to  cultivate  for  the  bonus, 
without  an  earnest  desire  to  promote  the  industry.  I  am 
expecting  by  every  mail  a  quantity  of  mulberry  seeds,  and 
probably,  next  season,  will  be  prepared  to  distribute  a  number 
of  plants.  This,  I  find,  is  a  good  plan  to  lay  the  basis  of  new 
industries.  There  are  many  people  who  shrink  from  the 
trouble  of  procuring  seed  and  raising  the  plants,  but  if  they 
can  get  trees,  they  will  plant  them.  I  may  also  mention  here 
that,  after  many  trials  of  different  kinds  of  mulberries  for  the 
food  of  the  silkworm  in  the  silk-producing  countries  have 
been  made,  the  white  mulberry  (Moras  aJba)  is  now  considered 
the  best;  but  a  variety  (Moras  multicaulis)  is  used  for  the 
young  worms,  it  beginning  to  leaf  four  weeks  earlier  than 

Q 


226  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

Moru8  aJba,  and  this  kind  should  not  be  omitted  in  any  mul- 
berry plantation. 

Flax  and  Hemp. — ^We  may  say,  with  gratification,  that 
the  energetic  and  enterprising  farmers  in  the  South  have  laid 
the  basis  of  a  new  and  probably  remunerative  industry — that 
of  flax-growing.  If  we  consider  the  unfavourable  season  the 
flax-growers  had  to  contend  with,  the  first  result  is  in  every 
way  most  encouraging ;  and  I  hope,  for  the  well-doing  of  the 
Colony,  that  other  districts  will  follow  the  example,  as  there 
is  no  doubt  that  flax  will  grow  in  most  of  our  districts,  and 
yield  a  fair  return.  I  would  also  call  the  attention  of  the 
farmers  to  the  growth  of  the  hemp  plant,  another  saleable 
article,  much  sought  after  in  the  home  markets,  both  for  its 
fibre  and  seed.  The  latter  is  noted  in  the  last  price  current 
at  448.  to  48s.  per  hundredweight ;  and,  considering  the  heavi- 
ness of  the  seed,  it  yields  a  remunerative  price.  The  hemp 
plant  will  grow  in  any  kind  of  soil,  and  could  probably  be 
grown  throughout  the  Colony  with  profit ;  and  to  show  what 
an  important  plant  hemp  is,  which  produces  one  of  the  best 
cordages,  during  the  last  three  quarters  of  the  year  1050  tons 
of  cordage  and  rope  have  been  imported.  This  shows  the 
great  importance  of  the  attention  of  our  colonists  being  called 
to  the  subject. 

Beetboot. — I  am  convinced  that  the  soil  and  climate, 
especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mount  Gambler,  is  admi- 
rably adapted  for  the  growth  of  the  beetroot,  for  the  manu- 
facture of  sugar  and  other  purposes.  According  to  the  latest 
statistical  news  from  home,  there  are  at  present  1184  beet 
sugar  works  on  the  Continent  of  Europe,  and  the  total  produce 
of  these  is  about  four  and  a  half  million  hundredweights  of 
sugar  annually ;  upon  an  average  about  4000  lbs.  is  obtained 
from  500  cwt.  of  beet,  and  this  quantity  is  the  yield  of  about 
two  and  a  half  acres.  The  refuse,  after  the  sugar  is  extracted, 
forms  an  excellent  article  of  food  for  cattle,  and  is  considered 
even  better  than  any  specially  cultivated  for  the  purpose ;  a 
good  quality  of  paper  is  also  made  from  it.  The  molasses  is 
also  used  up  for  fodder,  not  being  fit  for  sweetening  on  account 
of  the  mineral  salt  it  contains.    As  mentioned  before,  there  is 


ITS  FLORA.  227 

no  doubt  that  the  beet  will  grow  in  many  districts  of  the 
Colony ;  and  if  we  can  produce  the  beet  sugar  for  the  same 
price  as  cane  sugar  imported,  it  will  become  a  flourishing 
industry;  and  then  we  must  consider  the  fact  that  with  a 
beet  sugar  manufactory  the  fattening  of  cattle  must  be  con- 
nected, which  will  also  produce  a  fair  return.  But  this  is  not 
all — the  farmers,  by  beet-growing,  will  have  the  advantage  of 
a  rotation  crop,  the  want  of  which  is  severely  felt  in  South 
Australia.  In  Prussia,  where  beet  sugar  manufactories  are 
established,  no  cereal  fields  are  observable  for  miles  around — 
the  eye  only  meets  beet  fields,  they  paying  the  farmer  far 
better  than  cereals. 

Hops. — Of  this  very  important  plant  we  have  already 
proof  of  successful  growth  in  the  samples  of  hops  grown  at 
Lobethal,  Encoimter  Bay,  Mount  Barker,  and  Mount  Gambler ; 
at  the  latter  locality  it  is  already  cultivated  extensively,  with 
satisfactory  results.  It  is  true  we  have  not  many  favourable 
districts  in  the  Colony  for  the  profitable  growth  of  this  valu- 
able plant ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  in  other  districts  besides 
the  above-named,  suitable  spots  will  be  found. 

Tobacco. — ^There  is  no  doubt  that  many  districts  of  the 
Colony  are  well  adapted  for  the  culture  of  tobacco.  Much 
attention  was  given  to  its  cultivation  in  the  early  days  of  the 
Colony,  and  superior  tobacco  was  made;  but  its  cultivation 
became  entirely  neglected  when  the  high  prices  of  wheat  which 
have  since  ruled  made  that  cultivation  more  remunerative 
than  that  of  tobacco.  I  remember  in  the  year  1851  seeing  at 
Lyndoch  Valley  a  tobacco-field  which  not  only  attracted  my 
attention,  but  created  my  surprise  and  admiration,  having 
scarcely  seen  better  plants  during  my  travels  on  the  Orinoco. 
I  will  not  maintain  that  the  South  Australian  tobacco  could, 
or  ever  will,  surpass  the  South  American  or  West  Indian  in 
flavour ;  but  we  shall  produce,  no  doubt,  a  fair  sample,  just  as 
good  as  is  produced  on  the  Continent.  I  was  so  much  aston- 
ished at  seeing  this  Lyndoch  Valley  field  of  tobacco  that  I 
measured  some  of  the  leaves — and  on  referring  to  my  note- 
book I  find  that  their  average  size  was  twenty-one  inches  long, 
by  twelve  inches  wide.    I  am  convinced  that  having  gained 

Q  2 


228  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

experience  in  its  manufacture,  we  shall  produce  a  fair  sample  ; 
and  should  we  even  fail  in  this  the  first  or  second  year,  the 
produce  could  be  used  for  sheepwash,  and  remunerate  the 
grower.  If  we  consider  the  great  sum  which  the  Government 
derives  from  the  duty  on  imported  tobacco,  I  think  we  should 
endeavour  as  much  as  possible  to  retain  at  least  one  part  of 
the  money  in  the  Colony,  which  is  yearly  sent  away  for 
tobacco.  I  may  repeat,  there  is  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  a 
great  many  districts  in  our  Colony  are  adapted  for  the  growth 
of  this,  I  may  say,  indispensable  luxury — namely,  the  South, 
the  neighbourhood  of  Adelaide,  Hope  Valley,  Mount  Barker, 
Gumeracha,  Blumberg,  Lyndoch  Valley — and  many  more 
favourable  spots  would  be  found.  At  the  Botanic  Garden 
good  plants  may  be  seen  growing,  notwithstanding  the  late 
unfavourable  season,  producing  good  leaves,  without  the 
slightest  attention  being  paid  to  them.  Local  tobacco  and 
cigar  factories  have  been  established,  but  at  present  mainly 
depend  on  imported  leaf  tobacco  for  their  supply. 

Zante  Currants,  Sultana  and  other  Eaisins. — ^It  is 
a  gratifying  fact  to  observe  that  our  first  sample  of  Zante 
currants  sent  to  Melbourne  are  considered  by  our  neighbours 
as  of  most  excellent  quality,  superior,  cleaner,  and  of  better 
quality  than  that  of  the  imported  ones.  And  we  in  South 
Australia  till  now  have  thought  little  of  them.  The  proverb, 
"  A  prophet  is  not  thought  much  of  in  his  own  country,"  is 
here  applicable.  We  produce  an  article  which  is  considered 
superior  to  that  we  import,  and  yet  very  little  has  been  done  in 
the  culture  of  the  Zante  currant  and  raisins.  If  we  consider 
that  the  annual  import  of  dried  fruits  into  the  Australian 
Colonies  is  generally  more  than  £120,000,  and  as  we  know 
that  our  climate  is  in  every  way  favourable  to  these  produc- 
tions, is  it  not  surprising  that  no  more  attention  has  been  paid 
to  these  sources  of  profit  ?  I  would  strongly  recommend  all 
the  vignerons,  especially  the  smaller  ones,  having  from  one  to 
three  acres  of  vineyard,  to  graft  all  the  worthless  kinds  of 
grapes  with  Zante  currant.  Sultana,  and  other  raisin  grapes.. 
It  is  gratifying  to  me  to  have  added  something  to  this  exten- 
sive branch  of  industry  by  the  introduction  of  the  Sultana 


ye. 

ii 
I. 


r 


ITS  FLOKA.  220 

grape,  which  is  regarded  by  the  vignerom  with  extreme  satis- 
faction. I  may  say  that,  from  information  received,  probably 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  1100  grafts  I  distributed  last 
year  have  grown ;  and  this  valuable  raisin,  which  commands 
the  highest  prices  in  the  European  markets,  may  be  con- 
-sidered  as  established  in  the  Colony.  Velry  little  attention 
has  been  paid  to  the  drying  of  apples,  apricots,  plums,  figs, 
And  other  fruits,  from  which  some  profit  could  be  derived, 
but  which  unfortunately  are  frequently  left  to  rot  on  the 
ground. 

Almonds. — Of  these  till  now  very  little  has  been  thought, 
And  in  consequence  the  trees  have  been  utterly  neglected, 
because,  as  the  phrase  goes,  "  they  won't  pay ; "  but  I  am  of 
A  different  opinion,  since  I  have  seen  that  the  almonds  will 
form  a  profitable  export.  In  the  last  London  Prices  Current, 
Jordan  almonds  are  quoted  at  85«.  to  240«.  per  cwt. ;  and  in 
their  shells,  60«.  to  70«.  Is  this  not  an  encouragement  to  pay 
more  attention  to  this,  till  now,  neglected  tree,  which  will 
grow  in  every  locality — ^a  tree  which  is  satisfied  with  every 
.soil,  and  will  produce  every  year  a  bountiful  return?  We 
■see  hundreds,  I  may  say  thousands,  of  almond  trees  scattered 
over  the  Colony;  we  see  trees  in  nearly  every  garden — but 
their  fruits  are  worthless.  I  think  two-thirds  of  the  trees 
grown  here  are  only  seedling  plants.  Naturally  they  never 
will  produce  a  marketable  fruit;  the  grafting  knife  should 
be  used,  and  I  would  recommend  the  Jordan  and  Brandis 
varieties,  which  are  much  sought  after  by  the  trade.  I  hope 
Jiorticulturists,  as  well  as  agriculturists,  will  take  this  into 
their  consideration ;  for  it  must  be  plain  to  them  that 
Almonds  will  pay  for  export  for  the  little  trouble  bestowed  on 
them.  There  may  be  many  nooks  and  comers  on  their 
property  where  almost  nothing  else  will  grow.  I  can  assure 
them  the  almond  tree  will  be  satisfied  with  such  spots — 
only  they  must  not  neglect  trenching  the  ground  first. 

Olives. — ^I  think  there  is  scarcely  any  country  where  the 
olive  thrives  better  than  in  South  Australia.  Having  been 
largely  planted  by  the  early  colonists  in  a  variety  of  situa- 
tions, and  in  diverse  soils,  there   is  abundant  evidence  of 


230  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA. 

their  facility  of  culture  in  the  fine  growth  of  the  trees, 
yielding  larger  quantities  of  fruit,  which  is  eagerly  sought 
for  by  manufacturers  of  oil,  now  carrying  on  their  operations 
with  success.  The  samples  produced  are  considered  as  fine 
as  the  best  Italian  oil,  and,  being  pure,  are  of  course  far 
better  than  that  usually  imported*  But  little  labour  is  re- 
quired in  the  cultivation  of  the  olive  after  the  seedlings 
(which  can  be  procured  in  abundance)  are  planted  and  grafted, 
and  the  picking  of  the  fruit  is  easily  done  by  women  and 
children.  The  market  price  of  the  berries  is  about  5«.  to 
08.  6d,  per  cwt.,  and  oil  in  quantity  has  been  sold  at  auction 
at  from  6«.  6d.  to  10«.  per  gallon,  the  retail  price  being  12». 
for  best  quality.  Large  plantations  have  lately  been  made, 
and  this  industry  may  now  be  considered  an  established  &ct. 
There  is  a  large  home  consumption  and  an  unlimited  export 
market. 

BiciNus  OR  Castor  Oil  Plant. — ^This  tree,  considered  as 
worthless  as  the  almond,  we  see  thrive  in  every  locality,  and  in 
every  soil,  poor  or  rich.  We  see  it  grow  close  to  the  coast  in 
almost  pure  sand,  covered  with  seed,  and  generally  regarded 
as  a  nuisance.  But.  the  hundredweight  of  seed  of  this 
nuisance  is  noted,  according  to  the  last  Prices  Current,  as 
worth  10«.  to  12«.  The  ricinus,  as  I  remarked,  will  grow 
where  scarcely  any  other  vegetation  will  grow,  and  such  spots 
are  generally  found  on  farms.  Why  not  plant  them  with 
ricinus  ?  After  planting,  there  is  little  or  no  trouble  except 
gathering  the  seeds,  which  can  be  accomplished  by  children  ; 
and  if  a  tree  brings  only  3«.  to  4^.  a  year,  it  is  worth  the  little 
attention  bestowed  on  it. 

Mustard  furnishes  a  very  important,  and,  I  beUeve,  a  paying 
article  of  commerce,  and  I  am  satisfied  would  thrive  with  us  in 
all  our  districts  if  it  were  not  for  the  aphis.  The  mustard 
plant  belongs  to  the  same  natural  order  as  the  cabbage  plaut 
— ^the  Crucfferse — whose  representatives  are,  without  exception, 
so  unmercifully  attacked  by  this  scourge  that  I  fear  the  mus- 
tard plant  would  not  escape  its  ravages ;  but,  as  Australia  is 
the  land  of  anomalies,  my  fear  may  be  premature,  and  the 
aphis  may  after  all  not  do  so  much  harm  to  the  plant  as  I 


ITS  FLORA.  231 

fear.  Our  farmers  should  at  least  make  some  trials.  The 
northern  pkins  would  probably  be  well  adapted  for  the  growth 
of  the  mustard^  as  the  plants  in  too  rich  a  soil  would  grow 
too  luxuriant  in  their  stalks  and  leaves.  If  we  consider  the 
great  quantity  of  mustard  imported  into  this  Colony,  there  is 
no  doubt  the  cultivation  of  the  plant  would  pay. 

Eape. — If  I  did  not  fear  the  ravages  of  the  aphis,  as  rape 
belongs  to  the  same  natural  order  as  that  of  the  mustard,  I 
would  strongly  recommend  the  culture  of  this  most  valuable 
oil-producing  plant,  as  its  oil  maintains  high  prices  in  the 
European  markets,  in  consequence  of  the  crops  on  the  Con- 
tinent not  being  with  certainty  depended  on,  as  they  are  often 
destroyed  by  frost  or  snow,  which  we  have  not  to  fear  in  South 
Australia. 

SuNFLOWEB.'— The  extensive  culture  of  the  sunflower,  es- 
pecially in  Bussia  and  Germany,  is  a  fact.  The  chief  profit 
from  this  plant  is  procured  from  the  seed,  which  contains  forty 
per  cent,  of  a  sweet  oil  only  second  in  value  to  the  olive  oil.  It 
is  now  more  than  200  years  since  this  valuable  plant,  a  native 
of  Peru  and  Mexico,  was  introduced  into  Europe ;  and,  strange 
to  say,  until  now  its  valuable  qualities  were  never  brought  to 
account.  The  Bussian  husbandmen  were  the  first  who  bestowed 
their  attention  on  the  useful  oil  which  the  seeds  contain.  They 
commenced  the  cultivation  of  the  sxmflower  first  on  a  small 
scale,  pliftnting  the  seeds  in  nooks  and  comers,  on  the  sides  of 
walks,  &c.  The  value  of  the  oil  soon  became  known,  and  was 
more  and  more  appreciated,  so  that  at  the  present  time  the 
cultivation  of  the  sunflower  in  Bussia  is  carried  on  to  such  an 
extent  that  in  the  year  1866  more  than  100,000  cwt.  of  sun- 
flower oil  was  manufactured,  the  value  of  which  was  one  and  a 
half  million  roubles.  The  third  part  of  this  oil  was  exported 
to  the  Prussian  port  of  Stettin,  where  it  was  rapidly  sold  witli 
rising  prices.  This  export  from  Bussia,  and  the  steady  increase 
of  the  culture  of  the  sunflower  there,  opened  the  eyes  of  the 
German  farmers,  and  they  began  the  cultivation  of  the  sun- 
flower with  the  same  profitable  result.  The  oil,  as  I  have  al- 
ready mentioned,  is  only  second  to  the  olive  oil,  and  is  not  only 
used  in  house-keeping  like  the  former,  but  mostly  as  a  lubri- 
cator for  the  delicate  machinerv  of  textile  fabrics  which  in- 


232  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

crease  througliotit  Europe,  and  which  in  consequence  have  in- 
creased the  demand  for  the  expensive  olive  oil.  From  the 
stalks  of  the  plant  the  Eussians  manufacture  a  valuable  potash, 
the  residuum  is  used  as  oil-cake  for  fattening  cattle,  and  the 
leaves  of  the  plant  for  manure.  Should  not  this  profitable  culture 
of  the  sunflower  in  Bussia  and  Germany  also  be  an  inducement 
to  our  farmers  to  introduce  this  payable  branch  of  industry  to 
our  Colony  ?  Climatic  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  growth  of 
the  sunflower  do  not  exist  in  South  Australia.  We  see  the  sun- 
flower, with  its  smiling  face,  in  our  gardens,  thrive  most  luxu- 
riantly in  every  kind  of  soil.  The  only  fault  that  could  be 
found  with  it  is  that  it  exhausts  the  soil ;  yet  this  could  be  re- 
medied by  manure.  Would  it  not  be  desirable  that  experi- 
mental trials  should  be  made  this  season  ?  Let  us  begin  like 
the  Bussians,  and  plant  the  seeds  first  in  nooks  and  comers ; 
and  should  it  succeed,  cultivate  it  more  extensively.  The  re- 
sult should  be  freely  discussed  in  our  Farmers'  Clubs.  It  may 
become  in  the  future  as  profitable  to  South  Australia  as  it  is  at 
the  present  time  to  Bussia  and  Germany ;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  the  farmers  will  give  their  earnest  attention  to  this  most 
important  branch  of  industry. 

The  following  extract  from  the  New  Land  Act,  lately 
brought  into  operation,  shows  the  importance  attached  to  this 
industry,  and  the  special  facilities  granted  to  those  who  may 
intend  planting  olive,  almond,  and  other  trees  mentioned 
therein : — 

Cultivation  of  OliveSy  &e, 

46.  If  any  selector  shall  be  desirous  of  engaging  in  the  cultivation  of  osiers, 
olives,  mulberries,  vines,  apples,  pears,  oranges,  ngs,  almonds,  or  hops,  or  such 
other  plants  as  the  Governor  in  GouncU  may  define  by  Proclamation  in  the 
Gazette,  the  planting  and  cultivating  in  a  husbandlike  manner  of  one  acre  of 
land  with  any  of  the  above  trees  or  plants  shaU,  for  all  the  purposes  of  this 
Act,  be  deemed  to  be  equivalent  to  the  cultivation  of  six  acres  of  such  land  as 
hereinbefore  defined :  Provided  that  such  cultivating  be  bond  fide  continued 
and  kept  up  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Commissioner  until  full  payment  of  the 
purchase-money,  but  not  otherwise :  Provided  that  if  such  selector  shall  wish 
to  grow  artificial  grass,  as  a  rotation  of  crops,  he  may,  every  third  year,  plant 
and  cultivate  lucern  or  artificial  grass  for  such  purpose,  and  in  that  case  the 
planting  of  three  acres  of  land  with  lucern  or  artificial  grass  during  suc^  third 
year  shaU  be  deemed  to  be  equivalent  to  the  cultivation  of  one  acre  of  cereal 
or  root  crops. 

Canaby  Seed. — This  is  another  plant  whose  culture  till 
HOW  has  been  entirely  overlooked  by  our  farmers,  and  which,  I 


ITS  FLOKA.  233 

am  sure,  will  thriye  all  over  the  Colony.  It  is  a  fact  to  be 
wondered  at,  if  we  consider  the  enormous  prices  often  paid  for 
this  seed  in  the  Colony,  which  not  seldom  have  risen  to  2s.  and 
2s.  6d.  per  pound.  I  think  the  generally  ruling  -pnce^Sd.  to 
4d.  per  pound — would  leave  the  grower  a  fair  margin  for  the 
little  trouble  in  cultivating  it,  and  it  is  a  plant  which  would  be 
satisfied  with  any  soil  and  situation. 

Gram,  Vetches,  Yellow  Lupin,  and  Maize. — ^With  the 
exception  of  oats  and  barley,  very  little  attempt  has  been  made 
by  our  fanners  to  grow  other  grain  for  cattle.  I  am  most 
sanguine  of  the  profitable  growth  of  gram  in  this  colony. 
*'  Gram  "  (says  the  Ingletvood  Advertiser)  "  bids  feir  to  be  ranked 
among  our  profitable  products  before  long.  Its  value  as  horso- 
feed  has  long  been  acknowledged,  and  the  possibility  of  grow- 
ing it  is  now  beyond  a  doubt.  Some  time  ago  Mr.  J.  Eoberts, 
who  cultivates  one  of  those  little  patches  of  ground  that  dot 
the  clearings  made  from  the  scrub  here  and  there,  planted  a 
few  rows  of  this  valuable  East  India  pea,  and  now  he  has  a 
capital  crop  nearly  ripe.  The  plants  look  strong  and  healthy, 
the  drought  notwithstanding,  and  are  covered  with  filled  pods. 
On  one  plant,  covering  not  over  four  inches  of  ground,  no  less 
than  139  full-grown  pods  were  counted."  The  successful  cul- 
tivation of  this  plant  would  be  a  great  good,  and  the  attention 
of  farmers  can  be  very  fairly  directed  towards  it.  The  yellow 
lupin  has  for  some  years  gained  on  the  Continent  a  high  fame 
with  the  farmers ;  in  fact,  it  has  supplanted  the  oats,  vetches, 
and  other  horse-feed,  as  a  plentiful  and  wholesome  fodder,  in 
its  green  state  as  well  the  seeds.  The  cultivation  of  maize  is 
also  overlooked,  which,  I  am  sure,  will  thrive  in  the  South 
profitably. 

Lentils. — This  is  a  plant,  I  believe,  very  little  known  for 
food  in  England,  but  thought  much  of  on  the  Continent,  where 
it  is  cultivated  to  a  great  extent  as  one  of  the  most  profitable 
crops,  as  it  thrives  weU  even  on  stony  and  barren  soUs,  and 
may  be  admirably  adapted  for  certain  districts  in  our  Colony. 
The  lentil  has  a  traditional  history,  not  alone  on  the  Continent, 
but  also  in  Arabia,  where  it  is  grown  still  more  extensively, 
being  considered  as  the  plant  used  in  the  preparation  of  the 


234  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA. 

dish  for  which  Esau  sold  his  birthright  to  Jacob,  as  stated  in 
the  25th  chapter  of  Genesis.  I  am  glad  to  see,  in  the  last 
number  of  the  Jcmmal  of  the  Agricvltural  Society  of  New 
South  Wales,  a  gentleman  (K.  Wynne)  also  recommends  the 
plant  for  extensive  growing  in  Sydney.  He  says — "I  saw 
hundreds  of  acres  sown  with  the  lentil  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Bethlehem.  The  soil  where  I  found  the  lentil  flourishing 
with  such  abundant  growth  was  of  the  poorest  description,  and 
so  stony  that  it  was  a  wonder  to  me  how  any  kind  of  useful 
plant  could  thrive  there  at  all.  Having  myself,  as  an  invalid, 
derived  very  great  benefit  from  it  in  the  form  of  Dr.  Barry's 
Kevalenta,  I  can  honestly  recommend  it  as  the  most  wholesome 
article  of  diet  of  which  I  have  any  experience,  the  most  essen- 
tially valuable  property  of  it  being  the  facility  with  which  it 
can  be  assimilated,  and  its  great  power  of  nutrition.  I  need 
hardly  say  it  would  be  a  source  of  real  gratification  to  me  if  my 
humble  eflforts  to  introduce  it  to  this  country  should  have  suc- 
ceeded in  calling  the  attention  of  agriculturists  and  all  well- 
wishers  of  the  Colony  to  its  valuable  properties  as  a  health- 
restoring  food ;  and  I  am  not  without  hope  of  seeing  it  become 
one  of  the  ordinary  products  of  this  Colony."  The  Conti- 
nental people  in  this  Colony  know  its  value,  and  large  quanti- 
ties  of  lentUs  are  imported  by  our  German  merchants. 

Capers. — There  is  no  doubt  we  could  produce  this  desirable 
luxury  equally  well  as  in  the  southern  part  of  Europe.  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  Toulon  it  is  cultivated  in  the  orchards  in  the 
intervals  between  figs  and  oUve-trees.  .As  a  pickle  the  flower- 
buds  of  the  caper  are  in  great  esteem,  and  form  an  important 
article  of  commerce  throughout  Europe.  In  the  Mediterraneai^ 
the  flower-buds  of  the  caper  are  gathered  just  before  they 
begin  to  expand,  which  forms  a  daily  occupation  for  children 
during  six  months,  when  the  plants  are  in  a  flowering  state. 
As  the  buds  are  gathered,  they  are  thrown  into  a  cask,  among 
as  much  salt  and  vinegar  as  is  sufficient  to  cover  them,  and,  as 
the  supply  of  capers  is  increased,  more  vinegar  is  added.  When 
the  caper  season  closes,  the  casks  are  emptied,  and  the  buds 
assorted  according  to  their  size  and  colour— the  smallest  and 
greenest  being  reckoned  the  best — and  put  in  smaller  casks 


ITS  FLORA.  235 

of  fresh  vinegar  for  commerce;  and  in  this  state  they  wilt 
keep  for  five  or  six  years.  Considering  the  little  work  the 
growing  of  this  important  commercial  article  involves,  it  would 
be  worth  while  for  our  horticulturists,  especially  in  the  gullies, 
where  this  plant  will  grow  most  luxuriantly,  to  make  the 
attempt  to  cultivate  the  true  caper  (Capparis  spinosa). 

Chicory. — Since  the  introduction  of  this  plant  in  the 
Colony  it  has  become  in  some  places  so  prolific  as  to  be  con- 
sidered a  nuisance,  and  yet  of  this  we  import  yearly  great 
quantities,  as  shown  in  our  import  returns,  viz. : — Total  for 
the  last  three  quarters,  54,960  lbs.,  say  at  23«.  4d.  per  cwt., 
£629  155.  The  manufacture  of  chicory  is  so  simple  and  inex- 
pensive that  we  might  easily  produce  sufficient  not  only  for 
our  home  consumption,  but  also  for  that  of  the  neighbouring 
Colonies. 

Liquorice. — My  attention  has  been  called  to  the  liquorice 
plant,  Olycyrrhiza  gUihra,  Dec,  on  which,  in  perusing  the  last 
number  of  the  Jowmal  of  Applied  Science,  I  found  an  interest- 
ing article  in  reference  to  the  consumption  of  this  valuable 
commercial  plant.  It  could  be  grown  here  with  little  trouble 
and  cost  in  almost  any  locality  and  soil.  According  to  the 
above-mentioned  journal,  it  arrives  at  maturity  in  from  three 
to  four  years,  when  the  roots  can  be  taken  up,  and  the  proprie- 
tor may  expect  to  derive  some  retun^i  for  his  outlay  in  rent  and 
labour.  The  depth  to  which  these  strike  downwards  often 
equals  the  height  of  a  man,  and  the  soil  needs,  therefore,  to 
be  free  from  stones,  which  cause  the  roots  to  become  crooked 
or  warped,  and  thus  diminish  the  value  of  the  liquorice  as  a 
saleable  commodity.  The  same  land  will  produce  a  continuous 
crop;  but  then  a  good  addition  of  manure  is  needed.  The 
ground,  to  be  properly  prepared,  must  be  spade-trenched  to  a 
depth  of  three  to  four  feet,  and  laid  in  ridges  upon  the  top 
until  the  spring;  when  the  mould  has  become  pulverized^.the 
ridges  can  be  levelled  and  prepared  for  planting.  The  beds 
are  three  to  four  feet  wide,  and  must  be  kept  clean  during  the 
summer,  and  about  November  (this  in  South  Australia  would 
be  in  June)  when  the  sap  has  descended  and  the  tops  appear 
yellow,  the  old  stems  or  stalks  are  cut  off  close  to  the  ground 


236  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

with  a  sharp  pnrning  knife,  the  spaces  between  the  roots  being 
turned  over  and  left  rougL  The  roots  are  usually  dug  up 
with  a  large  three-pronged  fork,  and  stacked  in  trenches,  and 
this  stacking  is  effected  in  a  dry  and  sheltered  place,  the  roots 
being  placed  upright  with  layers  of  sand  between  them,  and  a 
good  layer  of  several  inches  thick  on  the  top.  In  this  manner 
the  stack  is  preserved  by  the  proprietor  until  required  for 
market. 

Osier. — Not  only  does  this  very  useful  shrub  keep  the  em- 
bankments of  rivers  from  falling  in,  but  it  would  also  give  a 
profit  to  the  grower,  having  the  advantage  of  giving  employ- 
ment to  the  basketmakers.  I  need  only  mention  the  great 
number  of  baskets  and  various  other  osier  work  yearly  im- 
ported into  this  Colony  from  Europe  and  America.  For 
favourable  places  for  its  cultivation,  I  mention  only  the  banks 
of  the  Onkaparinga,  the  Murray  Flats,  and  Inman  Valley  ; 
but  many  other  localities  undoubtedly  would  be  found. 

Broom  Millet  supplies  the  material  of  a  not  unimportant 
article,  viz.,  American  brooms,  which  are  so  much  imported, 
and  for  which  we  send  a  large  sum  of  money  away,  that  could 
be  retained  in  the  Colony,  as  there  is  not  the  slightest  doubt 
that  the  broom  millet  will  grow  just  as  well  with  us  as  the 
Sorghum  saccharatum  does,  and  the  skill  for  manufacturing  the 
broom  might  soon  be  obtained.  The  millet  will  grow  well 
especially  in  the  hills  and  the  Southern  Districts.  It  shotdd 
be  sown  in  the  latter  end  of  August,  but  rather  thin,  so  that 
the  plants  may  grow  vigorous,  and  produce  a  greater  develop- 
ment of  inflorescence,  which  part  is  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  the  broom.  This  industry  has  already  been  introduced  into 
Victoria  and  New  South  Wales;  and  in  the  latter  Colony, 
especially  Newcastle,  the  brooms  are  largely  manufactured, 
and  already  exported  to  South  Australia. 

The  Esparto  Grass  {Macrochloa  tenacissima). — A  native 
of  Spain,  Portugal,  Greece,  and  North  Africa.  It  has  gained 
during  the  last  few  years  a  great  mercantile  reputation  in 
regard  to  the  valuable  fibre,  not  alone  for  the  manufacture  of 
ropes  and  other  articles,  but  as  contributing  also  an  excellent 
material  for  the  best  writing  paper,  without  any  other  admix- 


ITS  FLORA.  237 

ture.  Thus  from  the  great  use  now  made  of  it  by  the  paper- 
makers,  it  has  become  an  essential  article  of  import  inta 
England  and  other  places,  and  a  source  of  wealth  to  the 
countries  producing  it.  The  import  in  1871  into  England 
alone  is  considered  about  140,000  tons,  and  that  of  Esparta 
grass,  ropes,  and  other  articles  manufactured  from  it,  about 
19,000  tons. .  Notwithstanding  this  large  importation  of  the 
raw  material  for  paper-making,  and  that  the  paper-makers  use 
of  late  a  good  many  other  substances  for  paper-making  not 
used  before,  the  scarcity  of  material  becomes  more  evident 
every  day,  and  the  consequence  is  the  constant  rise  in  the 
price  of  paper.  The  Oardeners*  ChronicUy  15th  June,  1872, 
says : — "  It  is  with  some  concern  that  we  learn  that  both  in 
Algeria  and  Spain,  instead  of  mowing  the  Esparto  grass  at  the 
proper  season,  the  natives  pluck  it  up  in  the  most  reckless 
manner."  Consul  Turner,  of  Cartagena,  says: — "It  is  very 
evident  to  all  concerned  that  these  people  are  destroying  the 
growth  of  the  grass  by  their  manner  of  plucking  it."  From 
the  above-named  port  there  was  a  falling-off  during  the  past 
year  in  quantity  exported  to  the  amount  of  5000  tons,  which 
in  a  great  measure  is  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  present 
reckless  system  of  collecting  it.  Here  again  is  an  instance  of 
natural  production  being  wantonly  destroyed  by  man,  in  spite 
of  his  deriving  a  benefit  from  it ;  we  may  thus  say  the  progress 
of  civilization  is  the  occasion  of  waste  and  destruction.  The 
value  of  dry  Esparto  grass  is  about  £5  to  £5  lOs.  per  ton ; 
and  it  is  said  that,  under  favourable  circumstances,  as  much  as 
from  six  to  eight  tons  can  be  obtained  from  an  acre.  It  grows 
on  the  poorest  soil,  especially  limestone  or  sand;  in  fact, 
where  the  soil  will  produce  no  other  vegetation  the  Esparto 
grass  will  grow.  It  grows  even  in  the  sands  of  the  Sahara,  on 
stony  hills,  and  on  the  very  brink  of  the  coast.  I  have  not 
the  slightest  doubt  that  the  grass  will  thrive  with  us,  and  that 
the  many  thousands  of  acres  of  arid  land,  of  a  limestone  or 
sandy  nature,  which  is  scarcely  fit  for  pasture,  may,  by  sowing 
with  Esparto  grass,  become  useful.  Considering  the  similarity 
of  our  climate  with  that  of  Spain,  and,  in  fact,  the  north  of 
Africa,  we  have  no  fear  that  our  droughts  would  aflFect  its 


238  SOUTH  AU8TBALLL 

growth  —  and  how  its  introdnctioii  would  benefit  Sonth 
AnstraUa  if  our  deserts  conld  be  changed  into  prodnctiTe 
districtii !  For  a  long  time  past  I  have  endeayonied  to  intro- 
duce Beed  of  this  ralnable  grass  as  an  experiment,  but  without 
success.  I  communicated  with  the  Botanic  Gardens  and 
seedsmen  in  Europe  on  the  subject;  the  answer  was — ^"Xot 
obtainable,  the  seed  is  not  in  the  trade ;  the  Spaniards  won't 
part  with  it" — and  I  had  already  given  up  the  hope  of 
obtaining  any.  The  more  agreeably  therefore  was  I  surprised 
by  receiving  one  ounce  of  seed  from  Mr.  Bull,  of  London.  I 
am  glad  to  say  that  this  seed  arrived  in  good  condition, 
though  it  is  said  the  Spaniards,  before  parting  with  the  seed, 
destroy  its  power  of  germinating,  to  prevent  its  introduction 
into  other  countries.  My  seed  must  have  escaped  such 
manipulation,  as  it  has  nearly  all  grown,  and  I  am  now  in 
possession  of  about  1000  plants,  all  of  which  I  intend  to  plant 
out  to  procure  as  much  seed  as  possible  for  distribution  next 
year.  It  is  now  most  extensively  planted  in  the  south  of 
France;  and  it  is  said  that  no  other  crop  will  pay  better, 
especially  considering  that  it  will  grow  on  the  poorest  soils. 
It  is  propagated  by  seeds,  and  also  by  dividing  the  roots. 
The  question  will  naturally  be  asked — Suppose  we  succeed  in 
growing  the  grass  here,  where  shall  we  find  a  market  for  it  ? 
Our  enterprising  and  go-ahead  neighbours  in  Victoria  have 
already  established  a  paper-mill,  and  a  second  one  is  con- 
templated in  Sydney ;  so  that,  if  we  succeed,  the  market 
for  the  grass  is  close  at  hand,  and  I  think  it  would  even  pay 
to  export  to  England,  as  a  hydraulic  press  would  reduce  the 
bulk  materially. 

Opium. — South  Australia,  as  far  as  climate  and  soil  are 
concerned,  oflFers  no  difficulty  to  the  cultivation  of  the  poppy, 
as  we  see  it  thriving  in  many  parts  of  the  Colony,  and 
probably  we  could  produce  a  good  sample  of  the  drug.  Mr. 
G.  Francis  exhibited  not  long  ago,  at  the  Agricultural  Show, 
opium  prepared  by  him,  which  was  considered  as  fair  a  sample 
as  could  be  derived  from  the  Jrst  experiment.  If  we  consider 
the  enormous  sum  which  is  yearly  expended  in  opium,  and 
that  the  cultivation  and  manufacture  can  be  undertaken  by 


ITS  FLOKA.  239 

young  people,  it  is  highly  desirable  that  an  attempt  should  be 
made  to  cultivate  the  poppy. 

Cochineal. — Every  one  of  us  is  acquainted  with  the 
cochineal  insect  which  produces  the  splendid,  valuable,  and 
much  used  dye  called  "  carmine,"  and  of  which  Mexico  and 
the  West  India  Islands  export  large  quantities  every  year. 
The  trade  is  likewise  supplied  with  the  same  article  from 
Brazil  and  East  India,  but  Mexico  furnishes  the  largest 
quantity,  and  at  the  same  time  the  finest  quality.  Till  the 
year  1725,  the  breeding  of  the  cochineal  insect  was  entirely 
confined  to  Mexico ;  and  the  Government,  with  the  strictest 
care,  kept  it  secret ;  and  till  then  it  was  generally  believed  in 
Europe  that  the  cochineal  was  not  an  insect,  but  a  kind  of 
seed.  In  the  year  1785,  Thierre  de  Menonville,  a  Frenchman, 
with  the  greatest  danger  to  his  life,  brought  a  few  living 
insects  to  French  Domingo,  where  they  soon  were  acclimatized. 
During  1827  the  insect  was,  by  Bertholet,  introduced  to  the 
Canary  Islands,  and  lately,  with  the  best  results,  in  Corsica 
and  Spain.  If  the  insect  thrives  well  in  Spain  and  Corsica, 
why  should  it  not  do  the  same  in  Australia  ?  Both  kinds  of 
the  cochineal  plant,  Opuntia  Tuna  and  Optrntia  coccinellifera, 
which  I  introduced  by  raising  from  seed,  grow  luxuriantly  in 
the  borders  at  the  garden,  without  having  had  the  slightest 
care  bestowed  upon  them;  this  proves  that  the  plant  will 
thrive  in  South  Australia.  The  second  and  most  important 
question  is,  how  to  introduce  the  insect.  This  could  be  done 
only  on  living  plants  in  so-called  Wardian  cases.  It  is  not 
the  place  to  give  a  description  of  the  treatment  of  the 
cochineal  insect,  and  the  preparation  of  the  carmine ;  but  to 
give  you  only  one  instance  of  the  extent  of  the  cochineal 
trade,  I  will  mention  that  the  export  of  cochineal  alone  of  the 
Mexican  Province  Oaxaca  amounts  to  three-fourths  of  a  million 
dollars  annually.  Now,  assuming  that  one  pound  of  cochineal 
is  worth  $10,  and  that  70,000  insects  make  a  pound,  they  must 
rear  an  immense  quantity  of  insects.  Not  that  I  am  sanguine 
of  its  success  in  this  Colony,  but-  we  should  try  it.  It  is  true 
the  discovery  of  the  splendid  aniline  colours  have  done  the 


240  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

carmine  trade  some  harm ;  notwithstanding  which  it  is  still  a. 
most  flourishing  trade. 

Perfumes. — An  abler  pen  than  mine  has  already  drawn  the 
attention  of  the  public  to  this  one  of  the  great  industries. 
Mr.  S.  Davenport,  in  his  able  pjimphlet  on  the  same  subject, 
has  referred  to  the  great  benefit  to  be  derived  from  this  source  ; 
and  I  have  much  pleasure  in  commending  its  perusal.  If  wo 
consider  that  British  India  and  Europe  consume  about  150,000 
gallons  of  handkerchief  perfume  yearly ;  that  the  English 
revenue  for  Eau  de  Cologne  alone  is  about  £8000  a  year ; 
that  the  total  revenue  for  imported  perfumes  is  estimated  at 
about  £40,000,  and  that  one  great  perfume  distillery  at 
Cannes,  in  France,  uses  annually  about  one  hundred  and  forty 
thousand  pounds  of  orange  blossoms,  twenty  thousand  pounds 
of  acacia  flowers  (Aeaoia  Famesiana),  one  hundred  and  forty 
thousand  pounds  of  lose  flower-leaves,  thirty-two  thousand 
pounds  of  jasmin  blossoms,  twenty  thousand  pounds  of  tube- 
roses, together  with  a  great  many  other  sweet  herbs,  we  may 
judge  of  the  immense  quantity  of  material  used  for  perfumes. 
Most  of  the  flowers  which  provide  the  material  for  perfumes 
grow  luxuriantly  with  us,  namely,  mignonette^  verbena,  jasmin, 
rose,  lavender.  Acacia  Famesiana,  heliotrope,  rosemary,  pepper- 
mint, violets,  wfitll-flowers,  laurel,  and  oranges,  from  which 
alone  three  different  scents  are  produced.  These  plants  thrivo 
probably  in  greater  perfection  here  than  in  any  part  of  the 
world.  No  doubt  South  Australia  should  be  a  perfume-pro- 
ducing country.  We  see  flourishing  here  some  of  the  most 
valuable  scent  plants.  We  have  the  wattle,  myall  wood,  and 
other  native  plants,  yielding  valuable  scents.  But  two  things: 
are  needed  to  encourage  the  enterprise.  First — Freedom  of 
the  still,  so  as  to  license  distilling  in  vessels  of  less  than 
twenty-five  gallons'  capacity;  and,  secondly,  the  bond  fide 
advertisement  of  a  capitalist  manufacturer,  that  he  will  buy 
any  quantity  of  specified  flowers,  leaves,  roots,  or  plants,  at  a 
marketable  price.  Then  some  farmer  may  be  tempted  to 
plant  a  few  acres  of  lavender  or  mint,  another  geraniums  or 
rosemar)',  another  aniseed,  whilst  plantations  in  hedgerows,  or 


ITS  FLORA.  241 

such  like  places,  of  roses,  cassia,  together  with  contributions 
from  gardens,  would  lay  the  foundation  for  an  export  trade. 
Then  it  must  be  also  noted  that  whatever  the  value  which  the 
plants  yield  in  flower,  fruit,  leaves,  and  stems,  it  is  increased 
threefold  under  manufacture,  and  this  manufacture  consumes 
other  local  produce,  called  into  existence  by  it,  such  as  olive 
and  other  oils,  fats,  alkalies,  wheaten  flower,  colouring  matter, 
pottery  and  glass  ware,  which  combine  to  make  the  farmers 
and  the  manufacturers  contribute  largely  to  the  maintenance 
of  population  and  the  wealth  of  the  perfume  countries.  To 
advance  this  highly  remunerative  industry,  as  I  have  already 
mentioned,  a  modification  in  the  law  of  licensing  stills  should 
be  made  to  bond  fide  perfume  distillers,  as  the  present  law 
restricts  stills  to  a  range  of  capacity  between  25  and  50 
gallons.  Perfume  stills  for  the  finer  perfumes  are  best  at 
about  8  to  10  gallons.  It  is  therefore  to  be  hoped  that  our 
legislators  would  take  this  into  their  earnest  consideration. 
To  encourage  the  development  of  new  industries,  every  facility, 
with  respect  to  distillation  of  perfumes,  should  be  given,  even 
at  the  sacrifice  of  a  small  amount  of  revenue.  To  show 
the  value  of  perfumes  to  the  countries  adapted  for  their  pro- 
duction, the  following  table,  compiled  from  the  publications  of 
Piesse  and  Brande,  and  the  ComhiU  Magazine^  October,  1864, 
may  show  why  it  is  so : — 

£ 
One  acre  of  jasmin  plants,  S0,000,  will  prodace  5000- lbs.  of 

flowers,  value  If 250 

One  acre  rose  trees,  10,000,  will  produce  2000  lbs.  of  flowers, 

value  9d 75 

One  acre  of  orange  trees,  100,  at  ten  years  old,  2000  lbs.  of 

flowers,  value  Qd,       50 

One  acre  of  violets,  1600  lb&  of  flowers,  value  2«.  . .  . .  160 
One  acre  of  cassia  trees  (^Acacia  Famesiand),  802,  at  three 

years,  900  lbs.  of  flowers,  value  2$. 90 

One  acre  geranium  plants,  16,000,  40,0001b6.  leaves,  producing 

2  oz.  of  distilled  otto  per  cwt.,  at  58,  per  oz.  . .  • .  200 
One  acre  of  lavender,  3547,  giving  flowers  for  distUlation,  value      30 

Further,  without  knowing  the  produce  per  acre,  I  add  the  otto 
per  cwt.,  which  the  following  plants  are  said  to  yield : — Eose- 
mary,  per  cwt.,  will  yield  24  oz.  of  otto  oil ;  aniseed,  35  oz. ; 
caraways,  from  3  lbs.  to  4  lbs.  12  oz.  fennel  seed,  2  lbs. ; 
pachouli,  28  oz. 

B 


242  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

THE  NOBTHERN  TERRITORY. 

In  addition  to  what  is  said  in  a  previous  chapter,  giving  a 
general  outline  of  the  Northern  Territory,  it  is  now  my 
intention  to  state  how  far  its  capabilities  and  resources  may 
prove  of  advantage  to  colonists  and  the  Mother  Country,  in 
regard  to  its  capabilities  for  tropical  agriculture. 

I  will  first  say  a  few  words  on  the  great  importance  of  my 
scheme  proposed  to  the  late  Government,  for  the  establishment 
of  a  standard  experimental  nursery  for  tropical  commercial 
plants,  at  our  young  settlement,  Port  Darwin.  My  idea  is,  to 
lay  out  about  eighty  acres  of  land  adapted  to  the  growth  of 
tropical  commercial  plants,  so  that  at  least  plants  or  cuttings 
may  be  available  for  cultivation  by  the  settlers ;  and  it  would 
be  a  matter  of  very  considerable  moment  to  new  settlers  who 
contemplate  tropical  agriculture,  to  obtain  from  such  an  esta- 
blishment suitable  plants,  seeds,  &c.,  at  a  low  price,  to  commence 
with.  If  the  grower  had  to  import  his  own,  the  delays  would 
be  great,  as  there  would  be,  at  least  during  the  first  few  years, 
little  opportunity  to  import  such  plants  from  other  countries. 
The  cost  of  such  an  establishment  would  not  be  great ;  and,  in 
a  few  years,  if  the  Government  charges  a  trifle  for  the  plants, 
probably  the  garden  would  pay  its  own  expenses.  I  made  the 
following  proposal  to  the  late  Government : — "  Sir — I  have  the 
honour  to  lay  before  you  a  scheme  for  forming  at  Port  Darwin 
a  standard  experimental  nursery  of  tropical  commercial  plants, 
for  the  benefit  of  future  colonists  who  may  settle  there  as  tro- 
pical agriculturists.  Of  all  the  vegetable  products  capable  of 
being  propagated  within  the  tropics,  a  very  large  proportion 
are  objects  of  commercial  value  in  Europe.  The  favourable  re- 
port of  competent  judges  who  have  Visited  the  country  leaves 
no  doubt  that  Port  Darwin  is  eminently  suited  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  such  productions.  Having  had  now  an  opportunity  of 
examining  various  soils  from  the  Northern  Territory,  I  find 
they  are  very  similar,  and  by  no  means  inferior,  to  the  soils 
which  I  have  received  from  Java,  Hongkong,  Ceylon,  Mauri- 
tius, and  other  tropical  countries  with  which  I  am  acquainted. 
I  am  strongly  of  opinion  that  the  soils  of  the  Northern  Terri- 


ITS  FLORA.  243 

tory  would  prove  appropriate  for  the  same  tropical  productions 
as  are  cultivated  in  the  countries  above  named ;  and  the  climate 
may  be  also  considered  very  favourable  for  the  growth,  leaving 
overy  prospect  of  success  for  tropical  agriculture.  With  re- 
spect to  the  mode  with  which  these  objects  might  be  usefully 
carried  out,  I  would  suggest  that  about  thirty  acres  of  land 
should  be  selected  as  a  standard  nursery.  In  making  a  choice 
of  such  land,  it  would  be  very  desirable  that  due  regard  should 
be  had  to  the  variety  of  soil  and  undulating  character  of 
the  country,  as  suitable  to  the  various  physical  requirements 
of  the  plants  intended  to  be  cultivated.  The  following  plants 
I  have  good  reason  to  believe  could  be  cultivated  with  success, 
viz.,  sugar,  cotton,  coffee,  tea,  rice,  cassava,  arrowroot,  indigo, 
ginger,  cardamom,  nutmeg,  cocoa,  tobacco,  maize,  pepper,  castor 
oil  plant,  pimento,  vanilla,  sarsaparilla,  rhea  or  Chinese  grass 
plant,  cocoa-nut  palm,  and  many  more.  From  the  information 
I  have  received,  I  think  that  the  tableland  situated  about  thirty 
miles  from  the  coast  would  prove  favourable  for  the  cultivation 
of  the  cinchona  or  quinine  tree ;  the  importance  of  which  is  so 
well  known  that  most  of  the  Governments  of  tropical  and  subtro- 
pical countries  are  now  turning  their  attention  to  its  cultivation, 
the  demand  for  quinine  now  exceeding  the  supply  rendering  it 
a  matter  of  great  consideration.  I  would  beg  to  add,  in  laying 
out  such  a  standard  experimental  nursery  the  success  would 
greatly  depend  on  the  ability  and  experience  of  the  superin- 
tendent appointed.  It  would  prove  highly  important,  if  judi- 
ciously managed,  to  the  future  settlers  by  enabling  them  to 
procure  from  such  an  establishment  plants,  cuttings,  seeds,  &c., 
only  to  commence  the  cultivation  of  such  as  are  suitable  to  the 
country.  As  director  of  this  Garden  I  could  materially  assist 
the  carrying  out  of  this  project,  as  being  in  constant  communi- 
cation with  the  Botanic  Gardens  of  tropical  countries,  I  could 
readily  procure  from  them  such  plants,  seeds,  &c.,  as  might  be 
required,  and  conveniently  forward  them  when  the  intended 
communication  with  the  new  settlement  is  established."  We 
have  the  proof  how  important  and  necessary  such  an  establish- 
ment would  be  for  the  development  of  the  resources  of  our  new 
Province.    It  would  be  useless  to  dwell  upon  the  importance 

n  2 


244  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

of  the  cultivation  of  sugar  and  cotton,  which  has  been  the 
foundation  of  the  prosperity  of  many  Colonies ;  and  I  do  not 
hesitate  to  say  that  all  kinds  of  cotton,  from  the  best  long 
staple  down  to  the  finest  short  staple,  might  be  cultivated, 
which  would  vie  with  the  best  in  the  world ;  nor  do  I  hesitate 
to  say  that  sugar  and  cotton  will  become  in  future  the  great 
staples  of  Port  Darwin. 

But  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  adapted  for  numerous  other 
branches  of  tropical  agriculture,  and  we  may  expect  a  safe  re- 
turn for  the  investment  of  capital  in  the  cultivation  of  other 
crops  demanding  less  capital  and  less  manual  labour  than  sugar 
and  cotton,  of  which  other  crops  I  will  enumerate  a  few. 

Of  the  cereal  grains,  Indian  com  deserves  more  attention 
than  it  has  hitherto  received.  Indian  millet,  which,  under  the 
name  of  Guinea  com,  is  so  extensively  cultivated  in  the  West 
Indies,  might  be  raised  to  a  large  extent.  The  cultivation  of 
cocoa  will  be  most  suitable  to  the  less  wealthy  individual,  as  it 
demands  so  little  labour  and  outlay.  Alexander  Humboldt  ob- 
serves, in  alluding  to  Spanish  America,  that  cocoa  plantations 
are  occupied  by  persons  in  humble  condition>  who  prepare  for 
themselves  and  their  children  a  slow  but  certain  fortune.  A 
single  labourer  is  sufficient  to  aid  them  in  their  plantations^ 
and  thirty  thousand  trees  assure  competence  for  a  generation 
and  a  half. 

Of  equal  interest  would  prove  the  cultivation  of  cinnamon 
and  nutmeg,  of  which  the  average  home  consumption  is  esti- 
mated at  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  pounds'  weight  per 
annum.  Pepper,  pimento,  could  undoubtedly  be  cultivated 
with  great  success  in  Port  Darwin,  and  form  an  article  of  ex- 
port. A  rich  soil  in  mountains,  valleys,  or  along  the  banks  of 
rivers  which  are  not  subjected  to  inundations,  is  considered  to 
be  the  most  eligible  for  the  growth  of  ginger,  cardamoms,  and 
turmeric. 

These  valuable  commercial  plants  I  am  convinced  will  grow 
in  marshy  situations.  Also  the  valuable  dye  indigo,  which 
thrives  so  well  in  a  moist  climate,  would  pay  the  cultivator 
most  handsomely. 

Numerous  other  articles  might  be  recommended  to  be 


ITS  FLOEA.  245 

raised,  viz.,  senna  and  numerous  species  of  cassia,  to  which 
genus  that  drug  belongs ;  sarsaparilla,  and  many  other  medical 
plants,  for  all  of  which  the  Northern  Territory  would  afford 
proper  soil  for  cultivation. 

Before  closing,  I  must  say  a  few  words  in  regard  to  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  cinchona  or  quinine  tree,  for  which  every  possible 
attempt  should  be  made  at  Port  Darwin.  It  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  the  consumption  of  quinine  has  increased  enormously, 
but  in  consequence  of  the  wanton  destruction  of  the  quinine- 
tree  forest  in  South  America,  the  demand  has  exceeded  the 
supply  during  the  last  few  years ;  and  any  effort  that  can  be 
made  to  increase  the  supply,  and  thus  reduce  the  high  price, 
is  well  worthy  the  attentive  consideration  of  every  one  interested 
in  alleviating  the  sufferings  of  humanity.  Thousands  of  people 
died  in  the  late  fever  in  Mauritius  and  the  East  Indies  for  want 
of  quinine ;  they  had  not  the  means  to  give  the  enormous  prices 
asked  for  it.  Probably  the  tree  might  thrive  at  Port  Darwin. 
"Why  should  we  not  make  the  attempt  to  grow  quinine  there, 
and  thus  become  benefactors  to  ourselves  and  others  ?  It  is 
well  known  that  most  of  the  Governments  of  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical countries  are  now  turning  their  attention  to  its  cultiva- 
tion. About  1000  quinine  trees  have  lately  been  planted  in  the 
Island  of  St.  Helena.  The  quinine  trees  do  well  in  Mauritius, 
Queensland,  Ceylon.  Probably  their  cultivation  can  also  be 
successfully  accomplished  at  Port  Darwin. 

The  synopsis  of  the  Flora  of  South  Australia  is  mostly  com- 
piled from  the  valuable  work  of  G.  Bentham  and  F.  Mueller's 
"  Flora  Australiensis."  By  the  constantly  occurring  new  dis- 
coveries, especially  in  the  central  part  of  South  Australia,  the 
synopsis  cannot  be  considered  quite  complete. 

The  plants  enumerated  in  the  intra-tropical  Flora  have 
been  mostly  collected  by  Mr.  Schultz  in  that  locality. 


24a  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


DICOTYLEDONS. 


.     RANUNCULACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  5  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera* 

ExirarTropieal  Flora, 


Clematis  microphylla,  Dec. 
Raiiunctilas  aquatilis,  Lin. 


Ranunculos  lappaceuB,  Sm. 
rivularis,  Banks. 


Intra^Tropical, 
Clematis  glvoiDoides,  Deo. 

DILLENIACE^. 


Indigenous  in  Austriedia,  5  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera. 

Extra-TropicdL 


Hibbertia  sericea,  Benth. 
Tirgata,  R.  Br. 
BiUardieri,  F.  MueU. 

Intrti'Tropicdl. 

Hibbertia  dealbata,  Benth. 

angustifolia,  Benth. 
lepidota,  R.  Br. 


Hibbertia  stricta,  R.  Br. 

iksciciilata,  R.  Br. 
'  glaberrima,  F.  Muell. 


Hibbertia  oblongata,  R.  Br. 
Pachynema  dilatatum,  Benth. 
junceum,  Benth. 


MAGNOLIACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 
No  representative  in  South  Australia. 

ANONACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  6  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Intra-Tropical. 
Polyalthia  uitidissima,  Benth. 

MENISPERMACE.E. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  7  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  Genera. 

Intra-TropicdL 
Stephania  hemandisBfolia,  Walp. 

NYMPHiEACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  3  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera. 

Intra-  Tropical, 
Nymphfca  gigantea,  Hook.  |  Nelumbium  speciosum.  Wilhl. 

PAPAVERACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Extra»Tropical. 
Papaver  horridum,  Dec 


ITS  FLOKA. 


247 


CRUCTFERiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  15  Genera. 

^outh  Australia,  8  Qenera. 

Extra-lhvpicdL 


Nasttirtium  palustre,  Dec. 
Alyssum  linifolium,  Steph. 
Sisymbrium  officinale,  Scop. 
Gardamine  laciniata,  F.  Muell. 

hirsuta,  Lin. 
Blennodia  filifolia,  Benth. 

trisecta,  Beuth. 

nasturtioides,  Benth. 

cardaminoides,  F.  Muell. 

curvipes,  F.  Muell. 

brevipes,  F.  Muell. 

lasiocarpa,  F.  MuelL 


Blennodia  canescens,  R.  Br. 
Stenopetalum  velutinum,  F.  Muell. 
lineare,  R.  Br. 
Bphierocarpum,  F.  Muell. 
nutans,  F.  Muell. 
Gapsella  procumbent,  Fries. 
Lepidium  phlebopetalum,  F.  Muell. 

stronffylophyllum,  F.  Muell. 
papilloBum,  F.  Muell. 
folioeum,  Desv. 
ruderale,  Lin. 


Capparis  Mitohelli,  Lindl. 

Cleome  tetrandra,  Banks. 

oxalidea,  F.  Muell. 
Polanisia  Yisoosa,  Dec. 
Cadaba  capparoides,  Dec. 


CAPPARIDEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  7  Genera. 

South  Australia,  4  Gdnera. 

Extra-  TropicdU 


Intra-  Tropical, 

Capparis  umbellata,  R.  Br. 
umbonata,  Lindl. 
lucida,  R.  Br. 
quiniflora,  Dec. 

VIOLARIEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  3  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera. 

ExtrorTropical, 


Viola  betonictefolia,  Sm. 
hederacea,  LabilL 


lonidium  floribnndum,  Walp. 


Intra-Tropicah 
lonidium  aurantiaoum,  F.  MuelL 

BIXINEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  4  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Extra-Tropical, 


Cochlospermum  Fraseri,  Planch. 

heteroneurum, 

F.  MueU. 


Cochlospermum  Gregorii, 

F.  Muell. 


PITTOSPORE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia.  9  Genera. 

South  Australia,  4  Genera. 

Pittoeporum  phillyrfeoides,  Dea 
Bursaria  spinosa,  Cav. 
Marianthus  bignoniaceus,  F.  Muell. 
Billardiera  scandens,  Sm. 

Intro-Tropical, 
Citriobatus  pauciflorus,  A.  Cunn. 


Billardiera  cymosa,  F.  MuelL 
Cheiranthera  linearis,  A.  Cunn. 
Yolubilis,  Benth. 


248 


SOUTH  AUSTKALIA. 


TREMANDRE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  3  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  G^nus. 

Eztra-Tropical. 
Tetratheoa  piloea,  LabilL 

POLYGALEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  8  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera. 

Fxtra-Tropical. 

Comesperma  volubile,  Labill.  I  Ck>me6penna  polygaloides,  F.  Mucll. 

caljmega,  LabilL  | 

IrUr<i^Troptcdl. 


Polygala  leptalea,  Dec. 

eriocephala,  F.  Mnell. 
orbloolaris,  Benth. 


Polygala  arvcnsis,  Willd. 

rhiDanthoides,  Soland. 
stenoclada,  BeDth. 


FRANKENIACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Extrct-Tropical. 
Frankenia  pauoiflora,  Dec 

CARYOPHYLLEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  10  Genera. 

South  Australia,  8  Genera. 

Eztra-TropicdL 


GypsopLila  tubulosa,  Boiss. 
8ilene  gallica,  Lin. 
Oerastium  Tulgatum,  Lin. 
Stellaria  glauca,  With. 

multiflora,  Hook. 


Sagina  procumbens,  Lin. 
Sperg^laria  rubra,  Pere. 
Polycarpon  tetraplfyllum,  Lin. 
Polycarpiea  synandUra,  F.  Muell 


IntrorTropicdL 


Polycarpsea  longiflora,  F.  MnelL 
violacea,  Benth. 
stamir.odina,  F.  MuelL 


Polycarpsea  oorymboea,  Lam. 

breviflora,  F.  MuelL 
involucrata,  F.  Muell. 


PORTULACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  4  Genera. 

South  Australia,  3  Genera. 

Extra-TroptcaX. 


Portulaca  oleracea,  Lin. 
Calandrinia  polyandra,  Benth. 

pusilla,  Lindl. 

volubilis,  Benth. 

Portulaca  bicolor,  F.  MueU. 

napiformis,  F.  Muell. 
australis,  Endl. 


Calandrinia  calyptrata.  Hook. 

pygmiea,  F.  MuelL 
Claytonia  australasica,  Hook. 


Intra-TropieaX. 

Portulaca  digyna,  F.  Muell. 
Calandrinia  uniflora,  F.  Muell. 
gracilis,  Benth. 


ELATINEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  2  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera. 

Extra-TropicaL 


Elatine  americana,  Am. 
Bergia  pusilla,  Benth. 


Bergia  perennis,  F.  MuelL 


ITS  FLORA. 


249 


Hypericum  japonioum,  Thiinb. 


HYPERICINEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 
Extra-TropicdL 


GUTTlFERiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 
Ko  representative  in  South  Australia. 


MALVACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1 5  Genera. 

South  Australia,  13  Genera. 


Extra- 

I^ayatera  plebeia,  Sims. 
Malvaetrum  spieatum,  A.  Gray. 
Plagianthus  spicatus,  Benth. 

glomeratus,  Benth. 
microphyllus,  F.  Muell. 
Sida  corrtigata,  Lindl. 

irtricata,  F.  MuoU. 

virgata,  Hook. 

petrophila,  F.  Muell. 

calyzhymenia,  J.  Gay. 


Troptcal, 

Abutilon  leucopetalum,  F.  Muell. 

AvicennsB,  Gaertn. 

Fraaeri,  Hook. 
HibisCQs  Trionum,  Lin. 

Krichauffianus,  F.  Muell. 

Huegelii,  EndL 
Fugosia  hakeaefolia,  Hook. 
GoBsypium  Sturtii,  F.  Muell. 
Codonocarpus  cotinifolius,  F.  Muell. 


Sida  macropoda,  F.  Muell. 
s^b^picata,  F.  Muell. 
spinosa,  Lin. 
rnombifolia,  Lin. 
oordi folia,  Lin. 
Abutilon  indicum,  G.  Don. 
amplum,  Benth. 
auritum,  G.  Don. 
Urena  lobata,  Lin. 
HibiscuB  rhodopetalus,  F.  Muell. 
Trionum,  Lin. 


Intra-TropicdL 

HibiscuB  radiatus,  Cav. 

zonatuB,  F.  Muell. 

leptoclskdus,  Benth. 

geranioides,  A.  Gunn. 

tiliaceuB,  Lin. 

divaricatuB,  Grah. 
Fugoeia  punctata,  Benth. 
ThespeBia  pupulnea,  Oorr. 
Adansonia  Gregorii,  F.  Muell. 
Bombca  malabaricum,  Dec. 


Thomasia  petalooalvz,  F.  Muell. 
LaBiopetalum  discolor.  Hook. 
Behru,  F.  Muell. 


STERCULIACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  19  Genera. 

South  Australia,  6  Genera. 

Eztrc^TropicaX. 


Lasiopetalum  Baueri,  Steetz. 

Schulzenii,  Benth. 


Sterculia  foetida,  Lin. 

ramiflora,  Benth. 
caudata,  Heward. 
quadrifida,  R.  Br. 


Intra-TropicdL 

HelictereB  Isora,  Lin. 
Melochia  corchorifolia,  Lin. 
Waltheria  americana,  Lin. 


250  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

TILIACEJE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  7  Genera. 

South  Australia,  4  Genera. 

Intra'Tropical, 


Grewia  orientalis,  LiD. 

multiflora,  Juss. 

polygama,  Boxb. 

brevMoiaf  Benth. 
Triumfetta  appendiculata,  F.  Mnell. 
glaucescens,  B.  Br. 


Corchorus  acatangulus,  Lam. 

fascicularis,  Lam. 

pumilio,  B.  Br. 

sidoides,  F.  Muell. 
Elsocarpus  oboTatuB,  G.  Don. 


LINEJ3. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  2  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Eztra-TropicaL 
Linum  marginale,  A.  Ounn. 

MALPIGHIACEJi:. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  2  Genera. 
No  representative  in  South  Australia. 

ZYGOPHYLLE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  3  Genera. 

South  Australia,  3  Genera, 

Extra-Tropical, 


Tribulus  terrestris,  Lin. 
hvstrix,  B.  Br. 
Kitraria  ScLoberi,  Lin. 
Zygophyllum  apiculatum,  F.  Mnell. 
glaucescens,  F.  Muell. 

Intra-TropicaX, 


Zygophyllum  iodocarpum,  F.  Muell. 
prismatothecum, 

F.  Muell. 
Billardieri,  Dec 
fruticulofium,  Dec 


TribuluB  cistoides,  Lin. 

pentandruB,  Benth. 


Tribulus  bicolor,  F.  Muell. 

angustifolius,  Benth. 


GERANIACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  4  Genera. 

South  Australia,  4  Genera. 

Extra-Tropical. 


Geranium  dissectum,  Lin. 
Erodium  cjrgnorum,  Nees. 
cicutarium,  Lber. 


Pelargonium  australe,  Willd. 

Bodnevanum,  LindL 
Oxalis  corniculata,  Lin. 


1        SIMARUBEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  6  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Intra-Tropical. 
Harriflonia  Brownii,  A.  Jubs. 


ITS  FLORA.  251 

RUTACBiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  29  Genera. 

South  Australia,  9  Genera. 

Extra-Tropical, 


Zieria  veronicea,  F.  Muell. 
Boronia  Edwardsii,  Benth. 

cterolesceiis,  F.  Maell. 

polygalifolia,  Sm. 

inornata,  Turcz. 

filifolia,  F.  Muell. 
Eriostemon  difTormis,  A.  Cunn. 
Phebalium  pungens,  Benth. 
bilobum,  Lindl. 


Boronia  affinlB,  R.  Br. 


Phebalium  linearis,  A.  Cunn. 

glandulosum,  Hook.    . 
Microoybe  pauciflora,  Turcz. 
Correa  lemula,  F.  Muell. 

alba,  Andr. 

Bpecioea,  Ait. 

decumbens,  F.  Muell. 
Geijera  parviflora,  Lindl. 


Intra-TropicaL 


Zanthoxylum  parviflorum,  Benth. 


lanceolata,  F.  Muell.  Micromelum  pubeecens,  Blume. 

BURSERACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  2  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

EztrorTropicdL 
Ganariiun  australasioom,  F.  Muell. 

MELIACE^ 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  10  Genera. 

South  Australia,  3  Genera. 

Intra-Tropical, 

Dysoxylon  Muelleri.  Benth.  I  Owenia  reticulata,  F.  Muell. 

Owenia  Yemicosa,  F.  Muell.  |  Carapa  moluocenBis,  Lam. 

0LACINEJ3. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  6  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Extra'Tropieal, 
Olax  Benthamiana,  Miq. 

Intra-Tropical. 
Opilia  amentacea,  Roxb. 

ILICINE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 
No  representative  in  South  Australia. 

CELASTRINEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  5  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genei*a. 

Intra-Tropical. 

CelastruB  Cunninghamii,  F.  Muell.         i  Deuhamia  obscura,  Meisn. 
Oenhamia  oleaster,  F.  Muell.  | 


252  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA. 

STACKHOUSIEiE. 
Indigenous  in  Atustralia,  1  Genus. 

Extra-TropicdL 
Staokhonsia  spatliulata,  Sieb.  |  Stackhonsia  monogyna,  LabilL 

IrUra-TropicdL 
Staokhonsia  Timinea,  Sm. 

RHAMNEiS. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  12  Genera. 

South  Australia,  7  Genera. 

Esatu-TropiecLL 


Spyridium  sabocreatum,  Reissek. 
vexillifemm,  Beisaek. 
eriocephalum,  Fenzl. 
Stenantliemuin  leucophraotiim.Beis8ek. 

Waterhousii,  Benth. 
Gryptandra  hispidula,  Reifisek. 
Ainara,  Sm. 
tomentosa,  Lindl. 


PomaderriB  apetala,  Labill. 

oboordata,  FenzL 
racemoea,  Hook. 
Spyridium  parvifolmm,  F.  Muell. 

spathulatum,  F.  Muell. 

pnlebophvllumf  F.  MuelL 

ooactilifofium,  Reissek. 

halmaturinum,  F.  MuelL 

bifidum,  F.  Muell. 

IrUra-Tropieal. 

Ventilago  vijninaliB,  Hook.  I  Alphitonia  exoeUa,  Reiflsek. 

Zizyphufl  CBnopUa,  Mill.  | 

AMPELIDEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  14  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera. 

IrUra-TropicciL 


VitiB  oordata,  Wall, 
trifolia,  Lin. 


Leea  sambucina,  Willd. 


SAPINDACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  14  Genera. 

South  Australia,  4  Genera. 

Extra'Tropioal, 


Heterodendron  oleaafolium,  Desf. 
Dodonaaa  yiscosa,  Lin. 

attenuata,  A.  Cimn. 

procumbens,  F.  Muell. 

fol 


)bulata,  F.  Muell. 
bursarifoUa,  Behr. 


Dodoniea  Baueri,  Endl. 

hexandra,  F.  Muell. 
humilifl,  Endl. 
boranicefolia,  O.  Don. 
Btenozyga,  F.  Muell. 


Inira'TropicaL 


Cardiospennnm  Halioacabum,  Lin. 
Schmidelia  serrata,  Dec. 
Cupania  anaoardioides,  A.  Rich. 


Dodonna  yiscosa,  Lin. 
Distichostemon  phyUoptenis,  F.  ^lueU. 


ANACARDIACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  5  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera. 

Intra-TropicaL 
Buchanania  angustifolia,  Rozb.  |  Semecarpns  Anacardium,  Roxb. 


ITS  FLOKA. 


253 


LEGUMINOS-ffl. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  92  Genera. 

South  Australia,  67  Genera. 

Mztra-Tropiccd. 


Jsotropis  Wheeleri,  F.  MuelL 
Viminaria  denudata,  Sm. 
Daviesia  oorymboea,  Sm. 
ulioiiia,  Sm. 
genistifolia,  A.  Gunn 
incrassata,  Sm. 
breyifolia,  Lindl. 

peotinata,  Lindl. 
Aotus  yillosa,  Sm. 
Phyllota  Stnrtii,  Benth. 

plenraDdroides,  F.  JMuell. 
Brach  jsema  Chambersii.  F.  Muell. 
Pulteniea  daphnoides,  Wendl. 

stricta,  Sims. 

mncroData,  F.  Mnell. 

pedanoulata.  Hook. 

mollis,  Lindl. 

rigida,  K.  Br. 

acerosa,  R.  Br. 

vestita,  B.  Br. 

laxiflora,  Benth. 

largiflorens,  F.  Muell. 

densifolia,  F.  Muell. 

villifera,  Sieb. 

involucrata,  Benth. 

proetrata,  Benth. 

canaliculata,  F.  Mueli 

tennifolia,  K.  Br. 
Kntaxia  empetrifolia,  Schlecht. 
Dillwynia  hispida,  Lindl. 

floribunda,  Sm. 

cinerascens,  R.  Br. 

patula,  F.  Muell. 
Platylobiom  obtusangulum,  Hook. 
Bossiea  proetrata,  R.  Br. 
riparia,  A.  Gunn. 
Templetonia  retusa,  R.  Br. 
egena,  Benth. 
Hovea  lon^olia,  R.  Br. 
Goodia  lotifolia,  Salisb. 
Grotalaria  Gunningbamii,  R.  Br. 

diBsitiflora,  Benth. 
Pentadynamis  incana,  R.  Br. 
Trigonella  suayissima,  Lindl. 
Lotus  comioulatus,  Lin. 

australis,  Andr. 
Psoralea  eriantha,  Benth. 

patens,  Lin<ll. 

adscendens,  F.  Muell. 
Indigofera  Yisoosa,  Lam. 

breyidens,  Benth. 
austraUs,  Willd. 
Sosbania  aouleata,  Pers. 
Glianthus  Dampieri,  A.  Gunn. 


Swainsona  Greyana,  Lindl. 
galegifolia,  R.  Br. 
pbacoides,  Benth. 
Bnrkittii,  F.  Muell. 
oligophylla,  F.  Muell. 
campylantha.  F.  Muell. 
procumbens,  F.  Muell. 

{>hacifolia,  F.  Muell. 
essertiifolifl,  Dec. 
microphylla,  A.  Gray, 
lazn,  R.  Br. 
Lespedeza  lunata.  Benth. 
Glycine  falcata,  Benth. 

clandeetina,  Wendl. 
Latrobeana,  Benth. 
tabacina,  Benth 
Hardenbergiu  monophylla,  Benth. 
Kennedya  prostrata,  R.  Br. 
Yigna  lanoeolata,  Benth. 
Gassia  eremophila,  A  Gunn. 
artemisioides,  Gaud. 
Sturtii,  R.  Br. 
desolata,  F.  Muell. 
Petalostyles  labicheoides,  R.  Br. 
Acacia  continua,  Benth. 
spinescens,  Benth. 
ooUetioides,  A.  Gurin. 
tetragonophylla,  F.  MuelL 
rupicola,  F.  Muell. 
rhigiophylla,  F.  Muell. 
aneura,  F.  Muell. 
stereophylla,  Meisn. 
ozycedrus,  Sieb.  * 
yerticillata,  WUld. 
rigens,  A.  Gunn. 
papyrocarpa,  Benth. 
calamifolia.  Sweet, 
armata,  R.  Br. 
yomen'formis,  A.  Gunn. 
obliqua,  A.  Gunn. 
acinaoea,  Lindl. 
lineata,  A.  Gunn. 
anoepe,  Dec. 
microcarpn,  F.  Muell. 
montana,  Benth. 
yemiciflua,  A.  Gunn. 
dodonaeifolia,  Willd. 
sentis,  F.  Muell 
retinodes,  Schlecht. 
neriifolia,  A.  Gunn. 
pyonantha,  Benth. 
notabilis,  F.  MueU. 
salicina,  Lindl. 
prominens,  A.  Gunn. 


254 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


AcaciA  brachybotrya,  Benth. 
WatUiana,  F.  MueU. 
myrtifolia,  Willd. 
sublanata,  Benth. 
homalophylla,  A.  CuDn. 
Oswald!,  K.  Muell. 
fitenophylla,  A.  CunD. 


Acacia  farinoea,  Lindl. 

melanoxylon,  R.  Br. 
longi  folia,  Willd. 
Burkittli,  F.  MaeU. 
cyperophylla,  F.  MaeU. 
scleropnylla,  LindL 
deourrens,  Willd. 


iBotropis  parviflora,  Benth. 
Bortcmia  snbulata,  Benth. 
Jaoksonia  dilatata,  Benth. 

odontoolada,  F.  Muell. 
vemicosa,  F.  MaelL 
Crotalaria  orispata,  F.  MueU. 
linifolia,  Lin. 
Novfld  HollandiiB.  Dec. 
trifoliastrum,  WiUd. 
diBsitiflora,  Benth. 
Psoralea  badocana,  Benth. 

pustulata,  F.  Muell. 
leucantha,  F.  MudL 
Indigofera  hirsuta,  Lin. 

saxicola,  F.  MueU. 
linifolia,  Betz. 
yiscosa,  Lam. 
cordifolia,  Heyne 
haplophylla,  F.  Muell. 
tiita,  Lin. 
Tephrofiia  juncea,  R.  Br. 
porrecta,  R.  Br. 
simplicifolia,  F.  Muell. 
reticulata,  K.  Br. 
crocea,  R,  Br. 
polyzyga,  F.  Muell. 
Stuartii,  Benth. 
eriocarpa,  Benth. 
filipes,  Bentli. 
Sesbania  g^ndiflora,  Pers. 
fegjrptiaca,  Pers. 
Zomia  diphylla,  Pers. 
Desmodium  trichostachyum,  Benth. 
Muelleri,  Benth. 
biarticulatum,  F.  Muell. 
Pycnospora  hedysaroiden,  R.  Br. 
Uraria  cylindracea,  Benth. 

lagopoides,  Dec. 
Alysicarpus  rugosus,  Dec. 
Olitoria  australis,  Benth. 
Glycine  tomentoea,  Benth. 
Galactia  tenuiflora,  Willd. 
Oanavalia  obtusifolia,  Dec. 
Phaseolus  Mungo,  Lin. 

vulgaris,  Lin. 
Vigna  vexillata,  Benth. 
lutea,  A.  Gray. 
lanceolatc^  Benth. 
Erythrina  vespertilio,  Benth. 
Atylosia  grandifolia,  F.  Muell. 


Intra'TropicaL 

\  Atylosia  oinerea,  F.  Muell. 
Rhynchosia  rhomboidea,  F.  Muell. 
australis,  Benth. 
minima,  Dec. 
Eriosema  chinense,  Yog. 
Flemingia  pauciflora,  Benth. 

lineata,  Roxb. 
Abrus  precatorius,  Lin. 
Dalbergia  densa,  Benth. 
Pongamia  glabra.  Vent. 
Peltophorum  ferrugineum,  Benth. 
Guilandina  Bonducella,  Lin. 
Cassia  Absus,  Lin. 

chamiecrista,  Lin. 

sufirutioosa.  Keen. 

venusta,  F.  Muell. 

notabilis,  F.  Muell. 

oligoolada,  F.  Muell. 

leptoclada,  Benth. 
Bauhinia  Hookeri,  F.  MueU. 
Erythrophloeum  Laboucherii, 

F.  MueU. 
Dichrostachys  oinerea,  W.  A  Am. 

MueUeri,  Benth. 
Neptunia  g^racilis,  Benth. 
Acacia  crassioarpa,  A.  Gunn. 

Ounninghamii,  Hook. 

dimidiata,  Benth. 

holoeerioea,  A.  Cunn. 

latescens,  Benth. 

loxocarpa,  Benth. 

pUifcra,  Benth. 

polystaohya,  Bentb* 

^imsii,  A.  Cunn. 

tumlda,  F.  Muell. 

^tens,  F.  MueU. 

Baueri,  Benth. 

hemignosta,  F.  Muell. 

Wicknami,  Benth. 

lysiphloea,  F.  Muell. 

linarioides,  Benth. 

umbellata,  A.  Cunn. 

xylocarpa,  A.  Cunn. 

conspersa,  F.  MueU. 

torulosa,  Benth. 

plectocarpa,  A.  Cunn. 

tumida,  P.  MueU, 

latifolla,  Benth. 

humifuso,  A.  Cunn. 

famesiana,  WUld. 


ITS  FLOEA.  255 

ROSACEA. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  7  Genera. 

South  Australia,  5  Genera. 

IhOrchTropieal. 


Acasna  ovina,  A.  Chmn. 

Sanguisorbie,  VahL 


Rubufl  parvifolius,  Lin. 
Alchemilla  arvensis,  Soop. 

Intra-TropicciL 

Parinarivm  Griffithianiim,  Benth.  I  Bubus  moluocanuB,  lio. 

Nonda,  F.  MuelL 


SAXIFRAGE-ffi. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  20  Genera. 
No  representative  in  South  Australia. 

CRASSULACE.E. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

ExtrO'TropicaL 

Tilliea  verticillaris,  Deo.  I  TillsBa  recurva,  Hook, 

maorantha,  Hook.  | 

DROSERACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  2  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

■ 

Extra-Tropical. 

Drosera  Whittakerii,  Planch 
aurioulata,  Backh. 
Menziesii,  R.  Br. 

Intra-TropiedL 
Drosera  indica,  Lin.  |  Drosera  petiolaris,  R.  Br. 

HALORAGEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  7  Genera. 

South  Australia,  6  Genera. 
Extra-Tropioal, 


Droeera  glandoligera,  Lehm. 
pygmica,  Dec. 
oinata,  LabiU. 


Haloragis  tencrioides,  A  Gray. 
Meionectes  Brownii,  Hook. 
Myriophyllum  varissfolium,  Hook. 

elatinoides,  Gaud. 

verrucosiun,  lindl. 

Mnelleri,  Sond. 

integrifolium,  Hook. 
Geratophyllum  demersrun,  Lin. 
Callitnche  vema,  Lin. 


Londonia  aurea,  I^indl. 

Behrii,  Schlecht 
Haloragis  mncronata,  Benth. 

Croesei,  F.  Muell. 

elata,  A.  Cunn. 

ceratophylla,  EndL 

acutangula,  F.  MuelL 

micrantha,  R.  Br. 

heterophylla,  Brongn. 

tetragyna,  Hook. 

Intra-TropicaL 
Haloragis  acanthocarpa,  Brongn. 

RHIZOPHORE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  4  Geuera. 

South  Australia,  4  Genera. 

Intro-Tropical, 

Rhizophora  muoronata.  Lam.  1  Brugmera  Rheedii,  Blum. 

Oeriops  Candolleana,  Arn.  |  Carallia  integerrima,  Dec 


256 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA, 


COMBBETACE^ 

Indigenona  in  Australia,  4  Genera. 

Sonth  Anstialia,  3  Genera. 
htira-Trcfieal. 


Tcrmtnalift  pUtjpteim,  F.  MoelL 
Tolocris,  B.  Br. 
bnmrina,  F.  Haell. 
cucoDudata,  F.  MoelL 


Terminalia  pUtjphyllA,  F.  MoelL 

gimndiflorm,  Benth. 
Kftcropienuitbes  Kekwiddi, 

F.  Maen 


MYBTACE^ 

Indigenoos  in  Anstralla,  42  Genera. 

South  Australia,  18  Genera. 


Danrinia  micropetala,  Benth. 

Schaennaimi,  Benth. 
Vertioordia  Wilhelmii,  F.  MoelL 
(^aljthrix  tetragooa,  Labill. 
Lhotzkja  glaberruoa,  F.  MoelL 

genet^Uoides,  F.  MoelL 
ThrjpiomeDe  Miqoeliaoa,  F.  MoelL 
eri€«a,  F.  MoelL 
Elliottii,  F.  Moell. 
Maiionneom,  F.  MoelL 
Mioromjrios  micropbjlla,  Benth. 
Bttckca  crattiifolia,  LindL 
Behrii,  F.  MoeU. 
Lcptoflpermom  Isvigatom,  F.  MoelL 
Bcopariom,  Forst. 
lanigerom,  Sm. 
myrsinoides,  Scblecbt 
Konzea  pomifera,  F.  MoelL 
CallUtemon  ooccioeufl,  F.  MoelL 
Balignus,  Dec 
teretifolios,  F.  MoelL 
brachyandrofi,  Lindl. 
Melaleuca  acominataf  F.  MoelL 
decussata,  B.  Br. 
Wilflonii,  F.  MoeU. 
Preiiwiana,  Schao.  , 

armiilarifl,  Sm. 

IfUra-TropicaL 


£zira-TropieaL 

Melaleoca  nndiiata,  B.  Br. 

glomerata,  F.  MoelL 
sqoamea,  LabilL 
lasiaodra,  F.  MoelL 
lioophylla,  F.  MoelL 

Eocaljptos  virgata,  Sieb. 
obliqoa,  Lher. 


oapitellata,  Sni. 
leoooxjlon,  F.  Moell. 
gracilis,  F.  MoelL 
panicolata,  Sni. 
bicolor,  A.  Conn, 
odorata,  Behr. 
oncinata,  Torcz.   . 
hemiphloia,  F.  MoelL 
cneonfolia,  Dec. 
oorynocalyx,  F.  MoelL 
brachjpoda,  Torcz. 
oosmophylla,  F.  Moell. 
domofia,  A  Conn, 
incrassata,  LabilL 
viminalis,  LabilL 
rostrata,  Schlecht. 
Stoartiana,  F.  MoelL 
oleosa,  F.  MoelL 
foecunda,  Schao. 


Veriicordia  Conninghamii,  Schao. 
Oalythrix  microphylla,  A.  Conn, 
conferta,  A.  Conn, 
arboresoens,  F.  MoeU. 
laricina,  B.  Br. 
Thryptomene  Maisonneovii,  F.  MoelL 
Leptoflpermom  abnorme,  F.  MoelL 
M^leoca  acaoioides,  F.  Moell. 

symphyocarpa,  F.  MoelL 
leocadendron,  Lin. 
ffenifltifolia,  Sm. 
dUsitiflora,  F.  MoelL 
Eucalyptoi  miniata,  A.  Cunn. 

platyphylla,  F.  MuelL 
oorymbosa,  Sm. 
terminalis,  F.  MoeU. 
clavieera,  A.  Conn, 
grandifolia,  B.  Br. 
proinoBa,  Schao. 


Eocalyptos  orebra,  F.  MoelL 

brachyp|oda,  Torcz. 
pateUaris,  F.  MoeU. 
tesselaris,  F.  MoelL 
phoenioea,  F.  MoeU. 
latifolia,  F.  MuelL 
ptychocarpa,  F.  MoeU. 
dichromophloia,  F.  MuelL 
terminalis,  F.  Moell. 
tetrodonta,  F.  MoeU. 

Tnstania  lactifloa,  F.  MuelL 

Xanthostemon  pwradoxos,  F.  MuelL 

Osbomia  octodonta,  F.  MoeU. 

Eugenia  Smithii,  Poir. 

eocalyptoides,  F.  MuelL 
Armstrongii,  Benth. 

Barrlngtonia  aoutangola,  Qaertn. 

Oareya  arborea,  Bozb. 


ITS  FLORA.  257 

MELASTOMACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  4  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera. 

Intra-Tropical. 
Osbeokia  aostraliana,  Naud.  |  Melastoma  malabathrioum,  Lin. 

LYTHRARIE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  5  Genera. 

South  Australia,  3  Genera. 

Exira'TropieaL 

Ammannia  indioa,  Lam.  Lythrom  hyssopifolium,  Lin. 

Lythrum  Salioaria,  Lin. 

iTUrct-TropiccU, 

Ammannia  Rotala,  F.  MnelL  |  Ammannia  indioa,  Lam. 

pentandra,  Roxb.  |  Lythrum  amhemionm,  F.  Muell. 

ONAGRARIE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  4  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera. 
Extra^TropieciL 


Epilobinm  pallid!  florum,[,Soland. 
Jussisea  repenB,  Lin. 


Epilobinm  juncenm,  Forst. 
glabellum,  Forst. 
tetragonum,  Lin. 

Intrii'Troptoal. 
Jussisa  Bui&utiooBa,  Lin.  |  Ludwigia  parviflora,  Roxb. 

SAMYDACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  2  Genera. 
No  representative  in  South  Australia. 

PASSlFLOREiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  2  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Intra-Tropical. 
Modeooa  anstralis,  R.  Br. 

CUOQRBITACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  9  Genera. 

South  Australia,  6  Genera. 
Intra-TropiecU. 


Trichoaonthes  cuonmerina,  Lin. 
Li:^  iBgyptiaca,  Mill. 

graveolens,  Roxb. 
CuomniB  trigonus,  Roxb. 


Bryonia  lacinioea,  Lin. 

Melothria  Cnnninghajmii,  F.  Muell. 

Mukia  Boabrella,  Am. 


FICOIDEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  8  Genera. 

South  Australia,  7  Genera. 

Mesembryanthemum  lequHaterale,  Tetragonia  imnlexioome.  Hook. 

Aizoon  quadrindum,  F.  Muell. 


Haw. 
australe,  Soland. 
crystallinum,  Lin. 
Tetragonia  expansa,  Murr. 


Gunnia  septifraga,  F.  Muell. 
MoUugo  orygioides,  F.  Muell. 
Cer?iana,  Ser. 

S 


258  SOUTH  AUSTBATJA. 

IntrO'Tropieal. 


Berayinm  portolacastnim,  Lin. 
Trianthema  orYetallina,  Yuhl. 
piloea,  F.  MaelL 


Trianthenut  rhynchooalyptra, 

F.  MueU. 
Mollugo  trigastroiheoa,  F.  MuelL 


UMBELLIFER.E. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  13  Genera. 

South  Australia,  7  Genera. 

ExirO'Tropieat 


Trachymene  glancifolia,  Bentb. 
Xanthosia  papilla,  Bange. 

oiBsecta,  Hook. 
Eryngimn  rostratum,  Gav. 

Tesiculosom,  Labill. 
Apiom  anstmle,  Thou. 
Crantzia  lineata,  Nutt. 
DancuB  braohiatus,  Sieb. 


Hydroootyle  valgaris,  Lin. 

hirta,  R.  Br. 

laxiflora,  Dec 

callioarpa,  Bunge. 

capillaris,  F.  Muell. 

asiatica,  Lin. 
Trachymene  australis,  Benth. 

pilosa,  Sm. 

eriocarpa,  Benth. 

IfUra-TropiooL 

Hydroootyle  grammatocarpe,  F.  Mnell.  I  Trachymene  glanduloea,  Benth. 
Trachymene  villosa,  Benth.  |  hemicarpa,  Benth. 

ARALIACE.E. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  6  Genera. 
Ko  representative  in  South  Australia. 

CORNACE^.      * 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 
No  representative  in  South  Australia. 

LORANTHACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  5  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera. 

Extra-TropiedL 


Loranthnfi  angnstifolius,  R.  Br. 
linearifolius.  Hook. 
Exocarpi,  Behr. 
linophyllus,  FenzL 


Loranthns  celastroides,  Sieb. 
longiflonis,  Desv. 
pendulus,  Sieb. 
Exocarpi,  Behr. 


Loranthus  pendulns,  Sieb. 

Qnandang,  Lindl. 

grandibracteuB,  F.  Muell. 
Yisoum  articulatom,  Burm. 


Intra-TropieaL 


Loranthus  signatus,  F.  Muell. 

Quandaug,  Lindl. 

grandibraoteus,  F.  Muell. 
Yiscum  angulatum,  Heyne. 


CAPRIFOLIACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Exira-Tropical 
Sambncus  Gandichaudiana,  Dec. 


ITS  FLOHA. 


259 


KUBIACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Anstralia,  29  Genera. 

South  Australia,  7  Genera. 


Hedyotis  tillseacea,  F.  Muell. 
Dentella  repens,  Font 
Oanihiuin  latifolium,  F.  Muell. 
Opercularia  Bcabrida,  Schlecht. 

hispida,  Spreng. 

ovata,  Hook. 

Taria,  Hook. 

Hedyotis  Auricularia,  Lin. 

pterospora,  F.  Muell. 
Dentella  repens,  Forst. 
Knoxia  oorymbosa,  Willd. 
Gardenia  megaspenna,  F.  Muell. 

sunrutioosa,  R.  Br. 
Handia  densiflora,  Benth. 
Ixora  timorensifl,  Dec. 

tomentosa,  Rexb. 

ooccinea,  Lin. 
Timonius  Rumphii,  Dec. 
Guettarda  speciosa,  Lin. 


Extra-Tropical. 


\ 


Opercularia  umbellata,  Gaeri 
Asperula  scoparia.  Hook. 
Galium  geminifolium,  F.  MuelL 

Gaudiohaudi,  Dec. 

australe,  Deo. 

Aparine,  Lin. 


Intra'Tropioal, 

Ganthium  lucidum,  Hook. 

ooprosmoides,  F.  Muell. 
Codospermum  reticulatum,  Benth. 
Psychotria  nesophila,  F.  Muell. 
Spermacoce  breviflora,  F.  Muell. 

exserta,  Benth. 

leptoloba,  Benth. 

brachystema,  R.  Br. 

meinbranacea,  R.  Br. 

margrinata,  Benth. 

aurioulata,  F.  MuelL 
Scyphiphora  hydropbylaoea,  Gacrt. 


COMPOSITE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  94  Genera. 

South  Australia,  66  Genera. 


Adenostemma  viscosumf  Forst. 
Olearia  gjandiflora.  Hook. 

pannoea,  Hook. 

stellulato,  Dec. 

tubuliflora,  Benth. 

ramulosa,  Benth. 

floribunda,  Benth. 

lepldophvlla,  Benth. 

pimeleoides,  Benth. 

conocephala,  F.  Muell. 

Muelleri,  Benth. 

Stuartii,  F.  Muell. 

decurrens,  Benth. 

glutinosa,  Benth. 

teretifolia,  F.  Muell. 

glandulosa.  Benth. 

rudis,  F.  Muell. 

picridifolia,  Benth. 

ciliata,  F.  Muell. 
Yittadinia  australis,  A.  Rich. 
Podoooma  cuneifolia,  R.  Br. 
Erigeron  linifolius,  Willd. 
Minuria  leptophylla,  Dec. 

Candollei,  F.  Muell. 

Ounninghamii,  Benth. 

integerrima,  Benth. 


Extra'TropicaL 

Minuria  denticulafa,  Benth. 

suiedifolia,  F.  Muell. 
Galotis  cunelfolia,  R.  Br. 

cymbacanthaf  F.  Muell. 
erinacea,  Steetz. 
scabiosifolia.  Send, 
scapigenii  Hook, 
lappmacea,  Benth. 
plumullfera,  F.  Muell. 
porphyroglossa,  F.  Muell. 
nispidula,  F.  Muell. 
denteXf  R.  Br. 
Lagenophora  Billardieri,  Cass. 

Huegelii,  Benth. 
Brachycome  diversifoUa,  Fisch. 

goniocarpa,  Send. 

paohyptera,  Turcz. 

Mueileri,  Sond. 

graminea,  F.  Muell. 

basaltioa.  F.  Muell. 

traohycarpa,  F.  Muell. 

exilis,  Sond. 

debilis,  Sond. 

decipiens,  Hook. 

cardiocarpa,  F.  Muell. 

ciliaris,  Less. 

s  2 


260 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


Brachyoome  calocarpa,  F.  MaelL 

collina,  Benth. 
Monentelcfl  spbacelatos,  Labill. 
Plucbea  Eyrea,  F.  Maell. 
Epaltes  australis,  Less. 
Siegesbeckia  orientalis,  Lin. 
Eclipta  platyglossa,  F.  MueU. 
GlosBogyne  ienuifolia.  Cass. 
Cotula  filifolia,  ThuDb. 
ooronopffolia,  Lin. 
aiutralis,  Hook. 
reptanSf  Benth. 
Myriogyne  minuta,  Less. 
Blachanthus  pusillus,  F.  Mnell. 
Myriocephalus  rhizooephalus,  Bentli. 
Budallii,  Benth. 
Stnartii,  Benth. 
Angianthus  tomentosns,  Wendl. 
pleuropappus,  Benth. 
brachypappus,  F.  MuelL 
pusillus,  Benth. 
±*reissianns,  Benth. 
strictus,  Benth. 
Gnephosis  Burkittii,  Benth. 

skirrophora,  Benth. 
arachnoidea,  Turoz. 
Caloeephalus  Brownii,  F.  MuelL 
Sonderi,  F.  MuelL 
laeteusy  Less, 
citreus,  Less, 
platycephalus.  Benth. 
Cephalipterum  Drummondii,  A.  Gray. 
Gnaphalodes  uliginosum,  A.  Gray. 
Craspedia  Richea,  Cass. 

pleiocephala,  F.  MuelL 
chrvsantha,  Benth. 
globosa,  Benth. 
Chthonocephalus  pseudoevax,  Steetz. 
Ixodia  achilleoides,  K.  Br. 
Cassinia  aculeata,  B.  Br. 
lieyis,  R.  Br. 
aculeata,  R.  Br. 
spectabilis,  R.  Br. 
Eriochlamys  Behrii,  Sond. 
Tozanthus  perpusillus,  Turcz. 

Muelleri,  Benth. 
Rutidosis  helichrysoides,  Deo. 

Pumilo,  Benth. 
MiUotia  tenuifolia,  Cass. 
Ixioliena  leptolepis,  Benth. 
supina,  F.  Muell. 
tomentosa,  Sond. 
Athrixia  tenella,  Benth. 
Podotheca  angustifolia,  Cass. 
Podolepis  acuminata,  R.  Br. 
oanescens,  A.  Cunn. 
rugata,  I^abill. 
Lessoni,  Benth. 
Siemssenia,  F.  Muell. 
pallida,  Turcz. 


Leptorhynchus  squamatus.  Less. 

ambiguus,  Benth. 
pulchellus,  F.  MuelL 
elongatus,  Dec 
Waitzia,  Sond. 
Schoenia  Cassiniapa,  Steetz. 
Heliohrysum  Lawrenoella,  F.  MuelL 
Cotula,  Dec 
Baxteri,  A.  Cunn. 
scorpioides,  Labill. 
rutidolepis,  Dec 
obtusifotium,  F.  Mnell. 
bracteatum,  Willd. 
leucopeidium,  Dec. 
Blandowskianum,  Steetz. 
podolepideum,  F.  Muell. 
apiculatum,  Dec. 
adnatum,  Benth. 
ferrugineum.  Less. 
Waitzia  corymbosa,  Wendl. 
Helipterum  anthemoides,  Dec 
polygalifolium,  Dec. 
noribundum,  Dec. 
stipitatum,  F.  Muell. 
incanum,  Dec 
hyalospermum,  F.  Muell. 
strictum,  Benth. 
oorymbiflonun,  Schlecht. 
pygmieum,  Benth. 
moschatum,  Benth. 
pterochntum,  Benth, 
exiguum,  F.  MuelL 
dimorpholepis,  Benth. 
Gnaphalium  luteo-album,  Lin. 
japonicum.  Thunb. 
indutum.  Hook. 
Stuartina  Muelleri,  Sond. 
Ereohthites  arguta,  Dec. 
mixta,  Dec 
quadridentata,  Dec. 
hispidula.  Deo. 
Senecio  Gregorii,  F.  Muell. 

megaglossus,  F.  MuelL 
magnificus,  F.  Muell. 
lautus,  Forst. 
australis,  WUld. 
Behrianus,  Sond. 
brachyglossus,  F.  MuelL 
odoratus,  Homem. 
Cunninghamii,  Dec. 
hypoleucus,  F.  Muell. 
veUeioides,  A.  Cunn. 
Cymbonotus  Lawsonianus,  Gaudich. 
Microseris  Forsteri,  Hook. 
Hypochsoris  glabra,  Lin. 
Pioris  hieraoioides,  Lin. 
Sonchus  oleraceus,  Lin. 
Erodiophyllum  Elderi,  F.  Muell. 
Pterigeron  densatifolius,  F.  Muell. 


ITS  FLOKA. 


261 


IntrorTropicoL 


VernonU  einerea,  Less. 
Pleurocarpsea  denticulata,  Benth.  • 
Elephantopus  soaber,  Lin. 
Vittadinia  brachycomoides,  F.  MaelL 

maororhiza,  A.  Gray. 
Calotis  breviseta,  Benth. 
Splueranthns  hirtus,  Willd. 

mici:ocepbalu8,  Willd. 
Monenteles  sphaoelatus,  Labill. 

sphieranthoides,  Deo. 
Blamea  integrifolia,  Deo. 

diffusa,  R.  Br. 

GunniDghamii,  Deo. 
Plaohea  indioa,  Less. 

Eyrea,  F.  Muell. 
Epaltes  australis,  Less. 
Pterigeron  filifolius,  Benth. 


Pterigeron  maorocephalus,  Benth. 

odorus,  J^enth. 
Coleocoma  oentaureaf  F.  Muell. 
Thespidium  basiflorum,  F.  MuolL 
Eclipta  platvglossa,  F.  Muell. 
Wedelia  verbesinoides,  F.  MuelL 

biflora,  Dec 
Moonia  eeliptoides,  Benth. 

procumbens,  Benth. 
Spllanthes  grandiflora,  Turcz. 
Bidens  bipinnata,  Lin. 
Glossogyne  tenuifolia,  Cass. 
Flaveria  australasica,  Hook. 
Hyriogyne  minuta,  Less. 
Rutidosis  Brownii,  Benth. 
Heliohrysum  bracteatum,  Willd. 
apioulaturo,  Dec. 


Stylidium  graminifolium,  Swartz. 
ciBspitosum,  R.  Br. 
caloaratum,  R.  Br. 

Stylidium  Floodii,  F.  Muell. 
floribundum,  R.  Br. 
leptorhizum,  F.  MuelL 


STYLIDIE.E. 

Indigenous  in  Anstralia,  3  Gtenera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera. 

Extra-TropiedL 


Stylidium  despectum,  R.  Br. 
Levenhookia  dubia.  Send. 


IfUrorTropiedL 

Stylidium  alsinoides,  R.  Br. 

sohizanthum,  F.  MuelL 
pedunoulatum,  R.  Br. 


GOODENOVIEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  12  Genera. 

South  Australia,  8  Genera. 

ExtrarTropicdl. 


Ijesohenaoltia  divaricata,  F.  MuelL 

Velleia  oonnata,  F.  Muell. 
paradoza,  R.  Br. 

<j}oodenia  ovata,  Sm. 

amplexans,  F.  Muell. 
Tana,  R.  Br. 
osBrulea,  R.  Br. 
geniculata,  R.  Br. 
hirsuta,  F.  MuelL 
caloarata,  F.  MuelL 
Nicholsoni,  F.  MuelL 
grandiflora,  Sims. 
Mitchellii,  Benth. 
Chambersii,  F.  MuelL 
albiflora,  Schlecht. 
cyoloptera,  R.  Br. 


Goodenia  pinnatiflda,  Schlecht 

glauoa,  F.  MuelL 
Selliera  radicans,  Cav. 
Scffivola  spinesoens,  R.  Br. 

depauperata,  R.  Br. 

coUaris,  F.  Muell. 

suaveolens,  R.  Br. 

ovalifolia,  R.  Br. 

crassifolia,  LabilL 

flomula,  R.  Br. 

humilis,  R.  Br. 

microcarpa^  Cav. 

linearis,  R.  Br. 
Dampiera  rosmarinifolia,  Schlecht. 
Brunonia  australis,  Sm. 


Croodenia  Armstrongiana,  Deo. 
pumilio,  R.  Br. 
purpurascens,  R.  Br. 
sepalosa,  F.  Muell. 


ItUra-TropicoL 

Goodenia  azurea,  F.  MuelL 

heterochila,  F.  MuclL 
hispida,  R.  Br. 
auriculata,  Benth* 


262 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


Goodenia  coronopifolia,  B.  Br. 
microptera,  P.  MuelL 
lamprosperma,  F.  |duell. 

Calogynepiloea,  B.  Br. 

Scsevola  Koenigii,  Yahl. 


Soeevola  Canninghamii,  Doc 
angnlata,  B.  Br. 
roYoluta,  B.  Br. 
ovalifolia,  B.  Br. 


Lobelia  gibbosa,  Labill. 
rhombifolia,  Vr. 
anceps,  Thunb. 
pratioides,  Benth* 


Lobelia  membranacea,  B.  Br. 
Btenophylla,  Benth. 
quadrangularis,  B.  Br. 


ERICACB^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  3  Genera. 
No  representative  in  South  Australia. 

CAMPANULACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  4  Genera. 

South  Australia,  4  Genera. 

Exira-Tropieal. 

Lobelia  heterophjUa,' Labill. 
Pratia  pubemla,  Benth. 
Isotoma  petnea,  F.  Muell. 
Wahlenbergia  gracilis,  A.  Dec. 

Intra-TropieaL 

Lobelia  dioica,  B.  Br. 
Wahlenbergia  gracilis,  A.  Dec. 


EPACBIDEiB. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  24  Genera. 

South  Australia,  8  Genera. 

ExhU'TropicdL 


StjTphelia  putilliflora,  F.  HnelL 
Astroloma  numiftiBum,  B.  Br. 

conoBtephioides,  F.  MnelL 
Brachjloma  eriooides,  Sond. 

daphnoides,  Benth. 
LisBanthe  BtrigoBa,  B.  Br. 
Leucopogon  Bichei,  B.  Br. 

auBtrallB,  B.  Br. 

virgatuB,  B.  Br. 


Leucopogon  eriooides,  B.  Br. 

cordifoliuB,  Lindl. 

hirtellus,  F.  Muell. 

rufuB,  Lindl. 

Woodsii,  F.  MuelL 
Aorotriche  serrulata,  B.  Br. 
ovalifolia,  B.  Br. 
Epacris  impressa,  Labill. 
Sprengelia  incamata,  Sm. 


PLUMBAGINEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  3  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera. 

Intr€t-TropieaL 
Plumbago  zeylanica,  Lin.  |  Acgialitis  annulata,  B.  Br. 

PBIMULACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  3  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera. 

Extra'TropicdL 
Anagallis  arvonsiSy  Lin.  |   Samolus  repens,  Pers. 

MYBSINE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  5  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Intra'Tropical, 
JEgiceras  majus,  Gacrtn. 


ITS  FLOKA.  263 

SAPOTACE.E. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  5  Genera. 

South  Australia,  3  Genera. 

SeraaUsia  sericea,  K.  Br.  |  Mimusope  parrifolia,  R.  Br. 

Aohras  myrsinoides,  A.  Cmm.  | 

EBENACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  3  (jrenera. 

South  Australia,  3  Genera. 

Intro-Tropical. 

DioBpyros  oordifolia,  Boxb.  I  Maba  humills,  B.  Br. 

OargiUia  laxa,  B.  Br.  | 

STYRACACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 
No  representative  in  South  Australia. 

JASMINEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  5  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera. 

IntrO'Tropicdl. 


Jasminmn  didymum,  Forst. 
lineare,  B.  Br. 
simplioifolium,  Forst. 


Jasminmn  lemnlum,  B.  Br. 
Noteleea  microcarpa,  B.  Br. 


APOCYNE.E. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  12  Genera. 

South  Australia,  6  Genera. 

Extra-Tropical, 
Alyzia  buxifolia,  B.  Br. 

Intra-TropicaL 


Garisaa  lanceolata,  B.  Br. 
Alyxia  spicata,  B.  Br. 

thyrsiflora,  Benth. 
Tabemiemontana  orientalis,  B.  Br. 

pubesoens,  B.  Br. 


Alstonia  verticillosa,  F.  Muell. 
Wrightia  pubesoens  B.  Br. 
saligna,  F.  MuelL 
Parsonsia  yelutina,  B.  Br. 


ASCLEPIADEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  14  Genera. 

South  Australia,  9  Genera. 

Extra-TropicdL 

Sarooetemma  anstrale,  B.  Br.  I  Marsdenia  Leiohardtiana,  F.  Muell. 

Qynanchum  floribundom,  B.  Br.  | 


Intrc^Tropioal, 


Gymnanthera  nitida,  B.  Br. 
Seoamone  elliptioa,  B.  Br. 
Saroostemma  anstrale,  B.  Br. 
Vinoetoxicnm  camosum,  Benth. 
Oynanchnm  pedunculatum,  B.  Br. 

floribundum,  B.  Br. 
Tylophora  maorophylla,  Benth. 


Tylophora  flexuosa,  B.  Br. 
MEursdenia  cinerascens,  B.  Br. 

Telntina,  B.  Br. 

Hullsii,  F.  MueU.' 
Gynmema  stenophyllum,  A.  Gray. 

sylvestre,  B.  Br. 
Hoya  Nicholsoniie,  F.  MuelL 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

LOGANIACEiE. 
Indigenous  in  Australia,  6  Genera. 


acme  pandaza,  B.  Br. 

ia  longifolia,  U.  Br. 

arsaidfolia,  B.  Br. 


JlitrMBome  ttellata,  B.  Br. 

tenuiflnra,  Beoth. 
luteo,  F.  MuelL 
lon^ora,-F.  UuelL 
Invu,  Benth. 
iudica,  WighL 


South  Australia,  4  Genera. 
Extrn-Tm^oid. 

1  Lognnia  onata,  B.  Br. 

linifolia,  Schlecht. 

Jnlm-  TropwaL 

Mitraueme  ocnmata,  R.  Br. 
elats,  B.  Br. 
lariclTolia,  B.  Br. 
PagnM  laoemoea,  Jack. 
StTTcboM  lucida,  B.  Br. 

-'■ F.  Muell. 


GENTIANE^. 
Indigenons  in  Anatralia,  7  Genera. 

South  Australia,  5  Genera. 

Br.  I  G«Titiaiia  moatfiiia,  Foist. 

I  Villwiia  reuiformU,  B.  Br. 
JMra-TropieaL 

I  LimnaiitheDium  geminatam.  Griaeb. 

HYDBOPHTLLACE^. 
Indigenons  in  Auntralia,  1  Genus. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 
Jnfra-TrojnenL 
Hfdrolea  ze;Uni<»,  VahL 

BORAGINE.<E. 
Indigenous  in  Australia,  12  Genera. 


europnum,  Lin. 
UDdatatum,  Vahl. 
BaperrimniD,  B.  Br. 
OTalirolium,  Forak. . 
pleioplenun,  F.  Hnoll. 


Soath  Australia,  10  Genera. 
Erira-Tropieal. 

Heliotropium  fllaginoidee,  Bontb. 
Halgania  atrigxiMh  Schleeht. 
TricDodeema  leTlsniouin,  B.  Br. 
Mfoeotii  atutralia,  B.  Br. 
Rritrichium  aditralaiicnin,  A.  Doo. 
Echinoqwrntum  coDeanua,  F.  HnelL 


ilTza,Lin. 
uboordata,  Lam. 
Bouminala,  R.  Br. 
taligna,  B.  Br. 
3rtia  argentea,  Lin. 
t  prociunbeDB,  Lin. 
pium  faacianlfttiim,  R.  Br. 
oralifolium,  Forsk. 


Intra-TroploitL 

Heliotropiom  prMtratnm,  R.  Br. 

vontrtootuD),  B.  Br. 

paDdfloram,  R.  Br. 

tenuifoUum,  R.  Br. 

panieulatnm,  R.  Br. 

dlTerstfolinin,  F.  MuelL 
Triehodetma  cejrlaiiicuiii,  R.  Br. 


ITS  FLOKA. 


265 


CONVOLVULACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  11  Genera. 

South  Australia,  8  Genera. 


Ipomcoa  oostata,  F.  Muell. 
ObnvolvuluB  erubesoens,  Sims. 
-Oresaa  cretica,  Lin. 
HyoIyuIus  alsinoides,  Lin. 

Ipomoea  alata,  K.  Br. 

anguBtifolia,  Jacq. 
eriocarpa,  R.  Br. 
dissecta,  Willd. 
diversifolia,  R.  Br. 
flava,  F.  Mueli. 
pes-oaprsB,  Roth, 
sessiliflora,  Roth, 
panioulata,  R.  Br. 
quinata,  B.  Br. 
nederacea,  Jacq. 
longiflora.  R.  Br. 
camosa,  R.  Br. 
reptans,  Poir; 
abrupta,  R.  Br. 


Extro'Tropiecd, 

Dichondra  repens,  Forst 
Wilsonia  humilis,  R.  Br. 

rotundifolia,  Hook. 

Intra'TropicaL 

Ipomoea  gracilis,  R.  Br. 
Muelleri,  Benth. 
incisa,  R.  Br. 
heterophylla,  R.  Br. 
erecta,  R.  Br. 
Convolvulus  parvifloms,  Yahl. 
Polymeria  angusta,  F.  Muell. 

amoigua,  R.  Br. 
Breweria  linearis,  R.  Br. 
media,  R.  Br. 
brevifolia.  Benth. 
pannoea,  R.  Br. 
Cressa  cretica,  Lin. 
Evolvulus  alsinoides,  Lin. 
Dichondra  repens,  Forst 


SOLANEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  7  Genera. 

South  Australia,  3  Genera. 


Solauum  nigrum,  Lin. 

avioulare,  Forst. 
simile,  F.  Maell. 
oligacanthum,  F.  MuelL 
esuriale,  LindL 

Intra-TropicdL 


Extra-TropicaL 

Solanum  chenopodinnm,  F.  Muell. 
Sturtianum,  F.  Muell. 
hystrix,  R.  Br. 
petrophilum,  F.  Muell. 


Solanum  nigrum,  Lin. 

tetrandrnm,  R.  Br. 
discolor,  R.  Br. 
esuriale,  Lindl. 
diversiflorum,  F.  Muell. 
horridum,  Dun. 


Solanum  quadriloculatum,  F.  Muell. 

ellipticum,  B.  Br. 
Physalis  minima,  Lin. 

peruviana,  Liu. 
Niootiana  suaveolens,  Lehm. 


SCROPHULARINEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  30  Genera. 

South  Australia,  15  Grenera. 

Exlra-TropicaL 


Anthooercis  anisantha,  EndL 

angustifolia,  F.  MuelL 
Eadesii,  F.  Muell. 

3Iimuln8  repens,  R.  Br. 

prostratus,  Benth. 

Morgania  floribunda,  Benth. 

Oratiola  peruviana,  Lin. 

Limosella  aquatica,  Lin. 


Veronica  deoorosa,  F.  Muell. 
Derwentia,  Andr. 

§racilis,  R.  Br. 
istans,  R.  Br. 
calyoina,  R.  Br. 
Euphrasia  collina,  R.  Br. 
scabra,  R.  Br. 


266 


SOUTH  AUSTBALIA. 


Adenoflma  Muellerif  Benth. 
Stemodia  visooBa,  Roxb. 
debilis,  Benth. 
Morgania  glab'ra,  R.  Br. 
Limnophila  gratioloides,  R.  Br. 

punctata,  Blume. 

hirsuta,  Benth. 

serrata,  Gaudich. 
Yandellia  pubesoenB,  Benth. 


IfUra-TropioaL 

Yandellia  Bubulata,  Benth. 
Centranthera  hispida,  R.  Br. 
Buchnera  tetragona,  R.  Br. 

urtioifolia,  R.  Br. 

linearis,  R.  Br. 

tenella,  B.  Br. 
Striga  ourviflora,  Benth. 
mnltiflora,  Benth. 
Hemiarrhena  plantaginea,  Benth. 


LENTIBULARIEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  2  Genera. 

South  Australia,  I  Genus. 

Intra'TropicdL 

Utricnlaria  stellariB,  Lin.  I  Utricularia  ohrrsantha,  R.  Br. 

fulTa,  F.  MuelL  |  exoleta,  R.  Br. 

OROBANCHACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Extra'TropicdL 
Orobanohe  cemua,  Loefl. 

GESNERIACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  2  Genera. 
No  representative  in  South  Aiustralia. 

BIGNONIACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  4  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

IfUrct-Tropical. 
Spathodea  filiformis,  Dec.  |  Spathodea  heterophylla,  R.  Br. 

ACANTHACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  11  Genera. 

South  Australia,  7  Genera. 

Extrti'Tropical. 


Justicia  prooombens,  Lin. 

NelBonia  campestris,  R.  Br. 
Hygrophila  saUcifolia,  Nees. 
Ruellia  acaulis,  R.  Br. 
Acanthus  ilicifolius,  Lin. 


Intra-Tropiccd. 

Justioia  procumbens,  Lin. 
Dicliptera  glabra,  Dec. 
Hypoestes  noribunda,  R.  Br. 


PEDALINEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Extm-TropicaL 
Josephinia  Eagenise,  F.  Muell. 

Intra-Tropicdl, 
Josephinia  imperatricis,  Yent 


ITS  FLORA. 


267 


MYOPORINEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  13  Genera. 

South  Australia,  3  Genera. 


Myoporum  serratum,  R.  Br. 
deserti,  A.  Cunn. 
parvifolium,  R.  Br. 
platycarpuin,  R.  Br. 
PhoUdia  Dalyana,  F.  MuelL 
sooporia,  R.  Br. 
crassifolia,  F.  Muell. 
Behriana,  F.  Muell. 
gibbifolia,  F.  MuelL 
divaricata,  F.  Muell. 
santalina,  F.  Muell. 
Eremophila  rotundlfolia,  F.  MuelL 
oppositifolia,  R.  Br. 
Paifileyi,  F.  MueU. 


Extra-Tropical, 

Eremophila 


Sturtu,  R.  Br. 
Christophori,  F.  Muell. 
LatrobeL  F.  MuelL 
Macdonellii.  F.  MuelL 
longifolia,  F;  MuelL 
polydada,  F.  Muell. 
Freelingii,  F.  MuelL 
Goodwinii,  F.  Muell. 
Brownii,  F.  MuelL 
sooparia,  F.  MuelL 
Duttoni,  F.  Muell. 
maculata.  F.  Muell. 
latifolia,  F.  Muell. 
altemifolia,  R.  Br. 


Intra'TropiedL 

Eremaphila  Latrobei,  F.  Muell.  I  Eremopbila  Willsii,  F.  Muell. 

longifolia,  F.  MueU.  | 

SELAGINEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 
Xo  representative  in  South  Australia. 

VERBENACBiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  20  Genera. 

South  Australia,  8  Genera. 

Extm-TropioaL 
Verbena  offioinalis,  Lin.  I  Avicennia  officinaliB,  Lin. 

Glerodendiou  floribnndnm,  R.  Br.  | 

Intra-TropicdL 


Dicrastyles  oohrotricha,  F.  MuelL 
Deniflonia  ternifolia,  F.  MueU. 
Premna  obtusifolia,  R.  Br. 

integrifolia,  Lin. 

acuminata,  R.  Br. 
Glerodendron  inerme,  R.  Br. 

floribundum,  R.  Br. 


Glerodendron  Gunninghamii,  Bcnth. 
Gmelina  macrophylla,  Bentb. 
Yitex  trifolia,  Lin. 

acuminata,  R.  Br. 

glabrata,  R.  Br. 
Avicennia  officinalis,  Lin. 


LABLA^T^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  21  Genera. 

South  Australia,  15  Genera. 


Mentha  australis,  B.  Br. 

gracilis,  B.  Br. 

serpyllifolia,  Benth. 

grandiflora,  Benth. 

satureioides,  R.  Br. 
LyoopuB  auBtralis,  R.  Br. 
Prunella  vulgariB,  Lin. 
Scutellaria  humiliB,  R.  Br. 
Proetanthera  rotundifolia^  R.  Br. 
spinosa,  F.  MuelL 
Behriana,  Schlecht. 


Extra-TropicaJ, 

ProBtanthera  striatiflora,  F.  MuelL 
eurybioides,  F.  MuelL 
microphylla,  A.  Gunn. 
aspalathoides,  A.  Gunn. 
calycina,  F.  Muell. 
chlorantha,  F.  Muell. 

Westringia  rigida,  R.  Br. 

Teucrium  racemoBum,  R.  Br. 
oorymboBum,  R.  Br. 
sessiliflorum,  Benth. 

Ajuga  auBtralis,  R.  Br. 


1 


268 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


Ocimum  sanctum,  Lin. 
Moschosma  auBtralo,  Benth. 
Plectranthus  parviflorus,  Willi 
<Mcii8  scutellarioidos,  Benth. 


IntrorTropiodL 

Hyptis  suaveolens,  Poit 
Dysophylla  verticillata,  Benth. 
AnlBomelea  salvifolia,  B.  Br. 


PLANTAGINEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  8  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Extra'Tropical, 
Plantago  coronopns,  Lin.  |  Plantago  Taria,  R.  Br. 


PHYTOLACXJACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  5  Genera. 

South  Australia,  3  Genera. 

Extra-TropioaL 

Didymotheca  theeioides,  Hook.  |  Codonocarpus  pyramidalis,  F.  MuelL 

Oyrofltemon  cyclotheoa,  Benth.  j  cotinifolius,  F.  Mnell. 

Inira'TropicdL 
Oyroetemon  ramuloeus,  Deef. 

CHENOPODIACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1 5  Genera. 

South  Australia,  13  Genera. 

Eztrci'TropiedL 


Jthagodia  Billardieri,  R.  Br. 

Sarabolica,  R.  Br. 
^audichaudiana,  Miq. 
crassifolia,  R.  Br. 
spinesoens,  R.  Br. 
nntans,  R.  Br. 
•Ohenopodimn  Nitrariacea,  F.  Muell. 
miorophyUum,  F.  Muell. 
glaucum,  Lin. 
carinatum,  R.  Br. 
pumilio,  R.  Br. 
cristatura,  F.  Muell. 
atriplicinum,  F.  Muell. 
Dysphania  littoraUs,  R.  Br. 
Atriplex  stipitata,  Benth. 
paludoea,  R.  Br. 
nummularia,  Liudl. 
cinerea,  Poir. 
inorassata,  F.  Muell. 
vesicaria,  Howard. 
IMitula,  Lin. 
velutinella«  F.  Muell. 
Assivalve,  F.  Muell. 
angulata,  Benth. 
semibaocata,  R.  Br. 
Muelleri,  Benth. 
prostrata,  R.  Br. 

f>umilLo,  R.  Br. 
eptocarpa,  F.  Muell. 


Atriplex  halimoides,  Liudl. 
holocarpa,  F.  Muell. 
spongiosa,  F.  Muell. 
Enchyhena  tomentosa,  R.  Br. 
villosa,  F.  Muell. 
Eochia  lanoea,  Lindl. 

oppositifolia,  F.  Muell. 
brevifolia.  R.  Br. 
eriantha,  F.  MuclL 
vill«»8a.  Lindl. 
sedifolia,  F.  Muell. 
appressa,  Benth. 
aphylla,  R.  Br. 
ciliata,  F.  Muell. 
brachyptera,  F.  Muell. 
Chenolea,  sclerolaBnoides,  F.  Muell. 
Babbagia  dipterocarpa,  F.  Muell. 
8cleroliena  uniflora,  R.  Br. 

diaoantha,  Benth. 
bicomis,  Lindl. 
biflora,  R.  Br. 
paradoxa.  R.  Br. 
Threlkeldia  diffusa,  R.  Br. 
Anisacantha  divaricata,  R.  Br. 

bicuspis,  F.  Muell. 
Salicornia  tenuis,  Benth. 

australis,  Soland. 
Salsola  Kali,  Lin. 


ITS  FLOKA. 


26J> 


Rhagodia  crassifolia,  R.  Br. 
Chenopodimn  Kitrariacea,  F.  Muell. 

aurioomum,  Lindl. 
Dysphania  littoraliB,  R.  Br. 


Intra-'  TroptedL 

Atriplex  humilis,  F.  Muell. 
Anlsaoantha  glabra,  F.  Muell. 
Salioomia  leiostachia,  Benth. 
Salsola  Kali,  Lin. 


PARONYCmACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  8  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

fExttu-TropicaL 
ScIeranthuB  pungens,  R.  Br. 

AMARANTACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  9  Genera. 

South  Australia,  7  Genera. 

Extra-TropiedL 


Hemiohroa  pentandra,  R.  Br. 

diandra,  R.  Br. 
Trichinium  oboyatum,  Gaudich. 

alopecuroideum,  Liudl. 

nobile.  Lindl. 

oorymlx)6un),  Gaudich. 

exfldtatum,  Benth. 

helipteroides,  F.  Muell. 

Beckerianum,  F.  Muell. 

gomphrenoides,  Miq. 

Intra- 

AmaranthuB  leptostaohyus,  Benth. 

lutemiptus,  R.  Br. 
Trichinium  obovatum,  Gaudich. 

incanum,  R.  Br. 

astrolaslum,  F.  Muell.* 

dlBsitiflorum,  F.  Muell. 

distans,  R.  Br. 

alopecuroideum,  LindL 

exaltatum,  Benth. 

fufiiforme,  R.  Br. 

calostachyum,  F.  MuelL 


Trichinium  erubesoens,  Miq. 

spathulaturo,  R.  Br. 
leuoocoma,  Miq. 
parvifolium,  F.  Muell. 
Ptilotus  Murray!,  F.  Muell. 

alopecuroideus,  F.  Muoll. 
latifolius,  R.  Br. 
Altemanthera  nodiflora,  R.  Br. 

nana,  R.  Br. 
Gomphrena  braohystylis,  F.  Muell. 


Tropicals 

Ptilotus  conicus,  R.  Br. 

corymbosua,  R.  Br. 
splcatuB,  F.  Muell. 
Achyrantnes  aspera,  Lin. 
Altemanthera  nodiflora,  -R.  Br. 

nana,  R.  Br. 
Gomphrena  canesoens,  R.  Br. 
flaocida,  R.  Br. 
oonioa,  Spreng. 
ditTusa,  Spreng. 
paryiflora,  Benth. 


Emex  anstralis,  Steinh. 

Rumex  crispus,  Lin. 

Brownii,  Campd. 
dumosns,  A.  Cunn, 
bidens,  R.  Br. 

Polygonum  aviculare,  Lin. 


Rumex  halophilus,  F.  Muell. 


POLYGONACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  4  Genera. 

South  Australia,  4  Genera. 

Ejctra-TropieciL 

Polygonum  plebeium,  R.  Br. 
prostratum,  R.  Br* 
minus,  Huds. 
attennatnm,  R.  Br. 

Muhlenbeckia  adpressa,  Meissn. 

Cunninghamii,  F.  Muell. 

Intra-TropieaL 

I  Polygonum  minus,  Huds. 


270 


SOUTH  AUSTBALIA: 


BoerhaaTia  diffusa,  Lin. 
Boerhaavia  diffusa,  Lin. 


Myristica  insipida,  R.  Br. 


Gossytha  glabella,  R.  Br. 
pubescens,  R.  Br. 


NYCTAGINE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  2  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  Glenus. 

Exir<^TropiodL 
iTUra-Tropieal, 

MYRISTICE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

IntrO'Tropiedl. 

MONIMIACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  8  Genera. 
No  representative  in  South  Australia. 

LAURTNE^ 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  8  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera. 

Extm-TropicdL 

Oassytha  melantha,  R.  Br. 


Tctranthera  laorifolia,  Jaoq. 


Intro-Tropical, 

I    Gassytha  glabella,  R.  Br. 

PROTEACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  29  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1 1  Genera. 

Extra-Tropioal. 


Petrophila  circinata,  Kipp. 

multisecto,  F.  Muell. 
Isopogon  oeratopbyllns,  R.  Br. 
Adenantbos  sericea,  LabiU. 

terminaUs,  R.  Br. 
Conospermnm  patens,  Sohlecbt. 
Persoonia  juniperina,  Labill. 
Xylomelum  pyriforme.  Knight. 
Grevillea  Thelemanniana,  Endl. 

pterosperma,  F.  MuelL 

ilicifolia,  R.  Br. 

Youngfi,  F.  Muell. 

juncifolia.  Hook. 

Treuriana,  F.  Muell. 

lavandulacea,  Scblecht. 

aspera,  R.  Br. 


Persoonia  falcata,  R.  Br. 
Ilelicia  australasica,  F.  Muell. 
Grevillea  ngrifolia,  A.  Gunn. 

Goodii,  R.  Br. 

chrysodendron,  R.  Br. 

Dryandri,  R.  Br. 

heliosperma.  R.  Br. 

Wickhami,  Meissn. 


Greyillea  Wickbami,  Meissn. 

Skuciflora,  R.  Br. 
uegellii,  Meissn. 
stricta,  R.  Br. 
parviflora,  R.  Br. 
Hakea  Pampliniana,  Kipp. 
vittata,  R.  Br. 
rostrata,  F.  Muell. 
rugosn,  R.  Br. 
leucoptera,  R.  Br. 
cycloptera,  R.  Br. 
multilineata,  Meissn. 
ulioina,  R.  Br. 
flexUis,  F.  Muell. 
Banksia  marginata,  Gav. 
omata,  F.  Muell. 

Intra'Tropicah 

Grevillea  dimidiata,  F.  Muell. 
pungens,  R.  Br. 
leucadendron,  A.  Gunn. 
Hakea  chordophylla,  F.  Muell. 
,  lorea,  R.  Br. 

I  arborescens,  R.  Br. 

Stenocarpus  Cunningbamii,  R.  Br. 


ITS  FLOKA. 


271 


Pimelea  glanca,  B.  Br. 

spathulata,  liabill. 
lig^trioa,  Labill. 
humilis,  B.  Br. 
simplex,  F.  MuelL 
miorooephala,  B.  Br. 
serpyllifolia,  B.  Br. 

Pimelei  pnnioea,  B.  Br. 


THYMELEJi). 

Indigenons  in  Australia,  4  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Ezlrci'TropicdL 

Pimelea  flava,  B.  Br. 

petrophila,  F.  Maell. 


cunriflora,  B.  Br. 
octophylla,  B.  Br. 
petrsea,  MeissD. 
phylicoides,  Meissn. 
striota,  Meissn. 

Intra-Tropical, 

I    Pimelea  coDcreta,  F.  MuelL 


ELiEAGNACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 
No  representative  in  Soulii  Australia* 

NEPENTHACE-^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 
No  representative  in  South  Australia* 

EUPHOBBIACE.E. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  37  Genera. 

South  Australia,  18  Genera. 


Euphorbia  australis,  Boiss. 

Drummondii,  Boias. 
Wheeleri,  Bail!, 
eremophila,  A.  Gunn. 
Poranthera  eriooides,  Elotzsch. 

microphylls,  Brong^. 
Beyeria  opaca,  F.  Muell. 

nncinata,  F.  Mnell. 


Exlra-TropicdL 

Bertya  rotnndifolia,  F.  Muell.   ' 
Amperea  spartioides,  Brongn. 
Phyllanthus  oalycinns,  Labill. 

Fuemrohrii.  F.  Muell. 

thymoides,  Sieb. 

Gunnii,  Hook. 
Adriana  Ellotzschii,  F.  MuelL 


Euphorbia  atoto,  Font 

Schultzii,  Benih. 
Armstron^nana,  Boiss. 
MuellerL  Boiss. 
Drummondii,  Boiss. 
mioradenia,  Boiss. 
sermlata,  Beinw. 
eremophila,  A.  Gunn. 
Poranthera  microphylla,  Brongn. 
Antidesma  Ghaesembilla,  Gaertn. 

Schultzii,  Benth. 
Dissiliaria  baloghioides,  F.  Muell. 

tricornis,  Benth. 
Petalostigma  quadriloculare,  F.  Muell. 
Phyllanthns  ditassoides,  F.  Mnell. 
Adami,  F.  MuelL 
oohrophyllus,  Benth. 
rigidulus,  F.  MuelL 
bfujcatus,  F.  MuelL 


Intra-Tropieal^ 

Phyllanthus  Urinaria,  Lin. 

trachygyne,  Benth. 
maderaspatanus,  Lin. 
Garpentarise,  F.  Muell. 
grandisepalus,  F.  Muell. 
minutiflorus,  F.  Muell. 
lacunarius,  F.  Muell. 
Breynia  stipitata,  F.  MuelL 
Securinega  obovata,  F.  Muell. 
Hemicyclia  sepiaria,  W.  &  Am. 
lasiogyne,  F.  Muell. 
Briedelia  tomentosa,  Blume. 
Groton  Schultzii,  Benth. 
Yerreauxii,  Baill. 
amhemicus,  F.  Muell. 
MallotuB  nesophilus,  F.  Muell. 
Sebastiania  chameleea,  F.  Muell. 
Escaecaria  Agallooha,  Lin. 

,  parvifolia,  F.  Muell. 


272 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


ParietariA  debilis,  Font 


Celiis  phiUppinenBu,  Blanco. 

panicmata,  Planch. 
Trema  amboinenBiB,  Blame. 

afpera.  Blame. 
Picas  nesophila,  Miq. 

retaaa,  Lin. 

leacotrioha,  Miq. 

otnonolata,  P.  MaelL 


URTICEiE. 

Indigenons  in  Australia,  17  Genera. 

South  Australia,  7  Genera. 

Exlrii-TropieaL 

I    Urtioa  inciaa,  Poir. 
IntroL-TropiedL 

*   Ficag  orbioalarii,  A.  Cunn. 

aculeate,  A.  Conn. 

soobina,  Bentb. 

aspera,  Font 
Malaisia  toiiaoea,  Blanco. 
Fatooa  piloea,  G^udicb. 
Parietena  debilis.  Font 


Caraarina  stricta,  Ait. 
glanca,  Sieb. 
distylay'Yent. 


CASUARTNEiE. 

.  Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Extra'Tropieal. 

Casaarina  tomloea,  Ait. 

bicnspidata,  Bentb. 


Gasoaiina  snberosa,  Otto* 


IfUrO'Tropiedl. 

I  Casaarina  equisetifolia,  Forst. 

PIPERACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  2  Genera. 
No  representative  in  South  Australia. 

ARISTOLOCHIACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 

South  Australia,  1  Geuus. 

IntrO'TropicciL 
Aristoloobia  Tbozetii,  F.  MuelL 

CDPULIFERiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 
No  representative  in  South  Australia. 

SANTALACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  8  Genera. 

South  Australia,  5  Genera. 

Extra-Tropical. 


Fusanns  acominatis,  R.  Br. 

persicarius,  F.  Muell. 

spicatns,  R.  Br. 

crassifolius,  R.  Br. 
Cboretram  glomeratum,  R.  Br. 


Leptomeria  apbylla,  R.  Br. 
Exocarpus  cupressiformis,  Labill. 

spartea,  R.  Br. 

apbylla,  R.  Br. 

stricta,  R.  Br. 


spicatom,  F.  Muell. 

Intrct-Tropical, 

Santalum  lanceolatum,  R.  Br.  I  Exocarpus  latifolia,  R.  Br. 

ovatum,  R.  Br.  | 


ITS  FLOKA. 


273 


BALANOPHOREiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 
Ko  representative  in  South  Australia. 

CONIFERiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  11  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Extra-Tropical. 

Frenela  robusta,  A.  Cunn.  |  Frenela  rhomboiden,  Endl. 

Intra-Tropical. 
Frenela  robusto,  A.  Cunn. 

CYCADE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  3  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Intra-Tropical. 
Cycos  media,  R.  Br. 


MONOCOTYLEDONS. 

HYDROCH  ABIDED. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  5  Genera. 

South  Australia,  3  Genera. 

Intra'TropicaL 


Ottelia  alismoides,  Pers. 
Blyxa  Roxburghii,  Rich. 


Yallisncria  spiralis,  Lin. 


SClTAMlNEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  7  Genera. 
No  representative  in  South  Australia, 

ORCHIDE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  48  Genera. 

South  Australia,  20  Genera. 


Thelymitra  ixioides,  Sw. 

arifltata,  Lindl. 
longifolia,  Forst. 
fusoo-lutett,  R.  Br. 
oamea,  R.  Br. 
antennifera.  Hook. 
IHoris  palustris,  Lindl. 
maoulata,  Sm. 
poduncnlata,  R.  Br. 
Bulphurea,  R.  Br. 
longifolia,  R.  Br. 
Orthoceras  strictum,  R.  Br. 
Prasopbyllum  striatum.  R.  Br. 
patens,  B.  Br. 


Ezlra-Tropieal, 

Prasopbyllum  fusoum,  R.  Br. 

nigricans,  R.  Br. 
Microtis  porrifolia,  Spreng. 
Corysantfies  fimbriata,  R.  Br. 
Lyperantbus  nigricans,  R.  Br. 
Pterostylis  ooncinna,  R.  Br. 

curta,  R.  Br. 

nutans,  R.  Br. 

cucullata,  R.  Br. 

reflexa,  R.  Br. 

barbata,  Lindl. 

mutica,  R.  Br. 

rufa,  R.  Br. 

longifolia,  R.  Br. 


274  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


PterofityliB  Tittata,  Lindl. 
Acianthus  ezsertas,  R.  Br. 
Eriochilus  autumnalis,  R.  Br. 
Cjrrtoetylis  renifonnis,  R.  Br. 
Caladenia  Menziesii,  R.  Br. 
filamentosa,  R.  Br. 

Intra^TropicaZ. 


Oftladenia  Patersoni,  R.  Br. 

latifolia,  R.  Br. 

carnea,  R.  Br. 

deformis,  R.  Br. 
Glassodia  major,  R.  Br. 


Dendrobitun  dicuphum,  F.  MueU. 
Yanda  Hindsii,  LindL 
Geodomm  pictum,  Lindl. 
Enlophia  Tenosa,  Reichb. 
Dipodium  punctatum,  R.  Br. 


Habenaria  trinervis,  Wi^ht 
elongata,  R.  Br. 
graminea,  Lindl. 

Calanthe  yeratrifolia,  R.  Br. 


BURMANNIACR^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Jn/ra-TropicaZ. 
Buimannia  ditticha,  Lin.  |  Burmannia  juncea,  Soland. 

IRlDEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  7  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera. 

Extra-Tropical 
Patersonia  longisoapa.  Sweet.  |  Orthrosanthus  multiflorus,  Sweet. 

AMARYLLIDE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  13  Genera. 

South  Australia,  8  Genera. 

Extra-TropioaL 

Crinum  flaccidum,  Herb. 

pedonoulatum,  R.  Br. 
Calostemma  purpureum,  R.  Br. 
It 


uteum,  Sims. 

JrUro-TVoptcoZ. 


Hypoxia  glabella,  R.  Br. 

Eusilla,  Hook, 
ygrometrica,  Labill. 


Hflomodorum  lazmn,  R.  Br. 

brevicaule,  F.  MueU. 
coccineum,  R.  Br. 
Bubvirens,  F.  MuelL 
parviflorum,  Benth. 


Curculigo  enslfolia,  R.  Br. 
Hypoxia  marginata,  R.  Br. 
Crinum  asiatioum,  Lin. 

yenosum,  R.  Br.  . 
Calostemma  albmn,  R.  Br. 


TACCACEJ5. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

IfUra-Tropical. 
Tacca  pinnatifida,  Forst. 

DIOSCORIDE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  2  Genera. 

South  Austmlia,  1  Genus. 

IntrO'TropicaL 

DioBcorea  transversa,  R.  Br.  I  Dioecorea  sativa,  Lin. 

glabra,  Roxb.  | 


ITS  FLOEA.  275 

AUSMACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  3  Genera. 

South  Australia,  3  Genera. 

Extrci-Tropical 
Pofiidonia  australis,  Hook.  |   Cymodooea  antartioa,  Endl. 

Intra-TropicaL 
Alisma  oligococcmn,  F.  Muell. 

PALMiB. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  6  Genera. 

South  Australia,  3  Genera. 

Intra-Tropical, 

LlTistona  inermis,  R.  Br.  I  Seaforthia  elegans,  R.  Br. 

humilis,  R.  Br.  j  Corypha  auatralis,  R.  Br. 

PANDANEiB. 
Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Intrc^TrapicciL 
Pandanns  pedimciilatns,  R.  Br.  |  Pandanus  spiralis,  R.  Br. 

TYPHACE^. 
Indigenous  in  Australia,  2  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera. 

£xtr<i'Tropical. 
Typha  angustifolia,  Lin.  |  Sparganium  angoBtifoliam,  Mich. 

AROIDE^. 
Indigenous  in  Australia,  4  Genera. 

South  Australia,  3  Genera. 

Extra-Tr<^aL 
Arum  orixense,  Roxb.  |  Gynmoetachys  anoeps,  Benth. 

ItUrc^Tropicdl. 
AmorphophalloB  campanulatos,  Dec 

LEMNACE^. 
Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Extrct-Trepical. 
Lemna  minor,  Lin.  |  Lemna  trisnlca,  Lin. 

LIUACEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  14  Genera. 

South  Australia,  6  Genera. 

Extrc^-TropiedL 


Tbysanotns  panicnlatus.  R.  Br. 

Patersoni,  R.  Br. 
Stypandra  csespitosa,  R.  Br. 
Artnropodium  paniculatnm,  R.  Br. 

fimbriatmn,  R.  Br. 

pendulum,  8pr. 

minus,  R.  Br. 


Arthropodium  laxum,  R.  Br. 
Bulbine  bulbosa.  Haw. 

semibarbata,  Spr. 
Tricoryne  scabra,  R.  Br. 
Ctesia  parviflora,  R.  Br. 
vittata,  R.  Br. 

T  2 


276 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


Tricoryne  elatior,  R.  Br. 


Intra'Trapicdl. 

I   Thysanotos  chrysanthos,  F.  Muell. 


MELANTHACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Anstralia,  3  Genera. 

South  Australia,  3  Genera. 


Aogoillaria  biglandulosa,  R.  Br. 
dioica,  R.  Br. 
uniflora.  R.  Br. 
indica,  R.  Br. 


Extra-Tropical. 


Bnrchardia  nmbellata,  R.  Br. 
Schelhammera  undulata,  R.  Br. 
multiflora,  R.  Br. 


SMILACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  3  Genera. 

South  Australia,  3  Genera. 

IfUrO'Tropicdl. 


Smilax  latifolia,  R.  Br. 
elliptica,  R.  Br. 


Ripogonnm  album,  R.  Br. 
Drymophila  cyanocarpa,  R.  Br, 


asparagej:. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  6  Genera. 

South  Australia,  4  Genera. 

Eztrct-Tropical. 


Eustrephus  latifolius,  R.  Br. 

aogastifolius,  R.  Br. 

Cordyline  cannsefolia,  R.  Br. 
Dractena  angusiifolia,  Roxb. 


Dianella  cienilea,  Tims, 
revoluta,  R.  Br. 

Intra-  Tropical, 

Asparagus  fasciculatus,  R.  Br. 


XEROTIDE-^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  G  Genera. 

South  Australia,  4  Genera. 


Xe/otes  glauca,  R.  Br. 
filiformis,  R.  Br. 
leucocephala,  R.  Br. 
rigida,  R.  Br. 
longifolia,  R.  Br. 
fiuviatilis,  R.  Br. 


Extra-Tropical. 

Xerotes  tenuifolia,  R.  Br. 

lemula,  R.  Br. 
Dosypogon  bromeluefolins,  R.  Br. 
Xantnorrhoea  semiplana,  F.  Muell. 

qua(uangiilata,F.  Muell 


J  uncus  pallidus,  R.  Br. 

prUmatocarpos,  R.  Br. 
maritimus,  R.  Br. 
vaginatuf«,  R.  Br. 
g^racilis,  R.  Br. 
revolutuB,  R.  Br. 
HoloschooDus,  R.  Br. 


JUKCEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  2  Genera. 

South  Australia,  2  Genera, 

Extra-TropicaL 

'  Juncus  Cit'spitoaa,  E.  Mey 
planifollus,  R.  Br. 
australis,  Desf. 
pallidus,  R.  Br. 
communis,  E.  Me  v. 
pauciflorus,  R.  Br. 
Luzula  campestris,  Des. 


ITS  FLOKA.  277 

PHILYDREiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

IfUrchTropieat 
Plulydrum  lantiginosnm,  R.  Br. 

COMMELINACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  3  Genera. 

South  Australia,  3  Genera. 

Extra-  Tropical, 

Commelina  ensifolia,  R.  Br.  \    Aneilema  acuminata,  R.  Br. 

lanceolato,  R.  Br. 
Aneilema  antbericoides,  R.  Br. 


Cartonema  spicatum,  R.  Br. 


XYRIDE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  2  Genera. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Ejrtra-TropicaL 


Xyris  operculata,  Labill. 
gracilis,  R.  Br. 
bracteata,  R.  Br. 


Xyrifl  paludoea,  R.  Br. 
Bcabra,  R.  Br. 
denticulata,  R.  Br. 


FLAGELLARIE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Intra'TropicaL 
Flagellaria  indioa,  Lin. 

ERIOCAULONEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Extror  TrapicaL' 


Eriocaulon  australe,  R.  Br. 
pallidum,  R.  Br. 

Eriocaulon  scariosum,  R.  B. 
Btillulatum,  Hook. 


Eriocaulon  nanum,  R.  Br. 
cinereum,  R.  Br. 


IrUror  Tropical, 


Eriocaulon  nutans,  F.  Muell. 


RESTIACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  6  Genera. 

South  Australia,  6  Genera. 

Extra-Tropical, 


Rcstio  australis,  R.  Br. 

tetrapbylluB,  Labill. 

oomplanatuB,  R.  Br. 
Leptocarpus  tenax,  R.  Br. 

Brownii,  Hook. 
HjpoUBua  fastigiata,  R.  Br. 


Caloropbus  elongatus,  Labill. 
Centrolepis  aristata,  Roem.  &  Schult. 

pulvinata,  Roem.  &  Schult 
Alepyrum  Muelleri,  Hook. 

polygonum,  R.  Br. 


278 


SOUTH  AUSTBALTA. 


CYPERACE^. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  29  Genem. 

South  Australia,  15  Genera. 


Cyperufl  Gimnii,  Hook. 

YaginaiuB,  R.  Br. 
carinatus,  R.  Br. 
lucidus,  R.  Br. 
alopecuroides,  Rottb. 
ChietOBpora  tenuisBima,  Hook. 
nitenB,  R.  Br. 
imberbis,  R.  Br. 
axiUaris,  R.  Br. 
Gymnosohoenns  spbsBrooepbaliis, 
Cborizandra  enodis,  Nees. 
Eleocbaris  spbacelata,  R.  Br. 
gracilis,  R.  Br. 
palustris,  R.  Br. 
Isolepis  multicanlis,  Scblecbt. 
fluitans,  R.  Br. 
nodosa,  R.  Br. 

Cypems  Haspan,  Lin. 
Abildgardia  monostachya,  Yabl. 
Bohoenoides,  R.  Br. 
Carex  inversa,  R.  Br. 

appressa,  R.  Br. 

littorea,  Labill. 

lascicnlaris,  Soland. 

longifolia,  R.  Br. 
FlmbristyllB  dicbotoma,  Yabl. 


Ezir<i'Tropicdl. 

Isolepis  prolifera,  R.  Br. 
setaoea,  R.  Br. 
cartilaginea,  R.  Br. 
riparia,  R.  Br. 
Boirpns  maritimus,  Lin. 

triqneter,  Lin. 
Lepidosperma  ooncaYnm,  B.  Br. 
gladiatum,  Labill. 
k)ngitudinale,  Labill. 
Hk.  laterale,  R.  Br. 

linearis,  R.  Br. 
Cladium  jnnoemn.  Hook. 

tetraqnetrunu  Hook, 
scboenoides,  R  Br. 
Gabnia  trifida,  Labill. 

Psittaoonun,  LabilL 

IrttfU-TropicdL 

FimbristyUs  sqnarrulosa,  F.  Muell. 

acuminata,  Nees. 

rytbicarpa,  F.  Muell. 

communis,  R.  Br. 
Fuirena  glomerata,  Yabl. 
Isolepis  barbata,  R.  Br. 
Diplacrum  caricinum,  R.  Br. 
Eleocbaris  acuta,  B.  Br. 


GRAMINEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  64  Genera. 

South  Australia,  44  Genera. 


Tetrarrbona  tenacissima,  Nees. 
acuminata,  R.  Br. 
IcBvis,  R.  Br. 
Spinifex  birsutus,  Labill. 
fra^is,  R.  Br. 
senceus,  R.  Br. 
Microbena  stipoides,  R.  Br. 
Antbesteria  australis,  R.  Br. 
Hemartbria  oompressa,  R.  Br. 

uncinata,  R.  Br. 
Hierochloa  rariflora,  Nob. 

antarctica,  R.  Br. 
Alopecurus  geniculatus,  Lin. 
Stipa  semibarbata,  R.  Br. 
pubeecens,  R.  Br. 
setacca.  R.  Br. 
elegantissima,  R.  Br. 
micrantha,  R.  Br. 
mollis,  R.  Br. 
ramotiissima,  Trin. 
Dicbelacbne  crinita,  Nob. 


ExtrchTropieal. 

I  Dicbelacbne  stipoides,  Nob. 
'  Pentapogon  Billardieri,  R.  Br. 
I  Eragrostis  lacunaria,  F.  Muell. 
Agrostis  quadriseta,  R.  Br. 
stolonifera,  Lin. 
Billardieri,  R.  Br. 
semula,  R.  Br. 
scabra,  R.  Br. 
parviflora,  R.  Br. 
Ecbinopogon  ovatus,  Pal. 
Polypogon  monspeliensis,  Desf. 
Pbragmites  communis,  Trin. 
Danthonia  semi-annularis,  R.  Br. 
nervosa.  Hook, 
pilosa,  R.  Br. 
pauciflora,  R.  Br. 
pallida,  R.  Br. 
paradoxa,  R.  Br. 
Glyceria  fluitans,  R.  Br. 
Poa  australis,  R.  Br. 
afanis,  R.  Br. 


ITS  FLOEA. 


279 


Poa  parviflora,  K.  Br. 
digitata,  R.  Br. 
concinna,  R.  Br. 
tenera,  F.  Muell. 
Eoeleria  cristata,  Pers. 
Febtuca  bromoides,  Lin. 

diBtichophrlla,  Hook, 
littoralis,  LabUl. 
plebeia,  R.  Br. 
Triticum  scabrum,  R.  Br. 
Andropogon  tenuis,  R.  Br. 
triticeus,  R.  Br. 
sericeus,  R.  Br. 
LaguroB  ovatns,  Lin. 

stipoides,  R.  Br. 
Aristida  contorta,  F.  Muell. 

vagans,  Cav. 
Arundo  Phragmites,  Lin. 
Cynodon  Dactylon,  Pers. 
tenelius,  K.  Br. 
Chloris  t^uncata,  R.  Br. 

Sporobolus  pulcheUus,  R.  Br. 
Antheeteria  ciliata,  Lin. 

frondosa,  R.  Br. 
Eragroetis  pdymorpha,  R.  Br. 
Eriachne  avenacea,  R.  Br. 
I8ch»mum  triticum,  R.  Br. 
Setaria  glauca,  Beauv. 
8piuifex  fragilis,  R.  Br. 
Cymbopogon  procerus,  R.  Br. 


Chloris  latevalvis,  F.  Muell. 

meccana,  Hochst. 
Hordeum  pratense,  Hud.^. 
Mioroliena  stipoides,  R.  Br. 
Panioum  Crus-galli,  Lin. 

decompoiiitum,  R.  Br. 
Triraphis  mollis,  R.  Br. 
Cinna  ovata,  Eunth. 
Cenchrus  australis,  R.  Br. 

Brownii,  R.  S. 
Sporobolus  elongatus,  R.  Br. 

actiuoclados,  F.  Muell. 
Erianthus  fulvus,  Benth. 
Pappophorum  commune,  F.  Muell. 
Setaria  glauca,  Beauv. 
Lappago  raoemosa,  Willd. 
Dejeuxia  Forsten,  Eunth. 
Dactyloctenium  nRyptiacum,  Willd. 
Monachather  paradoxa,  Steud. 
Cymbopogon  cyguorum.  Minor. 


Intr(k'Tropicdl, 

Panicum  aneustum,  Trin. 

polyphyllum,  R.  Br. 

effusum,  R.  Br. 

OTalifolium,  Beauv. 

Petiverii,  Trin. 

decompositum,  R.  Br. 
Ectroeia  leporina,  R.  Br. 
Aristida  stipoides,  R.  Br. 


ACOTYLEDONS. 


FILICES. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  85  Genera. 

South  Australia,  23  Genera. 


Botryohium  Lunaria,  Siv. 
tematum,  Siv. 
OphiogloBSum  vulgatum,  Lin. 
Schiz«Ba  dichotoma,  Sw. 
Todea  africana,  Willd. 
Gleichenia  circinata,  R.  Br. 
Lindsaea  linearis,  Sw. 
Adiantum  lethiopicum,  Lin. 
Lomaria  capensis,  WiUd. 
discolor,  Willd. 

Erocera,  Sw. 
mceolata,  Spreng. 
Patersoni,  Spreng. 
fluviatilis,  Spreng. 
Cheilanthes  tenuifolius,  Sw. 
distans,  A.  Br. 
Sieberii,  Eunz. 
vellea,  F.  MuelL 


Pteris  falcata,  R.  Br. 
incisa,  Thunb. 
umbrosa,  R.  Br. 
esculenta,  Forst. 
Asplenium  flabelliformis,  Cav. 
obtusatum,  Foret 
bulbiferum,  Forst. 
Aspidium  moUe,  Sw. 

decompositum,  Spreng. 
Grammitis  leptophylla,  Sw. 
rutifolia,  R.  Br. 
australis,  R.  Br. 
Gymnogramma  Pozoi,  Eunz. 
Notochliena  Reynoldii,  F.  MuelL 

fragilis,  Hook. 
Polystichium  vestitum,  Presl. 
Nephrodium  dtcompositum,  R.  Br. 


280 


SOUTH  ArSTRALIA. 


Intra-  TropicaL 


HchizMi  dichotomy,  Sw. 
Acrostiehiim  ftoreum,  Lin. 

pteroides,  HcK»k. 
Adumtmn  lanulatnm,  BeauT. 
Lindiftjft  ensifolia,  Sw. 

tenera,  Diyand. 
flabelialata,  Diyand. 
Ljgodiom  tc&ndeuA,  Sw. 

•emibipinnataoi,  B.  Br. 
miCTophyllam,  K.  Br. 
Olmchenia  dichotoma,  WiUd. 
Poljpodiam  quercifoliom,  Lin. 


Polrpodiom  Linnjei,  Borg. 
Aspidimn  nnitum,  Sw. 
BlechDum  orientale,  Lin. 

fiermlatnm,  Bich. 

striatnmf  B.  Br. 
CeratopteriB  thalietroide*,  Brongn. 
Cbeilantbes  fragiHina,  F.  MuelL 

tenaifolia,  Sw. 
Pteris  aqnilina,  F.  MoelL 
Ophioglossnm  Tnlgmtmn,  Lin. 
Botrychium  Tirginiannni,  Sw. 
Notochlaena  firagiliB,  Homb.  ft  BonpL 


LYCOPODIACE^f:. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  2  Genera. 

Sonth  Australia,  2  Genera. 

Eztra-TropieaL 


Ljcopodinm  denram,  LabilL 
yariom,  B.  Br. 


Lycopodiom  volubile.  Font. 
SelagincUa  Belangeri,  Sw. 


MABSILEACEJB. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

Exir(k'TropiedL 
Marsilea  macropuB,  Hook.  |  MarBilea  quadrifolia,  Lin. 

SALVIXIEiE. 

Indigenous  in  Australia,  1  Genus. 

South  Australia,  1  Genus. 

,  Exlra-TropiedL 
Azolla  mbra,  B.  Br.  |  AzoIIa  pinn^ta,  B.  Br. 


ITS  FAUNA.  '     281 


THE  FAUNA  OF  SOUTH  AUSTEALIA. 

By  F.  G.  Waterhouse,  Esq.,  C.M.Z.S.,  H.M.E.S.  and  F.L.S. 

New  South  Wales,  &c.  &c. 

In  order  to  make  this  work  as  complete  as  possible,  it  was 
arranged  to  give  a  classified  list  of  fauna  indigenous  to  the 
Colony.  Mr.  F.  G.  Waterhouse,  the  able  Curator  of  the  Mu- 
seum, whose  fitness  for  the  work  will  be  admitted  by  all  who 
know  him,  undertook  to  present  a  classified  catalogue  of  the 
animals  and  birds  which  are  met  with  in  South  Australia.  For 
a  series  of  years  Mr.  Waterhouse  has  been  collecting  materials, 
the  results  of  which  are  embodied  in  the  following  pages. 
With  other  forms  of  animal  life  he  has  not  dealt.  Beptiles, 
insects,  and  fishes,  to  have  been  exhaustively  catalogued  and 
classified,  would  have  taken  more  time  than  Mr.  Waterhouse 
has  at  his  disposal,  and  would  have  required  a  lifetime  to 
prepare  carefully.  It  would  have  exceeded,  too,  the  limits  of 
this  volume.  The  mammals  and  birds  are  of  greatest  interest. 
It  will  be  borne  in  mind  that  Mr.  Waterhouse  confines  his 
attention  to  the  indigenous  fauna  of  the  Colony.  All  the 
domestic  animals,  and  most  of  the  birds  known  in  Europe, 
have  been  acclimatized  here,  and  without  a  single  exception 
they  seem  to  do  well. 

The  third  chapter  in  this  division  of  the  book  is  on  mines 
and  minerals,  in  the  preparation  of  which  Mr.  Waterhouse  has 
been  assisted  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Austin — a  gentleman  whb  has  paid 
a  great  deal  attention  of  to  the  subject.  In  the  former  part 
of  the  work,  I  have  glanced  generally  at  the  mining  interest ; 
but  this  chapter  goes  more  into  details  than  I  could  do,  and  it 
is  the  result  of  personal  and  practical  knowledge  on  the  part 
of  the  writer. 

With  these  few  prefatory  remarks,  I  now  allow  Mr.  Water- 
house  to  speak  for  himself. 


282  SOUTH  AUSTEALIA. 

•'AUSTBALIAN  VEBTEBRATA:  MAMMAT^. 

"  According  to  Mr.  Gerard  Kreflft,  the  able  Curator  of  the 
Australian  Museum^  Sydney,  the  fauna  of  Australia  is  distin- 
guished by  a  large  number  of  marsupial  animals,  which  are 
now  extinct  in  almost  every  other  part  of  the  world,  and  con- 
sidered to  be  the  oldest  mammals  known.  A  few  living  species 
allied  to  our  Dasyures  still  exist  in  America,  and  fossil  remains 
were  found  in  France  and  England,  which  indicate  the  presence 
of  marsupials  at  a  very  early  period,  when  mammaUan  life  was 
at  its  infancy;  in  fact  the  general  belief  is,  that  the  first 
mammals  belonged  to  the  marsupial  or  pouched  tribe.  The 
isolated  position  of  Australia  may  have  caused  these  animals 
to  retain  their  stronghold  here  much  longer  than  in  other 
countries ;  and  it  is  almost  certain  that  many  of  their  prede- 
cessors were  also  marsupials,  equal  in  size  to  the  rhinoceros 
and  the  hippopotamus. 

"  The  living  species  are  of  moderate  growth,  and  the  largest 
do  not  exceed  two  hundred  pounds  in  weight ;  they  are  divided 
into  carnivorous  or  flesh-eating  and  herbivorous  or  grass-eating 
sections,  with  a  few  genera  of  mixed  feeders. 

"  At  a  rough  estimate,  we  know  110  marsupials  in  Australia, 
to  which  must  be  added — twenty-four  bats,  one  dog,  thirty  rats 
and  mice ;  and  a  number  of  seals  and  whales,  which,  inhabiting 
the  ocean,  are  not  restricted  in  their  habitat.  The  most  peculiar 
Australian  animals  are  the  duck-billed  platypus,  and  the  spiny 
ant-eater ;  both  of  which  are  peculiar  to  this  country. 

"  Of  the  placental  series — the  curious  water-rats  or  beaver- 
rats  must  be  mentioned  as  being  purely  Australian.  The 
dog  was,  no  doubt,  a  very  early  introduction,  because  fossil 
remains  were  discovered  contemporaneous  with  the  great  ex- 
tinct marsupials  of  post-pleiocene  times.  Of  man  we  have  but 
scanty  evidence  regarding  the  length  of  his  existence  here ; 
in  not  one  instance  were  weapons  or  implements  obtained  with 
the  remains  of  fossil  animals.  Stone  weapons  are  still  used 
by  many  tribes,  and  the  primitive  art  of  splitting,  grinding, 
and  shaping  various  rocks  into  hatchets  and  spear  heads  is 
not  yet  lost. 


ITS  FAUNA.  283 

"  The  subjoined  is  a  list  of  the  mammals  found  in  the 
Prorince  of  South  Australia ;  those  marked  with  an  asterisk 
came  from  the  Northern  tropicftl  portion  of  this  Colony  : — 


MAMMALIA. 

CHEIROPTERA, 
a.  FrugiTorous Bats. 

PTEROPUS. 

*  P.  poUooephalas    Grey-headed  I  *  P.  fonereos  Funeral  vampire. 

vampire       | 

h.  Insectivorous  Bats. 

MOLOSSUS. 
M.  austraUs  Australian  molossus. 

TAPHOZOUS. 
*  T.  flaviventris  YeUow-bellied  taphozous. 

RHINOLOPHUS. 
*  B.  aurantius  Orange  horse-shoe  bat. 

SCOTOFHILUS. 


S.  Gouldi    Gould's  bat 

morio  Chocolate  bat 


S.  picatus Pied  bat. 


VESPERTILIO. 
Y.  macropus  Great-footed  bat. 

CANIDJS.— DOG  TRIBE. 

CANIS. 
C.  Dingo  The  dingo. 

PHOCIDJG.— SEAL  TRIBE. 

STENORHYNCHUS. 
S.  leptonyx  Sea  leopard. 

ARCTOCEPHALUS. 
A.  lobatus  Cowled  seal. 

RODENTIA.— RAT  TRIBE, 
a.  Long-eared  Bats. 

HAPALOTIS. 

H.  Mitchellii...  Mitchell's  hapalotis 
cer vina Fawn-coloured  hapa- 
lotis. 


H.  allipes White-footed  hapa- 
lotis 
conditor    ...  Building  hapalotis 


b.  Short-eared  Bats. 


284  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


MUS. 


M.  foflcipes Dnsky-footed  rat 

veUercwnig ...  Tawny  „ 

asaimiliB  ...  Allied  ^ 

c.  Water  Bat0. 


M.  Oonldi  White-footed  rat 

lianas    Little  ~ 


HYDROMYS. 


H.  chrjsogatter  Golden-bellied  bea- 
ver rat 
folvolaTatoB  FuItoos  beaver  rat 


H.    leuoogaster  White-bellied  beaver 

rat 
Intrilla Small  beaver  rat. 


CETACEA.— WHALE  TKIBE. 
BAL^NA. 
B.  Anstralifl. 


MARSUPIALIA. 

RHIZOPHAGA.— WOMBAT  TEIBE. 
PHA8C0L0MYS. 

P.  latifrons    ...  Broad-fronted  worn-  I     P.  platjrrhinns    Hairy-noeed  wombat 

bat  I  niger Black  „ 

CABPOPHAGA.— PHALANGER  TRIBE. 

PHASCOLARCTOS. 
P.  cinereus   Koala  or  native  bear. 

PHALANGISTA. 
P.  vnlpina Vulpine  phalanger      |     P.  viverrina  ...  Tiverrine  phalanger. 

DROMICIA. 
D.  gliriformis  Thick-tailed  dromicia. 

CUSCUS. 
*  C.  brevicandatus  Short-tailed  cascus. 

PETAURISTA. 
P.  taguanoides  Great  flying  phalanger. 

BELIDEUS. 


B.  flaviventer     Long-tailed  belideus 
scinreuB    ...  Squirrel-liko      „ 
breviceps  ...  Snort-headed     „ 


B.  notatus Striped-tailed 

belideuB 
*      ariel  ArieL 


AC  ROB  AT  A. 
A.  pygmsea  Pigmy  acrobates. 

POEPH  AG  A.— KANGAROO  TRIBE. 

MACROPUS. 
M.  major Great  grey  kangaroo  |    M.  foliginosus    Sooty  kangaroo. 

OSPHRANTA. 
O.  mfu8 Great  red  kangaroo     |     O.  orebescens...  Uiookangaroa 


ITS  FAUNA.  285 

HALMATUKTJS.— WALLABY. 
II.  Greyi Grey's  wallaby  |    H.  Derbianus...  Derby  s  wallaby. 

PETROGALE.— ROCK  WALLABY. 
P.  xanthopus  • Yellow-footed  rock  wallaby. 

ONYCHOGOLEA.— NAIL-TAILED  KANGAROO. 

O.  lunata. 

LAGORCHESTER.— HARE  KANGAROO. 
L.  leporoided Hare  kangaroo. 

BETTONGIA.— BETTONGS,  OR  JERBOA  KANGAROOS. 
B.  Graii Gray's  jerboa  kangaroo        B.  Ogilbyi  ...  Ogilby's  jerboa    kan- 


campestrls  Plain        „  „ 


garoo. 


HYPSIPRYMORUS.— RAT  KANGAROO, 
H.  Gilbert!...  Gilbert's  rat  kangaroo    |    H.  platyops     Broad-faced  kangaroo. 

ENTOMOPHAGA.— BANDICOOT  TRIBE. 

PEUAMELES. 
P.  fasciata...  Banded  bandicoot  |     P.  obeeula ...  S^ort-nosed  bandicoot. 

PERAGALIA. 
P.  lagotiB  Long-eared  peragalia. 

CHCEROPUS. 
C.  castanotis  Chestnut-eared  choeropus. 

SARCOPHAGA.— NATIVE  CAT  TRIBE. 
DASYURUS.— NATIVE  CAT. 


D.  maculatus    Spotted-tailed    dasy- 

urus. 


D.  viverrinns  Variable  dasyurua 
Geoffroyi    Geoflfroy's     „ 


PHASCOGALE.— BRUSH-TAILS. 


P.  penicillata  Brush-tailed    phasco- 


P.  calura    ...  Handsome-tailed 


gale  phasoogale. 

ANTECHINUS.— BROAD-FOOTED  "POUCHED  MICE." 


A.  Swainsoni  Swainson's  antechinus 
flavipes...  Rusty-footed       ante- 
chinus 


A.  leucopito     White-footed 

antechinus. 


PODABRUS— SLENDER-FOOTED  "POUCHED  MICE.'' 

P.  erassicaudatus  Thick-tailed  poda-  I     P.  allipes  ...  White-footed 

brus  I  podabrus. 

MYRMECOBIUS.— BRUSH-TAILED  ANT-EATER. 

M.  fasciatus  Branded  myrmcoobius. 

c  Monotremata. 

ECHIDNA.— SPINY  ANT-EATER. 
£.  hystrix Spiny  ant-eater. 

ORNITHORHYNCHUS. 
0.  onetinus Duck-bill  platypus. 


286  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


"  BIRDS. 

"  The  Avi  Fauna  of  Australia  is  considerable,  though  per- 
haps not  so  rich  as  that  of  other  countries  under  the  same 
latitude.  Australia  is  famous  for  the  beauty  of  her  many 
parrots,  over  sixty  species  of  which  are  found  here ;  the  honey- 
eaters  are  also  numerous  and  varied  in  plumage,  while  bower- 
building  birds,  mound-raising  megapodes,  and  stately  emus,  are 
peculiar  to  this  favoured  region.  Game  species  abound ;  there 
are  many  pigeons,  ducks,  geese,  plovers,  and  quail,  and  every 
bay  or  island  etlong  the  coast-line  is  swarming  with  noisy  sea- 
birds.  Some  large  groups  are  however  absent;  we  have  no 
woodpeckers,  no  humming-birds,  no  trogons,  and  but  a  few 
good  songsters.  Other  handsome  forms  compensate  in  some 
mecisure  for  this  loss.  Niunerous  game  and  singing  birds  have 
been  imported  from  other  parts,  and  all  thrive  well. 

"  The  total  number  of  species  is  nearly  700. 

"  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  species  found  in  the  Pro- 
vince of  South  Australia ;  those  marked  with  an  asterisk  are 
from  the  northern  tropical  portion  of  the  Colony : — 

AVES. 

ORDER  RAPTORES. 
FAM.  FALCONID^. 

Aquilaandax  Wedge-tailed  eagle 

morphnoides  Little  eagle 

Polioaetus  leuoogaster White-bellied  eea-eagle 

UaUastur  leucostemus   White-breasted  eagle 

sphenuruB    Whistling  eaele 

Pandion  leucocephalus    White-h^i4ed  oeprey 

Faloo  hypoleucuB Grey  falcon 

melanogenys  Black-checked  falcon 

snbniger Black  falcon 

lunulatus White-fronted  falcon 

Hierocidea  berigora Brown  hawk 

oocidentalis  Western  brown  hawk 

TinnnnculuB  oenchroides   Nankeen  kestrel 

Leuoospiza  rail New  Holland  goshawk 

Nov8e-Hollandi«e Albino  goshawk 

Astur  approximans Australian  goshawk 

oruentus West  Australian  goshawk 

Accipiter  torquatus CJollared  sparrow-hawk. 

Oypoctinia  melanostemon BI aok-breasted  buzzard 

^nivusaffinis   AUied  bite 

isurus   Bquare-tailed  kite 


ITS  FAUNA.  287 

Elanns  axillaris   Black-shouldered  kite 

scriptus    Letter-winged  kite 

*Baza  subcristata  Crested  hawk 

Circus  assimil is    Allied  harrier 

Jardinii Jardine's  harrier. 

FAM.  STRIGID^. 

Strix  Novse-HoUandin    Masked  owl 

delicatula   Delicate  owl 

*Hieracoglaux  rufus Bufous  owl 

oonnivens Winking  owl 

Spiloglaux  marmoratus  Marbled  owl 

boobook Boobook  owl 

maoulatus Spotted  owl. 

OEDER  INSESSOKES. 

FAM.  CAPRIMULGIDiE. 

^gotheles  Novo-Hollandiee Owlet  nightjar 

Podargus  Cuvieri Cuvier's  podargus 

*  phaloBnoides   Moth-plumed  podargus 

Eurostopoaus  guttatus   Spott^  nightjar. 

FAM.  CYPSELIDJE. 

Chsetura  caudaouta a Spine-tailed  swift 

^Cjpselis  australis Swift 

FAM.  HIRUNDINID^. 

Hirundo  neoxena Welcome  swallow 

fretensis Torres  Straits  swallow 

Hylochelidon  nigricans  Tree  swallow 

Lagenoplastes  ariel Fairy  martin 

Cheramodca  leucostema White-breasted  s waUo w. 

FAM.  MER0P1D-3E. 
Merops  omatus * Australian  bee-eater. 

FAM.  CORACIDIiE. 
^Eurystomus  pacificus  Australian  roller. 

FAM.  ALCEDINID^. 

Dacelo  gigas Great  brown  kingfisher 

*  cervina Fawn-breasted  kingfiJier 

Toderamphus  sanctus Sacred  kingfisher 

pyrrhopygius  Redbacked  kingfisher 

*  sordidus    Sordid  kingfisher 

*Cyanalcyon  Madeayi  MaoLea^'s  kingfisher 

Aloyon  azurea  Azure  kingfisher 

pulchra Beautiful  kingfisher 

*  pusilla Little  kingfisher. 

FAM.  ARTAMID^. 

Artamus  sordidus Wood  swallow 

minor Little  wood  swallow 

cinereus Grey-breasted  wood  swallow 

melanops   Black-faced  wood  swalluw 

personatus Marked  wood  swallow 

superoiliosus White-eyebrowed  wood  swallow 

leuoopygialis White-rumped  wood  swallow. 


288  SOUTH  AUSTBALTA. 

FAM.  AMPELID^. 

PardalotuB  punctatus Spotted  diamond  bird 

rubricatui Red-lored  diamond  binl 

BtriatuB  Striated  diamond  bird 

affinifl Allied  diamond  bird 

uropygialis    Yellow-rumped  diamond  bird 

xant liopy gialis Yellow-rumped  diamond  bird. 

FAM.  LANIADil}. 

Strepera  foliginosa Sooty  crow  shrike 

arguta    Hill  crow  shrike 

anaphonemds    Grey  crow  shrike 

Gymiiorhina  tiblcen    Piping  crow  shrike 

leuconota    Wldte-backeil  crow  shrike 

Gracticus  nigrognlaris Black-throated  crow  shrike 

♦  picatus Pied  crow  shrike 

♦  argenteus Silvery-backed  crow  shrike 

♦  quoqui  Quoy's  crow  shrike 

torquatus Collared  crow  shrike 

Grallina  picata    *    Pied  grallina. 

FAM.  CAMPEPAGINiE. 

Grancalus  melanops    Black-faced  grancalus 

♦  hypoleucus White-bellied  grancalus 

Pteropodocys  phasianella   Ground  grancalus 

♦Campephaga  karu   Northern  campephaga 

humeralis White-shouldered  campephaga 

Paohycephala  gutteralis     White-shouldered  thickhead 

»  melanura Black-tailed  thickhead 

rufiventris    Rufons-breasted  thickhead 

rufogularis  Red-throated  thickhead 

Gilberti    Gilbert's  thickhea<l 

♦  simplex Plain-coloured  thickhead 

CoUuricincla  harmonica Harmonious  shrike  thrush 

rufiventris Buff-bellied  shrike  thrush 

♦  brunea   Brown  shrike  thrush 

♦  parvula  "....  Little  shrike  thrush 

♦  rulbgasler Rosy-breasted  bhrike  thrush 

Falcunculus  frontatus Frontal  shrike  thrush 

Orcoipa  cristata Crested  oreoica. 

FAM.  DICRUUlDiE. 
♦Dicrurus  bracteatu3 Spangled  drongo  shrike. 

FAM.  MUSCICAPID.E. 

Bhipidura  albiscapa    White-shafted  fantail 

♦  dryas   Wood  fantail 

♦  isura   Northern  fantail 

motacilloidoi Black  fantail 

♦  pictata    Pied  fantail 

Seizura  inquieta  Restless  flycatcher 

♦Piezorhynchus  nitidus Shining  flycatcher 

♦Myiagra  ooncinna Pretty  flycatcher 

Micrrocafacinans Brown  flycatcher 

Gcrygoue  fuaca Brown  gerygone 

culicivora Western  irerygone 

♦  magnirostris   Great-billed  gerygone 

♦  chloronota  Green-backed  gerygone 

Smicromis  brevirostris    Short-billed  smicrornis 

♦  flavescens Yellow-tinted  smicrornid. 


.     ITS  FAUNA.  289 

FAM.  SAXICOLID^. 

Erythrodryas  rhodinogaster  Pink-breasted  wood  robin 

Petroeca  multicolor Scarlet-breasted  robin 

Ooodenovii    Red-capped  robin 

phoenicea Flame-breasted  robin 

Melanodryas  oucullata    Hooded  robin 

*  picata Pied  robin 

Drjmodes  bnmneopygia Buff-sided  robin 

Eopsaltria  griseogularis Grey-breasted  robin. 

FAM.  MENURID^. 

Sphenostoma  cristatum  Crested  wedge-tail. 

FAM.    ? 

Malnms  cyanens Superb  warbler 

Lamberti    Lambert's  warbler 

leucopterus White-winged  warbler 

leuoonotus White-backed  warbler 

*  cruentatus Brown's  warbler 

Amytis  texilis  t Texile  wren 

striatus Striated  wren 

n.  sp V Goyderi 

Stipitnms  malachurus Emu  wren 

Sphenura  brachyptera Bristle  bird 

Hylaoola  pyrrhopygia Red-rumped  hylaoola 

cauta  ., Cautious  hylaoola 

Cisticola  exilis Exile  grass  warbler 

lineocapilla    Lioeated  grass  warbler 

Sericomis  osculf^  Allied  terioomis 

*  liBvigaster    Buff-breasted  tericornLi 

Acanthiza  pyrrhopygia  Red-rumped  acanthiza 

momata Plain-coloured  acanthiza 

nana    Little  acanthiza 

Geobasileus  chrysorrhous  Yellow-rumped  acanthiza 

reguloides Buff-rumped  acanthiza 

Ephthianura  albifrons    White-fronted  ephthianura 

aurifrons    Orange-frpnted  ephthianura 

tricolor  Tricoloured  ephthianura 

Xerophilla  leucopsis  White-faced  xerophila 

pectorolis  Gibson's  xerophila 

Pyrrholemus  brunneus    Red  throat 

Calamanthus  fuliginosus    Striated  calaman  thus 

campestris Field  calamanthus 

Chthonicola  sagittata Little  chthonicola. 

FAM.  MOTACILLID^. 

Anthns  australis Australian  pipit 

Cincloramphus  cruralis  Brown  cinoloramphns 

cantilans    Black-breasted  cincloramphus 

Ptenoedus  rufescens Rufous-tinted  cincloramphus 

Sphenceacus  galactotes   Tawny  grass  bird 

gramineus  Little  grass  bird. 

FAM.  SYLVIAD^. 

Calamoherpe  australis    Reed  warbler 

Mira&a  Horsfieldii  Horsfield's  brush  lark. 

U 


290  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

FAM.  FRINGILLlDiB. 

JEgiotha  temporalis Red-eyebrowed  flnoh 

Neochmia  phaeton  Crimson  finch 

Stagonopleora  guttata Si*otted-sided  finch 

Tfleniopygia  castenotiB Chestnut-cared  finch 

*Poeph]la  GoulduB    Gouldian  grass  finch 

*  mirabilis   Beautiftd  grass  finch 

*  aouticauda    Long-tailed  g^rass  finch 

*  personata Masked  grass  finch 

Emblama  picta Painted  finch. 

FAM.  MELURID^. 

Pitta  iris Rainbow  pitta 

Oincloeoma  punctatum    Spotted  ground  thrash 

castanotum    Chestnut-backed  ground  thnisli 

cinnamoemuni  Cinnamon  ground  thrash 

Qreocincla  lunidata Mountain  thrash. 

FAM.  PARADISEID^. 

*Chlamydera  nuchalis  i Great  bower  bird 

maoulata Spotted  bower  bird 

Mimeta  yiridis New  South  Wales  oriole 

*  affinis Allied  oriole 

*  fiavocincta Chestnut-marked  oriole 

*Specotheres  fiiaviventris Northern  spheootheros 

Corcoraz  meliinoramphus  White-winged  oorcorax 

Struthidea  cinerea  Grey  strathidea. 

FAM.  OORVID^. 

Corvus  australis  White-eyed  crow. 

FAM.  CRATEROPODID^. 

Pomatoetomns  temporalis  Temporal  pomatostomus 

rubeculus    Red-breasted  pomatostomus 

superciliosus  White-eyebrowed  pomatostomus 

rafloieps  Chestnut-crowned  pomatostomus. 

FAM.  MELTPHAGIDiE. 

Mel  iornis  Noyn-HollandiiB    New  Holland  honey-eater 

Lichmera  australasiana Tasmanian  honey-eater 

Glycyphila  fu^vifrons  . . .: Fulvous  honey-eater 

albifrons White-fronted  honey-eater 

*  fiasciata Fasciated  honey-eater 

Stigmatops  ocularis Brown  honey-eater 

*  subocularis  Least  honey-eater 

Ptilotis  sonora Singing  honey-eater 

flavig^la  Yellow-throated  honey-eater 

leucotis    White-eared  honey-eater 

cratitia Wattle-cheeked  honey-eater 

ornata  Graceful  honey-eater 

plumula  Plumed  honey-eater 

*  flava Yellow  honey-eater 

penicillata  White-plumed  honey-eater 

chrysops  Yellow-faced  honey-eater 

*Stomiopera  unioolor Uniform  honey-eater 

Plecterhyncha  lanoeolata   Lanceolate  honey-eater 

Meliphaga  phrygia Warty-faced  honey-eater 

Lichnotentha  picata Pied  honey-eater 

^nophophila  albigularis   White-thioated  honey-eater 


ITS  FAUNA.  291 

Conophophila  mfigularis    Red-throated  honoy-eater 

Acanthogenys  rufigulaiis  Spring-cheeked  honey-eater 

Anthochtara  canmoulata    Wattled  honey-eater 

Anellobia  mellivora Brush  T%attle  bird 

Tropidorhynohos  comioolatua  Friar  bird 

*  buceroides Helmeted  friar  bird 

*  argentioeps    Silverr-crowned  friar  bird 

*  sordidus. Sordid  friar  bird 

Acanthorhjrnchns  tenuirostrifl  Spine-bill 

*Myzomela  aanguinolenta Sang^uineona  honey-eater 

*  erytlirocephala  Red-headed  honey-eater 

*  pectoralis   Banded  honey-eater 

*  nigra  Black  honey-eater 

*  obsoura  Obscure  hon^-eater 

*£ntomyza  albipennia  White-quillea  honey-eater 

Melithj^ptus  gularis  Black-throated  honey-eater 

lunulatus  Lunated  honey-eater 

*  albogularis White-throated  honey-eater 

Myzantha  garrula   Garrulous  honey-eater 

obsoura    Sombre  honey-eater 

*  lutea   Luteous  honey-eater 

Dicfldum  hirundinaceum Swallow  dicsBum 

Zosterops  caerulescens Grey-backed  zosterops 

*  luteus Yellow  zosterops. 

FAM.  CERTHIADiB. 

Glimacteris  scandens Brown  tree-creeper 

rufa Rufous  tree-creeper 

*  melanura Black-tailed  tree-creeper 

leucophea    White-throated  tree-creeper 

*Sittella  leucoptera    White-winged  sittella 

pileata ^ Black-capped  sittella. 

FAM.  CUCULID^. 

Gacomantis  pallidus    PiUlid  cuckoo 

liabelliformis   Fan-tailed  cuckoo 

insperatus Brush  cuckoo 

*  dumatorum  Square-tailed  cuckoo 

Mesocalius  osculans BliEtck-eared  cuckoo 

Lamproooccyx  plagosus Bronze  cuckoo 

**  minutillus  Little  bronze  cuckoo 

basalis Narrow-billed  cuckoo 

Soyihrops  Novffi-HoUandin   Channel-bill 

*£udynamis  Flinders! Australian  koel 

*Centropus  macrourus Great-tailed  coucal. 

FAM.  PSITTACID^. 

Cacatua  galerita  Sulphur-crested  cockatoo 

Leadbeateri   Leaclbeater's  cockatoo 

sanguinea  Blood-stained  cockatoo 

roseicapilla    Rose-breasted  cockatoo 

Licmetis  tenuirt>stris  Long-billed  cockatoo 

*Calyptorhynchu8  macrorhynchus Great-billed  black  cockatoo 

Leaohii  Leach's  black  cockatoo 

xanthonotus  Yello w-eored  black  cockatoo 

Gallocephalon  galeatum Gan-gan  cockatoo 

^Polytelu  Alexandrn The  Princess  of  Wales's  parrakeet 

u  2 


292  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA. 

Polytelis  melannra Dlaok-tailed  parrakeet 

^Ptistes  ooccineopteruH Crimson^winged  lory 

Platyoercus  Bamardi Barnard's  parrakeet 

zonarins  Banded  parrakeet 

Pennantii Pennants  parrakeet 

adelaidensis Adelaide  parrakeet 

vennstus Beautiful  parrakeet 

eximiHS Roae-bill  parrakeet 

Psephotus  biematorrhous    Red-veo ted  parrakeet 

xsnthor rhous Yellow-vented  parrakeet 

multioolor  Varied  parrakeet 

hsBmatonotus Red-rumped  parrakeet 

Eupbema  elegans Elegant  grass  parrakeet 

aurantia  Orange-bellied  grass  parrakeet 

petropbila  Rock  gjTass  parrakeet 

splenaida Splendid  grass  parrakeet 

Bourkii    Bourk's  grass  parrakeet 

Melopsittacus  undulatus Warbling  grass  parrakeet 

Calopsitta  NoT»-Hollandia)  Ck)ckatoo  parrakeet 

Pezoporus  formosus Ground  parrakeet 

Geopsittacus  occidentalls  Western  ground  parrak(  et 

Latbamus  discolor Swift  lorikeet 

Trichoglossus  multicolor    Blue-bellied  lorikeet 

*  rubritorquis Red-collared  lorikeet 

*Ptilocbera  versicolor   Varied  lorikeet 

Glossopsitta  australis  Musk  lorikeet 

porpbyrooepbal  U8  Porpbyro-crowned  lorikeet 

pulsilla Little  lorikeet 

ORDER  BASOBES. 

FAM.  GOLUMBID^. 

^Myristicti vom  spilorrboa    Wbite  nutmeg  pigeon 

♦PtUnopuB  Ewiugii  Ewing*s  fruit  pigeon 

*Cbalcophap8  chrysochlora Little  green  pigeon 

Pltaps  cbalcoptera    Common  bronzewing 

elegans  Brusb  bronzewing 

bistrionica Harlequin  bronzewing 

*Geopbap8  Smitbii    Smitbs  bronzewing 

Lopnophaps  plumifera    PI umed  bronzewing 

ferruginea  Rust-ooloured  bronzewing 

Ocypbaps  lopbotes  Crested  bronzewing 

Erythraucbiena  humeralid Barred-sbouldered  dove 

Geopelia  tranquilla Peaceful  dove 

*  placida Placid  dove 

Stictopelia  ouneata Little  turtle-dove 

FAM.  MEGAPODID^. 

Leipoa  ocellata Ocellated  leipoa 

^Megapodius  tumulus  Australian  megapode. 

FAM.  TURNICIDJE. 

Tumixvarias  Varied  tuniix 

*  castanotus    Cbestnut-baoked  tumix 

velox Swift-flying  tumix 

pyrrhotborax  Bed-crested  tumix 

Pedionomus  torquatns Collared  plain  wanderer. 


ITS  FAUNA,  293 

PAM.  PERDICID^. 

Gotnmix  peotdraliB Pectoral  quail 

Synoions  austraUs   Swamp  quail 

sordidus    Sombre  quail 

*  cervinus    Northern  quail 

Exoal&toria  australis Least  swamp  quail. 

ORDER  GRALLATORES. 

PAM.  STRUTHlDIONIDiE. 

Dromanius  Novn-Hollandin Emu 

inomatus Spotted  emu. 

PAM.  OTlDlD-ffi. 
Ohoriotls  australis   Australian  bustard. 

PAM.  CHARADRID^. 

(Edicnemus  grallarius Southern-stone  plover 

^EsacuB  magnirostris    Large-billed  shore  plover 

Haomatopus  longirostris White-breasted  ovster-catcher 

fuliginosus ^.,^....  Sooty  oyster-cat<uier 

Lobivanellus  lobEttus  Wattled  plover 

*  personatus Masked  plover 

Saroiophorus  pectoralis  Black-breasted  plover 

Squatarola  helvetica    Grey  plover 

Gnaradrius  orientalis Australian  plover 

Eudromius  australis    Australian  aottrell 

Cirrepidesmus  asiaticus Asiatic  dot trell 

*  Geoflfroyi Geoflfroy's  dottrell 

2Sgialite8  monacha Hooded  dottrell 

nigrifroDS Black-fronted  dottrell 

2Seialophilus  rufloapillus  Bed-capped  dottrell 

CKmthodromus  ioomatus    Allied  aottrell 

bicinctus Double-banded  dottrell 

Eiythrogonyx  cinctus Red-kneed  dottrell. 

PAM.  GLAREOLIDiE. 
*Glareo]a  grallaria Practincole  Australian, 

PAM.  HIMANTOPODID^. 

Himantopus  leucooephalus White-headed  stilt 

Oladorhynchus  pectoralis  Banded  stilt. 

PAM.  RECURVIROSTRlDiE. 
Recurvirostris  rubicoUis Red-necked  vaocet 

PAM.  LIMOSTD^. 
^Limoea  uropygialis Barred-rumped  godwit. 

PAM.  TRINGID^. 

Limnodnclus  aouminatus  Marsh  tringa 

Ancyloohilus  subarquatus Curlew  sandpiper 

Actodromas  australis  Little  sandpiper 

Actitis  hvpoleucoe   Common  sandpiper 

Glottis  glottoides Greenshank 

8tr^>0ilas  interpres Turnstone 


294  SOUTH  AUSTRATJA. 

FAM.  SCX)LOPACID^. 

Gallinago  anstralifl New  Holland  ndpe 

Bhyncbfea  australis Australian  rhynctuea. 

FAM.    ? 

NnmenioB  oyanopus    Australian  curlew 

nropygialis Australian  wimbrel 

minor Little  wimbreL 

FAM.  TANTALID^. 

Oarphibis  spinioollis    Straw-necked  ibis 

Throskiomis  strictipennis White  ibis 

Falcinellus  igneus  Glossy  ibis 

Platalea  regia  Boyal  spoonbill 

Platibis  fla?ipes  Yellow-legged  spoonbill. 

FAM.  GRUID.E. 
Grufl  australasianus    Australian  crane. 

FAM.  CICONIDiE. 
*Xenorliynchu8  australis Australian  Jabiru. 

FAM.  ARDEIDJ5. 

Ardea  cinerea  Common  heron 

pacifica  Pacific  heron 

t^ovte-HoUandife White-fronted  heron 

Herodias  alba  Australian  egret 

egrettoidcs    Plumed  egret 

melanopus    Spotless  egret 

asha  Sombre  egret 

♦  picata    Pied  egret 

Demiegretta  jugularis Black-reef  heron 

♦  Greyi  White-reef  heron 

Kycticorax  caladonicus  Nankeen  night  heron 

Botaurus  poioiloptilus Australian  bittern 

Butoroides  flavicoUis  Yellow-necked  mangrove  bittern 

Ardetta  pusilla Minute  bittern 

Porphyrio  melaootus   Black-backed  porphyrio 

Tribonyx  ventralis  Black-tailed  tribonyx 

Gallinula tenebrosa .*...  Sombre  gidiinule 

Fulica  australis    Australian  coot 

Hypotanidia  philippensis Pectoral  rail 

RaUus  brachypus Lewin's  water  rail 

^Eulabeoruis  castanei ventris  Chestout-belUed  rail 

Porzana  fluminea Spotted  water  crake 

palustris    Little  water  cri^e 

tabuensis  Tabuan  water  crake. 

ORDEE  NATATOREa 

FAM.  ANATID.E. 

Chenopis  atrata   Black  swan 

Coreopsis  Nov te-Hollandiie    Cereopsis  goose 

Anseranas  melanoleuca Semipalmated  goose 

Chlamydochen  jubata Maaed  goose 

*Nettapus  pulchellus    Green  pigmy  goose 

Tadomaiadjah    Rajah  sheldrake 


ITS  TAUNA.  295 

Oasaroa  tadoraoides Gheetnut-coloured  sheldrake 

Anas  superbosa    Australian  wild  duck 

punctata Australian  teal 

Stiotonetta  Dsevosu  Freckled  duck 

Spatula  r hy nchotis  Australian  shoveller  duck 

malacorhynchus  membranaceus   Pink-eyed  duck 

Dendrocygua  Gouldi  Gould's  "v^  histling  tree  duck 

Eytoni  Eyton's  tree  duck 

Nyroca  australis  White-eyed  duck 

Biziura  lobata  Musk  duck. 

FAM.  LARID^. 

Larus  pacificus Pacific  gull 

Bruchigavia  Jamesouii  Silver  gill 

Stercorarins  catarrhactes    Great  skua. 

FAM.  STERNID.E. 

Sylochelidon  caspia Gaspian  tern 

*ThalaS8eu8  cristatus    Torres  Straits  tern 

poliocercus  Bass's  Straits  tern 

Sterna  melanorhyncha    Southern  tern 

Stemula  nereis Little  tern 

Hydrochelidon  leuoopareia Marsh  tern 

Onychoprion  fuliginosa Sooty  tern 

panayensis Panayan  tern 

Anous  stolidus Noddy  tern 

melanops  Lesser  tern 

*  leuoocephalus  White-capped  tern. 

FAM.  PROCELLARID^. 

•  Diomedia  exulans    Wandering  albatross 

cauta    Shy  albatross 

culminata    Culminated  albatross 

melanophryd  Black-evebrowed  albatross 

PhoBbetria  fuligiuosus Sooty  albatross 

Ossifrag^  gigantea Great  petrel 

Adamastor  oinerea  Great  grey  petrel 

Pterodroma  Solandri  Solander's  petrel 

.£strelata  leucocephala  White-heaaed  petrel 

leucoptera  White-winged  petrel 

Haloboena  cnruiea  Blue  petrel 

Puffinus  nugax Allied  petrel 

Nectris  brevicaudus    Short-tailed  petrel 

ThieUus  sphenurus Wedge-tailed  petrel 

Thalassoica  glacialoides Silvery-grey  petrel 

Darpion  capeusis Cape  petrel 

Prion  turtur ; Dove-like  prion 

ariel Fairy  prion 

Bankii    Bank's  prion 

vittatus  Broad-billed  prion 

Prooellaria  nereis Grey-backed  storm  petrel 

Oceanites  oceanica  Yellow-webbed  storm  petrel 

Fregetta  melanogaster   Black-backed  storm  petrel 

grallaria    White-bellied  storm  petrel 

Pelagodroma  fregata  White-faced  storm  petrel 

Halladroma  urinatrix Diving  petreL 


296  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

FAM.  PELICANID-ffi. 

Pelicanus  oonsDioillatus Australian  pelican 

Phalaciooorax  NoYie-Hollandia)    Australian  cormorant 

variuB  Pied  cormorant 

lenoogaster White-breasted  cormorant 

melanolencus Little  cormorant 

stictocephfdus Little  black  cormorant 

Plotns  NoYie-HollandiflB New  Holland  darter 

Sula  anstralis   Australian  gannet 

cyanops Masked  gannet 

*  fiber Brown  gannet 

*  pisoator Red-legged  gannet 

FAM.  PODICIPEDiE. 

Podiceps  anstralis    Australian  tippet  grebe 

nestor    Hoary-headed  grebe 

gularis  Black-throated  grebe. 

FAM.  SPHENISCIDiE. 
Endyptula  minor Little  penguin. 


ITS  JONES  AND  MINEKALS.  297 


MINES  AND  MINERALS  OF  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

By  J.  B.  Austin,  Esq. 

The  vast  mineral  deposits  (existing  over  thousands  of  square 
miles  of  country)  in  the  Colony  of  South  Australia  have,  for 
the  past  thirty  years,  contributed  very  largely  to  our  national 
wealth.  At  times  the  mineral  products  of  the  Colony  have 
been  the  highest  in  point  of  value  of  any  of  our  staples ;  but 
they  have  for  some  years  past  taken  the  third  place — wheat 
now  ranking  first,  and  wool  second. 

The  history  of  mining  in  the  Colony  dates  from  the  year 

1843,  when  the  Kapunda  Mine  was  discovered  on  Captain 
Bagot's  sheep  run,  fifty  miles  from  Adelaide.     In  Januaiy, 

1844,  about  ten  tons  of  rich  copper  ore  were  sent  down  from 
the  mine,  and  caused  considerable  excitement.  In  1848  the 
first  steam-engine  commenced  to  pump  the  water  from  the 
mine,  the  depth  of  which  had  at  that  time  reached  nearly 
twenty  fathoms.  Subsequently  the  workings  have  been  car- 
ried down  to  nearly  four  times  that  depth.  In  December, 
1849,  the  smelting  of  the  ores  was  commenced,  and  they  were 
reduced  to  regulus,  thus  effecting  a  great  saving  in  cartage 
and  freight.  More  recently  the  production  of  fine  copper,  in 
place  of  regulus,  was  for  many  years  successfully  carried  on. 
The  quantity  of  ore  raised  since  the  opening  of  the  mine  until 
it  was  made  over  to  an  English  Company,  averaged  2000  tons 
a  year,  giving  an  average  produce  of  about  19  per  cent,  of  fine 
copper.  The  Eapunda  Mine  was  the  means  of  the  establish- 
ment of  one  of  the  principal  provincial  towns  in  the  Colony, 
and  which  formed  the  nucleus  of  a  large  and  thriving  popu- 
lation. 

The  Burra  Mine  was  discovered  about  two  years  after  the 
Eapunda,  and  at  double  the  distance  from  Adelaide — 100  miles 


298  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

north  of  the  city.  In  the  year  1845,  one  hundred  miles  north  was 
considered  rather  a  formidable  journey,  but  the  astounding 
reports  of  the  wonderful  richness  of  the  new  mine  induced 
many  persons  of  all  classes  to  undertake  the  trip,  in  spite  of 
the  hardships  and  privations  to  be  experienced.  The  "  Special 
Survey  "  of  20,000  acres  requisite  to  secure  this  valuable  pro- 
perty according  to  the  land  regulations  of  the  period  was  taken 
up  on  16th  August,  1845,  and  six  weeks  after  the  first  shot 
was  fired,  blasting  a  large  mass  of  rich  ore,  with  which  several 
bullocik  drays  were  loaded  and  dispatched  to  Port  Adelaide. 
For  many  years  the  carriage  of  stores,  machinery,  &c.,  to  the 
mine,  and  of  ore  to  the  Port,  was  done  entirely  by  bullock 
drays,  and  the  traffic  on  the  Burra  road  was  something  enor- 
mous. When  it  is  remembered  that  the  journey  imder  most 
favourable  circumstances  would  occupy  a  bullock  team  from 
eight  to  ten  days,  and  more  frequently  longer,  and  that  there 
was  a  constant  stream  of  about  800  teams  on  the  road,  some 
idea  may  be  formed  of  the  traffic.  When  we  add  to  this  the 
facts  that  each  team  consisted  of  eight  bullocks,  and  that  for 
the  first  six  years  of  the  mine's  existence  nearly  80,000  tons 
of  ore,  or  13,000  tons  a  year,  were  sent  to  the  Port  and  shipped 
to  England,  the  magnitude  of  the  interest  becomes  apparent. 
An  immense  deposit  of  exceedingly  rich  ore — red  oxide,  mala- 
chite, and  blue  and  green  carbonates  of  copper — ^was  found  on 
the  surface,  and  at  first  the  removal  of  it  was  more  like  quarry- 
ing than  mining.  Some  thousands  of  tons  were  taken  away 
before  any  very  great  depth  was  sunk  in  the  shafts.  Subse- 
quently shafts  and  drives  were  sunk  and  extended,  until  in  the 
aggregate  the  galleries  measured  some  miles  in  length.  But 
the  sinking  was  not  carried  down  to  a  greater  depth  than 
seventy-five  fathoms. 

For  some  years  past  the  yield  of  ore  has  been  but  small, 
but  under  the  vigorous  management  of  Captain  Sanders  efforts 
are  being  made  to  clear  out  some  of  the  old  workings,  and  to 
open  up  new  ground,  and  the  Captain  is  sanguine  of  ultimate 
success.  For  several  years  upwards  of  1000  persons  were 
employed  on  the  mine,  and  some  five  or  six  townships  sprang 
up  in  the  neighbourhood,  containing  a  considerable  number  of 


ITS  MINES  AND  MINEKALS.  299 

inhabitants  besides  the  miners  and  their  families.  The  Burra 
is  now  connected  with  Adelaide  by  railway. 

The  total  quantity  of  ore  raised  from  the  Burra  Mine  during 
the  twenty-one  years  from  its  commencement  was  215,132  tons, 
giving  an  average  produce  of  22  per  cent,  of  fine  copper,  worth 
over  £4,000,000.  The  total  amoimt  expended  by  the  Company 
was  £1,982,005,  of  which  no  less  than  £1,568,859  represents 
wages.  The  gross  profits  amounted  to  £882,436,  of  which 
£776,160  was  paid  to  the  shareholders  in  fifty-five  dividends, 
or  £315  on  each  share  of  £5.  In  years  gone  by  many  thousands 
of  pounds'  worth  of  ore  in  fine  particles  was  lost  by  being  washed 
away  in  the  creek,  for  want  of  means  to  save  it  More  recently 
thousands  of  tons  of  this  waste  material  have  been  recovered 
and  passed  through  jiggers  and  other  machines  for  saving  the 
ore. 

The  Burra  Mine  was  for  many  years  one  of  the  richest  in 
the  world,  and  its  discovery  saved  the  Colony  from  impending 
ruin  after  the  terrible  crisis  of  1842..  For  sixteen  years  the 
Burra  Mine  was  without  a  rival,  as  to  the  vast  extent  and  rich- 
ness of  its  deposits  of  ore.  But  in  1860  the  discovery  of  the 
Wallaroo,  and  shortly  after  of  the  Moonta  Mines,  on  Yorke's 
Peninsula,  bid  fair  to  disprove  the  often  repeated  saying  that 
** there  was  only  one. Burra  in  the  Colony."  Although  the 
Wallaroo  Mines  promised  to  turn  out  well,  it  was  many  months 
before  the  proprietors  felt  sure  that  their  enterprise  would  not 
prove  a  losing  one.  A  very  large  amount  of  capital  was 
expended  by  the  wealthy  firm  of  Elder  and  Co.  and  Mr.  W. 
W.  Hughes,  until  the  mine  account  stood  with  above  £80,000 
on  the  debit  side.  A  few  months  after  this,  however,  their 
pluck  and  perseverance  were  rewarded  by  rich  discoveries  of 
ore,  which  ensured  profitable  results  from  the  large  outlay 
incurred.  The  development  of  the  mine  now  proceeded  so 
rapidly  as  to  induce  the  proprietors  to  erect  smelting  works  at 
Wallaroo  Bay,  about  five  miles  from  the  mine,  for  the  reduction 
of  the  ore.  Since  1862  the  progress  of  the  Wallaroo  Mines  has 
been  very  encouraging  and  satisfactory.  The  lodes  in  some 
parts  of  the  mine  are  extraordinarily  large  and  productive, 
measuring  from  ten  to  thirty  feet  in  width  of  nearly  solid  ore, 


300  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

worth  about  12  per  cent,  of  fine  copper,  and  producing  as  much 
as  sixty  tons  of  ore  to  the  fathom.  The  general  run  of  the 
lodes,  however,  is  from  five  to  ten  feet  in  thickness. 

The  total  number  of  miners  and  labourers  employed  in  the 
Wallaroo  Mines  is  833.  The  rate  of  wages  is  as  follows : — 
Tributers,  £2  2».  per  week ;  tutworkmen,  £2  per  week ;  under- 
ground and  surface  labourers,  £1  13s.  per  week ;  boys,  from 
4*.  6d.  to  18«.  per  week.  In  connexion  with  the  Wallaroo 
Mines,  extensive  smelting  works  were  erected  at  Wallaroo 
Bay,  and  are  probably  the  largest  and  most  complete  in  the 
Southern  Hemisphere.  They  comprise  thirtynaix  furnaces  and 
twenty-one  calcining  kilns,  where  210  men  are  employed. 
The  same  proprietary  have  another  smelting  establishment  at 
the  Hunter  Biver,  in  New  South  Wales,  where  they  have 
erected  twenty-one  furnaces,  and  employ  101  men.  By  this 
arrangement  the  vessels  which  bring  coal  from  New  South 
Wales  to  Wallaroo  take  back  copper  ore  to  the  Hunter  Biver 
smelting  works,  so  that  a  saving  of  freight  is  effected.  During 
the  fifteen  years  since  the  opening  of  the  Wallaroo  Mines,  the 
total  quantity  of  ore  raised  has  been  290,669  tons  of  21  cwt., 
but  the  average  of  the  first  five  years  was  under  8000  tons, 
while  the  average  of  the  five  years  ending  1874  was  over 
26,000  tons.  The  total  quantity  of  copper  made  at  these 
smelting  works  is  58,777  tons  up  to  1874.  This  includes  a 
portion  of  the  produce  of  the  Wallaroo  Mines,  and  of  197,394 
tons  purchased  from  the  Moonta  and  other  mines. 

The  country  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Wallaroo  Mines, 
being  evidently  metalliferous,  numerous  other  claims  were 
taken  up  in  the  vicinity,  and  a  great  deal  of  work  was  done 
with  the  view  of  finding  payable  copper  mines.  In  some 
instances  good  lodes  were  struck,  and  worked  for  a  few  years 
with  fair  results ;  but  of  all  that  were  opened  only  three, 
besides  the  original  Wallaroo  Mine,  are  being  worked  with 
anything  like  payable  returns.  These  are  the  Devon  Consols, 
the  Kurilla,  and  a  more  recently  discovered  mine,  the  Doora. 
This  last  is  the  property  of  Mr.  W.  W.  Hughes,  and  is 
yielding  large  quantities  of  payable  ore. 

About  a  year  after  the  discovery  of  the  Wallaroo  Mines,  a 


ITS  JUNES  AND  MINERALS.  301 

still  more  valuable  find  was  made  eleven  miles  to  the  south- 
west, and  two  from  the  sea-coast.  A  quantity  of  smaU  stones 
of  green  carbonate  of  copper  being  found  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  some  pits  were  sunk,  and  a  fine  lode  of  ore  was  cut  at 
a  small  depth.  This  was  the  commencement  of  the  now  world- 
renowned  Moonta  Mines.  Several  eighty-acre  sections  were 
secured  by  the  Messrs.  Elder  &  Co.  and  Mr.  Hughes,  and 
subsequently  the  Moonta  Mining  Company  was  formed.  The 
1600  acres  of  mineral  land  now  held  by  the  Company  is  the 
richest  mineral  property  in  the  Colony,  and  not  far  from  being 
the  richest  in  the  world.  Since  the  first  discovery  several  very 
rich  and  productive  lodes  have  been  cut,  the  most  recent  being 
a  splendid  course  of  fine  yellow  ore,  four  feet  in  width,  at  the 
depth  of  100  fathoms.  This  lode  alone  will  give  employment 
to  a  large  number  of  persons  for  many  years  to  come. 

During  the  first  twenty  months  after  the  opening  of  the 
Moonta  Mine  8000  tons  of  ore,  averaging  nearly  25  per  cent, 
of  fine  copper,  were  raised,  and  dividends  amounting  to 
£64,000  were  paid  from  the  proceeds.  During  this  early 
period  of  the  mine's  existence — in  September,  1862 — a  large 
quantity  of  ore  being  required  for  shipment  at  Port  Wallaroo, 
eleven  miles  from  Moonta,  1700  tons  were  delivered  in  nine 
days  by  means  of  bullock  drays.  On  another  occasion,  since 
the  construction  of  the  railway  between  Moonta  and  WaUaroo, 
forty  tons  of  malleable  or  native  copper  were  sent  away  in  one 
train  of  ore  trucks  by  rail.  There  are  twenty-seven  shafts  on 
the  mine,  all  in  active  work ;  the  least  in  depth  is  twenty-seven 
fathoms,  and  the  deepest  143  fathoms.  The  others  vary  from  about 
75  to  115  fathoms,  and  are  for  the  most  part  yielding  profitable 
returns.  The  last  report  from  the  mine  states :  "  At  the  130 
fathoms  level  the  lode  is  turning  out  seven  tons  of  20  per  cent, 
ore  per  fathom.  In  a  winze  below  thje  115  fathoms  level  (in 
another  shaft)  the  value  of  the  lode  is  five  tons  of  25  per  cent, 
ore  per  fathom.  ...  At  the  100  fathoms  level  the  lode 
has  turned  out  on  the  average  six  tons  or  18  per  cent,  ore  per 
fathom,'*  and  so  on.  In  some  places  we  read  the  lode  is  poor, 
turning  out  only  one  ton  of  16  per  cent,  ore  per  fathom,  &c. 
But  the  great  productiveness  of  the  mine  is  seen  from  the  fact 


302  SOUTH  AUSTBATJA. 

that  the  average  yearly  returns  from  the  commencement  have 
been  18,220  tons  of  ore  (twenty-one  cwt.  to  the  ton),  of  an 
average  yearly  yalne  of  £197,270  lis.  3d.  The  present  rate 
of  production  is  nearly  2000  tons  per  month,  the  average  pro* 
dace  of  the  ore  being  abont  20  per  cent,  of  fine  copper.  During 
the  half-year  £32,000  has  been  paid  in  dividends.  This  notice 
of  the  Moonta  Mine  may  be  appropriately  closed  by  the  fol- 
lowing statistics  for  the  fourteen  years  since  the  mine  was 
opened : — 

Total  ore  raffled  (twenty-one  cwi  to  the  ton) 255,089  tons  1  cwt. 

Amoant  realized  on  ore  sold £2,761,787  18i.  Id. 

Working  expenses   £1,710,906  9».  Sd. 

Expwnded  on  buildings  and  plant £137,608  Ss.  9d. 

Dividendi  paid  to  shi^holders £928,000. 

The  total  number  of  hands  at  present  in  the  employ  of  the 
Company  is  1525,  including  eighteen  ofScers  in  the  mine,  and 
three  in  the  Adelaide  office. 

There  are  several  mines  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Moonta, 
which  have  for  some  years  been  worked  with  more  or  less 
success.  The  Yelta  is  the  oldest  of  these,  and  it  has  turned 
out  a  considerable  quantity  of  ore.  The  Hamley  and  Para- 
matta mines  have  done  rather  better,  and  recently  have  shown 
great  improvement;  the  latter  has  paid  dividends,  and  the 
lormer  is  about  to  do  so.  They  are  both  very  valuable  pro- 
perties. Some  other  adjacent  mines,  as  the  North  Yelta,  the 
Mid-Moonta,  &c.,  are  being  worked  with  fair  prospects  of  success. 

In  two  or  three  localities,  near  the  River  Murray,  copper 
has  been  found  and  mines  opened.  At  Callington,  near  the 
Bremer,  and  about  thirty-six  miles  from  Adelaide  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Murray,  a  copper  mine  has  been  worked  for  many 
years  with  a  moderate  degree  of  success.  There  are  also  several 
other  mines  in  the  neighbourhood  which  have  turned  out  a 
considerable  quantity  of  copper.  A  few  miles  from  this  there 
is  a  remarkable  mine,  the  Wheal  Ellen,  about  three  miles  from 
the  Town  of  Strathalbyn.  It  was  originally  worked  for  silver- 
lead,  and  some  fine  lodes  of  galena  were  opened.  About  2000 
tons  were  raised,  yielding  a  good  percentage  (about  70  per 
cent,  of  lead),  and  90,000  ounces  of  silver,  besides  a  proportion 
of  gold,  varying  from  one  to  two  ounces  to  each  ton  of  pig  lead. 


ITS  MINES  AND  MINEKALS.  303 

A  large  quantity  of  auriferous  gossan  is  found  in  this  mine, 
and  the  assay  of  samples  sent  to  England  gave  at  the  rate  of 
from  four  to  six  ounces  of  gold  to  the  ton. 

In  another  silver-lead  mine  near  Normanville,  on  the  south* 
west  coast,  gold  at  the  rate  of  two  ounces  to  the  ton  was  ob- 
tained from  the  lead. 

At  the  depth  of  thirty  fathoms,  in  the  Wheal  Ellen,  a  fine 
lode  of  red  oxide  of  copper  was  discovered,  and  in  this  part  of 
the  mine,  at  any  rate,  the  lead  seemed  likely  to  give  place  to 
the  copper.  This  mine,  like  many  other  promising  mineral 
properties  in  the  Colony,  is  at  present  idle ;  but  if  labour  were 
more  abundant,  it  might  probably  be  worked  at  a  good  profit. 
The  gold  alone  ought  to  pay  for  extracting. 

The  most  extensive  mineral  district  in  the  Colony  is  that 
lying  to  the  north,  north-east,  and  east  of  Port  Augusta.  It 
has,  for  convenience  of  description,  been  divided  into  four 
large  districts.  The  central,  comprising  the  following  mines  : — 
The  Blinman,  Sliding  Kock,  Mount  Eose,  Warrioota,  Vocovo- 
cana,  Mallee  Hutt,  Mount  Emily,  &c.  The  Mount  Plantagenet 
district,  comprising  the  Mount  Craig,  Kanyaka,  Willow  Creek^ 
Prince  Alfred,  Matawarangala,  and  other  mines.  The  Western, 
comprising  the  Belttma,  Lake  Torrens,  Mount  Deception, 
Wirtaweena,  Mount  Lyndhurst,  &c.  And  the  Northern,  in- 
cluding the  Yudanamutana,  the  Daly,  and  Stanley  mines, 
&c.  That  portion  of  the  country  is  for  the  most  part  ill- 
adapted  to  agricultural  purposes,  on  account  of  the  dryness  of 
the  climate,  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the  distance  from  a 
market.  It  is,  however,  good  pastoral  country,  and  abounds 
in  vast  mineral  wealth.  Enormous  lodes  of  the  richest  iron 
ore  may  be  seen  rising  high  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Huge  lodes  of  copper  are  traceable  for  miles  through  the 
country,  and  in  some  plcwes  the  green  ore  may  be  seen  for  a 
considerable  distance,  though  generally  speaking  the  nature  of 
the  ore  is  only  discovered  on  a  closer  examination.  In  certain 
parts  the  copper  ore  lies  scattered  in  quantities  over  the  ground, 
like  broken  road  metal.  Occasionally  a  huge  "  boil  "  of  rich 
ore  is  found  on  some  elevated  part  of  the  lode,  as  at  the  Yuda- 
namutana and  the  Nuccaleena  mines,  from  the  latter  of  which 


304  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

600  tons  were  quarried  from  near  the  surface.  Ores  of  60  and 
70  per  cent,  are  frequently  found  cropping  out  above  ground, 
consisting  of  red  oxides  and  rich  grey  and  other  ores.  Some- 
times green  and  blue  carbonates^  green  muriates  and  malachites 
are  met  with.  A  common  form  of  copper  ore  in  the  North  is  a 
brown  liver-coloured  ore,  largely  mixed  with  iron,  but  contain- 
ing from  30  to  40  per  cent,  of  fine  copper.  Crystallized  red 
oxide  and  ruby  copper,  also  malleable  or  virgin  copper,  are 
frequently  found. 

The  extent  and  richness  of  the  mineral  deposits  in  the 
North  are  almost  incredible  to  those  who  have  not  seen  them ; 
but  hitherto  the  high  cost  of  cartage  and  labour  has  operated 
very  much  against  their  development.  If  a  grand  trunk  line 
of  railway  were  constructed  at  least  200  miles  north,  to  near 
Yudanamutana,  leaving  the  mining  companies  to  connect 
their  properties  with  it  by  branch  lines  or  wire  tramways,  the 
one  great  obstacle  to  the  successful  working  of  the  mines 
would  be  removed.  Such  a  railway  is  in  contemplation  by 
the  present  Government,  and  when  carried  out,  it  will  pro- 
bably do  more  to  advance  South  Australia  than  any  public 
work  yet  undertaken  in  the  Colony. 

The  opinion  has  s<mietimes  been  expressed,  with  reference 
to  our  northern  mines,  that  the  ore  will  not  hold  down  to  any 
depth.  In  one  or  two  instances  there  would  seem  to  have 
been  some  little  warrant  for  such  an  opinion,  but  there  are 
several  other  cases  showing  that  it  is  by  no  means  the  rule. 
In  the  Yudanamutana  and  Blinman  Mines,  regular,  well- 
defined,  and  productive  lodes  were  worked  to  a  considerable 
depth  without  showing  any  signs  of  running  out  In  other 
mines  also,  as  the  Mount  Bose,  the  Eanyaka,  and  the  Daly 
and  Stanley  Mines,  the  nature  of  the  country  as  well  as  the 
appearance  of  the  lodes,  at  a  depth  of  ten  to  fifteen  fathoms, 
would  warrant  every  expectation  of  their  proving  permanent. 
It  may  sometimes  happen,  as  at  the  Nuccaleena  Mine,  that  an 
inmiensely  rich  deposit  of  ore  on  the  surface  has  left  the  lode 
poor  for  some  fathoms  below,  and  the  country  becoming  hard, 
the  lode  has  got  pinched,  but  probably  at  a  greater  depth  it 
would  "  make  "  again. 


ITS  MINES  AND  MINEEALS.  305 

A  very  remarkable  mine  is  being  worked  at  Sliding  Eock 
Creek,  about  thirty  miles  north  of  the  Blinman.  It  contains 
a  very  large  quantity  of  malleable  copper  in  a  finely  divided 
state,  and  mixed  with  a  kind  of  clay,  which  is  easily  worked. 
The  stuff  as  raised  does  not  contain  more  perhaps  than  5  per 
cent,  of  copper,  but  by  the  aid  of  puddlers,  jiggers,  &c.,  it  is 
easily  dressed  up  to  75  per  cent.  Water  being  plentiful,  the 
dressing  operations  can  be  carried  on  without  difficulty.  The 
depth  of  the  workings  is  at  present  thirty-five  fathoms,  and 
there  appears  to  be  a  large  quantity  of  native  copper  and  rich 
oxides  in  the  mine.  The  total  number  of  hands  employed  at 
present  is  about  120,  but  probably  more  will  be  put  on  shortly. 
Smelting  works  have  been  erected  on  the  mine,  and  some 
smelting  done. 

It  may  be  mentioned,  also,  that  the  English  and  Australian 
Copper  Company  have  smelting  works  at  Port  Adelaide  and  at 
Newcastle  (in  New  South  Wales).  Each  of  these  establish- 
ments has  twelve  furnaces,  with  room  for  extension,  when  a 
larger  supply  of  ore  is  obtained  from  the  working  of  the 
mines  in  the  North  and  elsewhere.  The  works  at  Port 
Adelaide  smelt  from  7000  to  8000  tons  of  copper  ore  per  year, 
using  from  10,000  to  12,000  tons  of  coal.  At  Newcastle  they 
smelt  about  5000  tons  of  ore.  The  quantity  of  fine  copper 
turned  out  is  about  3000  tons  a  year  from  both  establishments, 
and  the  total  nuinber  of  hands  employed  is  about  140.  The 
fire  clay  used  in  the  furnace  is  obtained  from  the  Company's 
property  at  the  Burra.  The  Company  is  under  the  manage- 
ment of  Mr.  E.  Cooke,  M.P.,  Mr.  V.  Laurence  being  sub- 
manager  and  accountant,  and  is  paying  dividends  at  the  rate 
of  ten  per  cent,  per  annum. 

From  personal  inspection  of  the  northern  mines,  the  writer 
of  this  article  holds  a  very  strong  opinion  that  when  railway 
communication  affords  facilities  for  working  them,  which  do 
not  at  present  exist,  the  mineral  wealth  of  that  part  of  the 
country  will  be  developed  in  an  extraordinary  degree.  The 
ore  is  generally  rich,  and  the  ground  easy  to  work.  A  large 
extent  of  the  coimtry  presents  no  serious  engineering  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  railway  construction. 

X 


306  SOUTH  AUSTEALIA. 

In  an  article  like  this  it  is  not  necessary  to  eniunerate  all 
or  even  a  large  proportion  of  our  mines.  It  may  be  stated 
that  mineral  deposits  of  greater  or  less  richness  are  very 
widely  diffused  throughout  the  Colony.  These  deposits  have 
been  treiced  over  an  area  of  country  extending  600  miles  from 
south  to  north,  and  250  miles  from  east  to  west.  The  mineral 
that  has  been  most  largely  and  profitably  worked  is  copper ; 
and  during  three  years,  ending  December  31st,  1862,  when  a 
mining  mania  was  at  its  height,  no  less  than  1576  mineral 
sections,  of  eighty  acres  each,  had  been  taken  up. 

Our  deposits  of  iron  are  also  of  wonderful  richness  and 
enormous  extent,  but,  owing  to  the  absence  of  coal,  and  the 
high  price  of  labour  in  the  Colony,  they  have  been  but  little 
worked.  Native  iron  has  been  found  so  pure  that  it  has, 
without  any  preparation,  been  welded  on  to  a  piece  of  manu- 
factured iron,  and  stood  well.  An  attempt  was  made,  about 
two  years  since,  to  undertake  the  smelting  of  iron  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  Colony,  where  certain  facilities,  as  fuel, 
lime,  &c.,  existed  in  close  proximity  to  exceedingly  rich  ore. 
As  far  as  concerned  the  production  of  first-class  pig  iron,  and 
its  subsequent  manufacture  into  wrought  iron  and  steel,  the 
attempt  was  highly  successful,  but  owing  to  two  or  three 
hitches  at  starting,  the  shareholders  in  the  company  which  had 
been  formed  lost  heart,  and  the  project  was  for  a  time 
abandoned.  Several  of  those  who  first  took  the  matter  up, 
however,  have  still  great  faith  in  the  ultimate  success  of  iron 
smelting  in  South  Australia,  and  as  our  population  increases, 
and  other  favourable  circumstances  arise,  we  may  expect  to  see 
this  important  industry  revived. 

Lead  ore  cJso  abounds  in  the  Colony,  and  contains  a  pro- 
portion of  silver,  in  many  cases,  as  high  as  fifty  and  even  sixty 
ounces  to  the  ton  of  galena.  For  many  years,  our  lead  mines 
were  worked,  but  they  were  not  considered  sufficiently  re- 
munerative to  warrant  the  continuance  of  operations.  If 
however,  at  some  future  time,  circumstances  should  enable  the 
ore  to  be  raised,  or  the  metal  extracted  at  less  cost  than  at 
present,  there  is  abundance  of  galena  to  be  found  in  South 
Australia.  Silver  ore  yielding  as  high  as  thirty  per  cent,  of 
silver  has  been  found,  and  some  rich  ore  is  known  to  exist  on 


ITS  MINES  AND  MINEEALS.  307 

private  property,  but  the  largest  attempt  to  work  a  silver  mine 
in  the  Colony  proved  a  failure. 

Besides  the  metals  already  mentioned,  many  others  have 
been  met  with.  Tin  has  only  been  found  in  small  quantities. 
Manganese  exists  in  certain  localities,  associated  with  a  small 
percentage  of  cobalt ;  and  a  very  largo  deposit  of  manganese 
of  80  per  cent.,  showing  cobalt,  is  reported  in  the  north. 
Plumbago  is  found  in  the  Port  Lincoln  District  and  elsewhere, 
and  zinc  occurs  with  copper  and  other  ores. 

Bismuth  is  found  in  various  parts  of  the  Colony,  some 
hundreds  of  miles  distant  from  each  other — on  the  western 
side  of  Spencer's  Gulf,  above  Franklin  Harbour;  in  the 
Stanley  Mine,  230  miles  north  of  Port  Augusta ;  and  near 
Balhannah,  sixteen  miles  to  the  south-east  of  Adelsdde.  The 
Balhannah  Mine  contains  an  exceedingly  rich  deposit  of 
bismuth,  and  in  other  respects  claims  to  be  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  mines  in  the  world.  Copper  was  first  found  in 
considerable  quantities,  associated  with  bismuth,  and  about 
£25,000  worth  was  raised.  Then  gold  made  its  appearance, 
and  after  the  bismuth  was  smelted,  it  was  found  to  contain  on 
an  average  about  five  ounces  of  gold  to  the  hundredweight 
of  metal.  Some  of  the  specimens  from  this  mine  are  exceed- 
ingly curious  and  beautifiil — showing  copper,  native  bismuth, 
and  gold  in  the  same  stone.  Cobalt  in  small  quantities,  and 
antimony  and  plumbago  also  exist  in  the  ore  from  this  mine. 
About  £7000  worth  of  bismuth  has  been  disposed  of  at  prices 
ranging  from  4«.  to  lis.  per  pound.  The  ore  contains  from 
20  to  80  per  cent,  of  pure  metal,  and  some  pure  (native) 
bismuth  is  also  found.  The  sinking  has  been  carried  down 
to  the  depth  of  fifty  fathoms,  where  the  lode  is  very  wide, 
but  "  dredgy,"  yielding  about  a  ton  of  bismuth  to  the  fathom. 

Although  South  Australia  was  the  first  of  the  Australasian 
Colonies  in  which  gold  was  discovered,  gold  mining  has  hitherto 
made  but  little  progress  here.  There  are  now,  however,  three 
or  four  gold  mines  giving  such  promises  of  success  as  to  make 
it  appear  not  impossible  that  in  a  few  years  we  may  have 
extensive  reefs  of  the  precious  metal  developed.  Gold  was 
found  in.  the  hills,  about  twelve  miles  from  Adelaide,  about 

X  2 


308  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

the  year  1844,  but  at  the  time  the  finder  was  not  aware 
of  the  nature  and  importance  of  his  discovery.  About  the 
year  1852-3,  alluvial  diggings  were  discovered  in  the  hills, 
near  Echunga,  about  twenty  miles  south-east  of  Adelaide. 
The  goldfield  did  not  prove  very  rich,  nor  of  any  great  extent, 
but  a  few  hundreds  of  diggers  did  tolerably  well  by  steady 
work,  and  some  small  fortunes  were  realized  by  the  more  suc- 
cessful. For  many  years  a  number  of  plodding  people  made 
a  fair  living  at  these  diggings,  and  in  the  aggregate  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  gold — about  £600,000 — ^was  obtained.  It 
is  the  opinion  of  several  persons  of  experience  that  deep 
sinking  in  this  locality  would  be  very  likely  to  result  in  the 
opening  up  of  rich  leads.  Gold-bearing  reefs  are  known  to 
exist  in  these  diggings;  and  another  inducement  for  trying 
the  ground  is  the  existence  there  of  a  deposit  of  diamonds, 
over  a  hundred  having  been  unearthed  at  various  times.  It  is 
very  difficult  to  ascertain  how  many,  or  what  value  of  precious 
stones  have  been  found  on  the  Echunga  diggings,  but  actual 
knowledge  enables  me  to  speak  confidently  of  over  one  hundred, 
varying  in  value  from  £1  to  £20  for  a  single  diamond.  Even 
this  return  should  be  sufficient  to  stimulate  the  search  for 
more. 

Some  years  later  another  goldfield  was  discovered  a  few 
miles  farther  south,  at  Jupiter  Creek,  where  a  good  deal  of 
gold  was  obtained,  including  a  few  respectable  nuggets,  the 
largest  weighing  12  oz.  Farther  away  still,  in  a  south-easterly 
direction,  gold  has  been  found  at  the  Meadows,  but  the  wet 
nature  of  the  ground  has  proved  a  great  hindrance  to  working. 
More  recently  another  patch  of  auriferous  country  was  opened 
and  successfully  worked,  about  three  miles  north-west  of  the 
old  Echunga  diggings,  about  a  mile  from  the  village  of  Hahn- 
dorf,  and  within  the  same  distance  of  the  Onkaparinga  Eiver, 
which  has  been  proved  auriferous  in  many  parts  of  its  coui'se. 
Some  very  good  finds  were  made,  and  one  or  two  promising 
reefs  opened.  A  few  diggers  are  still  at  work  on  all  these 
diggings,  and  one  at  least  of  the  reefs  is  being  worked  with 
very  good  prospects. 

About  1869   a  goldfield  was  discovered  in  the  Barossa 


ITS  MINES  AND  MINEEALS.  309 

Ranges,  ten  miles  east  of  Crawler.  For  three  or  four  years 
it  was  worked  with  a  fair  amount  of  success,  and  proved  in 
places  to  be  rich  in  the  precious  metal.  But  little  is  being 
done  there  now,  as  the  payable  ground  was  limited  in  extent, 
and  no  fresh  discoveries  of  importance  were  made.  However, 
the  prospecting  which  was  carried  on  in  the  neighbourhood 
resulted  in  the  discovery  of  a  payable  quartz-reef,  where  the 
Lady  Alice  Gold  Mine  has  been  successfully  worked  for  about 
two  years.  A  singular  feature  in  this  mine  is  that  a  rich 
lode  of  copper  ore  was  cut  within  100  feet  from  the  surface, 
and  the  gold  is  frequently  seen  sticking  in  the  copper.  It 
was  thought  that  the  copper  would  "  kill  the  gold,"  but  up  to 
the  present  time  both  metals  appear  to  have  improved  as  a 
greater  depth  has  been  reached.  The  returns  of  gold  have 
varied  considerably — from  7  dwts.  to  IJ  oz.  to  the  ton  of  quartz. 
During  the  first  twelve  months  3049  tons  of  stone  were  crushed, 
yielding  1913^  oz.  of  gold,  the  value  of  which  was  £7415, 
being  £683  more  than  the  total  paid-up  capital  of  the  Com- 
pany. About  £500  worth  of  copper  was  also  raised.  The 
profits  for  the  first  year,  over  working  expenses,  amounted  to 
£1895  12a.  5d.  On  a  subsequent  occasion,  after  some  very 
rich  crushings,  the  profits  for  five  weeks  were  £1400.  At  the 
present  time  operations  are  being  extended,  and  mcichinery  of 
double  power  has  been  erected.  Other  mines  are  being  worked 
on  the  same  line  of  reef,  with  good  prospects  of  success. 

Another  locality  where  a  very  rich  deposit  of  gold  was 
found  is  near  Mount  Pleasant,  and  thirty-one  miles  east  from 
Adelaide.  A  few  inches  below  ths  surface  at  "  Scott's  Gold 
Mine  "  the  soil  was  rich  in  the  precious  metal,  and  many  loose 
stones  of  quartz  were  turned  up  containing  lumps  of  gold. 
One  stone,  about  half  the  size  of  a  man's  head,  contained  thirty 
ounces  of  gold !  Upwards  of  £2000  worth  was  obtained  in  a 
short  time,  after  which  a  Company  was  formed  with  the  view 
of  carrying  on  more  extensive  operations,  and  searching  for 
the  reef  supposed  to  exist  on  the  land.  The  Company  pur- 
chased the  lease  of  the  Section  for  twenty-one  years,  and 
expended  some  £3000  without  obtaining  any  great  return,  the 
gold  produced  only  amounting  to  £510  in  value.  Eecently, 
iowever,  a  promising-looking  quartz  leader  has  been  followed 


310  SOUTH  AUSTKAUA. 

down  to  a  depth  of  eighty  feet,  where  it  has  run  into  a  good 
solid  reef  three  feet  thick.  From  the  wonderful  richness  of 
the  stuff  found  on  the  surface,  and  the  nature  of  the  strata 
below,  it  is  the  opinion  of  experienced  persons-  that  a  very 
payable  reef  should  be  found  hera  Other  similar  deposits  of 
gold  were  discovered  in  the  same  neighbourhood,  and  within 
a  mile  of  Scott's. 

The  best-looking  and  richest  gold  reef  yet  found  in  the 
Colony  is  at  Waukaringa,  200  miles  north  of  Adelaide.  It  is 
well  defined,  and,  geologically  speaking,  in  excellent  gold 
country,  and  extends  for  many  miles  nearly  east  and  west. 
Sufficient  work  has  been  done  to  prove  the  reef  to  be  gold- 
bearing — at  least  at  intervals — for  a  length  of  seven  miles, 
and  forty  miles  to  the  eastward  in  the  same  line  of  country 
gold  has  been  found  in  the  reef.  Three  good  mines  have  been 
opened,  and  the  value  of  the  reef  proved  in  them  for  above  a 
mile  in  length.  Here  at  a  depth  of  seventy  feet  the  reef  varies 
from  5  feet  to  18  feet  in  width.  The  Alma  Mine  has  during 
little  more  than  six  months,  and  in  less  than  four  months' 
actual  work,  with  the  battery  (ten  head  of  stamps)  turned  out 
above  £5000  worth  of  gold,  the  stone  averaging  all  through  from 
one  and  a  quarter  to  one  and  a  half  ounce  to  the  ton.  A  great 
deal  of  the  stone  might  be  picked  so  as  to  get  at  least  five 
ounces  to  the  ton  from  a  number  of  tons.  The  matrix  is  chiefly 
a  kind  of  loose  rotten-looking  ironstone,  mixed  with  quartz. 
On  the  Balaclava  Company's  claims,  700  yards  to  the  east 
of  the  Alma,  the  reef  (over  eight  feet  wide),  carries  solid 
quartz  for  about  half  its  thickness,  and  ironstone  in  the  other 
half. 

There  are  several  other  localities  in  various  parts  of  the 
Colony  where  very  promising  discoveries  of  gold  have  been 
made,  but  where  the  amount  of  work  done  has  been  insufficient 
to  fairly  test  the  value  of  the  deposits.  The  belief,  however, 
is  gradually  gaining  ground  that  the  precious  metal  is  far 
more  extensively  diflused  throughout  South  Australia  than  has 
hitherto  been  thought  to  be  the  case. 

From  the  progress  of  gold  discovery  in  the  Colony  during 
the  past  four  or  five  years,  it  is  highly  probable  that  before 
long  we  may  find  numerous  reefs  that  wiU  pay  for  working. 


ITS  MINES  AND  MINEBALS.  311 

Unfortunately  too  much  money  has  been  wasted  in  the  Colony, 
either  through  the  ignorance  or  design  of  persons  engaged  in 
mining  operations,  otherwise  the  sums  expended,  had  they  been 
judiciously  applied,  would  have  produced  in  many  cases  far 
better  results.  The  constant  practice  of  "  mining  on  the  Ex- 
change "  interferes  greatly  with  the  legitimate  work  of  de- 
veloping the  vast  mineral  resources  of  the  Colony,  and  even 
good  and  payable  mines  have  been  nearly  ruined  by  this  repre- 
hensible practice. 

Allusion  has  been  made  to  the  finding  of  diamonds  on  the 
Echunga  goldfields.  Other  precious  stones  have  also  been 
found  in  the  same  neighbourhood,  and  a  number  and  variety 
of  gems  in  different  parts  of  the  Colony.  One  of  the  Echunga 
diamonds  is  unique  as  a  specimen  of  perfect  crystallization. 
Forty-eight  facets  may  be  distinctly  counted  by  the  aid  of  a 
magnifying  glass,  and  are  as  regular  as  though  they  had  been 
cut  by  a  lapidary.  This  diamond  weighs  one  and  a  half  carat, 
and  is  of  fine  brilliancy.  It  is  the  property  of  Mr.  H.  Henzen- 
roder,  a  eonnoiaseur  in  gems.  Other  stones  and  gems  which 
have  been  found  in  the  Colony  may  be  enumerated  as  follows : 
Amethyst,  agate,  beryl  (both  precious  and  common),  blood- 
stone, camelian,  caim-gorm,  calcedony,  emerald,  garnet,  lapis- 
lazuli,  onyx,  opal  (both  precious  and  common),  spinal  ruby  and 
sapphire,  sardonyx,  and  topas.  Of  the  last-named  some  fine 
yellow  specimens  have  been  obtained,  equal  to  the  Brazilian, 
and  many  colourless  stones ;  but  these  are  generally  inferior 
in  point  of  hardness.  The  Anglican  Bishop  of  Adelaide,  some 
time  since,  had  a  pastoral  staff  presented  to  him  set  with  a 
number  of  native  gems,  including  most  of  those  named  above. 

Other  useful  mineral  productions  found  in  South  Australia 
are: — ^Antimony,  asbestos,  baryta,  bitumen,  cobalt,  calcspar, 
dolomite,  fireclay,  fluorspar,  fuller*s-earth,  gypsum,  kaolin  clay, 
lignite,  marble,  magnesia,  magnesian  limestone,  mica,  mercury, 
nickle,  ochre,  platinum,  salt,  schorl,  slate  (very  fine,  both  roof- 
ing and  paving),  soapstone,  native  sulphur,  tellurium,  tourma- 
line, wolfram,  &c. 

In  the  South-East,  near  the  Coorong,  there  is  a  remarkable 
substance  found  on  the  surface ;  it  occurs  in  tough  thin  cakes, 
and  from  its  resemblance  to  india-rubber  it  has  been  called 


312  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA. 

mineral  caoutchouc.  These  cakes  vary  in  thickness  from  that 
of  a  sheet  of  coarse  brown  paper  to  an  inch.  Many  tons  of  it 
lie  scattered  over  a  considerable  area  of  groimd.  A  quantity 
of  the  substance  was  collected  and  brought  to  Adelaide,  where 
a  brilliant  illuminating  kerosine  oil  was  obtained  from  it  by 
distillation.  This  oil  was  found  to  be  superior  to  the  best 
American,  in  at  least  one  very  important  quality,  that  of  being 
non-explosive,  and  not  becoming  inflammable  under  a  .tem- 
perature of  150°  Fahrenheit,  whereas  the  Amercan  oil  ignites 
at  108°.  The  soil  in  the  neighbourhood  where  it  is  found 
appears  to  be  impregnated  with  inflammable  oil,  which  can  be 
extracted  by  means  of  distillation.  Borings  have  been  com- 
menced, but  not  carried  to  any  great  depth ;  the  indications  met 
with,  however,  were  very  encouraging,  as  oil  was  found  floating 
on  the  water  in  the  holes.  Shale,  dolomite  containing  pectens, 
and  other  fossils,  have  been  met  with  in  sinking.  A  few  gentle- 
men have  secured  from  the  Government  a  fifteen  years'  lease 
of  10,000  acres  on  which  to  search  for  petroleum,  and  they  are 
about  to  seek  the  assistance  of  English  capital  to  carry  on 
the  work. 

The  following  brief  summary  of  our  mineral  exports  at 
different  periods  will  help  to  show  the  progress  made  in  this 
respect : — 

In  1845,  the  first  year  when  copper  was  exported  from  the 

Kapunda  and  Burra  MinoSf  the  Talue  was  stated  £ 

at    19,020 

„  1846  the  export  of  minerals  amounted  to  148,231 

„  1856              „                „                „              408,042 

„  1866              „                „                .,              824,501 

„  1874              „               „               „              700,323 

It  should,  however,  be  explained  that  the  greater  value  of 
the  mineral  exports  in  1866  arose  from  the  higher  price  of 
copper  in  that  year,  and  not  from  the  greater  quantity  pro- 
duced:  in  fact  the  quantity  was  much  less  in  1866  than  in 
1874.  In  the  former  year  the  exports  amounted  to  6463  tons, 
12  cwt.  of  copper,  and  16,824  tons  of  ore,  while  in  1874  they 
were  6629  tons  7  cwt.  of  copper,  and  22,854  tons  of  copper 
ore.  In  1864  the  value  of  the  lead  exported  was  £13,318,  and 
in  1866,  £11,318,  since  which  time  it  has  almost  ceased.  Our 
production  of  gold  is  probably  over  £25,000  a  year. 


ITS  STATISTICS.  313 


STATISTICAL  SKETCH  OF  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

* 

By  Josiah  Boothby,  Esq.,  J.P., 

UNDER  SECRETARY  AND  GOTERNMENT  STATIST; 
HONORARY  CORRESPONDING  MEMBER  OP  THE  STATISTICAL  SOCIETY  OP  LONDON. 


CONTENTS. 


Geographical  Position  —  General  Gk)vernment  —  Local  Government  —  Popu- 
lation —  Births,  Deaths,  and  Marriages  —  Immigration  and  Emigration 

—  Education  —  Public  Worship — Charitable  Institutions  — ^  Administra- 
tion of  Justice  —  Land  Transfer — Revenue  and  Expenditure  —  Loans 
for  Public  Works  —  Banking  —  Savings  Banks  —  Land  and  its  Occupation 

—  Agriculture  —  Pastoral  Occupation  —  Manufactures  —  Import  and 
Export  Trade  —  Staple  Products:  Wheat,  Wool,  Copper  —  Shipping — 
Eiver  Murray  Trade  —  Railways  —  Roads  —  Waterworks — Postal  Com- 
munication —  Telegraphs  —  Rates  of  Wages  — Prices  of  Provisions,  &a 

—  Meteorological. 

The  following  paragraphs  furnish  a  statement  of  facts,  based 
upon  official  records,  showing  the  present  position  of  South 
Australia,  and  the  progress  made  from  time  to  time  since  her 
colonization  in  1836 — ^not  forty  years  ago.  Exhaustless  natural 
resources,  a  salubrious  climate,  indomitable  industry  and  enter- 
prise in  her  people,  and  a  freedom  and  stability  in  her  insti- 
tutions, have  together  placed  South  Australia  in  the  high  rank 
she  occupies  amongst  the  dependencies  of  the  British  Crown. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  POSITION. 

That  portion  of  the  Continent  of  Australia  bounded  on  the 
east  by  the  141st  degree  of  east  longitude,  on  the  north  by  the 
26th  degree  of  south  latitude,  on  the  west  by  the  132nd  degree 
of  east  longitude,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Southern  Ocean, 


314  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

was  constituted  a  British  Province  by  Act  of  Parliament  4  &  5 
William  IV.  c.  95,  under  the  designation  South  Australia. 
The  area  contained  within  those  limits  is  estimated  to  be 
300,000  square  miles,  or  192,000,000  acres,  nearly  twice  and  a 
half  that  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  In  1861,  the  territory 
known  as  "  No  Man's  Land,"  about  80,000  square  miles,  lying 
between  the  boundaries  of  South  and  Western  Australia,  was 
added,  by  Act  24  and  25  Vict.  c.  44,  making  the  western 
boundary  the  129th  degree  of  east  longitude. 

All  the  coimtry  north  of  the  26th  parallel  of  south  lati- 
tude, between  the  129th  and  138th  degrees  of  east  longitude, 
has  also  been  annexed  to  South  Australia,  and  is  known  as 
the  Northern  Territory.  The  present  northern  boimdary  is  the 
Indian  Ocean,  latitude  11°  S. ;  the  southern  boimdary,  the 
Southern  Ocean,  in  latitude  38°  S.  The  Province  of  South 
Australia  covers  twenty-seven  degrees  of  latitude,  and  twelve 
degrees  of  longitude,  forming,  at  present,  the  largest  British 
colony — the  area  extending  over  more  than  900,000  square 
miles. 

The  northern  coast-line  included  in  the  before-mentioned 
limits,  starting  from  the  138th  degree  of  east  longitude,  about 
120  miles  west  of  the  Albert  Eiver,  comprises  the  western 
shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  trending  northward  to  Cape 
Amheim ;  thence  west  to  Port  Essington  (latitude  11°  S.), 
thence  south-west  across  Van  Diemen's  GuK,  into  which  the 
Adelaide  Eiver  (Stuart's  furthest)  flows,  opposite  Melville 
Island;  and  thence  to  longitude  129°  E.,  Cambridge  Gulf, 
into  which,  about  100  miles  within  the  boundary,  the  Victoria 
Eiver  flows.  The  western  boundary  is  in  the  129th  degree 
of  east  longitude,  running  from  Cambridge  Gulf  to  a  point 
west  of  the  head  of  the  Great  Australian  Bight,  in  latitude 
32°  S.,  whilst  the  eastern  boundary  runs  northerly  on  the  141st 
degree  of  east  longitude  to  latitude  26°  S.,  thence  west  to 
longitude  138°  E.,  thence  north  to  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria. 

The  southern  coast-line  extends  from  latitude  38°  S.  longi- 
tude, 141°  E.  to  latitude  31°  45'  S.,  longitude  129°  E.,  and 
from  its  peculiar  configuration  presents  a  sea-board  of  over 


ITS  STATISTICS.  315 

2000  miles  in  length.  Between  the  eastern  boundary,  near 
Cape  Northumberland,  and  Encoimter  Bay,  west  of  the  mouth 
of  the  River  Murray,  the  coast  is  generally  low  and  sandy. 
There  are,  however,  excellent  shipping  places  available  for 
large  vessels — among  them  Port  Victor,  Lacepede  Bay,  Guichen 
Bay,  Rivoli  Bay,  and  Port  MacDonnell.  Westward  of  Spencer's 
Gulf  is  a  succession  of  secure  harbours,  several  of  large  extent, 
and  with  good  anchorage  for  ships  of  considerable  tonnage. 
Port  Lincoln,  Smoky,  Denial,  Venus,  Streaky,  and  Fowler's 
Bays  are  important  shipping  places  to  the  westward. 

The  coast-line  is  also  deeply  indented  by  two  large  gulfs — 
the  eastern,  St.  Vincent's  Gulf,  running  inland  to  the  north- 
ward for  eighty-five  miles,  and  the  larger,  Spencer's  Gulf,  run- 
ning N.N.E.  towards  the  heart  of  the  colony  for  one  hundred 
and  eighty  miles.  These  gulfs  have  a  mean  breadth  of  thirty 
and  fifty  miles  respectively,  and  both  taper  towards  their 
northern  ends.  St.  Vincent's  Gulf  is  sheltered  by  Kangaroo 
Island,  ninety  miles  in  length,  which  lies  to  the  southward  of 
it,  leaving  two  fine  entrances,  one  from  the  westward  through 
Investigator's  Straits,  twenty-eight  miles  broad,  and  the  other 
from  the  eastward  through  Backstairs  Passage,  eight  miles  in 
width. 

The  principal  agricultural  and  mineral  districts  of  the 
Colony  are  contiguous  to  the  two  gulfs,  the  shores  of  which 
are  seven  hundred  and  eighty  miles  in  length,  the  greater  part 
being  entirely  protected  from  the  ocean  swell.  Numerous  out- 
ports  and  shipping  places,  of  which  there  are  over  fifty,  enable 
settlers  to  ship  their  produce  at  a  very  small  cost.  These  gulfs 
are  divided  by  Yorke's  Peninsula,  some  one  himdred  and 
twenty  miles  long,  and  twenty  miles  broad,  having  large  tracts 
of  wheat-growing  land,  and  the  principal  seat  of  mining 
industry. 

Situate  on  the  eastern  side  of  St.  Vincent's  Gulf  are  the 
following  ports: — Ports  Adelaide,  Glenelg,  Wakefield,  Wil- 
lunga,  Noarlunga,  and  Tankalilla ;  and  on  the  west,  or  penin- 
sula side,  shipping  places  at  Edithburg,  Stansbury,  and 
Ardrossan.    The  eastern  side  of  Spencer's  Gulf  is  supplied  by 


316  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA. 

Porte  Moonta,  Wallaroo,  Broughton,  Pirie,  and  Port  Augusta 
at  the  head  of  the  gulf,  while  Franklin  Harbour,  Tunby 
Bay,  and  Port  Lincoln,  are  on  the  western  side  of  the 
same  gulf. 

A  mountain  range  commences  at  Cape  Jervis,  at  the  eastern 
entrance  to  Gulf  St.  Vincent,  and  extends  in  a  northerly  direc- 
tion, averaging  some  thirty  miles  in  breadth,  and  dividing  the 
waters  flowing  eastwards  into  the  Eiver  Murray  and  lakes,  and 
westwards  into  the  gulf.  The  highest  point  is  Mount  Lofty, 
after  which  the  range  is  named,  having  an  elevation  of  2334 
feet  above  sea  level.  Descending  rapidly  on  the  western  side, 
marked  by  numerous  glens  and  valleys  for  about  three  miles, 
it  declines  gently  over  the  extensive  Adelaide  Plains  for  five 
miles,  to  the  capital,  from  thence  a  plain  of  six  miles  (almost 
level)  stretches  to  the  sea-coast. 

Opposite  the  north  end  of  the  gulf  the  range  separates  into 
parallel  ridges,  divided  by  fertile  plains  of  an  average  width  of 
eight  miles. 

On  the  eastern  side  of  Spencer's  Gulf,  and  about  ten  miles 
from  ite  shore,  the  Hummocks  and  Flinders  Kanges  rise  to  a 
considerable  height,  Mounte  Remarkable,  Brown,  and  Arden,^ 
and  other  pointe,  being  about  3000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  From  the  head  of  the  gulf  the  range  sweeps  easterly  and 
then  northerly,  and  forms  a  chain  of  hills  extending  to  latitude 
29°  30'.  This  chain,  however,  separates  into  distinct  ridges, 
with  wide  valleys,  generally  north  and  south,  intervening.  In 
the  south-eastern  portion  of  the  Colony  there  are  several 
volcanic  craters,  Mounte  Gambler  and  Schanck  being  the 
most  remarkable ;  the  former  being  900  feet  high,  and  having 
at  its  base  soil  of  the  richest  description.  Throughout  the 
remainder  of  the  district  are  low  ridges  parallel  to  the  coast, 
with  intervening  swamps  and  plains. 

Adelaide,  the  capital  of  the  Province,  is  situate  about  five 
miles  from  the  eastern  shore  of  St.  Vincent's  Gulf,  in  latitude 
34°  57'  S.  and  longitude  138°  38'  E.,  and  Pobt  Adelaide,  the 
principal  port,  is  about  seven  miles  north-west  from  the  City, 
and  connected  therewith  by  rail. 


ITS  STATISTICS.  317 

GENEBAL  GOVERNMENT. 

The  Constitution  granted  to  South  Australia  by  Her 
Majesty,  by  virtue  of  Imperial  Act  13  and  14  Victoria,  c.  59, 
was  proclaimed  on  the  24th  October  1856,  on  which  day  the 
Queen's'  assent  to  the  Constitution  Act,  No.  2  of  1855-6,  was 
received  in  the  Colony.  Under  that  Statute  the  Parliament 
consists  of  two  Houses — the  Legislative  Council  and  the 
House  of  Assembly — the  former  being  composed  of  eighteen 
members,  and  the  latter,  at  that  time,  of  thirty-six.  In  1873 
the  electoral  districts  of  the  House  of  Assembly  were  increased 
from  eighteen  to  twenty-two,  and  the  number  of  members  from 
thirty-six  to  forty-six. 

The  Legislative  Council,  which  cannot  be  dissolved  by  the 
Governor,  is  elected  by  ballot,  the  whole  Province  forming  one 
electoral  district  for  that  purpose.  Each  member  is  elected 
for  twelve  years ;  and  every  four  years  the  six  members  who 
have  been  longest  on  the  roll  of  the  Council  retire.  The 
qualification  for  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Council  is  that 
he  shall  have  attained  the  age  of  thirty  years,  that  he  is  a 
^  subject  of  the  Queen,  and  that  he  has  resided  in  the  Province 
for  three  years.  The  qualification  of  a  voter  for  this  branch  of 
the  Legislature  is  that  he  shall  be  twenty-one  years  of  age,  a 
natural-bom  or  naturalized  subject  of  Her  Majesty,  and  have 
been  on  the  electoral  roll  for  a  period  of  six  months.  He 
must  also  either  be  possessed  of  a  freehold  of  the  value  of 
fifty  pounds,  or  of  a  leasehold  of  the  annual  value  of  twenty 
pounds,  having  three  years  to  run,  or  with  right  of  purchase  ; 
or  be  in  occupation  of  a  dwelling-house  of  the  annual  rent 
value  of  twenty-five  pounds.  The  constitution  of  the  Legis- 
lative Council  is  unaltered  by  the  late  amendment  of  the 
Electoral  Act.  The  total  number  of  voters  for  the  Legislative 
Council  is  18,445,  or  forty  per  cent,  of  the  adult  male  popula- 
tion. 

The  House  of  Assembly,  which  is  liable  to  dissolution  by 
the  Governor,  is  elected  for  three  years ;  and  of  the  twenty- 
two  districts  represented  in  it,  three  return  three  members 
each,  eighteen  two  members  each,  and  the  other  returns  one 


318  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

member  only.  The  Constitution  Act  prescribes  no  other 
qualification  as  necessary  for  a  member  of  the  House  of 
Assembly  than  that  he  shall  be  an  elector.  An  elector's 
qualification  to  vote  is  that  he  shall  be  of  full  age,  and  have 
been  six  months  on  the  electoral  rolL  The  total  number  of 
electors  on  the  roll  for  the  Assembly  is  34,404,  or  seyenty- 
five  per  cent,  of  the  adult  male  population. 

Eesponsible  Government  is  carried  on  by  six  Ministers, 
members  of  the  Legislature,  who  form  the  Cabinet,  and  who 
are  ex  officio  members  of  the  Executive  Council,  advising  the 
Crown,  in  the  person  of  Her  Majesty's  representative.  His 
Excellency  the  Governor  of  the  Province. 

The  following  are  the  titles  of  the  ministerial  officers, 
viz. : — Chief  Secretary,  Attorney-General,  Treasurer,  Commis- 
sioner of  Crown  Lands  and  Lnmigration,  Commissioner  of 
Public  Works,  and  Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Education. 
Each  Minister  has  control  over  several  departments  of  the 
public  service,  the  duties  of  which  are  conducted  by  perma- 
nent official  heads. 


LOCAL  GOVERNMENT. 

Local  self-government  was  established  in  South  Australia 
as  far  back  as  1840,  in  which  year  the  Corporation  of 
Adelaide  was  constituted ;  but  elective  Municipal  Institutions 
only  became  general  during  the  administration  of  Sir  Henry 
Young.  Most  beneficial  results  have  flowed  from  the  adop- 
tion of  the  principle.  Under  it  the  people  have  been  taught 
the  lesson  of  self-reliance,  and  have  cheerfully  taxed  them- 
selves for  the  prosecution  of  public  works  of  general  utility, 
over  which  the  local  authorities — ^a  Board  of  from  five  to  seven 
members  elected  by  and  from  the  ratepayers  of  the  District — 
exercise  control.  Although  the  State  supplements  pound  for 
pound  all  sums  raised  and  expended  on  public  works  in  the 
District,  the  Council  have  in  their  hands  the  entire  manage- 
ment of  such  expenditure,  and  of  all  municipal  affairs.  With- 
out such  Councils  it  would  have  been  difficult  to  introduce 
into  sparsely  populated  and  unsettled  districts  many  of  the 


ITS  STATISTICS.  319 

social  and  political  advantages  now  enjoyed  by  people  resident 
at  considerable  distctnces  from  the  seat  of  Government. 

Corporations  have  been  established  in  the  principal  centres 
of  population  to  the  number  of  sixteen,  and  ninety  District 
Coimcils,  constituted  throughout  the  settled  districts.  The 
total  annual  rateable  value  of  property  is  £1,045,711,  of  which 
£391,929  is  within  the  limits  of  Municipal  Corporations,  and 
£653,782  is  within  the  boundaries  of  District  Councils.  The 
usual  rate  declared  upon  the  assessment  is  one  shilling  in  the 
pound  sterling.  The  total  revenue  of  these  local  bodies  in 
1874  was  £125,351,  and  the  amount  expended  on  works  of 
permanent  utility  £80,945. 

The  following  return  of  the  aggregate  assessments  and 
receipts  of  the  several  Municipal  Corporations  and  District 
Councils,  and  the  amount  expended  on  local  improvements, 
affords  a  reliable  index  of  the  steady  settlement  of  the  country 
during  the  last  ten  years : — 

£xpen<M 
Local  Improvttnenl 

£ 
43,185 
72,865 
80,944 

Of  the  total  municipal  income,  about  one-fifth  was  con- 
tributed by  the  State  in  the  shape  of  grants,  and  the  expen- 
diture on  local  improvements  of  a  permanent  character  was 
two-thirds  of  the  total  receipts. 

POPULATION. 

Inhabitants. — The  population  of  South  Australia  at  the 
close  of  1875  was  estimated  to  be  210,442  souls.  The  last 
Census  was  taken  on  2nd  April  1871,  on  the  same  day  and  in 
the  same  manner  as  those  of  Great  Britain  and  her  other 
Australian  Colonies.  A  general  idea  of  the  social  condition  of 
the  people  at  the  present  time  may  be  gathered  from  a  review 
of  the  chief  points  then  inquired  into,  bearing  in  mind  the 
fact  that  whilst  the  number  of  the  population  has  increased  by 
one-third,  a  more  than  proportionate  advance  has  been  made 
in  industrial  progress,  material  wealth,  and  social  prosperity. 


BAteable 

Year. 

Annual  Valae. 

Receipts. 

£ 

£ 

1865  ... 

684,095 

75.296 

1870 

920,951 

86,499 

1874  ... 

1,045,711 

125,351 

320 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


Altogether  seven  enumerations  have  taken  place  since  the 
establishment  of  the  Colony — latterly  at  interrals  of  five 
years — as  shown  in  the  following  table: — 


Dati  or  ExvMXSATioar. 


1844.  Febrnary26. 

1846.  Febrnary  26. 

1851.  January  1 

1855.  March  31 

1861.  April  8 

1866.  March  26 

1871.  April  2 

1875.  December  31  (estimated) 


IVrCLATIOV. 


Malca. 


9.526 
12.670 
35.302 
43.720 
65,048 
85,334 
95,408 
107.944 


Females. 


7,840 
9.720 
28.398 
42,101 
61,782 
78,118 
90,218 
102,498 


ToUL 


17,366 

20,390 

63,700 

85,821 

126,830 

163,452 

185,626 

210,442 


In  the  foregoing  table  the  aborigines  are  not  included.  At 
the  Censns  of  1871  they  numbered  3369,  so  far  as  could  be 
ascertained. 

It  will  be  observed  that  during  the  last  ten  years  there  has 
been  a  numerical  increase  of  population  to  the  extent  of 
46,990,  or  nearly  one-third.  The  total  population  enumerated 
in  1871  was  185,626,  of  which  95,804  were  male,  and  90,218 
females.  The  number  at  the  close  of  1875  is  estimated,  as 
before  said,  to  be  210,442,  namely,  107,944  males  and  102,498 
females.  So  close  an  approximation  to  equality  in  the 
numbers  of  the  sexes  is  highly  satisfactory,  and  testifies  to 
the  settled  character  of  the  people. 

Distribution. — One  of  the  most  important  facts  brought 
out  by  the  Census  is  the  way  in  which  the  population  is  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  country.  A  frequent  review  of  the 
movements  of  the  people  is  essential  to  the  carrying  on  of  the 
duties  of  Government  in  a  country  where  settlement  advances 
so  rapidly  that  centres  of  population  arise  where  but  a  few 
years  before  sheep  only  depastured. 

The  returns  under  this  head  are  exceedingly  satisfactory, 
as  showing  that  eighty-five  per  cent,  of  the  whole  number  of 
the  people  are  resident  in  the  country  districts,  and  employed 
directly  or  indirectly  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  or  in  the 


ITS  STATISTICS.  3^1 

production  of  mineral  and  pastoral  wealth.  Since  1861  the 
residents  in  the  city  have  increased  from  18,303  to  27,208, 
or  by  forty-eight  per  cent.  During  the  same  ten  years  the 
settlers  in  the  country  districts  have  increased  from  108,527  to 
158,413,  or  by  forty-six  per  cent. 

The  table  on  page  322  shows  the  number  of  inhabitants,  the 
number  of  males  and  females,  the  number  of  houses,  and  the 
number  of  adult  males  in  each  county,  and  in  the  Province,  at 
the  date  of  the  Census  of  1861  and  of  1871. 

In  a  country  where  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  people  is 
engaged  in  agricultural  and  kindred  pursuits,  population  must 
be  widely  distributed.  There  are,  however,  in  addition  to  the 
City  of  Adelaide,  with  a  present  population  of  over  30,000 
(exclusive  of  suburbs,  which  may  be  computed  at  as  many 
more),  other  populous  townships,'  viz.  Kensington  and  Norwood, 
with  5132  inhabitants;  Moonta,  4775;  Hindmarsh,  3221; 
Port  Adelaide,  2482;  Kapunda,  2273;  Wallaroo,  1983; 
Eadina,  1855;  Gawler,  1652;  Gambierton,  1604;  Kooringa, 
1561,  Glenelg,  1324 ;  and  Clare,  1004.  There  are  20  town- 
ships with  between  500  and  1000,  and  60  with  between  200 
and  500,  and  some  150  villages  with  an  average  of  less  than 
200  inhabitants. 

Birth-places. — The  returns  showing  the  birth-places  of 
the  people  indicate  a  steady  increase  in  the  number  of  the  South 
Australian  bom  and  of  British  birth,  as  well  as,  in  a  lesser 
degree,  of  those  from  British  possessions  other  than  the  United 
Kingdom.  The  native-bom  element,  of  course,  preponderates, 
forming  55  per  cent  of  the  population ;  the  next  largest  class 
being  persons  of  English  birth,  who  form  twenty-five  per  cent. 
Ireland  has  contributed  eight  per  cent,  and  Germany  and 
Scotland  each  4*5  per  cent  The  proportion  of  males  and 
females  in  the  settled  districts  is  about  equal.  There  are  more 
English  men  than  English  women,  and  more  Irish  women  than 
Irish  men.  Out  of  8309  Germans,  4681  are  males  and  3628 
females.  Of  the  185,626  enumerated  in  1871,  102,676  were 
native-bom,  46,752  were  of  English  birth,  14,255  came  from 
Ireland,  8309  from  Germany,  8167  from  Scotland,  3469 
from  other  British  possessions,  and  1356  from  other  foreign 

y 


322 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


States.     The  children  of  German  and  other  colonists  £ix>m 
foreign  countries  are  returned  as  South  Australians. 


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^  ©  C      g  ©  a  ^  60  ®  -t?  '13  '5  ^  .S  J?  S 


oa 
o 

a 
p 


I 


ITS  STATISTICS 


323 


Conjugal  Condition. — ^With  reference  to  the  conjugal 
state^  there  were,  in  1871,  30,002  married  males  and  30,029 
married  females.  Married  women  exceed  in  number  the 
married  men  in  towns,  and  the  reverse  is  the  case  in  the 
country  districts,  where  also  bachelors  predominate.  The 
proportion  of  bachelors  to  spinsters  at  marriageable  ages  (all 
above  fifteen),  is  as  twenty-one  to  fifteen,  but  of  adults  as 
eleven  to  five.  The  following  table  shows  the  number  of 
married,  unmarried,  and  widowed  persons,  males  and  females, 
of  the  age  of  fifteen  and  upwards : — .     ^ 


Unmarried  ...{|^J^*J^ 

Married      ...(wives       . 

Widowed        i  Widowers 
Widowed   ...^Widows    . 


Number. 
21,6.38 
15,179 
:t0,002 
30,029 
1,571 
8,521 


Ages. — The  proportion  in  which  the  number  of  males  and 
females  at  the  imder-mentioned  periods  of  age  stood  to  the 
total  of  the  Province  is  as  follows : — '• 


AcEfl. 

The  Colonjc 

CityofAdelaidflb         | 

Penona.   Malea.  Femalea. 

Persona.   Malea. 

• 

Femalea. 

AUages   ...    ...  185,626 

96,403  1    90,218 

27,208  '    12,699 

1 

14,500 

trnder  5   .»    ... 
5  and  under  16 
15  and  under  21 
21  and  upward* 

31,450 
62,237 
20,626 
81,141 

16,920 
26,277 
10,068 
43,003 

15,530 
25,960 
10,537 
38,138 

3,992 

6.950 

3.249 

12,997 

1,983 
3,340 
1,350 
6,012 

2.009 
3,610 
1,899 
6,986 

1 

Bural  Paatoral  DiatrlcU 
and  Shipping. 

i 
Peraons.   Hales.  Femalea. 


27,458  13,937 

46,287  I  22,937 

17,376  8,738 

68,144  36,991 


75,709 


13,521 

22,350 

8,638 

31,153 


From  the  above  statement  it  will  be  seen  that  in  a  popula- 
tion of  185,626  souls,  seventeen  per  cent,  were  infants  under 
Ave,  twenty-eight  per  cent,  were  children  imder  fifteen,  twelve 
per  cent,  youths,  and  the  remaining  forty-three  per  cent,  pf 
the  whole  number  were  adults. 

Taking  the  number  of  persons  between  the  ages  of  fifteen 
xtnd  sixty-five,  viz.  98,365,  as  fairly  representing  the  class 
upon  whom  devolves  the  duty  of  sustaining  the  extreme  youth 
and  the  bulk  of  the  old  age  of  the  country,  it  will  be  seen  that 
such  class  forms  fifty-three  per  cent  of  the  whole  population. 
The  man  power — that  is,  all  males  of  fifteen  years  and  up- 

Y  2 


324 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


wards — numbers  51,271,  or  but  twenty-eight  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  people ;  being  three  per  cent,  below  the  proportion  in 
1861. 

Occupation. — Very  full  information  with  regard  to  the 
occupations  of  the  people  has  been  obtained  at  each  census, 
and  no  returns  can  be  more  practically  useful  than  those 
which  show  in  what  direction  the  labour  of  the  country  is 
chiefly  employed.  The  following  classification  shows  the 
number  imder  each  head  in  1871 : — 


Thk  Piotzkcb. 


Occupations. 


Class 

J.  Persons  engaged  in  the  general  and  local 

government  of  the  colony,  p jlice,  &c. 
11.  Profession^:  persons   in  the  learned  pro- 
fessions (with  their  immediate  subordi- 
nates) not  in  the  Qovemment  serrice      ... 

III.  Professional:  persons  engaged  in  literature, 

fine  arts,  ana  sciences        

IV.  Trading:  persons  who  buy,  sell,  keep,  or 

lend  money  on  gobds         

y.  Personal  offices:  persons  engaged  in  enter- 
taining, clothing,  and  performing  personal 
offices  for  mau         ...        ...        ... 

VI.  Manufacturing :  persons  engaged  in  art  and 
mechanical  productions,  and  in  working 
and  dealing  in  mineral,  vegetable,  and 
animal  matters         ...        ...        ... 

VTI.  Mining:  persons  engaged  in 

VIII.  Agricultural,    horticultural,   and   pastoral: 
persons  working  land   and   engaged   in 
growing  grain,  fruit,  animals,  and  other 
prociucbS        ...        ...        .a.        ...        ... 

IX.  Carrying:  persons  engaged  in  the  convey- 

auoe  of  men  and  goods       

X.  Persons  dealing  in  ftKxi  and  drinks 

Xr.  Miscellaneous  pursuits :  persons  engaged  in 
occupations  not  embraced  in  other  cfasses 
Xn.  Independent  means :  persons  of  property  or 
rank  not  returned    under  any  office  or 
occupation     ...        ...        ...        ... 

XIII.  Persons    engaged    in    domestic    offices   or 

duties,  and    of  no  specified  occupation, 
scuoiars,  uc. ...        ...        ...        ...        •.. 

XIV.  Persons  maintained  at  public  cost  or  by  the 

community    ...        ...        ...        ...        ... 

XV.  Persons  whose  pursuits  have  not  been  speci- 
fied, or  were  unemployed,  &o 


P«rsoD8.  '     MaIm.    I  Females. 


1,495 

645 
•  1,575 
'     4,801 

10,S02 


7,S49 
3,83S 


24,224 

2.917 
1,782 

6,060 


548 

117,766 

944 

>     1.435 


1,482 

644 

765 

3,960 

2,712 


7,842 
3,338 


23,606 

2,915 
1,672 

5,919 
368 


13 

1 

810 
841 

8,090 


1,303 


61 S 
2 

141 

175 


38,262  '  79,504: 

i 

6e0  .        824 


132 


Total  of  the  population 


185,626     95,408  j  90,218 


ITS  STATISTICS.  325 

Agricultural,  pastoral,  and  horticultural  pursuits  are  those 
upon  which  the  labour  of  the  majority  of  the  industrial  popu- 
lation is  bestowed,  the  number  actually  engaged  therein  being 
24,224,  or  forty-three  per  cent,  of  the  specified  occupations  of 
males. 

Mining  is  the  next  prominent  branch  of  industry.  Its 
importance  cannot  be  judged  of  by  the  comparatively  small 
number  of  persons  returned  as  directly  engaged  in  it.  The 
great  extent  and  richness  of  our  mineral .  properties  afford 
profitable  employment  to  large  numbers  of  artisans,  mechanics, 
and  others,  who  are  returned  under  the  headings  "  Trades  " 
and  "  Manufactures,"  but  who  are  in  fact  dependant  upon  the 
prosecution  of  mining  industry.  The  total  number  of  miners 
was  3338  in  1871, 1504  in  1861,  and  840  in  1855. 

The  next  most  important  class  of  manufacturers,  persons 
engaged  in  art  and  mechanical  productions  and  working  and 
dealing  in  mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal  matters,  numbers 
7849,  of  whom  only  seven  are  females. 

The  next  class  in  point  of  importance  are  persons,  chiefly 
females,  engaged  in  entertaining,  clothing,  and  performing 
personal  offices  for  man,  numbering  altogether  10,802. 

The  trading  class  amounts  to  4301 ;  persons  engaged  in 
conveying  men  and  goods,  2917 ;  persons  dealing  in  food  and 
drink,  1732;  professional  persons  engaged  in  literature  and 
the  fine  arts,  1575 ;  persons  in  the  learned  professions,  645 ; 
persons  engaged  in  the  general  and  local  Government,  police, 
&c.,  1495 ;  persons  engaged  in  miscellaneous  occupations  not 
enumerated  in  the  above  classes,  6060 ;  and  the  residue  of  the 
population,  120,688,  composed  chiefly  of  persons  engaged  in 
domestic  duties,  scholars,  &c.,  including  those  whose  pursuits 
have  not  been  specified  and  also  persons  of  independent 
means. 

The  following  table  shows  the  occupations  of  the  popula- 
tion and  the  number  of  persons  engaged  in  them,  arranged  in 
numerical  order : — 


326  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

MALES. 

OcCUPATKWr.  NCMBEIt. 

Fami  labomen  and  servants  11,128 

f  ftruicmB  •••  ••<  ...  a*.  •••  «•■  •*•  •••      Of  Sox 

Labourers  (branch  of  labour  undefined) 5,013 

Overseers  on  stations,  »tockmeo,  shepherds,  hutkeepeis,  station 

laoourers  ...        •••        ,■•        •••        •••        •••        •«•    iS,00v 

Miners— Copper         ...  2,100 

Carters,  slabbers,  engine<driTers,   stokers,  and 

others  on  mines         530 

^OlU  •••  ««•  •«•  «.,  aa*  ...  ...  Olif 

Smelters,  ore-dressers,  &c 223 

Miners  and  diggers  (otherwise  undefined)        ...      124 

M-MSUU  •••  .«•  .*•  *■•  •>•  .*•  2^ 


3,38S 

Commercial  clerks,  assistants  in  shops,  storemen,  Ac 2,057 

BuiiderSy   carpenters,   building   surveyors,   timber  merchants, 

W.WjrOrB,  ttv.             •••              •••              ...              •«•              ••.              ...              ...  Xf  lOO 

Blacksmiths,  whitesmiths,  founders,  mechanical  engineers,  &c. .. .  1 , 682 

Tailors,  shoemakers,  dressmakers,  outfitters,  batten,  &c.          ...  1,439 

Shop  and  storekeepers,  warehousemen,  dealers,  hawkers,  &c.    ...  1,200 

Other  artisans  and  mechanics — printers,  bookbinders,  coopers,  kc,  1 ,  162 

.  Masons,  bricklayers,  slaters,  hodmen,  stucco-men,  &c 1 ,137 

Carriers,  draymen,  bullock-drivers  on  roads,  lightermen,  &c.    ...  1 ,  108 

Engaged  in  sea  navigation— sailors,  ship  stewards,  &c. 927 

Horticultural— market  gardeners,  gardeners  (master),  &c.        ...  867 

Vegetable  food  chiefly  and  drinks — bakers,  confectioners,  green- 

gruccio,  4bC          ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  ozv 

Animal  food  chiefly — butchers,  poulterers,  fishmongers,  &c.     ...  832 

Domestic  servants  (general) — cooks,  coaclimen,  g^rooms  (private 

BoXVBIllwy    *••                 .*.                  ...                  ...                 a*.                  ...                 ...                 ...  ivl 

Quarrymen,  briekmakers,  road  and  railway  labourers,  &c.        ...  726 
Workmen    in  Government    employment — messengers,    office- 
keepers,  chainmen  in  survey  piuties,  telegraph  constructors, 

i*>C'«      •••    •••    •••    •••    •••    ■••    •••    •••  oo% 

other  occupations — proprietors  of  labour  markets,  billiard-table 

AvCpOl  B,    flCC                ...                .(•                ...                ...                ...                ..«                ...  OtTTT 

Owners  and  drivers  of  coaches,  cabs,  watermen,  &c 555 

Officers  of  general  government— judges,  resident  magistrates, 

government  clerks,  surveyors,  &c 524 

Bankers,  brokers,  accountants,  auctioneers,  commission  ngints, 

OCC                              ...                    ...                    .••                    ..a                    ...                    ...                    ..a                    a..  Mnftf 

Coach  and  cart  makers,  wheelwrights,  implement  makers,  &<*. ...  493 

Inn  and  lodging-house  keepers,  inn  servants,  &c.           482 

Teachers,  schoolmasters,  tutors,  &Ca           405 

Pastoral — squatters,  stockholders,  graziers,  sheepfsrmers,  &c.   ...  393 

Woodsplitters,  fencers,  bushmen  (otherwise  undefined),  &c.      ...  812 

CabiDetmakers,  furniture  dealeri),  carvers  and  gilders,  turners,  &c.  299 
Tannerd,  fellmongers,  soapboilers,  woolsorters,  charcoal  burners, 

ObC                           ...                   ...                   ..a                   ...                   ...                   •»•                   •••                   .a.  ^4«7 

Clergy,  ministers,  priests,  missionaries  and  their  subordinates, 

pew*opener8,  &c.  aa.        ...        ...        ...        ..a        ...        ...  245 

Other  professions  —  authors,  editors,  re|)orter8,  photographers, 

musicians,  &c.     ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        •••        ...  237 

Police,  wardens,  turnkeys,  &c 217 

Annuitants,  independent  means,  &c.          211 

Merchants,  importers,  &c 204 

Porters  and  messengers  (not  assistants  in  shops  or  stores)        ...  171 

Contractors  (branch  undefined) 160 

Carried  forward        ••.  53,978 


ITS  STATISTICS. 


327 


OOCCTATIOir. 

Broagbt  forward      ...        ...        « 

YigneroDS,  dressers,  gardeners,  &e. 

Woodcutters,  water-carriers,  woodmen,  &c.  

Overseers  (branch  of  labour  undefined) 

Physicians,  surseons,  oonlists,  dentists,  &o.  

Architects,  civil  engineers,  suryeyors  (land),  draughtsmeu,  &c. 

Dbpensin^  chemists,  druggists,  &o.  

Lawyers,  barristers,  attorneys,  conveyancers,  &c 

Persons  deriving  income  from  houses — ^householders,  house  pro- 
priecors,  geo.        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        . 

Law  clerks,  law  stationers,  bailiffs,  &c. 

Officers  of  corporations,  district  councils,  &C.       

Gentlemen  (not  otherwise  defined) ....• 

Oittle-dealers  and  saleyard  keepers,  farriers,  poundkeepers,  &c. 
Church  officers,  vergers,  sextons,  Ac 

Residue  or  the  Male  Populatiost. 

Children,  relatives,  visitors,  &o.  (not  otherwise  defined) ... 
Scholars,  whether  in  public  or  private  schools,  or  at  home 

Unemployed,  '*  No  occupation  at  present " 

Occupation  not  stated  

Patients  in  hospitals,  asylums,  depots,  &c.  

Prisoners 


NUVBEI. 

53,978 
154 
154 
148 
123 
123 
96 
90 

87 
80 
77 
70 
83 
10 


••• 


••• 


.*• 


23,520 

14,736 

816 

4h7 
419 
201 


55.223 


Total  of  the  male  population  ... 


40,185 
95,408 


••• 


FEMALES. 
Occupation. 

Domestic  servants  (general),  cooks,  &c.     ••• 

Dressmakers,  milliners,  tailoresses,  &c. 

Teachers,  schoolmistresses,  governesses,  music  teachers,  &e. 

Farm  labourers  and  servants,  &c 

farmers  •.•        ...        ...        ...        •«•        •••        ... 

Assistants  in  shops,  &c.        

Shop  and  store  keepers,  dealers,  hawkers,  &C.     

Other  occupations      ...        ...        ...        •••        ...        ... 

Annuitants,  independent  meuns,  &c.  

Inn  and  lodging-nouse  keepers,  inn  servants,  &c. 
Persons  deriving  income  from  houses — chouse  proprietors,  &c 
Yegetable  food  chiefly  and  drinks — bakers,  confectioners,  green 
grocers,  sc.         •.•        ...        ...        ...        ...        ... 

Animal  food  chiefly— butchers,  poulterers,  fishmongers,  &c. 

Ladies  (not  otherwise  described) 

Horticultural — market  gardeners,  &o.        

Shepherds*  wives  assistSig  as  hutkeepers,  &o.      ,.4 

Yignerons,  dressers,  &o ^ 

In  (Government  employment  —  office  keepers,  nurses,  &e. 

Other  professions — authors,  musicians,  &c        

Merchants,  importers,  &c    ••.        ...        ...        ...        ... 

Pastoral  —  squatters,  stockholders,  graziers,  sheepfurmers,  &c. 
Registry  office  keepers,  &c.  •••        •..        ...        ...        ... 

In  Government  employment  

Employed  by  corporation — office  keepers,  &g 

Other  artisans  and  mechanics  — bookbinders,  &c. 

Chemist  and  druggist  (proprietor) 

Mason  (ditto)  ...        ... 

Blacksmith  (ditto)     

Carried  forward 


NUMBRR. 

6,443 

1,552 

803 

330 

244 

170 

161 

141 

117 

95 

88 

32 

28 

20 

18 

11 

9 

8 

7 

6 

6 

4 

8 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

10,253 


328  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA. 

OcccPATiojr.  NuvBia. 

firon^ht  forward        10,253 

Builder  (proprietor)  /,. 

€>abiiH:tinaker  (ditto)  

Tanner,  fto.  (ditto)     ...        ...        ...       .... 

Wood  and  water  carter         

Porter  and  messenger  ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        ... 


10.258 


RtSIDUE  OF  THB  FeMALB  POPULATION. 

Children,  relatives,  visiton,  &c.  (not  otherwise  defined)          ...  34,826 

Wives,  widows,  &c.    ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...        ...  30,555 

Scholars,  whether  in  public  or  private  schools,  or  at  home       ...  14,123 

Patients  in  hospitaJs,  asylums,  depots,  &c.          284 

Occupations  not  stated         84 

Unemployed,  **  No  occupation  at  present."  &c 48 

fK^X^oQUvfo  •••  ••*  «■•  *••  ■■•  •••  •••  •••  jt\J 


79,960 


Total  of  the  female  population  90,218 

Eelioions  of  the  People* — The  various  religious  de- 
nominations were  ascertained  at   the  census  taken  in  ISTl, 

•  •       •  • 

and  the  numbers  in  connection  with  efiwjh  were  found  to  be 
as  follows : —  .       . 

Church  of  England           50,849  27*39 

Roman  Catholic     ...        ....  28,668  15'44 

Wesleyan  Methodist 27,075  14-59 

Lutheran,  German      ■      ...  •      15,412  8*30 

Presbyterian           ,        13,371  7*20 

Baptist         8,731  4*70 

Primitive  Methodist          ...                   ...  8,207  4*42 

Congregational  or  Independent 7,969  4*29 

Bible  Christian      ...        7,758.  4*18 

Christian  Brethren           1,188  *64 

Methodist  New  Connection-                   ...  363  *20 

Unitarian •      ..«        662  '36 

Moravian 210  *11 

Society  of  Friends 92  '05 

New  Jerusalem  Church 137  '07 

vC^rS  •..  ...'  ...  ...  .»'.  voO  £9 

Protestants  (not  otherwise  defined!       ...  4,758  2*55 

Other  Religions     ...        ...  508  '27 

Object          5,436  2*92 

Not  stated ^-      3,808  204 

Excluding  those  cases  in  which  objection  was  taken  to 
affording  the  information,  or  the  information  was  not  given,  it 
would  appear  that  about  eighty-five  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
population  are  members  of  Protestant  Churches,  and  the 
remaining  fifteen  per  cent,  are  Boman  Catholics.  The  Church 
of  England  is  represented  by  twenty-seven  per  cent.,  the 
Wesleyan  Methodists  by  fifteen  per  cent.,  the  German  Luther- 
ans by  eight  per  cent.,  Presbyterians  by  seven  per  cent.,  and 


ITS  STATISTICS. 


329 


the  Congregationalists,  Bible  Christians,  FrimitiYe  Methodistsy 
and  Baptists  each  by  about  five  per  cent,  of  the  total  population. 

Education. — The  returns  under  this  head  only  show  the 
number  of  persons  able  to  read  and  write,  those  able  te  read 
only,  and  those  unable  to  read.  Omitting  children  under  five 
years  of  age,  the  proportion  of  each  class  is  as  follows: — 
Seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  population  can  read  and  write, 
fourteen  per  cent,  can  only  read,  and  ten  per  cent,  can  neither 
read  nor  write. 

Of  the  rising  youth,  say  from  fifteen  to  twenty-one  years  of 
age,  ninety-one  per  cent,  can  read  and  write,  six  per  cent, 
can  read  only,  and  only  three  in  every  hundred  are  totally 
uneducated. 

That  parents  are  alive  to  the  necessity  of  giving  their 
children  a  degree  of  education  which  they,  from  the  circum- 
stances of  their  early  life,  were  precluded  from  receiving,  is 
proved  from  the  fact  that  whilst  among  the  adult  population 
sixty-one  in  every  1000  are  returned  as  unable  to  read,  the 
number  of  youths  of  both  sexes  between  the  ages  of  fifteen  and 
twenty-one  who  cannot  read  is  only  thirty  in  every  1000 ;  the 
numbers  specified  ten  years  before  being  respectively  eighty- 
three  in  every  1000  adults  as  against  fifty-one  in  every  1000 
youths  unable  to  read. 

The  following  table  affords  a  comparison  of  the  degree  of 
education  in  the  different  Australian  colonies : — 


Namx  or  COLOVT. 

Proportkm  of  eTery  1000  Children  between  five 
aud  fifteen  yean  of  age  who  oould 

Read  and  Write. 

Readonly. 

NotReML 

Sonth  Australia 

V  icioFia     «••        .••        »••        ••• 

New  Sonth  Wales           

Queensland      , 

576 
640 
586 
512 

234 
207 
209 
246 

190 
154 
2A5 
242 

BIRTHS,  MABBIAGES,  AND  DEATHS. 

The  Province  is  divided  into  twenty-eight  registration 
districts  for  the  purpose  of  recording  births  and  deaths  and 
for  the  registration  of  marriages.  The  number  of  births 
registered  during  1875,  was  7408,  namely,   males  3774,  and 


330 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


females  3634.     The  following  tables  show  the  number  of  births 
at  quinquennial  periods :-— 


BIRTHS. 

Years. 

MAlet. 

Females. 

Total. 

1856 
1861 
1866 
1871 
1875 

2336 

2868 
3470 
3695 
8774 

2152 
2683 
3312 
3387 
3t>34 

4488 
5551 
6782 
7082 
7408 

The  average  birth-rate  is  thirty-seven  per  thousand  of 
the  population,  which  compares  favourably  with  the  birth- 
rate in  England  and  Wales,  viz.  thirty-three  per  thousand. 
The  proportion  of  births  is  104  males  to  100  females,  or  the 
same  proportion  as  is  recorded  at  home.  The  number  of 
marriages  registered  in  1875  was  1688. 

There  is  an  average  of  eight  marriages  per  thousand  of 
the  population,  being  almost  identical  with  the  rate  in  the 
Mother  Country.  The  annexed  statement  shows  the  number 
of  marriages  solemnized  by  each  denomination  in  1866, 1871, 
and  1875  :— 


MARRIAGES. 


By  the 


»» 
*» 
»? 
t» 
♦t 

•« 

1* 
T» 
•t 
♦♦ 
»♦ 
♦» 
♦» 

ft 


Solemnized 

Cbtircli  of  EnRlflnd  

Boman  Catholics...  

Lutherans  ... 

Congregational  lailepeiidents 
Weslevans  ... 
Free  Church  of  Scotland 

PreBbyterian  

Christians  ...        ... 

xJaptiSbS      ...        •••         •••         ••• 

Bible  Chritttians 

Primitive  M ethodists       

Methodist  New  Connection 

Moravians  ... 

Unitarians  ...        ...        ...        ••• 

tl  H  inr  S  ...  ...  ...  ... 

District  Begistrars  

Christian  Brethren  

Mission  to  Aborigines  

New  Jerusalem  Church 


1806. 

18U. 

1875. 

•  ■  • 

325 

284 

391 

•  •  • 

183 

177 

199 

•  •  • 

101 

82 

99 

•  •  • 

122 

95 

110 

•  •  • 

164 

178 

806 

•  •  • 

1 

3 

9 

■  •  • 

108 

88 

92 

•  •  • 

14 

21 

33 

•  •  • 

47 

58 

82 

•  •  • 

81 

93 

109 

■  •  • 

94 

107 

162 

■  ■  • 

6 

7 

8 

•  •  • 

1 

2 

3 

•  *  • 

6 

6 

4 

•  •  • 

8 

• . . 

2 

■  •  • 

43 

76 

76 

•  • 

•  •  • 

2 

1 

■  •  • 

•  •  • 

3 

•  a  . 

•  •  • 

... 

4 

2 

1299 


1250 


1688 


ITS  STATISTICS. 


331 


The  rate  of  mortality  throughout  the  Province  was  much 
higher  in  1875  than  usual^  owing  to  the  prevalence  of  zymotic 
diseases — measles  and  scarlatina — which  caused  (local  diseases 
supervening)  an  advance  of  the  death-rate,  especially  amongst 
infants  and  children.  The  total  deaths  registered  were  2118 
males  and  1918  females*  The  following  is  a  table  showing 
the  mortaUty  in  the  years  mentioned :- 


DEATHS. 


Tears. 


MalM. 


Females. 


ia56 

658 

489 

1S61 

1095 

867 

1866 

1537 

1216 

1871 

1352 

1026 

1875 

2118 

1918 

ToUI. 


1147 
1962 
2753 
2378 
4036 


Nearly  one-half  of  the  mortality  is  of  infants  under  two 
years— a  rate  not  so  high  as  rules  in  England.  A  larger 
number  of  male  than  of  female  children  die  at  that  period 
of  infancy. 

The  following  table  shows  the  average  death-rate  for  ten 
years  under  each  class  of  disease  in  England  and  in  South 
Australia  :— 


Death-bate  peb  1000  of  Population. 


Class. 


I.  Zymotic... 

II.  donstitutioDal 
m.  Locftl 
IV.  Developmental 

V.  Violent  ... 
VI.  Unspecified 


All  canses 


Aiutealla.  I  England. 


4-28 

1-68 

5-26 

2-88 

0-7 

0-34 


519 
4-lI» 
8-68 
3-60 
0-78 


1514     1  22-47 


The  average  death-rate  in  South  Australia  is  fifteen  per 
thousand/ as  compared  with  twenty-two  per  thousand  in 
England. 


332 


SOUTH  AUSTKALIA. 


IMMIGBATION  AND  EMIGBATION. 

Last  year,  6566  persons  arrived  in  South  Australia,  and 
4019  left  it,  yielding  an  increase  of  the  population  from  this 
source  of  2547  persons.  During  that  and  the  preceding 
twelvemonths  assisted  immigration  was  resumed  by  Grovem- 
ment  after  a  lapse  of  several  years.  The  sum  voted  by 
Parliament  for  the  introduction  of  immigrants  during  the 
coming  year  (1876)  is  £100,000,  and  the  balance  of  the  amount 
voted  for  expenditure  in  1875,  equal  to  £18,551,  is  also  available 
for  the  like  purpose.  These  sums  provide  a  fund  sufficient  for 
the  introduction  of  about  six  thousand  adults,  or  between  four 
and  five  hundred  souls  monthly. 

When  it  is  considere<J  that  during  the  past  five  years  nearly 
two  and  a  half  millions  of  acres  of  land  have  been  taken  up 
for  agricultural  settlement,  a  steady  and  moderate  increase 
■of  man  power,  suitable  to  the  requirements  of  the  country, 
becomes  an  absolute  necessity.  Such  additional  labour  will  be 
readily  absorbed  into  the  general  population  without  pro- 
ducing any  disturbance  of  social  interests.  This  large  aug- 
mentation of  the  area  occupied  by  the  farming  classes  has 
taken  place  during  a  period  in  which  the  influx  of  population 
from  abroad  only  amounted  to  4555  souls. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  total  immigration  and 
emigration  during  each  of  the  past  five  years,  and  also  the 
number  of  immigrants  introduced  at  the  public  expense : — 


Immigratioii. 

Emigration. 

!    Immigrants  at  Public 
1              Expense. 

Year. 

Males.    Feina!es. 

ToUU 

Hales.    Ftmaiee. 

ToUI. 

IfalM. 

Females. 

TotaL 

1871 
1872 
1873 
.1874 
1875 

1,681         851 
1,604        797 
3,064     1,484 
3,555     2,002 
4,311     2,255 

2,532 
2,401 
4,548 
5,557 
6,566 

2,037    1 1,145 
2,173     1,232 
2,126     1,046 
2,226     1,045 
2,718     1,301 

8,182 
3,405 
3,172 
3,271 
4,019 

104 
1,192 
1,156 

122 
960 
911 

226 
2,152 
2,067 

Total... 

14,215     7,389 

21,604 

11,280     5,769 

17,049 

2,452 

1,993 

4,445 

€rovemment  immigration  was  resumed  in  1873  ;  since  the 
commencement  of  which  year  the  balance  of  immigration  over 
emigration  has  amounted   to  6209  souls,   or  1764  xnore  than 


ITS  STATISTICS.  333 

the  number  introduced  at  the  expense  of  the  State.  It  will 
also  be  noticed  that  the  proportion  of  immigrants  at  their  own 
cost  largely  increased  during  the  past  year. 

EDUCATION. 

The  administration  of  the  public  votes  for  educational 
purposes,  and  the  control  and  management  of  State  assisted 
schools  throughout  the  Province,  have  been  vested,  since  1851, 
in  a  Central  Board  of  Education. 

The  number  of  schools  licensed  by  the  Board  in  1874  was 
three  hundred  and  twenty,  of  which  fourteen  were  within  the 
City  of  Adelaide,  twenty-seven  in  other  corporate  towns,  and 
two  hundred  and  seventy-nine  in  the  country  districts. .  Pre- 
siding over  these  schools,  were  two  hundred  and  seventeen 
licensed  schoolmasters  and  ninety-eight  licensed  schoolmis- 
tresses. The  number  of  scholars  attending  was  17,426 ;  of  whom 
9625  were  boys,  and  7801  girls.  The  average  attendance  at 
all  schools  was  13,774  for  one  month ;  the  average  number  on 
the  roll  at  each  school  was  fifty-four,  and  the  average  attend- 
ance forty-three,  whilst  the  percentage  of  attendance  to  the 
number  on  the  rolls,  during  one  month,  was  79. 

The  following  table  shows  the  operations  of  the  Board  last 
year  as  compared  with  1870. 

1870.  1874. 


Number  of  licensed  schools 300 

Number  of  licensed  schoolmasters      222 

Number  of  licensed  schoolmistresses 72 

IBoTS      8  491 
mris...b,bi7 
15  108 
Average  attendance       11,969 


320 

217 

98 

Boys...  9,62.5 
Girls...  7.801 


17,426 
13,77? 


The  expenditure  of  the  Board  in  1874  was  £29,689,  being 
an  advance  of  £9266  upon  that  of  1870.  The  total  sum 
expended  in  aid  of  erecting  district  school-houses  has  been 
£22,207.  The  average  amount  of  school  fees  paid  for  each 
scholar  by  parents,  &c.  was  19s.  l^d.  The  average  expense  to 
the  Stat«  of  each  licensed  school  was  £83  lOs.  ScL 


334  SOUTH  ATJ8TKATJA, 

In  addition  to  schools  receiving  aid  from  the  Govenunent, 
there  have  always  existed  a  large  number  of  private  schools 
with  an  average  attendance  of  about  7000  scholars. 

During  the  past  year,  a  new  Education  Act  was  passed, 
providing  that  the  future  management  of  public  education  shall 
be  committed  to  a  Council,  with  a  paid  president  and  staff 
of  officers  directly  responsible  to  the  Minister  of  Education — ^a 
member  of  the  Cabinet.  Mr.  Harcus  thus  describes  the  nature 
of  the  improvements  contemplated  by  the  new  measure: — 
"  Schools  will  be  established  wherever  there  is  a  certain  number 
of  children  of  a  school  age  who  will  pay  a  moderate  fee  to  the 
teachers  "  [viz.  4d.  per  child  per  week].  "  In  addition  to  the 
fees,  the  teachers  will  be  paid  by  the  Government,  through 
the  Council,  salaries  varying  from  £100  to  £300  per  ftTnimn- 
Schoolhouses  will  be  provided,  and  the  necessary  education 
material.  Grants  of  public  lands  will  be  set  apart  every  year, 
and  placed  under  the  control  of  the  Council,  the  rents  from 
which  will  be  devoted  to  school  purposes.  Four  and  a  half 
hours  each  day  will  be  devoted  to  secular  instruction,  previous 
to  which  the  Bible  may  be  recui — without  note  or  explanation : 
practically,  the  instruction  will  be  secular.  All  children  of 
school  age  will  be  required  to  be  under  instruction  until  a 
certain  standard  of  attainment  (to  be  fixed  by  the  Council)  is 
reached :  so  far,  the  system  will  be  compulsory.  Provision  is 
made  for  the  gratuitous  instruction  of  children  whose  parents 
can  show  that  they  are  not  able  to  pay  for  it ;  but  fees  may  be 
enforced  in  all  cases  where  inability  to  pay  them  has  not  been 
proved.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  three  great  principles 
of  public  education  which  are  now  so  much  in  vogue  are 
adopted  in  the  Bill,  with  certain  modifications — the  education 
is  secular,  but  not  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Bible ;  free,  to  those 
who  cannot  afford  to  pay  a  small  fee ;  and  compulsory,  wherever 
practicable.  Provision  is  also  made  for  the  establishment  of 
model  and  training  schools,  of  Boards  of  Advice,  and  for  tiie 
systematic  examination  of  teachers  and  their  classification 
according  to  their  attainments  and  proficiency,  and  for  scho- 
larships." 

With  a  view  of  showing  that  Parliament  is  desirous  of 


ITS  STATISTICS.  335 

fostering  and  encouraging  the  growth  of  a  comprehensive 
system  of  public  instruction,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  follow- 
ing grants  of  money  and  land  have  lately  been  made : — 
Towards  the  expenses  of  the  Education  Department,  payment 
of  teachers,  &c.,  a  yearly  sum  of  £60,000 ;  and  a  like  amount 
for  the  erection  of  public  school-buildings.  One  hundred  and 
twenty  thousand  acres  of  the  public  estate  were  also  granted  to 
the  Council,  and  provision  mcide  for  setting  apart  20,000  acres 
in  future  years.  To  the  University  of  Adelaide,  lately  esta- 
blished, an  annual  grant  of  five  per  cent,  on  all  sums  contributed 
to  the  University  from  private  sources  (at  present  amounting 
to  over  £40,000),  and  also  an  endowment  of  50,000  acres  of 
land.  For  the  maintenance  of  Institutes,  and  for  the  erection 
of  buildings  connected  therewith,  the  sum  of  £16,000. 

The  South  Australian  Institute,  established  in  1856,  contains, 
under  one  roof,  a  Public  Library  and  Museum,  a  Circulating 
Library,  and  a  Public  Beading  and  News  Boom.  It  has  also 
incorporated  with  it  societies  for  the  promotion  and  study  of 
Philosophy  and  the  Fine  Arts.  The  Institute  is  managed  by 
a  Board  of  Governors,  and  is  subsidized  by  the  State.  The 
seventy-five  country  institutes  which  -the  parent  institute  has 
affiliated  are  scattered  over  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
Province.  They  are  governed  by  Committees  elected  by  the 
members  of  each  institute.  About  twenty  possess  buildings 
half  the  cost  of  which  has,  in  each  case,  been  defrayed  from  the 
public  revenue. 

The  number  of  volumes  in  the  Library  of  the  South 
Australian  Institute  is  18,837;  the  number  of  subscribers  is 
715;  and  the  number  of  volumes  in  circulation  during  the 
year,  54,648.  In  the  country  institutes,  the  number  of  volumes 
is  42,393;  the  number  of  members,  2904;  the  aggregate 
income  (exclusive  of  the  Government  grant),  £3360 ;  and  the 
number  of  volumes  circulated  during  the  year  has  been  76,487, 

PUBLIC  WORSHIP. 

The  voluntary  principle,  or  freedom  of  religion  from  State 
assistance  and  consequent  control,  was  established  in  South 
Australia  from  the  date  of  its  foundation.     The  beneficial 


336 


SOUTH  AUSTHALTA. 


results  of  its  operation  under  the  circumstances  of  this  com- 
munity may  be  estimated  by  the  fact  that  two-thirds  of  the 
population  are  provided  with  suitable  accommodation  for  the 
observance  of  public  worship.  The  number  of  churches, 
chapelSy  rooms,  and  other  buildings  used  for  public  worship  at 
the  end  of  1874  was  876,  providing  132,000  sittings,  dis- 
tributed in  the  proportion  shown  in  the  following  table : — 


• 

Nomberc^ 

( 

Number  <^ 

Rooms 

Nnmber  of 

Namberof 

SittiDn 
insocn 

siKltitber 

SittiDcs 
In  such 

Cbnrcbcs 

Builiting^, 

Dexoukatigx, 

i   ^  ^"^ 

Churches 

used  for 

Roonta, 

Chapels. 

or 

Public 

*c. 

1 

* 

O^fipflt, 

Worship. 

1 

1 

1874. 

1874. 

1874. 

4 

1874. 

Church  of  England           

73 

19,452 

38 

1,273 

Church  of  Scotland           

2 

150 

— 

Roman  Catholics 

42 

11,500 

5 

480 

Congregationalists  or  Independents 

36 

8,400 

10 

400 

Saptists        •••        •••        •••        ••• 

27 

5.725 

11 

680 

WeHleyan  MethodUtd         

'       160 

30,296 

104 

2,000 

German  Lutherans 

31 

5,324 

8 

400 

Bible  Christians      

86 

14,000 

20 

750 

Primitive  Methodists         

106 

14.000 

41 

1,000 

Methodist  New  Connection 

2 

625 

2 

90 

Free  Presbyterian 

4 

600 

4 

300 

Pmtbyterian  Church  of  South  Au;{tralia. 

15 

3,960 

13 

1,190 

Unitarians 

1 

300 

1 

100 

Moravians    ..• 

1          1 

200 

— ~ 

— 

Friends,  Society  of 

2 

200 

— 

_ 

New  Jerusalem  Church 

1 

130 

__ 

__ 

Christians  (Brethren,  Disciples,  &c.) 

20 

5,000  , 

9 

2,450 

jueorews       •••        •••        •••        ••• 

1 

200 

_- 

_- 

Totals 


•  •  •        •  •  • 


610     120,062         266       11,113 


Ten  years  ago  there  were  535  churches,  containing  86,000 
sittings.  The  number  of  Sunday  schools  in  1874  was  525,. 
attended  by  35,671  children,  instructed  by  4650  teachers,  of 
whom  2200  were  male  and  2450  female.  The  average  attend- 
ance of  scholars  has  been  uninterruptedly  increasing  year  by- 
year  since  1865,  when  the  number  reached  23,739. 


.     ITS  STATISTICS.  337 

CHABITABLE  INSTITUTIONS. 

Ample  provision  is  made  by  the  state  for  the  relief  and 
support  of  that  helpless  section  of  the  community  which  may 
be  divided  into  aged  and  sick,  persons  mentally  infirm,  and 
orphan  chUdren. 

The  Adelaide  Hospital  is  a  Government  institution,  under 
the  management  of  a  Board  consisting  of  professional  and  non- 
professional members,  who  with  an  efficient  stafif  of  officers 
administer  the  affairs  of  the  institution.  During  the  year 
1874,  there  were  1806  inmates  of  the  Hospital,  of  whom  98 
died,  1579  were  discharged,  cured,  or  relieved,  and  129  re- 
mained on  the  last  day  of  the  year.  The  daily  average 
number  of  patients  was  134.  There  are  five  hospitals  in  the 
country  districts,  and  in  addition  thereto  provision  is  made  for 
medical  attendance  on  the  indigent  sick  throughout  the  settled 
portions  of  the  Colony. 

Two  hospitals  for  the  insane  are  also  provided  by  the  State, 
and  are  conducted  on  the  same  principles  as  similar  asylums 
in  the  Mother  Country,  and  with  great  efficiency.  For  every 
100,000  of  the  population,  South  Australia  has  195  insane 
l>ersons ;  England  has  226.  The  total  number  of  cases  treated 
was  464 ;  the  daily  average  number  in  the  asylums  was  352 ; 
the  number  of  admissions  was  106;  the  number  of  patients 
discharged,  cured,  or  relieved,  was  81 ;  and  the  number  of 
deaths  was  32.  Patients  able  to  maintain  themselves  are 
also  admitted  for  treatment  upon  paying  reasonable  fees. 

The  asylum  for  the  relief  of  infirm  and  destitute  persons 
not  requiring  active  medical  treatment  affords  assistance  to 
the  necessitous.  The  rule  is  rigidly  followed  of  excluding 
from  in-door  relief  any  able-bodied  person,  and  out-door  relief 
is  only  given  to  males  in  consequence  of  sickness-— and  then 
only  on  medical  certificate ;  it  being  understood  that  no  man 
•capable  of  working  and  able  to  earn  his  own  livelihood  should 
be  assisted  from  the  funds  of  the  institution.  The  cases  of 
widows  and  orphans,  or  females  deprived  of  their  natural  pro- 
tectors, are  exceptionally  regarded,;  and  applicants  for  relief  of 
thb  class  are  treated  according  to  circumstances,  and  receive 
all  necessary  assistance.    The  average  number  in  the  asylum 

z 


338  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

of  male  adults  is  175,  chiefly  infirm  and  decrepit,  and  83 
female  adults.  Seventy-two,  principally  young  children,  were 
maintained  in  the  Industrial  Schools  connected  with  this 
institution.  On  arriving  at  a  suitable  age,  the  children  are 
placed  with  or  adopted  by  private  families,  under  what  is 
known  as  the  boarding-out  system,  under  the  careful  super- 
vision of  the  department,  assisted  by  a  committee  of  ladies  who 
voluntarily  devote  the  necessary  time  to  overlooking  the 
children's  welfare.  Some  five  hundred  orphans  and  neglected 
children  have  by  these  means  found  comfortable  homes,  and 
the  system  generally  is  considered  to  have  worked  with  great 
success. 

The  protection  of  the  aborigines  and  the  duty  of  supplying 
them  with  medical  comforts  in  sickness,  &c.,  is  performed  by  a 
public  officer.  The  welfare  of  these  people  has  also  been 
attended  to  by  several  long-established  institutions,  mainly 
supported  by  voluntary  contributions. 

Among  other  benevolent  institutions  of  a  private  character 
are  the  Strangers'  Friend's  Society,  Hebrew  Philanthropic 
Society,  Female  Refuge,  Homoeopathic  Dispensary ;  institutions 
for  the  relief  of  the  blind,  deaf,  and  dumb ;  cottage  homes  for 
the  aged  and  infirm  poor  and  widows ;  Convalescent  Hospital ; 
Orphan  Home,  for  the  reception  and  training  of  orphan  girls ; 
Prince  Alfred's  Sailors'  Home  ;  and  Servants'  Home. 

Although  not  strictly  coming  under  the  head  of  charitable 
institutions,  it  is  desirable  to  mention  that  twenty-eight 
Masonic  lodges,  English,  Irish,  and  Scotch  constitutions,  are 
distributed  throughout  the  Colony. 

Friendly  Societies  have  also  been  for  many  years  in  active 
operation  under  local  legislation,  and  are  firmly  established 
with  a  large  accumulated  fund  at  their  disposal.  The  chief 
orders  of  these  societies  are,  I.O.O.F.,  M.U. ;  the  Ancient 
Order  of  Foresters ;  the  U.  O.  Oddfellows ;  the  Ancient  Order 
of  Druids;  two  Independent  Orders  of  Kechabites,  and  the 
Order  of  Good  Templars.  The  total  number  of  members  of 
Friendly  Societies  is  15,092 ;  their  total  income,  £42,464  • 
their  total  expenditure,  £35,434 ;  and  their  total  assets  amount 
to  £37,250. 


ITS  STATISTICS. 


339 


ADMINISTBATION  OF  JUSTICE. 

The  legal  tribunals  of  the  Proyince  consist  of  a  Supreme 
Court,  presided  over  by  the  Chief  Justice,  and  two  Puisne 
Judges;  the  Court  of  Vice-Admiralty,  of  which  the  Chief 
Justice  is  Judge  ;  the  Court  of  Insolvency,  presided  over  by  a 
Commissioner ;  Local  Courts  of  Civil  Jurisdiction,  presided  over 
by  Stipendiary  Magistrates ;  and  Police  Magistrates'  Courts. 

Subjoined  is  a  statement  of  the  proceedings  in  the  Supreme 
Court  in  its  civil  jurisdiction,  during  the  years  1865, 1869^  and 
1874 :— 


Common  Law — 

Xa  of  Writs  issued  

No.  of  Records  entered  for  trial 

Total  amount  for  which  judgments  signed 
Equity — 

No.  of  Bills  filed 

No.  of  Claims 

No.  of  Petitions 

Testamentary — 

No.  of  Probates 

Amount  sworn  to 

No.  of  Letters  of  Administration 

Amount  sworn  to...        ...        ... 

Matrimonial  Causes  Jurisdiction — 

^  o.  01  v^ascS  ..•        •*•        •.•        •m^ 

Appellate  Jurisdiction — 

No.  of  Special  Cases  from  InsoWeocyj 

v#OU^*         ...  ...  ..•  ...  J 

No.  of  Appeals  fVom  Local  Courts 
No.  of  Writs  of  Certiorari  removing  Judg-^ 
ment  from  Local  Court  ...  / 

No.  of  Writs  of  Habeas  Corpus,  Blnnda- 
muSy  cco....        ...        ...        ... 

No.  of  Special  Cases 

No.  of  Writs  of  Summons 


1865. 

1669. 

710 

610 

51 

61 

£12.530 

£23,444 

18 

33 

9 

— 

25 

23 

1874. 


} 


88 
£277.070 

56 
£16,670 

14 

1 
83 
44 


4 
866 


1 

16 
56 


9 
216 


479 
35 
£19,390 


80 

27 


102  167 

£155  267     £394.180 

55  89 

£88,860    :    £57,680  , 


18 

2 
16 

48 

5 
159 


The  number  of  writs  passing  through  the  SherifiTs  office 
during  the  same  years  was  as  follows : — 


• 

1863. 

1869. 

1871. 

Capias  ad  satis. 

... 

... 

... 

•. . 

... 

17 

31 

25 

Fieri  focias    ... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

36 

85 

18 

Other  writs    ... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

15 

16 

11 

Totals 

... 

... 

..  • 

... 

... 

68 

82 

54 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  insolvencies, 
assignments,  &C.9  and  the  amount  of  liabilities  and  assets 

z  2 


340 


SOUTH  AUSTEAUA. 


specified  in  the  insolvents'  schedules,  also  taken  for  the  same 
interval  of  five  years : — 


Xo.  of  Adjudications  issued — 

On  Pelitioii  of  Creditors 

On  Petition  of  Imprisoned  Debtors 
Of  which,  in  forma  pauverit, . . 
.    On  Petition  of  Debtors  at  large 

JLUUUo  ■*•  •••  •••  •••  ••• 

Amount  of  Liabilities,  as  shown  in  the  In-) 
solvents'  Schedules        / 

Amount  of  Assets,  as  shown  in  the  Insol-i 
vents*  Schedules / 

Amount  of  Deficiency,  as  sho^^n  in  the  In-) 
solvents*  Schedules        / 


1865. 


1869. 


1874. 


12 
39 
38 
58 
109 

1 
13        t 
68 
67 
63 
144        , 

23 
67 
66 
nU 
90 

£117,482 

£75,868 

£54.637 

£69,741 

£31,605 

:  £19.434 

£47,741 

£44,263 

£85,202 

Local  Courts  of  civil  jurisdiction  are  established  in  all  the 
principal  towns  throughout  the  Province,  and  number  forty- 
five.  They  are  arranged  in  circuits,  and  are  presided  over  by 
Stipendiary  Magistrates.  These  courts  adjudicate  in  all  per- 
sonal actions  involving  amounts  up  to  £100,  and  in  actions 
of  ejectment  where  the  land  is  under  the  Real  Property  Act, 
and  does  not  exceed  £100  in  value.  A  Special  and  two 
other  Magistrates,  or  a  Special  Magistrate  and  a  jury  of  four, 
constitute  a  court  of  full  jurisdiction,  and  one  Special  Magis- 
trate a  court  of  limited  jurisdiction.  The  latter  does  not 
adjudicate  on  amounts  above  £20. 

The  following  return  shows  the  number  and  extent  of  pro- 
ceedings in  the  Local  Courts.  The  figures  given  as  amoimt  of 
judgments  obtained  after  hearing  do  not,  of  course,  represent  the 
whole  amount  recovered  fhrough  the  agency  of  these  Courts,  as 
a  considerable  proportion  of  the  claims  are  settled  out  of  Court 
after  issue  of  the  summons,  and  do  not  come  on  for  hearing : — 


CUInu  DMde  in  the  Local 

Number  of  8nm- 
m<mae»  lasued. 

Amoont  of  Claims  soed 
for. 

Judmientt  obtained 
after  Hearing. 

X^QlXTXm  III 

'  1865. 

1869. 

1874. 

1865. 

1869. 

1874. 

1865.      1869.  \    1874. 

Limaed  Jurisdiction^ 
Up  to  X5    ...        ... 

Above  £5  and  up  to  £I0 

„      *I0        ,.         X2i> 

'    FuU  JMritdictim— 

Above  £20  and  up  to  £30 

„      £30          „          £50 

„      £50          .,        £100 

„    £100,  "by  consent" 

3.806 
1,434 
1,014 

• 

303 

327 

248 

2 

5.264 
1,879 
1.318 

610 
468 
373 

1 

6,674 
1,926 
1,318 

607 
369 
280 

£ 

9,056 

10.251 

14,478 

9,388 

12,720 

18,3  «4 

240 

£ 
11,653 
13,184 
19,376 

14,813 

18,281 

29,490 

134 

£ 
14,432 
14,363 
17,985 

12,635 
14,265 
20,508 

2,699 
3,345 
5,120 

3,419 
3,030 
6,416 

3,430 
4,615 
6,703 

5,240 

6,153 

8,789 

206 

3,345 

3,b86 
6,4641 

4,187 
4.809 
4.856 

7,314 

9,943     11,074  1  74,528    104,934 

94,191  1  23,931 

35,138    26,616 

ITS  STATISTICS. 


341 


The  legal  profession  numbers  eighty-five  members;  the 
two  branches  of  barrister  and  attorney  are  united.  A  valuable 
law  library,  containing  about  two  thousand  volumes,  is  attached 
to  the  Supreme  Court. 

The  criminal  records  of  the  Courts  are  calculated  to  convey 
a  favourable  impression  of  the  law-abiding  impulses  of  the 
South  Australian  community,  the  proportion  of  serious  crimes 
being  exceedingly  small.  In  fact,  the  "  criminal  class  "  may 
be  said  to  be  unknown  in  South  Australia.  Following  is  a 
statement  of  the  number  of  convictions  in  the  Supreme  Court 
duryig  the  years  named : — 


Number  of  Felonies — 

Against  the  person 

Against  property 
Total  number  of  Mibdemeanours 

Total    ... 


18S3. 

1869.    i 

1874.    i 

12 

17 

7 

98 

87 

53 

24 

17 

14 

134 

121 

74 

The  annual  number  of  convictions  in  the  Supreme  Court 
has  averaged  during  the  last  three  years  seventy-two,  or  only 
one  in  three  thousand  of  the  population.  During  the  past  ten^ 
years  capital  punishment  has  been  inflicted  in  four  instances — 
amongst  them  one  aborigine  suffered  the  extreme  penalty  of 
the  law. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  cases  of  felony 
and  misdemeanour  preliminarily  investigated  in  the  Police 
Courts,  and  how  they  were  disposed  of — whether  by  committal 
to  the  Supreme  Court,  summary  convictions  under  the  Minor 
Offences  Act,  conviction  of  juvenile  offenders,  or  by  dismissal 
of  cases : — 


How  dispowd  of. 

1865. 

1869. 

1874. 

Committed  to  Supreme  Court 

Committed  to  Local  Court  Full  Jurisdiction        

Conyicted — Minor  Offences  Act 

Convicted — JuvenUe  Offenders        

Cases  dismissed 

197 

79 

155 

237 
61 

207 

150 

150 

22 

132 

JL  om&     ...         ...         ...         ...         ... 

431 

505 

454 

342 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


Abont  one-haK  of  the  commitments  for  trial  in  the  Supreme 
Court  resulted  in  conviction* 

In  addition  to  the  preliminary  investigations  above  referred 
tOy  the  Stipendiary  Magistrates  have  summary  jurisdiction  in 
cases  of  breaches  of  the  provisions  of  Acts  of  Parliament 
where  the  penalty  is  limited  to  fine,  or  to  fine  and  imprison- 
ment. This  class  of  offences  is  principally  composed  of  eases 
of  drunkenness  in  the  streets,  offences  under  the  Police  Act, 
conmion  assaults,  breaches  of  the  Waste  Lands  and  Impounding 
Acts,  the  Merchant  Shipping  and  Marine  Board  Acts,  and 
non-compliance  with  Municipal  bylaws. 

The  following  table  indicates  the  number  of  cases  heard 
and  determined  in  the  years  1865, 1869,  and  1874 : — 


InforroationB  under  Acts  of  OonnoUB,  &c — 

Dismissals 

GonTiotions 
Cininkeni^ess    • 

Dismissals 

ConvictioDs 

Total    ... 


1866. 


1869. 


1874. 


732    I      749    I      688 
2,632    '3,129    ,  3,445 


105  86 

1,530    i  1,540 


55 
1,615 


4,999 


5,803 


Considering  the  increase  of  population  during  the  ten 
years,  the  relative  number  of  convictions,  especially  in  cases 
of  drunkenness,  has  materiaUy  declined. 

LAND  TRANSFER.  LIENS,  MORTGAGES,  ETC. 

The  Statute  known  as  the  Eeal  Property  Act  of  South 
Australia  affords  a  facile  and  convenient  process  by  which  the 
transfer  of  landed  property  may  be  accomplished  in  as  easy 
and  cheap  a  manner  as  any  ordinary  commercial  transaction. 
Where  almost  every  man  is  a  landowner,  or  is  interested  in 
land — either  as  vendor  or  vendee,  lessor  or  lessee,  mortgagor 
or  mortgagee— dealings  in  real  estate  become  a  matter  of 
almost  everyday  occurrence.  It  may  be  said  to  be  quite 
exceptional  for  an  individual  in  South  Australia  not  to  be, 
more  or  less,  personally  interested  in  the  establishment  of  a 
simple  and  inexpensive  method  of  dealing  with  this  description 
oLproperty.    There  can  be  no  question  that  the  operation  t)f- 


ITS  STATISTICS. 


343 


9a]pnpii|  *)3y  jo  uoi^uado 


i3 


I 


oo«otoM<D««oQee«ooo 


S955r?^'9^AakooaooioooM9(B 


PH     e«    M    M    CO    ^    « 


•o<o«o<o«0*»ooao 


'samsoioaioj 


•«1PA1 


*;jaoojogja{uo 


'U08897  iCq  tafiaAooaH 


'P9}|90d 

-ap  **33f  '89aaaia9{«8y 


•DvaAVO  iwJuwpiniM 


'o:^  *siio|90imniux 


"saooaofi 


's^siux  JO  aapipaqos 


'saevaq  jo  uapaaxras 


'nanvj  jo  u^ggoux 


vaouvjqimiaii^ 


'•ao^sttix  JO  soonviiiiiio^ 


'0^  '89«aA«3 


••pwtsqv  w)nwi»i8aH 
■^aoiouY  JO  uaMoj 

'saSeSyoH  JO  BaSjvqosfd 


'saSvSfioj^  JO  uajsmux 


I  1^1  I  I  ^  1  •  *-  2 


lo  e« 


I  I  ^^   ^4   »M      v« 


•a  CO  n 


I   iH   ^4   1^   »M 


e«  e  ^  e«  »«  e«  « 

■H   rM   iH   iH 


l-^^IIIIII-llll 


""   1    I    1    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I 


•^Mi->ciMme«c4eS^e$Se^c« 


^   ^   IH   M   M   F^ 


noo*«<D<D«e?47aM«D2'^M 


>H  PH  ^  e«  o  C9 


iH  F^  »•  «e 


1^  ^  «• 


s;;s;s3s;S8SSSi:SS 


^^•2SS5?ia555SSSS 


•H      IS     i-i 


n   to   *«   fl»    «   n   e» 


S^ 


«e   fl»   «o 


''SS-IIIIIMMIIII 


^     00     ^     *<• 


n 


I      i     I     1      i     I     I     I     I     I      I     i      i      I     I      I 


-".  '^'^^•ssssssasasacS 


■»     ^  9*         m         m     ^M         ik 
^^                 ^^      ^m      r^      mH       vm 


«*;:§S55$SSS58gSg 


M 


o6dd<«Mo^e«(» 


*sag«a^ 


•Hei^io^»ot«o^e<Dm*oAia««isra 


*8aSt9)i0]( 


*uaj0atMx 


*^§lsS^^-^^^ 


s  i  i  8  5  8  I  s  s  I  s  H  I 


*«nontK>ncIclY 


S030lOlOOpMt«smr.|lOt«^«M<«^0 
e»90^e»8l«en<5*>^ap«fc«F4At* 
r4nio**aoe«««e|*«««eaoeiaemM 

=L=L=LrL_=Le<L  ^^  cf  c?  pf  ef  3* 

aoMao'«e«'«'« 

•^OOAC^Oiei^rM 


eoo*«ao(Ot««0*«»« 


i 
i 


ese»e<)i^aoooc>>^^oaoaD«Mc<»M» 

^•o  3 

•-• 

1858 

1859 

•  ■«••     ••••••••••* 

•  •■••     ••••••••>•■ 

•  ■«•■••••••••••• 

344 


SOUTH  AUSTBALIA. 


the  measure  has  been  highly  advantageous  to  the  community  ; 
and  as  considerable  interest  is  attached  to  the  working  of  so 
important  a  reform,  a  detailed  statement  is  given  of  the  trans- 
actions of  the  office  in  each  year  since  its  establishment  in 
1858.  (See  page  343.)  The  total  value  of  the  lands  brought 
under  the  operation  of  this  law  amounts  to  nearly  ten  millions 
sterling. 

An  Assurance  Fund  in  connection  with  the  Act  was  esta- 
blished with  a  view  of  meeting  claims  for  compensation  on  the 
part  of  any  person  who,  through  error  or  fraud,  might  suffer 
from  the  carrying  out  of  the  principles  of  absolute  inde- 
feasibility  of  title.  This  fund  is  derived  from  a  contribution 
of  one  halfpenny  in  the  pound  levied  on  all  property  brought 
under  the  operation  of  the  Act;  it  now  amounts  to  over 
£30,000,  and  is  invested  in  Government  securities.  The  claims 
on  the  fund  have  reached  £308  up  to  the  present  time. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  number  and  amount  of 
liens,  mortgages,  and  other  securities  for  advances  of  money 
registered  during  the  years  mentioned  : — 


Tears. 

McHtgages  on  Land. 

Mortgages  on  Stock. 

Liens  on  Wool. 

Bills  Of  Sale,  kc 

* 

looo     ««• 

No. 
3,262 

£ 
1,033,422 

No. 
91 

£ 
266,031 

No. 
22 

£ 
51,072 

No. 
158 

£ 

130,153 

1871     ... 

1,922 

920,891 

161 

116,b76 

36 

82,613 

259 

67. 4M 

18t6     ... 

2,627 

1,289,636 

163 

264,608 

41 

65.043 

268 

168.194 

Of  the  total  amount  of  mortgages  on  land  registered  last 
year,  £997,775 — or  three-fourths  of  the  whole — were  advances 
upon  land  under  the  operation  of  the  Real  Property  Act. 


KEVENIIE  AND  EXPENDITURR 

The  finances  of  the  Colony  of  South  Australia  have  never 
been  in  a  more  prosperous  condition  than  at  present.  The 
returns  of  receipts  from  all  sources  of  revenue  indicate  the 
steady  progress  and  growth  of  the  community,  and  there  is  a 
tone  of  elasticity  which  promises  well  for  the  future. 

The  General  Revenue  for  the  year  ended  31st  December 


ITS  STATISTICS. 


345 


1875  amounted  to  £1,143,312  5«.  lOd.,  to  which  must  be 
added  the  balance  to  credit  at  the  commencement  of  the  year, 
£92,677  28.  2d.,  making  a  total  income  of  £1,235,989  88. 

The  Total  Expenditure  by  the  Government  during  the 
same  period  was  £1,176,412  188.  lOd.,  leaving  a  balance  at  the 
end  of  the  twelve  months  of  £59,576  9«.  2d. 

The  Public  Loan  Account  is  kept  distinct  from  that  of  the 
General  Eevenue. 

The  receipts  of  the  year  amounted  to  five  pounds  twelve 
shillings  per  head  of  the  population.  The  amount  of  revenue 
contributed  through  the  Customs — the  only  source  of  general 
taxation — was  thirty-three  shillings  per  head,  an  amount  lower 
than  the  rate  of  taxation  in  the  Mother  Country,  or  in  any  of 
the  other  Australian  Colonies. 

The  following  table  gives  the  amount  of  revenue  derived 
under  the  several  heads  of  receipt : — 


Heads  of  Receipt. 


Customs  ...        ... 

Marine  

Rents,  &c.,  crown  luniU 

Rents — ordinary        

Licences — business 

•  Postages  and  telegmpbs       .,. 
Fines,  fees,  and  forfeitures   ... 
Sales  of  Government  property 
Reimbursements  in  aid 

MisoellAneous 

Interest  and  exoliange 
Railways  and  tramways 
Waterworks 

Land  sales  (F'T^^       ,v;    ,   • 
*^«M«  o«ic^  \  Interest  on  credit  tales 

Immigration    ... 


»• 


£ 

339,103 

9,237 

85,744 

1,120 

13,920 

78,818 

27,582 

437 

11,991 

4,561 

2,762 

183,095 

30,895 

177,530 

112,038 

4,473 

£1,143,312 


In  young  communities  the  general  Government  has  neces- 
sarily imposed  upon  it  functions  and  duties  from  which,  in 
more  advanced  conditions  of  society,  the  State  is  exempt  The 
construction  of  railways,  waterworks,  telegraphs,  roads,  public 
buildings,  &c.  must,  if  entered  into  at  all,  be  undertaken  at 
the  public  cost.  Moreover,  such  works  must,  in  common  pru- 
dence>  be  constructed  on  a  scale  in  advance  of  the  actual 


346 


SOUTH  AUSTEALIA. 


requirements  of  the  moment.  In  South  Australia  such  ex- 
penditure forms  a  large  proportion  of  the  whole,  will  benefit 
future  generations  equally  with  the  present,  and  must  not  be 
regarded  as  ordinary  current  cost  of  Grovernment. 

The  subjoined  table  shows  the  expenditure,  specified  under 
the  respective  heads  of  service  for  which  it  was  incurred : — 


Heads  of  Expenditube. 


Civil  litt         

The  legislature  

Civil  establishments 

Judicial  and  legal  deportments 

A^oxioe    •«•  •••         •••         ••• 

Gaols  and  prisons       

Education        

Charitable  institutions 

Military  defences       

Postal  and  telegraph  serviced 
Customs  ...        ... 

Harbours  and  lights  ... 

Public  works 

Hallways  and  tramways 

Waterworks 

Survey  and  crown  lands 
Retiring  allowances,  &c. 
Interest  and  ezchauge 

Miscellaneous 

Immig^tion    ... 

Intert-st  on  loans  for  public  works 

Redemption  of  ditto 


•  •  • 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 
t  •  • 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 


•  •  • 

•  •  • 


£ 
1«,900 
10,803 
36,035 
81,059 
50,245 
12,337 
42,636 
54,042 
882 

132,744 
11,577 
16,498 

247,940 

177,456 
18,117 
87,466 
9,919 
4,838 
58,894 
27,139 

142,476 
34,400 

£1,176,412 


The  payments  may  be  summarised  as  follows : — The  ordinary 
expenses  of  Government  (including  judicial  and  legal  depart- 
ments, police,  gaols,  prisons,  &g.)  amount  to  £262,000,  or 
twenty-five  shillings  per  head  of  the  population,  being  eight 
shillings  less  than  the  taxation ;  £43,000  is  devoted  to  educa- 
tion ;  £54,000  to  charitable  institutions ;  and  £328,000  is 
required  for  the  service  of  reproductive  works.  Among  these 
latter,  railways  require  £177,000,  the  receipts  from  that  source 
being  £183,000.  The  waterworks  take  £18,000,  and  the  re- 
ceipts therefrom  are  £31,000.  The  post  and  telegraph  services 
absorb  £132,000,  and  the  revenue  contributed  by  them  is 
£78,000.  The  interest  on  the  bonded  debt  amounts  to 
£142,000,  averaging  fourteen  shillings  per  head  of  the  popu- 


.   ITS  STATISTICS.  347 

lation ;  but  an  amount  very  much  larger  than  this  is  annually 
saved  by  the  reduced  cost  of  carriage  and  other  facilities 
afforded  to  the  public  by  the  works  constructed  out  of  the 
loans  upon  which  this  interest  accrues.  The  cost  of  the  sur- 
vey and  management  of  Crown  lands  was  last  year  £37,000 ; 
and  £27,000  was  devoted  to  the  introduction  of  immigrants. 

The  expenditure  on  public  works  and  in  reduction  of  loans 
amounted  to  £282,000,  being  105,000  more  than  the  sum  re- 
ceived during  the  year  from  the  proceeds  of  the  sales  of  waste 
lands.  The  Crown  lands  being  the  capital  of  the  Colony,  it  is 
important  to  note  that  not  only  were  the  receipts  derived  from 
their  sale  devoted  intact  to  improving  the  public  estate,  but  a 
sum  equal  to  one-third  more,  derived  from  the  general  revenue, 
was  also  expended  in  the  same  direction. 

LOANS  FOR  PUBLIC  WORKS. 

Legislative  sanction  has  been  accorded  from  time  to  time 
for  the  raising  of  moneys  by  way  of  loan  for  the  prosecution  of 
reproductive  public  works,  such  as  railways,  tramways,  water-  ^ 
works,  telegraphs,  harbour  improvements,  and  other  public 
purposes.  The  following  return  shows  the  amount  of  Public 
Debt  outstanding  on  31st  December  1875  for  each  of  the 
several  Public  Works,  and  the  total  rate  of  indebtedness  per 
head  of  the  population,  and  for  each  undertaking : — 


Public  Debt. 

■ 

Amoant. 

Rale  per 
Hetid. 

£ 

£   s,    d. 

Railways     

...       1,381,600 

6  11     0 

Tramways   ... 

131,500 

0  12     0 

Waterworks            

511,600 

2     8    6 

Telegraphs  ... 

378,400 

1  16    0 

Har&urs  and  lights 

828,000 

1  12    0 

Roads           ...        ..• 

236,000 

12     0 

Public  puiposes      

Northern  Territory 

168,500 

0  16     0 

185,000 

0  17    6 

Total        £3,320,600        £15  15    0 

If  it  be  asked  what  the  Colony  has  to  show  in  the  shape 
of  permanent  improvements,  it  may  be  answered  that  there  are 
three  hundred  and  forty  miles  of  railway.     The  city,  J)ort,  and 


348  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA. 

suburbs  of  Adelaide,  with  sixty  thousand  residents,  have  an 
abundant  and  constant  water  supply.  Harbours  have  been 
deepened  and  improved,  and  navigation  rendered  easy  by  an 
almost  perfect  system  of  lighthouses.  Eighteen  hundred  miles 
of  macadamised  roads  are  in  effective  order,  and  the  Province 
is  traversed  from  north  to  south  and  from  east  to  west  by  tele- 
graphs, over  five  thousand  miles  in  length,  bringing  us  into 
instantaneous  communication  with  the  whole  world. 

The  earlier  loans  were  issued  bearing  six  per  cent,  interest, 
but  those  of  late  years  bear  four  per  cent.  only.  The  present 
price  of  South  Australian  four  per  cents  is  95J.  Interest  and 
redemption  is  payable  in  London  on  1st  January  and  1st  July 
in  each  year.  The  currency  of  the  bonds  is  generaUy  thirty 
years.  Eedemptions  to  the  amount  of  £678,400  have  been 
made  since  the  first  issue  of  bonds  in  1854. 

BANKING. 

Six  banking  institutions  carry  on  business  within  the 
Province,  namely,  the  Bank  of  South  Australia,  Bank  of 
Australasia,  Union  Bank  of  Australia,  National  Bank  of 
Australasia,  English,  Scottish,  and  Australian  Chartered  Bank, 
and  Bank  of  Adelaide,  all  of  which  have  establishments  in  the 
principal  seaports  and  inland  townships,  numbering  altogether 
sixty-four  branches  and  agencies.  Quarterly  general  abstracts 
are  published  of  the  average  amount  of  liabilities  and  assets 
of  the  several  Banks,  taken  from  their  weekly  statements,  and 
they  comprise  in  each  case  a  return  of  the  notes  and  bills  in 
circulation,  the  balances  due  to  other  Banks,  and  deposits  with 
and  without  interest.  The  total  average  liabilities  of  the  six 
Banks  amount  to  £3,278,121,  and  the  total  average  assets  to 
£5,157,868.  The  following  table  shows  the  total  average 
assets  and  liabilities  of  all  the  Banks  taken  for  the  last 
quarter  of  each  of  the  years  mentioned : — 

1861.  1866.  1871.  1876. 

£  £  £  £ 

LiBbilities     ...     l,024,6fJ6        1,715,395        1,802,634        8,278,121 
Assets. 1,869,068        3,620,062        3,524,412        5,157,868 


ITS  STATISTICS. 


349 


The  annexed  statement  shows  the  position  of  each  Bank  as 
set  forth  in  the  quarterly  return  of  December  1875  : — 


I 


^  11 «  » 


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C|J       #•      ^      #^      ^      #«      #»  #s 

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ITS  STATISTICS. 


349 


The  annexed  statement  shows  the  position  of  each  Bank  as 
set  forth  in  the  quarterly  return  of  December  1875  : — 


I 


^%        #«      •••       #^       •« 


(M 


04 

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—  *H  Q  CO  ^  -^ 


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350 


SOUTH  AUSTEALIA. 


From  the  above  it  appears  that  the  amonnt  of  coin,  bullion, 
and  Government  securities  held  was  eleven  per  cent,  of  the 
assets ;  and  the  liabilities  amounted  to  sixty-three  per  cent,  of 
the  assets. 

The  rate  of  interest  allowed  to  depositors  by  the  several 
Banks  during  the  past  year  varied  as  follows  : — 

Interest  on  fixed  deposits,  at  30  days*  notice,  at  £3  10«.  to  £5. 

for  three  months,  and  at  30  days'  notice,  £8  lOt .  to  £5. 
for  six  months,  £4  to  £5. 
for  twelve  months,  £4  lOs.  to  £5. 
Special  arrangements  for  particular  lodgments. 


ti 


w 


»» 


The  course  of  exchange  was  as  follows  : — 


On  drafts  issued  during  1875 — 

On  London,  at  CO  days'  sight 1st  quarter,  1 

2nd      „       ] 
3rd       „       1 
4th       „       \ 

per  cent,  premium. 

On  neighbouring  Oulonies,  at  sight,  1st  quarter,  },  },  ] 

2nd      „        }.  J,  ] 
Srd       „        i,  J,  ] 
4th       „        1,  1,  ] 

L  per  cent  premium. 

I         n 

On  private  bills  purchased  during  1875— 

On  London,  at  60  days'  sight 1st  quarter,  ] 

2nd      „       ] 
Srd       „       ] 
4th       „       { 

per  cent  discount. 

"^       >»             »»    , 

On  neighbooring  Colonies,  at  sight    ...  Ist  quarter,  j,  \ 

2nd       „      i,  \ 
,Srd       „      g,  i 
4th        „      ij,  \ 

per  cent,  discount. 
>»             >» 

>•                 n 
»»                »» 

The  present  (1875)  rate  of  discount  on  local  bills  is — 
Under  65  days,  8  per  cent. ;  65  to  95  days,  8  per  cent. ;  95  to 
125  days,  9  to  10  per  cent. ;  and  over  125  days,  10  per  cent. 


SAVINGS  BANKS. 

As  evidencing  the  power  of  accumulation  and  thrifty  habits 
of  the  industrial  classes,  it  is  only  necessary  to  refer  to  the 
progress  of  one  of  the  most  popular  of  our  local  institutions — 
the  Savings  Bank  of  South  Australia.  It  was  established  in 
1848,  incorporated  by  Act  of  Parliament,  and  is  managed  by  a 
Board  of  Trustees  appointed  by  the  Governor.  In  addition  to 
the  Head  OflBce,  there  are  agencies  established  in  thirty  of  the 


\ 


i 


ITS  STATISTICS. 


351 


principal  townships  throughout  the  Colony,  in  connection  with 
Telegraph  and  Money  Order  Offices.  Deposits  are  received  in 
sums  from  One  Shilling  up  to  £500 ;  but  interest  is  only 
allowed  up  to  £250.  The  rate  of  interest  paid  is  now  five 
pounds  per  cent  per  annum.  The  following  statement  shows 
the  operations  and  progress  of  the  instittttion,  at  intervals,  and 
gives  a  fair  index  of  the  position  of  the  working  classes  who 
most  largely  avail  themselves  of  the  facilities  afforded  by  the 
bank  for  the  safe  investment  of  small  sums  at  a  fair  rate  of 
interest 


Tears. 


1848 
1851 
1856 
1861 
1866 
1871 
1875 


Number  of 

Amount 

Amomit 

Depoidtors. 

depudted. 

withdrAwn. 

1 
1 

£ 

£ 

214 

6,473 

1,180 

732 

15,224 

12  761 

1,469 

29,328 

27,142 

3,248 

65,373 

37,627 

7,679 

124,427 

147,524 

14,270 

287,053 

1     191,161 

1      22,662 

1 

419,914 

398,686 

Amount  of 
DepoHltoiV 
Balancet. 


Total 
Funds. 


£ 

5,313 

14,340 

52,775 

121,414 

249,829 

490,844 

816,827 


£ 

5,414 

14,785 

57,060 

181,590 

266,700 

516,999 

845,276 


The  total  number  of  depositors  last  year  was  22,662,  the 
average  sum  at  the  credit  of  each  being  thirty-six  pounds. 
The  total  deposits  of  the  year  amounted  to  £420,000,  and  the 
total  funds  of  the  institution  to  £845,276,  invested  chiefly  in 
Government  securities  (£291,334)  and  on  mortgage  of  free- 
hold property  (£239,711).  The  Keserve  Fund  amounts  to 
£28,448.  In  South  Australia,  the  depositors  in  Savings  Banks 
are  one  in  ten  of  the  population,  in  New  South  Wales  one  in 
twenty,  and  in  Victoria  one  in  thirty. 


LAND  AND  ITS  OCCUPATION. 

Excluding  that  portion  of  the  Province  known  as  the 
Northern  Territory,  the  total  area  of  South  Australia  is  about 
383,328  square  miles,  or  245,329,920  acres.  It  may  be  roughly 
estimated  that  not  more  than  250,000  square  miles  are  at  present 
put  to  profitable  use.  Agricultural  settlement  has  not  extended 
150  miles  from  the  coast,  and  pastoral  occupation  may  be  said 
to  have  reached  no  farther  than  500  miles,  although  squatters 


352  SOUTH  AUSTBALTA. 

have  lately  taken  up  large  areas  of  land '  discovered  by  recent 
explorations  (lying  chiefly  on  the  route  of  the  overland  tele- 
graph), and  which  are  considered  capable  of  carrying  stock. 
Twenty-six  counties  have  been  proclaimed  up  to  date, 
embracing  40,967  square  miles,  or  26,218,880  acres.  Of 
this  large  area,  only  6,283,881  acres  have  been  alienated 
from  the  Crown,  amounting,  nevertheless,  to  thirty  acres 
for  every  man,  woman,  and  child  in  the  Colony,  or  one 
hundred  and  twenty  acres  for  each  male  adult.  About  one 
in  every  five  acres  of  the  alienated  land  is  under  tillage ;  the 
jremainder  is  used  for  pastoral  purposes  only.  All  land  is 
surveyed  by  the  Government  prior  to  sale,  and  is  divided  into 
farms  of  extent  varying  from  eighty  to  six  hundred  and  forty 
acres,  the  necessary  reserves  being  made  for  railways,  public 
highways,  watering  of  stock,  &c.  This  land  is  thrown  open  for 
selection  in  large  quantities,  from  50,000  to  100,000  acres 
being  put  up  at  one  time.  At  present  there  is  as  much  as  half 
a  million  of  acres  of  land  surveyed  and  open  for  immediate 
selection.  The  total  area  of  land  held  for  pastoral  purposes 
beyond  the  boundaries  of  the  counties  mentioned  is  estimated 
to  be  188,000  ^square  miles. 

The  table  on  page  353  shows  the  names  of  counties,  their 
area,  the  quantity  of  land  sold,  and  the  acreage  surveyed  and 
open  for  selection. 

At  the  close  of  1875,  of  the  total  area  of  land  alienated 
from  the  Crown,  namely  6,283,881  acres,  4,634,549  acres  had 
been  purchased  in  fee  simple  for  cash,  and  1,649,332  acres 
under  the  system  of  deferred  payments.  The  demand  for 
land  during  the  pcist  twelvemonths  was  very  great,  being 
more  considerable  than  in  any  previous  year,  amounting  to 
686,050  acres,  as  compared  with  424,130  acres  in  1874.  Of 
this  quantity,  130,079  acres  have  been  sold  for  cash,  realizing 
£175,067 ;  555,971  acres  were  taken  up  by  selectors  who 
agreed  to  pay  on  the  expiry  of  their  term  of  credit  £764,140, 
paying  a  deposit  of  £76,423,  which  is  treated  as  interest  during 
the  term  of  agreement.  With  regard  to  the  130,079  acres  of 
land  sold  for  cash  during  the  year,  which,  as  has  been  stated, 
realized  £175,067,  it  will  be  understood  that  351  acres  were 


I';i,i;::; 


ITS  STATISTICS. 


353 


town  lands,  averaging  £33  an  acre,  or  £13  per  acre  more  than 
the  price  realized  for  town  lands  in  the  previous  year ;  that 
6,701  acres  were  suburban  lands  which  realized  an  average 
price  of  £2  17s.  per  acre,  and  the  remainder  was  country  land, 
the  average  price  of  which  (where  the  land — namely,  28,337 
acres — ^was  sold  outright  at  a  fixed  price)  was  £1  Os.  IJd.,  or 


COTJXTIES. 


Adelaide 

Gawler 

Light 

Stanley 

Victoria 

Kimberley 

Dalhousie 

FergU88on 

Paly... 

Frome 

Hindmarsh 

Sturt... 

Kyre... 

Burra 

Young 

Hamley 

Alfred 

Albert 

KuBsell 

Buckingham 

Card  well 

MacDonnell 

Robe... 

<Trey... 

Flinders 

Carnarvon 


Total... 
Pastoral  Districts 


Grand  Total 


Area 
in  Square 


1.161 
979 
848 
1.420 
1,527 
1,440 
1.220 
2,000 
1,236 
1.404 
1.032 
1,343 
1.340 
1.767 
2,015 
2.135 
1.855 
2.136 
1,542 
1.612 
1.856 
1,944 
2,028 
2,347 
1.100 
1,680 


Area  in  Acres. 


743.040 

626,560 

542,720 

908,800 

977.280 

921,600 

780.800 

1.280.000 

791.040 

898,560 

660,480 

859.520 

857.600 

1.130,880 

1,289.600 

1.366,400 

1,187,200 

1,367,040 

986,880 

1.031,680 

1.187.840 

1.244.160 

1,297,920 

1,502,080 

704.000 

1.075.200 


Purchased 

Land  to  31  at 

December 

lb75. 


Extent  of 

Land 

held  by 

Freeholders. 


Acrea. 
594,369 
438.667 
518.183 
773,300 
603,793 

39.793 
206.789 
.304.424 
283,684 
269.384 
340.788 
337,443 
245,403 
M7,473 
690 
80 


313.010 

220,731 

372.598 

433,863 

178,464 

1.737 

41,061 

147,142 

62,016 

19.481 

207.311 

212.209 

138,203 

151,950 

320 

80 


1,765 

1,735 

157,498 

86.097 

34,616 

2.198 

1,234 

794 

119,885 

52,824 

236,922 

239,552 

453.418 

368,221 

100,979 

67,663 

2,884 

4,062 

40.967  26,218,880  6,283,414  3,323,322 

2,238      352 


40,967     26.218,880 


6,285.652  3,323,674 


Land  open 

for 
Selection. 


Acres. 

1,220 

27,652 

198 

29,873 

5,128 

9.414 
22,845 
77,635 
68,112 
39,363 
38,362 
87.653 
61,796 

2,279 


16,693 
829 

15,165 

9,286 

11,352 

44,873 


569,728 


569,728 


1  Jrf.  per  acre  above  the  upset  price  of  one  pound.  86,784  of 
the  acres  which  have  been  sold  on  credit,  and  the  purchase  of 
which  is  now  completed,  realized  £1  4s.  Id.  an  acre,  or  4s.  Id. 
above  the  upset  price  of  one  pound. 

Turning  to  the  sales  of  Crown  lands  on  credit  during  the 
year  1875,   and   which  have  been  stated  as  amounting  to 

2  A 


354  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

555,971  acres,  516,640  acres  were  selected  by  agriculturists 
who  entered  into  an  agreement  to  reside  upon  the  land  either 
personally  or  by  a  servant,  and  to  carry  out  the  necessary 
conditions  of  improvement  and  cultivation,  agreeing  to  pay 
on  the  average  £1  7a.  6d.  per  acre  at  the  termination  of  their 
agreement,  when  they  would  become  entitled  to  the  fee  simple 
of  the  land.  Selections  which  had  been  taken  up  previously, 
and  had  been  forfeited  either  voluntarily  or  by  reason  of 
neglect  in  carrying  out  the  requirements  of  the  Act,  were 
re-selected  to  the  extent  of  25,387  acres,  and  the  average 
price  agreed  to  be  paid  by  the  new  holders  was  £1  10a.  8d. 
per  acre. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  acres  sold  on 
credit  since  the  introduction  of  the  existing  land  system  and 
the  aggregate  amount  to  be  paid  on  the  termination  of  the 


agreements : — 

Area  In  Acres. 

Amount 

1871 

289,892 

£872.536 

1872 

299,957 

397,284 

1873 

279.512 

435,485 

1874 

852,166 

596096 

1875 

555,971 

764.140 

Total  ...     1,777.498   _    £2.565,544 

The  total  quantity  of  land  taken  up  during  the  five  years 
since  the  Act  has  been  in  operation  is  1,777,498  acres,  for  which 
£2,565,544  was  agreed  to  be  paid.  Of  this  amount,  £2,406,251 
still  remains  on  credit  awaiting  the  termination  of  the  agree- 
ments. 

The  following  are  the  principal  provisions  of  the  Land  Act 
of  1872 : — "  All  waste  lands,  other  than  township  and  sub- 
urban, have  a  fixed  value  put  upon  them  by  the  Commissioner 
of  Crown  Lands,  not  less  than  £1  per  acre.  In  improved  or 
reclaimed  lands  the  cost  per  acre  of  the  improvements  and 
reclamation  is  added  to  the  upset  price  of  £1  per  acre. 
Those  lands  which  have  been  open  for  selection,  or  which  have 
been  oficred  at  auction,  and  neither  selected  nor  sold,  may  at 
the  end  of  five  years  be  oficred  for  sale  in  blocks  of  not  more 
than  3000  acres,  on  lease  for  ten  years,  at  an  annual  rental  of 
not  less  than  6d,  per  acre,  with  a  right  of  purchase  at  any  time 
during  the  currency  of  the  lease  at  £1  per  acre. 


w 


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m 


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■'V  '■    :  1    .H,  ' 

if 

:|^: 

:'!;!!) 

'''^r; 

i 

if 

y 


ITS  STATISTICS.  355 

"When  any  lands  are  declared  open  for  selection,  by 
proclamation  in  the  Government  Gazette,  at  a  fixed  price,  a  day 
is  appointed  for  receiving  applications  for  sections,  not  to 
exceed  in  the  aggregate  640  acres,  or  one  square  mile.  The 
person  making  the  application  shall  pay  at  the  time  a  deposit 
of  ten  per  cent,  on  the  fixed  price,  which  sum  sh^ll  be  taken 
as  payment  of  three  years'  interest  in  advance  upon  the 
purchase  money.  If  the  price  of  the  land  is  £100,  the  selector 
would  have  to  pay  a  deposit  of  £10,  which  will  be  all  he  will 
be  required  to  pay  the  Government  for  three  years — about 
three  and  three-quarters  per  cent,  per  annum.  At  the  end  of 
three  years  he  will  have  to  pay  another  ten  per  cent.,  which 
will  also  be  received  as  interest  for  the  next  three  years.  If  at 
the  end  of  six  years  he  is  not  prepared  to  pay  the  whole  of  the 
purchase  money,  he  can  obtain  other  four  years'  credit  on 
payment  of  half  the  purchase  money,  and  interest  in  advance 
on  the  other  half,  at  the  rate  of  four  per  cent,  per  annum. 
Lands  which  have  been  open  for  selection  two  years,  and  not 
taken  up,  may  be  purchased  for  cash.  The  scrub  lands  may 
also  be  taken  up  on  very  favourable  terms,  on  long  leases. 

"  A  credit  selector  may  reside  on  his  land  either  personally 
or  by  substitute.  The  personal  resident,  however,  has  advan- 
tages which  he  who  resides  by  deputy  has  not.  In  cases  of 
simultaneous  applications  for  the  same  block,  the  personal 
resident  has  the  preference  over  the  other ;  and  at  the  end  of 
five  years,  the  selector  who  has  resided  on  the  land  and  made 
all  the  required  improvements  and  complied  with  all  the  con- 
ditions may,  by  paying  his  purchase  money,  obtain  the  fee 
simple  of  his  selection.  The  selector  who  occupies  by  sub- 
stitute cannot  get  the  freehold  until  the  end  of  six  years. 

"  Purchasers  upon  credit  will  be  required  to  reside,  either 
personally  or  by  deputy,  upon  the  land  at  least  nine  months 
in  the  year;  and  absence  for  any  longer  time  than  three 
months  in  one  year  renders  the  agreement  liable  to  forfeiture. 

"  The  credit  purchaser  will  be  required  to  make  substantial 
improvements  upon  the  land  before  the  end  of  the  second 
year,  to  the  extent  of  5«.  per  acre ;  before  the  end  of  the 
third  year.  Is,  6d,  per  acre ;  before  the  end  of  the  fourth  year, 

2  A  2 


356  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

10«.  per  acre.  *  Sach  improvements  to  consist  of  all  or  any 
of  the  following,  that  is  to  say : — Erecting  a  dwelling-house 
or  farm  building,  sinking  wells,  constructing  water  tanks  or 
reservoirs,  putting  up  fencing,  draining,  or  clearing  or  grubbing 
the  said  land.'    The  fences  must  be  of  a  substantial  character. 

"  The  credit  purchaser  is  required,  during  each  year  until 
the  purchase  money  is  jmid  off.  to  plough  and  have  under 
cultivation  at  least  one-fifth  of  the  land ;  but  in  the  event  of 
his  not  cultivating  this  quantity  during  the  first  year,  he  will 
be  required  to  cultivate  two-fifths  during  the  second  year." 

The  diagram  A  (opposite)  shows  at  a  glance  the  progress 
made  in  settlement  and  agriculture  during  the  last  twenty-five 
years. 

AGBICULTUBK 

Where  over  four-tenths  of  the  male  population  of  a 
community  are  engaged  in  farming  pursuits,  the  necessity  for 
collecting  authentic  information  regarding  the  progress  of 
agriculture  is  sufficiently  apparent.  For  many  years  past  the 
annual  statistics  collected  on  this  subject  have  afforded  a  mass 
of  records  the  value  of  which  every  year  becomes  greater. 

The  Special  Commissioner  of  the  Crown  Colonies  at  the 
Vienna  Exhibition  (Mr.  William  Bobinson,  now  Governor  of 
the  Bahamas),  in  reporting  to  the  Imperial  Government, 
said  : — "  Of  all  the  British  Colonies,  South  Australia  exhibits 
the  most  striking  picture  at  present  of  farming  industry,  and 
on  the  whole  seems  to  be  the  place  where,  good  as  the 
labourer's  condition  may  be  elsewhere,  he  has,  by  prudence 
and  industry,  the  best  chance  of  rising  in  the  social  scale,  and 
becoming  in  his  turn  the  employer  of  labour,"  and  further, 
"  the  yeomanry  who  have  found  a  home  in  South  Australia, 
and  who  are  at  once  tillers  of  the  soil  and  employers  of  labour, 
are  more  than  any  one  class  the  real  bone  and  sinew  of  the 
Colony;  and  the  industry  which  has  so  widely  covered  the 
land  with  farms,  homesteads,  tillage,  and  fencing  of  every 
description,  has  probably  never  been  equalled  in  its  result  in 
any  British  Colony  in  the  same  number  of  years  by  the  same 
amount  of  population.  It  is  by  the  spread  of  agriculture  that 
the  greatest  amount  of  industrial  prosperity  has  been  created. 


A. 

ADELAIDE,    SOUTH    AUSTEALIA. 


ACBBB  BOU)^  =  =  =    At 
—    QUAHUTZ  or  WHEAT  BUFBD  [qoutni]  ->*--! 


358 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


and  the  real  settlement  of  the  country  most  effectually  accom- 
plished." An  analysis  of  the  statistics  of  the  last  fifteen 
years  abundantly  proves  the  soundness  of  His  Excellency's 
judgment. 

The  area  of  land  alienated  in  South  Australia  is  6,283,881 
acres,  or  120  acres  for  each  male  adult.  Of  this  area,  1,330,484 
acres  are  under  cultivation,  showing  a  result  of  one  in  every 
4*3  acres  of  purchased  land  to  be  under  tillage.  There  are  six 
acres  and  a  half  of  cultivated  land  for  each  individual  of  the 
population,  equal  to  twenty-eight  acres  for  each  adult  male,  or 
sixty  acres  for  each  person  returned  at  the  last  census  as 
engaged  on  farms.  The  following  table  exhibits  very  clearly 
the  operation  of  the  new  land  system,  as  regards  settlement 
and  cultivation,  since  its  inauguration  in  1871 : — 


Couotks. 

Adelaide     ... 

Gawler 

Light 

•  •  • 

Stanley 
Victoria 

»  •  • 
•  •  • 

Kimberley  ... 

•  •  • 

Dalhousie  ... 

»  •  • 

Fergusaon  ... 

•  •  • 

Daly 

Frome 

Hindmarsh... 

•  •  • 

Start 

Eyre 

Burra 

•  ■  ■ 

Hamley 

I  •  • 

Albert 

Bussell 

Baokingham 

•  •  • 

Cardwell    ... 

MacDonnell 

Bobe 

Grey        ■   ... 

Flinders     ... 

Carnarvon  ... 

Pastoral  Districts . 

Total     ... 

•  • 

Acres  under  Cultivation. 


1871-2, 

1872-3. 

177,808 

171,615 

179,192 

197,193 

262,. 526 

264,624 

155,580 

l»i7,502 

20,263 

79,539 

— 

9H1 

1,894 

6,796 

10,731 

24,869 

43,231 

542 

507 

73,911 

63,926 

34,221 

37,782 

27,937 

37,585 

18,103 

19,865 

6 

5 

1 

— 

9.234 

11,503 

94 

463 

229 

1.50 

4,163 

5, .535 

6,922 

7,676 

36,548 

36,612 

4,427 

4,612 

1,0.56 

993 

228 

372 

1873-4. 


lt<74-«. 


181,360 

159,755 

248,400 

125,421 

5,697 


1.412 
15.335 
764 
77,585 
40,107 
27,648 
11,445 
2 

7,946 

99 

262 

2.922 

5,924 

41,1.58 

4,240 

1.045 

479 


959,006  1,044,6.56  1,164,846  1,225,073  1,330,484 


169,378 

165,850 

193.002 

199,158 

251,951 

245.491 

162,160 

167.715 

116,981 

154,494 

2,054 

7,760 

8.569 

29,497 

25.789 

38.744 

43,156 

68,246 

6,247 

16,268 

61,153 

54.942 

43.679 

35.767 

37,853 

45.790 

23,981 

24.943 

16 

14 

12,686 

13.591 

1,682 

2.763 

131 

290 

5,767 

4.936 

8,537 

8,573 

44,684 

40.313 

4,637 

4,903 

759 

772 

221 

164 

About  two-thirds  of  the  total  area  cultivated  is  cropped 
with  wheat,  of  which  cereal  839,638  acres  were  reaped  last 


rV 


ITS  STATISTICS. 


859 


year,  yielding  an  aggregate  of  9,862,693  bushels,  the  largest 
quantity  yet  produced  in  the  Colony.  The  crop  was  a  fair 
average  one,  of  excellent  quality,  and,  considering  the  scarcity 
of  farm  labour,  was  safely  and  early  secured.  It  is  important 
to  note  that,  whilst  the  area  of  wheat  grown  has  increased  more 
than  one  hundred  per  cent,  during  the  last  ten  years,  the 
population  has  only  increased  thirty  per  cent. 

The  harvest  now  being  gathered  is  expected  to  produce 
twelve  million  bushels,  which  will  permit  of  an  export  of  over 
230,000  tons  of  bread-stuffs,  after  providing  for  home  require- 
ments. 

Annexed  is  a. statement  showing  the  total  area  of  land 
under  cultivation,  the  acreage  under  wheat,  the  gross  produce 
of  the  harvest,  and  the  average  yield  per  acre  at  intervals  of 
five  years : — 


Seasoiis. 

Acres 

Acres  ntkler 

Produce, 

Average  per 

Cultivtaed. 

Wheat. 

Wheat. 

Acre. 

Bushels. 

Bush.    lbs. 

1860-61 

428,816 

273,672 

3,576,593 

13         4 

1865-6 

660,569 

410,608 

!  3,587.800 

8      44 

1870-71 

959.006 

604,761 

6,961,164 

11       30 

1874-5 

1,830,484 

889,638 

9,862,693 

11       45 

With  regard  to  the  comparatively  low  average  yield  above 
shown,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  in  judging  of  the  relative 
productiveness  of  the  soil  of  South  Australia  as  compared  with 
that  of  other  countries,  that  a  great  portion  of  the  land  has  been 
sown  with  wheat  continuously  for  many  successive  years  without 
manure  or  rest,  and,  being  in  the  hands  of  small  proprietors, 
has  received  only  the  minimum  of  cultivation.  This,  of  course, 
tends  to  reduce  the  general  average;  but  there  are  many 
districts  where  farming  is  carried  on  on  a  large  scale,  and  with 
proper  appliances,  where  the  yield  of  this  cereal  is  from  ten  to 
fifteen  bushels  per  acre  beyond  the  average  shown  above. 

As  evidence  of  the  high  quality  of  the  South  Australian 
grain,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  prize  wheat  exhibited  at 
the  Agricultural  Shows  during  the  past  ten  years  has  averaged 
68  lbs.  weight  to  the  Imperial  bushel. 

In  1865-6  there  were  423,881  acres  under  grain,  viz.  wheat, 


360 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


barley,  oats,  and  peas,  and  in  1874-5  there  were  860,475  acres  ; 
so  that  within  the  period  specified  the  acreage  so  occupied  was 
more  than  doubled. 

Under  other  crops,  flax,  hay,  potatoes,  orchard,  garden,  vine- 
yard, and  fallow  land,  there  were  229,182  acres  in  1865-6,  and 
442,933  in  1874-5,  or  nearly  double.  The  total  quantity  under 
cultivation  at  the  earlier  date  was  660,569,  and  at  the  later, 
1,330,484,  or  more  than  double  the  acreage.  The  extent  of 
land  now  under  hay  cultivation  is  160,931,  and  of  fallow-land, 
264,327  acres.  In  1858,  only  eighteen  years  after  the  Province 
was  founded,  there  were  89,945  acres  of  land  under  wheat 
culture ;  in  1865-6,  there  were  410,608 ;  and  in  1874-5,  no  less 
than  839,638  acres. 

The  following  table  shows  the  extent  of  land  under  cultiva- 
tion, and  each  description  of  crop,  at  quinquennial  intervals 
since  1860-61 :— 


Cfiors. 


^or  Grain — 

Wheat  

Barley  

v/ats      •••  ...        ... 

xcno         ...  ...  ... 

For  Green  Forage — 

Wheat,  Barley,  Oats,  &c. 

Sorghum  

Lucerne  

Permanent  A rtificial  Grasses. . . 
Flax 

Other  Crops 
Hay 
Potatoes 
Orchard 
Garden 
Vineyard 
Fallow  Land 

Totals 


A 

icres  under  Cut 

avation  In  Yet 
1870-71. 

ire 

1860-61. 

1865-6. 

\       1874-5. 

1 

273,672 

410,608 

604,761 

1 

839,638 

11,336 

9,362 

22,912 

!       13,724 

2,273 

2,872 

6,188 

'        2,785 

•  •  •                     ^^— • 

I 

969 

3,719 

4,328 

2,174 

2,514 

2,600 

3,117 

116 

230 

1,726 

1,424 

3,445 

6,699 

ses...           1,836 

3,408 

3,712 

19,260 

1 

186 

274 

584 

1,272 

829 

434 

55,818 

101,996 

140,316 

160,931 

2,348 

2,775 

3,376 

4,582 

2,147 

2,554 

2,763 

3,077 

3,910 

3,919 

4,345 

4,257 

...  1        3,180 

6,629 

6,131 

5,051 

... 

67,696 

110,037 

153,723 

264,327 

•  «  • 

428,816 

660,569 

959,006 

1,330,484 

Vine  culture  is  an  important  and  progressive  industry. 
There  are  5050  acres  of  land  devoted  to  this  purpose,  the  total 
number  of  vines  being  5,155,988,  of  which  4,874,507  are  in 


ITS  STATISTICS.  361 

bearing.  The  produce  of  these  vineyards  for  the  year  ended 
March  1875  was  648,186  gallons  of  wine,  about  one  hundred 
and  thirty  gallons  per  acre. 

The  suitability  of  the  soil  and  climate  of  South  Australia 
to  the  growth  of  wine  was  soon  discovered  by  the  early  settlers, 
some  of  whom  had  brought  from  Europe  a  variety  of  high  class 
vine  cuttings.  The  slopes  of  the  hills  produce  wines  of  a  full- 
bodied  character  similar  to  those  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  whilst 
those  made  in  the  more  elevated  districts  resemble  the  lighter 
wines  of  the  Khine.  Whilst  the  local  demand  is  fully  supplied 
at  very  cheap  rates,  a  considerable  export  trade  in  wines  of  a 
higher  character  is  carried  on,  and  which  might  be  increased 
to  a  great  extent  but  for  obstructive  fiscal  laws.  Whilst  the 
lower  class  wines  of  the  Continent  are  admitted  to  the  ports  of 
the  Mother  Country  at  a  Tm'niTmiTti  rate  of  duty,  the  Customs 
dues  charged  upon  superior  wines  from  Australia  are  so  high 
as  to  be  almost  prohibitory. 

That  the  wines  of  South  Australia  are,  as  a  rule,  of  a 
high  character  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  they  have  always 
been  awarded  prizes  at  the  several  Great  International 
Exhibitions. 

The  introduction  of  flax-growing  into  the  ordinary  routine 
of  farm  operations,  has  been  followed  by  considerable  success. 
The  prices  realized  for  this  commodity  in  the  European  markets 
have  been  very  encouraging. 

Considerable  attention  has  also  been  paid  to  the  manufacture 
of  preserved  fruits,  and  the  drying  of  raisins  and  currants.  This 
branch  of  industry  is  rapidly  progressing,  and,  whilst  it  now  goes 
far  to  supply  local  requirements,  will  probably  soon  develop 
into  an  export  trade. 

Almond  trees  are  of  rapid  growth,  and  large  quantities  of 
a  superior  description  of  soft-shell  almond  are  gathered  yearly 
for  home  consumption  and  for  shipment. 

South  Australia  possesses  all  the  conditions  requisite  for  the 
successful  and  profitable  culture  of  the  olive.  This  tree,  like 
the  vine,  was  early  introduced  into  the  Colony,  and  its  growth 
and  productiveness  have  been  so  remarkable  that  large  planta- 
tions have  been  established  and  stocked  with  the  best  Con* 


362  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

tinental  varieties.  Olive  oil  of  the  most  delicate  character  has 
been  expressed,  and  gained  awards  at  the  various  Exhibitions. 
Its  purity  and  general  superiority  over  the  imported  article  of 
commerce  has  acquired  for  it  a  first  position  in  the  market. 
The  produce  of  the  plantations  is  eagerly  purchased  by  persons 
who  have  entered  upon  the"  business  of  the  manufacture  of  oil. 
It  may  be  stated,  as  showing  the  importance  which  is  attached 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  olive,  as  of  the  mulberry  (of  which 
several  plantations  of  the  most  suitable  kinds  exist  for  the 
development  of  sericulture),  the  almond,  vine,  orange,  fig,  and 
hop,  that  the  land  laws  provide  that  the  planting  and  cultiva- 
tion of  one  acre  of  land  with  any  of  these  trees  shall  be 
equivalent  to  the  cultivation  of  six  acres  of  cereals. 

Orchards,  gardens,  and  vineyards  abound,  and,  in  short,  the 
variety  and  excellence  of  the  fruits  and  vegetables  produced  in 
the  Colony  cannot  be  surpassed.  The  climate  and  soil  enables 
the  productions  of  temperate  and  tropical  regions  to  be  cultivated 
almost  side  by  side,  and  throughout  the  year ;  and  offers  an 
unlimited  field  of  profitable  occupation  in  connection  with 
ordinary  farming  pursuits. 

PASTORAL  OCCUPATION. 

Notwithstanding  the  large  area  of  land  lately  alienated  from 
the  Crown,  and  the  extension  of  agricultural  operations,  the 
acreage  of  land  taken  up  for  squatting  purposes  and  the  increase 
in  the  number  of  flocks  and  herds  have  been  very  considerable. 
All  descriptions  of  stock,  whether  horses,  cattle,  or  sheep,  have 
thriven  and  increased  rapidly. 

Of  late  years  the  enclosure  and  sub-division  of  runs  (enabling 
the  sheep  to  roam  at  wiU  during  the  whole  year)  has  been  found 
to  produce  greatly  improved  residts,  both  as  regards  the  quality 
of  the  stock  and  of  the  wool.  Large  numbers  of  sheep  are 
owned  by  settlers,  who  advantageously  combine  sheep-farming 
with  agriculture. 

Some  conception  of  the  growth  of  the  pastoral  interest  may 
be  formed  from  the  fact  that,  whilst  in  1851  the  total  area  of 
land  leased  from  the  Crown  for  pastoral  purposes  was  15,000 
square  miles,  at  the  present  time  there  are  no  less  than  200,000 


.    ITS  STATISTICS.  363 

square  miles  in  occupation.  During  the  same  period  the 
number  of  horses  has  increased  from  6500  to  93,000 ;  of  homed 
cattle  from  75,000  to  185,000 ;  and  of  shsep  from  1,000,000  to 
over  6,000,000,  whilst  the  exports  of  wool  haye  increased  from 
4000  to  118,000  bales. 

The  following  table  shows  the  progressive  increase  in  horses, 
cattle,  and  sheep,  at  each  quinquennial  period  between  1856 
and  1875 :— 


Years.  Horses.  C«ttle.         ,         Sheep. 


1856 

22,260 

272,746 

1,962,460 

1861   , 

62,597 

265,434 

3,038,356 

1866 

70,829 

123,820 

3,911,610 

1871 

78,125 

143,463 

4,412,055 

1875 

93,122 

185,342 

6,120,211 

With  reference  to  the  slight  comparative  increase  in  cattle 
it  should  be  noted  that  more  profitable  results  are  found  to 
accrue  from  the  breeding  of  sheep  than  from  great  cattle.  The 
latter  pursuit  is  more  extensively  followed  in  the  neighbouring 
colonies. 

During  the  last  ten  years,  the  average  price  of  first-class  fat 
bullocks  has  averaged  £14  10s.,  and  of  first-class  fat  wethers, 
15s.  per  head. 

The  enclosure  of  the  sheep  runs,  the  formation  of  dams  and 
reservoirs  in  which  large  bodies  of  water  can  be  stored,  and  the 
sinking  of  wells,  are  the  most  important  improvements  required, 
and  are  those  to  which  the  greatest  attention  is  now  being 
paid.  By  these  means  an  immense  area  of  land  has  been 
opened  up,  and  stocked  with  both  sheep  and  cattle. 

Almost  limitless  tracts  of  country  bordering  on  the  trans- 
continental telegraph  line,  as  well  as  land  laid  open  by  recent 
explorations,  are  awaiting  pastoral  occupation. 

MANUFACTURES. 

A  few  years  ago,  flour  mills  and  tanneries  were  almost  the 
only  representatives  of  local  manufactures ;  whilst  these  have 
largely  increased  in  number  and  eflSciency,  many  important 


364  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

additions  have  been  made  to  the  list.  The  following  is  a 
statement  of  the  more  important ;  some  are  conducted  on  an 
extensive  scale,  and,  from  the  constantly  increasing  number  of 
hands  employed,  manufacturing  industry  generally  would 
appear  to  be  in  a  highly  flourishing  state.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  most  of  the  industries  mentioned  have  their  raw  material 
at  hand  in  the  produce  of  the  country,  and  are  for  that  reason 
much  more  likely  to  be  permanent  in  their  character. 

Milling  is  a  very  important  branch  of  trade,  over  seventy- 
five  thousand  tons  of  flour  having  been  exported  during  the 
past  year.  There  are  eighty-five  steam  flour  mills  in  the  Pro- 
vince, with  1500  horse-power,  driving  275  pairs  of  stones. 

Four  meat-preserving  establishments  are  in  operation,  and 
there  are  eight^boiling-down  works. 

Sixty  tanneries  and  fellmongeries,  and  several  large  wool- 
washing  works,  are  distributed  throughout  the  country;  ten 
soap  and  candle  factories ;  five  bone-dust  mills ;  and  two  glue 
and  size  works. 

Thirty-one  steam  saw  mills,  twenty-seven  foundries,  eighty- 
six  agricultural  implement  works  (chiefly  for  reaping  and 
winnowing  machines),  and  twenty-nine  coach  and  waggon 
builders'  shops  are  in  active  work. 

In  addition  to  five  patent  slips,  there  are  eight  ship  and 
twelve  boat  building  yards. 

Several  marble  and  sixteen  slate  quarries  of  excellent 
quality,  and  over  one  hundred  building-stone  quarries,  have 
been  opened,  of  which  latter  nineteen  are  free-stone,  a  superior 
description  being  largely  used  in  public  and  private  buildings. 
There  are  seventy  brickyards  in  operation  (including  six  for 
fire-bricks),  sixty  limekilns,  and  seven  potteries  and  tile  and 
pipe  works. 

The  gasworks  of  the  Colony  are  eight  in  number,  of  which 
two  are  for  the  supply  of  the  City  of  Adelaide  and  suburbs, 
one  is  at  Port  Adelaide,  and  the  remaining  five  are  in  the  prin- 
cipal country  towns. 

Besides  one  woollen  tweed  factory,  there  are  six  clothing 
factories,  four  hat  factories,  twelve  boot  and  shoe  factories, 


.     ITS  STATISTICS.  365 

and  four  dye  works.  There  are  ttlso  three  flax  mills,  three 
rope  walks,  and  two  brush  manufactories  at  work. 

There  are  twenty-nine  breweries ;  thirty  soda-water  and 
cordial  factories  ;  one  hundred  and  two  wine-making  establish- 
ments ;  ten  biscuit  bakeries ;  ten  jam  and  preserve  "and  seven 
confectionery  manufactories ;  six  dried  fruit  and  three  olive- 
oil  factories,  and  one  ice-work. 

Among  other  miscellaneous  local  productions  and  manu- 
factures, are  the  following : — Barilla,  billiard  table,  baking 
powder,  blacking,  cayenne  pepper,  cement,  cigars,  fibre,,  glass 
bottles,  plaster  of  Paris,  washing  machines,  sauces  and  pickles, 
salt,  safety  fuze,  gas  stoves,  iron  safes,  bedsteads,  galvanized 
iron  and  tin  ware. 

IMPORT  AND  EXPORT  TRADE. 

The  expansion  of  commerce  and  the  development  of  the 
material  resources  of  South  Australia  are  clearly  exhibited  in 
the  returns  under  the  above  head.  Although  able,  as  large 
agricultural  and  pastoral  producers,  to  supply  ourselves  with 
the  greater  portion  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  we  are  dependent 
upon  Great  Britain  and  foreign  markets  for  a  considerable 
number  of  articles  which  enter  into  general  consumption. 

The  total  value  of  the  imports  and  exports  to  and  from 
each  country,  exhibiting  the  balance  of  trade,  is  shown  in  the 
subjoined  table.  The  combined  import  and  export  trade  of 
1875  amounted  to  £9,000,000  sterling,  of  which  £4,200,000  were 
imports,  and  £4,800,000  exports,  showing  a  balance  in  favour 
of  South  Australia  of  £600,000.  The  total  external  trade 
averaged  £45  per  head  of  the  population,  or  £175  for  each 
adult  male.  The  imports  amounted  to  £20  per  head  of  the 
population,  and  the  exports  to  £24 ;  or,  taking  the  adult  male 
population  as  the  basis  of  the  calculation,  the  imports  amounted 
to  £80,  and  the  exports  to  £96,  or  an  excess  of  exports  over 
imports  of  £16  per  adult  male. 


866 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


Countries 

• 

— 

ImporU. 

■EzporU. 

Ei  cess  of 
Imports. 

Kxoesfinf 
Exports. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

Great  Britain 

2,881.673 

2,612,817 

— 

231,143 

Victoria 

822,660 

852,715 

-^^ 

30,054 

New  South  Wales 

477.147 

689,115 

211,967 

Western  Australia 

86.847 

62,372 

—. 

26,025 

New  Zealand 

9,406 

44,115 

— 

34,709 

Queensland  ... 

22,888 

216,800 

-^ 

198,912 

Tasmania     ... 

* 

40,272 

2.794 

87,478 

— 

India 

36.969 

30.679 

6.289 

Ceylon 

3,972 

4.187 

— 

215 

Cape  Colony... 

1,133 

137,018 

— 

135,885 

Natal... 

5.653 

44,445 

38,792 

Mauritius     ... 

95,743 

38,782 

57,011 

— 

Singapore     ... 

5.226 

241 

4.984 

— 

Hong  Kong  ... 

28,379 

40 

28,339 

— 

Canada 

•  •  • 

21.687 

— . 

21,687 

— 

United  States 

28.502 

— 

28,502 

New  Caledonia 

^ 

81 

46,315 

46,284 

China 

82,933 

9 

82,924 

_ 

Sweden  and  Norwoy 

63,068 

— 

63.068 

-* 

V  a  va  ...        ... 

•  ■  ■ 

40,061 

19.583 

20.477 

— 

Brazil 

•  ■  ■ 

— 

3,000 

— 

3,000 

France 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

•  •• 

70 

70 

Total     ... 

,    £4,203,802 

£4,805,051 

£350,761 

,  £952,010 

Of  the  total  imports,  £4,203,802  in  value,  more;  than  one- 
half,  viz.  £2,381,673,  came  from  the  United  Kingdom,  £882,660 
from  Victoria,  £477,147  from  New  South  Wales,  £214,645  from 
Foreign  States,  and  the  remainder  from  various  British  pos- 
sessions. 

Of  the  total  exports,  £4,805,051  value,  products  represent- 
ing £2,612,817  were  exported  to  the  Mother  Country,  £852,715 
to  Victoria,  £689,115  to  New  South  Wales,  £68,977  to 
Foreign  States,  and  the  remainder  to  other  British  possessions. 

The  following  table  shows  the  total  imports  and  exports 
for  the  years  stated  : — 

Import  and  Expobt  Trade. 


Years. 

'         Total. 

Import!!. 

Exports. 

1 

1851 
1856 
1861 
1866 
1871 
1875 

£ 
1,292,864 
3,032.269 
4,008,329 
5,693,879 
5,740,419 
9,008,853 

£ 
690,777 
1,366,529 
1.976,018 
2,835,142 
2,158,022 
4,203,802 

£ 
602,087 
1.665.740 
2,032,811 
2,858,737 
3.582,397 
4,805.051     . 

ITS  STATISTICS. 


367 


Since  1851,  the  commerce  of  the  Colony  has  increased 
seven-fold,  from  £1,292,864  to  £9,008,853  sterling.  This  is 
clearly  shown  in  Diagram  B  (page  368).  The  last  five  yeara 
have  shown  a  rapid  espansion,  trade  having  increased  from 
£5,740,419  to  £9,008,853,  or  by  sixty  per  cent. 

The  following  table  shows  for  each  of  the  past  ten  years  the 
total  import  and  export  trade,  the  total  imports  showing  the 
home  consumption  and  re-exportations ;  also,  the  total  exports, 
distingnishing  those  of  the  produce  of  the  Colony,  and  showing 
the  balances  of  produce  exported  over  imports  consumed : — 


Ym«. 

Import  fllKll       TuUl            far  Home 

B>U>na 

"I-"-.  ^^'    ct'i^;.  £^ 

IB*' 

4|t<*:is]  ■   alow.'iw     ilisaleos 
t.ut.no      3,isa,<i2]      i.Bss.sse 

.;«0,m       a.MlU)!        J.MJ.J33 
MM,»W  1     a, Ml, 101        3,6SI,ie3 

s.'oobIbm      «|ao3;itoj      sIsmImi 

itoliBS      : 

3I4|C3«  1     ; 

3M.MI  ^     1 

MS, 131       3,«3*,I13  1         la.SM 
1M.8M        i.IJJ.MS  1       MB, MS 
»)3!l>31       3.           39  '       UellM 
H»'m?  ■     3            •!   '   1  Ml'Jw 

T3a|«i3  .    3^        er      'isfllsu 

Mt.SSe       *,           flS          I»B,«3» 

bobIobi  :   <;       00       toilm 

In  order  farther  to  illustrate  the  description  of  our  external 
trade,  the  following  statements  are  appended,  showing  respec- 
tively the  quantities  or  values  of  the  chief  articles  imported 
and  exported  in  the  five  years  ending  with  1874 : — 

Imports— Chief  Abticues,  1870-1874, 


1614. 

l.«. 

lala 

.«.. 

.B>0. 

11,383 

a,wa 

l.a.« 

1.461 

131, Ml 

B. 

ADELAIDE,    SOUTH    AUSTRALIA. 

'DlAGRAH   SHOWIKO   TBI  FOPCLATIOy,   SHIPPING,   ExpOBTS,   lUrOBTe,  A 

IiTFOST  AND  Export  Trade. 


ooxBnrxD  ntPOBi  asd  bzfo&t  tuti  t 


ITS  STATISTICS. 


369 


Imports — Chief  Articles,  1870-1874  (continued). 


Implements  and  tools,  value  (£)  ... 
Jewellery,  pUie,  and  i^ied  goodii,  do. 
Maltt  centals...        ...        ...        ... 

Oil— Sperm  and  other  fixh  oils,  gallons 

Linseed,  rape,  hemp,  &c,     do. 

Mineral  and  other  oils,         do. 
Potatoes,  tcms  ...        

Saddlery  and  harness,  value  (£)  ... 
Sewtng  machines,          do. 
Spirits— Brandy,  gallons    

Rum,        do. 

Qin,  do.        ... 

Whisky,  do.        

OU^ns*  vWv*      •••  •••  •••  ••• 

A  Cwli«    I^Ua  •••  «••  •••  ••• 

Tin— Block,  value  (£)       

Tobacco,  lbs. ...        ...        ...        ... 

CiKars,    do.   ...        ...        ...        ... 

Wine,  gallons 

Wood— Palings.  No.  

Sawn,  hewn,  ftc,  loads 


■ 

1874. 

1873. 

1872. 

1871. 

1870. 

•  •• 

40,130 

36.719 

23,180 

29,128 

17.403 

■  •• 

39,177 

30,670 

21,425 

15,624 

11.367 

•  ■• 

28,341 

36,392 

22.585 

29,773 

24,616 

•  •• 

6,883 

12,698 

6.116 

li,692 

8,693 

•  •• 

80.173 

79,616 

72.742 

54.966 

33,234 

•  •• 

332,230 

237,137 

210.322 

222.456 

167.460 

••• 

1,413 

5,022 

2.591 

4,774 

4,717 

•  •• 

294 

488 

310 

2&7 

260 

••• 

20,406 

19,223 

16,951 

11.395 

7,804 

•  •• 

16.205 

18,186 

12.998 

— 

— 

••• 

116.013 

83,215 

87,148 

54.787 

32,990 

•  •• 

42,941 

25,804 

29,63« 

27,128 

29,634 

•  •• 

18,568 

21,408 

13,560 

15,283 

16.245 

•  •• 

24,407 

20,596 

11,615 

12.403 

13,416 

•  •• 

159.277 

141.262 

135.227 

116.556 

59.501 

••• 

1,699,708 

1,678,325 

1,025,667 

1,221,848 

854,887 

•  «• 

15,279 

25,433 

14,895 

8,037 

5.628 

•  •• 

400,623 

379,507 

277,454 

241.820 

331.012 

•  •  • 

21,129 

23,275 

14,944 

13,748 

.      lf(,715 

...  1       45,956 

34,H»1 

31,616 

22,966 

17. 6U 

...  il.566,327 

1,687.764 

1,098,914 

840.635 

461,315 

•  •• 

22,504 

29,970 

16,450 

11.889 

16.976 

Exports— Chief  Articles,  1870-1874. 


•  •• 

••• 

••• 

1874. 

1873. 

1872. 

1871. 

1870. 

Animals— Horses,  No. 

42 

74 

80 

162 

273 

Sheep,    do. 

•  •• 

•  •• 

... 

1,385 

1,049 

1,017 

430 

62 

Bacon  and  Hams,  cwt. 

•  »■ 

••• 

••• 

35 

30 

143 

29 

10 

Bark,  tons    

•  •• 

••• 

■•• 

2,650 

4,580 

7,850 

6,073 

5,431 

Bones,  do.     

•  •• 

••• 

••• 

195 

210 

880 

217 

520 

Beer,  galls. 

•  •• 

•  •« 

•  •• 

37,710 

30,564 

21.257 

23,746 

21,930 

Bisculto,  cwt 

••• 

••• 

••• 

862 

1,084 

496 

335 

233 

Batter  and  cheese,  cwt 

•■• 

••• 

••■ 

1,206 

615 

1,564 

565 

202 

Com— Flour,  tons 

•  •• 

■•• 

... 

58,635 

57,171 

38,319 

46,841 

27,371 

Barley,  bushels 

■•■ 

»•• 

••• 

6,678 

3,658 

20,904 

28,152 

19,672 

Bran  and  pollard. 

tons 

•  •• 

••• 

2,461 

1,477 

2,220 

3,816 

2,167 

Wheat,  bu«heU 

«•• 

•  •• 

•  •• 

1,538.464 

3337,616 

1,261.424 

2.520.432 

376,632 

Dmpery,  value  (£) 

••• 

•  ■• 

•  •• 

33,839 

29,890 

26,605 

19,687 

31,320 

Eggs,           do. 
ru&  (dried),  cwt    ... 

•  •• 

••• 

... 

7,987 

8,158 

7,965 

8,701 

8,4«>6 

•  •• 

••• 

•■• 

701 

277 

509 

676 

823 

Fruit  ((tesb),  value  (£) 
I>rled,  cwt    ... 

•  •• 

••• 

■•• 

3.768 

3,329 

3,3H5 

2,292 

2,970 

••• 

••• 

••• 

610 

1,600 

1.590 

1,325 

822 

Groceries,  value  (£) 

•  •• 

••• 

•  •• 

1,199 

2,962 

6,439 

9,832 

9,575 

Gum.  cwt    ...        ... 

••• 

■•• 

•  •■ 

995 

476 

851 

555 

5,415 

Hay,  tons     

•  •• 

•■• 

••• 

198 

162 

663 

297 

258 

Hides  and  sUns,  value  (£) 

••• 

••• 

16,139 

10,593 

13,472 

8,798 

4,266 

Honey,  cwt 

••• 

••• 

4 

201 

34 

131 

46 

Hops,  lbs.     ...        ... 

••• 

••• 

21,105 

» 

— 

— 

^ 

Jam.  value  (£) 

••• 

••• 

3,216 

5,969 

5,570 

4,176 

7,396 

Leather,           cwt. 

••• 

•  •• 

958 

1,329 

3,327 

4,508 

2,884 

Mvtal— Copper,  do. 

•  •• 

••• 

132.587 

141,744 

149,050 

127,911 

109,211 

Ore— Copper,  tons 
Preserved  roeat»,  cwt. 

••• 
••• 

••• 
••• 

22,854 
11,248 

27,382 
13,943 

26,964 
12,526 

20,127 
10,000 

20,886 
4,885 

Salt  tons      

••• 

••• 

80 

184 

277 

70 

214 

Soap,    cwt 

•  •• 

•  •• 

1,533 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Sugar,    do. 

•■• 

•  •« 

917 

4,162 

15,126 

5,015 

1.790 

Tallow,  do. 

••• 

■•• 

25,670 

40,106 

33,700 

63,328 

30,142 

Tea,  lbs.       ... 

••• 

••• 

21,238 

46,648 

135,038 

69,597 

123,798 

Tobacco,  lbs. 

■•• 

••• 

40,509 

80,518 

42,826 

57,752 

77,631 

Wax,  cwt    

•«• 

••• 

60 

173 

41 

126 

51 

Wool,  do.      

••« 

••• 

39,844,024 

35,973,434 

34,650.631 

32,656.427 

26,218,244 

Wins— South  Australian 

,  pdlons 

••■ 

59.174 

46,400 

44,910 

21,788 

50,085 

Foreign, 

do. 

••• 

5,586 

543 

2,768 

3,101 

3,394 

Spirits— Bruidy. 

do. 

•  •■ 

10,657 

8,140 

9,913 

7,590 

15.619 

Ofai, 

do. 

••• 

1,644 

331 

539 

381 

1,213 

Rum, 

do. 

•  *• 

2.305 

2,023 

2,429 

1,826 

4,98U 

Whisky, 

do. 

■  •• 

1.537 

1             970 

682 

732 

960 

2  B 


370  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

STAPLE  PBODUCTa 

It  will  be  necessary,  however,  to  refer  more  particularly  to 
the  chief  sources  of  the  material  wealth  of  the  country,  which 
may  1be  classified  under  the  heads  of  agricultural,  pastoral,  and 
mining  produce.  The  following  abstract  shows  the  progress 
made  in  the  exports  of  staple  products  from  1851  to  the  present 
time,  stated  at  intervals  of  five  years : — 

Staple  Pboducb  Exports. 


Y«r». 

1 

ToUL 

BmdfttnfTB. 

Wool. 

Mlnerali. 

£ 

£ 

£ 

£ 

1851 

1        540,962 

73,359 

148,036 

310,916 

1856 

1     1,398,867 

556,371 

412,163 

408,042 

1861 

1,838,639 

712,789 

623,007 

452,172 

1866 

2,539,723 

645,401 

990,173 

824,501 

1871 

'    3,289,861 

1,253,429 

1,170  ,'885 

648,569 

1875 

4,442,100 

1,680,996 

1,833,519 

762,386 

From  the  foregoing  statement,  it  appears  that  out  of 
£4,442,100  worth  of  staple  produce,  the  value  of  breadstuffs 
amounted  to  £1,680,996,  or  thirty-six  per  cent,  of  the  whole ; 
that  wool  represented  £1,833,519,  or  forty-two  per  cent. ;  and 
copper  £762,386,  or  twenty-eight  per  cent.;  the  balance  of 
£165,199,  or  four  per  cent.,  being  miscellaneous  products. 

Beeadstuffs. — The  exports  of  wheat,  flour,  and  other  bread- 
stuffs,  constitute  thirty-six  per  cent,  of  the  total  exports  of 
South  Australian  produce,  and  have  increased  from  a  total 
value  of  £73,000  in  1851  to  £1,680,000  in  1875.  The  exports 
of  breadstuffs  during  the  last  twelve  months  were  as  follows : — 
Flour,  76,209  tons,  value  £819,395 ;  wheat,  479,882  quarters, 
value  £831,266 ;  and  bran  and  pollard,  5,512  tons,  valued  at 
£27,888,  or  together  a  total  of  £1,678,549  sterling. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  remarkable  development  of 
this  the  most  important  branch  of  local  industry.  Giving  the 
quantities  exported  will  prove  more  useful  than  a  statement 
merely  showing  the  value,  and  furnish  a  more  correct  basis 
upon  which  to  estimate  the  extent  of  substantial  progress  made 
by  the  agriculturists  during  the  past  decade : — 


ITS  STATISTICS. 


371 


Years. 


Flour. 


Bran  and  Pollard. 


Wheat. 


Quantity. 


Value.      '  Quantity. 


Value.        Quantity. 


Value. 


Tons. 

1866 

30,496 

1867 

43,703 

1868 

23,591 

1869 

38,653 

1870 

27,371 

1871 

46,842 

1872 

38,319 

1873 

57,170  i 

1874 

58,635  1 

1875 

76,209  ' 

£ 
498,924 
498,222 
405,982 
495,589 
354,012 
594,482 
510,826 
737,160 
783,489 
819,395 


Tons. 

2,5ro 

3,274 
1,787 
2,847 
2,167 
3,816 
2,220 
1,477 
2,461 
5,512 


£ 

Qrs. 

18,517 

46,756 

14,549  i 

301,543 

10,841 

55,876 

15,303  , 

195,031 

12,210 

47,079 

14,495 

315,054 

9,525 

157,678 

7,906 

479,702 

15,563 

192,308 

27,888 

479,882 

£ 
126,601 
521,690 
148,603 
371,221 
99,600 
639,348 
338,890 
965,577 
428,753 
831,266 


The  total  exports  of  colonial  produce  in  breadstuflfs  and 
grain  during  the  period  referred  to  was— of  flour,  440,989 
tons,  of  the  value  of  £5,698,081 ;  of  wheat,  2,270,909  quarters, 
of  the  value  of  £4,466,549 ;  and  of  bran  and  pollard,  28,121 
tons,  of  the  value  of  £146,797.  Diagram  C  (page  372)  shows 
the  prices  of  wheat  at  Port  Adelaide  in  each  month  during 
the  past  ten  years. 

The  quality  of  South  Australian  wheat  and  flour  is  of  such 
excellence  as  to  command  the  highest  price  in  the  markets  of 
the  world.  The  great  bulk  of  the  crop  is  shipped  to  the 
United  Kingdom,  the  daily  fluctuations  in  whose  markets  are 
made  known  here  by  telegram.  New  South  Wales,  Queensland, 
Cape  Town,  Mauritius,  New  Caledonia,  and  several  Eastern 
ports  also  receive  considerable  consignments  of  South  Austra- 
lian flour. 

The  harvest  of  1875-6 — now  in  course  of  being  garnered — 
is  expected  to  yield  230,000  tons  of  breadstuff's  beyond  local 
requirements  for  food  and  j3eed ;  or  an  excess,  available  for 
export,  of  the  value  of  two  and  a  quarter  millions  sterling. 

Wool. — -That  pastoral  pursuits  are  being  conducted  with 
great  success  in  South  Australia  is  illustrated  by  the  state- 
ment furnished  on  page  370,  showing  the  export  of  wool  during 
the  last  ten  years. 

It  will  be  remarked  that  the  export  of  wool  has  increased 
fifty  per  cent,  during  the  past  five  years,  and  doubled  during 
the  decade.     The  total  value  of  South  Australian  wool  shipped 

2  B  2 


(t 


8| 


€■ 


ITS  STATISTICS. 

in  1856  was  £412,163 ;  in  1866,  £990,173 ;  and  i 
reached  £1,833,519  sterling. 


1870 
1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 


S.A.W«L      OttetWaol. 


19,739.523 
19,360,195 
29,899.190 
27.022,671 
21,169.256 
31,250,677 
33,709,717 
32,967,911 


3,28 


61,977 
66,395 
86.913 


3.910.111 

2.019,028  I     87,391 

1.105,750  97.532 

9*0,914  100,017 

3.005.193  105,!i06 

35,593,805   I  1,250,219  <  111315 

1,785,125  I  126,011} 


1,141311 
1.316.32:{ 
1,128,568 
1,000,311 

1,350,689 


The  aggregate  number  of  bales  shipped  last  year  was 
126,046,  as  against  87,394  in  1870,  and  61,977  in  1866. 

Considering  the  vast  extent  of  available  territory  at  present 
unoccupied  in  South  Australia,  there  would  appear  to  he  little 
doubt  that  the  extraordinary  progress  already  made  in  the 
production  of  wool  will  steadily  continue.  The  excellent 
quality  of  the  staple,  the  great  suitability  of  the  climate,  giving 
almost  complete  immunity  from  scab,  fluke,  and  other  diseases 
peculiar  to  sheep,  taken  together  with  the  security  of  tenure 
enjoyed  by  the  pastoral  lessees,  conduce  to  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  this  profitable  industry. 

COPPEB. — South  Australia  owes  no  little  of  its  prosperity  to 
the  employment  of  a  large  number  of  its  people,  directly  and 
indirectly,  in  the  working  of  her  copper  mines,  several  of 
which,  whilst  supporting  a  very  considerable  section  of  the 
colonists,  have  been  exceedingly  profitable  to  the  proprietors. 
The  principal  mines  are  the  Burra,  the  Wallaroo,  and  the 
Moonta.  From  the  first  of  these,  215,000  tons  of  ore  were  raised 
during  31  years  ftom  the  commencemeut  of  operations,  pro- 
ducing four  millions  sterling.  The  total  amount  expended  by 
the  company  was  £1,982,000,  of  which  £1,568,000  represented 
wages,  the  gross  profits  being  £882,000.  Since  the  opening  of 
the  Wallaroo  Mioes,  the  total  quantity  of  ore  raised  therefrom 
has  been  290,000  tons,  and  the  average  of  the  past  five  years  has 


374 


SOUTH  AUSTKALIA. 


been  26,000  tons.  The  Moonta  mines  were  discovered  in  1861, 
since  which  year  255,000  tons  of  ore  have  been  raised,  realizing 
£2,760,000.  A  profit  of  £928,000  has  been  divided  amongst 
the  shareholders  of  this  magnificent  property. 

In  1844,  shortly  after  the  discovery  of  copper  in  South 
Australia,  the  total  value  of  the  minerals,  exported  was  £6436 ; 
in  1851  it  reached  to  £310,916;  in  1861  it  amounted  to 
£454,172 ;  in  1871,  to  £648,569  ;  and  in  1875,  to  £762,386. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  steady  productiveness  of 
South  Australian  mines,  distinguishes  the  quantity  of  fine 
copper  shipped  from  the  quantity  of  ore  exported  in  its  crude 
state,  and  gives  the  estimated  value  of  each. 


Ynrs. 

FIneC 

'■    '^   "-  ~ 

'  Owt. 

1866 

129,272 

1867 

156,863 

1868 

104,227 

1869 

92,788 

1870 

109,421 

1871 

127,911 

1872 

149,050 

1873 

141,744 

1874 

132,587 

1875 

136,835 

Copper  Ore. 


£    ' 

Tons. 

£ 

584,503 

16,824 

225,683 

627,384 

11,430 

113,409 

400,691 

20,725 

207,519 

371,566 

26,835 

250,259 

394,919 

20.886 

173,861 

518,080 

20,127 

119.903 

680,714 

26,964 

122,020 

635.131 

27.382 

133,371 

557,306 

22,854 

136.530 

578,065 

26,436 

175,101 

ToUl  Valae, 
all  Mineruls. 


£ 
824.501 
753,418 
624,022 
627,152 
574,090 
648,569 
806.364 
770,590 
700.323 
762,386 


The  smelting  works  in  connection  with  these  mines  are  of  a 
very  extensive  and  costly  character,  employing  a  large  amount 
of  skilled  labour. 

Miscellaneous  Peoducts. — In  addition  to  the  chief  staples 
above  referred  to,  a  variety  of  minor  articles  of  produce  axe 
annually  exported,  last  year  amounting  in  the  aggregate  to 
the  value  of  £174,634,  including  the  following  principal  items, 
viz. : — Tallow,  25,670  cwt.,  £38,511  value  ;  Preserved  Meats, 
1,259,820  lbs.,  £28,241 ;  Leather,  £4410 ;  Hides  and  Skins, 
£16,139;  Wine,  59,174  gallons,  £19,240;  Bark,  2650  tons, 
£14,552;  Eggs,  £7987;  Dried  and  Fresh  Fruits,  £4977; 
Jams  and  Preserves,  £3216 ;  Potatoes,  735  tons,  £3178 ;  Soap, 
1533  cwt.,  £1804 ;  Salt,  80  tons ;  Gum,  £1251 ;  Slate,  £1253 ; 
and  other  articles  of  less  value. 


ITS  STATISTICS. 


375 


SHIPPING. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  external  commerce  of  South 
Australia  necessitates  the  employment  of  a  largely  increased 
amount  of  shippings  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  returns. 
No  less  than  844  vessels  entered  inwards  in  1875,  of  a  total 
capacity  of  316,823  tons,  and  with  crews  numbering  15,644 
men ;  giving  a  daily  average  of  1000  tons  register  for  every 
working-day  throughout  the  year.  Of  95  vessels,  having 
an  aggregate  carrying  capacity  of  50,000  tons,  lately  in  Port 
Adelaide  on  one  day,  were  the  following  : — Steamets — one  of 
1300  tons,  three  between  400  and  550  tons,  and  three  under 
250  tons ;  ships  and  barques — one  of  2128  tons,  one  of  1777 
tons,  six  of  1000  to  1500  tons,  nineteen  between  500  and  1000 
tons,  and  twenty-five  between  200  and  500  tons — besides  eight 
brigs,  twelve  schooners,  and  sixteen  coasters.  The  subjoined 
abstracts  relate  only  to  vessels  arriving  at  or  departing  from 
South  Australian  ports  from  or  to  other  countries,  and  is 
exclusive  of  a  large  number  of  steam  and  sailing  vessels 
employed  solely  in  the  coasting  trade  of  the  Colony. 

The  following  figures  represent  the  aggregate  number  of 
vessels  inwards  and  outwards,  and  the  total  registered  tonnage 
in  the  years  specified : — 


Years. 

1851 
1856 
1861 
1866 
1871 
1875 


N  amber 
of  Vessels. 

TODDAge. 

538 

867 

788 

1,039 

1,238 

1,634 

155,002 
230,390 
199,331 
839,871 
373,624 
611,381 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  increase  in  the  shipping  during  the 
liist  five  years  has  amounted  to  no  less  than  seventy  per  cent. 
In  addition  to  the  chief  port  of  the  Colony  (Port  Adelaide), 
at  which  two-thirds  of  the  foreign  shipping  trade  is  carried 
on,  there  are  many  outports  from  which  there  is  a  direct  export 
trade  with  other  countries.  It  has  been  elsewhere  mentioned 
that  the  configuration  of  the  coast-line,  and  the  numerous 
shipping  ports,  enable  vessels  of  considerable  tonnage  to  be 


376 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


laden  with  wheat,  wool,  and  other  produce  of  the  adjacent 
districts  within  a  short  distance  of  the  place  of  production. 
The  following  table  shows  the  shipping  business  done  at  each 
of  these  ports  : — 


Names  of 
Ports. 


Port  Adelaide ... 
Port  Augusta ... 
Port  Broiighton 
Port  Caroline  ... 
Port  Glenelg  ... 
Port  MacDonnell 
Port  Moonta   ... 
Murraj  River... 
Port  l^oorlunga 
Port  Pirie 
Port  Robe 
Port  Victor     ... 
Port  Wakefield 
Port  Wallaroo ... 
Port  Willanga 
Port  Yankalilla 


Totals 


i 


Vessels. 

1 


£    ■   S 


189 

1  418 

1 

;  « 

2 

1    4 

31 

81 

26 

26 

69 

71 

1 

1 

98 

86 

mm 

2 

u 

23 

26 

26 

14 

10 

7 

12 

64 

65 

1 

6 

1 

1 

I 


907 

9 

6 

62 

62 

140 

2 

184 

2 

37 

52 

24 

19 

129 

7 

2 


Tonnage. 


206.998 

92 

1,935 

b,663 

28,821 

16,515 

66 

6,425 

5,776 

8,654 

4,802 

3,810 

36,003 

167 

207 


169,206 

5,790 

2,658 

8,863 

29,680 

16,611 

44 

6,786 

373 

10,934 

6,854 

4,619 

6,221 

26,920 

892 

207 


375,204 

5,882 

4,693 

17,416 

58,501 

31,062 

109 

12,211 

373 

16,710 

15,508 

9,421 

10.031 

52,923 

1,059 

414 


^ 
a 


Crew. 

:  i 

« 

k 

^M 

1   ^^ 

1 

O 

H 

7,550 

6,446 

13,996 

6  ; 

151 

157 

39 

58 

97 

689 

701 

1,390 

3,498 

3,645 

7,143 

1,256 

1.267 

2,513 

4 

4 

8 

693 

516 

1,109 

,    ( 

17 

17 

146  1 

380 

426 

612  ' 

612 

1,224 

377 

214  1 

591 

100 

165 

266 

760  1 

757  1 

1,517 

7  ' 

39  1 

46 

f  \ 

^ 

14 

844        790 


1.634       316,823       394,558  '     611,381 


15,644      14,869   30,513 


The  above  return  includes  the  number  of  steamers  arriving 
at  and  departing  from  ports  on  the  Eiver  Murray,  the  arrivals 
numbering  eighty-six,  and  the  departures  ninety-eight,  during 
the  year. 

THE  RIVER  MURRAY  TRADE. 

South  Australian  enterprise  opened  the  Eiver  Murray  to 
navigation  in  1853,  as  well  as,  at  a  later  period,  its  great 
tributaries,  the  Darling  and  the  Murrumbidgee.  Since  the 
opening  of  these  rivers  the  whole  of  that  immense  tract  of 
pastoral  country  known  as  Eiverina  has  been  heavily  stocked, 
producing  now  about  two  hundred  thousand  bales  of  wool 
annually.  The  Murray  is  navigable  for  a  distance  of  2000 
miles  from  its  mouth  at  Goolwa.  The  Darling,  from  its  junc- 
tion at  Wentworth,  is  navigable  to  Fort  Bourke,  800  miles, 
and  for  a  short  period  some  300  miles  further  into  Queens- 
land. The  Murrumbidgee,  entering  the  Murray  some  300 
miles  from  Wentworth,  is  navigable  to  Wagga,  a  distance  of 
700  miles,  to  which  town  railway  communication  with  Sydney 


ITS  STATISTICS. 


377 


will  shortly  be  extended.  Forty  steamers  and  fifty  barges  are 
occupied  in  the  trade*  At  present,  the  larger  portion  of  the 
upper  river  traffic  is  diverted  up-stream  to  Echuca,  and  thence 
by  railway  to  Melbourne,  owing  to  special  inducements  held 
out  by  the  Victorian  Government,  who  convey  wool  over  that 
line  at  less  than  cost.  As,  however,  the  natural  advantages  of 
down-stream  navigation  are  so  great,  saving  £2  or  £3  per  ton 
in  freight,  as  compared  with  the  railway  route,  there  is  little 
doubt  that  the  bulk  of  the  carrying  trade  will  eventually 
revert  to  South  Australia.  Surveys  are  being  made,  and 
proceedingis  taken  for  opening  the  Murray  Mouth  to  large 
vessels,  alongside  which  the  river  boats  will  then  discharge. 

RAILWAYS. 

Including  those  just  approaching  completion,  there  are 
three  hundred  and  seventy-one  miles  of  railway  in  South 
Australia,  three  hundred  miles  of  which  are  worked  by  loco- 
motives. The  following  table  shows  the  length  of  the  several 
lines  and  their  termini  : — 


Government  Lines — 

Adelaide  and  Port  Adelaide,  indading  \charf  lines 

Adelaide,  Gawler,  Kapunda,  and  Burra     < 

Strathalbyn,  Goolwa,  and  Port  Victor        

Port  Wakefield  and  Blyth's  Plains 
Port  Wakefield  and  Wallaroo 
Port  Pirie  and  Gladstone 
Port  Broughton  

Lacepede  Bay  and  Naracoorte 

« 

Total         

Private  Companies'  Lines — 

Adelaide  and  Glenelg 

Kadina,  WaUaroo,  and  Moonta 

Grand  Total 


Looomotive. 

Horae 
trscUou. 

1 

9* 
124 

— 

32 

42 

341 
32 

^— 

14 

51 

— 

293 

46 

7 

— 

25 

300 

71 

The  cost  of  construction  of  the  lines  at  present  in  working 
has  been  £1,155,267.  They  are  single  lines,  of  five-foot  three- 
inch  gauge.  Sixty  miles  are  laid  with  rails  sixty-five  pounds 
tp  the  yard,  and  the  remainder  with  rails  of  forty  pounds  to 


378 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


the  yard.  In  addition,  the  cost  of  rolling  stock  and  other 
plant  amounted  to  £221,918,  making  a  total  of  £1,337,185. 
The  cost  of  construction,  exclusive  of  rolling  stock,  was,  for 
the  Adelaide  and  Port  Bailway,  £17,433  per  mile ;  for  the 
Kapunda  Eailway,  £11,191 ;  and  for  the  extension  to  the 
Burra,  £5072.  The  rolling  stock  on  the  Government  lines 
consists  of  the  following : — Twenty-nine  locomotives,  fifty-one 
passenger  carriages,  and  six  hundred  and  thirty-three  goods 
waggons  of  all  descriptions. 

The  estimated  cost  of  the  one  hundred  and  forty-six  miles 
approaching  completion  is  £667,000 — the  average  cost  being 
£4600  per  mile. 

Up  to  the  close  of  1874,  the  total  receipts  amounted  to 
£1,772,376 ;  the  working  expenses  to  £1,066,937,  reconstruc- 
tion to  £104,147,  and  maintenance  to  £420,500,  leaving  a 
balance  of  £180,789  to  profit. 

The  receipts  for  the  year  1874  amounted  to  £132,806, 
and  the  expenditure  to  £124,610,  showing  a  balance  of  £8196 
towards  meeting  interest  on  cost  of  construction. 

The  foUowmg  statement  shows  the  amount  of  goods  and  pas- 
senger traffic,  and  the  total  receipts  at  intervals  of  five  years :-— 


Years. 

MllM 

open. 

P&swnger 
Truffle. 

6ood« 
Traffic. 

Totol 
ReoeipU. 

1856 
1861 
1866 
1871 
1875 

7i 

58 

58 

133 

133 

No. 
241,886 
306,140 
405,502 
384,389 
386,117 

Tons. 

26,354 
138, 6b3 
161,671 
211,683 
301,530 

£ 

19,498 

90,489 

114,131 

110,963 

166,710 

The  mileage  run  by  trains  in  1866  was  128,957 ;  in  1871, 
275,131 ;  and  it  increased  to  386,117  in  1875. 

The  two  lines  worked  by  horse  traction  are,  together,  forty- 
six  miles  in  length;  the  train  mileage  nm  was  135,316,  the 
total  receipts  £9387,  and  the  working  expenses  £9037 ;  the 
number  of  passengers  carried  was  31,895,  and  of  goods  30,370 
tons.  The  rolling  stock  consists  of  fourteen  passenger  car- 
riages, and  185  goods  trucks,  and  fifty-six  horses  are  employed. 


ITS  STATISTICS.  379 

The  average  charge  for  carrying  passengers  on  the  GoYern- 
ment  railways  ranges  from  Id.  to  IJd  per  mile,  and  the  charge 
for  carrying  a  ton  of  goods  one  mile  is  2id,  to  2f  d.  A  bushel 
of  wheat  is  carried  from  the  Bnrra  to  Port  Adelaide,  a  distance 
of  one  hundred  miles,  for  Id, — before  the  construction  of  the 
railway  it  cost  double.  A  ton  of  ore  is  now  brought  from 
the  Burra  Mines  to  Port  Adelaide  for  2l8.,  whereas,  prior  to  the 
opening  of  the  line,  it  cost  358.  to  40«.  to  convey  it  to  a  port 
of  shipment. 

The  policy  pursued  has  been  to  reduce  the  cost  of  carriage 
to  a  minimum,  with  a  view  of  developing  the  resources  of  the 
agricultural  and  mining  districts  through  which  the  lines  of 
railway  pass.  Without  railway  communication  the  limit 
within  which  wheat  could  be  profitably  grown  would  have 
been  reached  many  years  ago,  and  the  quantities  now  pro- 
duced could  not  be  brought  to  a  place  of  shipment  except  by 
steam  power.  As  much  as  twelve  hundred  tons  of  wheat  has 
sometimes  to  be  brought  down  in  a  day.  Although  the  rail- 
ways only  yield  a  return  but  little  in  excess  of  the  cost  of 
working,  and  maintaining  them  in  good  order,  the  facilities 
and  cheapness  of  transit  more  than  counterbalance  the  burthen 
of  interest  which  falls  upon  the  general  public,  who  benefit  in 
a  direct  ratio  by  the  prosperity  of  the  producing  interests. 
Frequent  communication  between  distant  places  situated  on 
the  lines  of  railway  is  secured  to  an  extent  which  a  private 
company  having  to  realize  dividends  could  not  possibly  afford. 

Two  railways  have  been  constructed  by  private  companies 
— one  is  a  line  connecting  Adelaide  with  Glenelg,  a  populous 
watering-place,  at  which  the  ocean  mail  steamers  call  on  their 
arrival  from  and  departure  for  Suez.  This  line,  under  seven 
miles  in  length  (single  line,  5-foot  3-inch  gauge),  cost  in  con- 
struction £15,875,  or  about  £2200  a  mile.  The  great  passenger 
traffic  and  frequency  of  communication  necessitate  the  use 
of  a  large  proportion  of  rolling  stock  as  compared  with  the 
length  of  the  line.  It  consists  of  four  locomotives  and 
eighteen  passenger  carriages.  The  total  cost,  including  roll- 
ing stock,  amounted  to  £53,432.  The  traffic  receipts  since, 
the  line  was    opened  in  August   1873  have    amounted  to, 


380  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA. 

£25,911,  and  the  working  expenses^  including  maintenance, 
to  £13,870,  showing  a  balance  of  £12,041  to  profit  of  the 
undertaking.  The  working  expenses  amounted  to  fifty-three 
per  cent,  of  the  receipts. 

The  other  private  line  connects  the  Wallaroo  and  Moonta 
Mines  with  the  sea-board  at  Port  Wallaroo.  It  is  twenty-five 
miles  long,  and  is  worked  by  horse  traction.  The  original 
capital  was  £60,000,  on  which  twenty  per  cent,  has  been 
divided  during  each  of  the  past  ten  years.  The  present  value 
of  the  property  is  £90,000,  the  diflference  having  accrued  from 
profits  expended  in  improving  and  extending  the  works,  which 
include  jetty  accommodation. 

ROADS. 

Large  sums  of  money  have  been  expended  on  the  con- 
struction and  maintenance  of  main  trunk  lines  of  road  in  the 
settled  districts,  through  which  there  are  2700  miles  defined. 
During  the  past  twenty  years,  about  £1,750,000  have  been 
devoted  to  these  works,  and,  with  the  exception  of  £200,000, 
the  whole  cost  has  been  defrayed  from  the  general  revenue,  no 
special  toll  or  rate  having  been  levied.  The  aggregate  number 
of  miles  macadamised  is  884,  which  are  maintained  in  good 
order.  In  addition  to  the  main  lines,  perhaps  as  many  more 
miles  of  district  or  by-roads  have  been  constructed  and  kept 
in  repair  by  local  municipalities.  For  this  purpose  funds  are 
raised  by  a  rate  on  landed  property,  supplemented  by  grants- 
in-aid  from  the  general  revenue.  Fifty  miles  of  metalled 
streets  [have  already  been  formed  in  the  City  of  Adelaide 
alone.  The  average  cost  of  construction  and  metalling  main 
roads  is  estimated  to  be  £1000  per  mile,  and  of  maintaining 
them  in  repair  £60  to  £100  per  mile  annually. 

WATERWOBKS. 

Considerable  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  subject  of  water 
supply,  which  was  first  undertaken  as  a  public  work  in  1857. 
In  addition  to  a  high-pressure  supply  to  the  city  and  suburbs 
of  Adelaide,  water  has  been  laid  on  to  several  other  centres 
of  population,  among  which  are  Port  Adelaide,  Glenelg,  Port 


ITS  STATISTICS.  381 

Augusta,  Port  Pine,  Port  Elliot,  Kjidina,  and  Moonta.  The 
Eiver  Torrens  is  the  source  of  supply  to  the  city  and  suburban 
townships  Port  Adelaide  and  Glenelg.  The  water  is  col- 
lected in  a  masonry  dam^  from  which  it  passes  by  means  of  an 
aqueduct  three  and  a  quarter  miles  in  length,  into  two  reser- 
voirs, the  larger  of  which  has  a  water  area  of  167  acres,  with  a 
storage  capacity  of  945  millions  of  gallons.  The  smaller 
reservoir  has  a  water  area  of  twenty-seven  and  a  half  acres, 
and  contains  140  millions  of  gallons.  The  supply  is  conveyed 
to  the  city  by  an  eighteen-inch  main,  five  miles  in  length. 
The  primary  mains  are  from  fifteen  to  twenty-one  inches  in 
diameter,  of  a  total  length  of  nine  miles ;  the  secondary  mains 
are  from  ten  to  fifteen  inches,  and  fourteen  miles  long ;  and 
the  street  mains  are  from  three  to  ten  inches,  of  a  length  of 
134  miles.  The  furthest  point  of  supply  is  sixteen  miles 
distant  from  the  reservoirs.  From  these  sources  over  fifty 
thousand  people  are  supplied.  The  highest  water  level  of  the 
reservoir  is  one  hundred  and  seventy  feet  above  the  highest 
point  in  the  city,  and  three  hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  Ample 
provision  is  made  for  the  suppression  of  fire,  hydrants  being 
laid  throughout  ev^ry  street  and  road,  at  intervals  of  about 
four  chains  apart. 

The  total  amount  of  the  loans  raised  for  the  construction 
of  waterworks  is  £620,000.  The  receipts  amoimted  to 
£14,651  in  1865 ;  to  £22,600  in  1871 ;  and  to  £30,895  in 
1875.  The  charges  for  water  have  been  reduced  from  time 
to  time,  the  rate  for  that  supplied  through  meters  being  now 
eighteenpence  per  thousand  gallons. 

POSTAL  COMMUNICATION. 

Great  attention  has  been  devoted  to  the  subject  of  postal 
communication.  Considering  the  thinly  peopled  and  extensive 
area  of  the  outlying  settled  districts,  more  than  ordinary 
facilities  are  afforded  the  public  by  frequent  and  rapid  despatch 
of  inland  mails.  A  uniform  rate  of  twopence  per  half-ounce  is 
charged  upon  letters  carried  to  places  within  the  Province,  and 
a  like  rate  for  letters  posted  to  the  sister  Colonies  of  Austral- 
asia, whether  by  overland  mail  thrice  a  week,  or  hy  the  regular 


382 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


intercolonial  steam  communication  by  sea.  No  charge  is  made 
for  the  carriage  of  newspapers,  either  inland  or  to  any  part  of 
the  world,  so  far  as  the  Sonth  Australian  Post  Office  is  con- 
cerned. Book  packets  and  parcels  are  carried  at  a  low  rate, 
and  the  system  is  extensively  used.  The  direct  four-weekly 
mail  communication  with  Europe  and  the  East,  imder  contract 
with  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Steam  Navigation  Company, 
is  performed  on  an  average  under  forty  days  from  London  to 
Adelaide  with  great  punctuality.  The  following  table  shows 
the  rapid  extension  of  postal  communication,  a  sure  criterion 
of  progress : — 


1 

1 
Yean. 

No.  of 

Poft 

Offices. 

Miles 
travelled 
by  Mails. 

No.  of 

Letteni.        ;    Newspapers. 

Income. 

1 

1856 

102 

844,853          785,608 

1866 

226 

809,160 

2,703,105       1,968,120 

^  27,987 

1875 

1 

357 

1,542,426 

4,431,525       2,950,997 

;  43,205 

1 

Taking  the  last  ten  years,  it  will  be  remarked  that  the 
number  of  Post  Offices  has  increased  from  226  to  357 ;  of 
distance  travelled  by  the  mails,  from  809,160  to  1,542,426 
miles ;  of  letters,  from  2,703,105  to  4,431,525 ;  and  of  news- 
papers, from  1,968,120  to  2,950,997.  The  income  of  the 
Department  has  been  as  follows  :— In  the  year  1856,  £8925  ; 
in  1866,  £27,987 ;  and  in  1875,  £43,205. 

The  Money  Order  system  is  in  full  operation  in  all  the 
principal  towns  of  the  Colony,  there  being  eighty-two  offices 
in  all.  Money  Orders  are  also  issued  and  paid  in  connection 
with  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Germany,  Canada,  and  all  the 
Australian  Colonies.  The  system  of  Telegraphic  Money 
Orders  is  also  availed  of  to  a  large  extent.  The  orders  issued 
in  1874  numbered  18,879,  of  £61,190  value ;  and  13,072  were 
paid,  amounting  to  £42,282. 


ITS  STATISTICS.  383 

TELEGBAPHS. 

The  geographical  position  of  South  Australia  being  prac- 
tically that  of  the  most  western  of  the  group,  the  first  port  of 
arrival  and  the  last  of  departure  for  mail  communication  with 
Great  Britain  and  the  East,  necessitated  early  and  earnest 
attention  being  devoted  to  the  extension  of  the  South  Aus- 
tralian telegraphs,  so  as  to  afford  instantaneous  communication 
with  Melbourne,  Sydney,  and  Brisbane.  After  this  work  had 
been  accomplished  by  the  several  Governments,  the  question 
of  direct  telegraphic  communication  with  Europe  naturally 
became  one  of  great  moment  to  South  Australia,  she  having 
under  her  control  that  portion  of  the  continent  from  south  to 
north  through  which  an  overland  line  could  best  be  carried. 
In  order  to  accomplish  this  vast  undertaking,  from  which  such 
great  results  have  flowed,  and  an  immense  area  of  territory 
opened  up  for  settlement,  South  Australia,  at  her  own  risk  and 
cost — which  has  amounted  to  over  £370,000 — determined  to 
enter  upon  the  work  of  erecting  a  line  of  telegraph  some  2200 
miles  in  length,  across  a  continent  which  had  only  been  tra- 
versed by  an  exploring  party. 

The  first  local  line  of  thirty-six  miles  of  telegraph  was  laid 
twenty  years  ago,  and  the  receipts  of  the  department  were 
£366.  In  1858  intercolonial  communicaticm.  was  opened  by 
the  addition  of  350  miles.  In  1861  the  total  length  of  wire 
open  was  914  miles,  and  the  receipts  were  £7382.  In  1872 
the  overland  line  to  Port  Darwin  was  completed,  when  cable 
communication  was  established  with  London.  The  completion 
of  this  work  brought  the  length  of  wire  up  to  3731  miles,  and 
the  total  receipts  to  £14,684.  Every  township  and  port  of  any 
importance  is  connected  with  the  city  by  means  of  telegraph, 
the  number  of  stations  open  being  105,  between  which  tele- 
grams are  sent  at  a  imiform  rate  of  one  shilling  for  ten 
words,  which  sum  covers  the  transmission  of  a  message  over 
a  distance  of  a  thousand  miles.  There  is  a  uniform  charge 
of  10a.  6d.  a  word  on  messages  sent  between  Adelaide  and 
London.  The  traffic  in  1875  over  the  transcontinental  line 
in  connection  with  the  European  cable  amounted  to  £104,205, 


384 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


the  number  of  messages  being  9709.  To  show  the  ramifica- 
tions of  the  telegraph  system  in  Australia,  it  is  only  needful 
to  mention  that  the  length  of  lines  open  or  closely  approaching 
completion  is  28,285  miles ;  and  the  number  of  stations  547. 


Cokmlet. 

No.  of 

SUtkNM. 

MilM  of 
Wire. 

South  Australia          ...           105 
New  South  Wales      ...           137 

Victoria           163 

Queensland     90 

Tasmania         '  S2 

Western  Australia      ...            20 

5,004 
7,904 
4,613 
3,617 
547 
1,600 

At  the  close  of  the  year  1875  there  were  3904  miles  of 
wire  open  throughout  the  Colony,  and  there  are  1100  miles 
now  in  course  of  construction.  The  105  stations  already 
erected  employ  230  oflScers,  operators,  and  messengers.  The 
number  of  messages  inland  and  intercolonial  transmitted  in 
the  year  was  315,342,  and  international  9709,  making  a  total 
of  325,051.  The  revenue  of  the  year  was  £33,616,  of  which 
amount  £17,083  was  derived  from  inland  messages,  £4762 
from  intercolonial  and  £11,771  from  international  messages. 
The  following  table  shows  the  operations  of  the  South  Aus- 
tralian Telegraph  Department  from  the  commencement : — 


Yean. 

No.  of 

SUtlODS. 

Miles  of 
Wire  Open. 

No.  of 
Mesttges. 

Receipts. 

1856 

7 

36 

14,738 

£ 
366 

1861 

27 

914 

76,709 

7,382     i 

1865 

45 

1,173 

112,344 

11,735 

1872 

86 

3,731 

170,902 

>     14,684 

1875 

105 

3,904 

825,051 

33,616 

There  is  a  through  communication  with  all  the  sister  Colo- 
nies, Victoria,  New  South  Wales,  Tasmania,  and  Queensland. 
The  connection  of  Western  Australia  with  the  telegraphic 
circle  is  rapidly  being  accomplished,  when  the  continent  of 
Australia  will  be  traversed  by  wire  from  north  to  south  and 


ITS  STATISTICS.  385 

from  east  to  west.  A  cable  is  now  being  laid  to  connect  New 
Zealand,  thereby  completing  the  chain  which  will  unite  the 
whole  of  the  British  possessions  at  the  Antipodes  with  the 
Mother  Country  and  the  rest  of  the  civilized  world. 

Daily  weather  and  shipping  reports  are  interchanged  be- 
tween the  several  ports  and  principal  towns  throughout  the 
whole  continent. 

RATES  OF  WAGES. 

The  following  compilation,  by  Mr.  J.  Kemp  Penny,  Labour 
Agent,  is  taken  from  the  SotUh  Australian  Begister  newspaper 
of  29th  January  1876.  It  shows  the  rates  of  wages  paid 
in  Adelaide  to  skilled  labourers  and  other  tradesmen,  the 
prices  varying  of  course  according  to  the  proficiency  or  skill 
of  the  individual  and  the  season  of  the  year.  Great  care 
has  been  taken  in  every  instance  to  procure  authentic  in- 
formation : — 

Bookbinders. — 30«.  to  £3  per  week ;  forwarders,  35».  to 
458. ;  finishers,  60«.  to  TOs. 

Bootmakers. — At  the  principal  factories  piecework  is  the 
rule,  but  some  men  are  employed  on  daywork,  whose  average 
earnings  are  408.  to  458.  per  week,  while  very  expert  hands 
earn  over  £3.  Female  machine  hands  receive  weekly  from 
158.  to  £1,  while  girls  as  tackers,  &c.  receive  from  half-a-crown 
to  158.  The  present  prices  at  piecework  are  as  follows: — 
Men's  Goods — Kiveting  Wellingtons  and  riding  boots,  28. ;  half- 
wellingtons.  Is.  9tZ. ;  side-springs,  l8.  Qd, ;  strong  lace-up,  28. ; 
finishing  Wellingtons  and  riding  boots,  28. ;  half-wellingtons, 
l8.  9d. ;  side-springs,  l8.  Qd. ;  strong  lace-up,  9d.  Women's 
Goods — Kiveting  side-springs,  plain,  l8.  2d. ;  plain  leather 
boots,  l8. ;  slippers,  4c?. ;  finishing  side-springs,  plain,  l8.  2d. ; 
plain  leather  boots,  8d. ;  slippers,  3d.  Girls  (from  10  to  13), 
calf,  riveting  side-springs,  plain,  9d. ;  finishing  do.,  M. ;  good 
female  fitters  from  128.  to  148. 

Brass-founders. — 98.  to  128.  per  day. 

Brewers. — 308.  to  508.  per  week. 

Brickmakers. — 138.  per  1000  on  the  back. 

Builders. — In  this  trade  firms  have  adopted  the  eight 

2  c 


386  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

hours*  system.  The  prices  ruling  are — For  stonemasons  and 
wallers,  95.  to  lOs.  per  day ;  stonecutters,  9«.  to  9«.  6d. ; 
plasterers,  do. ;  bricklayers,  do. ;  slaters,  a  shade  higher ;  car- 
penters, 88.  to  98,;  labourers,  6a.  to  7«. ;  pick  and  shovel 
men,  do. 

Bakers. — Foremen  are  receiving  from  £1  15s.  to  £2  15«. 
per  week,  and  second  hands  from  25d.  to  £2,  with  board  and 
lodging ;  skilled  confectioners  proportionately  higher. 

Butchers. — Engagements  are  made  by  the  week.  The 
present  rates  are — For  shopmen,  358.  to  50«. ;  youths,  15s.  to 
£1 ;  slaughtermen,  30s.  to  £2 ;  and  small  goods  men,  from  30s. 
to  £2  5s.,  with  board. 

Basketmakers. — Piecework  make  wages  from  50s.  to 
£3  7s.  per  week,  mostly  canework. 

Cabinetmakers. — Engagements  are  chiefly  made  by  piece- 
work, but  when  by  time  the  following  are  the  customary  rates 
per  day  of  eight  and  a  half  hours :— First-class  workmen,  9s. 
to  10s. ;  second  do.,  8s. ;  upholsterers,  8s.  Gd,  to  10s. ;  makers 
of  deal, tables,  meat-safes,  &c.,  from  7s.  6d.  to  9s. 

Carters. — 25s.  to  35s.  per  week. 

CoACHBUiLDERS. — The  wages  per  week  vary  according  to 
the  following  scale  : — Smiths,  from  £3  to  £3  10s. ;  bodymakers, 
from  £2  14s.  to  £3 ;  wheelers,  £2  10s.  to  £3 ;  painters,  £2  to 
£2  14s. ;  trimmers,  do. ;  vicemen,  £1 10s.  to  £2. 

Coopers. — Work  is  chiefly  done  by  the  piece  ;  when  other- 
wise, however,  the  day  is  understood  to  consist  of  eight  hours, 
for  which  the  remuneration  varies  from  8s.  to  9s.  In  piece- 
work 2s.  is  paid  for  a  cask  of  three  gallons,  2s.  6d.  for  five 
gallons,  and  3s.  3d.  for  one  of  ten  gallons. 

Coppersmiths. — 9s.  to  12s.  per  day. 

Drapers. — 30s.  to  70s.  per  week. 

Farriers. — Firemen  per  day  of  ten  hours,  10s. ;  floormen, 
from  £2  5s.  to  £2  10s.  per  week. 

Gardening. — Gardeners,  6s.  to  7s.  per  day ;  digging,  3d. 
(sandy  soil)  to  Is.  per  rod  (ordinary  garden  soil) ;  trenching, 
by  contract ;  pruning,  2s.  6d.  to  4s.  per  100  vines,  6s.  to  7s, 
daywork. 

Gasfitters. — In  regular  employment  the  wages  vary  from 


ITS  STATISTICS.  387 

£2  to  £3  per  week ;  when  employed  by  the  day,  they  receive 
from  88.  to  10«. 

Galvanized  Tin  Ibon  Workers. — Daywork  from  88.  to 
108. ;  week  of  48  hours,  £2  28.  to  £2  148. 

Gunsmiths. — 98.  to  128.  per  day. 

Iron- Workers. — Boilermakers  per  day  of  eight  hours  get 
from  108.  to  ll8. ;  smiths,  do.;  fitters  and  turners,  do.; 
moulders,  do. ;  labourers,  from  68.  6d,  to  Is,  6d. 

Iron  Trade. — General  smiths,  98.  to  108.  per  day ;  first- 
class  smiths,  98.  per  day ;  fitters,  98.  to  ll8.  per  day ;  wheel- 
"wrights,  88.  to  ll8.  per  day  ;  moulders  (first-class),  98.  per  day ; 
painters,  58.  per  day ;  engine-drivers.  Is.  to  108.  per  day ; 
sawyers,  7s.  to  88.  per  day ;  carpenters,  78.  to  ll8.  per  day ; 
turners,  7s.  to  88.  per  day ;  foundry  hands,  Gs.  to  7s.  per  day ; 
labourers,  68.  to  7s.  per  day. 

Jewellers. — Ordinary  workmen,  £2  108.  to  £4.108.  per 
week,  and  more  skilled  workmen,  engravers,  &c.,  £5  to  £6. 

Millers.— 508.  to  608. 

Plumbers. — Very  good  hands  obtain  from  ll8.  to  128.  per 
day  of  eight  hours ;  inferior  workmen,  £2  88.  per  week. 

Painters  and  Glaziers. — These  tradesmen  generally 
receive  88.  to  108.  per  day  of  eight  hours,  or  l8.  to  l8.  3d.  per 
hour.  Grainers  and  writers,  108.  per  day,  or  l8.  3d.  per  hour ; 
very  good  writers  and  grainers,  ll8.  to  138.  per  day. 

Paperhangers. — 9d.  to  l8.  6d.  for  12  yards. 

Printers. — Compositors,  newspaper,  l8.  per  1000 ;  jobbing 
hands,  £2  158.  per  week  ;  pressmen  £2  158. 

Saddlers. — Most  of  the  work  done  in  this  trade  is  by  the 
piece,  but  when  by  time,  the  following  are  the  i&tes : — First- 
class  harness  men  from  88.  to  98.  per  day  of  10  hours  summer, 
9  hours  winter ;  second  class  or  jobbing,  from  58.  to  7s.  6d. ; 
first-class  saddle  hands,  from  108.  to  128. 

Sailmakers. — 18.  2d.  to  l8.  3d.  per  hour,  eight  hours  per 
diem. 

Seamen's  Wages  (Intercolonial)  are  steady  at  £5  per 
month. 

Stonebreakers. — 38.  per  yard. 

Storemen. — 308.  to  508.  per  week. 

2  c  2 


388  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

Tinsmiths.— lid.  to  Is.  4i.  per  hour. 

Tailors. — Wages,  lOd,  per  hour  piecework,  or  la.  per  hour 
day  work.  Grood  workmen  are  now  earning  from  £4  to  £5  per 
week.    Females  receive  a  corresponding  increase. 

Tanners  and  Curriers. — The  working  day  is  ten  hours. 
Beamsmen  in  the  lime  yard  get  from  £2  to  £2  10«.  per  week  ; 
strikers  and  finishers  from  36«.  to  40s. ;  tanners  from  36«.  to 
428. ;  curriers'  work  is  all  done  by  the  piece  and  on  agreed 
conditions.  First-rate  workmen  who  have  served  their  full 
apprenticeship  term  are  earning  from  £3  10«.  to  £4  10«.  per 
week. 

Watchmakers. — The  wages  given  vary  from  £3  10s.  to 
£4  per  week. 

Wheelwrights. — Is.  to  Is.  3d.  per  hour. 

Female  Domestics. — Per  week,  with  board  and  lodging — 
General  servants,  Ss.  to  125. ;  cooks,  10s.  to  208. ;  housemaids,. 
Ss.  to  128. ;  kitchenmaids,  8^.  to  10s. ;  housekeepers,  10«.  to  £1  ; 
laundresses,  10s.  to  168. ;  nursemaids,  88.  to  128. ;  nursegirls, 
48.  to  78. ;  charwomen,  38.  to  48.  per  diem. 

Shearers. — Shearers,  208.  per  100 ;  rollers,  158. ;  pressers-, 
258. ;  sewers,  208. ;  dumpers,  208. ;  pickers,  128. ;  cooks,  408. ; 
butchers,  258. ;  cooks'  mates,  208.  per  week. 

Station  Hands. — Drovers,  £1  to  £1  108.  per  week,  or 
108.  Gd.  per  day  and  find  themselves ;  boundary-riders,  178.  to 
258.  per  week ;  shepherds,  178.  to  208.  per  week ;  married 
couples,  per  annum,  £52  to  £75;  lambminders,  108.  to  158. 
per  week ;  bullock-drivers,  208.  to  258.  per  week  ;  knockabout 
hands,  178.  to  208.  per  week ;  bush  carpenters  and  blacksmiths, 
308.  per  week ;  cooks,  178.  to  258.  per  week ;  water-drawers,. 
188.  to  ^08.  per  week.  All  the  above  are  with  rations  and 
expenses  paid  up  to  the  station. 

Farm  Hands. — Ploughmen,  208.  per  week ;  general  farm 
servants,  208.  to  308.  per  week;  married  couples,  females  to 
cook,  &c.,  208.  to  308.  per  week;  harvesters,  258.  to  358; 
per  week ;  boys,  from  108.  to  128. ;  youngsters  tailing  cattle 
and  sheep,  48.  to  88.  per  week ;  teamsters,  208.  to  308. ;  hay 
harvesters,  258.  to  358. ;  all  with  board  and  lodging. 

3IISCELLANE0US. — Fencers,  post  and  3-wire  fence,  £10  to 


ITS  STATISTICS.  389 

£20  per  mile ;  do.,  per  rod,  three-rail,  2$.  to  Ss, ;  wire  do., 
48.  to  78.;  cabmen,  20«.  to  30«.  per  week  with  board  and 
lodging;  busmen,  358.  to  40^.  per  week  without  board; 
labourers,  6«.  to  88.  per  diem  without  board  and  lodging; 
ostlers,  20«.  to  25«.  per  week  with  board  and  lodging.  Sawyers, 
logs  at  pit,  13«.  per  100. 

Average  Wages  of  Miners. — Moonta  District— Miners, 
per  week,  eight  hours'  shift,  £2  2s. ;  breaksmen  do.,  none 
employed ;  engineers,  from  £1 16^.  to  £2  15«. ;  tribute,  £1  ISs. 
to  £2  58. ;  on  contract,  from  £1  16^.  to  £2;  owners'  account, 
5s.  6d.  per  day.  

Scale  op  Kations  per  Week — 10  lbs.  flour,  12  lbs.  meat, 
2  lbs.  sugar,  ^  lb.  tea. 

prices  of  provisions. 

The  following  are  the  current  quotations  in  Adelaide,  as 
taken  from  the  public  prints,  of  live  stock,  farm  and  garden 
produce,  provisions,  groceries,  &c. : — 

Wholesale,  Floub,  Gbain,  &a 

Flour,  fine  silk-dressed,  per  ton  of  2000  lbs.,  at  £  s.  d,  £    s,    d. 

the  Port,  bAg8  included           11  0  0    to  11    5    0 

Ditto  ditto,  country  brand 10  5  0     „  11    0    0 

Wheat,  per  bushel  of  60  lbs.,  lar*;e  lots,  at  the 

Port  (old)          0  5  0  — 

Ditto  ditto  ([new)      0  4  8     „  0    4    9 

Bran,  per  oushel  of  201lis.,  at  the  Purt,  bugs 

included ;        0  12,,  01    2^ 

Pollard,  per  bushel  of  20  lbs 0  0  11     ,,010 

Oats,  per  bushel  of  40  lbs.,  wiUiout  bags 0  4  0,,  046 

Barley,  per  bushel  of  50  lbs.,  without  bagd          ...  0  5  6,,  060 

Wholesale,  Datrt  and  Farm  PitODrcE. 

Bacon ^terlb.  0  0  10  — 

per  lb.  0  0  10  — 

per  lb.  0  0  11  — 

per  lb.  0  0    9  — 

perdoz.  0  0    9J  — 

per  lb.  0  0  11  — 

per  lb.  0  0    9  ■— 

per.  cwt.  0  110  — 

per  lb.  0  0    8  — 

per  ton  3  10    0  — 

per  bush.  0  8    0  — 

Seed,  Lucerne  per  lb.  0  12  — 

Pens per  bush.  0  3    6  — 

Vetches  per  bush.  0  8    0  — 


Butter... 
Ditto  (Potted) 
Cheese 
Eggs  ... 
flams  ... 
Lard  ... 
Onions... 
Honey... 
Hay  ... 
Prairie  gras.s 


•  •  • 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 


•  •  • 

•  •  • 


390 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


Hides,  Skins,  Bones,  &c. 


Hides,  salted 

Butchers'  Green 
Hoofs  ...        ...        ... 

Green  Kangaroo  Skins 

Skins,  Calf    

Ditto,  Wallaby 
ShaoK  Bones 


Bark,  Wattle,  ground 
Ditto,  ditto,  chopped 


Babk. 


£      B. 

d. 

£    $. 

d. 

per  lb. 

0    0 

^ 

«o 

0    0 

5 

encli 

1     5 

0 

»« 

2  10 

0 

per  ton 

1  10 

0 

»» 

2  10 

0 

per  doz. 

0    7 

0 

t» 

2    5 

0 

each 

0    1 

4 

t» 

0  10 

0 

per  doz. 

0  10 

0 

»» 

1  15 

0 

per  ton 

5    0 

0 

♦> 

10    0 

0 

per  ton 

7    0 

0 

_ 

per  ton 

5  10 

0 

to 

6    0 

0 

Tallow. 


Tallow,  Beef,  for  Exix>rt 
Ditto,  Mutton,  ditto 


Washed 
Greasy... 


per  ton    «2    0    0 
per  ton    34    0    0 


Wool. 


per  lb. 
per  lb. 


0 
0 


0  11     to 
0    7 


»» 


Wine  (Oolonul). 

Good  sound  Colonial  Wine  of  Inst 
year's  vintage,  for  large  quan- 
tities in  bulk      

Superior  ditto  

Colonial  Spirits,  in  bond     ... 


Basils 

Colonial  Calf... 
Ditto  Kip 
Ditto  Sole      ... 
Ditto  Kansraroo 
Ditto  Wallaby 


Copper. 


Wallaroo 
Burra  ... 


Horses,  Drought 
Ditto,  Light  ... 
Bullocks.  Fnt... 


per  ton    82    0    0 
per  ton    82    0    0 


Live  Stock. 


0    12 
0    0    » 


per  gall. 

0    1 

fi 

to 

0    4 

0 

per  gull. 

0    5 

0 

•t 

0  10 

0 

per  gall. 

0    3 

6 

— — 

Leather. 

per  doz. 

0  15 

0 

to 

1     0 

0 

per  lb. 

0    4 

0 

0     .5 

6 

por  lb. 

0    2 

3 

0     2 

6 

per  lb. 

0     1 

2 

0     1 

7 

per  doz. 

1  15 

0 

4     0 

0 

per  lb. 

0  12 

0 

0  14 

0 

30  0  0 
12  0  0 
10    0    0 


to 

»» 


45  0  0 
20  0  O 
15     0     0 


Sheep,  Fat  Wethers,  12*.  to  17#.,  according  to  season. 

Betail  Fabm  and  Dairy  Produce. 

Quotations :  — Bread  and  Flour  —  Brea«l.  2Jd.  to  S^d.  per  2-lb.  loaf;  do., 
aerated,  M.  2-lb.  loaf;  flour,  l^d.  to  2d.  ptr  lb.  Bntclier's  meat— Beef,  4<J.  in 
Sd.  per  lb.;  mutton.  2d,  to  5d.;  lamb,  2$.  6d.  to  S«.  6d.  prrquaiter:  pork,  7r/. 
to  Sd.;  veal,  5d.  to  Sd.  Dairy  produce — Bacon,  1«.  to  1«.  2d.  per  lb. ;  butter, 
fresh.  Is.  2d.;  do.,  salted,  1$.  2d.:  cheese,  1«.;  eggs,  1$.  per  dozen;  fowls,  5#. 
per  pair ;  ducks.  6«.  to  6».  6d.  per  pair :  peese,  6«.  each ;  hams,  1«.  2d.  per  lb. ; 
honey.  5d.  per  lb.;  lard,  1«.  per  lb.;  milk,  4d.  to  6d.  per  quart;  pigeons,  1#.  Sd. 
to  1«.  5d.  per  pair ;  rabbits,  tame,  1».  each  ;  wild  do.,  U.  per  pair ;  turkeys,  6s.  to 
10^.  each. 


ITS  STATISTICS.  391 

Gbocebies. 

Tea,  2$,  to  2$.  6d,  per  lb. ;  sugar,  3d.  to  4)(2.  per  11). ;  coffee,  ]«.  Cd,  per  lb. ; 
rice,  Sd,  to  5d.  per  Id.  ;  si^t.  Id,  per  lb. ;  tobacco,  4«.  to  4«.  6d, ;  8oep,  3(2.  to  4(1. 
per  lb. 

Hat  Mabket. 
Best  wheaten  hay,  £4  10«.  per  ton ;  good  mixed  do.,  £3  158. 

East-Exd  Market. 

Vegetables  —  Beans  (brood),  2«.  to  2»,  6d.  per  bushel;  beans  (French),  1«.  3d, 
to  2$,  per  dozen  lbs. ;  beetroot,  1«.  to  1«.  6d.  per  dozen ;  cabbages.  Is.  6d,  to  4«. 
per  dozen;  do.  (Savoys),  2$,  to  3$,  per  dozen;  capsicums,  1«.  to  Ib.M,  per  lb.; 
carrots,  1«.  6d.  to  2«.  per  dozen  bunches;  cauliflowers,  3s.  to  5s.  per  dozen; 
celery,  4«.  to  6s.  per  dozen  heads ;  chillies.  Is.  to  Is.  3<l.  per  lb. ;  horse-radish,  6d. 
to  lOd,  per  lb. ;  garlic,  4(2.  to  6d,  per  lb. ;  lettuces,  M,  to  Is.  3d,  per  dozen ; 
marjoram,  ijd.  to  Sd,  per  dozen  bunches ;  mint,  6d.  per  dozen  bunches ;  onions, 
6s,  6(2.  to  88.  6(2.  per  cwt. ;  parsnips.  Is.  Qd.  to  28.  6(2.  per  dozen  bunches ;  peas, 
38.  to  48.  per  bushel;  potatoes,  48.  6d.  to  5s.  per  cwt.;  radishes,  6(2.  to  8(2.  per 
dozen  bunches ;  do.  (turnipX  6d.  io  Sd.  per  dozen  bunches ;  rhubarb.  28.  to  38. 
per  dozen  lbs. ;  sage,  6(2.  to  Sd.  per  dozen  bunches ;  shalots,  4(2.  to  6c2.  per  lb. ; 
thyme,  6(2.  to  Sd.  per  dozen  bunches;  tomatoes,  Is.  ijd.  to  28. per  dozen  lbs.; 
trombones,  48.  to  7s.  per  dozen;  turnips,  Is.  6(2.  to  28.  per  <iozen  bunches; 
vegetable  marrows.  Is.  6(2.  to  38.  per  dozen ;  watercresp,  6(2.  to  Sd.  per  dozen 
bunches;  cucumbers,  6(2.  to  38.  per  dozen.  Fruit — Almonds  (g^reen),  2d.  per 
lb. ;  do.  (hard-shell),  2d,  per  lb. ;  do.  (soft-shell),  6(2.  per  lb. ;  do.  (cracked),  Sd. 
per  lb. ;  apples,  Is.  6(2.  to  38.  6(2.  per  bushel ;  apricots,  208.  to  228.  per  cwt. ;  do., 
2d.  to  6(2.  per  dozen ;  Barcelona  nuts,  7s.  per  dozen  lbs. ;  citrons,  Ids.  per  cwt. ; 
damsons,  28. 6(2.  to  Ss.  per  bushel :  figs,  2d,  to  Qd.  per  dozen :  gooseberries  (Gape), 
9d.  to  10(2.  per  lb. ;  grupes,  Is.  6d.  to  28.  per  dozon  lbs. ;  lemons,  9(2.  to  28.  per 
dozen;  melons  (water),  158.  to  188.  per  cwt.;  nectarines,  2d.  to  3d.  per  dozen; 
oranges,  Is.  to  28.  6(2.  per  dozen ;  peaches,  2(2.  to  6(2.  per  dozen ;  pearu,  28.  6d,  to 
48.  per  bu:ihel ;  plums,  38.  to  48.  per  bushel ;  strawberries,  6(2.  to  8(2.  per  lb. 
Diiiry  produce  —  Bacon.  10(2.  per  lb.;  do.  (green),  9(2.  per  lb. ;  butter  (fresh),  10(2. 
to  Is.  per  lb.;  cheese  (Enxlisb),  Is.  6(2.  to  Is.  Sd.  per  lb.;  do.  (colonial),  7(2.  to 
Sd.  per  lb.;  dairy  pork.  Sd.  per  lb.;  ducks,  48.  to  48.  6(2.  per  pair;  eggs,  11(2.  to 
l8.  per  dozen;  fowls,  38.  6(2.  to  48.  per  pair;  geese,  48.  to  48.  6(2  each;  ham.  Is. 
to  l8.  1(2.  per  lb. ;  lard,  9(2.  per  lb. ;  turkeys,  58.  to  98.  each.  Miscellaneous  — 
Beeswax,  10(2.  to  Is.  2d.  per  lb. ;  colonial  wine,  28.  ti>  ijs.  per  gallon ;  colonial 
jsm,  5(2.  to  7(2.  per  lb. ;  flowers,  2(2.  to  Is.  per  bunch ;  hcmcy,  328.  to  348.  per  cwt. ; 
rabbits.  Is.  to  l8.  6(2.  per  pair;  pigeons,  l8.  3c2.  to  l8.  6(2.  per  pair. 

The  rent  of  a  dwelling  suitable  for  an  artisan  and  his 
family  in  Adelaide  or  the  immediate  suburbs  varies  from  six 
to  fifteen  shillings  per  week,  but  in  the  country  towns  the  rate 
is  less.  Large  numbers  of  artisans,  however,  reside  in  their 
own  freehold  cottages.  Th^  savings  of  a  few  years  have  in 
many  instances  suflBced  to  enable  them  to  accomplish  this. 
Land  is  cheap,  and  the  necessary  advances  for  the  erection  of 
dwellings  are  readily  obtainable  from  the  several  Building 
Societies.  Cottages,  with  fuel  and  water,  are  provided  for 
ploughmen,  shepherds,  and  other  labourers  employed  on  farms 


392 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


or  sheep-runs.     The  following  are  quoted  rates  for  house  rent 
and  for  board  and  lodging : — 

House  Rent. 

Two  rooms,  4«.  to  6«. ;  three  rooms,  (>«.  to  10«. :  fuur  rooms.  S$.  to  15«. ;  ax 
rooms,  12«.  to  25«.  free  linom  taxes ;  single  room,  2s.  6d. ;  ditto  (fhmished )  6«.  to  ds. 
per  week.  Gas  is  8«.  to  12t.  per  1000  cubic  feet,  aud  water  laid  on  Is.  6d.  per 
1000  gallons. 

Board  and  Lodging. 

Per  week  at  Bushmen's  Club,  18«. ;  at  private  liouses,  for  single  young  roeDf 
shopmen,  &c.,  15«.  to  ISs. ;  clerks,  &c.,  20«.  to  30«. ;  hiugle  females,  10s.  to  15«. ; 
private  lodgers  at  hotels,  20s.  to  42.  4s. 

Wearing  apparel   is  procurable  at  the   under-mentioned 
prices : — 

Working  men's  black  cloth  suits,  39s.  to  90s. ;  every  day  wear,  29s.  to  65f . ; 
moleskin  trousers.  6«.  6d,  to  10s.  6d. ;  tw^d  suit,  29s.  to  80s. ;  jacket,  13s.  to  40i. ; 
waistcoat,  5s.  to  lis. ;  trousers,  8s.  to  25s. ;  boys*  clothes,  15s.  to  40s.  per  suit 


METEOROLOGICAL. 

The  following  tables  give  the  mean  monthly  rainfall  at 
Adelaide  during  the  thirty-six  years  1839-74,  and  the  result  of 
the  Meteorological  Observations  made  at  the  Observatory 
during  the  ten  years  1865-74  : — 


1 

1 

lUiNrALL  (3S  Yearn,  1839-74). 

i 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Mean 

HoQtbs. 

1 

Mean. 

Mean 

No.  of 

Wet 

Greatest. 

Le«»t. 

Evapora- 

UoQ, 
Five  Year*. 

t 

1 

1 

1 

Day^ 

1 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Jantiarv 

,.        0-722 

4 

4-000 

0-000 

10-641 

1     February 

..        0-670 

3 

3-100 

0  000 

8-802 

1 

Marcli   ... 

0-881 

5* 

3-753 

0000 

7-608 

April     ... 

..       1-760 

8| 

6-780 

0-250 

4-474 

May      ...    .    . 

..       2-814 

13 

6-340 

o-e9« 

2-902 

June 

2-915 

14. 

7-800 

1  138 

1-795 

July      

2-801 

16 

5-380 

0-726 

1-959 

August... 

..       2-621 

16 

6-240 

0-675 

2  667 

September 

2-071 

l^ 

4-640 

0-711 

3-427 

October... 

..       1-739 

10 

3-834 

0-460 

5-981 

November 

..       1-263 

5 

3-550 

0100 

6-979     • 

December 

1 

..       0-894 

5* 
114 

3-977 

0  105 

9-420 

21  091 

66-655 

ITS  STATISTICS. 


393 


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394 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


From  which  the 

following    hygrometric 

duced :  — 

Trmpentare 

l!3astic  Force 

of  Dew  Point. 

of  V'«pwar. 

Iftgrw, 

Iucbei>,     1 

January     ... 

...      52-8 

0-400 

Febniajy    ... 

...       530 

0-405 

Maich 

...       511 

0-377 

April 
May 

...       50-2 

0-.S63 

...       47-9 

0-335 

June 

...       46-3 

0  313 

July 

...       440 

0-289 

August 

...       45-0 

0-298 

September 

...       460 

0  310 

OcUiber 

...       47-3 

0-326 

November  ... 

...       49-3 

0-352 

December  ... 

...       501 
...      48  3 

0-362 

Year   ... 

0-338 

CONCLUSION. 

degree  of 
Hoiuidity. 
(Saturation  =  100.) 
48 
48 
51 
60 
67 
74 
77 
73 

57 

47 

60 


The  general  statistical  table,  appended  hereto,  gives  the 
principal  items  of  information,  illustrating  the  progress  of 
South  Australia  from  its  foundation.  In  glancing  at  this 
retrospect,  one  cannot  fail  to  recognize  the  great  success  that 
has  attended  the  enterprise  of  a  handful  of  Englishmen,  who^ 
without  adventitious  aid,  have,  during  a  single  generation^ 
established  a  flourishing  community,  reproducing  most  of  the 
social  and  material  advantages  of  the  Mother  Country,  and 
much  of  old  world  civilization,  conducive  to  the  happiness  and 
prosperity  of  a  people.  Fifty  thousand  men,  supporting  thrice 
their  number  of  women  and  children,  occupy  two  hundred 
thousand  square  miles  of  pastoral  country,  and  possess  six 
millions  of  sheep ;  own  six  million  acres  of  land,  and  grow 
twelve  million  bushels  of  wheat;  conduct  an  external  com- 
merce of  nine  millions  sterling,  and  raise  one  million  of 
revenue.  Such  is  the  material  result  shown  in  the  thirty- 
ninth  year  of  the  colonization  of  South  Australia. 


^^S    FOUNDATION. 


STAPLE  PRODUCE  EXPORTED. 

8HIPPINO. 
Inwardi  &  Outwanto. 

-  EMIGK 

— 

RAIN- 
FAIJ^ 

YEAR. 

TIOM. 

ToUI. 

Breadstolb. 

Wool.           Minerals. 

Namber. 

Tonnage. 

_        £ 

£ 

£                   £ 

Inches. 

— 

—         '        — 

9 

2,592 

— 

1836 

-^ 

— 

1887 

~        5,040 

770  1       — 

— 

— . 

— 

1838 

9,165 



350         — 

— 

— 

19-84 

1839 

15,650 



8,740          — 

425 

83,787 

24-23 

1840 

~      40,561 

35,485 

197 

87,036 

17-96 

1841 

.       .    29,079 
^'f'    66,160 
!|    82,268 
Ij  131,800 
°™  287,059 
.~i  275,115 
^'^465,878 
2.691373,842 
*'^i  545,040 
,°'2^|  540.962 
Jj'«  786,899 
\'j^  731,595 
l'*^i  694,422 
*'™  686,953 
J'27'398,867 
*'»2J744,184 
^•^355,041 
|'°2i502,165 
|'«"' 576,326 
$'"i;838,639 
I'SS.  920,487 
|'°«^095,356 
|'!°2;015,537 
f''"5754,657 
I'ijj,  539,723 
*'"*<;776,095 
*'"♦  603,826 

|'J^«,  123,297 
|'1»J,289,861 
|'*»:,524,087 
|'"],285,191 
»'27J,868,275 
*'"*%  442,100 

22,036  I 

150 

25,354 

20-32 

1842 



45,568 

127 

104 

15,533 

17-19 

1843 

42,769 

6,436 

139 

18,489 

16-88 

1844 

72,235 

19,020 

225 

26,558 

18-83 

1845 

106,510 

143,231 

278 

49,509 

26-89 

1846 

56,130 

174,017 

301 

62,641 

27-61 

1847 

— — 

98,582 

320,624 

412 

90,956 

19-74 

1848 

108,539 

219,775 

549 

155,920 

25-44 

1849 

38,312 

131,731 

365,464 

559 

174,455 

19-51 

1850 

73,359 

148,036     310.916 

538 

155,002 

30-63 

1851 

212,566 

115,877 

374,778 

739 

202,507 

27-34 

1852 

257,144 

236,020 

176,744 

869 

260,917 

27 

1853 

316,217 

182,419 

94,831 

947 

290,534 

15-35 

1854 

236,400 

283,479 

155,557 

711 

225,923 

23-15 

1855 

556,371 

412,163 

408,042 

867 

230,390 

24-02 

1856 

755,840 

504,520 

458,839 

970 

282,368 

21-16 

1857 

525,398 

420,833 

373,282 

741 

192,391 

21-52 

1858 

554,265 

484,977     411,018 

792 

216,128 

14-85 

1859 

499,102 

573,368     446,537 

662 

209,036 

19-67 

1860 

712,789 

623,007     452,172 

788 

199,331 

25-19 

1861 

633,241 

635,270  1  547,619 

766 

216,521 

22*84 

1862 

747,116 

715,935     542,393 

886 

255,493 

22-92 

1863 

1,464,593 

775,656     691,624 

1,236 

321,388 

19-45 

1864 

1,228,480 

821,482     620,112 

1,220 

357,290 

14-75 

1865 

645,401 

990,173     824,501 

1,039 

339,871 

19-94 

1866 

1,037,085 

919,532     753,413 

1,136 

343,819 

19-35 

1867 

568,491 

1,305,280     624,022 

903 

277,872 

17-88 

1868 

890,343 

1,008,696     627,152 

1,112 

333,507 

13-85 

1869 

470,828 

902,753     574,090 

916 

287,989 

24-1 

1870 

1,253,429 

1,170,885     648,569 

1,238 

373,624 

23-5 

1871 

860,202 

1,647,387     806,364 

1,033 

347,360 

23  17 

1872 

1,711,746 

1,617,588  .  770,590 

1,631 

515,640 

21-6 

1873 

1,230,331 

1  1,762.987  1  700,323 

1,440 

534,550 

19-14 

1874 

1,680,996 

1,833,519     762,386 

'                     1 

1,634 

,  611,381 

1 

31-45 

1875 

'otal  area^g  4QQ  ^^^^^ 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA: 

ITS  OBSERVATORY  AND  METEOROLOGY. 
By  Charles  Todd,  C.M.G.,  F.RA.S., 

rOSTMASTKB-OENEBAL  AND  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  TELBGBAPUS,  AND 

GOVEBNMENT  A8TB0N0MEB. 

In  a  young  Colony  where  a  mere  handful  of  people  have 
had  to  bring  vast  wastes  under  cultivation,  build  new  homes, 
construct  roads  and  railways,  and  carry  out  other  extensive 
public  works  necessary  for  the  development  of  the  country 
they  have  traversed  the  ocean  to  occupy,  it  is  not  to  be 
expected  that  much  time,  thought,  or  money  can  be  devoted 
to  Science  and  Art.  With  so  many  pressing  and  more  imme- 
diately important  claims  upon  a  limited  revenue,  little  can  be 
spared  in  the  early  days  of  a  new  settlement  for  the  promotion 
of  those  higher  purposes  and  objects  which  commend  them- 
selves to  our  intellect  and  attract  our  best  sympathies. 
This  is  a  penalty  man  has  to  pay  when  he  leaves  the  crowded 
civilization  of  old  countries  to  seek  fresh  and  more  ample 
fields  where  his  enterprise  and  vigour  will  have  freer  scope. 
Colonists  necessarily  become  great  utilitarians,  but  to  the 
credit  of  Australians  an  intelligent  visitor  to  our  shores  will 
find  that,  whilst  we  have  been  vigorously  employed  in  sub- 
duing nature  till  the  wilderness  blossoms  as  the  rose,  and  have 
laid  the  foundations  of  a  great  and  prosperous  nation,  the 
sacred  cause  of  education  has  not  been  overlooked,  nor  have 
the  advantages  of  mental  culture  ever  been  despised. 

The  Observatory,  for  the  reasons  just  explained,  is  as  yet 
but  a  very  modest  and  unpretending  institution,  presided  over 
by  the  Government  Astronomer,  who  is  also  Postmaster- 
General  and  Superintendent  of  Telegraphs.  It  is  situated  on 
the  West  Park  Lands,  having  the  City  of  Adelaide  and  the 


39(J  SOUTH  AUSTKALIA. 

Mount  Lofty  Ranges  on  the  east,  and  St.  Vincent's  Gulf, 
towards  which  the  land  gently  slopes,  at  a  distance  of  about 
four  miles  on  the  west.  Until  recently  its  operations  were 
chiefly  confined  to  meteorology,  but  advantage  was  taken  of 
the  transit  of  Venus,  in  December  1874,  to  procure  a  fine  ten- 
foot  equatorial,  by  Cooke  &  Son,  of  York. 

The  only  other  astronomical  instrument  is  a  forty-two-inch 
transit  instrument,  by  Simms,  kindly  placed  at  our  disposal  by 
the  Victorian  Government,  pending  the  erection  of  a  transit 
circle  which  it  is  intended  shortly  to  obtain. 

The  object-glass  of  the  equatorial  has  an  aperture  of  8  inches, 
with  a  focus  of  9  feet  11  inches,  the  telescope  being  carried 
by  a  massive  iron  pillar,  standing  on  a  pier  of  solid  masonry 
having  a  broad  foundation  of  concrete.  The  whole  is  enclosed 
in  a  dome  eighteen  feet  in  diameter,  revolving  on  cannon  balls. 
The  pillar  which  carries  the  telescope  consists  of  two  parts, 
the  upper  part  turning  on  the  lower  by  means  of  a  pinion 
working  into  teeth  round  the  circumference  of  the  lower  pillar, 
so  that  the  polar  axis  may  be  set  to  the  meridian,  or  to  any 
desired  angle  with  the  meridian.  By  means  of  a  massive 
toothed  iron  semi-circle,  into  which  works  a  large  horizontal 
screw,  the  polar  axis  can  be  set  parallel  with  the  horizon,  or 
brought  within  25  or  30  degrees  of  the  vertical ;  and  is  set  to 
the  meridian  in  the  manner  already  described. 

Clock-work  motion  is  provided,  and  by  a  somewhat  novel 
arrangement  the  clock  can  be  made  to  drive  the  telescope  in 
either  direction.  These  three  adjustments  give  the  instrument 
an  almost  universal  character,  adapting  it  to  either  hemi- 
sphere. 

The  hour  circle  and  the  declination  circle  are  read  by 
verniers,  the  former  to  two  seconds  in  time,  and  the  latter  to 
ten  seconds  in  arc. 

A  long  microscope  at  the  eye-end  of  the  telescope  en- 
ables the  observer  to  read  or  set  the  declination  circle  to 
any  reading  without  leaving  his  seat,  the  vernier  and  arc  of 
the  circle  being  illuminated  by  the  same  lamp  which  lights 
the  field  of  view. 


ITS  OBSERVATORY  AND  METEOROLOGY.      397 

At  the  eye-end  of  the  telescope  is  a  position  circle,  and 
the  instrument  is  provided  with  a  complete  battery  of  eye- 
pieces, including  a  double  micrometer  and  transit  eye-pieces, 
with  various  powers,  Huyghenian  eye-pieces  ranging  up  to 
660,  and  total  and  first  surface  reflection  prisms. 

There  has  also  been  added  since  a  fine  universal  auto- 
matic six-prism  spectroscope,  by  Browning,  with  an  arrange- 
ment for  reversing  the  rays  so  as  to  give  a  dispersive  power 
ranging  from  two  to  twelve  prisms. 

A  time  ball  at  the  Semaphore,  about  nine  miles  distant, 
is  dropped  daily  at  1  p.m.  by  voltaic  current  from  the  Obser- 
vatory. The  ball  is  on  the  top  of  a  high  tower,  so  that  it  is 
visible  to  the  shipping  in  the  inner  harbour  at  Port  Adelaide, 
and  in  the  roadstead  outside  in  the  gulf. 

Meteorological  observations  are  made  daily  at  9  a.m.,  12 
noon,  3  p.m.,  6  p.m.,  and  9  p.m.,  and  comprise  readings  of 
barometer,  dry  and  wet  bulb  thermometers  (including  maxi- 
mum and  minimum  temperatures  during  the  24  hours),  solar 
and  terrestrial  radiation,  direction  and  force  of  wind,  rainfall,, 
evaporation,  ozone,  amount  of  cloud,  and  general  character  of 
the  weather.  The  temperature  of  the  soil  is  also  ascertained 
by  mercurial  thermometers,  whose  bulbs  are  respectively  8,  5,. 
and  3  feet  beneath  the  surface. 

The  barometer  by  Adie  of  London  is  fixed  in  the  transit- 
room,  the  cistern  being  about  140  feet  above  the  sea-level- 
The  internal  diameter  of  the  tube  is  0*5  inch.  The  zero 
of  the  brass  scale  (silvered)  is  an  ivory  point  to  which  the 
surface  of  the  mercury  in  the  cistern  is  adjusted  before 
reading,  and  by  means  of  the  vernier  the  scale  can  be  read 
off  to  0-002  inch. 

The  thermometer,  including  the  dry  and  wet  bulb,  and 
seK-registering  instruments,  are  mounted  about  5  feet  6  inches 
from  the  ground  on  an  improved  form  of  the  Greenwich  stand,, 
modified  to  suit  the  climate,  the  instruments  being  well  pro- 
tected from  the  sun  and  rain  and  screened  from  the  sky,  but 
otherwise  fully  exposed  to  currents  of  air,  the  stand  being  at 
some  distance  from  any  building. 


398  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

A  corresponding  set  of  instruments  were  mounted  in  1869 
in  an  octagon-shaped  wooden  structure,  10  feet  in  diameter, 
with  wide  open  lattice  walls,  5  feet  9  inches  high,  sur- 
mounted by  a  conical  louvre  roof,  carried  to  a  height  of  13 
feet,  with  a  rain-gauge  at  the  top,  the  standard  rain-gauge 
being  on  the  ground.  The  building  is  floored  with  planks, 
and  the  whole  is  well  painted  white.  The  instruments  are 
fixed  a  little  over  5  feet  above  the  floor  on  a  skeleton  frame 
of  wood,  supported  by  a  stout  post .  securely  planted  in  the 
centre  of  the  building.  A  similar  thermometer  stand  was 
adopted  at  the  Sydney  Observatory,  and  with  some  modifica- 
tions seems  well  suited  to  a  hot  climate— perhaps  better  suite<l 
than  the  Greenwich  stand — and,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer, 
is  certainly  to  be  preferred  to  the  double  louvre  box  designed 
by  Mr.  Thomas  Stevenson  of  Edinburgh,  and  adopted  by  the 
Scottish  Meteorological  Society.  Sudden  fluctuations  of  tem- 
perature are,  however,  not  so  readily  or  so  quickly  followed  or 
indicated,  and  the  thermometers  as  a  rule  lag  behind  those  on 
the  Greenwich  stand. 

The  solar  radiation  thermometer — which  is,  as  are  nearly 
all  the  other  self-registering  instruments,  of  Negretti  and  Zam- 
bra's  make,  having  a  black  glass  bulb  enclosed  in  an  exhausted 
glass  tube — is  held  about  5  feet  from  the  ground  by  two  light 
wooden  arms  screwed  on  to  a  stout  post  planted  in  an  open 
space  of  ground. 

The  ground  thermometers,  made  by  Grimoldi  of  Mel- 
bourne, are  placed  vertically  in  a  wooden  trough  filled  with 
earth,  and  buried  so  as  to  have  the  bulbs  respectively  8  feet, 
6  feet,  and  3  feet  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  upper 
part  of  the  scales  being  about  a  foot  above  and  enclosed  in  a 
cupboard  painted  white. 

The  rain-gauges  are  of  Glaisher's  form,  having  a  circular 
receiving  surface  8  inches  in  diameter,  the  gauge  being 
placed  on  the  ground  on  a  clear  space,  where  it  is  wholly  un- 
sheltered in  every  direction.     There  are  three  gauges two 

being  on   the   ground,  and   the   third   on    the    top   of   the 
thermometer  house  before  mentioned. 


ITS  OBSERVATORY  AND  METEOROLOGY.  399 

The  evaporation  is  ascertained  in  the  following  manner : — 
The  atmometer,  or  evaporation  tank,  consists  of  a  large  box 
made  of  well-seasoned  red  gum,  lined  with  zinc;  the  box 
is  4  feet  square,  and  3  feet  6  inches  deep,  and  is  sunk  in 
the  ground  to  a  depth  of  3  feet,  and  is  kept  filled  with 
water  to  within  3  or  4  inches  of  the  top.  The  height  of 
the  water-level  is  measured  every  morning  at  9  A.M.,  thus 
— A  stout  brass  bar  is  placed  diagonally  over  one  comer  of 
the  tank,  resting  horizontally  on  two  iron  plates;  at  right 
angles  to  this  bar  is  a  vertical  graduated  rod,  movable  by 
rack  and  pinion,  and  read  by  means  of  a  fixed  vernier  to 
O'Ol  inch.  The  lower  end  of  the  rod  is  pointed,  and  is  care- 
fully set  to  the  water-level  in  a  2-inch  tube  fixed  in  the 
tank,  the  tube  being  perforated  at  the  bottom.  A  perfectly 
smooth  surface  is  thus  obtained,  even  in  the  highest  winds. 
A  rain-gauge  by  the  side  of  the  tank  shows  the  rainfall 
received  by  the  latter.  A  similar  tank  is  placed  at  the 
waterworks  reservoir,  a  sheet  of  water  of  twenty-seven  acres, 
near  the  foot  of  the  hills,  281  feet  above  the  sea,  and  about 
six  miles  from  Adelaide. 

Similar,  but  less  complete,  observations  are  carried  on  at 
several  of  the  telegraph  stations  in  the  Colony,  including  Port 
Darwin  on  the  north  coast  of  Australia ;  and  also  at  the  light- 
houses. Kain-gauges  have  also  been  supplied  to  about  seventy 
stations,  which  send  in  returns  monthly. 

Besides  this,  every  telegraph  oflSce  transmits  to  Adelaide  a 
report  on  the  state  of  the  weather,  &c.,  each  morning  at  9  A.M., 
and  similar  reports  are  received  from  the  principal  coast  offices 
in  the  other  Colonies.  These  reports  are  published  daily  at 
the  central  telegraph  office. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that,  on  the  completion  of  the  telegraph 
to  Western  Australia,  now  in  course  of  construction,  the  ob- 
server in  Adelaide  will  possess  the  means  of  knowing  the 
prevailing  state  of  the  weather  each  day  nearly  all  round  the 
sea-board  of  Australia,  and  over  a  great  portion  of  the  interior, 
information  which,  if  rightly  used  and  interpreted,  cannot  fail 
to  be  most  useful.    The  stations  on  the  overland  telegraph, 


400  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

from  Adelaide  to  Port  Darwin,  are  especially  serviceable  in 
determining  the  southerly  march  of  the  north-west  monsoon, 
which  prevails  on  the  north  coast  from  towards  the  middle  of 
November  to  March,  and  occasionally  extends  its  influence  in 
heavy  thunderstorms  right  across  the  continent. 

What  has  been  said  will  serve  to  show  that  the  Observatorv 
is  performing  useful  work.  Unfortunately  its  operations  have 
been  crippled,  and  the  periodical  publication  of  returns  has 
been  stopped  for  want  of  adequate  assistance,  the  Government 
Observer,  in  addition  to  the  onerous  official  duties  of  Post- 
master-General and  Superintendent  of  Telegraphs,  having  been 
called  away  for  lengthened  periods  to  secure  the  successful 
completion  of  the  overland  telegraph,  a  national  undertaking- 
of  vast  importance,  which  has  been  referred  to  in  a  previous 
portion  of  this  hand-book.  Eecently,  however,  an  assistant 
observer,  Mr.  Alexander  Kingwood,  and  a  cadet  have  been 
appointed. 

With^this  augmentation  of  strength  it  is  proposed  shortly 
to  take  up  fresh  work,  and  introduce  improved  systems  of 
observation.  The  present  transit  instrument  will  be  replaced 
by  a  transit  circle,  having  a  six-inch  object  glass,  and  thirty- 
inch  circle.  It  is  also  recommended  that  photographic  regis- 
trations of  the  variations  of  the  barometer  temperature  and 
humidity,  on  the  same  principle  as  that  adopted  at  Kew  and 
Greenwich,  shall  be  introduced :  and  in  view  of  the  great 
importance  of  possessing  reliable  statistics  of  the  average 
maximum  and  minimum  rainfall  at  diflferent  places,  as 
affording  a  clue  to  the  law  governing  its  distribution  and 
annual  fluctuations,  the  Government,  at  the  instance  of  the 
Astronomer,  have  sanctioned  the  issue  of  rain-gauges  to 
persons  residing  in  selected  localities  who  may  be  willing  to 
take  charge  of  them  and  undertake  to  furnish  regular  returns 
to  the  Observatory. 

In  view  of  the  real  wants  of  a  young  community,  the 
Government  Astronomer  is  anxious  to  turn  the  Observatory  to 
account  in  the  promotion  of  high-class  education,  by  the 
delivery  at  the  Observatory  of  lectures  on  the  physical  sciences 


ITS  OBSERVATOET  AND  METEOROLOGY.  401 

to  students,  and  in  a  recent  official  report  to  the  Government 
he  remarks  : — "  With  regard  to  the  special  work  and  object  of 
the  Observatory  as  a  public  institution,  it  would,  I  think,  be 
well  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  Observatory  is  required  not  so 
much  for  the  furtherance  of  astronomical  science — for  which 
there  is,  perhaps,  ample  and  better  provision  elsewhere — as  for 
educational  purposes,  as  an  important  adjunct  to  our  university 
and  higher  class  schools  for  both  sexes.  It  will,  of  course,  have 
its  regular  work  such  as  I  have  described,  and  it  will  be  able 
to  render  valuable  aid  in  those  fields  of  astronomical  research 
which  do  not  involve  continuous  observation  or  heavy  compu- 
tations— such  work,  in  fact,  as  may  be  safely  left  to  observatories 
like  ours,  which  do  not  possess  a  large  staff  of  official  observers. 
We  could  take  up,  among  other  things,  solar  and  stellar  spec- 
troscopy, sun  spots,  double  stars,  and,  what  the  Astronomer 
Boyal,  Sir  G.  B.  Airy,  has  pointed  out  as  a  great  want,  ob- 
servations of  occultations,  eclipses,  and  transits  of  Jupiter's 
satellites.  On  these  we  may  be  usefully  employed,  but  beyond 
this  I  must  confess  that  I  am  more  anxious  to  see  our  Obser- 
vatory popularised  as  a  school  of  physical  science,  at  which 
regular  courses  of  lectures  should  be  delivered  on  practical 
and  physical  astronomy,  navigation,  meteorology,  magnetism, 
electricity,  heat,  light,  and  optics.  In  naming  this  list  of 
subjects,  taking  so  wide  a  range  of  cognate  sciences,  I  need 
hardly  say  that,  with  my  other  duties  as  the  director  of  so 
large  a  department  of  the  public  service  as  the  Post  Office  and 
Telegraph,  especially  too  after  so  long  a  residence  in  the 
Colony,  it  would  be  impossible  for  me  to  attempt  to  carry  out 
even  a  tithe  of  what  I  have  ventured  to  indicate  as  the  best 
way  of  utilizing  the  Observatory  in  the  promotion  of  high-class 
education ;  but  I  could  continue  to  direct  the  operations  of  the 
observatory,  and  collect  together  the  apparatus  required  for 
lectures  and  other  purposes." 

Having  described  the  Observatory  and  its  operations,  it 
remains  to  say  a  few  words  in  respect  to  the  climate.  Here  as 
elsewhere  the  weather  is  a  fertile  subject  for  conversation,  and 
people  whose  avocations  are  affected  by  its  changes  are  never 

2  D 


402  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA. 

tired  of  talking  about  it — ^at  one  time  in  terms  of  praise,  at 
another  in  terms  of  complaint;  but  what,  perhaps,  would  most 
strike  a  visitor  from   colder  and  more  humid  climates,  is 
the  fact  that  people  here  never  complain  of  rain ;  on  the  con- 
trary, a  wet  day  is  generally  announced  by  such  expressions  as 
"  Splendid  rain  to-day,  I  hope  it  is  general ;  "  "  What  fine  rains 
we  are  having,  they  extend  well  north ; "  and  they  only  who 
know  what  it  is  to  have  consecutive  weeks,  and  in*  some  parts 
many  months,  of  unclouded  sky  and  hot  sun  can  appreciate  the 
real  luxury  of  rain.     Our  climate,  beautiful  as  it  really  is, 
affording  as  it  does  a  greater  number  of  pleasant  days  on  which 
outdoor  pursuits  can  be  carried  on  with  buoyancy  of  spirits, 
one  must  confess  is  a  wee  bit  dry,  a  fact  which  vegetation  on 
the  plains  during  our  summer  season  sufficiently  attests.    The 
clearness  or  transparency  of   the  atmosphere  is  something 
wonderful,  and  owing  to  its  dryness  the  heat,  except  on  hot- 
wind  days,  is  seldom  oppressive  unless  one  is  lazy.     Cricket 
matches  are  played  with  the  usual  enthusiasm  before  crowds  of 
spectators  with  the  thermometer  ranging  between  90°  and  100"^ 
in  the  shade,  and  the  writer  has  ridden  fifty  miles  in  the  day 
with  the  temperature  as  high  as  110°  without  much  incon- 
venience or  distress — the  secret  of  which  is  that  these  high 
temperatures  are  always  accompanied  by  such  an  extreme 
dryness   of    the  air  that  perspiration  affords  instantaneous 
relief.    When  a  fierce  hot  wind  is  blowing,  and  the  thermo- 
meter stands  perhaps  at  something  over  100°,  the  wet  bulb 
thermometer  will  show  65°,  and  it  is  this  which  enables  persons 
to  bear  the  heat  of  our  summer  and  carry  on  their  usual  pur- 
suits with  less  inconvenience  and  discomfort  than  is  felt  in 
tropical  and  damp  climates,  though  the  temperature  may  be 
15°  or  20°  lower,  but  nearly  saturated  with  aqueous  vapour,  as 
at  Port  Darwin,  where  during  the  rainy  season  of  the  north- 
west monsoon,  the  thermometer  may  stand  at  only  88°,  whilst 
the  wet  bulb  at  the  same  time  indicates  86°.    Such  an  atmo- 
sphere, we  need  hardly  say,  is  far  more  enervating  than  the  hot 
and  dry  air  of  the  Adelaide  plains. 

The  observations  at  the  Observatory  satisfactorily  represent 


ITS  OBSEKVATOEY  AND  METEOKOLOGY.      403 

the  climate  of  the  plains  for  some  distance  north  and  south  of 
Adelaide,  but  on  the  Mount  Lofty  Eanges  close  by  the  citizens 
in  an  hour  or  two  find  a  much  lower  temperature,  and  twenty 
minutes  by  railway  carries  them  to  the  invigorating  breezes  of 
the  gulf;  and  except  when  kept  back  by  strong  easterly  and 
northerly  winds,  the  sea  breeze  usually  sets  in  soon  after 
10  AM.,  and  sweeps  across  the  plains,  tempering  the  heat 
during  what  would  otherwise  be  the  hottest  hours  of  the 
day. 

The  hottest  months  in  the  year  are  December,  January, 
and  February,  when  the  temperature  on  the  plains  frequently 
exceeds  100°  in  the  shade.  November  and  March  are  also  hot ; 
but  the  nights,  especially  in  the  former  month,  are  cooler,  and 
the  heat  is  seldom  of  long  duration,  rarely  reaching  100°  in 
the  shade,  and,  coming  in  suddenly  with  a  strong  hot  wind,  is 
followed  quickly  by  a  change  to  cool  or  even  cold  weather.  A 
few  hot  days  occasionally  occur  in  October,  but  even  in  the 
hottest  months,  especially  in  December,  the  weather  is  often 
broken  by  cloudy,  cold  intervals,  with  strong  south-west  winds, 
veering  gradually  to  south  and  south-east.  This  state  of 
things  will  continue  for  several  days,  during  which  the  wind 
from  the  south-east  will  usually  freshen  towards  sunset,  a  bcmk 
of  cloud  forming  over  the  Mount  Lofty  Eanges  with  cold  nights, 
the  temperature  falling  rapidly  after  sunset.  The  duration  of 
these  south-easterly  winds  appears  to  depend  upon  the  weather 
on  the  eastern  coast ;  and  the  presence  of  the  bank  of  cloud  on 
the  ranges,  and  the  persistence  and  force  of  the  wind,  often 
indicate  gales  and  rain  on  the  coasts  of  New  South  Wales  and 
Queensland,  although  the  weather  here  may  be  fine  and  clear 
overhead.  As  the  easterly  wind  moderates,  it  gradually  hauls 
to  the  north,  and  alternate  land  (easterly)  and  sea  (south- 
westerly) breezes  set  in  with  fine  weather,  getting  warmer  and 
warmer,  till  another  spell  of  extreme  heat  is  experienced.  The 
heat  is  sometimes  followed  by  rain,  especially  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  season,  setting  in  with  the  surface  wind  light  at 
north-east,  but  the  upper  current  north-west.  This  is  usually 
presaged  by  aggregations  of  cirro-curauli,  which  close  up  into 

2  D  2 


404  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

a  bank,  with  a  hard  sharply  defined  outline,  gradually  spreading 
over  the  sky,  the  clouds  at  the  same  time  increasing  in  density 
as  they  change  their  character  with  scud  forming  beneath. 
The  rain  increases  as  the  wind  veers  to  the  north-west,  and 
often  extends  over  a  large  area  to  the  north,  and  is  sometimes 
accompanied  with  heavy  thunder  and  lightning,  usually  termi- 
nating with  a  gale  from  the  south-west.  The  same  thing 
occurs  in  the  winter,  but  the  wind  at  that  season  hangs  longer 
about  the  west,  often  backing  to  the  north-west  with  heavy- 
rain  and  wind.  These  are  usually  our  heaviest  and  most 
widely  diffused  falls,  the  rains  from  the  south-west  seldom 
ext-ending  far  inland. 

Regarding  the  summer  as  extending  from  October  to  March 
inclusive,  the  highest  temperature  recorded  during  the  ten 
years  1865  to  1874  was  113-5  in  January  1867,  and  the  same 
in  November  1865;  and  the  lowest,  38*5,  in  October  1871. 
The  highest  reading  in  the  sun  during  the  same  period  was 
164*0  in  January  1870,  and  the  lowest  reading  of  a  thermo- 
meter, with  its  bulb  on  wool  placed  on  the  ground,  was  24'6, 
in  October  1871.  The  monthly  mean  temperature  is  highest 
in  January  and  February,  being  nearly  equal  in  the  two 
months,  viz.  73*7  and  73*8  respectively.  The  mean  tempera- 
ture of  December  is  about  71*4 ;  March,  70*1 ;  November,  66'5 ; 
and  October,  62-5. 

After  March  the  temperature  falls  rapidly,  very  rarely 
reaching  90°  in  the  shade  in  April  (only  six  times  in  five  years), 
the  mean  temperature  for  that  month,  deduced  from  ten  years* 
observations,  being  64*6,  or  5*2  below  that  of  the  preceding 
month,  whilst  for  May  it  is  only  58*2.  The  weather  during 
April  and  a  great  part  of  May  is  simply  perfection,  and  the 
«ame  applies  to  most  of  the  winter  and  till  the  end  of  October. 
Although  corresponding  to  the  autunm  or  early  winter  of 
Europe,  it  is  virtually  spring  when  vegetation,  refreshed  by  the 
first  rains  after  the  drought  of  summer,  bursts  into  fresh  life, 
and  the  whole  surface  of  the  land  is  clad  with  verdure.  Heavy 
rains  frequently  fall  in  May,  the  largest  recorded  being  6*340 
inches  in  1851,  the  wettest  year  since  records  were  commenced 


ITS  OBSEKVATORY  AND  METEOEOLOGY.  405 

by  Sir  G.  S.  Kingston  in  1839,  but  the  mean  for  the  thirty-six 
years  ending  1874  is  2*814  inches. 

The  coldest  months  are  June,  July,  and  August,  the  mean 
monthly  temperature  of  which  are  54*4,  51*5,  and  53-7 
respectively.  The  highest  temperature  recorded  in  those 
months  during  the  ten  years  1865-1874  was  80*0,  in  August 
1865,  and  the  lowest,  34*1,  in  August  1872.  During  the  same 
period  the  solar  thermometer  reached  130*5  in  August  1874, 
and  the  thermometer  on  wool  fell  to  24*6  in  July  1873.  At 
this  season  of  the  year  the  temperature  during  the  day  generally 
ranges  between  55°  and  70°,  the  latter  being  only  occasionally 
reached,  and  falls  on  the  average  to  about  45°  in  the  night, 
sometimes  much  lower.  These  and  May  are  usually  our  wettest 
months,  the  average  quantity  falling  during  this  period,  deduced 
from  thirty-six  years'  observations  (1839-1874j,  being  11*181 
inches,  the  monthly  averages  being  respectively  2*814,  2*915, 
2*801,  and  2*621  inches,  for  May,  June,  July,  and  August.  The 
average  number  of  wet  days  in  these  months  for  the  same 
period  was  13  days  in  May,  14  days  in  June,  16  days  in  July, 
and  16  days  in  August.  The  greatest  number  of  wet  days  in 
any  one  month  was  29  days  in  July  1861,  on  which  the  total 
fall  was  4*082  inches,  and  in  the  following  year  there  were  24 
wet  days,  and  5*075  inches  in  the  same  month.  The  maximum 
quantity  recorded  in  one  month  was  6*340  inches  on  19  days 
in  May  1851 ;  7*800  inches  on  ten  days  in  June  1848 ;  5*380 
inches  on  17  days  in  July  1865;  and  6*240  inches  on  21  days 
in  August  1852.  The  least  quantity  in  the  same  months  was 
0*245  inches  on  5  days  in  May  1839 ;  1*138  inches  on  9  days 
in  June  1844 ;  0*726  inch  on  12  days  in  July  1859 ;  and 
0*675  on  3  days  in  August  1860.  These  quantities,  of  course, 
refer  to  the  plains  of  Adelaide ;  on  the  hills  and  in  the  south- 
eastern portion  of  the  colony  the  rainfall  is  much  heavier. 
The  following  tables  will  sufficiently  indicate  the  climatic 
characteristics  of  Adelaide  during  each  month  of  the  year : — 


406 


SOUTH  AUSTKALIA. 


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ITS  OBSEEVATORT  AND  METEOROLOGY. 


407 


Result  of  the  Mean  Monthly  Rainfall  at  Adelaide  dubing  the 

Tbibtt-six  Yeabs  1839-1874. 


Months. 

Mean. 

Mean 

No.  of 

w»-t 

GreateBt. 

Least 

Mean 
Evapora- 

Uon, 
Five  Years. 

Days. 

January 

Inchpfl. 
0-722 

4 

4-000 

0000 

Incbes. 
10-641 

February 

0-670 

3 

8  100 

0-000 

8-802 

March 

0-881 

51 

3-753 

0-000 

7-608 

April 

..       1-760 

8i 

6-780 

0-250 

4-474 

May      ... 

..  ,    2-814 

13 

6-340 

0-690 

2-902 

June     ... 

..       2-915 

14 

7-800 

1-138 

1-795 

July      ...        . 

..  1    2-801 

16 

5-380 

0-726 

1-959 

August ... 

..  1    2-621 

16 

6-240 

0-675 

2-667 

September 

..       2-071 

131 

4-640 

0-711 

3-427 

October... 

..  ;     1-739 

10 

3-834 

0-460 

5-981 

November 

..       1-203 

1 

5 

3-550 

0-100 

6-979 

December 

0-894 

54 

3-977 

0-105 

9-420 

21-091 

114 

— 

66-655 

From    which  the  following  hygrometric  results  are    de- 
duced : — 


Temperature 

Elastic  Force 

Deffre^of 

of  Dew  Point. 

of  Vapour. 

Humliity. 

Degrees. 

,«  Inches. 

(Saturation  =  100.) 

January     . 

52-8 

0-400 

48 

February    . 

530 

0-405 

48 

March 

511 

0-377 

51 

AprU 

50-2 

0-368 

60 

May 

47-9 

0-335 

67 

June 

46-3 

0-318 

74 

July 

44-0 

0*289 

77 

August 

45-0 

0-298 

73 

September . 

460 

0-310 

66 

October 

47-3 

0-826 

57 

November 

49-3 

0-352 

54 

December 

50-1 

0*362 

47 

Year 


48-3 


0-338 


60 


408 


SOUTH  AUSTBALIA. 


For  purposes  of  comparison,  the  following  table  gives  the 
mean  temperature  at  Adelaide,  Clare,  Mount  Barker,  Mount 
Gambier,  and  Kobe;  also  the  maximum  and  minimum  for 
the  year  1874. 


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ITS  OBSEKVATOKY  AND  METEOROLOGY. 


409 


From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  the  barometer  is 
highest  during  the  winter  months,  when  the  air  in  the  interior 
is  cold  and  dense,  and  winds  set  towards  the  coast ;  and  lowest 
during  the  summer,  when  the  atmosphere  in  the  heated  interior 
becomes  rarified,  and  the  winds  have  a  general  set  inwards 
from  the  coast,  the  monthly  means  ranging  from  29*809  inches 
in  December  to  30*020  in  July.  The  mean  reading  for  each 
quarter  for  the  decennial  period  was — 

January        ) 
IstQaarter     {     February       ^    29*884  inches. 

March 


I     April 
2nd  Quarter    {     May 

June 
July 
8rd  Quarter    I    August 

(    September 


4th  Quarter 


or  for 


October 
November 
I     December     | 


30008  inches. 
29*978  inches. 
29-877  inches. 


Six  summer  mon ths    . . . 
Six  winter  months 


...    29  880  inches. 
...    29-991  inches. 


The  highest  reading  during  the  ten  years  was  30*533 
inches,  in  June  1873,  and  the  lowest  29*096  inches,  in  September 
1867.  The  fluctuations  of  the  barometer  are  greatest  during 
the  winter  months,  as  shown  by  the  following  table,  which 
exhibits  the  range  of  the  baxometer  in  each  month  during  the 
ten  years  1865  to  1874,  the  greatest  range  in  any  one  month 
being  1*379  inches,  which  occurred  in  August  1870,  and  the 
least  range,  0*474  inches,  in  January  1865. 

Bangs  of  thx  Daboheteb  vx  kach  BIomth  dubino  the  Ten  Yeabs  1865-1874. 


HodUu. 

186S. 

1866. 

1867. 

1868. 

1869. 

1870. 

1871. 

'    1872. 
Inches. 

1873. 

1874. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inchen. 

Inche«. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

JftIL  ... 

0*474 

0-647 

0*736 

0*536 

0*579 

0*877 

0*589 

0*802 

0-521 

0*666 

Feb. ... 

0*71» 

0*716 

0*754 

0-788 

0*573 

0*575 

0-614 

0*637 

0*674 

0*590 

March 

0*642 

0*761 

0*642 

0-597 

0*766 

0*510 

0*539 

0*477 

0*662 

0*792 

April... 
May  ... 

0*693 

0*631 

0*690 

0*958 

0*665 

0*663 

0*549 

0*735 

0-709 

0*559 

0-818 

0*929 

0*741 

0-669 

0*727 

0*960 

0*834 

1*032 

0*840 

1*060 

Jaue ... 

0-722 

0*904 

0*794 

1*097  , 

0*794  ' 

1*037 

0*728 

IM16 

1*084 

0*950 

Jai7 ... 

1-831 

0*777 

0-961 

1*019 

0*801 

0*721 

1*145 

I'Ohl 

0*836 

0*725 

Angtut 

0*894 

1*0«8 

1*113 

0-827 

0*748 

1*379 

0*768 

1067 

0*828 

0-849 

Sept.... 

0*662 

0*843 

1*125 

U-853 

0*759  ; 

0*691 

0*942 

0*583 

0*769 

0*944 

Oct.  ... 

0*889 

1*079 

0-916 

0*686 

0*957  1 

0*943 

0*818 

0*8u8 

0*762 

0*798 

Nov. ... 

0*715 

0*725 

0-831 

0*692 

0*794 

0*682  , 

0*740 

0*702 

0*553 

0*696 

xWv«   ••• 

0*807 

0-685 

0*540 

0*59H  ! 

0*816 

0*808 

0*729 

0*681 

0*914 

0*138 

410 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


The  mean,  the  greatest,  and  least  range  of  the  barometer 
deduced  from  the  foregoing  table  is  aa  follows : — 


Mean  Range. 

incbep. 

January 

February 

March 

...     0-6317 
...     0-6640 
...     0-6388 

April... 
May  ... 

...    0-6852 

...    0-8610 

June  ... 

...    0-9226 

July  ... 
August 
September 
October 

...    0-9276 
...    0-9561 
...    0-8171 
..    0-8656 

November    . 

..    0-7132 

December 

..    0-7316 

Qreatttt  Range. 

Indies. 
0-802  in  1872 
0-788  in  1868 
0-792  in  1874 
0-958  in  1873 
1-060  in  1874 
1116  in  1872 
1-231  in  1865 
1-379  in  1870 
1125  in  1867 
1-079  in  1866 
0-831  in  1867 
0-914  in  1873 


Lea«tRang?. 
Inches. 
0-474  in  1865 
0-573  in  1869 
0-477  in  1872 
0-549  in  1865 
0-669  in  1868 
0-722  in  1865 
0-721  in  1870 
0-768  in  1871 
0-662  in  1870 
0-686  in  1868 
0-553  in  1873 
0-540  in  1867 


The  barometer  usually  rises  as  the  wind,  except  in  the  case 
of  mere  local  land  and  sea  breezes,  veers  from  north-west  round 
by  south  to  south-east,  where  it  attains  its  maximum,  falling  as 
it  goes  gradually  round  by  north  to  north-west,  where  it  reaches 
its  minimum.  In  the  winter  gales,  when  the  wind  clings  to  west 
and  backs  to  north-west,  the  barometer  falls,  and  bad  weather 
may  be  looked  for ;  and  in  the  summer,  when  it  holds  to  the 
north-east,  with  a  falling  barometer,  a  hot  wind  is  certain. 

Sir  G.  S.  Ejingston,  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Assembly, 
whose  experience  of  the  colony  extends  from  its  first  settlement 
in  1836,  and  who  has  kept  with  scrupulous  care  a  record  of 
the  rainfall  since  the  beginning  of  1839,  speaking  of  weather 
prognostics  in  an  elaborate  parliamentary  paper  on  the  rain- 
fall of  Adelaide,  remarks  that — 

"  The  heaviest  rains  throughout  the  year  may  be  expected 
with  a  wind  at  about  north-east,  the  rain  then  commencing  to 
fall  gently  and  the  wind  light,  both  gradually  increasing  as  the 
latter  veers  round  to  the  north,  and  thence  to  the  north-west, 
when  the  violence  of  both  rain  and  wind  has  much  increased ; 
after  this  the  wind  may  be  expected  to  draw  round  to  the  west 
with  still  increasing  violence,  till  the  wind  has  got  to  the  south 
of  west,  when  the  rain  generally  ceases,  or  at  least  rarely  falls, 
except  in  heavy  squalls  and  showers,  and  the  weather  clears  up. 
The  time  occupied  by  a  continuous  fall  of  rain,  as  thus  described, 
rarely  exceeds  twelve  hours.  The  wind  will,  however,  frequently 
hang  at  about  west,  with  a  few  points'  variation  to  the  south 


ITS  OBSERVATORY  AND  METEOROLOGY.  411 

and  north,  for  some  days,  during  which  period  rain  occurs  in 
showers  if  to  the  south,  and  more  steadily  in  proportion  to  the 
northing  of  the  wind.  The  heaviest  rains,  assuming  a  tropical 
character,  may  be  expected  after  a  hot  north-east  wind,  drawing 
round  to  the  north-west,  at  which  point  an  inch  of  rain  and 
upwards  has  often  fallen  within  the  hour,  accompanied  with 
heavy  thunder  and  lightning ;  or,  as  in  October  1854,  the  rain 
is  represented  by  tremendous  hailstorms,  the  hail  assuming 
the  form  of  flat  pieces  of  ice, 

"  As  regards  the  use  of  the  barometer  in  forming  a  judgment 
on  the  weather  to  be  expected,  I  have  to  observe  that  the 
barometer  invariably  begins  to  fall  with  a  nortii-east  wind, 
continuing  to  fall  as  the  wind  increases  in  violence,  and  draws 
round  by  the  north,  north-west,  and  westerly,  at  and  about 
which  point  it  reaches  it  lowest  figure;  the  barometer  im- 
mediately begins  to  rise  rapidly  with  the  least  southing  in  the 
wind.  Now,  although  a  low  barometer  thus  agrees  with  the 
heaviest  fall  of  rain,  it  is  impossible  to  draw  any  accurate  con- 
clusions from  it  as  to  certainty  of  rain  or  otherwise ;  unless, 
indeed,  when  the  wind  is  violent,  as  then,  even  with  every 
appearance  of  heavy  cloudy  weather,  rain  rarely  occurs.  Calm, 
murky  weather,  accompanied  by  a  low  state  of  the  barometer, 
is  the  most  favourable  indication  for  rain. 

"  I  have  frequently  seen  the  barometer  at  its  lowest  point 
(as  observed  by  me),  29*3,  the  wind  blowing  hard,  accompanied 
by  cloudy  weather,  when  no  rain  has  fallen.  On  the  other 
hand,  I  have  known  some  of  the  steadiest  and  most  copious 
rains  to  occur  with  the  barometer  at  30'2  and  falling,  the  wind 
light  or  nearly  calm. 

"  I  may  add  that,  generally  during  the  fine  weather,  a  land 
and  sea  breeze  alternates  during  the  twenty-four  hours.  After 
sunset  the  wind  generally  blows  from  about  south-east  to  east, 
dying  away  about  daylight ;  and  a  light  south-west  wind  springs 
up  about  9  A.M. ;  but,  failing  to  do  so,  the  night  wind  towards 
morning  draws  round  from  east  to  north-east,  by  north  to 
north-west,  and  west  towards  the  afternoon;  and,  should  it 
hang  to  the  north  of  east,  with  a  falling  barometer,  it  is  a 
certain  precursor  of  a  hot  wind. 


412  SOUTH  AUSTBALIA. 

"It  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  add  here  that  whereas 
Sydney  was  visited  by  tremendous  stonns  and  floods  from 
the  19th  to  the  end  of  July  1860,  yet  during  that  period  the 
weather  here  was  unusually  fine  for  the  time  of  year ;  that  the 
barometer  was,  during  all  that  time,  above  30  inches,  and  very 
steady,  oscillating  slightly  each  day,  its  whole  range  not 
exceeding  0*2 ;  the  wind  was  very  light  from  S.K  to  N.E.  and 
N.W.,  and  that  I  did  not  record  a  drop  of  rain  all  that  time — 
an  unprecedented  event  at  that  period  of  the  year." 

It  may  be  added  that  the  changes  or  fluctuations  of  the 
barometer  have  almost  invariably  a  progressive  march,  speak- 
ing roughly,  from  west  to  east,  the  maximum  and  minimum 
occurring  in  Western  Australia,  from  two  to  four  days  in 
advance  of  Adelaide,  where  they  are  noted  from  12  to  24  hours 
before  Melbourne,  and  about  24  to  40  hours  before  Sydney  and 
Brisbane. 

The  winds  during  the  summer  tend  generally  on  all  sides 
towards  the  heated  interior,  which  may  be  roughly  described 
as  a  vast  plain  broken  by  a  few  ranges,  none  of  which  are  of 
any  height  or  magnitude ;  on  the  south  coast,  the  wind  being 
S.E.  and  S.,  varied  by  occasional  S.W.  gales,  following  a  hot 
wind  from  the  N.E.  and  N. ;  whilst  during  the  winter,  as  will 
be  presently  seen,  N.E.  and  northerly  winds  preponderate. 
On  the  east  coast  it  is  S.E.,  E.,  and  N.E.,  whilst  further  north 
and  round  the  north  coast  the  north-west  monsoon,  for  some 
months  before  and  after  the  summer  solstice,  presses  down 
south  with  varying  force,  often  making  itself  felt  as  far  south 
as  the  MacDonnell  Banges  on  the  southern  edge  of  the  tropics 
in  the  centre  of  the  continent.  North  of  the  MacDonnell 
Banges  the  winds  at  this  the  summer  season  are  variable,  S.E. 
and  N.W.  winds  alternating  with  calms ;  and  heavy  electrical 
storms  with  rain  prevail  with  increasing  intensity  northwards 
to  the  coast.  South  of  the  MacDonnell  Banges  S.E.  winds  pre- 
vail during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  but  in  the  summer 
they  are  often  influenced  by  the  N.W.  tropical  current,  and 
then,  veering  to  the  N.E.  and  N.,  will  sweep  over  South 
Australia  as  a  hot  wind,  the  birthplace  of  which  seems  to  be, 
speaking  approximately,  somewhere  about  latitude  26^    Our 


ITS  OBSERVATOEY  AND  METEOROLOGY.      413 

experience  of  the  climate  of  the  interior  of  Australia  is,  as  yet, 
but  limited,  but  the  stations  on  the  Great  Overiand  Telegraph 
now  furnish  accurate  daily  reports  of  the  weather,  direction  of 
wind,  upper  currents,  and  rainfall.  These  reports  show  that 
the  prevailing  wind,  except  during  the  middle  of  the  summer, 
is  S.E.  I  have  long  been  of  opinion  that  the  southerly  dip  of 
the  monsoon  largely  influences  the  climate  of  South  Australia 
proper,  as  well  as  that  of  Victoria.  In  seasons  of  drought,  or 
when  the  summer  in  the  interior  is  dry,  the  north-west  monsoon 
rains  thin  off,  and  barely  reach  the  centre  in  occasional  storms. 
But  when  the  monsoon  is  strong,  and  blows  well  home,  the 
tropical  rains  and  thunderstorms  will  stretch  right  across  the 
continent  well  into  the  northern  country  of  South  Australia  to 
within  about  two  or  three  hundred  miles  of  Adelaide;  and 
occasionally  these  tropical  rains  will  reach  the  south  coast.  A 
wet  season  in  the  interior  will  probably  coincide  with  a  hot 
summer  in  South  Australia  and  Victoria ;  whilst  a  cool  summer, 
when  strong  polar  currents  keep  the  temperature  down,  and 
the  south-east  winds  are  powerful,  will  denote  or  coincide  with 
a  dry  summer  in  the  interior,  and  a  weak  N.W.  monsoon. 
The  winter  rains  of  the  south,  it  may  be  remarked,  thin  off 
about  three  or  four  degrees  north  of  Adelaide,  rarely  pene- 
trating to  lat.  28"^ ;  and  summer  rains  are  not  to  be  depended 
upon  far  south  of  the  tropics.  Between  those  parallels  is  a 
wide  belt  of  five  or  six  degrees  having  an  uncertain  rainfall, 
•subject  to  droughts,  very  seldom  getting  rain  during  the 
ivinter,  but  mostly  depending  on  summer  thunderstorms,  the 
frequency  and  intensity  of  which,  it  is  not  improbable,  may  be 
found  closely  to  coincide  with  the  magnetic  cycle  of  eleven 
and  a  quarter  years,  which  is  believed  to  determine  the  fre- 
quency of  aurorsB,  magnetic  storms,  and  solar  spots.  This,  of 
•course,  is  only  conjectural,  and  is  not  to  be  accepted  till  proved 
by  increased  experience.  At  present  we  have  little  or  no  data. 
It  is,  however,  remarkable  that  Mr.  Meldrun,  the  Government 
'  Observer  at  the  Mauritius,  has  recently  expressed  an  opinion 
that  the  cyclones  of  that  latitude  are  found  to  coincide  with 
'  the  period  or  cycle  referred  to. 


414  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

It  may  and  very  probably  will  be  found  to  be  that,  while 
the  wet  summers  in  the  north  and  interior  taper  off  to  a 
drought,  each  succeeding  year  as  a  whole  becoming  drier  and 
drier,  the  drought  will  break  up  suddenly  with  a  heavy  down- 
pour, and  yet  the  electrical  storms  in  regard  to  their  frequency, 
and  the  seasons  in  regard  to  their  general  rainfall,  may  co- 
incide more  or  less  approximately  with  the  so-called  magnetic 
cycle. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  an  idea  of  this  possible  coincidence, 
floating  as  it  were  in  my  mind,  induced  me,  in  1870,  to  expect 
that  we  should  have  a  continuance  of  favourable  seasons  in  the 
interior  for  carrying  out  the  overland  telegraph,  of  which 
advantage  should  be  taken;  and  it  has  strangely  happened 
that,  since  the  completion  of  that  undertaking  in  1872,  up  to 
which  time  the  rains  were  ample,  the  summers  have  got 
gradually  drier,  and  the  drought  has  slowly  extended  south- 
ward. The  last  drought  in  the  north  was  in  1865,  when  the 
country  for  hundreds  of  miles  was  a  desert,  bare  of  feed,  and 
strewed  with  the  bones  of  dead  animals,  the  settlers  losing 
many  thousands'of  cattle  and  sheep.  This  was  followed  by  a 
succession  of  good  seasons,  and  in  1870, 1871,  and  1872,  copious 
rains  fell  over  the  whole  of  the  interior.  How  far  the  drought 
of  1865  extended  north,  I  have  no  means  of  knowing,  as  we 
had  then  no  telegraph,  and  it  was  not  till  the  beginning  of 
1874  that  the  rainfall  was  regularly  recorded  ;  but  the  seasons 
following  1872,  south  of  19°  or  20°  south  latitude,  became  drier, 
and  in  1875,  and  up  to  the  present  date,  February  1876,  very  little 
rain  fell  between  the  24th  and  30th  parallels,  and  even  farther 
south.  And  the  country  north  of  Spencer's  Gulf,  especially  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Flinders  Eange,  is  now  suffering  somewhat 
from  drought,  which  extends  eastward  to  Queensland  and  New 
South  Wales.  But  to  be  forewarned  is  to  be  forearmed.  If 
man  cannot  alter  the  laws  of  Nature,  a  correct  knowledge  of 
them  often  serves  to  mitigate  their  effects  where  ignorance 
would  invite  disaster.  Our  large  stockowners  are  not  likely  to 
suffer  to  the  same  extent  in  any  future  drought.  Coincidently 
with  this  dry  season  in  the  north,  the  southern  portion  of  the 


ITS  OBSEKVATORY  AND  METEOROLOGY.  415 

Colony,  embracing  the  whole  of  the  agricultural  districts,  say 
south  of  Mount  Bemarkable,  was  favoured  with  rains  throughout 
the  year  1875  considerably  in  excess  of  the  average. 

The  distribution  of  rain  seems  somewhat  capricious,  and 
places  not  far  apart  will  often  show  a  very  different  rainfall, 
where  local  causes  are  apparently  insufficient  to  explain  the 
large  difference  in  the  yearly  average.  Speaking  generally, 
the  average  annual  rainfall  on  the  plains  of  Adelaide,  west  of 
the  ranges,  for  about  100  miles  north,  is  about  18  to  21  inches, 
the  mean  at  Adelaide  for  the  36  years  1839  to  1874  being,  as 
we  have  seen,  21*091  inches.  On  the  Mount  Lofty  Eanges  it  is 
much  more,  the  average  at  Mount  Lofty  for  the  10  years 
1865-74  being  40*677  inches;  at  Charleston,  32-981;  Mount 
Barker,  towards  the  eastern  verge  of  the  range,  29*906 ; 
Gumeracha,  32*269 ;  whilst  at  Mount  Eemarkable,  about  180 
miles  north  of  Adelaide,  immediately  round  the  Mount,  it  is 
24*465  inches. 

On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Mount  Lofty  Banges,  and  along 
the  valley  of  the  Murray,  the  rainfall  is  less  than  on  the 
Adelaide  plains,  being  at  Strathalbyn,  immediately  at  the 
foot  of  the  ranges,  18*652  inches.  At  Montura,  on  the  plains 
about  10  miles  to  the  east  of  the  range,  and  near  the  northern 
shores  of  Lake  Alexandrina,  it  is  15*876  ;  at  Goolwa,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Murray,  17*597;  and  at  Blanchetown,  one 
hundred  miles  in  a  direct  line  up  the  river,  only  12*739  inches. 
In  the  south-east,  at  Eobe  (Guichen  Bay),  Mount  Gambier, 
Penola,  and  Naracoorte,  the  average  annual  rainfall,  deduced 
from  the  same  period  (10  years  1865-74),  is  25*581,  30*599, 
28*026,  and  22*775  inches  respectively.  On  Yorke's  Pen- 
insula it  is  less  than  at  Adelaide,  being  only  13*016  inches  at 
Wallaroo,  and  at  the  head  of  Spencer's  Gulf,  Port  Augusta,  it 
dwindles  down  to  9*218  inches. 

The  table  on  page  407  shows  the  mean  rainfall  and  the 
greatest  and  least  quantities  registered  in  each  month  during 
the  thirty-six  years  1839-1874,  with  respect  to  which  I  would 
here  explain  that  prior  to  1857  I  have  availed  myself  of  the 
valuable  tables  prepared  by  Sir  George  Kingston.  As  regards 
the  monthly  means,  Sir  George  Kingston's  results  are  nearly 


416 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


identical  with  those  I  have  given,  but  in  some  years  there  is  a 
discrepancy  in  the  totals  which  is  probably  due  to  heavy  local 
showers  and  the  effects  of  wind.  Taking  Sir  George  Kingston's 
figures,  the  rainfall  exceeded  the  average  in  the  following 


years: — 

Iiidwv. 

I>«yi«. 

lAcbec 

Dayv 

1840    

.     24-233     ... 

...       99 

18.58    ... 

...     21-522     ... 

...     107 

1840    

..    26-885    ... 

...     108 

1861     ... 

...     25-187     ... 

...     129 

1847     

.     27-613    ... 

...     107 

1862     ... 

...     22-844     ... 

...     114 

1849    

..     25-444     ... 

...     110 

1863    ... 

...    22-915     ... 

...     131 

1851     

..    30-633    ... 

...     128 

1870     ... 

...    24100    ... 

...     132 

1862     

.     27-34       ... 

...     118 

1871     ... 

...    23-505     ... 

...     122 

1853    

.     26-995     ... 

...     127 

1872     ... 

...    23-155     ... 

...     130 

1855     

.     23-145     ... 

...     124 

1873    ... 

...    21-595    ... 

...     114 

1856    

.    24021     ... 

...     118 

In  1875  the  rainfall  exceeded  the  average,  the  quantity 
registered  at  the  Observatory  being  28*964  in  157  days,  and 
31*455  inches  by  Sir  George  Kingston. 

The  years  in  which  the  rainfall  fell  below  the  average 


were: — 

InchM. 

Dayt 

1839    .... 

..     19-840     ... 

...     102 

1841    .... 

..     17-950     ... 

...       93 

1843    .... 

..     17192     ... 

...     104 

1S44     .... 

..     16-878     ... 

...     136 

1845    .... 

..     18-830     ... 

...     124 

1848    .... 

..     19-735    ... 

...     114 

1850    .... 

..     19-504     ... 

...      88 

1854    .... 

..    15-346    ... 

...     105 

Inches.  D«ja. 

1859  14-852  95 

1860  19670  119 

1864  19-445  109 

1865  14-750  96 

1886  19-935  115 

1867  19-350  106 

1868  17-880  103 

1869  13-850  110 


Sir  George  Kingston's  tables  show  that  the  average  yearly 
rainfall,  arranged  in  periods  of  five  years,  was  as  follows : — 


IncbM. 

lDChC8. 

1839-1843      ... 

...       19-907 

1859-1863      ... 

...       21-093 

1844-1848      ... 

...       21-988 

1864-1868      ... 

...       18-276 

1849-1853      ... 

...       25-983 

1869-1873      ... 

...       21-241 

1854-1858      ... 

...       21-038 

,  divided  into  periods  of  seven  years — 

Inches. 

Avera^re  for  seven  years,  1839-1845 

...        ...        ..1 

19-321 

Ditto 

ditto        1846-1852 

...        ...        ..< 

25-307 

Ditto 

ditto        1853-1859 

...        ...        ..< 

21-005 

Ditto 

ditto        1860-1866 

...        ...        ..« 

20-677 

Ditto 

ditto        1867-1873 

...        ...        ..) 

20-490 

id- 

Inches. 

Average  for  ten  years,  1839-1848 

...        ...        ..« 

20-940 

Ditto 

ditto        1849-1858 

...        ...        ..< 

23-510 

Ditto 

ditto        1859-18< 

S8 

...                        .*•                       •«! 

19-828 

ITS  OBSERVATORY  AND  METEOROLOGY. 


417 


The  total  rainfall  in  some  years  is  unduly  swelled  by 
heavy  storm  rains  falling  during  the  summer ;  the  rains  which 
are  most  valuable  to  the  agriculturist  are  those  which  fall 
in  the  months  of  April,  May,  June,  July,  August,  September, 
and  October,  I  have,  therefore,  shown  in  the  following 
table  the  rainfall  recorded  during  those  months  in  each 
year,  from  1839  to  1875,  using  the  Observatory  records  after 
1856. 

Eainfall  registered  in  Adelaide  during  the  months  of 
April,  May,  June,  July,  August,*  September,  and  October  in 
each  year,  from  1839  to  1874,  both  inclusive  : — 


Ye^ni. 

Raln&Uin 
'    7  months. 

Years. 

Rainfall  In 
T  months. 

Years. 

Rainfiaiin 
7  months. 

IndieM 

Inches. 

Inches. 

1839 

14-436 

1851 

25-608 

1863 

20-345 

1840 

17-315 

1852 

22-480 

1864 

17-237 

1841 

14-163 

1853 

24-437 

1865 

13-716 

1842 

15-683 

1854 

13-050 

1866 

17-195 

1843 

;     13-952 

1855 

17-090 

1867 

16-206 

1844 

'     13-818 

1856 

20-094 

1868 

16  084 

1845 

15-481 

1857 

12-678 

1869 

10-253 

1846 

19-295 

1858 

12-650 

1870 

18-567 

1847 

22-920 

1859 

11-647 

1871 

14-926 

1848 

15-700 

1860 

14-696 

1872 

17-152 

1849 

22-089 

1861 

17-508 

1873 

17-169 

1850 

11-644 

1 

1862 

19-484 

1874 

15-180 

Mean  quantity  of  rain  registered  in  the  seven  months,  Aprils, g.-o,  j««iieg 
May,  June,  July,  August,  September,  and  October,  for  36  years/ 

On  this  subject,  Sir  George  Kingston,  who  has  been 
a  careful  observer  since  the  foundation  of  the  Colony, 
makes  the  following  valuable  remarks  in  an  elaborate 
report  on  the  rainfall  of  the  Colony,  laid  before  Parliament 
last  Session. 

"A  careful  examination  of  the  rain  register  tables  has 
induced  me  to  consider  the  year  as  divided  into  three  distinct 
periods  or  seasons — thus,  during  the  first  four  months  of  the 
year,  namely,  January,  February,  March  and  April,  the 
average  amount  of  rain  is  found  to  be  3*74  inches,  or  not  quite 
one  inch,  per  month.  The  next  five  months.  May,  June,  July, 
August,  and  September,  give  an  average  amount  of  ]3*361 

2  E 


418  SOUTH  AU8TKALIA. 

inches,  or  2*627  inches  per  month ;  while  the  last  three 
months,  October,  November,  and  December,  the  rainfall  may 
be  expected  to  reach  4*004,  or  one  and  a  third  inch,  per 
month.  I  am  inclined  to  disregard  the  usual  divisions  of  the 
year,  and  to  call  the  five  months.  May  to  September,  spring — 
during  this  period  are  carried  on  all  the  most  important 
operations  of  the  agriculturist  and  horticulturist,  in  sowing 
and  planting.  The  three  months  at  the  end  of  the  year, 
October,  November,  and  December,  I  regard  as  the  summer  or 
harvest  months — during  these  months,  our  grain  crops  are 
generally  secured  on  the  plains,  except  on  rare  occasions,  and 
in  the  hills,  where  the  harvesting  of  grain  extends  into 
January.  The  first  four  months  of  the  year,  January,  Feb- 
ruary, March,  and  April,  as  in  the  old  country,  following  on 
the  harvest,  form,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  autumn  of  this  part 
of  the  world — the  vineyards  and  orchards  then  yielding  their 
produce ;  but,  owing  to  the  deficiency  of  rain,  vegetation 
is  very  generally  at  a  standstill.  Want  of  moisture  in  the 
atmosphere,  accompanied  by  intense  heat,  putting  a  stop  to 
vegetation,  and  baking  the  surface  of  the  ground,  has  a  some- 
what similar  effect,  in  so  far  as  agricultural  pursuits  are 
concerned,  to  that  produced  by  the  wet  and  frosts  of  the 
winters  in  England. 

"  With  reference  to  the  inferences  to  be  drawn  from  these 
tables,  as  to  the  beneficial  influence  of  the  rainfall  at  any 
period  on  agricultural  or  horticultural  operations,  I  must 
observe  that  a  mere  inspection  of  the  tables  is  of  little  use  in 
leading  to  just  conclusions ;  the  benefit  of  the  rainfedl  depends, 
not  so  much  on  the  quantity  during  a  given  month,  as  on  the 
rapidity  or  otherwise  of  its  fall,  as  well  as  the  season  of  the 
year. 

"  During  the  months  of  January  and  February  the  ground 
is  so  hot  that  a  fall  of  even  half  an  inch  in  the  twenty-four 
hours  serves  only  to  wash  the  dust  off  the  trees,  does  not 
penetrate  into  the  ground,  and  evaporates  almost  as  quickly 
as  it  falls.  The  ground  is  then  so  dry  and  parched  that 
nothing  under  an  inch  of  rain  at  one  fall,  during  these  months^ 


ITS  OBSERVATORY  AND  METEOROLOGY.  419 

is  of  much  value  to  renew  the  exhausted  energy  of  vegetation ; 
while,  from  the  end  of  April  to  September,  the  quantity  of 
rain  during  the  twenty-four  hours  is  of  little  importance  as 
compared  with  the  freqiiency  of  its  occurrence — keeping  the 
ground  constantly  moist,  and  provided  that  the  average  of  the 
monthly  falls  are  fairly  kept  up,  the  ground  is  more  benefited 
by  the  occurrence  of  numerous  rainy  days  than  by  a  great  fall 
in  any  one  day.  However,  there  is  no  rule  without  an  excep- 
tion, and  a  heavy  soaking  rain  of  at  least  an  inch  is  always  to 
be  desired  towards  the  end  of  March  or  beginning  of  April,  as, 
should  the  ground  then  get  a  good  soaking,  it  will  start  the 
grass  for  the  stockowners  before  the  cold  weather  sets  in ;  and 
the  sun  having  then  lost  much  of  his  power,  the  grass,  when 
then  well  started,  will  not  be  burned  up,  as  is  the  case  after 
heavy  rains  at  an  earlier  period  of  the  year.  On  the  other 
hand,  to  the  agriculturist  on  the  plains,  heavy  rains  in 
February  are  beneficial,  as  enabling  him  to  commence  plough- 
ing ;  while  as  regards  the  interests  of  the  vinegrowers  and 
proprietors  of  orchards,  my  opinion  is,  that  so  long  as  the 
rainfall  of  the  year  does  not  fall  below  twenty  inches,  the  want 
of  rain  during  January,  February,  and  the  early  part  of  March, 
is  not  injurious  to  them,  provided  that  copious  rains  have 
fallen  during  the  months  of  November  and  December,  so  as  to 
promote  the  growth  of  the  plants  and  fill  out  the  fruit,  leaving 
it  to  be  matured  during  the  drier  weather.  Wines  made  during 
such  seasons  will,  I  imagine,  be  for  superior  to  those  made  in 
years  when  the  rainfall  in  January  and  February  exceeds  the 
average. 

"  The  year  1860  affords  a  good  illustration  of  the  fallacious 
deductions  that  may  be  drawn  from  these  tables,  for,  while 
the  rainfall  of  that  year  is  considerably  below  the  average, 
also  much  less  than  in  the  years  1855, 1856,  1857,  and  1858, 
the  harvest  is  generally  admitted  to  have  been  in  excess  of  the 
average  yield  of  those  years. 

'*  In  attempting  to  account  for  this  anomaly,  I  would  remark 
that  the  rainfall  of  1860  has  differed  greatly  from  that  of  pre- 
ceding years  in  the  intensity  of  its  fall.    That  is  to  say,  while 

2  E  2 


420  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA, 

in  former  years  I  hare  recorded  as  much  as  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  fEdling  daring  a  violent  thunderstorm  in  less  than  half 
an  hour,  flooding  the  ground  and  rapidly  escaping  from  the 
surface,  the  same  quantity  of  rain  this  year  has  occupied  many 
hours  in  its  fall,  so  that  the  ground  has  been  graduaUy  soaked, 
and  the  greater  part  absorbed  by  the  soil  to  a  considerable 
depth*  On  the  4th  of  April,  when  the  fall  amounted  to  3*15 
inches  (the  largest  quantity  ever  recorded  by  me  in  one  day), 
the  ground  had  been  partially  prepared  for  it  by  the  rains  in 
the  middle  of  March ;  the  rain  fell  gently  and  steadily,  lasting, 
at  intervals,  the  greater  part  of  the  twenty-four  hours,  and  was 
nearly  all  absorbed.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  the  rain  in  the 
first  six  months  of  1860  amounted  to  12-769  inches,  against  an 
average  of  10*028  inches  for  the  same  period,  and  the  ground 
was  thus  thoroughly  soaked  to  a  considerable  depth,  and 
enabled  the  crops  to  stand  the  subsequent  dry  weather.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  rainfall  of  the  last  six  months  was  only  6*909 
inches,  or  only  little  more  than  half  that  due  to  the  period 
(11*923  inches).  The  drought  at  the  end  of  July  and  up  to 
the  middle  of  August  will,  doubtless,  be  in  the  memory  of 
many.  Between  the  17th  July  and  the  19th  August  we  were 
without  any  rain  (0*002  inch,  which  fell  on  the  17th  August,, 
may  fairly  be  considered  as  nothing).  A  similar  drought  for 
five  weeks  at  that  season  of  the  year  has  not  been  observed,  and 
the  fears  of  the  Colonists  were  justly  aroused  for  the  harvest ; 
providentially,  we  had  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  by  the 
end  of  the  month,  0*61  inch  having  fallen  on  the  2l8t  August* 
and  although  each  remaining  mouth  of  the  year  shows  a  rain- 
fall far  below  the  average,  a  somewhat  similar  quantity  of  rain 
to  that  in  August  fell  on  different  days  of  the  month  of  Sep- 
tember and  October.  The  rains  on  these  occasions  were,  as^ 
before  remarked,  gentle,  continuing  for  several  hours,  soaking 
into  the  ground  ;  and  being  followed  by  many  days  of  cloudy 
weather,  little  or  no  evaporation  took  place,  and  the  crops 
derived  the  fullest  possible  benefit  from  the  limited  quantity 
of  rain." 

The  following  table  shows  the  rainfall  at  the  under-men-- 


ITS  OBSEKVATORY  AND  METEOROLOGY. 


421 


tioned  places  during  the  year  1875,  and  the  approximate  mean 
annual  rainfall  at  the  same  places : — 


Locally. 


BainfoU 
iu  1876. 


Approximate 

Annual 

lieaa. 


Number 
of  Tears. 


Adelaide  Obeenratory 

Adelaide — Sir  G.  S.  Kingston 

American  River,  Kangaroo  Island 

Angorichina 

Auburn 

Blanohetown 

Brookside     . 

Buohsfelde  . 

Bungaree     . 

Cape  Jervis ... 

Charleston 

Glare 

Clarendon 

Oollingrove 

Edithborgh 

Gawler 

Geoigetown  .., 

Goolwa 

Gumeracha 

Kanmantoo 

Kanyaka 

Kapunda 

Kingston 

Kooringa 

Mannanarie... 

Mattawarrangala 

Melrose 

Meningie 

Montum 

Moonta 

Mount  Barker 

Mount  Gambia 

Mount  Lofty 

Naracoorte 

Normanvillo 

O'HaUoran  Hill 

Outalpa 

Paringa 

Penfleld 

Peuola 

Poonindie 

Port  Augusta 

PortEUiot   ... 

Port  Lincoln 

Port  Wakefield 

Robe 

Stnithalbyn 

Tanunda 

Wallaroo 

Wniowie 


28 
31 
23 
16 
29 
13 

23 
26 
18 
41 
29 
42 
34 
11 
24 
23 
23 
48 
19 
13 
32 
29 
21 

11 
33 
22 
18 
20 
38 
34 
55 
24 
24 
35 

9 
12 
21 
39 
21 

9 
26 
23 
17 
28 
21 
31 
20 
19 


964 
455 
777 
660 
340 
640 

940 
837 
127 
225 
570 
520 
025 
993 
868 
970 
060 
330 
370 
125 
155 
920 
780 

400 
470 
300 
833 
035 
123 
194 
410 
710 
495 
867 
529 
640 
970 
770 
000 
930 
666 
830 
135 
380 
893 
350 
180 
740 


21  155 
21*360 
20-274 
15  019 
24-024 
12-739 
22-279 

20-433 

32-981 
24-440 


17-362 


17 
32 

12 
19 

19 
20 
13 
24 
19 
15 

29 
30 
40 
22 
19 
22 
12 


597 
269 

976 
202 

367 
823 
458 
465 
113 
876 

906 
599 
677 
775 
905 
871 
290 


28-026 

9-218 
20-813 
18-909 

25-581 
18-652 
21  156 
13-016 


86 
36 
9 
9 
10 
7 
8 

8 

10 
10 


10 
6 

9 

7 

9 
6 

7 

7 

10 

6 

10 
10 
10 

7 

7 

10 

7 


10 

10 
8 
9 

10 

10 

6 

10 


422 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


Localify. 


1 


lUlnfall 
in  1875. 


Willunga      ... 

•  •  • 

•  •• 

*  •  • 

34-370 

Wentworth.  Xew  South  Wales 

•  •  ■ 

13-290 

YankaliUa    ... 

•  •  • 

•  •• 

■  •  • 

34-830 

Yarroo          ... 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

21-825 

Palmenton,  Northern  Territory 

•1* 

i     56-500 

Southport    ... 
Yam  Greek  ... 

•  •  • 

t  •  • 

1     56-835 

•  ■  ■ 

:     47-050 

Pine  Creek  ... 

■  •  • 

'     49-840 

River  Katherinc 

■  •  • 

45-993 

Daly  Waters... 

*  •  • 

35-529 

Powell's  Creek 

» •  ■ 

22-830 

Tennant's  Creek 

•  • 

18-350 

Barrow  Creek 

•  ■ 

15-086 

Alice  Springs 
Charlotte  Waters 

■  • 

15-276 

•  ■ 

3-975 

Peake 

•  • 

4-810 

Strangways'  Springs 

•  • 

5-238 

Beltaoa 

•  •  • 

•  • 

16-390 

Blinman 

•  •  • 

•  • 

20-829 

jApproxtoMte 

Annual 

Mean. 


27-204 
15-884 
29-176 
17-654 
63-252 


HombpT 

of  YttftTtf. 


10 
6 
i 

5 
6 


Closely  associated  with  the  rainfall,  and  the  relative  humidity 
of  the  air,  is  the  amount  of  evaporation  from  the  surface.  I 
have  in  previous  pages  explained  the  means  taken  to  determine 
this,  and  in  the  table  on  page  407  I  have  given  the  mean 
amount  of  evaporation  in  each  month  of  the  year.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  actual  amount  of  evaporation  in  each 

Mean  Ahovnt  of  Eyaforation  duriko  each  Month  for  Five  YKABSy 

AT  Adelaide. 


f 

Meu 

MooUiB. 

1870. 

'      18T1. 

1873. 

1873. 

1874. 

Mnn. 

1    ABMNUnt 

'  perdim. 

lDcbe«. 

Inches. 

Incbf^. 

lodiM. 

Inchef. 

Jncbet. 

ImiiM. 

January    ... 

11-390 

8-882 

10-726 

10-739 

11-518 

10-641 

0-353 

February  ... 

10-955 

7-901 

8-145 

7-928 

9-083 

8-802 

0-314 

March 

8-650 

7-310 

7-846 

7-708 

6-527 

7-608 

0  245 

April 

May  ... 

4-605 

4-642  ' 

4-491 

3-885 

4-746 

4-474 

0-149 

2-474 

2-372 

3-438 

2-690 

3-537  ' 

2-902 

0-094 

June 

2  027 

1-846 

1-709  i 

1-428 

1-965 

1-795 

0-060 

July 

1-747 

1-978 

2-584  1 

1-851 

1-635 

1-959 

0-063 

August     ... 

2-663 

2-829 

2-831  , 

2-387 

2-624 

2-667 

0*086 

September... 

3-481 

3-928 

3-779  1 

2-914 

3-035 

3-427 

0-114 

October     ... 

5-322 

5-741  1 

5-878  ( 

7125 

5-839 

5-981 

0193 

Noyember... 

6-996 

6-065  1 

6-881 

7-168 

7-787  : 

6-979 

0-233 

December... 

9000 

8-495 

8-515 

10-805 

10-287  j 

9-420 

0-304 

Totiilperann. 

69-310 

61-939 

1 

66-823  ; 

1 

66-628 

1 

68-583 

1 

66-656 

— 

ITS  OBSEKVATORT  AND  METEOROLOGY. 


423 


month  and  year  during  the  five  years  1871  to  1874,  the  mean 
for  each  month,  and  the  mean  daily  evaporation  in  each 
month  ;  from  which  it  will  be  seen  that  the  greatest  evapora- 
tion takes  place  in  January,  when  it  ranges  from  about  9 
inches  to  over  11  inches,  the  mean  for  the  month  being  10641 
inches,  and  the  least  in  June,  when  it  varies  from  about  Ij  to 
2  inches,  the  mean  being  1*795  inches. 

During  the  three  hottest  months  the  amount  of  evaporation 
per  diem  averages  about  one-third  of  an  inch,  as  much  as  six- 
tenths  of  an  inch  sometimes  being  taken  up  on  a  hot-wind 
day,  whilst  in  the  coldest  months  it  barely  averages  seven- 
hundredths  of  an  inch  a  day. 

With  regard  to  the  state  of  the  sky,  it  will  be  sufficient 
here  to  state  that  during  the  summer  months,  November  to 
March  or  April,  there  are  about  15  to  20  almost  wholly  clear 
days  in  each  month,  March,  April,  and  November  being  usually 
more  cloudy  than  December,  January,  and  February.  In  the 
winter  months,  May,  Jime,  July,  and  August,  10  or  11  wholly 
clear  days  may  be  expect^,  though  it  has  happened  in  July 
that  rain  has  fallen  on  29  days. 

The  mean  amount  of  cloud  in  each  month  of  the  year, 
taking  the  whole  sky  as  10,  is  approximately  as  follows : — 


January     ... 
February    ... 
March 

4 

AprU 

May 

June 

4 
6 
6 

July 

6 

Aug^t 

6 

September... 

5 

October     ... 

4i 

November... 

5 

December ... 

4 

The  alternate  land  and  sea  breezes  at  Adelaide  are  of 
course  local,  being  confined  to  within  a  comparatively  narrow 
strip  of  coast  line ;  their  effect  is  to  cause  the  wind  in  fine 
weather  during  summer,  and  occasionally  in  the  winter,  to 
complete  an  entire  circuit  of  the  compass  in  the  twenty-four 
hours,  the  resultant  direction  for  the  year  at  different  hours 
being — 

At  6  h.  A.M.  about  E.N.E. 
9h.  „        „      N.  byE. 
12  noon      „      W.  by  S.  to  W.S.W. 
3h.  P.M.    .,      S.W. 


6h. 

9h. 


IJ 


8.S.B.  to  8.8. W. 
S.E. 


424 


SOUTH  AUSTKALIA. 


The  resultant  direction  in  different  years  at  these  hours 
shows  remarkable  fixity — thus  in  the  four  consecutive  years 
1860,  1861, 1862,  and  1863,  we  have— 


I860. 

1861. 

1862. 

1863. 

o       » 

o       » 

O       1 

o     » 

6h.  A.M.  ...8. 113  11  £. 
9  b.    „    ...       170  25 
12  noon  ...       284  55 
3b.P.M.  ...       331  30 
6h.    „    ...         30    0 

S.  109  34  £. 

169  49 

283  38 

311  18 

4  22 

8.  108    7  £. 
157  31 
279  10 
306  20 
348    2 

a  114  53  E 
168  43 
276  10 
315    0 
333    0 

The  above  results  are  obtained  in  the  following  manner : — 
Let  n  be  the  number  of  times  the  wind  has  blown  fix)m  anv 
one  direction,  irrespective  of  velocity,  and  a  be  the  angle  which 
that  direction  makes  with  the  meridian,  measured  from  south 
round  by  east ;  then  each  direction  may  be  resolved  into  its 
components,  n  cos  a,  n  sin  a  in  the  direction  of  the  meridian 
and  at  right  angles  to  it. 

Let  A  =  H  006  o  +  «'  008  o'  +  n"  C08  a"  +  &c. 
B  =  ft  sin  a  +  n'  sin  a'  +  n"  sin  a"  -f  Ac 

B 

Then  tan  e  =  -r 
A 

where  0  is  the  resultant  direction  of  the  wind,  measured  &om 
south  round  by  east 

Eeducing  the  number  of  points  to  eight,  and  apportioning 
the  intermediate  points  (S.S.E.  &c.)  equally  amongst  those 
next  adjacent  (S.  and  S.E.,  &c.)  the  following  table  shows  the 
number  of  times  the  wind  blew  from  the  different  points  in 
each  quarter  of  the  year,  commencing  October  1873,  and 
ending  September  30,  1874 : — 


• 

October,  November, 
December. 

Janiury,  February, 
March. 

AprlU  May,  June. 

July,  August,  Sep- 
tember. 

1 

i'ii 

'.1.1. 
a  1  !l  '  X 

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1  5 

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o 

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s. 

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6 

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11 

16,15 

26 

24     4|    6 

1      4      8 

10 

6     6 

33      9     6 

S.E. 

15 

10     4 

9 

18    30    27 

20 

13    13 

26 

34 

16 

2 

4|    3!    8 

7 

4      2 

10     0     6 

E. 

8 

4      4 

5 

6      6 

10 

5 

4*    8 

5 

11 

7 

10 

6      2'    4 

10 

«;  6 

4,    2 

4      8 

y.E. 

28 

24    11 

7 

1 

11 

18 

9 

8      2 

3 

2 

43 

34 

IS    11    12 

12 

53    40 

12    10 

11    12 

N. 

0 

7      6 

1 

1 

0 

1 

8 

4      1 

0 

1 

2 

7 

19    12 

5 

5 

2    13 

20.13 

3      9 

N.W. 

7 

8 

13 

8 

3 

1 

4 

4 

5 

0 

0 

0 

2 

0 

8      9 

4 

6 

4|    6 

11    11 

9      7 

W. 

10 

13 

10 

6 

2 

6 

3 

8 

20 

10 

3 

1 

1 

7 

16    16 

7 

3 

4l    6 

22   27 

8      8 

S.W. 

16 

20 

40 

64 

48 

25 

13 

18 

22 

38 

25 

6 

7 

7 

14*25 

1 

15 

7 

13    10 

15 '24 

1 

19  •   6 

ITS  OBSERVATOEY  AND  METEOROLOGY.  425 

From  which  it  appears  that  the  proportion  of  S.  winds  to 
N.  winds,  and  E.  winds  to  W.,  in  each  quarter,  was — 

6  AJf.  9  A.X.  Nooiu  3  P.M.  6  P.V.         9  P.M. 

8  40  37  48  68  63  67 


V 


N            35  39  30  16  5  12 
First  Quarter 

"      E    _    51  88  29  21  35  47 

W     "■    ^  41  63  68  53  ^ 

S_54  49  51  66  76  64 

N""^  21  17  "3"  3"  T 
Second  Quarter... 

B     _     55  34  25  23  33  47 

W"30  80  47  48  28  7* 

S     _     27  15  19  32  31  24 

.n""47  4140  32  21  23 
Third  Quarter   ... 

E_66  46  ^  16  24  29 

W""lO  14  38  50  26  16 

S^_23  28  19.  27  28  17 

N"59  58  43  34  23  28 
Fourth  Quarter... 

E     _     ^  47  17  12  15  26 

W"2l  21  48  62  36  20 

Combining  the  Summer  quarters  (Ist  and  2nd)y  we  have — 

SuMHEB— Six  Mokths. 

6a.u.^  9A.if.  l^ooa.  SP.u.  Or.M.  9  p.m. 

8      _     94  86  99  134  139  131 

N~58  60  47"l9"8""l5' 

E     _  106  72  54  44  68  94 

W""62  Tllloiie  81  39 

And  similarly  the 

Winter — Six  Months. 

S   _  50  43  38  59  59  51 

N  ■"  106  99  83  66  44  51 

E  _  129  93  40  28  39  55 

W  ""  'Sl"  35  86  112  62  36 

And  for  the  Year — 

8   _  144  129  137  193  198  182 

N  ""  164  159  130  "85*  *62"  "66" 

E  _  285  165  94  72  107  149 

W""'93'  106  196  228  143  75 


426  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  during  the  summer  months  south 
winds  largely  predominate  over  north  winds — especially  in  the 
afternoon  and  evening,  northerly  winds  bearing  a  larger  pro- 
portion about  and  shortly  after  sunrise,  the  prevailing  direction 
during  the  night  being  E.  to  S.E,  and  S.W.  during  the  day ; 
while  in  the  winter  months  N.  and  N.E.  winds  preponderate, 
except  for  a  few  hours  in  the  afternoon,  when  local  S.W.  sea 
breezes  often  set  in. 


ITS  OBSEEYATORT  AND  METEOEOtOGY. 


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SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 


Table  No.  4. — Mean  Temperature  of  Evaporation,  for  each  Month  during  Ten  Yean 

(1865-74),  at  Adelaide. 


Months. 

1865. 

1S«6. 

1 

1867. 

1 

1868. 

186t. 

1870. 

1871. 

1872. 

1873. 

1874. 

January... 

590 

1 
62-1 

61-6 

59-6 

1 
601  1 

60-6 

621 

1 

65*8 

63-4 

61-5 

February 

59-8 

63-2 

64-2 

1 

61-4 

60-3 

62-5 

.  63-8 

1 

61-7 

63-3  '  57-4 

March  ... 

60-3 

1 

60-0 

58-3 

1 

61-9 

59-6 

1 

59-5 

;  58-7 

61-3 

1 

57-5     56-9 

April     ... 

57-5 

57-6 

58-3 

1 

56-6 

55-4 

571 

56-8 

54-7 

55-9     571 

May      ... 

520 

55-3 

54-4 

530 

51  0 

51*7 

1  54-9 

51-6 

53-5     511 

June 

48-4 

50-7 

530 

49-7 

50-4 

50-9 

,  51-7 

50-7 

501     47-8 

July      ... 

47-7 

49-0 

49-4 

46-5 

47-3 

47-4 

48-2 

49-6 

47-6     45-5 

August ... 

49-8 

50-2 

50-3  j 

500 

48*9 

48-7 

50- 1 

47-2 

50-6     47-3 

September 

521 

51-4 

51  0 

52-7 

49-6 

50-2 

52- 1 

51-6 

52-3     48-6 

October... 

53-6 

54-2 

54-2 

56-2 

52-3 

55-8 

52-9  ! 

54*2 

560     541 

November 

57-8 

55-2 

55- 1 

j 

60-2 

56-6 

55-7 

56-8 

60-6 

59-7     52-8 

December 

57-4 

58-5 

56-8 

61-2 

58-3 

i 

59-6 

62-8 

580 

60-7     59-7 

Means  •.• 

54-7 

55-6 

55-6 

55-6 

541 

54-9 

560 

55-6 

55-9     53-3 

Mean 

I  tenipe] 

ratuie  of  evapo: 

ration  for  January  (1( 

)  yeard) 

..  61-6 

Ditto 

ditto 

February 

ditto 

..  61-8 

Ditto 

ditto 

March 

ditto 

..  59-4 

Ditto 

ditto 

April 

I 

ditto 

..  66-7 

Ditto 

ditto 

May 

ditto 

52-8 

Ditto 

ditto 

June 

ditto 

..  50-3 

Ditto 

ditto 

July 

ditto 

..  47-8 

Ditto 

ditto 

August 

ditto    . 

..  49  3 

Ditto 

ditto 

September 

ditto 

..  51-2 

Ditto 

ditto 

October 

ditto 

..  54-3 

Oitto 

ditto 

November 

ditto 

570 

Ditto 

ditto 

December 

ditto 

59-3 

ITS  OBSEKVATOKY  AND  METEOBOLOGY. 


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JULES   VERNE'8   WORKS.  ^ 

8PBOIAI1  NOnCB.— Messrs.  Sampson  Low  &  Co.  beg  to  inform 
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MICHAEL  STROGOFF. 

THE  MYSTERIOUS  ISLAND,  in  3  vols.    aw.  &£ 
THE  SURVIVORS  OF  THE  CHANCELLOR.    7/.  ^ 
DR.  OX'S  EXPERIMENT. •    7*.  6rf. 

A  WINTER  AMID  THE  ICE,  &c» 
AROUND  THE  WORLD  IN  EIGHTY  6aYS.*    7/.  U. 


« 


'.. 


List  of  PubJicaHons.  23 

THE  FUR  COUNTRY,    xar.  6d, 

MERIDIANA:  OR.  THE  ADVENTURES  OP  THREE    RUSSIANS    AND 

THREE  ENGLISHMEN  IN  SOUTH  AFRICA.*    7*.  6(L 
FIVE  WEEKS  IN  A  BALLOON.*    -jt,  6d, 
A  FLOATING  CITY.*    7*.  6d. 
THE  BLOCKADE  RUNNERS.*    x*.  only. 
PROM  THE  EARTH  TO  THE  MOON.*  >     ,  ,^ 
AROUND  THE  MOON.*  T***'  ^ 

TWENTY  THOUSAND  LEAGUES  UNDER  THE  SEA.*    xo*.  6d, 
MARTIN  PAZ,  THE  INDLAN  PATRIOT,    u. 

aftd  thai  all  other  Copies  0/ these  Works  are  unauthorized  and  counter* 
Jeii  reprints* 

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•'Signed)  JULES  VERNE." 

*»*  9esi<Ies  the  more  expenuve  Editions,  Messrs.  Low  have  issued  handsome 
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Vincent  (F,)   The  Land  of  the  White  Elephant:  Sights 

and  Scenes  in  South>Eastcm  Asia.  With  Maps,  Plans,  and  Illustrations.  8vo,  doth 
extra,  x&r. 

Waller  {Rev.  C.  H.)  The  Names  on  the  Gates  of  Pearly 

and  other  Studies.    By  the  Rev.  C  H.  Waller,  MA.    CrowA  8vo,  cloth  extra,  6s, 

War  burton    {CoL    Egerton)    Journey  Across  Australia. 

An  Account  of  the  Exploring  Expedition  'sent  out  by  Messrs.  Elder  and  Hughes, 
under  the  Command  ofColonel  Egbrton  Warburton  ;  giving  a  full  Account  of  his 
Perilous  Journey  from  the  centre  to  Roeboume,  Western  Australia.  With  Jllustra- 
tions  and  a  Map.  Edited,  with  an  Introductory  Chapter,  by  H.  W.  Batbs,  Esq.,  of 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society.    Demy  8vo,  doth,  z6f. 

Warner  {C.  D.)   My  Summer  in  a  Garden.    Boards, 

IX. ;  doth,  or.    (Rose  Library. ) 

• Back-log  Studies.    Boards,   is.  6d. ;    cloth,  2s. 

(Low's  Copyright  Series. ) 

Mummies  and  Moslems.  [In  the  press. 


Westropp  {H.  M,)  A  Manual  of  Precious   Stones  and 

Antique  Gtxtxs,  By  Hodorr  M.  Wbstropf,  Author  of  "The  Travellers'  Art  Com- 
panion," *'  Prc-Historic  Phases,"  &c.  Numerous  Illustrations.  Small  post  8vo,  cloth 
extra,  6e. 

Wheaton  {Henry)  Elefnents  of  International  Law.    New 

Edition.  [/« tkepreu, 

WJntall  {Alice  B.)   On  the  Rock.    A  Memoir  of  Alice  B. 

Whit  ALL,  by  Mrs.  Pbarsall  Smith.    Small  post,  doth,  ax. 

Whitney  {Mrs.  A.  D.  T.)    The  Gayworthys.    Small  post 

vo,  yt,  6d. 

— —  Faith  Gartney.    Small  post  8vo,  3^.  6d.    And  in 

Rose  Libcary,  u.