Souvenir The Indian Empire

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TRACKER'S DIRECTORIES, I/TD.,
6, Mangoc I^ane, Calcutta.

CONTENTS.

Sections. Page

INTRODUCTION .. .. .. v

I. Physical Features, Population, Political >Lnvisi(ws,
Administration, Railways, Commerce, Inducts and

Industries with a Brief Note on Scenery and Places of

Special Historical or Archaeological Interest . . 1

II. A Brief Resume of Indian History . . . . 19

III. History of Medicine in India . . . . 35

IV. Indigenous Systems of Medicine . . . . 45
V. Medical and Sanitary Problems in India . . 55

VI. Medical and Research Organisation in India .. ..81

VII. Medical Research in India .. .. ..109

VIII. Veterinary Science in India . . . . . . 129

IX. Agriculture in India . . . . . . ,. . 141

X. Irrigation in India . . . . . . . . 157

XL Archaeology .. .. .. .. k .. 169

XII. Racial Ethnology .. .. ... (..179

XIII. Zoology of India .. .. .. ..189

XIV. Indian Botany .. .. .. .. ,..201

XV. A Sketch of the Geology of India .. .. ..207

XVI. The Weather of India .. .. .. ..219

XVII. Indian Art .. .. .. ..231

XVIII. Medical, Research and Educational Institutions in India . . 237

APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . 34o

INTRODUCTION.

THE Indian Empire stretches from the confines of Persia and
Afghanistan on the west to the borders of Siam and China to the
east and from latitude 40 or thereabouts almost to the equator.
It includes Burma, India proper and Beluchistan, together with
the island groups of the Laccadives, Maldives, Andamans and
Nicobars. Linked to it by position and tradition if not by
present-day administration is to the south the island of Ceylon
and to the north are the semi-independent States of Nepal and
Bhutan.

In extent the Empire covers approximately 1,800,000 square
miles and its population is over 300,000,000 or approximately one-
fifth of the whole human race. It includes within itself or on
its borders the full length of the vast Himalayan chain with the
highest peaks in the world, the great Indo-gangetic plain through
which the traveller may pass for 2,000 miles without leaving
unfathomable alluvium, plateaus like those of Shillong and
Nilgiris famed for their beauty and the rivers Indus, Ganges,
Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy and Salween. In the east and south
are great forests and strange deltaic regions like the Sundarbans,
to the west are deserts now for the first time being called to
life over thousands of miles by the vastest irrigation schemes in
the world, to the north are mountain, rock, snow and glacier, to
the south the palm beaches of Coromandel and the coral reefs of
atolls.

In the main the climate is torrid, but in parts, especially in
the cool season, it is genial and delightful, and there are places
where every year in the winter the passes and routes are blocked
with snow. India has a flora worthy of its great physical con-
trasts and is the natural home of the banyan, toddy palm and
mango tree as it is in the north of the deodar, oak and rhododen-
dron. With Ceylon it is the main source of tea production in

vi INTRODUCTION.

the world and is the only source of jute the supply of which is
almost restricted to the plains of Bengal; it exports both rice
and wheat. It is the home of shikar, of the tiger, wild elephant,
bison and rhinoceros, of Ovis poll and Himalayan and other
bear. Characteristic of it are humped cattle and the water
buffalo, and among its beasts of burden are the horse, ox,
elephant, camel and yak. It has important coalfields and
enormous and as yet scarcely touched deposits of iron. In Burma
and in the north-west are petroleum bearing strata and in the
south are goldfields.

Its people have made a name for themselves in oriental civili-
sation, in great religions, in sacred writings and philosophical
works. In the Vedas and other Sanskrit writings, in the heroic
epics of the Ramayana and Mahabarata and in modern poetry
they have produced a literature to which the world has done
homage. In arts and crafts they have been famous from early
times and it is believed that to them has been due the gift to
mankind of certain domestic animals and the terraced rice culti-
vation that now covers so much of the humid lands of the tropical
east. As ancient agriculturists its people have felled the forests
and converted the land for millions of acres into rice lands and
other crops. Its soldiers have given rise to stories of valour
renowned through the world and its poets and artists strike a
note in imagination which the west can recognise but cannot
copy.

To many the East is India and India has given its name
not only to the Indies of the east, but to the remote West Indies
where men striving to reach the almost fabulous country of
diamonds and spices and oriental splendours discovered a
new continent.

This book in its different sections gives a very brief account
of India, its physical features, population, history, political
divisions, zoology, botany, geology, meteorology, etc., and above
all as more directly relevant to the Congress its past and present
medical and public health activities and organisation. Sections
on many subjects are by authorities who are in a position to give
most completely in abstract the essence and most recent data on

INTRODUCTION. vii

the matter they are dealing with. If fuller accounts are desired
more complete works of reference must be studied. For con-
venience of readers a list of some of the most useful works in
this connection is given as an appendix. A map of India will
be found in a pocket inside the cover.

S. R. CHRISTOPHERS,

Editor.

[Photo by Johnston & Hoffman.

SINIOIvCHU (22,570 feet), A BEAUTIFUL PEAK IN THE HIMALAYA

(SIKHIM).

I.

PHYSICAL FEATURES. POPULATION, POLITICAL
DIVISIONS, ADMINISTRATION, RAILWAYS, COM-
MERCE, PRODUCTS AND INDUSTRIES WITH
A BRIEF NOTE ON SCENERY AND PLACES
OF SPECIAL HISTORICAL OR ARCH^O-
LOGICAL INTEREST.

PHYSICAL FEATURKS.

INDIA proper is essentially a fragment of a now broken up
ancient southern continent separated from its old connection
by drift or subsidence of intervening 1 portions and deeply
wedged into Asia. Whether this be so, or whether it is
Asia that in slow majestic movement has thrust itself upon a
deeply rooted immovable India the result has been the same,
viz., a vast upheaval of the most gigantic mountain system in
the wiorld, the great Himalayan chain and its hinterland the
Tibetan plateau. The old land surface of the continental
fragment untouched by ocean for countless aeons remains the
plateau land of Peninsular India, whilst uplifted strata, under
the ocean when India proper was still an ancient land, form a
northern or Himalayan India. Between these two a gulf ,or
trough filled with alluvium of great depth and extent forms
the Indo-Gangetic plain.

The Himalaya. The characters and scenery of all India
are divisible on the basis of these three totally dissimilar
regions. In the Himalayan zone are sharp steep eroded
ridges, separated by deep trough-like valleys, rising through
higher and rockier ridges to peaks of 26,000 feet or over with
their attendant snowfields and glaciers. On the outer fringe
of this land of mountain, on ridges rising to 7,000 or 8,000 feet
are the many hill stations of northern India, Murree, Kasauli.

I

2 PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC.

Simla, Mussoorie, Naini Tal, Darjeeling, etc. The mean height
of the main ridge is 20,000 feet, the snow line 16,000 feet on
the southern slope and somewhat higher on the northern. The
passes average 17,000 feet. The chief peaks passing from
east to west are Chumulari (23,944 feet), Kinchinjanga (28,146
feet), Everest (29,002 feet), Dwalagiri (26,826 feet), Nanda
Devi (25,661 feet), Nanga Parbat (26,182 feet) and in the
Karakorum range, Mount Godwin-Austin (28,250 feet) and
others. The rivers Indus, Sutlej and Brahmaputra which
drain the northern slopes and flow in troughs parallel to the
range on the north break through the range before ending
their course in India. The rivers of the Punjab draining into
the Indus, as also the Ganges and its northern tributaries arise
directly from the southern slopes of the range and make
their way through India to the sea.

The Indo-Gangetic Plain. The great Indo-Gangetic
plain is a level unbroken stretch of alluvium with scarcely an
outstanding feature from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian
Sea. This is the most fertile portion of India watered by the
Ganges and Indus and their many tributaries. An extension
of this plain up the Brahmaputra valley constitutes the major
part of Assam. Almost everywhere except in parts of Sind
and the Thar or Indian Desert this great plain is cultivated.
To the east in Bengal and Bihar are vast stretches of rice
cultivation, in the central portions are more mixed and varied
crops and in the north-west in the Punjab and in Sind wheat
is extensively grown, with much rice towards the delta of the
Indus.

Peninsular India. In the peninsular area is raised un-
dulating land of moderate elevation, with tracts of somewhat
higher forest covered hills and fragments ,of loftier mountain
plateaus. This portion of India is roughly triangular in shape
corresponding to the coastal outline. Its main bulk consists
of the old eroded land surface of India forming the central
plateau. Only a narrow fringe of low-lying coastal land
surrounds this plateau forming the Eastern and Western

PHYSICAL FEATURES. ETC. 3

Maritime Plains, the latter in places a mere fringe of land a
few miles broad.

Aravali Range and Mount Abu. The central plateau
shaped like an equilateral triangle has a somewhat higher
elevation at its three corners. The angle to the west consti-
tutes the Aravali Range with Mount Abu lying to the south-
east of Rajputana. The rocky spurs of this range extend as
far as Delhi where the massive quartzite beds can be seen
forming the famous Delhi Ridge.

Chota Nagpur. The eastern angle constitutes the plateau
of Chota Nagpur, ,on which are situated the towns of Ranch!
and Hazaribagh. These stations though of moderate eleva-
tion only (somewhat over 2,000 feet) are favourite hot-
weather resorts. To the south Chota Nagpur, itself well
forested, merges into the wild forested hilly tracts known as
Singhbhum, the Orissa and the Jeypore Hill Tracts, etc.

Nilgiris. The southern angle of the central plataeu
corresponding with the south of the peninsula forms the most
elevated land outside the limits of the Himalayas. Here are
plateaus of 7,000 feet or over, such as the Nilgiri, Anamali and
Palni Hills, the first mentioned with the Queen of South
Indian Hill Stations, Ootacamund.

Deccan. The central region of the central plateau,
composed of gneisses and a tract of vast basaltic outpourings
known as the Deccan Trap, is on the whole level or undulat-
ing country largely cultivated and especially given over to
cotton wherever the disintegrated Trap gives rise to the
characteristic black cotton soil; in parts the land is very
fertile and there are numerous areas of forest especially to
the north and west. A characteristic feature in many parts
consists of isolated rocky ridges of tumbled gigantic boulders,
the form which the exposed gneiss'ic rock most frequently
takes.

Western Ghauts. The western edge of the plateau is
abruptly cut off in a more or less wall-like fashion and the

4 PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC.

horizontal beds ,of trap thousands of feet in thickness have
weathered into the fantastic towers, isolated peaks and
precipice-girded bastions of the Western Ghauts, well seen
where the different railways crossing India converge upon
Bombay and at the towns of Igatpuri, Mahabaleshwar,
Mataran, etc.

Eastern Ghauts. To the east the slope of the plateau is
more gradual and here outlying isolated hills and ridges form
the so-called Eastern Ghauts.

Satpura and Vindhyan Ranges. To the north the Deccan
merges somewhat gradually into the great plains. This
northern portion is crossed from east to west by the Satpura
and Vindhyan ranges, hills whose highest points scarcely
exceed 3,000 feet altitude, but which nevertheless wit'h their
picturesque jungles serve to give a welcome change to the
traveller on the main railway routes from Calcutta or the
north to Bombay. 'Here on the eastern extension of the
Satpura is the hill station of Pachmarhi situated on a beautiful
park-like plateau intersected with deep almost inaccessible
gorges worn through the thick sandstone beds. A portion of
the Deccan sloping to the north and draining into the Ganges
is here called the Malwa plateau. This with the river Chambal
is crossed in the train from Delhi to Bombay after leaving
Agra and before the yindhyan range is reached. The .States
of Indore and Bhopal are situated upon the Malwa plateau
which extends through Udaipur to the Aravali range.

Rivers of the Deccan. The central plateau as a whole
slopes to the east, and the rivers almost all flow in accordance
with this fact from west to east; of these the most important
are the Mahanadi, draining the nort'h-west, the Godavery and
Kistna draining the central portion of the Deccan, and the
Penner and Cauvary in the south. The rivers Tapti and
Nerbudda to the north, however, flow in the .opposite direction
and passing on either side of the Satpura enter the Gulf of
Cambay.

PHYSICAL FHATURHS, HTC. 5

Burma. Burma unlike the obtruded mass of peninsular
India is essentially Asia. Its ridges, folded by the same
gigantic pressure as have formed the Himalaya, run north and
south entering to the north the kaot of mountains to the
eastern extremity of the Himalayan chain. From the deep
complicated forest-clad valley systems of this inaccessible land
pass south into Burma the great rivers Irrawaddy and
Salween, the alluvial delta of the former constituting the rich
cultivated plain of Lower Burma.

POPULATION.

The total population of India according to the 1921 Census
was 318,942,480 persons. This vast population under a single
administration is, with the exception of China, unique, the
only comparable figures being that for the Russian Empire
which is somewhat over one half and that for the United
States which is about one-third.

The density of population on the average was in 1921
for all India 177 persons to the square mile. The density,
however, in Bengal (population 49 millions) reaches 608, and it
approaches this for the United Provinces (45 millions) and
Bihar and Orissa (34 millions) where it was 427 and 409
respectively, these provinces like Bengal including a consider-
able portion of the more fertile tracts. In the Punjab and
Bombay the density 'is respectively 207 and 157 and in Burma
(13 millions), where there are large tracts of sparsely inhabited
jungle, it is 57 only.

Proportion, Rural and Urban. The great mass of the
population is rural, only about 10 per cent. (32 millions) living
in towns. About three-fifths of the population is actually
engaged in agriculture. There are nevertheless over 2,000
towns of which 35 can claim to be cities. Two cities, Calcutta
and Bombay, have each over one million inhabitants (Calcutta
1,327,547, Bombay 1,175,914). Madras, Hyderabad, Rangoon,,
De}hi, Lahore, Ahmedabad, Lucknow, Bangalore, Karachi,,
Cawnpore and Poona have over 200,000 inhabitants.

,6 PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC.

Villages. Of villages the number is enormous. In a
single district of which there are twenty or thirty at least in a
Province the number of villages is usually several thousands.
A district which is the administrative unit consists usually of
from three to five tahsils and a tahsil may have from several
hundreds to 1,500 or more villages. The District Basti in the
U. P. has 5 tahsils each with over 1,000 villages and totals in
all over 7,000 villages. In all India the number of villages in
1921 was 685,250. If an official, such for example as the Civil
Surgeon of the District, were to visit every village in his area
once, allowing one hour spent at the village and two hours
per village to cover all travelling it would ordinarily take this
official, working without intermission twelve hours a day, at
least one year to complete his circuit; it might in some cases
take two or three years. Yet all these villages 'have an agent
of Government known as the village chaukidar, mukaddam,
lambadar, patel, or gaonbura as the case may be in different
parts of the country. For every village there is a separate,
rough but effective cadastral survey sheet, in every village
deaths and births are recorded.

To the north-west of India villages tend to be compact,
built of mud or brick with flat mud roof. In the south and
east the houses are more scattered, built of wattle or daub or
mud with thatch or palm leaf roof. The better class houses
are, however, of brick and often have tiled roofs. In Bengal
and Assam the houses can scarcely be said to form villages
except administratively for they are scattered singly or in
little hamlets over perhaps a square mile of rice land and
jungle.

Race. The population of India is of very varied racial
characters. In the Punjab and United Provinces the Aryan
type is predominant with a large Mahommedan element.
Further east in Bengal the Aryan strain is still evident though
the racial characters are somewhat distinct from those further
west. In south India the population is of the Dravidian type,
Telugus in the north and Tamils in the south. Down to the

PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 7

very point of India in the rich district of Tinnevelly a teeming*
population still prevails, now characteristically Tamil with
quite other features than those of the more aquiline-nosed
northern race.

In Chota Nagpur and the regions lying to the south of
this are considerable populations of so-called aboriginal
(Dravidian) races, Santals, Kols, Mundas, Gonds, Khonds and
others.

In the Nilgiris and other parts are still more primitive
races such as the Todas, Kurumbas and Irulas. In the
Andaman Islands are Negritos of the Bushman type.

Some local races are of foreign origin such as the Parsees
of Bombay who were originally immigrants from Persia and
the Moplahs of Malabar with Arab blood.

Language. About 100 languages and dialects are spoken
in India. Many of these are Sanskritic such as Hindustani or
Urdu, the lingua franca of India, which contains much Arabic
and is spoken by the large majority of educated persons,
Punjabi spoken by about 18 millions in the north-west, Hindi
spoken by some 86 millions in the valley of the Ganges,
Bengali spoken by about 42 millions in Bengal, Sindhi spoken
in Sind, Marathi spoken in the western Deccan and Gujarathi
spoken about the Gulf of Cambay. In Assam Assamese is
spoken and in the North-West Frontier Pushtu. Of Dravidian
languages are Tamil and Telugu, each spoken by about 20'
millions, Malayalam, Kanarese and others. In Burma
languages of the Burmese group (monosyllabic) are spoken.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF INDIA.

For political and administrative purposes India is divided
into 15 provinces. Of t'hese 9 are major provinces, viz.,
Assam, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, Bombay, Burma, Central
Provinces, Madras, Punjab and the United Provinces. These
are administered by Local or Provincial Governments. The
minor provinces are Ajmer-Merwara, Andamans and Nicobars r
Baluchistan, Coorg. Delhi and the North-West Frontier

8 PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC.

Province. In addition there are numerous Indian States.
Many of these are comparatively or even very small but many
are important. Those of large size and having direct relations
with Government are: Hyderabad (area 84,258 sq. miles,
population, 12,471, 770), Mysore (area 29,475, population,
5,978,892), Baroda and Kashmir and Jammu. Of lesser extent
and population are the States of the Central Indian Agency,
Gwalior, Indore, Bhopal, etc., States of the Rajputana Agency,
Udaipur, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Bharatpur, Bikaner, etc., and States
under Local Governments such as Travancore, Cochin,
Pudukkottai (Madras), Kolhapur, Cutch (Bombay), Sikkim,
Cooch Behar (Bengal), Rampur, Tehri (U. P.), Bahawalpur,
Patiala, Nabha, Jind, etc. (Punjab) and various Central
Province, Burmese and other States. In all there are 675 such
States, of which 175 are under the Supreme Government and
500 under Provincial Governments.

Assam. Assam was taken from the Burmese by the
British in 1824. With some hilly districts to the south it was
in 1874 formed into a new province under a Commissioner.
Syl'het was afterwards added. Later Assam was made part
of the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam, but it is now a
separate Government. It comprises Assam proper, or the
valley of the Brahmaputra, Cachar and Sylhet all important
centres of tea-production. The capital is Shillong on Jthe
Khasia plateau. The country is noticeable for its jungle and
vegetation as well as its beauty. The inhabitants lead a quiet,
seemingly prosperous and contented life amidst t'heir rice-
fields and bamboo groves disturbed only by the ravages of
kala-azar. This is specially dealt with by the Assam Govern-
ment by an Organisation with Treatment Centres in the
villages through which 50,000 persons a year have recently
received effective modern treatment (intravenous antimony
preparations).

Bengal. Bengal dates its existence as a province from
-early times. At one time the name was applied to almost the
-whole of the British possessions in north India. In 1836 the

PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 9

United (then North- Western) Provinces were separated off.
In 1901 the Province included Bihar, Bengal proper, Assam,
Chota Nagpur and Orissa with a total population approaching
90 millions. In 1905 the Province of Eastern Bengal and
Assam was removed from it and later adjustments by the
creation of the new Government of Bihar and Orissa and
relinking up of Eastern Bengal have resulted in the Province
as at present constituted.

The capital is Calcutta, and there are in addition numerous
smaller towns but only one, Dacca, which might be called a
city. Bengal is a vast ricefield. Besides rice, jute and
tobacco are largely grown. In the Burdwan District are the
chief Indian coalfields.

Bihar and Orissa. Bihar and Orissa was constituted a
province in 1912. It consists of three geographically rather
distinct portions. Bihar with Patna, t'he capital, is a portion
of the Indo-Gangetic plain lying astride the Ganges and
resembling Bengal in that it is extremely fertile and a great
rice-producing area. Orissa is a tract including the rich delta
of the Mahanadi with Cuttack as the chief town. The
province also includes Chota Nagpur, a plateau of about 2,000
feet altitude with the hill stations of Hazaribagh and Ranchi,
and certain hilly districts such as Singhbhum, within which
there are considerable mineral deposits such as iron, phosphate,
etc.

Bombay. Bombay is the western Presidency of India.
It is of old standing, Sind being annexed in 1843. It includes
a portion of the Bombay maritime plain or Konkan, a strip
of the Deccan lying behind this, Gujarat with the peninsula of
Kathiawar and Sind. The Gulf of Cambay and the Runn of
Cutch are outstanding geographical features as also t'he
Western Ghauts. Besides Bombay, the capital, there are five
towns of over 100,000 inhabitants: Ahmedabad, Karachi,
Poona, Sholapur and Surat of which Karachi is also an im-
portant seaport. There are about 200 smaller towns. Cotton
and grain are the chief agricultural products. Cotton is grown

10 PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC.

especially about the Gulf of Cambay (Ahmedabad, Broach)
and wheat is extensively grown in Sind.

Burma. Lower Burma was made a Province under a
Chief Commissionership in 1862. Upper Burma was included
in 1886 and in 1897 Burma became a Lieutenant-Governor-
ship. The administration besides Burma proper includes the
Shan States and the Chin Hills, the former to the east and the
latter to the north-west of Burma proper. The capital is
Rangoon and besides Mandalay and Moulmein there are about
70 smaller towns. Apart from the plain of the Irrawaddy the
country is mostly hilly and largely covered with forest. It is
a sparsely populated but rich province with an output of rice,
timber, petroleum, etc.

Central Provinces and Berar. The Central Provinces
were constituted in 1861 from the Nagpur Province together
with the Saugor and Nerbudda Territories formerly included
in the North- Western Provinces (U. P.). Berar was placed
under the same administration in 1903. The Province em-
braces a part of the northern Deccan and Malwa plateau
occupying with the Central India Agency States t'he centre of
India. T'he capital is Nagpur and bes'des Jubbulpore, a town
of 108,000 inhabitants there are about 100 smaller towns.
Cotton is extensively grown, also much rice and wheat, etc.

Madras, Madras Presidency, next to Burma, is the
largest of the Provinces and with the Indian States of
Hyderabad and Mysore occupies almost the whole of penin-
sular India sout'h of a line drawn through the level of Bombay.
The Presidency has remained very much in extent what it
was in 1800 under the Company. Canara, Coimbatore, and
the Wynaad were added in 1761, the Northern Circars in 1765
and the Deccan Districts, Anantapur, Bellary, etc., in 1800-1.
The capital is Madras (526,911 inhabitants), there are two
towns, Madura and Trichinopoly of over 100,000 inhabitants
and about 300 small towns. The Province is of very varied
physical characters and consists of the Madras districts proper

PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 11

or Carnatic, the Deccan districts lying between Mysore and
Hyderabad, the west coast districts of South Canara and
Malabar and the Northern Sircars or Godavery, Vizagapatam
and Ganjam districts including the maritime plain and hills
behind t'his as far north as Orissa. Altogether there are 22
districts and a district on an average has an area of 7,000 sq.
miles and about 2,000,000 population. The natural resources
are considerable and varied. The province supplies a large
number of immigrants to Burma, F. M. S. and Ceylon.

North- West Frontier Province. The province was con-
stituted in 1901. It consists of five divisions and, together
with Chitral, the Swat valley and other outlying areas,
includes the land lying between the Indus and t'he high
mountains of the Hindu-Kush and Suleiman range. The
capital is Peshawar.

Punjab. The Punjab is the alluvial plain of the five rivers
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej and part of the Indus
basin forming the northern portion of the Indo-Gangetic
plain. The Punjab as it existed when taken over was annexed
in 1849. In 1858 the Delhi Territory, i.e., the districts of Delhi,
Rohtak, Gurgaon, Hissar, Karnal and Ferozpore, was trans-
ferred from the North-West Provinces (U. P.). In 1901 the
districts west of the Indus were made into the new North-
West Frontier Province. Delhi City with a small territory of
about the size of a tahsil was in 1911 made an Imperial
Enclave, the City becoming the New Capital of India. The
present capital is Lahore and besides Amritsar and Rawal-
pindi, both cities of over 100,000 inhabitants, there are 143
smaller towns. The plain of the Punjab is divided by its
rivers into Doabs or terrain lying between the rivers. In the
enormous irrigation works of the province the main canals
run down these Doabs converting what would naturally have
been tracts of desert into fertile canal colonies. Wheat and
cotton is extensively grown and exported and there are many
forms of industry such as weaving, horse-breeding and in the
hills tea and fruit.

12 PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC.

United Provinces. The province was constituted (as the
North- West Provinces) in 1833 from territory formerly form-
ing part of Bengal. In 1853 Saugor and Nerbudda territories
were incorporated. Oudh was annexed in 1856. The Delhi
and the Saugor and Nerbudda territories were later trans-
ferred respectively to the Punjab and Central Provinces.
These with other minor changes have left the province, named
in 1901 the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, as it is at
present constituted. It consists in the main of the Indo-
Gangetic plain from the junction of the Sone and Gandak
rivers with the Ganges below Allahabad to the Jumna and
there are also the hill regions of Almora, Gahrwal, etc., passing
back to the high Himalayan range. The capital is Lucknow
(240,566 inhabitants) and there are six other towns over
100,000 inhabitants and 428 smaller towns many of consider-
able importance. Between the Jumna and Ganges is the
Doab; lying north of the Ganges and between this river and
Nepal is Oudh. The United Provinces is a very rich and
highly developed province. Grain, oilseeds, rice, sugar, cotton,
indigo and tea are the chief agricultural products. Cawnpore
is a great centre of cotton and leather manufacture. Benares
on the Ganges is a famous sacred city of the Hindus.

ADMINISTRATION.

The Supreme authority in India is vested in the Crown
acting through a Secretary of State assisted by a Council.
There is a High Commissioner for India in London who dis-
charges functions similar to those of the High Commissioners
representing the self-governing Dominions.

The administration of the Government of India is vested
in the Governor-General in Council who is also Viceroy,
assisted by an Executive Council and the Commander-in-Chief
as ex officio extraordinary member. There is a Council of
State and a Legislative Assembly each constituted of
nominated and elected members. The six ordinary members
of the Executive Council hold portfolios for departments, viz.,

PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 13

Home, Finance, Education, Health and Lands, Commerce and
Railways, Industries and Labour, Law and Legislation.

The executive government of the provinces is constituted
(in the case of a major province) by a Governor working (a)
with Executive Councillors nominated by the Crown, (b) with
Ministers whom he selects from elected members of the
Provincial Legislature. To correspond with this division in
the executive the subjects of provincial administration have
been divided into " reserved " and " transferred." The trans-
ferred subjects include Local Self Government, Education,
Medical Administration and Public Health, Agriculture and a
number of other subjects.

The administrative unit under the Local Government is
ordinarily the district, but with 5 or 6 districts as a rule
forming a division under a Commissioner. At the district
headquarters, usually the most important town in the district,
is stationed the Deputy Commissioner in charge of the district,
who, besides being District Magistrate, is responsible for the
collection of revenue, control of the treasury, inspection and
control of local bodies and municipalities, control of village
officials and numerous other duties. Besides the Deputy Com-
missioner is the Civil Surgeon, usually a member of the Indian
Medical Service, a District Health Officer, an Executive
Engineer, a Superintendent of Police, Forest Officer and
possibly others, conditions not being necessarily the same in
different parts of India. At the headquarter town are also
the Courts, District Civil Hospital, District Jail, etc. In large
districts there may be Sub-Divisional Officers.

A district is divided into tahsils, or taluks as the case
may be, and at the tahsil headquarters is the Tahsildar, who is
a magistrate and in charge of the revenue collection and Sub-
treasury. The tahsil is further sub-divided into smaller
divisions variously named in different parts of the country but
which correspond to a group of villages and are from say 50 to
100 square miles in area. The ultimate unit for many matters
is the village, but there is another unit smaller still, viz., the

14 PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC.

numbered plot of land. Very often there may be a thousand
or more such plots in a single village, all delimited and
numbered and marked on the cadastral map of the village.
For the upkeep of roads, public buildings and other works,
education, sanitation, etc., grants from the Provincial Govern-
ment and t'he proceeds of local taxation are administered by
the District Board (or municipality in case of the larger
towns) both of which consist of nominated and elected
members.

Of Public Services there is the British Army in India,.
Imperial State Forces under Indian States, the Royal Indian
Marine, the Indian Civil Service, the Indian Medical Service,
the Police, the Public Works, Posts and Telegraphs, Forest,.
Survey, Agricultural, Educational, Ecclesiatical Departments,.
etc.

RAILWAY, COMMERCE, NATURAL PRODUCTS AND INDUSTRIES.

Railways. The total length of railways opened in British
India and Indian States in 1923 was 37,618 miles, of which
18,389 miles were of standard gauge (5 feet 6 inches), 15,508
miles metre gauge (3 feet 3$ inches) and 3,721 miles of other
gauges.

The first line opened in India was from Bombay to Kalyan,.
33 miles, in 1849. Active railway extension which included
the beginnings of the East Indian, Great Indian Peninsula
and other important lines began in 1859 and by 1879 nearly
9,000 miles of railway had been opened. At the present time
there are through routes linking all the large centres such as.
Calcutta with Bombay (2 routes, 1,349 and 1,223 miles respec-
tively), Calcutta with Madras (1,032 miles), Calcutta with
Simla (1,343 miles), Bombay with Simla (1,230 miles), Bombay
with Madras (794 miles), Madras with Ceylon (527 miles).
In addition there are innumerable smaller railways, branches,
and connecting lines covering India proper with a network
which leaves but few parts very remote from railway facilities.
In Burma the communication is less complete but a line proceeds-

PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 15

from Rangoon to Myitkyina in north Burma (725 miles) and
branches from this or independent lines reach many important
places.

Commerce. India is deficient in facilities for natural
harbours for vessels of deep draft but possesses five large
ports, viz., Karachi, Bombay, Madras, Calcutta and Rangoon.
There are, however, innumerable small ports engaged chiefly
in coastal traffic (over 400 in the Madras Presidency alone).
The annual value of seaborne trade (imports and exports) is
about 400,000,000. Of imports the chief are manufactured
cotton goods, iron and steel, machinery and railway material,
sugar and mineral oil. Of exports the chief are raw and
manufactured cotton and jute, grain (especially rice and
wheat), oilseeds, tea, hides and skins, wool, lac and mineral
oil. In connection with commerce and trade are many im-
portant associations, Chambers of Commerce at Calcutta,
Bombay, and other places, Indian Jute Mills Association,
Indian Tea Association, Indian Mining Association, Planters
Associations, etc.

Natural Products. Of natural products grains of various
kinds take first place. Rice is extensively grown in Bengal,
Bihar and Orissa, Burma and Madras, and its cultivation is
estimated at 80,000,000 acres. Wheat production is about one-
tent'h of world production, the area under cultivation mainly
in the Punjab and Berar being about 30 million acres. Other
..grains grown very extensively, especially in the Deccan, are
the millets jowar and bajra. Oilseeds are extensively grown
(5 million acres). Cultivation of cotton covers about 20
million acres and the cotton grown is estimated at 35 per cent.
of the world supply. It is grown chiefly in Bombay Presi-
dency, Central Provinces and Hyderabad. Tobacco is exten-
sively grown in Bengal and exported for manufacture to
Burma. Coconut (copra, coir and coconut oil) is an important
product in Kathiawar, the Konkan, Godavery delta, etc.

A large trade in hides and skins is carried out. It is
estimated that there are 180 million head of cattle and 87

16 PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC.

million sheep and goats in India. The skins are collected
especially at Calcutta, Cawnpore and Lahore where there are
tanneries. Wool is produced in Rajputana.

Timber is an important natural product especially in
Burma. Reserve forests cover an area of about a quarter of
a million square miles. Some of the more important woods
are teak, deodar, sal and shisham. Lac is cultivated and col-
lected in the jungles. India has practically a monopoly of
this product since few other countries produce it and the next
most important source, Siam and Indo-China, yields only 2
per cent, of the quantity from India. Lac is obtained chiefly
from Chota Nagpur and its neighbourhood, Sind, Central
Assam and Upper Burma. Silk is extensively cultivated in
the villages in Assam and elsewhere.

About 50 per cent, of the world's supply of tea conies
from India. It is grown especially in Assam, Cachar and the
Duars, but also to some extent in the Nilgiris, Kangra valley,
etc. Coffee is cultivated in t'he Nilgiris and other places in
south India.

India is a coal-producing country. The coalfields are
chiefly in the neighbourhood of Raniganj and Jheria in the
Burdwan District of Bengal on the borders of Chota Nagpur
and Orissa. Production in 1922 was 19 million tons. Smaller
coalfields are in the Central Provinces and elsewhere, usually
where the Indian Coal Measures (Gondwana Series) occurs.
Tertiary or Cretaceous coal occurs in Assam and elsewhere.

Vast iron deposits (haematite) occur in Singhbhum and
adjoining tracts. Manganese is obtained from the Central
Provinces and elsewhere. Gold is extensively mined in the
Kolar Goldfields near Bangalore. Tin, lead, silver, and zinc
are worked in Burma where there are also ruby mines. The
annual production of petroleum from the Burma oilfield is
about 300 million gallons and there are rich oil-bearing strata
yielding large quantities at Attock in north-west India. Salt
is obtained in large quantities from mines in- the Salt Range,
etc., and also by evaporation on an immense scale of sea-water

PHYSICAL FEATURE, ETC. 17

in various Salt Pans on the coast. The tax on salt yields a
large revenue.

Manufactures and Industries. Of large manufacturing
or commercial centres the chief are Calcutta (jute mills),
Bombay (cotton mills), Ahmedabad (cotton), Cawnpore
(leather, woollens, cotton, flour mills, iron foundries, bristle
factories, chemical works), Amritsar (piecegoods trade,
carpets), Delhi (cotton mills, biscuit and flour mills, art
industries, etc*)- Of large manufacturing concerns may be
mentioned the Bengal Iron and Steel Company who smelt at
Kulti (Bengal) and the Tata Iron and Steel Company at
Jamshedpur in Bihar and Orissa.

SCENERY AND PLACES OF SPECIAL HISTORICAL AND
ARCHAEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

Scenery. A general account of India would not be com-
plete without some mention however short of scenery and
places of interest. The outstanding scenery of India is that of
the Himalayas, e.g., in such places as Kashmir, an upland plain
of 5,000 feet altitude surrounded by high snow peaks, or
Darjeeling, the so-called Queen of Himalayan hill stations,
which faces the rock and snow of the vast Kinchinjanga and
from which a panorama of 'hundreds of miles of snow peaks
is visible. But many parts have scenery less magnificent but
of great character and beauty, such as the Shillong plateau,
the Nilgiri plateau, Mahabaleshwar and other places in the
Western Ghauts, the plateau and gorges of Pachmarhi, the
backwaters of Travancore and other places on the Malabar
Coast. Besides which are innumerable scenes of beauty and
interest to be seen all over India. Every northern hill station
has its panorama of snows, its pine-clad slopes and mountain
torrents. In peninsular India are beautiful woodland jungles
and rivers with rocks, blue pools and yellow sands. In the
east clusters of giant bamboo and jungle amongst which nestle
brown homesteads give scenery scarcely to be matched for
soft beauty. In the south, too, palms and green ricefields and

18 PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC.

curious isolated hills almost everywhere make the scenery
both characteristic and beautiful. Even in the featureless
great plains the cultivated countryside and the broad sandy
river beds and smoothly flowing great rivers 'have great
charm.

Archaeological and Historical. To the scenery is often
added the interest of historical and archaeological association.
In this connection may be mentioned the many relics of the
ancient cities of Delhi, the ruins of Fatehpur Sikri nearby,
the Forts and Palaces of Delhi and Agra, the Taj Mahal at
Agra, the beautiful gardens of Shalimar and Shahdara at
Lahore all evidence of the Great Moghul rulers. In Rajputana
are medieval forts perched on high inaccessible rocks such as
Gwalior Fort seen from the train between Delhi and Bombay,
the forts and palaces at Udaipur, Alwar, Mount Abu, etc. In
the Ganges valley is the Hindu sacred city of Benares, ruins
of Sarnath nearby and the temples of Budh-Gaya, etc. In the
west are the cave temples of Elephanta near Bombay, and the
less accessible caves of Ajanta and Ellora. To the south are
the Hindu temples of Madura, Conjeevaram, etc., characteristic
of Dravidian culture and much else of historical and archaeo-
logical interest.

Among more modern sights are the evidences of the
Mutiny at Cawnpore, Lucknow and Delhi.

Modern. Of quite modern interest are the buildings,
green maidans and parks of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and
Rangoon, the Peryar Dam and other irrigation projects,
engineering works such as the Kalka-Simla, Darjeeling and
Nilgiri railways and the great bridges over the Ganges,
Godavery, etc. Also . there are the numerous Government,
Municipal and Educational buildings and concerns such as
the Indian Museum, the Queen Victoria Memorial and the
Botanical and Zoological Gardens at Calcutta, the Reclamation
Scheme and City Extension at Bombay, the Research
Institutes at Pusa, Muktesar, Kasauli, Dehra Dun, Bombay,
Madras and elsewhere.

II.

A BRIEF RESUM.E OF INDIAN HISTORY.

Prehistoric. Prehistoric remains of man in the form of
so-called Neolithic age stone implements have been obtained
from many parts of peninsular India and they are especially
abundant along the southern border of the Ganges Valley and
in the Vindhyan Range. A peculiar form are the " pigmy
flints." These occur in great abundance in many parts of
India, e.g., the Vindhyan Hills, Godavery basin, Baghelkhand,
Rewah, Mirzapur, etc., tumuli, cinder mounds, cup-marks,
raddle drawings in caves, etc., also occur. Nothing appears to
be known as to the racial type with which such remains are
associated, nor is there any known relation of such occupation
of the country by early man to history. Nothing resembling
a bronze age in India appears to exist. Ruins and sites of very
great antiquity such as occur in Mesopotamia and Egypt are
not characteristic of India, the earliest known buildings being
of the 3rd or 4th century B.C. or later.* Historical data with
even an approximately reliable chronology also scarcely exists
in respect to India prior to 650 B.C.

Vedic and Sanskrit Periods. India is, however, peculiar in
possessing an early religious literature dealing with events
pre-dating actual historical statement. From such writings
a great deal has been learnt regarding the origin and early
history of the Hindus. Two main periods are clearly indicated
in this early literature, the vedic and the Sanskrit (sensu
stricto). The chronology of the vedic period is purely con-
jectural but it is believed to extend from 1500 to 200 B.C.
Of the vedic period three literary stages or strata are
evidenced, viz., in order of date, the Vedas, Brahmanas and

* See, however, section on archaeology.
( 19 )

20 A BRIEF RESUME OF INDIAN HISTORY.

Sutras. The Vedas which are the oldest consist of four col-
lections, the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.
The Rigveda (15001000 B.C.) is the oldest and consists of
lyrics mainly in praise of various gods. The Samavedas con-
sist of stanzas of the Rigveda arranged, etc. The Yajurveda,
as also the Atharvaveda, is of a later date, though the latter
contains matter of a primitive character. The Brahmanas are
considered to date from about 800 to 500 B.C. and the Sutras
from 500 to 200 B.C.

During the early period of the Rigveda the early Aryan
race occupied the north-west corner of India, especially the
country of the Upper Indus, i.e., the valleys of t'he Kabul, Swat
River, Kurram, Gomal, etc. At the end of the Rigvedic period
the Aryan settlements extended to the Yamuna (Jumna) and
Ganga (Ganges) ; the Narmada (Nerbudda) or the Vindhyan
Range is not mentioned. During the vedic period Aryan
civilisation overspread the whole of Hindustan, i.e., the
country lying north of the Vindhyas and south of the Hima-
layas. Many of the names of places, etc., are still traceable
including Gandhara (preserved in the form of Kandahar), the
River Sarasvati (now taken to be the Ghaggar near Ambala),
Ayodha (Oudh), Magadha (Bihar), Angas (Bengal), etc. The
Yajurveda relates to a period when the centre of Aryan
civilisation was in the Ganges Valley (Thanesar, the Doab,
etc.). Already in the Yajurveda not only are the four chief
castes firmly established, but most of the mixed castes known
in later times are referred to.

The Sanskrit period extended from about 200 B.C. to 1000
A.D. It is not, however, a continuation and development of
the later vedic stage, but in its commencement ante-dates
this. Belonging to this period (500200 B.C.) are the Maha-
bharata and the Ramayana the two most famous Indian epics,
the former describing the struggles of the Bharatas and
Panchalas (Thanesar and Doab area), the latter the adventures
of Rama, a prince of Ayodha (Oudh). The Sanskrit period in
addition to information derived from internal evidence lias a

A BRIEF RESUME OF INDIAN HISTORY. 21

few chronological landmarks furnished by visits of foreigners,
e.g., Alexander's invasion of India in 326 B.C., Megasthenes
300 B.C. who resided for some years in the court of Patali-
putra (Patna) and the Chinese Buddhist travellers Fa-hian
(399_414 A.D.), Hiuen Tsang (630-45) and I Tsing (671
95 A.D.) whose records are still extant and have all been
translated into English.

Darius. From about 500 B.C. the history of India becomes
linked with outside historical events. In the reign of Darius
(521 485 B.C.) following an invasion by that king the prov-
inces west of the Indus were made part of the Persian
territory. At the time of Alexander's invasion nearly two
centuries later the Indus was still the boundary between the
Persian dominions and India.

Alexander. -In 326 B.C. Alexander the Great crossed the
Hindu Kush and after conquering the country about the
Upper Indus, with support from the King of Taxila, invaded
India. At this time Taxila was celebrated as one. of the
greatest cities of the east and a great seat of learning. At
the Jhelum Alexander encountered Porus who ruled the
populous and fertile territory, containing 300 towns, which
lay between the Hydaspes (Jhelum) and the Akesines
(Chenab). Here was fought the battle of the Hydaspes in
which Alexander was successful. In the forces of Porus were
200 elephants and 300 chariots each drawn by four horses
and carrying six men. The foot soldiers carried a broad two
handed sword, a long buckler of undressed ox-hide and either
javelins or a bow. The archery on the side of the Indians
appears to have been unusual for the Greek writers remark
that " nothing can resist an Indian archer's shot neither
shield nor breastplate nor any stronger defence if such there
be." In July the Chenab was crossed and in August the
Hydraotes (Ravi). A battle was fought at Sangala against a
confederation of allies from the Central Punjab and Upper
Beas in which Alexander was also successful. At the Beas
Alexander turned back and again reaching the Jhelum

22 A BRIEF RESUME OF INDIAN HISTORY.

himself a fleet and passed down this river to the Indus and
the sea.

The Maurya Empire. The effect of Alexander's invasion,,
however, was very short-lived for within a few years the
whole territory conquered by him to the foot of the Hindu
Kush had been reconquered and attached to the kingdom of
Magadha. Magadha or Bihar was a Hindu kingdom in the
Ganges Valley with its capital at Pataliputra (Patna). The
dynasty founded by Sisunaga at Magadha about 600 B.C. is-
among the earliest in the Puranic (Sanskrit period) with any
claim to historic reality. In the time of the fifth monarch of
this line, Bimbasara, Magadha conquered and added to its
territories the kingdom of Anga (Bhagalpur and Monghyr).
This same Bimbasara is famous in Buddhist story as the
friend and patron of Gautama Bhudda, who died 487 B.C. in
the reign of Bimbasara's successor. The Sisanuga dynasty
continued for three or four generations beyond this and was
followed about the middle of the fourth century B.C. by the
Nanda dynasty. The last of the Nanda dynasty immediately
after Alexander's inroad was deposed by Chandragupta
Maurya who being at the time in exile in the north-west
collected a force in these parts and descended upon Magadha.
Chandragupta rapidly reconquered the territory annexed by
Alexander and added this to Magadhan possessions. The
kingdom at this time extended from the Arabian Sea to the
Bay of Bengal and beyond the Indus to the Hindu Kush.

Asoka. The* next king but one following Chandragupta
was Asoka (272 231 B.C.). Asoka who reigned for some 40
years is one of the most famous kings in Indian, or indeed
general "history. His kingdom was that of the Maurya Empire
under Chandragupta with the addition of t'he Northern Circars
(Kalinga) which was conquered in his reign. His monolithic
pillars inscribed with edicts are to be seen at Delhi and else-
where in India. Asoka was an ardent follower of Buddha
and the early spread of Buddhism is largely due to him. He
actively inculcated Buddhism throughout his territories and:

A BRIEF RESUME OF INDIAN HISTORY. 23

-encouraged the foundation of Buddhist monasteries. Mis-
sionaries were sent to the Chola and Pandya kingdoms in the
extreme south and to Ceylon as well as to tributary states
on his frontiers and to t'he various Greek kingdoms.

Brahmanism and Buddhism. The two religions Brah-
man-ism and Buddhism were at this time and subsequently
both in active progress in India. The place of origin of the
Brahmanical religion was the sacred country of t'he Yajurveda,
the country of the Kurus or Kurukshetra called Brahmavarta
(i.e., modern Thanesar). From here the adherents of the
Yajurveda broke up into several schools which gradually
extended over other parts of India. Buddhism arose in
Magadha which remained Buddhist to the Mohamedan con-
quest. Elsewhere Brahmanism gradually ousted Buddhism
which eventually ceased to be the religion of the country of
its origin.

After the death of Asoka the Maurya Empire became dis-
membered, but the home provinces under the Sunga and Kanva
dynasties (ISA 72 B.C.) remained as the kingdom of Magadha
until 27 B.C. when it was annexed by a monarch of the Deccan
kingdom of Andhra.

Kushan Dominion. In 200 B.C. Demetrius the Greek King

of Bactria invaded India and annexed the Kabul Valley, Sind
and part of the Punjab. Mithridates I, the Parthian King also
.annexed the Western Punjab about 138 B.C. In 45 A.D. both
these powers were destroyed by the inroad of the Kushan
-clan of the Yueh Chi horde from Central Asia which first
-established itself under Kadphyses I in the north-west, and
then under Kadphyses II (85 A.D.) conquered India to the
-east and south at least as far as Benares. Kadphyses II was
succeeded by Kanishka (125 A.D.) famous in Buddhist legend
as a second Asoka. Under Kanishka the Kushan kingdom
.greatly extended itself, his dominions including the plains
tiort'h and south of the Oxus, most of modern Afghanistan;
.Kashmir and a large part of North India. His capital was

24 A BRIEF RESUME OF INDIAN HISTORY.

Peshawar which became the centre of a great school of Indo-
Roman Buddhist art. The Kushan kingdom was maintained
under Huvishka (150 A.D.) but in the time of his successor
Vasudeva (185 A.D.) became restricted to the Punjab where
it continued to exist until the time of the Hun invasions in the
5th century.

Gupta Dynasty. Whilst the Kuchan kingdom had thus
dwindled to the Punjab, what was practically the old kingdom
of Magadha again extended itself under the Gupta dynasty
(320 A.D.). The second king of this dynasty Samudragupta
(326 A.D.) by conquests extended his kingdom from t'he
Brahmaputra to the Sutlej and held Mahva and Rajputana and
a portion of Lower Bengal under tribute. With this was also
a temporary conquest of two kingdoms to the south of the
Vindhyas and inclusion within his frontier of territory as far
south as the Nerbttdda. Samudragupta II (390 A.D.) annexed
Malwa and Kathiawar, thus extinguishing the Satrap Greek
dynasty in this peninsula which had existed as a powerful
state for three centuries. It was in the reign of Samudra-
gupta II that the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Fa-hian visited
India. Pataliputra was still a flourishing city and a great
centre of the two forms of Buddhism. Numerous Buddhist
monasteries existed and what is modern Bihar, U. P. and
Malwa was the scene of great prosperity and equitable ad-
ministration. Kamaragupta and Skandagupta in turn suc-
ceeded to the throne but both had to struggle with the
invasions of the White Huns and at Skandagupta's death the
Gupta Empire disappeared. (480 A.D.)

Mediaeval India. During the 6th century, following the
break up of the Gupta Empire and as a result of the invasions
of the White Huns, India became divided up into many petty
kingdoms. During this time the jungles extended and the
ancient capitals lay in ruins. The north of Oudh was forest
and jungle reached to the neighbourhood of Benares. An-
other great forest stretched from Bihar to Rewah and there
were famous forests in the Upper Doab and about Thanesar.

A BRIEF RESUME OF INDIAN HISTORY. 25

Indo-Scythians had established their dominion from Peshawar
to Muttra, Parthians ruled in Gujarat and the Lower Indus,
The parts about the Doab and Eastern Punjab still, however,
maintained a stable government and a dense population.
Here in t'he 7th century rose the kingdom of Kanauj, ruled
by the great King Harsha (also known as HParshavardhana
Siladitya). Harsha ascended the throne of Thanesar about
604 A.D. After conquering Northern India he attempted the
subjugation of the South but was held south of t'he Nerbudda
by the power of Pulakesin II the Chalukya King of the
Deccan. During Harsha's reign the Chinese traveller Hinen
Tsiang teacher of the Mahayana form of Buddhism visited
India. At this time territories west of the Indus including
Gandhara were under a king of Northern Afghanistan and
part of t'he Punjab was under Kashmir. The rest of Northern
India including the King of Assam acknowledged Harsha's
rule. Pataliputra was in ruins. The most prosperous parts
were Magadha (Bihar), Western Malwa and Gujarat. The
Nepalese Terai was waste and Kalinga (Northern Circars) was
thinly inhabited and supposed to lie under a curse. Buddhism
was showing signs of decay but still held in the Punjab,
Kashmir and the North- West. Orthodox Hinduism was pre-
dominant in the Ganges Valley and t'he Jains were numerous
in Eastern Bengal. Harsha's throne was usurped by Arjuna
(648 A.D.). A Chinese envoy was badly received at the time
of Barsha's death and escaping to Tibet returned with a force
of Tibetans and Nepalese, captured Arjuna and took him a
prisoner to China. Once more Northern India (650 to 950
A.D.) relapsed into a congery of small states engaged in un-
ceasing internecine war.

During the 7th to llth centuries A.D. India passed under
the influence of Neo-Hinduism. Siva and Krishna and a vast
polytheism took the place of the older vedic deities. The
Mahabharata and Ramayana (product of the Gupta period)
with the Puranas or old tales formed the textbooks of the
new religion. The four original castes underwent a n$w division

26 A BRIEF RESUME OF INDIAN HISTORY.

and the Brahmans and Rajputs became supreme. The
Rajputs made their first appearance in t'he 8th and 9th
centuries and most of the clans took possession of their future
seats between 800 and 850. From Rajputana they entered the
Punjab and made their way to Kashmir. About the same
time they spread north and east from Southern Oudh and later
made themselves masters of the Central Himalaya. Kashmir
now rose to power and ruled part of the Punjab. The Sambhar
king's ruled over the country from Mount Abu to Hissar with
Ajmer as their capital, and their territory was extended during
the 12th century to include Delhi and what was left of Kanauj.
During this time the Gujars pastoral tribes of Scythian origin
founded petty states in the Punjab, Central Rajputana and
Gujarat. The Western Punjab was under the kings of
Ohind with their capital at Lahore. In Bengal were the
various kingdoms of Pundra (Pabna), Vanga (Bengal proper).
Kama Savarna (Burdwan, Murshidabad, etc.), Tamralipta
(Midnapore) and Anga (Bhagalpur). Magadha still con-
tinued in existence until overthrown by the Mohamedans in
11%. This was t'he only Buddhist kingdom then in Northern
India.

It was at this stage that the Mohamedan conquest of
North India took place.

The Deccan, Telugu and Tamil Kingdoms. Before going
on to the Mohamedan conquest of North and South India a
brief reference to the Hindu kingdoms south of the Vindhyas
is necessary. The Dravidian population of Southern India
were, during the early periods B.C., subdued by Aryan con-
querors who seized on the old kingdoms and established
dynasties throughout the area. Among these kingdoms
known in the time of Asoka (250 B.C.) were the Andras
(Godavery and Kistna basins), the F'ulindas (Nerbudda), the
Petenikas (Aurangabad), the Rastikas (predecessors of the
Rastrakutas and Rattas, Mahratta country), the Bhojas and
Asparantas (Bombay), the Cheras or Keralas (West coast),
the Cholas (Tanjore) and the Pandyas (Madura). A large

A BRIEF RESUME OF INDIAN HISTORY.

part of the Deccan was almost uninhabited and known as
Dandakaranya or the desert of Dandara.

Andbra. The supremacy of the Andra kingdom dates
from about 180 B.C. The capital was Dhanyakalaka on the
Kistna where was constructed the famous Amaravati stupa
(near Bezwada). In the west was a second capital Paithan
(near Aurungabad). The kingdom comprised all middle
India and extended from sea to sea with the great Tamil
kingdoms to the south. Andhra had a considerable trade both
overland and by sea with Western Asia, Greece, Rome and
Egypt as well as with China and the East. Roman coins arc
found in profusion in the peninsula and Pliny mentions the
vast quantity of specie which found its way from Rome to
India.

But by the end of the 5th century A.D. Andhra was no
longer a great power. At this time the southern kingdoms
were much as before but the Pallavas whose capital was
Conjeeveram near Madras had overspread a large part of what
had formerly been Andhra and to the north as an independent
power were the Rastrakutas occupying the country on both
sides of the Vindhyas. To the south of the Rastrakutas
occupying the country about Dharwar were the Kadambas
who in the 6th century after defeating the Pallavas and the
Ganga King of Mysore settled in the southern Mahratta country
bordering on Mysore.

The Western and Eastern Chalukyas* Under Kirttivarma
I (566 A.D.) there now rose a new power in the west. Under
Kirttivarma the Chalukyas conquered widely and under
Pulikesin II (609 A.D.) they became masters of a large part
of the peninsula. Conquering the Konkan, Deccan and
Northern Circars they crushed for a time the Rastrakutas and
invaded even the southern kingdoms of the Cholas and
Pandyas. It was in the time of this king in the zenith of his
power that Harsha, King of Kanauj, endeavoured to make con-
quests in South India but was repulsed. After Pulikesin ? s
reign the kingdom was divided into a western portion with the

28 * A BRIEF RESUME OP INDIAN HISTORY.

capital at Badami (in the south of the Bombay Presidency
near Belgaum) and an eastern portion with the capital at
Vengi between the Godavery and Kistna.

The Rastrakutas. At t'he end of the 8th century the
western portion of the Chalukya kingdom had been for the
time destroyed (760 A.D.) by the Rastrakuta king, Krishna I,
and the Rastrakutas held sway over the centre and west of
the Deccan as well as over a considerable part of southern
territory. The Eastern Deccan and Kalinga (Northern
Circars) still remained under the eastern Chalukyas. In the
south were the Chola and Pandya kingdoms. Mysore was under
a Ganga dynasty.

Sack of Anuradhapura. In the reign of Sena I of
Ceylon (846 66 A.D.) the Pandyas attacked Ceylon and
sacked the city of Anuradhapura, but a few years later Sena II
captured and plundered Madura. In 962 70 A.D. Ceylon was
again invaded by the Pandyas.

At the end of the 10th century t'he Rastrakuta kingdom
was broken up due to the rise again to power of the western
Chalukyas under Taila II. At the same time the Cholas
became very powerful and under Rajaraja I (985 1012 A.D.)
overran eastern Chalukyan territory and Kalinga, defeated
Ganga King of Mysore, overcame the Plandyas and invaded
Ceylon. There thus were about 1000 A.D. two new powers,
the resurrected western Chalukyas with their capital at
Kalyan near Bombay and the Cholas (now amalgamated with
the eastern Chalukyas) with their capital at Kanchi (Con-
jeeveram, near Madras). The Pallavas of this latter area
have disappeared.

But in 1192 the western Chalukya dynasty was swept out
of existence by the Yadavas on the north and the Hoysalas
from the south and the Kakatiyas of Warangal (Hyderabad)
had also come into power and conquered Chola territory.

The Hoysalas. The Hoysalas under Vishnuvardana
alias Bittiga destroyed the Ganga dynasty of Mysore and
under Ballala II (11911211) established themselves as rulers

A BRIEF RHSUMH OF INDIAN HISTORY. 29

over a large part of the Deccan, struggling for supremacy
against the Yadavas. The Hoysalas made conquests in the
south against the Cholas but lost in the north against the
Yadavas. The Hoysala capital some time prior to 1242 was
moved to Vikramapura (Cannanore) in Malabar.

The Yadavas. The Yadavas whose capital was Deogiri
(modern Daulatabad near Aurungabad in t'he Western Deccan)
made conquests in Gujarat and Malwa and later to the south.
Eventually in the reign of Ramachandra they seized the old
capital Dorasamudra (modern Halebid north-west of
Bangalore) of the Hoysalas. The Yadavas governed the
territories formerly 'held by the western Chalukyas, the
Konkan and parts of Mysore. To the east of them was
Warangal and to the south the Cholas.

The Yadava dynasty ended after the seizure of its last
ruler by Kutb-ud-din Mubarak, Emperor of Delhi. The
territory of the Hoysalas was annexed in 1327 and the
Mohamedan conquest of the South had begun.

The Southern Hindu Kingdom. The last stand against
the Mohamedans was made by a confederation of southern
kingdoms under the leadership of two brothers, Harihara and
Bukka. These in a few years established an empire which
kept the Mohamedans at bay for two centuries. The capital
was the new city of Vijayanagar in Kanara which became one
of the largest and wealthiest cities ever occupied by Hindus.

Mohamedan incursions and conquest. Mohammed died
in 632 A.D. and within a few years of this date Syria,
Egypt and Persia were added to Mohamedan dominion. In
712 India was invaded through Mekran and Baluchistan and
Sind and Multan annexed. ,In 870 these provinces together
with Seistan and Kerman formed a Mohamedan kingdom.
But in 1051 rule passed to a local dynasty and Mohamedan
dominion was on the wane if it had not ceased altogether.

Ghazni Kings. In 9991025 Mahmud ruler of a state of
which Ghazni, near Kabul in Afghanistan was capital made

30 A BRIEF RESUME OF INDIAN HISTORY.

repeated incursions into India in the course of which he took
many towns in the Punjab, reduced Kanauj as well as plundered
widely. As a result at the end of this period the Punjab
formed the frontier state of Ghazni. Later when Ghazni
territory t to the north was lost to the Ghori kings, Mahmud's
successors moved their capital to Lahore (1160) but their
power was shortly ended by the same Ghori kings (1186).

Ghori Kings. The Ghori kings ruled in the country
between Ghazni and Herat in the north-west. Ghiyas-ud-clin
Muhammed came to the Ghori throne in 1162 and eleven
years later annexed Ghazni leaving his younger brother
Mu'uzz-ud-din in charge of t'he conquered territory. Mu'uzz-
ud-din almost at once began conquests in India. He made
various excursions into the Punjab and took possession of
Sind, Multan, Lahore, etc. (1186). In 1191 Mu'uzz-ud-din
gathered an army for the conquest of India but was met and
defeated by Prithwi Raj, the last of the Sambhar kings and
ruler of Delhi and Agra. Next year, however, Mu'uzz-ud-din
was successful and taking Prithwi Raj prisoner annexed his
territory (except Del'hi). Later his general Qutb-ud-din took
Meerut and Delhi where the capital was established. In 1194
Mu'uzz-ud-din overthrew Raja Jai Chand, Rathor, ruler of
Kanauj and pushing on sacked Benares. By 1206 when
Mu'uzz-ud-din was murdered, Northern India from Peshawar
to the Bay of Bengal was held by satraps, the four most im-
portant of whom were, Qutb-ud-din holding Delhi and Lahore,
Taj-ud-din in the Kurram Valley, Nasir-ud-din in Multan and
Sind and Muhammed, son of Bakhtyar at Laknauti (Malda) in
Bengal. Delhi, however, was the most powerful and soon
assumed supremacy under t'he Delhi kings.

Delhi Kings. 34 kings reigned at Delhi 12061526 of
which 12 were deposed or assassinated but without any outside
influence coming into play. These kings are divided into five
houses which include the so-called Slave Kings of Delhi (1206
1290), since Qutb-ud-din the first ruler was a slave, and the
Lodi kings who terminated the series. Qutb-ud-din was

A BRIEF RESUME OP INDIAN HISTORY. 31

responsible for commencing the Qutb mosque and the famous
Qutb Minar near Delhi and many of the antiquities of Delhi
are of this period. Ala-ud-din, a king of the Khalji or the
second of the Delhi dynasties, first as generalissimo and later
as monarch led the first Mohamedan armies into the.Deccan.
He sacked Daulatabad and Ellichpur and instituted systematic
incursions into the south. In 1297-8 his forces traversed
Gujarat. Chitor was captured in 1303. In 1307 Deogiri
(Daulatabad) capital of the Yadavas was taken and in 1310
Warangal. In 1311 Ballala Raya's capital of Dwarasamudra
was taken (Mysore). In the days of Mahmud the last of
the Tughlaqs (13981413) the Delhi kingdom began to fall to
pieces. Gujarat, Malwa and other territories became separate
states.

Taimur. In 1398 A.D. Taimur the Turkish conqueror
invaded India and descending on Delhi took and pillaged this
city as well as many other towns in t'he Punjab. Taimur,
however, in the succeeding year left India for good and the
rule of the Delhi kings was continued and under the Lodis
considerably extended.

Babar. In 1526 Babar, who in the fifth generation was
descended from Taimur and who had taken Kabul and
extended 'his rule over Kandahar, invaded India. The Lodi
king was defeated at Panipat and Delhi occupied. In four
months all the Delhi kingdom was reduced to submission and
the Moghul Empire founded (1526 1803). In the reign of
Babar's successor, Humayan, however, Sher Shah Sur
obtained possession of the Empire and the Sur emperors ruled
from 1540 55 until expelled on the return of Humayan who
died shortly after but was succeeded by his son Akbar. In
Akbar's reign the Empire was extended to the whole of North
India (1594). Akbar then commenced conquests in the Deccan
w'hich were continued by his successor Jehangir. Under 200-
years of strong government and conquest and increasing order
and tranquillity t'he dominion of the Moghul Empire was in the
year of Aurangzeb's reign (1658 1707) almost universal

32 A BRIEF RESUME OF INDIAN HISTORY.

throughout India. Later rapid decay set in and after the
death of Aurangzeb the whole of Southern India became practically
independent of Delhi.

The Mahrattas. In the latter part of the reign of Aurang-
zeb the'Mahrattas under Sivaji rose to power and under the
Peshwa dynasty extended their dominion widely over the
Deccan, the Konkan and Gujarat. In the Deccan proper the
Nizam-ul-Mulk had founded an hereditary dynasty with
Hyderabad for its capital which exercised nominal authority
over the entire south. The Carnatic (eastern maritime plain)
was ruled by a deputy of the Nizam known as the Nawab of
Arcot. Further south Trichinopoly was the capital of a
Hindu Raja; Tanjore formed another Hindu kingdom. In-
land Mysore was growing into a third Hindu state. Every-
where local chieftains were in semi-independent possession of
citadels or hill forts. These represented the deputies of the
old kingdom of Vijayanagar and many of them had maintained
virtual independence since its fall in 1565.

The French and British in India. It was in this stage
that in connection with trade to the East various European
countries had established factories and settlements on the
coast of India. Towards the end of the 17th century
the French had factories at Surat on the West, Musulipatam
and Pondicherry in the Carnatic and at Chandernagore in
Bengal, the English at Surat, Madras and Calcutta. These
settlements up to the time of Aurangzeb's death took no part
in politics, but during the second half of the 18th century
each power struggled with the aid of disputes between rival
rulers of the different states for ascendancy throughout India.
Under Dupleix the Governor of Pondicherry the French suc-
ceeded in placing a Nizam on the throne of Hyderabad and
became powerful in the Deccan. To defray the expenses of
troops kept in aid of the Nizam they were granted by him
the Northern Circars. In 1759 dive's defeat of the French at
Condore, however, led to the transfer of this last mentioned
territory to the British. In 1761 Pondicherry capitulated to

A BRIEF RESUME OF INDIAN HISTORY. 33

the British and though this was later returned French supremacy
in Southern India then ceased. In Bengal defeat of the Nawab
of Bengal by Clive at Plassey in 1757 and the policy of
Warren Hastings similarly led eventually to British supremacy
in -Bengal. The various Mahratta, Mysore and other wars
ending in the final overthrow of the Mahratta power in 1818,
etc., consolidated British power in the peninsula and later the
cession of Oudh, the results of the Burmese, Sind, Nepal,
Sikh and other wars during the first half of the 19th century
led to the present wide extension of the Indian Empire as it
now exists.

HI.

THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE IN INDIA.

Early Medical History. The first " doctors " in the usually
accepted sense in India were those that came with ships as Ships'
Surgeons. In 1614 John Woodall was appointed Surgeon-General
to the East India Company on a salary of 20 per annum. His
duties (in London) were to see to the supply of competent sur-
geons to ships and the proper fitting out of their chests. His
" surgeons " were apprentices trained by himself. He appears
to have devoted considerable trouble to organising suitable
medicine chests.

Almost as early one hears of a certain number of " medical
men " from various sources in employment as physicians at the
courts of Indian and other Eastern rulers. Many of these were
French, also Dutch, Italian, Armenian, etc. Englishmen in this
position were a later feature. There was an English surgeon in
the service of Mahfus Khan, eldest son of the Nawab of Arcot,
in 1748. Another served a later Nawab of Arcot to 1776. Two
other Madras surgeons were in the employ of sons of the Nawab
in 1778 and Nawab Mahomed AH himself had 8 European
medical men in his service, 2 physicians (Portugese) and 6 sur-
geons (English). In 1780 a Dr. Lloyd was in the service of
Haider Ali during the time that he was fighting against the
British and Dr. Lloyd was able to help the English prisoners
taken by this ruler.

Many of these medical men in the courts of Native Princes
had considerable influence. There is a legend which says that
in 1636 a daughter of the Emperor Shah Jehan was severely
burnt and that the services of a European surgeon were requested
from Surat. The Council at Surat nominated Mr. Gabriel
Boughton, surgeon of the ship Hopcwcll, who went to the

36 THE HISTORY OP MEDICINE IN INDIA.

Emperor's camp, then in the Deccan% The Princess was cured
and the Emperor in gratitude asked the Physician to name his
reward which this honourable man did by asking for certain
privileges for his countrymen in Bengal. It is not certain that
the legend is true in all respects but it shows the kind of influence
referred to.

The early English settlements were at Surat, Bombay,
Madras and Calcutta. At each of these places medical men either
resided for periods or were en passant in connection with ships.
There were also branch settlements as at Broach, Ahmadabad,
Agra, etc., and the services of medical men were required
at these. The Company also had factories in Persia and in the
Dutch East Indies, etc., and some amount of interchange of
medical men took place. In the period 1668 1720 Crawford *
gives 25 doctors who were surgeons in Bombay. In the Calcutta
list are 10 names (16901728). A perusal of the lists shows
that many of these spent but a short time in India, three or fooir
years at most, but others remained 7 or 8 years or in a few cases
up to double this time. In due course they returned home, were
transferred or died. In this period William Hamilton, who
accompanied the famous British Embassy from Calcutta to the
Moghul Court at Delhi (1714) was able by his services to the
Emperor greatly to help forward the objects of the Embassy,
whose success was of very great importance to British interests.

The Indian Medical Service. During the first half of the
18th century medical men, much as described above, were
residing and passing through the settlements at Calcutta, Madras
and Bombay. But in 1764 the Bengal Medical Service was
founded and similar services for Madras and Bombay originated
about the same time. By orders passed in the Fort William
Cons, of 20th October, 1763, it was agreed that from 1st January,
1764, there should be a plan regularising the number, rank,

* A very complete history from which these notes have been taken is
given in Crawford, A History of the Indian Medical Service, 2 Vols.
W. Thacker & Co-, London, 1914.

THE HISTORY OF MHDIC1NH IN INDIA. 37

succession and appointment of medical officers. The plan arranged
for 4 Head Surgeons to reside at Calcutta and 8 Surgeons of
which the four eldest were to be stationed at the Factories of
Patna, Cossimbazar, Chittagong and Dacca and the other four to
be Surgeons of the Army and the whole of this rank to succeed
in rotation to be Head Surgeons at Calcutta. There were alsa
posts for 28 Surgeon's Mates who were to succeed in their
seniority to be Surgeons. In 1774 a list of the Bengal Medical
Service preserved in Calcutta gives 18 Surgeons including the
Surgeon-General and Surgeon-Majors, 7 Subordinate Surgeons
and 44 Assistant Surgeons. Under the stress of wars, etc., the
number of the Bengal service as also the strengths of Madras
and Bombay cadres were often considerably swollen by locally-
engaged men who usually came on in turn upon the sanctioned
cadre. In 1854 the strength of the Bengal Medical Service was
382 (Administrative Officers 15, Surgeons 127, Assistant Sur-
geons 240). For Madras the total was 217 and for Bombay
181. At this time out of a total of 269 Surgeons and 511
Assistant Surgeons only 34 Surgeons and 138 Assistant Surgeons
were in Civil Employ.

In 1766 the Medical Service was divided into Military and
Civil. Both on this occasion and in 1796 this division was made
complete, but it was on neither occasion found practical to main-
tain such separation. The position of the Indian Medical Service
has since been made quite clear, viz., that Officers of the LM.S.
are primarily military officers, but that those in Civil Employ
are temporarily lent for civil duty and form a reserve for the
Army, being liable to recall for military duty at any time, as
happened to the majority of such officers in the War. Officers
now on joining the service serve in Military until, if they elect
for Civil, a vacancy is open to them, when they may serve as
Civil Surgeons, or join the Jail, Sanitary, Bacteriological or
other branch on the civil cadre.

It seems strange at the present day to read that it was only
relatively recently that general opinion did not suppose that it
was Civil Employ, not Military, in which the greatest professional?

38 THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE IN INDIA.

opportunities were given. This arose from the fact that in
those days there was little of the wide field of activity now
undertaken by the Civil Branch. In the earlier times the Civil
Surgeons* professional work consisted in attendance on a few
Government Servants and that alone. Private practice was non-
existent except in a few places and the only mofussil hospitals
were Military Hospitals. Of hospitals or dispensaries for the
general population there were none, nor presumably in these
days had Sanitation and Public Health made any demands on the
ordinary medical man. In the above manner was forined the
Indian Medical Service which now for nearly two centuries has
been the mainspring of advance in medical and sanitary science
and organisation in India.

General Progress of Medicine. Though we have spoken
so far of " medical men " it must not be forgotten that medicine
and surgery during much of the time we have been speaking of
was still in a very crude and undeveloped state and very far
from the later developed practice which arose as the result of
the appearance of Science in the west. Science as we under-
stand it was something which, strange and unique, came into being
only very late in the history of the human race. It actually
commenced in the latter part of the 17th century, but was
not a recognised force until the 18th century. In fact though
the early beginnings of science can be seen in these times it is
scarcely an exaggeration to say that it is only within the last
hundred years that Science, as it now stands triumphant, has
appeared. The circulation of the blood was discovered in 1628.
The earlier of the medical men we have referred to in India,
even supposing that they were up-to-date in the " higher subtle-
ties " of their profession, could not have known this, to us,
simple fact.

In the time of Brown (17351788) the Brunonian
" system " held sway in England, Germany, etc. It classified
diseases as " sthenic " and " asthenic " and treatment as " stimu-
lant " or "depletive." At this time also arose the strange

THE HISTORY OP MEDICINE IN INDIA. 39

homoeopathic " system." Up to now indeed medicine like many
other subjects was in the pre-scientific stage and by its " systems ",
the result of as yet undeveloped accurate observation and experi-
ment and of over elaboration of the supposed power of the human
mind to think out things ab initio, probably lost more than it gained.
It was only now that the very beginnings of Anatomy and Physio-
logy and indeed of many sciences were being made. Asepsis,
anaesthetics, a knowledge of the bacterial and protozoal causes
of disease, and almost all we now call medicine and surgery arose
in the second half of the 19th century. Only in the 19th century
therefore can we expect to find in this story of medicine in
India a reflex of the enormous changes that then took place as a
result of the reaction of a newly risen Science on Medicine.

Hospitals. A prosperous hospital at Goa seems to have
been in existence before any hospital in British settlements. The
first hospital in Madras was opened about 1664 and in Bombay
in 1676. The earliest hospital in Calcutta dates from 1707-08.
In 1784 there were 3 hospitals in Bombay one within the gates
for Europeans (General Hospital), another on the Esplanade
for Sepoys and a third for convalescents on an adjacent island.
In 1824 a hospital was built in Hornby Road; it took the sick
both of the Garrison and of the Civil population. St. George's
was completed in 1892. The second hospital in Madras was built
between 1679 and 1688 by public subscription at a cost of 838
pagodas or nearly Rs. 3,000. A third hospital cost 2,500 pagodas.
In 1772 a hospital costing 42,000 pagodas was built. It was of
two blocks perhaps the most westerly of those in the present
General Hospital, Madras. Surgeon-General Gordon was the
first to suggest the establishment of a hospital for die native
population (1779) ; this became the Monegar Choultry. In 1816
a hospital for Lepers was completed which became the Madras
Government Leper Hospital. On the proposal of Assistant
Surgeon Conolly a Lunatic Asylum was built as early as 1794.
The first hospital at Calcutta was destroyed at the capture of that
City in 1756. There was a hospital for sepoys built in 1757
and a third hospital was built in 1770. All these were for the

40 THE HISTORY OP MBDIC1NH IN INDIA.

Company's soldiers and sailors. The last of the abovemen-
tioned hospitals was replaced later by the Presidency European
General Hospital. The Medical College Hospital had its first
beginnings in 1838 when a small clinical hospital with 30 beds
was built and an out-patient dispensary opened. An Eye Hos-
pital was established in Calcutta in 1824 and a Lying-in Hospital
in 1840 (later the Eden Hospital).

It was not until the beginning of the 19th century,
that hospitals for the general population were established in some
of the chief mofussil towns. A Public Letter from Calcutta,
dated 1804, reports that the benefits of the Native Hospital in
Calcutta have been fully realised ; and that the Governors of the
Hospital have been directed to communicate with the Senior
Civil Servants at Dacca, Patna, Murshidabad and Benares with
a view to opening similar hospitals in these towns. Some of the
best known mofussil hospitals in Bengal were founded in the
'thirties, e.g., Muzaffarpur by Kenneth Mackinnon, Civil Surgeon
of Tirhut and the Imambara Hospital at Hughli, which owes its
origin to Thomas Wise, Civil Surgeon and Principal of Hughli
College.

A large part in the creation of Hospitals has been played in
India by Medical Missions. The first regular Medical Missions
are said to be those founded and supported by the citizens of the
United States in Southern India in 1830 40. In 1911 there
were 332 medical missionaries serving in India and Ceylon.

It is in fact largely the result of men of outstanding profes-
sional attainments among the Civil Siurgeons of the Indian
Medical Service and Medical Missions that the mofussil hospitals
and indirectly the numerous dispensaries throughout India have
drawn for treatment the enormous numbers of the common
people that they have done (about 40 millions are treated annual-
ly in some 3,634 Government Medical Institutions in the present
<tay and another 8 millions in some 1,500 State Special, Railway
and Private Hospitals). To a surgeon Who has a name there
flock the halt and blind and sick from far and wide and many

THE HISTORY OP MEDICINE IN INDIA. 41

a hospital in India is but the ultimate effect of the professional
skill and humanity of such a one.

Medical Education. Some sort of instruction was given
in the Hindu and Mahommedan indigenous systems early in the
19th century at the Sanskrit College and in the Madrassa.
This was purely by lectures and reading and did not include dis-
section or practical work. The first real medical school in India
was established in 1822 in Calcutta for training native doctors.
Similar schools were started in Bombay in 1826 and in Madras
in 1827, but after 6 years' running the Bombay school was
abolished. Medical Education on a higher scale was initiated by
Lord Bentinck in 1833. On the recommendations of the com-
mittee then appointed the Medcial College, Calcutta, was founded
(1835). A medical school, the Madras Medical College, was
started in Madras (1835) and another, the Grant Medical College,
in Bombay (1845).

Since this time the number of Medical Schools in India has
increased rapidly. Very often such schools have been the out-
come of energetic and enthusiastic work by some individual Civil
Surgeon or Mission Doctor or by the independent practitioner
community, e.g., the Carmichael Medical College, Belgachia. The
question has now come to be not so much the number of schools
as the standards taught up to. These schools have produced not
only numbers of men with Indian qualifications who largely staff
the higher grades of the subordinate medical service, men often
of great ability and attainments, but also the very useful and
universally appreciated class of diploma holding Sub-Assistant
Surgeons without whose loyal and ungrudging help the medical
affairs of this country could not be run.

Advances in Medicine in India. India can count many
names preserved in the literature of medicine and surgery.
Among the famous ones are Charaka, the pioneer physician, and
Susruta, the pioneer surgeon, of early almost pre-historic times,
taking rank with the great Hippocrates (460 B.C.). In more
modern times are many Indian Medical Service Officers and

42 THE HISTORY OP MHD1C1NH IN INDIA.

Mission Doctors and others who have added much to medicine
and surgery making certain diseases and surgical conditions
almost Indian specialities, among which may be mentioned the
operative procedures for cataract and for stone-in-the-bladder.

In the more recent lines of Tropical Medicine and especially
in Tropical Medical Research India has indeed a famous record.
Among those whose fame is reflected upon her is the honoured
guest of the Congress, Major Sir Ronald Ross, I.M.S.. to whom
is due the discovery of the mode of transmission of malaria,
completely and for all time banishing the old ideas of miasma
and opening up untold possibilities for the future. Also an
honoured guest is Lieut.-Col. Sir Leonard Rogers, I.M.S., who
has introduced or developed many new and important lines of
treatment in tropical diseases. Among earlier names are Vandyke
Carter, the discoverer of the first spirochrete, Lewis, the discoverer
of the first trypanosome, Cunningham, who first saw Leishmania,
and whose specific name for the parasite of Delhi Boil should
still on the rules of scientific nomenclature hold good. Among
others is to be mentioned Giles, one of the earliest mosquito
workers and James the first, with LOW, to see the final stage of
the filarial embryo in the mosquito.

Advances in Sanitary Science. In sanitation Indian
workers came up against problems such as had no counterpart in
their own country. In her early Sanitary Commissioners India
had men who with little of the advantages of present scientific
knowledge were still able to add much to that side of the study
of disease that may most suitably be termed epidemiological.
Later workers have also developed this field imposed on them
by the vast magnitude of the disease problems of India. It was
in India that malaria was first mapped by Dempster by use of
the spleen rate. It was in India that almost all that is known of
the epidemiology of bubonic plague was worked out. Problems
in India such as no other country can present are still offered
and are engaging attention. Formerly workers accustomed to
India conditions failed to see very often that they were pitted

THE HISTORY OF MHDICINE IN INDIA. 43

against things little known elsewhere not only this but others
outside India have often failed in such recognition. Progress in
India may seem slow but the struggle has developed on special
lines which may be expected in due course to yield appropriate
results.

Women's Medical Service. Lady doctors are a compara-
tively recent development. It was in connection with Medical
Missions that they first made their appearance in India. The
employment of medical women in India, however, received a great
impetus from the foundation of the Lady Dufferin Fiund. In
the Lady Hardinge Medical College and Hospital is seen a great
recent development of this side of medical work in India. In
the active prosecution of Child and Maternity Welfare Work is
seen another modern feature of Indian medical work. Forma-
tion of a Women's Medical Service is a step recently achieved.

IV.

INDIGENOUS SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE IN INDIA.

BY

THE HON'BU; MAJOR-GENERAI, A. HOOTON, C.I.E., K.H.P.,

I.M.S.,

Director-General, Indian Medical Service.

AN eminent novelist has remarked that mankind everywhere
has certain primitive cravings. Dancing, fighting, digging, reli-
gious ritual and rhythmical music are some of those he mentions.
First aid and the administration of nostrums might well be added
lo these, and simple methods of treatment must have made their
appearance very early in even most primitive societies. Beyond
this, however, in the older civilisations, it is clear that shrewd
observers have been at work from time immemorial, and one
cannot live long in India without realising that her people who
practise agriculture, and the primitive arts and crafts by means
of which so many of them still gain their living, although they
may be obsessed with various superstitions, often develop a vein
of practical commonsense in the ordinary affairs of life which
serves them well in injuries and disease. Thus, one is frequently
struck by the acute observations and practical deductions of even
ignorant country folk in medical matters. One cannot but admire,
for instance, the sagacity which prompts a cultivator to apply a.
ligature above the injury in a case of snake-bite, although tha;
may lead to disastrous results. It is sometimes necessary to
amputate owing to gangrene from this procedure, and the tragedy
may be accentuated by the reflection that the snake which inflicted
the bite was probably harmless. Other instances of similar
sound deductive reasoning, which do not involve undue risk,

( 45 )

46 INDIGENOUS SYSTEMS OP MHDICINE IN INDIA.

are incision and mouth suction, applied by means of a brass
funnel for the extraction of guinea-worm, as practised by an
illiterate class of " shikaris '' in the Deccan, and light splinting"
and early movement, as utilized apparently from remote times in
Kathiawar by wrestlers, in the treatment of sprains and fractures
incurred in the exercise of their hereditary profession. Some
camel drivers, again, appear to have a very fair idea of the
nature of volvulus. They say it is dangerous to drink large
quantities of fluid before undertaking a journey on camel back,
and in describing how the intestines of the rider are thrown about
by the action of the animal, demonstrate the formation of a loop
with consequent strangulation by the identical gesture that is
so often employed in the lecture room. It would be interesting
to know whether experience confirms that intestinal obstruction
does ever result from camel riding, but these men, at all events,
or their progenitors, have thought for themselves.

Apart from instances of this kind no doubt ordinary domestic
medicine has been practised throughout the ages in India, as-
elsewhere, and Indian matrons were fortunate in having at
their disposal some of the most useful remedies of the pharma-
copoeia long before they were available in luirope. The eastern
peoples generally have also possessed for ages some admirable
sanitary codes, which, if the spirit of them had been better
observed, would have served as a considerable protection against
the tropical diseases from which they so frequently suffer. The
teachings of the old vedic scriptures, and the sanitary laws laid
down by Manu and Moses, include many of the precepts of the
modern science of hygiene, and would have furnished an excel-
lent basis for further research, if, being holy writ, they had not
unfortunately been regarded as definitive, and so sacred that to
question or modify would have been impious.

As regards the regular systems of medicine which have
grown up in India the position is somewhat confusing. The
chief designations employed are Ayurvedic, Siddha, Yunani and
Tibbi. There are many works available with regard to the first
of these, and from the historical standpoint Ayurvedic medicine

INDIGENOUS SYSTEMS OP MEDICINE IN INDIA. 47

is much the most important. The evidence seems to show that
Siddha is merely an offshoot of this. Similarly, Tibbi is practi-
cally synonymous with Yunani, and there is no doubt that the
latter, which was derived originally from the Greeks partly
directly, at the time of the invasion of northern India by
Alexander, partly through intercourse! with the Arabs has
borrowed extensively from the Ayurveda. The basic principles
and details of practice are different, but many of the drugs
employed are the same. The ancient Indian system is mentioned
with respect by Greek authorities of that period, and it is evident
that there was a mutual interchange of ideas, and that while the
Greeks left their mark on, Indian medicine by the introduction of
the Yunani system, they themselves must have borrowed from the
Ayurvedic system, which was undoubtedly at one time much in
advance of their own.

There is thus, properly speaking, only one main indigenous
system of medicine in India, and that is the Ayurvedic, which
has impressed many of its characteristics on its chief rival, the
Yunani system, and the brief space at our disposal will be most
profitably occupied in studying the former. Like many ancient
Indian institutions at the present time, both systems have passed
their palmy clays. The modern vaid and hakim (with rare ex-
ceptions) are no longer Sanscrit and Arabic scholars respectively,
as they used to be, and it is probable that there are few localities
in India where either system may now be seen to its biest
advantage, but the Ayurvedic system in some form still ministers
to the medical needs of countless Hindus, and the Yunani to
those of numerous Mahomedans. Ayurvedic literature is in
the Sanscrit language, and Yunani mostly in Arabic or
Urdu, and there is a very sharp division between the followers
of the two, the vaids or Ayurvedic physicians, dealing with
Hindus, and the hakims with Mahomedans. Finally, it must be
mentioned that both classes of practitioner show a strong ten-
dency at the present time to borrow from the precepts and prac-
tice, and also from the pharmacopoeia, of modern scientific medi-
cine.

48 INDIGENOUS SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE IN INDIA.

Many volumes and articles have been published on Ayurvedic
Medicine, and there is considerable difference of opinion as to
chronology and other important details. The most that can be
done here is to try to give some idea of the main features of
the system and to attempt a fair estimate of its virtues and
defects, accepting those theories which seem most probable where
controversial points arise. Owing to extravagant claims which
have been put forward by zealous protagonists of the Ayurveda,
feeling has sometimes run rather high between them and expon-
ents of modern scientific medicine, and there has been in some
quarters a tendency to dismiss both it and the Yunani system
with contempt. This attitude is to be deprecated. It is certain
that 500 years ago both the Hindu and Mahomedan physicians of
India must have been greatly superior in many respects to those
of Europe. The names of Charaka and Sushruta may fairly
be placed beside those of Hippocrates and the other famous.
Greek physicians, and in point of time they preceded them. The
Ayurvedic school was the first to speculate on physiology and
pathology, and, however, roughly, to investigate the structure of
animal and human bodies, and so lead the way to the more
accurate refinements of modern Anatomy. In remote ages they
also began methodically to observe the signs and symptoms of
disease. It has been remarked that there is a general tendency
for orthodox Hindus to trace the beginnings of learning in all
departments to revelation, and the Ayurveda is no exception.
The oldest extant literature of Indian medicine is to be found
in the Vedas the ancient scriptures of the Hindus which have
been estimated to date back as far as 1500 B.'C., and these are
attributed to divine origin. It is the Atharvaveda, or fourth sec-
tion of the Vedas, which deals chiefly with medical subjects, and
as may be imagined for the most part the details are primitive
and crude, consisting principally of demonology and spells and
charms for the cure of certain of the more easily recognized dis-
eases and injuries. An exception must, however, be made for
the subject of Anatomy particularly osteology in which con-
siderable progress had evidently been made at that time. It i*-

INDIGENOUS SYSTBMS OF MEDICINB IN INDIA. 49

not, however, necessary to devote much attention to this stage
of Hindu medicine, and we may pass on at once to the writings
of Charaka, Sushruta and an author of a later date, Vaghbata,
which, although based on the Vedic scriptures, mark a very
distinct advance as compared with them. As regards dates, it
may be assumed that Sushruta wrote some time in the sixth
century B.C. He was primarily a surgeon and probably lived
at Benares. Charaka is believed to have lived in Kashmir a
century or two later, and was more of a physician than a
surgeon. Vaghbata belongs to a later period, probably about the
third century A.D. It is from these three writers that our
knowledge of the present system of Ayurvedic medicine is
chiefly drawn, and the most important of them is undoubtedly
Sushruta, the earliest. All must have been much hampered by
the assumed divine origin of the Vedas, from which they draw
their main inspiration, and in view of that consideration it is
remarkable that they made as much progress as they did. Had
subsequent workers, in other subjects as well as medicine, used
the same discretion, the history of science might easily have
been very different, but authority was too potent for them, and
the great scientific movements of the nineteenth century were
destined to develop in the west.

The most noticeable advances, in the earliest times as has
already been noted, were made in anatomy. The Vedic re-
searches were mainly in the department of osteology, but in the
time of Sushruta dissection, although of a very crude description,
was resorted to. The method adopted by him was to macerate
the body in a river for some days, and then to scrape with a sharp
bamboo. In addition to this, however, observations were carried
out by priests on the bodies of sacrificial animals chiefly the goat,
cow and horse and descriptions of the bones and internal organs
were recorded in the sacrificial literature, and no doubt added
considerably to anatomical knowledge. But with such crude
methods it is not surprising that arteries were confused with
tendons and tendons with nerves, and that the connections of
even the main organs were misunderstood. The rudimentary
s 4

50 INDIGENOUS SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE IN INDIA.

science of physiology fared even worse. As one writer remarks,
speculation and imagination were allowed full play. The ancient
vaids knew nothing of the functions of the brain, of the spinal
cord, the lungs, the heart, the liver, kidneys and spleen. They
thought the heart was a reservoir for chyle, and the liver and
spleen for blood. The heart was also the seat of breathing, mind
and spirit, and of oja } an imaginary principle, supposed to be the
supreme essence of the organism. Vedic anatomy and physiology,
therefore, were of a very crude description, but when that u-
said, it has to be admitted that they furnished a foundation on
which it was possible to make some progress in the arts of
medicine and surgery. Here, naturally, speculation -again came
in to a considerable extent, and it was unfortunate that dogmatic
theories were early laid down, which held the field for many
centuries. The notion of the three humours no doubt originated
with the three main seasonal variations, which in the north of
India are abrupt and severe. Vat (wind) was responsible for
ailments due to the rigours of winter, pitta (bile) was associate,!
with heat, and diseases due to it were classed as bilious, and the
rainy season group were called phlegmatic (kapha, phlegm).
These ideas remained unchallenged through the ages, and not
only the Vedic writings themselves, but the more advanced views
of Sushruta which were partly founded on them, seem to have
had all the authority of holy writ. Another formula was that of
the seven proximal principles chyle, blood, flesh, fat, bone,
marrow and semen. With all this, however, it is noteworthy
how much real pioneer work was done, and it is pleasing now to
pass to the other side of the picture. The old Hindu physicians
laid down some of the main principles of diagnosis. Inspection,
palpation and auscultation were made use of, as well as taste and
smell, and many of the main symptoms of the more obvious forms
of disease were noted. The family history was also carefully
considered. True, many of what are now recognised as general
symptoms were classed as specific diseases, but that may well
be forgiven, and there are many examples of shrewd and accurate
observation. Sushruta, for instance, gave a recognisable

INDIGENOUS SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE IN INDIA. 51

description of malaria, and even went so far as to attribute it to
mosquitoes; diabetes is named "honey-urine" and the symptoms
of thirst, foul breath and languor are noted. Inoculation against
small-pox was apparently practised in Vedic times in India, as
at the present day amongst the Persian hill tribes. Symptoms
and diseases were grouped, and an elaborate system of nomen-
clature evolved, which, if it has had to be extensively altered in
the light of modern knowledge, at least traced a path which
that could follow.

In Ayurvedic therapeutics, again, there is evidence of much
sound reasoning. For treatment diseases were divided into two
main groups, sthenic and asthenic, and the practice adopted was
logical from this standpoint. The sthenic group were dealt with
by methods of depletion-purgatives and enemata, emetics, dia-
phoresis and blood-letting while for the asthenic, stimulating
treatment was employed. As regards drugs, those used in the
clays of Charaka and Sushruta were for the most part of a mild
and non-poisonous type, with the exception of some severe
cathartics. An enormous list of vegetable substances is detailed,
and many of them could now, no doubt, fairly be consigned to
oblivion, but they include a considerable number of drugs which
have since been borrowed for the European pharmacopoeias; for
example, cinnamon, cardamoms, cannabis indica, hyoscyamus,
mix vomica, jambul, kamala, senna and castor oil. Nearly all
the present day forms of pharmaceutical preparations were
employed mixtures, pills, pastes, powders, ointments, supposi-
tories, collyria and other lotions. Hygienic measures were also
not forgotten, and elaborate dietetic and hygienic rules were laid
down for a general regimen in health. Meals were to be taken
twice a clay, and foods and drinks were classified as " heating "
and " cooling " respectively. Regular cleansing of the teeth was
advised, and general bodily cleanliness inculcated. Clothing,
exercise and rest, and massage also received attention. As
regards dietetic treatment in disease, fasting is advised for certain
conditions, milk diet for others, and sour milk treatment is also
spoken of. It is noteworthy that salt is prohibited in dropsical

52 INDIGENOUS SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE IN INDIA.

conditions. The researches of Brown-Sequard were also anti-
cipated to a certain extent in the treatment of impotence by the
administration of the semen and testicles of animals.

But it is in the realm of surgery that the most surprising
originality and enterprise was displayed. Space is not available
to enter into detail, and it must suffice here to note that apart
from minor procedures such as the extraction of teeth and open-
ing of abscesses, tumours were excised, puncture carried out for
hydrocele and ascites, and lateral lithotomy and rhinoplasty per-
formed. In the more special domains cataract was treated by
couching, and Csarian section (after death) and embryotomy
were carried out. Much ingenuity was displayed in fashioning
surgical appliances, and Sushruta gives a lengthy list of instru-
ments, many of which have their recognisable counterparts at
the present day.

It remains to add that the Ayurveda was not behind-hand in
laying down an ethical code for practitioners of medicine. flP're-
cepts comparable to those of Hippocrates are set forth, and with
the last of these we may conclude " There is no end to the
science of medicine. Hence heedfully and carefully devote thy-
self to it, considering it an hour to practise the art."

Enough has been said to show that remarkable advances
were made by the ancient Indian physicians and surgeons, and
that many centuries ago the foundations of medical science had
been laid in this country, but unfortunately in this, as in many
other departments of science, the eastern savants became bound
by tradition, and the very extent of their progress proved their
undoing. So far from advancing, knowledge actually retro-
gressed in the subsequent ages. The ancient vaid was a philo-
sopher and scholar, and studied the ancient writings in the
original. Here and there, no doubt, a worthy successor to him
may be found, but Ayurvedic medicine is now largely in the
hands of ignorant charlatans, and the same may be said, for the
most part, of the Yunani system. There is at the present time,
it must, however, be added, an attempt to revive both Ayurvedic
and Yunani medicine, and schools have been established in various

INDIGENOUS SYSTEMS OP MEDICINE IN INDIA. 53

centres for this purpose; but these institutions make no secret of
the fact that they rely extensively on the modern scientific
system and it is no longer maintained that the ancient systems
can stand alone. A revival on these lines can hardly be con-
sidered sound. The ancient systems, however adtoirable in
some respects, were developed, in the absence of a solid founda-
tion of the basic sciences of physics, chemistry, anatomy and
physiology, on purely speculative lines. They were based, like
the old Chinese system, which until recently held sway in Japan,
on fanciful theories which will no longer bear the light of day,
and India would be well advised to follow the example of Japan,
and while paying all due respect to her ancient pioneers, to adopt
the theories and practice which modern science has placed at her
disposal.

V,

MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OF INDIA.

BY

LIEUT.-CQI,. J. D. GRAHAM,

Public Health Commissioner with the Government of India.

1. General. The evolutionary trend of modern medicine
has all been in the direction of prevention, and, though a large
and progressive organisation for medical relief is essential in
every civilised country, the role of prevention is coming more
and more to dominate the activities of all State services. To
this end the direction of such State services is being vested more
and more in the hands of public health experts who, in turn,
form part of a ministry specially devoted to all phases of State
health activity the so-called Ministry of Health.

One by one the more enlightened of the nations in Europe
and the Americas have, during the past 20 years, come into line
by establishing such Ministries, and, in our own Empire, the
example of the mother land is being followed by the Dominions,
whilst recent developments at the Colonial Office are an earnest
of a similar spirit in regard to our Colonies and Crown posses-
sions. It is perhaps then a matter of surprise that a continert
like India should be without such a Ministry, and no one who
thinks ahead can envisage the existence for long of the present
position. On the other hand it is necessary to recognise that
India is passing through a difficult constitutional period which is
about to be reviewed by a Royal Commission, and that in matter?
of this kind evolution is often slow. The introduction in 1922 of
the reforms and of a very full measure of local autonomy in
health matters has no doubt retarded the evolutionary process from
the central point of view; and has at

( 55 )

56 MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OF INDIA.

difficulties and anomalies as between Central and Provincial
authorities which will call for careful exploration when the Royal
Statutory Commission is appointed; but, though many of these
may be rectified by the alteration of the devolution rules, there
will never be that co-ordination of policy and effort in public
health matters which is essential for a continent like India, even
with local public health autonomy, without the creation of some-
thing in the nature of a Ministry of Health.

Despite all that has been done by Western medicine in ami
for India and it is not inconsiderable most of us are conscious
of many lacunae, both in regard to special work untouched or
problems unsolved. It will be our endeavour to point out our
difficulties, and, with them, our main problems.

2. Constitutional Position A Problem. The introduc-
tion of the reforms already alluded to brought medicine and
public health, under the Devolution rules, largely into the hand-*
of the Provincial Governments. A reference to the wording of
the pertinent Devolution rules which have been quoted in the
footnote, will at once show the position of the Central Government.

Schedule I, Part I (Central subjects) paragraphs, 2, 8, 39 and 41 read
as follows :

"Medical administration, including hospitals, dispensaries and
asylums and provision for medical education, public health and
sanitation and vital statistics subject to legislation by the Indian
legislature in respect to infectious and contagious diseases to such
extent as may be declared by any Act of the Indian legislature.
Pilgrimages within British India, registration of births, deaths and
marriages, adulteration of foodstuffs and other articles subject to
legislation by Indian legislature as regards import and export trade.
Ports except such as are classed as major ports. Regulation of
medical and other professional qualifications and standards subject
to legislation by the Indian legislature/'

The wording of Schedule I, Part II (Provincial subjects), paragraphs
2, 3, 4, 22, 28, 30 and 45 is as follows:

"External relations, including naturalisation and aliens, and
pilgrimages beyond the seas; port quarantine in regard to any

MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OF INDIA. 57

It will be generally conceded that medical relief and public health
in most of these aspects are able to develop more freely in an
atmosphere of local autonomy as they have largely done in Great
Britain; but, to make this as effective as possible, the Central
Government should be able to exercise some measure of control in
regard to the broad lines of policy. This they are not easily
able to do at present. We constantly hear the cry for the neces-
sity of introducing a Public Health Act for all India. Under
present conditions this is impossible, though it is probably a
very necessary measure. On the analogy of the effect of the
great Public Health Act of 1858 in Great Britain we may be
sure that a similar enactment for all India would go far towards
stimulating the public health conscience in all the provinces. In
other w.ords in a country like India where ignorance, superstition
and conservatism are rife, it may be regarded as the legitimate
duty of the Central Government to give a wise lead by advice
and suggestion without fear of being obstructed and without
waiting to be asked. Ministries of Health do this, and, at the
same time, by means of grants-in-aid, exercise a powerful lever-
age on all local authorities. In a country with nine provinces a
wise advisory control exercised outside the limits of the present
rules would not only raise standards, spread information, and co-
ordinate work, but would guide development on a wide policy
maturing over years and would eventually do more for the general
public health than a series of independent spasmodic provincial
efforts without any co-ordination or central stimulus. This is
all an argument for a Ministry whose divisions would include
medical relief, public health, maternity and child welfare, epi-
demics, research, international work and other activities. This
is one of the biggest problems connected with the future and it

provincial subject, in so far as such subject is in Pan II of
Schedule I, stated to be subject to legislation 'by the Indian legislature
and any powers relating to such subject reserved by legislation
io the Governor-General in Council."

58 MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OP INDIA.

is to be hoped that it will be investigated by the Statutory Com-
mission in relation to the Devolution rules. It deserves, how-
ever, an investigation to itself by a special Commission, as it is
obvious to all who think, that the present position is one of
makeshift, and is never likely to lead India on the big lines she
ought to follow in public health.

3. State Services, It has been frequently urged in the
vernacular press and in argument that there is no further need
for^a Government medical service in India, the work being done
under local arrangements. A reference to Sections III and VII
will show what India owes to the various medical services which
have for over two centuries supplied a body of highly trained
and disciplined officers, for civil work. It has become fashionable
in some quarters to depreciate this debt; but impartial testimony
will always recognise it. Our position in the country has neces-
sitated a somewhat complicated system of medical organisation
which could no doubt be simplified by unified control in a State
service under a Ministry, despite the added difficulty of the British
Army Medical Service. As the independent profession increases
in numbers and in attainments more and more men will be able
to take their places creditably in any auxiliary medical reserve;
but, where so much is expected from the State, it would appear
as if State services would have to be faced for a very long time.
No doubt these will tend to centre round prevention in its various
aspects, thus postulating again a Ministry of Health; and one
would be content to leave it all to natural processes of evolution
if the present position were satisfactory or at all reassuring. It is
just the reverse. Those of us who entered the Indian Medical
Service over 20 years ago realise only too clearly what is happen-
ing. From various causes recruitment of the old type of British
medical officer has largely ceased. It is not enough to say that
Indians can take their places. The British element in the services
has set the tone of the profession in India and has done much
through many generations to raise the standards throughout the
whole country. Even though India can now produce men of the
right type they are too few to exert all the influence required,

MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OP INDIA. 59

and the best of them recognise this. It is therefore essential
that the best Europeans for many years to come should enter
the State service, otherwise a debacle may ensue and with it
an awakening. In the interests of India and its peoples it is
to be hoped that this may be averted by wise counsels. It is
no argument that lower standards are equally acceptable to
Indians and that declension or deterioration of standards is of
little moment. This is not and never has been the tradition of
the great medical State service of India, nor is it the tradition
of British rule in India.

The introduction of Ayurvedic and Unani medicine into the
picture has been, in the opinion of many of us, largely for purposes
of political expediency, and the general attitude of the profession
which has been trained on European lines is that the admixture
of those with these is neither feasible nor practicable even if it
were advisable or permissible according to Western medical ethical
standards.

Briefly this problem is of the greatest moment in regard to

India's medical future and requires to be handled in a statesman-
like way. Parrot cries and political expediency should be and
would be eliminated if, on the right men, were placed the onus
of decision. The essential aspects which must be recognised are,
that India, apart from military needs, will require a State service
even long after the Indian Medical Service as at present constituted
has disappeared, that such a service if it is to carry on the tradi-
tions and standards of the past, must have, for a generation at
least, an European element of the very best type that the British
schools can provide, that Indianisation must proceed in an orderly
way at not too great a pace and with due regard to efficiency apart
from race, that the independent medical profession should recog-
nise this by trying to develop more voluntary organisations, by
opening new hospitals and avenues of work and relief. It is not
too much to say that the independent profession has the future
medical fate of India in its hands. It is untratnelled by official
restriction a matter that is often forgotten and is free to
develop along good lines ; but, in such development the individual

60 MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OF INDIA.

counts, and the high standards of a few leaders will influence the
many who waver by the way.

The Public Services Commission reported as follows:
"We are satisfied that in^the present conditions of India, if
there were no State service there would be large tracts of country
which would be left without any regular provision of medical
relief. We are also convinced that State control is necessary in
order to secure the continued and extended diffusion in India of
Western medical knowledge. We have no hesitation, therefore,
in finding that a State service is needed and to this extent approve
of existing arrangements/'

4, Education. (a) Lay. Ignorance, superstition, conser-
vatism, apathy, communal tension, and absence of a spirit of
social service are all largely dependent on want of education. The
percentage of the population who can read and write even in
vernacular is only 8-2 per cent, despite the efforts and money
expended. The corollary is an almost entire absence of public
opinion, and, of public health conscience as we know these in the
West. It is only in the largest cities that glimmerings of either
are appearing, and, until they appear on a more convincing scale
than at present, there would seem to be little hope of a big view
being taken of the larger public health problems.

Endeavours have been made to explore the possibilities of
teaching school hygiene. In August 1913 the United Provinces
Government asked a * Committee on Educational Hygiene tn
report, and, in many other provinces, similar efforts have been
made. The results are so far disappointing ; but cinema develop-
ment and general propaganda at health weeks are stimulating the
younger minds. More should be done and could be done. Edu-
cating unhealthy unhygienic children is a proposition which is
morally doubtful. Mr. Amery at the recent Colonial Conference
said in regard to Africa that the question of native health was
intimately linked with the problem of native education and that

* Report of the Committee of Educational Hygiene. Nainital,
August, 1913.

MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OP INDIA. 61

they were endeavouring now to substitute for a purely literary
education unsuitable to the natives, a type which, while conserving
all the healthy elements in their own social lives, will also assist
their growth and evolution on national lines, will help them to
absorb new ideas and will make for building up character. It
is for consideration if part of the purely educational grants
could not be diverted into the channel of hygienic education or
instruction suitable for teachers and pupils. It is a promising
field and would lay a sound foundation for the future generation
to build on.

(6) Medical. The State services have been largely instru-
mental in creating the colleges and medical schools in India, and
for organising the instruction and tests for several generations
of Indians who have passed out by examinations. The effect of
the reforms has been to remove the subject of medical education
to the control of the respective provinces surely an unwise pro-
cedure, when it is recognised how essential it is to keep up
standards of education and examination if the requisite recognition
is to be obtained. The process of rapid Indianisation is at
work in many of the larger colleges and is leading to a great
diminution of the European professorial staffs. The remain-
ing British officers may be asked soon to do the impossible;
already declension in some quarters threatens. The non-recogni-
tion by the General Medical Council of the teaching of one or
two Universities in certain subjects is an indication that it is
not yet finished. Though many excellent Indians have come
forward, yet the process of rapid Indianisation of some of
these colleges and schools is likely to be far from beneficial and
to threaten a steady deterioration in standards. High standards
are essential and every endeavour should be made to keep them
high. The need for first class men only, be they British or Indian,
is absolute. The further need to keep our college instruction pure
and free in every way from the Ayurvedic and Unani systems is
considered essential by most Western graduates. Better public
health education is essential and is being arranged for in many
provinces. We have long recognised that in many departments we

fi^ MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OF INDIA.

have much leeway to make up; but this is inevitable. The teach-
ing of such subjects as pharmacology, physiology, bacteriology,
fevers, maternity and children diseases, venereal disease and skii',
ear, nose, throat, mental, .r-rays and electro-therapeutics, public
health, dentistry, applied anatomy, anaesthetics, tuberculosis, neuro-
logy, chemistry shows many deficiencies which we must try to fill
in; whilst post-graduate work and fellowships are important.

5. Public Health Provincialisation. The evolution of
public health where it has been most progressive has always been
on the lines of decentralisation of detail. On local authorities in
Great Britain, whether municipal, parish or county council, ha*
been placed the onus of working out the details of and applying
the principles underlying the schemes and advice freely given
them by the central authority, or of interpreting the method of
application of the statutory obligations imposed on them by
Government at the instance of the central health authority.

The recent reforms in India have followed on these lines, but,
as already explained, have almost denuded the central authority
of any serious power except as previously indicated. There arc
cogent reasons for reconsidering this position very carefully with
a view, not to resuming central control over much that is obviously
of provincial concern and that is in a fair way to being well
administered, but to obtaining control over general lines of policy
to the extent that will allow of a great basic frame-work for
public health being accepted and worked to throughout the country,
This would render possible the framing of a general Public Health
Act, and of inter-provincial legislation on sound general principles.
Such powers would eliminate the possibility of a demand by one
province for special action on its own lines in regard to some
particular problem which might affect its neighbours as well.
Many instances of such difficulties have arisen since the reforms
were introduced.

There are not wanting signs in various provinces that the
basic administrative public health framework which Government
has created over many years is imperfectly understood. Proposals
to abolish Directors of Public Health, or Assistant Directors of

MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OP INDIA. 63

Public Health, or to reduce the establishment of subordinates such
a^' the vaccination establishment are not unknown in quarters
which ought to know better. Recent epidemic outbreaks, however,
more especially cholera, have led to a free expression of opinion in
the press on the folly of such advice and on the necessity for dis-
regarding it. It is here that the power of the central health
authority should be able to make itself felt as at present it cannot.
Provincial health organisation would rapidly become chaotic with-
out the administrative guidance which can only be supplied by
specially trained men in certain numbers. It is, therefore, not'
only necessary to preserve the present organisation, but to better
it by adding to it, and, for this purpose, sound public health train-
ing is necessary for all juniors, but especially for the staff from
District Health Officers and Inspectors downwards. This must
be met by better training in the colleges, schools and provincial
public health institutes, one of which should exist in every province.

This leads up to another point the provincialisation of the
public health service. Health Officers, district or other, whose
security of tenure is ,pil, are not going to show the initiative and
independence that are necessary in such posts. The circumstances
surrounding the social life of Indian Health Officers are such that
independence of action is rendered difficult, and in some cases
almost impossible; all the more reason, then, why such appoint-
ments should be put out of the reach of political or social intrigue.
This is a matter which requires the early attention of several
provincial Governments. If the intelligensia of the provinces
would take the trouble to study the reports of the Directors of
Public Health they would learn to appreciate better the way in
which these Directors are able to estimate the provincial health
pulse and to act in advance of danger.

The international and interprovincial aspects of the work of
the Directors of Public Health can only be properly assayed by a
central health authority which is thoroughly cognisant of all that
is happening. Fortunately, despite the statutory obligations, the
technical public heads of all provinces are only too willing to
correspond informally and to give information centrally when

64 MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OP INDIA.

asked for it, thus enabling some accuracy of perspective of events
to be obtained by the Central Government whose business it is- to
estimate the international and interprovincial implications.

We would urge the necessity for a large measure of local
autonomy in health matters, and for the training in public health
executive work which can only be got by the lay man on the
health committee of a well organised municipality. If this sphere
of activity were utilised as a training ground many men would
be advancing themselves in the best duties of citizenship and
preparing for work in a wider field.

Much has been written in administration reports regarding
the shortcomings and neglect by municipal bodies of certain health
aspects of their charge. Water works and a sound water policy
have been neglected by more than one large municipality; and,
in one province, the complaint has been, not that there was
scarcity of funds, but "a certain deplorable attitude of mind
which prevented proper attention being devoted to this subject of
public health." It has been said of some bodies that their
members lacked intelligent interest in public health problems and
that they showed a reluctance to give State Health Officers either
sufficient support or control to make their supervision effective.

It is well, however, to remember that some local authorities
even in England are to-day remiss, ill-advised, and sometimes
obstructive, so that we may hope this is a phase in India which will
gradually improve.

6. Environmental Sanitation. -This is one of the biggest
problems which India has to face. Ignorance, conservatism,
absence of that spirit of social service and of public health opinion
as well as of public opinion, have rendered it difficult in the past
to break through the stone wall of obstruction which usually
meets all State efforts in this direction. The low economic and
social standards of life are responsible for much, as are also
habits sanctified by centuries of religious traditions; but it is a
truism that little good can come to the permanent residents of
such hovels unless and until they are prepared to adopt certain
fundamentals of cleanliness, order, and living in their respective

MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OF INDIA. 65

circles/ Housing and village life generally, though on cheap
and simple lines, need not necessarily be on principles so wrong
that infectious disease is given every chance, that tuberculosis
becomes rife, that hookworm becomes universal, and that cholera
is endemic. Twenty years ago, in carrying out an enquiry in
the Kumaon Terai, we learned to appreciate the superiority o
the standards of housing and living as practised by these
aborigines the Taroos and Bukhsas over the more civilised
immigrants and other plains inhabitants. Their cattle lived apart,
their houses were set singly in small compounds, their verandahs
were deep and the houses were open to air perflation. The transi-
tion was so marked that it made an indelible impression, just as
do those thousands of self-contained houses of the Malyali popu-
lation in Malabar. These facts are worth pondering over; but
the initiative in such matters must come from the people them-
selves, and preferably through their own national leaders. The
state of rural India in this regard at the present moment is
largely that of England a century ago. The real awakening has
not taken place yet. Until it does it is idle to anticipate spec-
tacular work in other fields which might claim our immediate
attention in Western countries where this phase of so-called
environmental hygiene has, generally speaking, been long since:
left behind. This field lies peculiarly open to the zeal of Muni-
cipal Health Committees and to voluntary effort of all kinds, and
in this one feels there is the greatest amount of hope if develop-
ment proceeds on lines like those of the co-operative anti-malarial

movement in Bengal.

7. Disease Problems (epidemic, endemic, economic and
social). The problems created by the epidemicity and endemi-
city of such diseases as malaria, plague, cholera, small-pox,
relapsing fever and kala-azar are probably the biggest and most
important of those which we have to face. They are further
complicated by the occasional visitation of epidemic influenza,
and by the continued presence of such domestic and social dis-
eases as tuberculosis, hookworm, filariasis, nutritional and vene-
real diseases, dysentery, leprosy, eye diseases and rabies. The

s 5

66 MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OP INDIA.

list is a formidable one and the different manifestations of most
of the epidemic diseases occur on a collossal scale, without
parallel anywhere in the world save in China. The 1908 epi-
demic of malaria passed over the North of India and caused
quarter of a million deaths in three months; the influenza epi-
demic of 1918 killed at a low estimate over ten million people in
that year; plagtie during the twenty years period 1898 1918
caused over ten million deaths ; cholera in 1924 caused over quarter
of a million deaths; small-pox in 1925 about 86,000 deaths;
plague in 1924 over 360,000 deaths; while malaria in 1924 was
probably responsible for over one million deaths. If one adds
to these the huge unestimated morbidity one begins to form
some true appreciation of the vastness of this disease problem.

Is it any wonder then that in 1925 with a birth rate of
33*65, a general death rate of 2472 and an infantile death rate
of 174-40 British India lost six million people; though the total
population, despite this and owing to its great fertility, probably
increased? The last census returns showed that in India there
were at least 80,000 insane, 200,000 deaf-mutes, 500,000 totally
blind, and 130,000 lepers a hopeless underestimate (Dr. Muir
places the number as nearer one million). In India the expecta-
tion of life at 5 is approximately 35 years and at 20 is about
27 as against 54 and 41 respectively in Great Britain. Generally
it may be accepted that an India's expectation of life at birth
is less than half the average figure for a European. The national
economic waste due to all these can hardly be estimated. We
can, however, agree that this tribute to disease must influence
economic, political, financial and commercial considerations.

In considering these diseases " en masse " we get a clearer
idea of this problem, the magnitude of which has been appreciated
by past generations of State medical administrators, whose en-
deavours have been largely directed to tackling it by the best
known methods with the machinery they have been able to
create, and to bringing home to an apathetic and ignorant popu-
lation in every way possible the necessity for an organised and
intelligent method of attack on the part of the lay community

MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OP INDIA. 67

as well as by officials of the State. The difficulties surrounding
this line of attack, which from time to time has had to come into
collision with habits and customs sanctified by tradition, con-
vention and often by religion, need only be alluded to to be ade-
quately appreciated. After several generations of general edu-
cation and of organised medical effort some improvement, some
advance, and more intelligence in the larger centres of popula-
tion are discernible; but those of us who have watched the drama
and the stage setting during the last 25 to 30 years are dis-
appointed at the slow rate of progress, though we may still be
hopeful for the future. More rapid communication and dis-
semination of news, especially of the outer world, more inter-
course with Europe, America, and the Dominions, the example
of the modern evolution of Japan, the story of the health
advances of other tropical countries, the extension of political
responsibility are all tending towards a growing awakening of
intelligent interest in these problems. This is being reflected in
some provinces such as Bengal by a large development of volun-
tary effort in the form of societies for combating malaria, kala-
azar, water hyacinth, etc. This is a reassuring sign and augurs
well for the future.

The future solution is intimately bound up with the pro-
vincial public health organisations which are best able to spread
the modern gospel of " prevention," and whose cadres should be
kept as strong and efficient as possible.

Research in regard to all these diseases mentioned has been
a feature of western medical evolution in India, and our record
in regard to it is one of which we can justly be proud. Its story
is told in another chapter. The work still continues; but the
application of its results is a role which must be played by the
various lay communities under expert guidance, and it is part
of an enlightened provincial health policy to ensure that those
responsible for allocating public money should appreciate ade-
quately the importance of the problems referred to.

It is gratifying to be able to record that such signs are not
wanting throughout the provinces despite the echoes of ill-informed

68 MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OF INDIA.

criticism. The most thoughtful Indians are beginning to realise
that they must be up and doing if they wish to bring their
country into line with others no more favourably situated. Many
see the standing object-lesson in India of the British and Indian
Armies and European communities, whose hygienic conditions
of life make for a huge reduction in mortality though climatic
conditions are similar to those of the general population; they
realise the advantages of pure water supplies and of better
housing. It should be part of the aim of more enlightened to
spread by every means possible the information regarding these,
and, especially in rural areas, to show villagers by example what
to avoid.

The practical application of the results of our researches ; n
malaria, plague, cholera, smallpox, kala-azar, hookworm and
rabies is being pressed forward in various ways which will
be demonstrated during this visit; but work on nutritional
diseases and filariasis, and . more organisation in regard to
venereal diseases and tuberculosis are urgently required in certain
areas. A central and many provincial organisations for malaria
are focussing expert attention on specific problems; application
of our latest ideas in regard to plague prevention is receiving
the closest attention especially in the Punjab ; cholera endemicity
research and prevention in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, United
Provinces and Madras is in the hands of several expert workers
whose work is being closely followed internationally; 10,000,000
primary vaccinations per annum with eight lymph depots able
to supply all that is necessary for complete protection of the
population ; over 30,000 rabid bites treated annually in and from
six institutes; a hookworm survey of India and a campaign
against it in Madras; a wonderfully effective campaign against
kala-azar in Assam at a cost of over rupees 16 lakhs and of
which the Government of Assam has every reason to be proud ;
all these go to show that the problems are not only appreciated
but are being tackled. Much ground still requires to be broken,
and this will provide a field for the best efforts of medical India
for years to come. It is only by thinking out sound practical

MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OF INDIA. 69

schemes of attack, by getting them financed and by applying
them, that the rising generation of Indian public health workers,
both medical and lay, will make good their claims to the positions
they wish to hold, and will adequately do their duty by their
country, and incidentally, by other nations who look on India as
the great reservoir of certain infections for the rest of the
world.

We have endeavoured to show what is being done; but we
must consider the other side of the picture. Many gaps in our
knowledge still remain, some of which have been pointed out from
time to time by prominent workers in the sphere of tropical
diseases. We shall indicate a few which require attention.

(a) Acclimatisation and its various problems, the result
largely of temperature and altitude, with their relation to clothing,
to neurasthenia, to insolation.

(b) Mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, fila-
riasis. Malaria still affords us many problems some of which
have been elaborated by Hegner of Baltimore and by Stephens,
* The nature of the toxin, and of black-water fever, the period
of infectivity of an infected mosquito, the method by which the
parasite attacks the red blood corpuscles, the precise action of
quinine and stovarsol on different varieties of parasite, a more
precise method of diagnosing latent malaria all demand atten-
tion.

(c) Various gaps occur in our knowledge of Tick typhus,
of relapsing fever (life-cycle of the spirillum), of leishmaniasis,
and of plague.

(d) The value of D'Herelle's bacteriophage in dysentery,
cholera and plague.

(?) The value of bacteriological analysis of drinking
water in the tropics.

(/) Sprue and dysentery. More work is needed on the
therapeutic value of the serum, of emetin, of stovarsol, of yatren;

* Some Tropical Lacuna. Balfour, 1927.

70 MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OP INDIA.

on the "carrier" state; on the diagnostic value of the serum
reactions in the bacillary type.

(#) Nutritional diseases.

Our Indian Research Fund Association and Research
Department are focussing their attention on many of these lines
of work; but more expert workers are needed.

8. Medical Relief and its Extension. In paragraph 3
ive have quoted the opinion of the Public Services Commission of
1916 in regard to the role of the State medical service in this
respect.

It is now generally recognised, however, that the extent of
modern medical relief afforded by our present medical organisa-
tion is lamentably deficient, and that it is well-nigh financially
prohibitive for any province to embark on a State supply of this
to all the rural areas of India. We have endeavoured to show
that there may be ways and means of doing this without resort
to the retrograde policy of bolstering up the ancient systems
with their defects.

It has been calculated recently that in Bengal, with nearly
3,927 registered doctors to a population of 46 millions, the pro-
portion was 1 to 11,450 persons.

Fortunately the different local Governments are studying the
problem carefully, and schemes are in preparation to cope with
this problem on different lines. First we have the work of our
Red Cross Society, of the St. John Ambulance, and of the Indian
Council of the British Empire Leprosy Relief Association. There
.are schemes for the development of medical aid for women and
children; there is in Bengal a scheme known as the Public
Health Organisation scheme of the late Mr. C. R. Das esti-
mated to cost about 18 lakhs (135,000). In the Punjab we
have a scheme to add 375 new dispensaries to the 666 hospitals
and dispensaries now existing in the Province, thus ensuring
medical relief in each ten-square-mile area; and to add to the
institutions and personnel for women's hospitals. We have in
Bombay a scheme for training rural teachers in the principles of
first aid and simple medical relief and for utilising this knowledge

MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OP INDIA. 7k

by placing them in villages of about 1,000 inhabitants; while in.
the United Provinces the Minister for Self -Government recently-
convened a public health conference and considered ways and
means for the improvement of rural sanitation and for carrying-
on health propaganda more intensively.

The idea of subsidising private practitioners to settle in
country districts is not a new one; it has been tried in some of"
the Colonies. It presents the same difficulties in almost every
country the desire to herd and to get rich quickly. It is hoped"
that the experiment now begun will receive the support of the
younger graduates, who in turn should be supported by the
zemindars. It would also act by relieving the cifies of the exist-
ing medical congestion, and by developing a really independent
profession. It is one solution of a large part of this problenr
and would open the way to less dependence on the State, for
this aspect of " State aid " is one which is imperfectly realised"
in India. Government of India is almost the only Government
which arranges for medical and surgical relief for the general-
population, and educates almost the entire local medical profes-
sion on the lines of a Western medical curriculum.

9. Research and its Application. India has had the good'
fortune to have the services of a band of brilliant workers who
formed the Bacteriological Department over twenty years ago,,
and who have directed and participated in all branches of medi-
cal research work since then. The story is told in another
Chapter; but, in view of the position which medical research,
has occupied at the recent Imperial and Colonial Conferences, it
is necessary to make some remarks on certain aspects of its-
future which may be classed as problems.

Its present organisation and its co-ordination in India have-
followed well-established lines, and, in the absence of a whole-
time Director of Medical Research, the part that the Public-
Health Commissioner has undertaken in this work under the-
Director-General, Indian Medical Service, has not been without
its advantages to the Department as it has helped materially *o

72 MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OF INDIA.

co-ordinate the public health with the research aspect of the
work. These should be closely identified, as it is only by such
close co-operation that the results of research can be easily made
available to the public health authorities for practical application.
Many of us have been inclined to deplore the way in which th->
application of the results seem to have lagged behind their dis-
covery, and perhaps this is a side the difficulties of which, both
financial and administrative, are not adequately appreciated by
the pure research worker. Our co-ordination through our Con-
ferences has to some extent helped to meet this difficulty, but not
entirely. It is here that the Director of (Public Health is of
value to his Government by being able to present to them the
facts and their implications. No one is in a better position to do
it. We would, therefore, plead for closer co-operation here.

Schemes for better co-ordination of our research work, more
especially with research work outside of India, will no doubt
soon be forthcoming in view of the increased interest fostered
by the recent Conferences in London. When they appear we
shall be prepared, if necessary, to alter or add to our existing
organisation if it is to be for the good of medical research
generally.

The chief remaining problem, apart from that of adequate
financial support, is that of recruitment. Retirement of out-
standing men and recent inability to recruit the best type for
such work is making us regard the future anxiously. There can
be no question of filling up such cadre appointments with medio-
crities, as, with such a system, the Department would soon oease
to be a research department and research would languish. The
most rigid selection, irrespective of racial consideration, is the
only solution which we should recognise. Indianisation to a
fixed proportion and at- a particular pace will, in the present
state of Indian recruitment, spell disaster. It is essential to
recognise the fact that other qualifications than those of possess-
ing examination degrees, or of having studied in Europe or
America are essential for the successful research worker, and
often these can only be discovered by a period of probation.

MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OP INDIA. 73

The fact that an expert Committee is about to assemble, with
very wide terms of reference in regard to research organisation
in India, is an earnest that Government is alive to the various
problems in this Department.

10. Registration of Vital Statistics. " There is no
organised health staff for more than 90 per cent, of the popula-
tion; only an insignificant percentage of the people who die
annually are seen at any stage of their final illness by persons
possessing any sort of medical qualification ; the actual recording
of vital statistics nearly everywhere in rural India is in the
hands of a staff who may have some claim to literacy, but
certainly no other qualification. Unless the fallacies are care-
fitlly kept in mind one is tempted to draw more deductions than
the figures warrant." (Quotation from the report of the Public
Health 'Commissioner with* the Government of India, 1919.)

This is still largely true, and it is a problem the future
solution of which is one beset with the greatest difficulty, as it
must always be in any country with a huge indigenous and
illiterate population. The Births, Deaths and Marriages Regis-
tration Act of 1886 provides for voluntary registration of certain
births and deaths, for the establishment of General Registry
Offices, etc., and applies to British India and to British subjects
resident in Indian States. It does not preclude the adoption of
local registration measures where such have been instituted or
are desired. Deaths are notified by relatives, by anyone present
at death, by anyone in the same house who knows of it, by
anyone viewing the body after decease. Local Governments
make it applicable in certain areas; but it is obvious that, when
an illiterate population of 300 millions is considered, it is only
in the large municipalities that anything approaching modern
western ideas of registration is or can be carried out. Absence
of doctors trained according to western methods precludes any
attempt at registration on western lines outside the larger cities
and towns. In the municipalities not only is registration urged,
but medical certificates of deaths are recorded where possible.

74 MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OP INDIA.

In the country the onus is usually placed on the village headman
or chaukidar, who reports and shows his book to the nearest
police station at regular intervals, and whose entries, though
fairly correct in regard to totals, are inaccurate as regards causes.
Such pitfalls and inaccuracies have long been known to the
authorities; but it is difficult to prescribe a remedy. The chain
of reporting as it exists in the various provinces need not be
described in detail. Though it varies in different areas the one
similarity is that the chain is largely non-medical and proximate
causes of death are as reported by lay men. We may, therefore,
regard this system of registration, which has existed for over
ttialf a century, as being capable of furnishing crude rates which
are only approximately correct, but which can yield much in-
formation to the expert statistician who knows local conditions.

No practical scheme for improving these figures exists, and
it would appear that any improvement can only come in time
with the spread of education, western medicine, enlightened
public opinion and district public health organisation, with a rise
in the economc standards of the country and some appreciation
of the value and possibilities of disease prevention.

11. Maternity and Child Welfare. Thousands of women
are sacrificed every year to the gross ignorance and incompetence
of the Indian dai. The infantile mortality rate for all India in
1925 was 174-40 (188-66 in 1924); in Poona city it rose to
611, and in Cawnpore to 420. What the Countess of Bufferings
Fund, the Women's Medical Service, and the Lady Missionaries
have done to combat this has been outlined in another section, [t
is one of India's biggest tasks and is now being attacked from
many different angles, e.g., by District Health Schemes, research
propaganda, general hygienic education. National Health and
Baby Week Celebrations, education of dais, training of mid-
wives, extension of female medical relief and education, and
institution of health schools. Much remains to be done; and
not the least part of this problem is the difficulty which is
experienced in getting the right type of women to come forward

MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OF INDIA. 7$.

and train, and in getting dais to abandon their old habits. The
developments, however, are full of hope. It is very regret-
table that the Indian community has, in the past, been so supine
and lackadaisical over this great blot on its social life. Recent
writings from an independent and unbiassed source have shown
up the magnitude of the problem in all its nakedness. More co-
operation has been suggested between civil and mission hospitals
and between the independent profession and the people so that
more hospitals and medical schools may be created independently
of the State.

12. Ayurvedic and Unani Problem* The chapter devoted 1
to these systems must lead us to the conclusion that the line of
true medical progress for India does not consist in their resus-
citation with all their defects ; but, in the absorption into modern,
medicine of anything worth which they may possess. The phar-
macologcal work on indigenous drugs now being carried out it*
the Calcutta Tropical School and in the Haffkine Institute,
Bombay, is an earnest of our desire to do this in the most
scientific way possible.

So-called " Western " medicine is a lineal descendant of the-
old Unani system which formed the basis of the European-
medical system of the middle ages. The world's opinion is that
modern scientific medicine and surgery are superior to these
and to all others. Japan, whose attitude to western medicine a
few years ago was one of open hostility and obstruction, has-
now declared whole-heartedly for it in all its branches, and in
providing scientists and workers of international reputation. It
would be a very retrograde step for any modern State to go
back to the unscientific systems which could only be revived by
trying to assimilate modern science, when they would at once
cease to be what they called themselves. Many thinking Indians
are of this opinion, knowing as they do the empirical methods of
these systems and their dangers.

It is believed that much of the recent cry for their revival
at State expense has been a political one. This aspect is one-

76 MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OP INDIA.

which must be combated, as it is only on merits that modern
medicine and surgery are and should be judged to be the best.

The attempt to associate a revival of the ancient systems
with any institution (school or college) which teaches modern
medical science and art is one to be deplored. It has been
advanced that modern medicine is too expensive to allow of the
expansion of medical relief now necessary for the country;
but there are other ways of meeting this difficulty, and it is
gratifying to see that several Governments are trying schemes
which will obviate the necessity for abandoning what, after all,
is a much more advanced and progressive practice of the art of
medicine and surgery.

The continuous agitation for State recognition of these
systems, be it political in origin or otherwise, presents a problem
regarding which all who understand the history of medicine, be
they European, American, or Asiatic, can have only one opinion.

13. International and Port Problems. Since the ter-
mination of the Great War overseas commerce has gradually
recovered, and, with its recovery, has f ocussed international atten-
tion on those ports throughout the world which might aptly be
called reservoirs of infectious disease. Unfortunately India is
the chief offender, as her major ports are seldom free from
either plague, cholera or small-pox.

The devolution of certain aspects of port work has not
absolved the Central Government from responsibilities in regard
to others, and, with the revision in Paris in 1926 of the Inter-
national Sanitary Convention, the anticipated ratification of it
will compel attention to certain aspects of port development
which are required by the Convention. The problem will be to
arrange for these improvements and for central control with
such co-ordination of public health and medical effort locally as
will make for the minimum of friction with the maximum of
efficiency.

Recent developments of medical epidemiological intelligence,
mainly through the Bureaux of the League of Natfons, are now

MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OP INDIA. 77

bringing home to the rest of the world what the disease state of
our large ports is. A very definite effort will, therefore, have
to be made to make them conform to the highest public health
standards.

Our industrial conditions will in time come under review,
probably by the Labour Organisation of the League of Nations,
and the question of industrial hygiene will require to be faced
and some of its modern principles accepted.

14 Voluntary Agencies. In India we are at the begin-
ning of the way in voluntary effort, largely because of the
established principle of State-aided medical relief everywhere.
A glance at this aspect of medical work in Great Britain will
convince the most sceptical of the value of such societies and of
such workers in the cause of health. Our greatest reform such
as the Poor Law Reform, Burial Acts, early Housing Acts,
Midwives Act, etc., had their origin in voluntary effort and the
work of great laymen like Chadwick can never be forgotten.
The ordinary individual cannot be controlled in his habits and
personal health by Acts; and people require to be told how to
interpret and apply much that a State system of sanitation and
public health provides for them. The result is apparent in 20 to
30 different voluntary agencies now at work in Great Britain.
Unfortunately this aspect of public work has been largely con-
spicuous by its absence in India; but the recent developments of
the Seva Samiti and other kindred societies for social service
are paving the way. Further effort is needed, and every en-
couragement should be extended towards the work now being
done in Bengal by co-operative anti-malarial and anti-kala-azar
societies. This is a problem which is largely a layman's and
which might obtain the blessing of the Department for Local
Self-Government in every province. Much that will repay
perusal has been written on this in other countries by some of
our wisest sanitarians; but the spirit of service and sacrifice
must be developed in the country's youth before it will bring
forth abundantly. In this there is a wonderful field for real

78 MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OP INDIA.

endeavour for young India, for, be it remembered, that, though
the tendency for the individual of whatever race is to have a.
distinctly provincial outlook, disease is no respecter of geogra-
phical, political or ethnographical boundaries.

Even if preventive medicine in India is no further advanced
now than it was in Great Britain in the seventies, our Indian
members of the Legislative Assembly should realise their res-
ponsibilities in regard to it not only to their own country but
internationally.

15. Population. At the census of 1872 the population of
British India was 180,508,677; at that of 1925 it was 241,469,026.
With high birth, death and infant mortality rates it has been
estimated that the difference between the birth and death rates
was at a normal of 7 or 8 per cent, in a decade. The steady
increase, despite epidemics and famines, is significant, and may
in time lead to a problem of the first magnitude. It has been
examined provincially by workers in different provinces. The
Director of Public Health, Madras, considers that the population
of Madras Presidency is now near its asymptotic maximum, and, if
it rises .much higher, will come down by "violent epidemics or
famines." The same begins to hold good of other provinces.
This problem requires study independently of the decennial
census report.

16. Public Health Policy. We have enumerated a few
of the more urgent medical problems in India to-day, but should
like to conclude by drawing attention to one problem which is
always with us that of " indifference " or the " laissez f aire "
attitude so dear to many. In this connection arguments have
been advanced for curtailing or minimising effort such argu-
ments as over-population, interference with religious customs
and fixed habits, want of conviction of the value of our measures.
These should never allow us to deviate from the path of continu-
ous sanitary reform and improvement as the general principles
underlying such reform and improvement do not change. The
development of a rural health organisation commensurate with

MEDICAL AND SANITARY PROBLEMS OF INDIA. 79

the importance of the issues involved is one main way of effecting
this primary reform. Even though India's health problems arc
oi greater magnitude than those of almost any other part of the
civilised world, and the sanitary reformer's path is one strewn
with obstacles due to causes already enumerated, we can point to
great sanitary improvements in the country during our time and
can attest to a widespread awakening within recent years.
Through State medical service help this tender plant has taken
root, and, if it be carefully tended by the great Indian medical
profession, then it should grow and eventually give every promise
for the future.

VI.

MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION.

BY

LIEUT.-CQI,. J. D. GRAHAM, C.I.K., I.M.S.,

Public Health Commissioner with the Government of India.

A. MEDICAI, ORGANISATION.

1. General. No account of the present medical organisation
in India could be regarded as complete without some historical
reference to its evolution since European civilisation and culture
first touched India's shores over 400 years ago. As many of the
early records are preserved it is proposed therefore to allude,
though very briefly, to this aspect. Moreover, much of the story
has been enshrined in the two excellent volumes of the * History
of the Indian Medical Service by Crawford; and to this work
we would direct the attention of all who desire more details.
Much of this will doubtless be dealt with in the Chapter on the
" History of Medicine " ; but a few of the salient points will
bear repetition.

2. Historical. The development of so-called western
medicine in India is primarily identified with the medical service
of the Hon'ble the East India Company and later with the State
service, the evolution of both of which may therefore be dealt
with in some detail. From 1600 the date when Queen Elizabeth
granted the Charter to the Hon'ble the East India Company a
regular service of " Indiamen " as distinct from expeditions,

*A History of the Indian Medical Service, 16001913, by Lieutenant-
Colonel D. G. Crawford, z.ic.8. (Retd.). Two volumes. Thacker & Co.*
1914.

S ( 81 ) 6

82 MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION.

began to reach these shores. During the voyage round the Cape
under sail they were exposed to difficulties from weather, from
want of good water and fresh provisions, from outbreaks of
disease, and from the fortunes of war all of which necessitated
medical help on board. Many ships carried more than one
Surgeon, and, at a period when time seemed to be of little moment,
Surgeons, when able to be spared, were put ashore at the various
factories for varying terms. These men, who formed the van-
guard of the profession and were in reality factory or civil
surgeons, became engaged in civil practices, and many of them
were of the utmost value politically to the Company. As early
as 1614 the Company possessed in London one Surgeon-General
(John Woodall) who supervised the . selection of personnel and
equipment for the East. In view of the political conditions from
1600 onwards India came to possess many European surgeons,
some of whom like Bernier, Manucci, Martin, Bazin, Castro were
of French, Dutch or Italian extraction. Others of British ex-
traction like Gabriel Boughton, William Hamilton, John Holwell
and W. Fullerton made a permanent niche for themselves in the
history of India by their political, medical or literary work. In
this connection one may be pardoned for quoting the epitaph
which appears in English and Persian on the tomb (still pre-
served) of one of these Dr. William Hamilton who died in
Calcutta on 4th December, 1717, two weeks after his return
with the Embassy from the Court of Delhi.

" Under this stone lies here interred the body of William
Hamilton, Surgeon, who departed this life the 4th December,
1717. His memory ought to be dear to this nation for the
credit he gained ye English in curing Farrukseer, the present
King of Indoostan of a malignant distemper by which he made
his own name famous at the court of that great Monarch; and
without doubt will perpetuate his memory as well in Great
Britain as all other nations in Europe."

As we work through the centuries we pass in review many
names of famous doctors whose claims to fame centre largely
round the scene of their labours the factories at Surat, Bombay,

MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION. fc3

Calcutta and Madras; but many passed beyond these spheres,
for, with a continuous series of campaigns and an advancing
frontier, numbers adopted a military career though in the service
of the Company. Thus from 1766 onwards our medical
personnel from Europe came to be divided into a military and a
civil branch, men no doubt being interchangeable as ability and
circumstances dictated. From this eventually arose the accepted
position that the officers of the Indian Medical Service are all
primarily military officers, that those in civil employ are only
temporarily lent for civil duty, in which they form a reserve for
the Army, and that they are liable to recall to military duty at
any time. Furthermore, there developed from this a very early
organisation for the training of subordinate staff as dressers,
apothecaries and general hospital helpers the forerunner of the
highly trained subordinate services of later times.

In 1763 the Bengal Medical Service was founded by an
order which fixed the medical establishment at 40; by 1790 that
for the Indian Army on a peace footing was 234, with 100 Assist-
ants so-called Assistant Surgeons for both civil and military.
Since then complete authentic records show the position and its
development from time to time in all three Presidencies of Madras,
Bombay and Bengal. The table given overpage shows the posi-
tion in the three Presidencies in 1861 and in 1913 the date on
which the officers of the Indian Medical Service ceased to be
borne on Presidency lists and were shown on one general list.

As the service evolved and as peace conditions became
more established, the surplus military personnel was gradually
freed for civil work of the most varied kinds, thus absorbing
the so-called " war reserve." This has remained a feature of
the Indian Medical Service ever since. It proved an economical
arrangement to all parties, it enabled the keen men to build
up through many generations a huge civil medical fabric of
medical relief in hospitals, dispensaries, jails, asylums, of medical
education, and of sanitation, whilst it allowed selected officers
from this " scientific " corps to be utilised in organising many
other activities such as chemical examiners' work, botanical.

84

MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION.

zoological, and marine survey work, work in the Opium Depart-
ment and in the Mint. In those early days the Indian Medical
Service shared with the Royal Engineers the distinction of being
one of the two organised scientific corps in India. Once this
story of evolution is grasped much which the Indian Medical
Service has done or beep asked to do in India becomes intelligible.

Date.

Rank.

Bengal.

Madras.

Bom-
bay,

*I.M.S
general
list.

Total.

July 1861

Administrative

(post

Medical

Mutiny)

Officers

15

10

8

..

33

Surgeons

125

66

48

. .

239

Asst Surgeons

264

143

140

547

404

219

196

819

January 1913.

Administrative

Medical

Officers

11

5

4

. .

20

Lieut.-Cols.

83

20

23

126

Majors
Captains

58

29

13

131

324

231
324

Lieutenants

69

69

152

54

40

524

770

* After 1913 all officers came on a General List.
It was only a step from this position to that when military
service became obligatory for two years after which an officer
could apply for "civil," and, once installed in it, could remain
there for the rest of his service barring military emergency,
which, until the great war, never usually affected men in civil
employ after ten years' service.

To further complicate matters " medical " the introduction
of a permanent garrison of British Troops (Imperial Army)
into India brought with it the medical organisation of the Imperial
Army the Royal Army Medical Corps (R. A. M. C.) who not
only controlled the health and medical relief of those British

MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION. 85

Troops in Cantonments and Station Hospitals throughout India,
but also demanded in time the creation of a service of sub-
ordinates the Military Assistant Surgeons to assist them. The
division of work naturally arrived at was :

British Army R. A. M. C. Officers and Indian Medical

Department (Military Assistant Surgeons).
Indian Army I. M. S. Officers and Indian Medical Depart-
ment (Military Sub- Assistant Surgeons).

3. Present Composition of the Profession. After this
historical resum6 we are now in a position to consider the
present heterogeneous composition of the medical profession in
India. It divides itself into three main groups:

(1) The State medical services.

(2) The independent medical profession.

(3) The followers of the ancient systems of Ayurvedic

and Unani.

It will be evident how No. (1) and No. (2) have developed
and forced themselves on a country given over to No. (3). L,er
us look briefly at the composition of these three groups :

(1) The State medical services. These are the R. A. M. C.
and I. M. S. both being military, but the latter having its war
reserve absorbed by civil, whilst the purely military element
ministers to Indian Troops as the R. A. M. C. does to British
Troops, under the guidance of the Director of Medical Services
in India, who is a Major-General of either Service alternatively
and the adviser of the Commander-in-Chief in India on medical
and sanitary matters. Ten of the administrative army appoint-
ments are held by R. A. M. C. (Army Medical Service) officers,
and 10 by I. M. S. That 47 per cent, of the I. M. S. which is
in civil is controlled by the Director-General, Indian Medical
Service, who is also Surgeon-General with the Government of
India. Its cadre is diverted into various channels, the chief one
being that under the Provincial Medical Services and consisting
of the Civil Surgeons and most of the professional appointments
at the Colleges and Schools. These officers are provincially

86

MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION.

administered by the three Surgeon-Generals in Bengal, Madras
and Bombay and by the Inspectors-General of Civil Hospitals in
the other provinces, who also control the other provincial
personnel, and the Civil Assistant Surgeons and Sub-Assistant
Surgeons, who are purely provincial servants. There are also
specialists such as chemists, bacteriologists, and public health
officers. Briefly, these State medical services discharge, on the
military side, all the administrative and executive medical and
sanitary work of the whole army, on the civil side, the administra-
tive and executive work of all Government hospitals and dis-
pensaries, jails, asylums, leper homes, medico-legal work, medical
relief to officials, medical education, and general public health
measures in India. In the tabular statement appended will be
seen the present strength of these services.

R.A.M.C.

I.M.S. i I.M D.

Civil (Provincial);

in
mili-
tary.

in
civil.

; Assist.
Total. | S u r -
geons.

!

Sub
assistant
S u r -
geons.

Assist-
Sur-
geons.

Sub-
assistant
S u r-
geons-

Numbers
on Indian
establish-
ment . . 284

404

362

i

1

766 613

i

880

992

3,849

(2) Independent medical profession. Apart from the large
numbers of European private, railway, Mission and planter
doctors there is the great independent profession, mostly Indian,
and composed of men with or without European qualifications.
A certain number of independent qualified women, European-
and Indian, also practise now.

(3) Followers of Ayurveda and Unani. The numbers are
unknown; but "their name is legion" as, they include charlatans
of every description, as well as genuine Kavirajs or Vaids for
the Ayurvedic and Hakims for the Unani systems. The Ayurvedic
is the ancient Hindu system; the Unani or Tibbi is the Greece-
Arabic system on which much of the European practice till the

MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION. 37

oniddle ages was based. These have been discussed in another
-chapter.

Let us look at these divisions in further detail in the
following order :

(1) State medical services in general.

(2) Military medical services.

(a) R. A. M. C. and I. M. S. (military).

(b) Subordinate medical services (Indian Medical

Department).

(i) Military Assistant Surgeons.
(U) Sub-Assistant Surgeons.

(3) Civil medical services.

(a) I. M. S. in civil (e.g., State).

(b) Subordinate medical services (now called provincial).

(i) Civil Assistant Surgeons.
(ii) Sub-Assistant Surgeons.

(c) Women's medical service.

(1) State medical services in general. We shall leave the
R. A. M. C. (military service) for a moment and. examine the
I. M. S.

Its total cadre strength . . . . 766

Number in military employ . 404 = 53 per cent.

Number in civil employ . . 362 = 47 per cent

Distribution of those in civil employ =

Civil Surgeons and Administrative
Medical Officers, etc. .. ..279

Foreign and Political . . 47

Government of India . . 36

362

The Indian Medical Service exists under Royal Warrant.

I. M. S. candidates after examination do two months at the
R. A. M. C. College, Millbank, and two months at ^Idershot
before proceeding to India where they are attached to a large
Indian Station Hospital for a course of instruction and for sani-
tary work, etc. They have the further advantage of being able

83 MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION.

to attend courses at the Calcutta Tropical School, also a malario-
logy course at the Ross Experimental Research Institute, X-Ray
work at the Dehra Dun Institute, serology at Calcutta, and
bacteriology at Kasauli, if and when specially selected.

The question of " Rank " at one time perturbed both Ser-
vices; but, eventually, concessions in this regard were gained by
the R. A. M. C. and these were extended to the I. M. S. soon
after. Questions regarding pay, pension, family pension, fur-
lough and study leave, appointment by nomination and examina-
tion, honours and rewards, etc., have from time to time agitated
various members of the I. M. S.; but it continued to pursue its
line of development undisturbed and to recruit the cream of the
schools at home until the strain of the great war and its after-
math, with sequelae, shook it to its foundations. Superadded
to these were the uncertainties due to the effects of the Medical
Services Committee's Report, of the Public Services Commis-
sion, and finally, of the Reforms. The result has been that this
grand old service truly a medical " service d'61ite " threatens
to pass into a state of rapid decline from inability to recruit
the type of officer it has so long known. The Indianisation of
such a service to a fixed percentage on a time scale must help to
hasten this decline as no Indian recruitment at the present time
on such a scale and at such a pace can hope to take such
cognisance as it ought to of selection by merit. Some of the
best friends of India as well as of the Service are firmly of opinion
that, for the next generation or so, India will want the very
best type of European that the home schools can produce in order
that the influence and example of much that is past may not be
forgotten before it is too late. If such men are welcomed and
treated well then much may still be done to avert this declension.
It must, however, be faced by all communities in no mean
sectarian spirit but in the broadest one possible.

(2) Military medical services.

(a) R. A. M. C. and I. M. S. (military). The organisa-
tion of the army is on fixed establishments evolved for the
needs of the army in peace and war.. That for medical relief

MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION. 89

centres round the Station Hospital system, British and Indian,
whilst that for sanitation falls under a Director of Pathology
and Hygiene who is the staff officer for (Public Health to the
Director of Medical Services in India. The work done in this
Department centrally, divisionally and regimentally is usuallv
well done and well supervised and should serve as a great
example to the sepoys as well as to the general Indian community.
It is really a model demonstration of the economic benefits of
good housing and careful hygienic control in short, of preven-
tive medicine in the tropics.

(b) Subordinate medical services (including Indian Medi-
cal Department). As early as 1639 the Company's Surgeons
employed in their hospitals, Indians who, at first, were ordinary
servants trained locally to act as dressers. When the Company
raised a standing army Indian medical attendants were appointed
to each corps and regiment. Up till 1750 these were the only
medical subordinates employed, and, from such beginnings
sprang the present subordinate and provincial medical services
consisting of: (1) the military assistant surgeons, (2) the mili-
tary hospital assistants (now sub-assistant surgeons), (3) the
civil assistant surgeons, and (4) the civil hospital assistants (now
sub-assistant surgeons). A Military Subordinate Medical
Department came into being in Madras about 1760 though no
record of definite sanctioning orders seems to have been preserved.
It owed its existence to the energy of individual medical officers,
who not only trained private soldiers and Eurasians to assist them
in their hospital work; but at first paid them from hospital
allowances. Gradually the best of these were brought on to a
paid establishment of the medical department under the title
of Sub-Assistant Surgeons. A subordinate class also existed in
Bengal, though the records contain little reference to them. Out
of this originated the Indian Medical Department.

(i) The Indian Subordinate Medical Department (Assist-
ant Surgeon Branch). This Department was known as the
Military Medical Subordinate Department (I. S. M. D.) till
1918. In Bengal it was constituted early in the nineteenth!

90 MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION.

century; in Madras it began about the same time, and a little-
later in Bombay. In 1894 the designation was changed to
" Assistant Surgeons " and in 1908 the three Presidency establish-
ments were amalgamated. At present Military Assistant
Surgeons are Europeans or Anglo-Indians recruited and trained
at the expense of the State for service in hospitals for British
Troops. They now undergo a five years' course of training at
the various medical colleges in India. This demands a higher
standard of preliminary education from the pupils and entitles
them to appear for the Indian University examinations and also
to proceed to take British qualifications. On passing out they
are gazetted as officers with warrant rank, divided into four
classes, promoted in these classes on a fixed time scale; and
10 per cent, of the military -establishment of 381 including
military miscellaneous appointments receive Commissions a*nd
are called departmental officers with the rank of Lieutenants, etc.
About 232 of this branch of the Indian Medical Department are
employed in peace time as a war reserve in various capacities in
the Civil Department in a way similar to the I. M. S. They
are liable to be recalled to military duty at any time. The
Senior Assistant Surgeons among these are also promoted under
certain conditions to commissioned ranks. Facilities are given.
to proceed to United Kingdom and obtain registrable qualifica-
tions and about 50 officers have qualified in this way. Those who-
have obtained such qualifications and are suitable in other respects
can enter the Indian Medical Service by competition.

(w) Military Hospital Assistants (now called the Sub-
Assistant Surgeons). A school for training native doctors was
established under the Medical Board in Calcutta in 1822, the-
students being attached to the various hospitals. This school
was removed to the new medical college in 1839 and to the new
Campbell Medical School at Sealdah, Calcutta, in 1873. It has
educated native doctors for civil rather than military employ-
ment; the requirements of the Army being supplied chiefly fron*
the medical schools opened at Agra in 1853 and Lahore in
1860 (subsequently transferred to Amritsar). In 1895 the three-

MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION. 91

Presidency establishments were placed under the orders of the
Director-General, Indian Medical Service; in 1900 the branch
was reorganised on considerably increased rates of pay and in
]910 the title was changed to " Sub- Assistant Surgeon." At
present these men are Indians who are recruited primarily for
work in military hospitals; but are also employed in the Civil
Department. They are educated by the State. After a train-
ing of four years in the medical schools and after passing the
-examinations they are gazetted as warrant officers. After five
years' service the rank of Jemadar is conferred on them, and fur-
ther promotion depends on vacancies and selection. Nine pfficers
of this Department hold Honorary King's Commissions. The
total strength of Sub-Assistant Surgeons in military employ-
ment == 739 and in civil employment = 141. The present
number in civil employment is 126. All except those serving
with the Indian State Forces, Frontier Militia, Levy Corps and
Medical Stores Depots are liable to be recalled at any time for
military duty.

(3) Civil mfdical services (State).

(a) /. M. S. in civil. The three -Presidency medical
services are administered by the three Surgeons-General and the
other provincial medical services are in a similar way under
the control of Inspectors-General of Civil Hospitals. At present
279 I. M. S. officers are in provincial cadres. The Surgeon-
General or Inspector-General of Civil Hospitals as administrative
medical head advises the local Government in all provincial
medical matters and controls recruitment, transfer . and promo-
tion in addition to supervising hospitals, dispensaries, lunatic
asylums, etc. Officers in civil employ have many avenues of
special employment which are described in some detail under
Paragraph IV.

(&) Civil Subordinate Medical Department (now called
*' SPIrovincial "). This consists of Assistant Surgeons and Sub-
Assistant Surgeons and the cadres are provincial. In 1833 an
unsuccessful attempt was made to found a civil sub-medical
department in Bengal, though a school for native doctors had

92 MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION.

been opened in Calcutta in 1822 and was transferred to the new
medical college in 1839. The foundation of the medical colleges
those of Calcutta and Madras in 1835 and that of Bombay a
little later provided the opportunity by requiring a higher stand-
ard of education. The first graduates of the Calcutta Medical
College qualified in 1839 and were designated Sub-Assistant
Surgeons ; but in 1874 the title was altered to " Assistant Surgeon."
At the present day the strength of the Provincial Medical Depart-
ment is 968. In 1898 it was arranged that a certain number of
Civil Surgeoncies should be reserved for and filled by Civil
Assistant Surgeons. The number was fixed at 19 for the whole
of India, but was later on increased to 28. The Civil Assistant
Surgeons from the first were recruited and organised provincially,
i.e., in separate cadres one for each province.

(ii) The Civil Hospital Assistants. The formation of this
Service was ordered by Government of India in 1878. Prior to
this date all subordinate civil duties had been performed by
military native doctors and Hospital Assistants, whose services
were only lent to the civil Governments and who were at all
times liable to recall to military duty. A separate cadre of Civil
Hospital Assistants was then organised for each province and
Military Hospital Assistants then serving were allowed to volunteer
for transfer to any province in the new civil branch. There
are five grades in the Department and since 1910 the title of
" Sub-Assistant Surgeon " was introduced- They number 3,849.

(c) * Women's Medical Service. This side of medical
activity was not referred to in the account of the State services
as it merits special treatment. Here again we must refer to the
beginnings which were made largely by missionary effort. The
first hospital for women and children was opened in 1869 in
Bareilly, United Provinces, under the American Methodist
Episcopal Mission, to be quickly followed by work at Lucknow,
Delhi and other places in North India, and, in 1883, by the

*I am indebted to the office of the Chief Medical Officer, Women's
Medical Service, for these facts.

MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION. 93

Cama Hospital in Bombay which became the first Government
hospital in India for women and staffed by women. Gradually
Madras, Guntur, Lahore, Bengal, Indore, Allahabad and Cawn-
pore followed suit. Missions of various denominations have
played a conspicuous part in the development.

A further stimulus came with the opening of medical schools
and colleges to Indian women and the creation of " The Countess
of Dufferin Fund " or the " National Association for supplying
female medical aid to the women of India," founded in 1885
by Lady Dufferin at the request of the late Queen Victoria, and
dedicated to medical education and relief and to the provision of
nurses and midwives for hospital and private work. Scholar-
ships were granted, and its effect on medical relief work was
immediate by raising standards of recruitment and providing
building funds and grants-in-aid.

From this eventually emerged the Women's Medical Service,
due largely to dissatisfaction with the smallness of the previous
effort, and to the obvious need for extension and better cadre
organisation. A subsidy by Government to the Dufferin Fund
made it possible, and, in 1914, it started with a cadre of 25
" registered " members, the Chief Medical Officer being also first
Secretary of the Fund. The subsidy was increased in 1917 and
the cadre raised; and, in 1925, a "training reserve" of 8 was
added. It now has a cadre of 44 + 8 (reserve) = 52, 11
members being engaged in educational and 3 in administrative
work. A 50 per cent. Indianisation scheme is being worked to.

Medical education was at first mixed. This proved difficult ;
but Madras, under Mrs. Scharlieb, led the way to women's
hospitals staffed by women for teaching as well as medical relief,
and their numbers increased rapidly. The opening of the
Ludhiana School was a landmark; but; by 1912, this had led to a
further demand which was met by Lady Hardinge's proposal
to found a Medical College for women in order to encourage the
best classes of Hindu and Musalman women to come forward
for training. The College, which bears her name and was
opened in 1916, stands in 54 acres, has accommodation for 120

94 MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION.

resident students of all races and religions from all India, and
is affiliated to the Punjab University for its M. B., B. S. degree.
It is now turning out graduates and is run at an annual cost of
4 lakhs. Since then three other government medical schools
have been opened, thus making one medical college and four
schools in India staffed by women and with a student enrolment
of 392. There are now 17 hospitals officered by the W. M. S.
officers; a large number of second class hospitals under local
bodies; many female departments of civil hospitals, and Mission
Hospitals. The Chief Medical Officer of the Women's Medical
Service has the right of inspection of all hospitals officered by
the W. M. S.

Maternity and Child Welfare Work. From lack of public
opinion and education and from conservatism and lack of suit-
able personnel this work is still in its infancy. The local mid-
wife or dai still reigns supreme in the country, and it is only in
the larger towns that her methods are seriously challenged by
the various organisations which have been created to try to edu-
cate and improve or eliminate her. /Pecuniary interests no doubt
helped in dissuading the members of this class from coming for-
ward for training.

In 1902 the Victoria Memorial Scholarship Fund was in-
augurated by the late Lady Curzon, and, with an income of
Rs. 40,000 per annum, has done much in training those dais who
were willing. Those who are in a position to know assert that
there are many signs in the big towns of a breaking down of
the old conservatism on the part of both dai and patient.
Doctors, voluntary societies, and health visitors are all engaged in
the training. Meantime highly trained midwives are being
turned out by the large hospitals; but their registration is stil!
awaited, though attention to it is developing in some provinces.

Child Welfare Work, though still in its infancy, is progress-
ing with some rapidity, due partly to the organisation for training
Health Visitors and very largely to the work of the Lady Chelms-
ford League. The funds of the League amounting to
Rs. 50,000 annually go to establishing Health Schools for training

MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION. 95

Health Visitors, to propaganda and to grants-in-aid. Four
Health Schools aided by the League now exist at Delhi, Lahore,
Calcutta and Madras, and two others (non-aided) at Poona and
Nagpur. Baby Weeks, Health Weeks, Exhibitions and Con-
ferences are all succeeding in bringing this work into prominence
in the larger towns, and, were it not for the lack of trained
workers, the lessons to be learned by the millions of mothers in
India would be learned much more rapidly.

4. Cml Medical Fabric. The reader will now appre-
ciate the evolution of the great medical edifice on western lines
which has been built up during the past two centuries, and which
is very largely indebted for its creation to the work of many
generations of officers of the Indian Medical Service. In later
years this service has been assisted in its work by the independent
medical profession both European and Indian, male and female,
by the Women's Medical Service under the Bufferings Fund, and
by the subordinate medical services both civil and military.
Some of the activities in this great edifice are described in more
detail in the following paragraphs.

(a) Medical Relief. Provinces are divided into divisions,
each of which consists of several districts. The average popula-
tion of a district may be taken at one million. Each district has
a headquarters for all Government departments, one of which is
the " medical," presided over by a Civil Surgeon who is usually
responsible for all medical and public health activities in his dis-
trict area. Besides managing the headquarters hospitals (i.e.,
Civil Hospital, Police, Canal, Eye, Leper, etc.), he controls in
his area several branch hospitals under Assistant Surgeons and
many dispensaries under Sub-Assistant Surgeons, inspecting them
usually quarterly. His work is largely in the hospital, though
much of it is supervisional and administrative.

273 Civil Surgeons and specialist officers (of whom 152 are
I. M. S. officers) working under tjie respective! provincial
Surgeons-General or Inspectors-General direct the management
of over 5,000 civil hospitals, mental institutions, dispensaries,
leper and tuberculosis institutions* with over 75,000 beds. Every

96 MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION.

year they treat on an average over 43 million patients at an
approximate cost of over 3 crores of rupees (2 millions)
and do over 1 million operations. In addition, over 600 private
non-aided hospitals and dispensaries, with over 8,000 beds,
treat some 5 million patients and show over 1,50,000 operations.

The Women's Medical Service with a cadre of 44 and a
reserve of 8 supplies medical relief in many female hospitals
while the private effort of missionary organisations has come to
the rescue and has filled up many of the gaps.

(b) Medical Education. 506 Professors and Assistant
(Professors teach the medical curriculum in eight State Medical
Colleges and 23 State Medical Schools in which 8,899 students
were enrolled in 1925.

The Women's Medical Service has organised medical edu-
cation in one women's medical college and four medical schools
where 392 women students were enrolled; while 244 others are
studying at five mixed colleges and 7 mixed medical schools,

The following degrees and licenses are granted:

(i) Doctor, Bachelor and Licentiate of Medicine, and
Master and Licentiate of Surgery of the University of Bombay,
Calcutta, Madras, Allahabad and Lahore; and Bachelor of Medi-
cine and Bachelor of Surgery of the University of Lucknow.

(f) Fellow, Member and Licentiate of the College of
Physicians and Surgeons, Bombay.

(Hi) Fellow, Member and Licentiate of the State Medical
Faculty of Bengal.

(iv) Fellow, Member and Licentiate of the State Medical
Faculty of Punjab.

(v) Licentiate and Apothecary of the Board of Examiners,
Medical College, Madras.

(vi) Licentiate of the State Board of Medical Examina-
tions, United Provinces.

(vti) Licentiate of the Bihar and Orissa Examinations
Board.

(viii) Licentiate of the Burma Medical Examinations
Board.

MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION. 97

(tar) Licentiate of the Central Provinces Medical Examina-
tions Board.

(JT) Licentiate of the Assam Medical Examinations Board.

Registration. The granting of medical degrees, diplomas,
licenses, etc., in British India permitting the practice of " Western
Medical Science" is regulated by the Indian Medical Degrees
Act VII of 1916. Western medical science refers only to the
western methods of allopathic medicine, obstetrics and surgery,
and does not include the Homoeopathic or Ayurvedic or Unani
systems of medicine. Under the provisions of this Act such
Provincial Universities and Medical Colleges, etc., as are autho-
rised by the Governor-General-in-Council may grant medical
degrees, diplomas, etc.

The registration of medical practitioners is governed by
Provincial Medical Acts which are enacted by the 'Provincial
Authorities with the sanction of the Governor-General and whicli
are controlled by Medical Councils consisting of nominated and
elected members. All provinces have their own separate Medical
Acts except the North- West , Frontier Province and Delhi and
Baluchistan and the Agency Tracts of Central India and Raj-
putana. The provisions of the Punjab Medical Act are appli-
cable to the North- West Frontier Province and Delhi. There
are no Medical Acts in the Indian States but the diploma granted
by the Indore Medical School is recognised in Bombay and the
Punjab, and that granted by the Medical School, Hyderabad
(Deccan) is recognised in Bombay and Madras.

Provincial Medical Acts permit the registration, on payment
of a fee, of all persons who are registered or qualified to be
registered under the British Medical Act 1858 Statute 21 and
22, Victoria Chapter 90, and of all those who are in possession
of medical degrees or diplomas, etc., granted by the Universities
or Medical Colleges or Schools empowered to do so as shown
in the schedule to the Act. The payment of a fee is required
from all medical practitioners irrespective of whether they have
been previously registered elsewhere or not, except in the Bombay

S 7

98 MEDICAL AND RBSBARCH ORGANISATION.

Presidency and the Punjab. In Bombay exemption is granted to
all persons who are already registered under the British Medical
Act, and, in the Punjab, no fee is charged to those who may
be registered under any Medical Registration Act in force in
any other province in India.

An all India Medical Registration Act is now under con-
sideration of Governments.

(c) Public Health. Nine Directors of Public Health of
whom 8 are I. M. S. officers with 33 Assistant Directors of
Public Health and other subordinate staff control the provincial
public health departments of 11 provinces. They administer
10 Public Health Institutes and 8 Lymph vaccine manufacturing
depots producing sufficient vaccine for nearly 10 million vaccina-
tions at an average cost of about 5 annas 2 pies per successful
operation. Recent developments envisage whole time district
health officers in every district as well as municipal health officers.
This is gradually being worked to, thus eliminating the over-
worked Civil Surgeon from the control of purely health work.

(rf) Research, Pasteur, X-Ray f Radium Institutes. 74
medical officers of whom 20 are I. M. S. staff 10 institutions
engaged in anti-rabic work, vaccine and serum production,
teaching, specialised treatment, routine work, or medical research.
The Pasteur Institutes in 1925 treated over 30,000 cases.

(e) Prison Administration. 45 medical officers of whom
29 are I. M. S. under 9 Inspectors-General of Prisons act as
whole time medical Superintendents of 46 Central Jails through-
out India. In addition, in most district jails throughout India
the local Civil Surgeon acts as Jail Superintendent and Medical
Officer in addition to his other duties.

(/) Foreign and Political Department. 37 officers, all of
whom are I. M. S., act as Residency Surgeons and Administra-
tive Officers of certain areas in Indian States territory and
adjoining countries.

(g) Chemical Examiners Department. 6 officers of whom
5 are I. M. S. act as Chemical Examiners in the various pro-
vinces.

MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION. 99

(h) Other Miscellaneous Appointments. One officer of
the I. M. S. is Director of the Zoological Survey of India, one
is Marine Naturalist to Government, one is Serologist to Govern-
ment.

B. RESEARCH ORGANISATION.

Though the genesis of the present research department dates
back only to 1900, the events which, over the previous two
decades, led up to the formation of this department through the
creation of the Kasauli and Bombay Institutes are so interwoven
that a short historical survey of them is essential to any proper
appreciation of its evolution.

This survey takes us back to the year 1869 when Govern-
ment of India appointed Drs. Lewis and Cunningham as special
assistants to the then Sanitary Commissioner with the Govern-
ment of India for the ostensible purpose of utilising scientific
investigations for the benefit of public health. Bacteriology was
then in its infancy, and, though, during the next 25 years, much
new ground was broken by these officers, they did much of it in
addition to other routine duties. Lewis went to Netley in 1883,
and Cunningham, though Professor of Physiology in Calcutta
from 1879 till his retiral in 1897, ran during most of this time a
small laboratory the only one of its kind then in India. Largely
through the impetus thus given to specialised research, especially
on cholera, other enquiries were instituted by Government of
India such as those on malaria, beri-beri and kala-azar by Ross
and Giles. In 1892 the advent of Mr. Hankin to Agra as
Chemical Examiner brought into the Indian field an original
worker saturated with the bacteriological doctrines and teach-
ings of Piasteur and Koch and with a facile brilliant pen which
did much to educate and stimulate the profession. Such a
stimulus helped to lead up to the Lahore meeting of 1893 at
which the necessity for the founding of a Pasteur Institute for
India was agreed upon; a decision which was homologated by a
resolution of the Indian Medical Congress at Calcutta in Decem-
ber 1894 and eventually resulted in the opening of the Pasteur

100 MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION.

Institute of India at Kasauli in 1900 a scheme which had been
accepted in principle by the Secretary of State in 1892.

Whilst various proposals for the establishing of a bacterio-
logical laboratory for all India work were being discussed, plague
appeared in Bombay in 1896, and Mr. Haffkine, the memory of
whose services has been preserved in the present designation of
the Bombay Institute, was transferred from Bengal, where he
was doing cholera inoculation work, to Bombay, to investigate
the bacteriological side of this problem, as he was then the onl>
whole time bacteriologist in the country. The future researches
in plague centred round the laboratory which he created in
1896 in Bombay; but the history of this and of his work will
be found in another chapter. After occupying various temporary
laboratories he eventually came to rest in old Government House,
Parel the Bombay Institute which now bears his name. He
was associated in his work there with Warden, Mayr, Gibson,
Marsh, Balfour-Stewart, Pitchford, Bannerman, Cayley, Corthorn
and at a later date with Lamb, Liston, Greig, Costello and
Chowsky. He finally left for ^Europe in May 1904 when
Lt.-Col. Bannerman assumed the direction of the laboratory,
and, with Liston, prepared the way for the advent of the Plague
Commission with Professor C. J. Martin at its head in April
1906. The laboratory work of this Commission which dealt
with the enquiry into the etiology of plague was done at iPareL
This was a decade full of anxiety and hard pioneer work.

Let us go back to 1896 and to the plans which were then
being put forward for a central bacteriological laboratory. Agra
had been suggested and ruled out; a scheme by the Inspector-
General of Civil Hospitals, Bengal (Colonel Hendley) for a
whole time bacteriologist in Calcutta failed to find supporters;
delay was caused by an alternative scheme of the Rana of
Dholpur for a Princes' Health Institute; finally, that of the
Director-General, Indian Medical Service (General Harvey) was
accepted by local Governments and by the Secretary of State.

This scheme, which was much the same as one outlined by
Dr. (now Sir) Almroth Wright, after discarding Parel and

MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION. 101

Muktesar as possible sites, chose Kasauli, and envisaged the
creation of a Central Research Institute there under a senior
officer. This eventuated in 1906. Coincident with this scheme
were two others. In 1902 Secretary of State had sanctioned a
Presidency Bacteriologist and a central Vaccine Institute at
Madras and these materialised in the King Institute of Preven-
tive Medicine at Guindy, opened in August 1904. In 1903
Government of India arranged with Madras Government to
establish an Anti-rabic Institute for Southern India and helped
to subsidise it. Coonoor was chosen as the site, and a Director
and Assistant Director (Cornwall and Kesava Pai) trained and
in due course appointed.

Government of India had already in 1900 addressed the Secre-
tary of State on a- scheme for the creation of a regular Bacterio-
logical Department with laboratories. Allowance scales for
I. M. S. officers were suggested and recruitment was not to be
confined to the I. M. S. This scheme was accepted the same
year; but by 1906, in accordance with a revised and enlarged
scheme (approved on 8th June, 1905), Government of India,
had provided for a Central Research Institute at Kasauli, the
Anti-rabic Institutes at Kasauli and Coonoor, and the provincial
bacteriological laboratories at Madras and Bombay, and, hoped
eventually, to place one suitably in each of the other provinces.
These were staffed by officers of the Bacteriological Department,
Kasauli Pasteur Institute having a Director (Major afterwards
Sir David Semple) and Assistant Director, and the Central
Research Institute, Kasauli, having at first a Director and later
three other officers. Dr. Gibson (a non-I. M. S. officer) was
appointed permanently and later became Director of Guindy.

With the opening of these Institutes and the consequent
expansion of this branch the question of organising a special
cadre arose. In 1906 the Secretary of State finally sanctioned
this in a scheme providing for the entry of such officers into a
"Bacteriological Department" where their relative seniority
would be fixed. Despite certain vicissitudes this represents the
department of to-day though it has grown numerically and

102 MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION.

expanded its activities. The first cadre consisted of 13 posts,
4 being at the Central Research Institute, Kasauli, 3 at Bombay,
2 each at Madras, Coonoor, and (Plasteur Institute, Kasauli.
Government of India wisely created it an Imperial Department
thus recognising the all-India claims of medical research, ensur-
ing more efficient administration, and reserving to themselves the
power to appoint or withdraw officers though giving full adminis-
trative as well as a large measure of technical control to pro-
vincial Governments.

In 1914 Government of India increased the cadre by 15
mainly to allow of an extension of field investigations a branch
of work which had been pursued with some difficulty by engag-
ing such professional workers as were suitable or available,
whether service or otherwise (at one time 16 were so employed).
In 1915 the cadre was increased by 2 (total 30) to allow of
staffing the Directorships of the new Pasteur Institutes at Rangoon
.and Shillong; whilst it was recognised that the posts of Assistant
Directors at the Pasteur Institute of Kasauli and Coonoor could
be held by Assistant Surgeons, thus freeing two I. M. S. men
for field research but not reducing the cadre. These two posts
on the cadre were eventually made to cover the special duty
officer at the Haffkine Institute, Bombay, and the supernumerary
post of Assistant Director at Rangoon (sanctioned in 1921).
The Department, though continuing on this basis, was depleted
during the Great War, when " research " came to a standstill, and
the main energies of these officers who were left were con-
centrated on vaccine production for the Armies and on routine
work. In 1922 the Department was reorganised, and, with a
view to making it more attractive, the conditions of service were
improved ; but, independent of this, in 1919 a scheme was promoted
by the Hon'ble Member for Education and Health and sanctioned
by Secretary of State in November 1920 by which a Public Health
fund of five lakhs was created for the development of a central
organisation dealing with epidemics and research; and in this
connection a Central Health Board and the posts of Director of
Medical Research, and of Epidemiological Statistician were

MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION. 103

created. The necessity for these and their value do not require
elaboration; but they were not allowed to function for long as
the post-war economies of the Indian Retrenchment Committee
under Lord Inchcape led in 1923 to the abolition of the two
former just before the third p6st had been filled.

This had its repercussion on the Bacteriological Department
in three ways. It deprived the Department of a co-ordinating
head in the new Department of Research, it led to eleven of the
posts on the permanent research cadre being held in abeyance,
and it led to the suspension of an annual grant of five lakhs for
research to the Indian Research Fund Association.

A word regarding the Indian Research Fund Association.
This Association, which is a much older body than the National
Research Council in Great Britain, was constituted soon after the
Bacteriological Department was regularised (about 1906-07),
with the object of ensuring a continuous supply of young workers
of adequate calibre and of attacking such medical research
problems as awaited solution. The Hon'ble Sir Harcourt Butler
who was then Member for Education, with rare foresight insti-
tuted the Association and arranged for its control by a representa-
tive Governing Body advised by a Scientific Advisory Board
which is a purely technical expert committee (at present composed
of the Director-General, Indian Medical Service, as Chairman,
Public Health Commissioner as Secretary, and Directors of the
major laboratories as members). An annual Government grant
of (37,500) five lakhs to the Association enabled it to finance
enquiries and to accumulate a capital fund for the purpose of
founding an Imperial Medical Research Institute which will be
adverted to later. It was the income derived from this capital
fund which helped to tide the department over the lean years
after the Retrenchment Committee had cut the annual grant.

Journal. The official organ of publication of the Associa-
tion is the * Indian Journal of Medical Research which replaced

* The subscription to the Indian Journal of Medical Research including
Memoirs is Rs. 16 (or one pound, one shilling and four pence) per volume
per annum, post free. (Thacker, Spink and Co., Calcutta.)

104 MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION.

the Scientific Memoirs of the Government of India and has now
firmly established itself in a high position in the scientific
world. Four quarterly numbers are published each year and in
addition subscribers obtain special Memoirs.

Imperial Research Institute. In 1920 Government of India
came to the conclusion that considering the enormous importance
of medical research in India, the existing arrangements for it
were inadequate, and that a central institute was required to
provide for co-ordination, mutual assistance, ample laboratory
facilities for special workers and for the various modern depart-
ments. Before proceeding further they invited Professor E. H.
Starling, C.M.G., F.R.S., of University College, London, to visit
India and advise them. As a result of this visit Delhi was
chosen as the most suitable site, the idea being to retain Kasauli
Institute for vaccine production. Hans of the proposed Institute
were prepared and included provision, not only for laboratories
for bacteriology, medical biology, chemistry and pharmacology,
for a library and stores, but also for a small hospital to act as a
clinical Unit. The training of Indians as research workers was
one of the roles assigned to the Institution, and Professor Starling
suggested that 20 research scholarships should be instituted to
this end. The scheme, which was to cost 17 to 19 lakhs with a
recurring cost of five, was generally approved by the Secretary
of State, and the Standing Finance Committee agreed to recom-
mend it to the Legislative Assembly; but, in consequence of the
recommendations made by the Indian Retrenchment Committee,
the scheme was held in abeyance.

Now that the * financial conditions have improved a re-
consideration of the scheme is taking place; but, in view of the
changes that have occurred since Prof. Starling's report, more
especially in view of the great advances in certain aspects of
research work, it was agreed that as a preliminary the whole
question should again be examined by a committee with the

*FulI grant of five lakhs has now been restored and also all appoint-
ments held in abeyance except two (Total 28).

MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION. 105

necessary expert knowledge and on whose report sound action
could be based. Arrangements for this are now in train.

Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene is
another provincial institution requiring special notice. Since 1920,
largely as the result of the labours of. Lt.-Col. Sir Leonard
Rogers, Kt. 9 F.R.S., I.M.S. (Retd.), and of the late Director-
General, Indian Medical Service (Sir Pardey Lukis, K.C.S.I.,
I.M.S.) this School has come into being. The influence it is
exerting on research, both in its educational role and by direct
example, is great. It is controlled by a Governing Body. In
the last annual report the Director, in a historical note,* has
traced the origin and set forth the aims of this institution, and
a series of sectional reports by individual Professors deals ex-
haustively with the work now being done. The School is divided
into five sections a Tropical Medicine Section, an Institute of
Hygiene, a Pasteur Institute, the Leonard Rogers Laboratories,
and the Carmichael Hospital for Tropical Medicine. Each of
these has a large staff of professors, lecturers, and assistants.
Research work is being carried forward on kala-azar, hookworm,
intestinal infections, leprosy, filariasis, diabetes, radiology, skin
diseases, blood changes, indigenous drugs, epidemic dropsy, drug
addiction, malaria, bacteriology, pathology, protozoology, phar-
macology, entomology, serology, chemistry, hygiene, and tropical
medicine generally.

Present Position. The position now is that the Depart-
ment is Imperial or Central, is open to I. M. S. and to non-I. M. S.
men, has a cadre of 30 posts, 15 of which are specified and 15 non-
specified, and 2 of which are still in abeyance. The 15 specified
appointments are those of Directors and Assistant Directors at
the Central Research Institute, Kasauli, Haffkine Institute,
Bombay, King Institute, Madras, Pasteur Institute at Kasauli,
Coonoor, Shillong and Rangoon. Only the Central Research
Institute, Kasauli, is directly under the control of the Central

* Annual Report of the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine Institute
of Hygiene, and Carmichael Hospital for Tropical Diseases, 1926. (Bengal
Government Press, Calcutta.)

106 MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION.

Government. Officers holding unspecified posts are either
attached to provincial institutes under the orders of the Director-
General, Indian Medical Service, to learn work and to under-
study, or they are engaged in carrying out particular researches
under the Indian Research Fund Association. The Department
is under the control of the Government of India in regard to
appointments, transfers, etc. The Department comes under the
Director-General, Indian Medical Service, but is administered
for him by the Public Health Commissioner who is also the
Secretary of the Governing Body of the Indian Research Fund
Association. He acts in association with the Director of the
Central Research Institute, guided by a Scientific Advisory Board
composed of senior officers of the Research Department and
major laboratories, and which in turn advises the Governing
Body. Intimately associated with this Department are the
research activities promoted under the auspices of the Indian
Research Fund Association. During the current year 58 different
researches, conducted or directed by members of the Department,
and by outside workers of repute both from the services and
from the independent medical profession in India and Europe,
are in train throughout India at a cost to the Association of
approximately Rupees twelve lakhs (80,000). These enquiries
include researches by a Commission on Kala-azar, by a Centra!
Malarial Organisation on malaria, and by special workers on
malaria, plague, cholera, leprosy, helminthology, nutritional dis-
eases, tuberculosis, sprue, maternal mortality, relapsing fever, skin
diseases, diabetes, drug addiction, dysentery, diarrhoea, bacterio-
phage, statistics, biochemistry and pathology. Not the least
useful of the more recent arrangements is the All-India Con-
ference of Research Workers, which has met for the last four
years at the Calcutta School, and has afforded all workers under
the Association an opportunity of explaining the work they were
engaged on, of consulting with their fellow workers and of
speaking to their own research proposals for the ensuing year.
The interchange of opinion has been all to the good, and the
Conference has also been found of great value by the Scientific

MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION. 107

Advisory Board and by the Governing Body as well as by the
workers. This organisation makes control and co-ordination
simple and effective.

Organisation versus Functions. Organisation is closely
linked with the functions of any department or institute. The
main role originally assigned to the Central Research Institute
was one of research research undertaken at the instance of the
Government of India or Public Health Commissioner to ascertain
the cause of a particular disease amongst a particular class, or to
enquire into the causation of an outbreak of disease, or, at the
instance of the Director of the Institute or one of his Assistants,
into some particular disease or bacteriological problem. To this
had to be added the roles of routine examination work, of vaccine
and sera production, of education, e.g., technique and malaria,
and incidentally of providing a reserve of workers for field and
other enquiries. These roles were more or less applicable to
provincial laboratories in the early days with certain limitations,
while Pasteur Institutes, which, as in the case of that at Kasauli,
had begun by acting in several of the above capacities, were,
except where specially provided for, kept to the role of Pasteur
work and researches connected with it. As the work expanded
and the organisation evolved certain institutions have come to
specialise more and more in certain lines of work. Thus, to
take two examples, the Central Research Institute, Kasauli, has
developed the production of cholera and T. A. B. vaccines,
anti-venomous serum, the malarial and entomological bureaux and
other research, while Bombay has specialised in plague research,
plague vaccine production, snake venom work, anti-rabic work,
water analysis, pharmacology, and bio-chemistry, etc. This work
will be explained in fiuller detail in another article
(Section XVIII).

The responsibilities of a Central Government in regard to
medical research in its widest sense adumbrate adequate labora-
tory provision for research work on all aspects of the larger
problems of disease as well as on more routine work. These
have been visualised from the earliest days of the Department,

108 MEDICAL AND RESEARCH ORGANISATION.

and it was largely a question of finance which interferred with
the fruition of the plans prepared for the erection at Delhi of an
Imperial Research Institute worthy of the country. The re-
consideration now in train and already referred to has been
rendered necessary by altered circumstances, and further expert
advice on the whole question of the central organisation of
Indian research on its widest basis has been sought with a view
to the creation of an Imperial Research Institute on the most
modern lines and in harmony with the present trend of research
thought. The funds have been in great part provided and it
may be that, eventually, this delay will have been found to
react to the benefit of medical research in India.

VII.

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN INDIA.

BY

LIICIJT.-COL. F. P. MACKIE, O.B.E., I.M.S.,
Director, Haffkine Institute, Bombay.

DURING the last hundred years or so medical research in
Europe has proceeded in an orderly and well defined series
of stages.

At first men depended on their unaided senses, their hands
and eyes, and they continued and improved upon t'he clinical
and epidemiological observations which had been handed down
by the great clinicians of the past. Then came the era of the
microscope when at first this instrument was used to confirm
or elucidate t'he simple problems of clinical medicine and
morbid anatomy. With the rise of parasitology the problems
became more intricate and from amongst the clinicians there
evolved the specialists in pathology, bacteriology, protozoo-
logy, pharmacology, biochemistry and of other sciences an-
cillary to medicine. This specialisation was rendered
necessary by the ever-growing complexity of scientific research,
and its requirements demanded special laboratories and costly
equipment.

The evolution of research in India has proceeded on
similar lines and this is not to be wondered at when we con-
sider that research in India has not been indigenous in origin
but has resulted from the application of European methods to
Indian conditions. For this reason t'he growth of research
has been in the past almost entirely due to the labours of the
men of the Indian Medical Service for it is only of recent

' ( 109 )

HO MEDICAL RESEARCH IN INDIA.

years that Indians trained in Western methods have taken
their share in this aspect of medical progress.

Early Pioneers. In the early days such research as existed
was almost entirely of a clinical nature and during this period
notable work was carried on in hospitals and at the bedside in
the elucidation and unravelling of symptomatology and in the
study of epidemics. The names of men like Martin, Annesley,
Wade, Malcolmson, Morehead, Chevers, Waring, Macpherson,
MacNamara and others stand out as valuable contributors to
clinical medicine and epidemiology just previous to and during
the nineteenth century, and it is to such men as these that we
owe the firm foundations on which valuable investigations in
tropical pathology have since been built.

There have been pioneers in surgery too, particularly in
diseases of the eye and in the technique of operations much
demanded in India, such as those for stone in the bladder,
elephantiasis, liver abscess and plastic facial surgery. The
record of the older surgeons is not so complete as those of
the physicians but t'he names of Freyer, Playfair, Keegan,
Elliot, Henry Smith and Maynard in more recent times are
noteworthy in connection with progress in special depart-
ments of surgery.

Then we come to the earlier observations with the micro-
scope and amongst these were interesting discoveries, the
value and significance of which was, in many cases, not fully
realised till many years afterwards.

Timothy Lewis, an Army Surgeon, may be regarded as
one of the pioneers of parasitology for he published a book
in 1878 entitled "The microscopic organisms found in the
blood of man and animals and their relation to disease." In
this he describes an amoeba which he discovered in the stools
of cholera, the Filaria sanguinis hominis (now known as F. ban-
crofli) and the blood trypanosome of the rat which bears his
name. The significance of the trypanosomes was further
emphasised two years later when Griffith Evans a Veterinary

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN INDIA. HI

Surgeon, discovered the parasite now known as T. evansi and
associated it with an outbreak of surra amongst horses, camels
and other domestic animals in India.

In 1885 Cunningham described bodies in Delhi boils whose
true nature was not apprehended till 1903 when Leishman
discovered the well-known parasite of kala-azar to which
Cunningham's bodies are now known to be closely allied and
which are familiar to us as L. tropica.

Fayrer following Russell's footsteps is noteworthy as
having written a classical monograph on the snakes of India
which paved t'he way for much valuable work on venoms and
their antidotes which has been done by subsequent investi-
gators.

Last but not least we must mention Vandyke Carter who
in the days when the microscope was still regarded as an
instructive toy rather than a powerful agent for progress,
used this instrument to such effect that he was able to write
monographs on relapsing fever, oriental sore, leprosy and
mycetoma which are still regarded as classical on these
subjects. He was also responsible for the artistic drawings
illustrating the famous "Gray's anatomy." He 'left India in
1888 and may be regarded as the last of the old school of
pioneers.

Riae of Laboratories. We now pass to the more fruitful
researches of recent times, to the progress which is due to the
rise of the microscope more than to any other one factor.
At first men used this instrument as an accessory or aid to
clinical observation, but gradually as skill and precision in-
creased research with the microscope demanded more and
more time and skill until it was found that laboratories were
necessary and that men required to be specially trained and
to be detached from the routine work of the Civil Surgeon.

It was in this way that laboratories have evolved until
in the present day when research is initiated into a disease it

112 MEDICAL RESEARCH IN INDIA.

is necessary to co-opt the services of many ancilliary sciences
and the principle of commissions and team work has arisen.
In the remainder of this article it will be convenient to
take the prevalent diseases one by one and consider notable
researches which have been clone towards their elucidation.

Malaria. The first to be considered both by reason of its
widespread ravages in India and by reason of the prolific and
valuable work which has been done on this subject is
Malaria.

The discovery of the malarial parasite by Laveran in 1881
was verified quickly by several observers in India, by Vandyke
Carter for one, but it was not till later that men's minds began
to be directed towards the association of insects with disease.
King in 1883 revived the older suggestion that mosquitoes
might be carriers of malaria and eleven years later Manson
added the weight of his opinion in the same direction. This
malarial hypothesis of Manson was finally put to the test in
India by Ross as a result of whose infinite patience and
masterly technique the outstanding facts of mosquito infection,
development and transmission were established once and for
all. His researches were carried out on the transmission of
bird malaria and his conclusions were found by his own sub-
sequent work and by that of the Italian workers to be entirely
applicable to the human disease.

Whereas any successful piece of scientific work is
described as a romance, this work of Manson and Ross trans-
cends romance and becomes an epic, for in addition to its
intrinsic value one realises that much of the work on insect
transmission of disease which has been done since owes its
inspiration to the work of these pioneers on filariasis and
malaria.

Since that time an enormous amount of work 'has been
done on malaria in India, particularly by Christophers. In
the earlier days he collaborated with others, notably with
James, Bentley and Listen, and in more recent years he has

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN INDIA. H3

been in part responsible for advising or directing the researches
of the younger generation of malar iologists amongst whom
we may mention Sinton, Barraud, Co veil, Shortt, Gill and
others.

This school of malariologists has been engaged in such
diverse aspects of this problem as malarial surveys, the col-
lection of epidemiological data, field experiments on mosquito
reduction, the prevention of malaria in selected urban or rural
areas, the forecasting of epidemics, t'he prophylactic uses of
quinine, the collection and analysis of spleen indices and other
methods of estimating the incidence of malaria.

Rogers, MacGilchrist, Acton and others have approached
the problem from the therapeutic side particularly as regards
the constitution and use of the quinine alkaloids.

In addition to these researches pioneer work has been
done, much of it by Christophers himself, on the structure,
life-history and taxonomy of mosquitoes at varying periods
of their life history. In addition to the work which has
emanated chiefly from laboratories a large volume of investi-
gation has been done by the public health authorities in
different provinces mostly in the direction of mosquito surveys
and the practical measures to be taken for stamping out
endemic malaria.

A Central Malarial Organisation has, at the instance of
Christophers, been recently established. This organisation
will unify, correlate and direct malarial enquiries throughout
British India and will prevent overlapping of researches and
consequent wastage of effort and money.

When one enquires into the effect of all this activity on
the reduction of malaria in India, one is bound to admit that
there is a great deal left to be desired. We have the know-
ledge but the application of it is difficult and expensive. The
terrain in India is less favourable for anti-malarial experi-
ments than that at Ismalia for instance, nor has India the
resources of wealth and the advantages of popular co-operation
which worked such wonders in Panama. The delegates to

s 8

114 MEDICAL RESEARCH IN INDIA.

this Conference will see during their tours the magnitude of
the problems which India has to face and will learn of the
limitation of her financial resources which has acted as a
drag on the wheels of progress.

Plague. The next great devastating disease of India is
Plague and it is a cause of satisfaction to us that just as India
discovered the key to the malarial problem so also was the
transmission of plague discovered in this country. Plague
was first recognised in India in 1896 and after raging in
Bombay City it spread like wild fire eastwards and north-
wards through India. Several Commissions of experts from
Europe and individual scientists who 'had theories to test, were
attracted by the terrible drama which was being enacted but
none of these enquiries bore the desired fruit and it was not
until 1905 that an Advisory Committee on plague was formed
in London and a small Commission was sent out to Bombay
under Martin there to co-operate with investigators in India,
of whom the chief were Liston and Lamb.

The former had already arrived at the conclusion that
plague was carried to man by the rat flea and this was
quickly proved by the Commission who issued a series of
monographs which threw a flood of light on every aspect of
the pathology and epidemiology of plague, and whose con-
clusions have been proved and acted on in every part of the
world. Field experiments and transmission observations
were subsequently carried on on an extensive scale by
Gloster, White, Kunhardt, Chitre, Avari, and Cragg. Plague
research is still carried on at the Haffkine Institute, Bombay,
whilst a large amount of epidemiological and other field work
is carried on in the endemic areas especially in the Punjab and
the United Provinces. Fortunately for India Haffkine was
working in Bombay on the outbreak of plague and he set
himself to devise a protective vaccine. This he did so suc-
cessfully that his methods are followed with little alteration
in technique to this day. Continuous investigation has been

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN INDIA. US

going on at the Haffkine Institute by various workers during
the last 25 years under the successive directorship of Banner-
man, Liston and Mackie.

Haff kine's prophylactic is made at the Institute in Bombay
which was named after him and is distributed throughout
India and in other countries of the East. This vaccine by
raising the immunity amongst the inoculated brings about a
marked diminution in the incidence of t'he disease.

Relapsing Fever. Previous to 1907 this disease, which at
times is very prevalent in epidemic form in India, was held to
be transmitted by the bed bug. During 1906-1907 Mackie
studied the supposed methods of insect transmission but after
a long series of experiments failed to incriminate the bed bug.
Just at the end of this time a smart epidemic broke out in a
Mission School near Bombay and he was enabled to study its
progress. He came to the conclusion on epidemiological
grounds that the disease was being spread by lice and clinched
this by finding that the internal organs of a considerable
proportion of the lice taken from the infected wards swarmed
with spirochaetes whilst lice from the uninfected wards were
free. These infected lice gave rise to the disease when in-
jected into monkeys. This discovery was quickly confirmed
by the French workers and Mackie's observations were
extended and in one part corrected by Nicholle and his col-
laborators who found that relapsing fever was transmitted
not by the bites of lice but by the excoriation produced by
scratching. From the close epidemiological similarity exist-
ing between relapsing fever and typhus Nicholle was led to
experiment on the latter disease which he proved was also
carried by lice. Further light has been thrown on spiro-
chaetosis in India by Bisset, Cragg and Cunningham, whilst
typhus, which exists only in limited areas of northern India,
was particularly studied by Cragg who lost his life in the
pursuance of these researches. Megaw has brought good

116 MEDICAL RESEARCH IN INDIA.

evidence to show that there is a tick-borne disease resembling
typhus existing in some parts of the Himalayas.

Kala-azar. Epidemic Kala-azar is a peculiarly Indian
disease and previous to Leishman's discovery in 1903 it was
confounded with other diseases particularly with malaria,
beri-beri and ankylostomiasis. Leishman's discovery of the
parasite (in the spleen of a soldier who had contracted t'he
disease in India) was quickly confirmed by Donovan who
found it by spleen puncture in cases of kala-azar in Madras.
Rogers by successfully cultivating the parasite outside the
body proved that it belonged to the genus Herpetomonas
and not to the Piroplasma as Laveran had supposed. The
morbid anatomy and microhistology of kala-azar was worked
out by Christophers whilst James showed how it differed from
chronic malaria. For nearly twenty years the disease has
been the subject of investigation particularly by Rogers,
Dodds Price, Christophers, Bentley, Cornwall, La Frenais,
Patton, Mackie, Knowles, Napier, Young and Shortt ; whilst
oriental sore has been particularly studied by Patton and Row.
Led by the epidemiological studies of Rogers and Price, backed
by the optimistic laboratory experiments of Patton during all
this period t'he bed bug theory of transmission held the day.
During the last few years doubts began to arise as to this
method of transmission, and some other insect was looked for
whilst the possibilities of intestinal infection were recon-
sidered. The finding of flagellates in sandflies in Assam by
Mackie, the observations by Acton on the coincidence of the
distribution of sandfly bite with leishmanial sores and above
all the work on oriental sore in Tunis (incriminating this
same insect as the probable transmitter of another leishmanial
disease) combined to turn the attention of investigators to
the potentialities of the sandfly. Then followed the notable
researches of Knowles, Napier and Smith in Calcutta who
found that Phlebotomus argentipes could be readily infected
with leishmania by feeding them on kala-azar patients. At

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN INDIA. \\7

last it seemed as if the solution of this long-sought problem
had been found and this belief was strengthened by the in-
vestigations on the development of leishmania in sandflies by
Shortt and his associates who were working in Assam on a
Kala-azar Commission under the direction of Christophers.
The only link yet to be forged to complete this important
investigation is the proof that infected sandflies can transmit
the disease to man. This proof is awaited.

Kala-azar has already lost much of its terror now that
we have a specific treatment in the salts of antimony. This
fact was discovered by the Brazilian physicians and its results
were tried in Italy with equal success subsequent to which
tartar emetic was introduced into India by Rogers and its
value made known by his powerful advocacy. It is now used
almost universally and effects a cure in not far from ninety
per cent of cases. Improvements in the chemical composition
of antimony salts have been made by Brahmachari and others
who have produced preparations safer of administration and
of greater potency.

Diseases due to Trypanosomes. When 'human sleeping
sickness was ravaging Uganda fears were expressed that the
disease might spread to India. The Government of India
foreseeing this contingency deputed two of its officers to join
the Sleeping Sickness Commissions which were successively
directed by Bruce in Uganda.

Greig first and later Mackie were privileged to study this
formidable disease and to take their share in elucidating the
problems which it presented. The disease was found to be
dependent on the presence of the trypanosome in the wild
game and was spread to man by the agency of tsetse flies.
As India is free of this infection amongst wild animals, so
far as is known, and certainly has no flies of the genus Glossina
she may be considered safe from the spread of this disease
even were it introduced.

118 MEDICAL RESEARCH IN INDIA.

The trypanosome disease of domestic animals, surra, is
common in India and much work has been done on the subject
by officers of the Veterinary Department to which Rogers
has also contributed. Christophers and Patton carried out
valuable researches into the transmission of piroplasmosis, an
allied disease of domestic animals, and the former has worked
out the transmission cycle of these parasites in ticks.

Intestinal infections.

Typhoid Fever. Typhoid fever was at one time considered
to be rare in Indians though always a danger to young
Europeans freshly arrived in this country. The clinical
studies of Rogers and the laboratory investigations of Semple
and Greig showed that Indians were prone to the disease and
the immunity of adults was explained by their having gone
through an attack earlier in life. That Indians possess no
racial immunity to typhoid fever was amply demonstrated
during the Great War when Indians, particularly in Meso-
potamia, were found to suffer equally with Europeans.

Cholera. Cholera has been since the earliest days of
European occupation the most dreaded of all tropical diseases.
Its rapid and fatal course and the mystery surrounding its
origin have been an ever present and lurking horror. Many
of the older clinicians in the pre-microscope days wrote ex-
tensively on this dread disease. The most notable work from
the laboratory aspect was carried out by Greig who found
that the vibrio might lie up in the gall bladder and other
recesses of the intestinal canal and that patients who had
recovered from the acute stage might remain as carriers to
infect a healthy community at some later date. This has been
exemplified times without number in connection with the great
fairs or pilgrimages which are so striking a feature of Indian
life. Carriers of the disease in their pilgrimage from and to
their villages may leave a trail of the disease in epidemic form
through the country as they pass. This has taxed the sanitarians

MEDICAL RUSH ARCH IN INDIA. 119

to their fullest capacity and elaborate precautions have
to be taken by inoculation and other preventive measures to
lessen this menace. Rogers has done much valuable work on
the clinical aspect of cholera and introduced his well known
treatment by hypertonic intravenous saline injections which
yields a marked reduction in case mortality. Extensive
epidemiological and therapeutic investigations are now going
on in India by Russell, Tombs and others which include a
large experiment on the prophylactic value of Besredka's
" bilivaccine."

Dysentery. Dysentery both bacterial and protozoal is
another disease prevalent amongst all classes of people in
India. The epidemics are found to be due almost wholly to
the bacterial type (particularly to Shiga's bacillus) whilst the
endemic level is chiefly accounted for by the amoebic type.
Under this heading are ranged a large number of bowel
diseases of varied causation, and much work has been accom-
plished in trying to unravel the tangled skein of differentia-
tion. Cunningham has endeavoured to sort out the chronic
dysenteries and diarrhoeas of India, whilst Maitra, Morison,
Pai and others have carefully studied local epidemics. Acton
and Knowles have written a guide to the differentiation of the
dysenteries for practitioners and laboratory workers.

From the clinical and therapeutic aspects Rogers has again
left an indelible mark on the progress of our knowledge.
Seizing on the laboratory work of Vedder in the Philippines 'he
introduced the use of emetine into the treatment of human
amoebic dysentery. This produced a revolution in the treat-
ment of this type of dysentery and is still the sheet anchor
amongst methods for curing this formidable disease and its
no less formidable complication of liver abscess.

Snake Venom. In a country like India where poisonous
reptiles are so numerous and loss of human life from their
bites is so common, it is natural that much attention should
be paid to this fascinating subject.

120 MEDICAL RESEARCH IN INDIA.

The earlier physicians particularly Patrick Russell, about
1740, and Joseph Fayrer nearly a hundred years later wrote
classical monographs on the subject of Indian snakes.
Research work into the nature of venoms and their antitoxins
was carried out by Lamb who showed that the venoms and
their antibodies were almost completely specific. Wall and
Rogers have also made valuable contributions to this subject.
The anti-venine now produced in India is divalent in potency
and contains an anti-viperine and an anti-colubrine antibody.
The subject was further studied and additional methods of
treatment suggested by Acton and Knowles in 1914. A
special remedy for snake-bite in the form of a lancet w^ith
potassium permanganate was advocated by Brunton and
Rogers and its use obtained a great vogue. The experiments
of Bannerman showed that the external application of this
chemical failed to avert death after snake-bite and the met'hod
has fallen into disuse.

Caius lias attempted to concentrate the venom for con-
venience of administration and he is responsible for the
interesting observation that the saliva of non-poisonous snakes
is almost equally toxic with the saliva of venomous snakes.
The difference between the two classes of reptiles is that one
has evolved a hypodermic injecting mechanism of which the
other is devoid.

Rabies. This is another common and deadly disease of
India, its frequency being explained by the vast number of
ownerless and uncared-for dogs which contract hydrophobia
from each other and from jackals and other wild animals in
whom it exists in a sub-epidemic or endemic condition.

In 1901 the Pasteur Institute of Kasauli was opened and
Semple was its first Director. A continuous stream of good
research work has emanated from this Institute since its
inception from such investigators as Semple, Harvey, Lamb,
MacKendrick and Acton, whilst more recently Stevenson and
Cunningham have made further additions to our knowledge.

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN INDIA. 121

When this Institute was first opened Pasteur's Dried Cord
method was used, then followed the dilution method of
Hogyes and since 1911 the carbolised method of Semple has
been used in this and other Pasteur Institutes of India. A
second Institute was opened in Coonoor in Southern India
where Cornwall, Pai, La Frenais and others carried on research
work into rabies. The Pasteur Institute of Burma was next
instituted and latterly others have arisen, in Assam, in
Bombay and in Calcutta. The principle has been adopted of
manufacturing the vaccine at a given centre and sending it
out widely to smaller centres. Thus the vaccine is brought
to the people and the delay and anxiety incidental to long
train journeys is a tiling of the past.

Nutritional Diseases.

Diseases concerned with Nutrition. In a country like
India where a large proportion of the population exists in a
condition of chronic economic stress it is not to be wondered
at that diseases due to defects in nutrition are widespread.
The most extensive and valuable investigation into this class
of diseases is to the credit of McCarrison whose previous work
on goitre led him into these wider channels of research.

The skein of evidence is still a tangled one and it is slowly
being unravelled but as the basis of widespread nutritional
deficiency is in reality a-n economic one these valuable investi-
gations have not yet received the practical application which
they deserve. Without attempting to traverse t'he large
volume of McCarrison's work it seems that the most im-
portant evidence he has produced is that a nutritional defect
need not be serious enough to give rise to actual deficiency
diseases like beri-beri, scurvy, rickets and the like but that
sub-minimal quantities of vitamin exerting their influence over
a period of time may be responsible for chronic ailments
particularly intestinal diseases, lowered vitality and even to
t'he mental attributes which we are apt to associate with the

122 MEDICAL RESEARCH IN INDIA.

depressed classes and with people living a life of chronic
economic stress.

Beri-beri is prevalent in some parts of India and there is
the epidemic dropsy of Bengal which has been specially studied
by Greig, Acton, Megaw and others. Opinions still differ as
to whether this is an infectious disease or a positive or
negative nutritional error, i.e., whether it is due to the defect
in some accessory food factor or to the absorption of some
toxic product arising in one of the articles of food.

Lathyrism is another dietetic disease believed to be due to
the presence of contaminated food grains. This has been
investigated by Acton, Simonsen, Young and others.

The dietetic problem from the physiological standpoint
has been studied, for Bengal particularly, by McCay but we
are in ignorance of much which concerns standard dietaries
for the other parts of India.

Leprosy. Fired by his success with the active principle
of ipicacuanha in amoebic dysentery Rogers turned his atten-
tion to the derivatives of chalmoogra oil, an age-long remedy
fin the treatment of leprosy. Prolonged trial with the ethyl
esters and such like purification products of the crude oil
showed that they appeared to be an improvement on the
older preparations. The publication of his results even if
they did not come up to the standard claimed for them, cer-
tainly provided a valuable and much needed stimulus to t'he
study of the disease. The Calcutta Tropical School has in this
also led the way and the work of Muir and his associates has
much widened our knowledge of Leprosy and has given fresh
hope that this formidable and widespread disease may eventu-
ally be brought under control.

Previous work by Rost and Williams on treatment by
vaccination with a supposed culture of Hansen's bacillus was,
like Deycke's work on similar lines, doomed to disappointment.
The treatment which gives the greatest chance of success is
firstly that directed towards the improvement of the general

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN INDIA. 123

health of lepers and the elimination of incidental and associated
diseases like malaria and syphilis and secondly the exhibition
of chalmoogra oil or its derivatives.

The position is now that although most of the lepers seen
about the street and in the asylums are "burnt out" cases
beyond the reach of any remedies, the hope for the future lies
in the establishment of skin or leper clinics where early cases
may be treated and a lasting cure sought for in the rising:
generation of lepers.

Tuberculosis is a terrible scourge amongst the urban
population in India and has received less attention t'han it
deserves. Lankester, Cochrane, Sprawson and Row have
studied it in its human aspect whilst Liston, Soparkar and
others have added to the knowledge provided by veterinary
scientists concerning its prevalence in domestic animals.

Entomology. In India, this unhappy hunting ground of
insect-borne diseases, it is obvious that entomology should
be a prominent object of study and the work of the principal
investigators in this line has already been referred to under
the head of the disease concerned. Mosquitoes, fleas, lice,
bugs and flies have been the principal objects of study and
just now, in view of its probable causative relation to kala-
azar, the sandfly is the fashionable object of investigation.
The researches of Christophers and Barraud have perhaps
been pre-eminent in the matter of mosquitoes whilst Patton
and Cragg have done a large volume of work on insects in
general, but in addition to those named elsewhere the younger
school of Indian entomologists such as Turkhud, Prasad,
Swaminath, Mitter, Awati, Puri and others have done good
work on these problems ancilliary to medicine. The insect
carriers of malaria, plague, relapsing fever, kala-azar and
guinea-worm have all been discovered by investigators in
India and that is a record of which any country may be
proud.

124 MEDICAL RESEARCH IN INDIA.

Helminthology. The two most widespread and import-
ant diseases due to worm parasites are ankylostomiasis and
filariasis. A very large amount of work on hookworm disease
has been done by Clayton Lane, Mhaskar and Caius, Chandler,
Mukerji, Korke, to name the more recent workers. The
degree of infestation varies widely in different parts of India
and its effects vary accordingly. In some areas the degree of
infection is alone sufficient to produce profound anaemia and
a high degree of invalidity whereas in individuals and places
less severely parasitised, the infection reduces the general
level of health sufficiently to allow the inroads of other
diseases.

Hookworm infection is one of the diseases which like
sub-minimal nutritional defect is responsible for the low level
of health, the diminished capacity for work, and the conse-
quent poverty and social degradation which is so sad a feature
of many parts of rural and industrial India.

Elephantiasis. Filariasis is another disease widespread
and formidable in its sequelae. We have already remarked on
the fact that the parasitic worm, now called F. bancrofti, was
discovered by Lewis in India in 1872. Elephantiasis is a
serious and crippling disease common in many parts of India.
This problem has not received the attention it deserves and
much of its pathology is still shrouded in mystery. Lane,
Cruickshank, Cunningham, Iyer and others have attacked this
difficult problem but much more remains to be done. The
question of its prevention is probably bound up with that of
malaria, dengue and other mosquito-borne diseases.

Guinea-worm Disease. A more complete piece of work
has been done in Bombay by Turkhud, Liston, Fairley and
Soparkar on the guinea-worm disease caused by Dracunculus
medinensis. This disease which is very prevalent in villages
of the Deccan has been shown to be carried by a water flea of
the genus Cyclops iin which the embryo worm undergoes

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN INDIA. 125

development and reaches man by the agency of unfiltered
drinking water. The water fleas become infected by the
embryos which escape from the lesions on the feet and legs
of diseased persons who visit the wells.

Human schittosomiasis is not met with in India but animal
infections are frequent. A notable monograph on Indian
molluscs and their parasites has been written by Annandale
and Sewell, whilst valuable researches have been made on
S. spindalis by Fairley and his assistant Jasudasan.

Vaccine. Having referred to the principal diseases which
have yielded valuable results from the investigations carried
out upon them there are one or two ot'her aspects of Medical
Research in India which may be briefly mentioned. One of
these is Prophylaxis by Vaccine and the great advances
in the mehods of vaccine production and of the scientific
aspects of its application. Haffkine's name stands here
pre-eminent, not only because he was the pioneer in India,
and one of the world's pioneers, in this branch of specific
prophylaxis of disease, but because his work particularly con-
cerns India. His discovery of the plague prophylactic which
bears his name has already been mentioned, but he was also
the first to produce an anti-cholera vaccine which lias now
been replaced by one in which the vibrios have been killed by
heat. His plague vaccine though substantially the same as it
was in "his day has nevertheless been the subject of constant
study at the Haffkine Institute by a succession of investigators
and at the present time researches are being carried on by
Naidtt and others in an attempt to improve the antigenic power
of the vaccine and to lessen the reaction caused by its use.

Much good work on vaccine production for typhoid,
cholera and influenza has been done by a succession of workers
at the Central Research Institute, Kasauli, particularly by
Harvey, Brown and lyengar, whilst the undue optimism of
those investigating the effects of vaccines and other problems
of prophylaxis in public health has been kept in check by the

126 MEDICAL RESEARCH IN INDIA.

mathematical researches of McKendrick, King and Russell of
whom the first named in particular has carried out notable
researches in statistical methods.

During the last few years the study of indigenous drugs
of India has claimed attention and pharmacological labora-
tories at Calcutta under Chopra and at Bombay under Caius
and Mhaskar are carrying out good work on these lines.

Medical biochemistry is also beginning to receive atten-
tion and there is a well equipped laboratory at the Haffkine
Institute where sprue is being investigated on these lines by
Sokhey and others.

The Organisation of Research. Nothing- has been said
about the organisation which has made all this research
possible because this aspect of the question is being dealt
with separately under another heading. There have been
three factors which have particularly stimulated research.
The first was the formation of a separate department which
provided a permanent staff for the big laboratories and a
security of tenure for those who intended to devote themselves
to research. This was at first styled the Bacteriological
Department, a title which was recently changed to that of the
Medical Research Department. The name of Leslie is
particularly associated with this advance. The second was
the establishment of the Indian Research Fund Association
which provides funds for research, which employs men of
good promise from outside the Services, and which initiates,
organises and directs researches on such subjects as seem to
them the most urgently required. The name of Pardey Lukis
deserves special distinction as one of the chief organisers of
this valuable association.

The third factor is the establishment of semi-private or
state-aided institutions whose foundation and upkeep have
been at least in part due to the initiative and generosity of
private donors. It is to the Calcutta School of Tropical
Medicine that these remarks are particularly applicable for

MEDICAL RESEARCH IN INDIA. 127

it was founded and in part supported by the private generosity
of Calcutta citizens both British and Indian.

It is to Leonard Rogers, to his energy and to his fore-
sight that this School owes its existence and by its establish-
ment he made his final and his greatest contribution to the
cause of medical progress to which he had already devoted so
many years of his service in Bengal. This School with its
band of devoted workers under the far-seeing direction of
Megaw bids fair to rank in the near future as one of the best
Schools of Tropical Medicine in the world.

This review of medical research brings us up to the
present time and to show that the good work is still going on
it will suffice to record the investigations which are being
carried on this year under the auspices of the Indian Research
Fund Association which has budgeted a sum of over 11 lakhs
(81,485) to meet the expenses of these researches during
1927-28.

These are the conditions which are being specially in-
vestigated at the time of writing : Malaria, Plague, Cholera,
Ankylostomiasis, Schistosomiasis, Kala-azar, Leprosy, Nutri-
tional diseases, Tuberculosis, Sprue, Indigenous drugs,
Maternal mortality, Dysentery and Diarrhoea, Relapsing fever,
Dengue and Sandfly fever, Skin diseases, Diseases of the eye,
Rabies, Diabetes, Drug addiction, Vaccines and Bacteriophage.
In addition to these enquiries, special grants are made to
assist certain institutions in the prosecution of research.

It will be evident to anyone who reads this review that
India has played a very distinguished part in the elucidation
of tropical diseases and that her efforts have in many cases
been crowned with conspicuous success. Thanks to the for-
ward policy of the Indian Research Fund Association there
is every reason to believe that the steady output of good
and fruitful scientific work is being maintained and we trust
that in the future the mantle worn by the distinguished men
of the past will fall on shoulders able and worthy to maintain
this great tradition.

VIII.

THE PRESENT POSITION OF VETERINARY
RESEARCH IN INDIA.

BY

J. T. EDWARDS, B.SC., M.R.C.V.S.,
Director, Imperial Institute of Veterinary Research, Muktesar.

A. Results achieved in the principal subjects of research.

THE results of veterinary endeavours in India have been for
the most part essentially practical in character and not of a kind
which can be assessed in terms of output of technical publications
purporting to convey the results of original research : the approach
to the solution of disease problems has been direct (if at times
empirical) and the knowledge gained has never been such as
would ever admit of being relegated to the limbo of forgotten
academic enterprise. The contributions of the early field vete-
rinary workers, in particular, have been of considerable practical
utility, and amongst these early endeavours mention may be
made of the discovery by Griffith Evans of the cause of surra
and of the discovery by Lingard of the specific affinity of arsenic
towards the parasite of surra, the latter discovery marking the
beginning of further researches executed in some of the con-
tinental laboratories and leading to the formulation of effective
methods of treatment against some of the serious human and
animal diseases.

The Veterinary Department in India has been in existence
for only about forty years, commencing as a Central Department
with very small beginnings. Later, with the extension of its
work and functions, Provincial Veterinary Departments were
formed, containing trained Indian graduates recruited from

( 129 ) 9

130 VETERINARY RESEARCH IN INDIA.

the Provincial Veterinary Colleges. The first decided step in the
recognition of the importance of research into animal disease
was taken by the Government of India in 1890, when it appointed
a Special Officer, designated the Imperial Bacteriologist, for
the work. The Imperial Bacteriologist had his head-quarters in
the first place at Poona, and after two years, in 1893, it was
decided to instal a research laboratory at Muktesar in the
Kumaon District (7,500 feet), where the conditions of environ-
ment were considered ideal for the kind of research contemplated,
namely, the investigation of "diseases of domesticated animals
in all provinces in India " and finding out " as far as possible,
biological research both in the laboratory and, when necessary,
at the place of outbreak, the means of preventing and curing
such diseases."

For some years the institution remained a relatively small
research laboratory, engaged in investigations into the principal
diseases of live-stock in India, notably rinderpest, surra bursattee
and anthrax. The issue of products to combat diseases was not
contemplated until some time after 1893 when the possibilities
of serum for use in protecting against rinderpest had been
actively explored. Later, in 1900, Rogers, while he was acting
Imperial Bacteriologist, elaborated the method of protective in-
oculation by taking cognizance of the finding of Kolle and Turner
(1897) in South Africa, namely, that animals infected naturally,
or preferably by inoculation of virulent blood, while they were
simultaneously under the influence of the serum, passed through
a mild subdued form of the disease, and were, thereafter per-
manently immune. The means were, therefore, discovered of
combating the most serious cattle disease in India, either by
inoculation with serum alone, useful especially to cut short an
outbreak, or by the double inoculation, for the conferment of a
permanent immunity upon animals likely to be exposed during
their lives to infection.

In the meantime, products were evolved and manufactured
on a scale for current issue for combating other serious cattle
diseases in the field, with the result that the institution is no

VETERINARY RESEARCH IN INDIA. 131

longer the pure research laboratory that it was at its inception,
but also a large scale manufacturing undertaking with an
organised staff to prepare, with a guarantee as to their reliability,
more and newer products for use in the control of diseases of
live-stock in India.

The institution has since steadily enlarged the scope of its
activities, and, as at present constituted, its functions may be
briefly described as follows :

(1) Manufacture and issue of products sera, vaccines and
agressins for combating the more serious cattle diseases in
India.

(2) Researches into the important diseases that affect live-
stock in India.

(3) Collection and identification of entomological and hel-
minthological specimens of veterinary interest. (Work in this
direction has been commenced only recently with the provision
of suitable staff.)

(4) Examination of morbid material, blood smears, and
specimens of parasites of veterinary interest forwarded by Pro-
vincial Veterinary Organisations and by the Military Department.
This work has now developed into an item of considerable mag-
nitude in the routine activities of the Institute.

(5) Tendering of technical advice to Provincial Veterinary
Authorities, Military and other Government Departments and
also to private organizations and individuals. (Numerous
inquiries are attended to and they cover an extraordinarily wide
range of subjects.)

(6) Supply of trained assistants, on request, for the per-
formance of protective inoculation on herds.

(7) Provision of post-graduate training and of short
courses in Veterinary Science.

Research Activities. The Imperial Institute of Veterinary
Research differs from other institutions of its kind (e.g., those
for research in agriculture and forestry) in the essentially
synthetic character of its organization. A spirit of individualism
is likely to be accompanied by a- lack of appreciation of the

132 VETERINARY RESEARCH IN INDIA.

function of this kind of research conducted in this Institute. The
various researches in progress have an inherent tendency towards
integration and are definitely antagonistic to lonely and superfluous
endeavour. It is essential for the officer vested with the control
of its activities to perceive clearly their interlacing and inter-
dependent qualities so that they may be rendered capable of
scientific handling and direction. The task of such an institution
is thus necessarily homogenous in that what is required of it is
something in the shape of a material product or a piece of
succinct advice to place at the disposal of the field workers for
the ready, effective and practical control of the disease of live-
stock in India.

The veterinary problems in India are different in certain
fundamental points from those which press themselves for
solution in the Western countries. Apart from the prevailing
economic conditions which render highly complex the question
of the amelioration of the condition of live-stock in India, the
peculiarly ethical sentiments that operate to produce in the mind
of the average stock-owner a state of inertia in regard to veterinary
innovations impart to veterinary problem in India a psychological
colour, the significance of which does not quite readily lend
itself to the comprehension of an observer who has spent his
time entirely among the live-stock of Western countries. Con-
siderations of space preclude an analysis of these economic and
psychological factors in their bearing upon the problems con-
nected with the control of diseases of live-stock in India and a
passing reference is made to these factors merely to indicate
that the " results achieved " by the Veterinary Department in
India are, in no small measure, to be appraised by the extent to
which it has succeeded in creating public confidence in veterinary
methods and ideas generally.

The results achieved at the Muktesar Laboratory in the prin-
cipal subjects of research resolve themselves into seven well-
defined categories:

(1) Investigation of conditions under ivhich animals are
kept in domestication in India in their bearing upon the elucidation

VETERINARY RESEARCH IN INDIA> 133

of factors responsible for the relative absence of certain
diseases in India, as compared with what obtains in the Western
cotmtries. The evidence grows in volume and trustworthiness
every year that the virulent germs of tuberculosis do not find
the same opportunities for intensive spread among Indian cattle,
kept in the open in bright sunlight as they do among European
cattle, kept largely in intensive domestication owing to the
inclemency of the weather for a large part of the year. This
hypothesis has received substantial support from our recent
observations at one important Government Military Dairy.
From these observations it seems reasonable to conclude that
Indian herds which are maintained under a close system of
domestication and into which infection has been introduced are
exposed to grave danger.

The same remarks apply to what has been observed in
regard to the conditions under which contagious bovine abortion
prevails in India. Where cattle live in open, in the usual Indian
conditions, they are currently infected to the extent of about
10 per cent, but the infection does not become intensified to the
extent of causing clinical abortion. On the other hand, where
cattle, and particularly indigenous cattle crossed with imported
blood, are maintained in somewhat more advanced conditions of
domestication, simulating those of the West, the degree of infec-
tion, as disclosed by blood tests, sometimes rises to 50 per cent,
and in such herds the rate of actual abortion may also rise to
20 per cent., and infected cows may abort several times in suc-
cession.

(2) Survey of animal diseases actually prevalent in India.
The results of recent researches conducted at the Muktqsar
Laboratory have thrown light on the significance of certain in-
fections in cattle which have practically escaped the notice of
previous veterinary workers in India :

(*) Coccidiosis. Cattle are now known to be infected
ubiquitously in India with the protozoan organisms
known as coccidia, which multiply ordinarily in

134 VETERINARY RESEARCH IN INDIA.

the lining of the bowel very slowly, and cause
no manifest disturbance. When the resistance
of the bowel lining is depressed, however, as
when the animals suffer from rinderpest, the
restraints upon the parasites are released and
they multiply at such -a rate as to cause serious
disease and frequently death in the affected
animals. The finding has proved of great import-
ance in furnishing us with precise information
upon some of the sequelae that may arise during
or following upon attacks of rinderpest.

(') Piraplasmosis. Tick-fever or redwater has long
been recognised among cattle in India, but the
amount of exact knowledge had, until now, been
very meagre. We now know that over wide-
spread areas in India cattle become naturally in-
fected with this type of disease by the bites of
ticks, when they are very young, at which stage
they possess a very high degree of resistance and
almost invariably recover from the effects of the
infection; they remain thereafter "carriers'' of
the parasites throughout life, and infect the ticks
of the neighbourhood. " Clean " adult cattle
imported into such areas such as cattle from dis-
tricts in India where the disease happens not to
exist, or European cattle, succumb readily after
they have been bitten by these ticks. These
observations are obviously of considerable import
in their bearing upon the acclimatization of
imported cattle.

(Hi) Johne's Disease. This distressing malady has
proved to be a serious menace in several import-
ant herds in India. After confirmation of its
existence in these herds a careful endeavour has
been made in some of them to ascertain its in-
cidence, and by the application of special methods

VETERINARY RESEARCH IN INDIA. 135

of testing, an incidence rate amounting to 30 per
cent, has been disclosed.

(3) Investigations upon the susceptibility of Indian cattle
to certain diseases. Investigations upon this type have been
particularly conducted with reference to the question of th<*
incidence of bovine tuberculosis in India. It is generally
believed that the incidence of tuberculosis infection in Indian
cattle is very small (less than three per cent.), whilst in the West
the average incidence of infection among cattle amounts to 30 per
cent., and the actual loss from the severity of the disease is very
high. Results of recent investigations have shown that this low
incidence of this disease in India is not attributable to a natural
high resistance possessed by Indian cattle (nor to a lower virulence
of the germs which cause the disease) but to the comparatively
outdoor life of Indian cattle (ante).

(4) Biological Researches. Researches under this cate-
gory have been conducted with special reference to:

(i) Rinderpest. Much precise information has been
obtained upon the properties of the infective
agent and the factors which determine its viru-
lency under laboratory conditions.
(') Strangles. This common disease of young horses
has formed a major subject for research at
Muktesar for the past five years. The causal
organism has almost always been identified as the
readily recognizable streptococci found in the
pus of the sub-maxillary abscesses, though it has
been suspected by a few observers that these
germs are merely secondary invaders. Know-
ledge has been obtained confirming this suspicion,
and it is most likely that the initial invader is an
ultra-visible virus.

(5) Immunity Researches. The results of researches con-
ducted under this head have attained a magnitude which hardly

136 VETERINARY RESEARCH IN INDIA.

lends itself to compression within the compass of a memorandum
of this kind. In what follows an endeavour will be made merely
to indicate the directions along which researches have been con-
ducted and the bearing of the results achieved upon control
measures :

(i) Rinderpest. Information has been obtained upon :
the process of immunity; the properties of an
anti-serum and the factors that influence its
production with a maximum degree of potency;
the duration and utility of a passive immunity
caused by serum alone; the factors that make
for the conference of a permanent immunity by
the serum-simultaneous method; the duration
of immunity after active immunization; com-
plications (in the form of piroplasmoses and
coccidiosis) that may arise in the course of this
inoculation and the means of preventing them.
As the practical outcome of these researches the
Institute has been able to issue, with the rapidly
improving technique of manufacture, serum in
large quantities and at a price which compares
favourably with the prices charged elsewhere.
(ii) Hamorrhagic Septiccemia. The methods previously
adopted for the manufacture of anti-serum have
now been completely changed. Results of recent
investigations have shown that it suffices to inoc-
ulate animals initially with adequately large
doses of cultures of the specific causal organism,
that had become degraded in virulence by arti-
ficial cultivation, to obtain within a few days a
highly potent serum and thereafter a good serum
can be obtained almost indefinitely from them
by repeated injections with the same kind of
cultures. The serum is therefore now prepared
very cheaply from buffaloes that are discontinued
from rinderpest serum manufacture.

VETERINARY RESEARCH IN INDIA. 137

(Hi) Blackquarter. The Institute 'has now undertaken
the manufacture of an " aggression " for use
against this disease. After issue in the first
place on relatively small scale so as to obtain some
information upon its efficacy, it has been pre-
pared upon a rapidly increasing scale for practical
employment.

(iv) Contagious Bovine Abortion. The Muktesar Labo-
ratory was a pioneer in issuing definite printed
instructions for vaccination against this disease
by cultures of low virulence. In the prepara-
tion of the vaccine, use was made of the funda-
mental knowledge first recognized by this labo-
ratory that the existence of what are termed
serologically different types of the germ must be
taken into consideration. The vaccine now
issued is thus a " polyvalent " one; it is easy of
application, without disturbance of the milking
programme of a herd.

(v) Contagious Equine Abortion. A satisfactory
method of vaccination has been evolved, being
based upon the knowledge that the immunity
following upon the inoculation of dead cultures
is necessarily a short-lived one, and that there-
fore breeding mares have to be vaccinated at
intervals throughout the early stages of preg-
nancy. In the preparation of a vaccine capable
of bringing about an almost complete disappear-
ance of abortion it is necessary to incorporate in
the vaccine the dead bodies of other organisms
which frequently accompany the common causal
organism of the disease and which also are cap-
able of inducing abortion.

(vi) Strangles. A commencement has been made in
treatment with serum from naturally recovered
animals, on the assumption that the immune

138 VETERINARY RESEARCH IN INDIA.

re-action in the disease may be parallel to that
which is understood in the case of rinderpest.

(6) Ameliorative Researches. Researches upon the treat-
ment of the serious disease known as surra (Trypanosoma evansi
infection) have reached a most satisfactory issue and a memoir
embodying the results of the investigations is now in the press.
In brief, the simple treatment found to give the most satisfactory
result consisted in the administration, simultaneously, intraven-
ously and intrathecally, of the product known as " Bayer 205."

(7) Miscellaneous. A great miscellany of subjects has
received attention: for example, improvements in the mode of
manufacturing mallein; some diseases of fowls, and especially
the common tick- fever of fowls (fowl spirochaetosis), its natural
mode of transmission and treatment; some sheep diseases, and
especially a prevalent contagious pleuro-pneumonia and sheep-
pox; kumri a paralytic disease of horses, which in former years
was carefully investigated at Muktesar, with almost completely
negative findings; bttrsattee, which from the histological evi-
dence seems to be a worm infection (habronemiasis) as reported
in other countries; laboratory tests for dourine in horses; the
common organisms responsible for wound infection (notably the
so-called diphtheroids) ; infectious nasal granuloma of cattle
(found to resemble actinomycosis) ; infectious bovine lymphan-
gitis (a bacillary organism identified as causal agent) ; mange in
buffaloes (life-cycle of sarcoptic parasite worked out, and prin-
ciple of treatment) ; certain diseases of fowls and calves; attempts
at vaccination of dogs against rabies (at the Lahore, Madras and
Calcutta Veterinary Colleges) ; the fly transmission of surra (at
Sohawa).

B. Problems now under Investigation in India.

The reply to this part of the question can be given very
briefly by stating that researches into the problems summarily
described in the foregoing pages are still under active investiga-
tion, to the utmost degree compatible with the facilities at our
disposal. Rinderpest still takes a foremost place in our research

VETERINARY RESEARCH IN INDIA, 139

projects -and every endeavour is made to obtain a simple solution
to the problem of its control in India. There are some subjects
which now have a diminished importance, particularly those asso-
ciated with horses, through the diminution in number these
animals have suffered in recent years; thus, research into kumri
and surra is not economically of the same significance as it was
20 years ago. Research work into animal pathology, at least
so far as concerns its major subjects, is a tedious process demand-
ing often steady observation and the accumulation of records for
many years for the attainment of economically significant results ;
hence, it is difficult to foresee under what precise sub-headings
researches into the various subjects will be divided in the near
future.

Summary.

I. Striking advances have been made in devising satis-
factory methods for the control of epizootic and enzootic dis-
ease in India.

II. There is, in fact, sufficient laboratory investigation
accomplished to bring under control the major contagious or in-
fectious diseases (rinderpest, hsemorrhagic septicaemia, black-
quarters, anthrax and probably piroplasmosis, surra and some
other diseases, so far as control is ultimately practicable).

III. The success of applied research into animal pathology
has been achieved largely by the propaganda of the field workers
in incurring the confidence of animal owners in the efficacy of
the artificial methods of control elaborated.

IV. The mass of publications emanating from the Vete-
rinary Department upon research has been small, principally as
the kind of applied work upon which the workers are engaged
does not lend itself readily to this form of displaying its
endeavours.

IX.

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA.

BY

D. CLOUSTON, M.A., D.SC., C.I.E.,

Agricultural Adviser to the Government of India and Director of
the Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa.

Agriculture India's Premier Industry- Of the indus-
tries of India, agriculture is, by far, the most important ; it fur-
nishes practically all the material for the food and clothing
of the people in urban as well as in rural areas, and provides
much of the raw materials for her factories. Three out of
every four of the total population of 319 millions depend for
their livelihood on agriculture or the industries subsidiary to
it. The annual value of the agricultural produce of British
India is reckoned to be well over 1,000 millions sterling.

The Indian Peasant. In India's 700,000 villages the com-
mon interest is agriculture and the causes which affect its
prosperity. The peasantry, though somewhat improvident
in their expenditure on marriages and other social ceremonies,
are a people whom to know well is to love. Their patience,
high standard of honesty and rustic charm endear them to
those who know and understand them. Content with a very
low standard of comfort and bound by many ties to their
village homes, only a very small percentage of them care to
settle down permanently in industrial centres where wages
and the standard of living are comparatively high. As pointed
out by His Excellency Lord Irwin in a recent speech "the
population of India generally is rural rather than urban. The

( 141

142 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA.

large town and the industrial centre is the exception; the
common feature is the hamlet and the village, and it is in
rural life that both in the past and present India has found
her most distinct medium of self-expression."

Rural India, Past and Present. In early times every
Indian village was almost self-contained; it not only grew
most of its food, but provided either from its own resources,
or obtained from close at hand, its few simple wants. Its
cloth and often the raw material for it, its bread flour, its
sugar, its dyes, its oil for food and lighting, its household
vessels and agricultural implements were manufactured or
produced either by the cultivator himself, or by the village
craftsmen who were members of the village community, and
were remunerated by a share of its produce. Money for the
payment of Government dues and for the prices of materials
of luxury was found by the sale of surplus food grains, or of
agricultural and forest products required by neighbouring
villages. These exchanges were effected and financed by the
country traders, who were found mostly in the large villages
or small towns that formed the centres of a series of com-
mercial circles, the radius of each of which was measured by
the distance to which the few local imports and exports
could be profitably carried by cart or pack bullocks.

Effect of Improved Communications. In these Arcadian
economic conditions the coming of the railway and the steam-
ship, the opening of the Suez Canal, and the extension ot
peace and security by the growth of British power effected
great changes in course of time. Improved communications
stimulated the cultivation of crops such as cotton, jute and
other fibres, oil-seeds, wheat and tobacco for which there was
a demand abroad. They facilitated, too, the introduction of
foreign imports and rendered available to the farmer in his
distant landlocked village the manufactured products of other
lands. Markets sprang up on or near tne railway, where
those interested in the export and import trade had their

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 143

agencies, and roads connecting up the villages with the rail-
way stations were constructed in increasing numbers. Rural
India was for the first time brought into touch with foreign
markets and with the fluctuations in the world's prices of
commodities in which her cultivators were interested. Im-
proved means of communication, moreover, enabled <Govern-
ment to fight the famines which from time to time visited
the land, by carrying by rail to famine-stricken areas the
food-stuffs required to tide the cultivator and his cattle over
each crisis. The terrible calamities which had depleted wide
stretches of country in the past needed no longer to be
feared. By stimulating import trade which led to the enormously
extended use of woollen cloth and cotton cloth of finer counts,
and to the introduction of kerosene oil, matches, soaps, bicycles,
sewing machines, motor vehicles, etc., improved communica-
tions indirectly added very appreciably to the comfort of the
people in rural areas and enabled them to raise their whole
standard of living.

As a result of the expansion of her import and export
trade, India became more prosperous. Amongst the tests of
material progress which can be applied to a country is the
growth of its population and the extension of its industries.
The population of the Indian Empire, inclusive of Indian
States, was 287 millions in 1891; by 1921 it had risen to
319 millions. Within the same period the large textile
industries had grown by leaps and bounds; but still more
astonishing perhaps was the growth in the production of
Indian coal.

Signs of Material Progress* To the vast increase of
Indian agricultural and industrial production and to the
enlarged facilities which the State has provided for their
distribution, the trade and commerce of India have responded
fully. In 1887-88 Indian exports were valued at about 60
millions sterling and imports at 43 millions. In the year
1913-14 the value of exports had increased to 166 millions,

144 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA.

and of imports to 127 millions. In the year 1923-24 the value
of exports had increased to approximately 276 millions ster-
ling and the imports to approximately 188 millions. The mile-
age of the railways, which have played a social as well as an
economic part in the progress of India, by bringing into
closer contact populations separated by immense distances
and by providing facilities for trade, has been increased from
15,245 miles in 1889 to 38,000 miles in 1924-25. The growth
of irrigation, too, has contributed very largely to the material
prosperity of the country. Millions of acres of uncultivated
lands have been opened up more especially in the Punjab,
and colonies of prosperous cultivators settled upon them.
In 1891-92 the total area irrigated from Government major
and minor works was about 11 million acres; in 1922-23 the
area had risen to approximately 28 : V million acres.

The standard of living among all classes of population,
especially among landholders, traders and ryots, has increased
very considerably in recent years, and extravagance on
occasions of marriage and other social ceremonies has seri-
ously increased. The average villager lives in a better house
and eats better food than did his father; brass and other
metals have taken the place of coarse earthenware, and the
clothing of his family in quality and quantity has improved.

The Climate of India. The climate of India, while vary-
ing to a considerable extent from province to province, has certain
well-defined characteristics which are common to all. The mon-
soon, or rainy season, which extends from June till October
is followed by a period of comparatively cold dry weather
which in turn is followed by a period of intense heat which
extends from March till June. There are two agricultural
seasons, namely, the kharif or monsoon season and the rabi
or cold weather season. From the agricultural point of view
the most unsatisfactory feature of the rainfall is its liability
to failure. Except in irrigated tracts the failure of the rains
results in the loss of crops and sometimes in famine.

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 145

Government has, therefore, constructed large numbers of
irrigation works in tracts where the rainfall is most pre-
carious. The rainfall over India as a whole is very variable ;
it ranges from 460 inches at Cherrapunji in the Assam Hills to
less than 3 inches in Upper Sind. By far the greatest por-
tion of the rain falls during the south-west monsoon between
June and October. During the winter months, i.e., from
November till February the rainfall is very light, while the
hot weather season is practically rainless.

Soils. For the purpose of soil classification India may
be divided into two main areas, namely, (1) the Indo-Gangetic
Plains, and (2) Central and Southern India. The physical
features of these two divisions are essentially different. The
Indo-Gangetic Plains (including the Punjab, Sind, the
United Provinces, Bengal, Bihar and Assam) form large
level stretches of alluvium of great depth and natural ferti-
lity. Central and Southern India, on the other hand, consists
of hills and valleys. On the higher lands shallow gravelly
soils of lateritic origin are common, while on the lower
ground clayey loams predominate. These loams are sticky
in the rains, hard and crumbly in the dry weather and very
retentive of moisture.

Agricultural Capital and Equipment. India is a country
of small holdings; the tenant farmer is the backbone of the
agricultural population of which he constitutes by far the
largest section. Farming is carried on with a minimum of
capital; the outlay on fencing buildings and implements is
exceptionally small. Very few of the larger landowners take
a practical interest in agriculture. They live in the towns
and leave the management of their estates to subordinates.
Their apathy is one of the chief obstacles to progress in
rural development.

Disposal of Produce^ The marketing of agricultural
produce is not yet organised, no attempt is made to grade

146 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA.

produce for the market. The cultivator has, as a rule, to
dispose of the bulk of his crops soon after they are harvested
in order to pay his rent and meet his miscellaneous expendi-
ture. He is sometimes so heavily in debt that he has to hand
over part of the produce of his fields to the village money-
lender. Of the 260 million acres sown with crops in British
India the area irrigated from canals, tanks and wells is just
over 50 million acres. Eighty per cent, of the total cropped
area is under food-crops, nearly six per cent, under oil-seeds
and about eight per cent, under fibres. In 1925-26 India
produced 30,572,000 tons of rice, 8,704,000 tons of wheat,
15,628,000 tons of other food-crops including barley, maize,
millets and gram, 3,856,000 tons of oil-seeds including lin-
seed, mustard, rape, sesamum, castor and groundnut, 2,930,000
tons of raw sugar (gur), 6,075,000 bales of cotton and
10,839,000 bales of jute. In the same year she produced
363,506,000 Ibs. of tea, 22,106,000 Ibs. of coffee, 19,970,000 Ibs.
of rubber and 3,024,000 Ibs. of indigo. Eight per cent, of the
total yield of rice, three per cent, of that of wheat, ninety per
cent, of that of tea, sixty-nine per cent, of that of cotton,
forty-six per cent, of that of raw jute and seventy-seven per
cent, of that of linseed were available for export.

The Organisation of Agricultural Departments and Insti-
tutions. The considerable strides made before the beginning
of the present century in providing facilities for irrigation
and an outlet for agricultural produce had admittedly con-
tributed largely to the material prosperity of the country
generally. In spite of the rapid growth of commerce and
improvements in communications, the economic condition of
the peasantry did not improve to the extent that was hoped.
This was, partly at least, due to the fact that little had been
done by the State to increase the agricultural output by
means of agricultural education, better varieties of seed,
greater diffusion of good stock, improved manuring and
tillage, etc. Leaving aside spasmodic efforts made by the

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 147

East India Company and the Government of India on isolated
occasions for special purposes, the policy of creating a special
Department to investigate the general conditions of agri-
culture was first recommended by the Commission appointed
to enquire into the Bengal and Orissa famine in 1866. This
resulted in a scheme for the formation of a new Department
"to take cognisance of all matters affecting the practical
improvement and development of the agricultural resources
of the country, which should consist of a separate Department
under the control of an official Director in each iProvince,
upon whom would devolve the real work of studying and
improving agriculture." There was also to be a Central
Imperial Department of the Government of India " to guide
and control the work of the Provincial Departments." Pro-
vincial Departments of Agriculture were formed but for a
time they were handicapped by the fact that they were not
given an expert staff. Towards the end of the last century
there was a great revival in agriculture science in England
and even in India there were indications of keenness for
agricultural research before the facilities for giving effect
to it became available. The Imperial Department of Agri-
culture in India may be said to date from 1901, when the
Government of India appointed an Inspector-General of Agri-
culture with a view to the more active prosecution of a
policy of scientific and practical investigation into agricul-
tural matters. The policy of the late Lord Curzon, who was
Viceroy at this time, was to increase the prosperity of agri-
culture and to secure the fullest possible use of the land.
An Imperial Department of Agriculture was created and a
Research Institute was opened at Pusa in Bihar and Orissa.
Combined agricultural colleges and research institutes were
established in the provinces and research and propaganda
work started. For the investigation, prevention and control
of cattle diseases an Imperial Institute of Veterinary Re-
search was opened at Muktesar and Veterinary Departments
were created in the provinces.

148

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA.

Prior to 1921, the policy of agricultural development in
India as a whole was guided by the Government of India,
but with the inception of the Reforms in 1921, agriculture
became a transferred subject and Provincial Governments
were granted autonomy in respect of the policy of agricul-
tural development in their provinces. The Central Govern-
ment, however, still concerns itself with agricultural problems
of all-India importance and maintains the following insti-
tutions under the administrative control of the Agricultural
Adviser to the Government of India :
No. Name of Institute.

I. Agricultural Research Institute,
Pusa.

2. Imperial Institute of Veterinary

Research, Muktesar.

3. Imperial Institute of Animal

Husbandry and Dairying,
Bangalore.

4. Imperial Institute of Animal

Husbandry and Dairying,
Wellington.

5. Cattle Breeding Farm,

Karnal.

6. Anand Creamery.

7. Sugarcane Breeding Station,

Coimbatore.

8. Sugar Bureau, Pusa.

Aims and object of the Institute.

Fundamental research and post-
graduate training in' general
agriculture, plant breeding, agri-
cultural chemistry, mycology,
entomology and agricultural
bacteriology.

Research in animal diseases, manu-
facture of sera and vaccines and
training in veterinary technique.

Investigation and training in subjects
relating to cattle breeding,
dairying and animal nutrition.

Breeding of new seeding canes.

Collection and dissemination of
information on the sugar industry.

There are combined agricultural colleges and research
institutes at Cawnpore (United Provinces), Lyallpur (Punjab),
Poona (Bombay Presidency), Coimbatore (Madras Presi-
dency), Nagpur (Central Provinces), and Mandalay (Burma).

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 149

The remaining four provinces have got only research labora-
tories.

Besides Government Departments, there are two semi-
Government institutions which carry out agricultural and
technological research. The one is the Indian Central
Cotton Committee, Bombay, which is a corporate body
charged with the promotion of all measures which will tend
to further the improvement of the cotton growing industry.
It has funds of its own got from the Indian Cotton Cess.
The other is the Institute of Plant Industry at Indore estab-
lished in 1924 for the study of cotton and other crops.

The following private organizations have got scientific
departments to carry out researches on plantation crops in
which they are interested :

(a) Indian Tea Association (Research Station at Tocklai,

P. O. Cinnamara, Assam).

(b) United Planters' Association of South India.

(c) Indian Lac Association (Research Station at

Ranchi).

Some of the major Indian States, e.g., Mysore, Travan-
core and Baroda maintain small agricultural departments of
their own.

Economic Work on Crops. The Indian cultivator is essen-
tially a grower of crops, but he rarely devotes any attention
to the selection of seed. Seed merchants in the European
sense do not exist in India and the Departments of Agricul-
ture have, therefore, had to play, on a considerable scale,
the part of seed merchants. They have evolved improved
varieties and strains by selection and cross-breeding, pro-
pagated the seed of these improved varieties and built up an
organization for their distribution. The area sown with
improved seed last year is reckoned to have exceeded 7 million
acres. The want of attention in the past to the variety and
quality of the seed sown has resulted in a low level of produc-
tion and a lack of uniformity in the produce. By the

150 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA.

introduction of pure strains of seed evolved by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, the acreage yield has been increased
and the quality improved. Of the crops improved by the
Department, cotton, wheat, rice, sugarcane, groundnut,
tobacco and jute are the most important.

The interests of Indian growers and spinners alike
demand that a larger portion of the cotton produced in the
country should be of a type generally acceptable to the
cotton spinners of the world." The aim of the Department
has, therefore, been to improve the quality of the lint as
regards staple and grade. A great measure of success has
been achieved in this direction, and the improved strains
introduced were, in 1925-26, sown in an area of over three
million acres, which represent nearly 12 per cent, of the
total area under cotton. The development of the cotton
industry in India owes much to the Indian Central Cotton
Committee which has done much to co-ordinate research
work on cotton, to check adulteration, and to improve
marketing facilities.

One of the most successful pieces of work on wheat
improvement has been the isolation of higher yielding and
rust-resisting varieties of good milling and baking qualities.
The area of improved wheats now under cultivation is about
2 million acres.

India is the largest exporter of rice in the world; three-
fourths of the rice exported are contributed by Burma where
the department has selected varieties to meet the special
requirements of the foreign market.

Although sugarcane is grown on an area of about 2
million acres, India was obliged last year to import over
700,000 tons of white sugar, at a cost of 10 million sterling.
The necessity of importing such a large quantity of sugar is
partly due to the fact that the average yield of the canes
cultivated in India is probably the lowest in the world. The
hope of effecting an improvement in outturn has received

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 151

a remarkable stimulus from the work of the Imperial Cane-
breeding Station at Coimbatore. At this station entirely
new varieties have been bred which have in some tracts
given twice the yield ordinarily obtained from the local
varieties grown under exactly similar conditions. Moreover,
varieties have been evolved which are suitable for varying
conditions of soil and climate.

In the yield of tea great improvement has been effected
by the expert staff employed by the Indian Tea Association.

The introduction of early-maturing varieties of high oil-
content has led to a rapid extension of groundnut cultivation
in certain provinces. The area of nearly four million acres
now under this crop is more than double that of 7 years ago.

As regards tobacco the position is that while India
imports 8 million Ibs. at a cost of 1 million sterling, the
38 million Ibs. exported fetch only about of a million ster-
ling. This is due to the fact that indigenous varieties culti-
vated give a somewhat coarse leaf of poor quality. If a
tobacco possessing the colour, flavour and texture of that
which is commonly called Virginian can be grown and cured
in India, there is every possibility of building up an export
trade with Great Britain and of meeting, at the same time,
the local demand for a tobacco of this quality. Some of the
American tobaccos now under trial have given promising
results : crosses between them and indigenous varieties are
under trial at Pusa,

In the production of jute India enjoys a monopoly. To
the improvement of this crop much attention has been given
in Bengal where the bulk of the jute produced in India is
grown. Strains have been selected which give considerably
larger yields than the varieties commonly grown; of these
strains large quantities of seed are now being given out to
the growers.

Cattle-breeding. In Indian Agriculture cattle should play
a larger part than they do in most countries, for the ox is

152 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA.

the draught animal used on the farms, and milk is one of the
most highly prized foods consumed by the people. Cattle-
breeding and dairying have, nevertheless, been neglected in
the past to a greater extent than any other important branch
of husbandry. It does not pay to rear cattle purely for
draught purposes except in backward tracts where grazing
is plentiful. In the more prosperous tracts, the cultivator
finds it cheaper to buy than to rear the bullocks: he keeps
she-buffaloes to supply him with milk. The Imperial and
Provincial Departments of Agriculture are devoting con-
siderable attention to the improvement by selection and
better feeding of breeds, the males of which possess good
draught qualities and the females useful milking qualities.

With a view to producing still more profitable dairy
cattle the cows of the dual-purpose breeds kept on some of
the Government farms are being crossed with imported
Ayrshire and Holstein bulls with the object of producing first
class dairy cows. The extent to which the milking capacity
of cows has been increased by selection and mating with such
bulls may be gathered from the fact that while an average
village cow of a non-milch breed gives about 800 Ibs. of
milk in a lactation period and an average cow of a milch
breed about 2,000 Ibs., improved cows on Government farms
are now giving up to 7,000 Ibs. and cross-bred cows up to
12,000 in a lactation period.

The Agricultural Departments are also devoting a good
deal of attention to the cultivation and storage of fodder
crops. In the past the cultivator used to depend on grazing
areas for the provision of food for his cattle, but the ever-
increasing pressure on the land has brought about a reduc-
tion of such areas and the consequent necessity for growing
fodder crops for cattle.

Veterinary Work. In India cattle diseases are rampant ;
of these rinderpest is by far the most formidable. Progress
has been made by the Veterinary Department in devising

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 153

satisfactory methods of controlling this and other diseases by
means of inoculation. The serum used is produced at the
Imperial Institute of Veterinary Research at Muktesar.

Tillage and Manuring. The Indian cultivator possesses
a fairly intimate though limited knowledge of the main essentials
of his own business. The implements he uses are simple and
inexpensive but they are not very efficient. The principal imple-
ments used for tillage are the wooden plough and the clod
crusher. The plough is defective in so far as it merely stirs the
soil without inverting it. Crops are cut by the sickle and
threshing is done by cattle treading out the grain. Irrigation
water is raised by man-power where the lift is small, in other
cases by bullocks. Though much of the cultivated land in India
is naturally fertile, the soil over large areas has been impoverished
as a result of its being cropped year after year without manure.
Various kinds of natural and artificial manures have been tested
on Government farms and a small demand for them created by
demonstrating their use in villages. The demand for fertilizers
is on the increase. In 1925-26, 42,159 tons of fertilizers were
imported into India by sea as against 7,414 tons five years ago.
A large proportion of the fertilizers used goes to tea and coffee
plantations, but larger quantities are now being applied also to
such valuable crops as sugarcane, cotton and tobacco.

Agricultural Implements and Machinery. It is held by
engineers well-acquainted with agricultural conditions in India
that the development of agriculture is likely to be of a very
restricted character in this country unless it connotes the appli-
cation of the resources of mechanical engineering to the tilling
ot the soil, the supply of irrigation water, the harvesting of the
crops, their transport to factories and to the machinery for con-
verting them into finished, or at any rate, easily marketable
products. In India we are now at the transition stage between
manual and mechanical power on the farm. The relatively low
standard of cultivation attained in India is largely the result of:

154 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA.

the inefficiency of the country (deshi) plough; this plough, in-
efficient though it is, is used for several operations for each of
which special implements are used in more advanced countries.
The improved iron ploughs now in use in India are the handi-
work of engineers who have devoted much time and thought to
their evolution. The obstacles in the way of introducing them
on a large scale are the initial cost and the inefficiency of the
bullock as a draught animal ; still an ever-increasing demand for
such ploughs has already been created. There is already a large
demand in India, too, for iron cane mills and some demand for
power pumps, winnowers, reaping machines, fodder cutters,
threshers, hoes and harrows. It is believed that within the next
20 years the demand for improved implements required for the
better cultivation of the land will be enormous; the annual
demand for ploughs alone may run into hundreds of thousands.
The demand, too, for motor vehicles for transport purposes is
likely to increase very rapidly. To foster and stimulate the
existing demand the Departments of Agriculture are already
doing a good deal. They are demonstrating the working of
approved implements and machines in the villages. They dis-
play them at agricultural shows and ploughing matches. They
stock them for sale and in some cases for hire at depots on
Government farms. They are organising their sale through co-
operative societies, and in some provinces they are giving pecuniary
assistance in the shape of taccavi (Government loans) for their
purchase.

Agricultural Education. There are six agricultural
colleges in the provinces, but very few of the students wfc>
seek admission to these colleges do so with a view to taking
up farming. The bulk of those trained so far have been pro-
vided for in the agricultural services of their province and any
diminution in recruitment to the services in a province is at
once reflected in a decline in the number of candidates for
admission to the agricultural college. This is due to the fact
that the outside demand for trained men is small, the rural

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 155

areas are backward educationally and the average landowner
takes but little interest in the practical side of agriculture.

Most of the education given in primary and middle schools
in rural areas, is, unfortunately, unsuitable from the cultivator's
point of view. It tends to alienate the sympathy of the pupil
from the land and to unfit him for farming as a vocation. It is
divorced from practice. Experiments in adapting education in
rural schools to rural needs, have within the last seven years
been made in two or three provinces, but more especially in the
Punjab where agriculture has been added to the curriculum of
rural middle schools with the aim of giving the boys a bias to-
wards farming as an occupation. The object in view is to give
the boys an intelligent outlook on, rural life, and to interest
them in agriculture and its possibilities.

In some provinces special agricultural schools have been
opened for boys of from 13 to 14 years of age. These schools
aim definitely at training boys inj the theory and practice of
agriculture; they are in short, vocational in character.

Agricultural Co-operation. Agriculture in India like
every other industry requires a constant infusion of new capital,
but unlike most other industries it is not .in a position to appeal
to the public for its requirements. At the same time its need is
greater because the industry, broadly speaking, is much under-
capitalised. Considerable progress has been made in the pro-
vinces in providing better credit facilities for the cultivator, but
little has been done to establish co-operative societies for the
marketing of agricultural produce and for the purchase and
supply of agricultural requisites. In most provinces the
relationship between the agricultural and co-operative departments
is becoming increasingly close but it is not yet as close as it
ought to be.

X.

IRRIGATION IN INDIA.*

Meteorological Conditions and Rainfall. No review of
irrigation in India, however brief, would be complete without
some reference to the meteorological conditions which render
such irrigation necessary.

The chief characteristics of the Indian rainfall are its
unequal distribution over the country, its irregular distribu-
tion throughout the seasons and its liability to failure or
serious deficiency. The normal annual rainfall varies from
460 inches at Cherrapunji in the Assam hills to less than three
inches in Upper Sind. The greatest rainfall actually measured
at any station in any one year was 905 inches, recorded at
Cherrapunji in 1861, while at stations in Upper Sind it has
been "nil. There are thus portions of t'he country which
suffer as much from excessive rainfall as others do from
drought.

The second important characteristic of the rainfall is its
unequal distribution throughout the seasons. Except in the
south-east of the peninsula, where the heaviest precipitation
is received from October to December, by far the greater
portion of the rain falls during the south-west monsoon,
between June and October. During the winter months the
rainfall is comparatively small, the normal amount varying
from half an inch to two inches, while t'he hot weather, from
March to May or June, is practically rainless. Consequently
it happens that in one season of the year the greater part of

* Abstracted from the Triennial Reviews of Irrigation in India, pub-
lished by the Government of India. The Review for 1918 1921 gives a
full account of the subject.

( 57 )

158 IRRIGATION IN INDIA.

India is deluged with rain and iis the scene of most wonderful
and rapid growth of vegetation; in another period the same
tract becomes a dreary, sunburnt waste.

But from the agricultural point of view undoubtedly the
most unsatisfactory feature of the Indian rainfall as its
liability to failure or serious deficiency. The average annual
rainfall over the whole country is about 45 inches and there
is -but little variation from this average from year to year,
the greatest recorded being only about seven inches. But if
separate tracts are considered, extraordinary variations are
found. At many stations annual rainfalls of less t'han half the
average are not uncommon, while at some less than a quarter
of the normal amount has been recorded in a year of extreme
drought.

The effect of these variations, as productive of famine
and scarcity, differs considerably according to the average
rainfall of the tract, being least in those parts where the
average is either very high or very low. Where the average
rainfall is high, a large deficiency can be experienced and yet
sufficient water remains to ensure successful agriculture;
where the average is very low, ten inches or less, cultivation
without irrigation and agriculture consequently ceases to
depend upon the rainfall and relies wholly upon water obtained
from other sources. In portions of such tracts which are
devoted to pasturing cattle, high prices or the drying up of
the natural grasses may lead to distress, but famine from
failure of crops need not be apprehended. But between these
extremes, in which the crops are rendered safe either by an
assured and abundant rainfall or by exclusive reliance upon
irrigation, there lies a vast area, in which the average rainfall
varies between 75 and 10 inches, no portion of which can be
deemed absolutely secure against the uncertainties of the
season and the scourge of famine.

Frequency of Years of Scarcity. Classing a year in which
the deficiency is 25 per cent, as a dry year and one in which

IRRIGATION IN INDIA. 159

it is 40 per cent, as a year of severe drought, the examination
of past statistics shows that, over the precarious area, one
year in five may be expected to be dry year and one in ten
a year of severe drought. It is largely sin order to remove
the menace of these years that the great irrigation systems
of India have been constructed.

The Precarious Area. In general it has been found that
the lower the rainfall in a tract, t'he greater is its liability to
serious deficiency from the average, and the most precarious
area is that in which the normal rainfall is less than 50
inches. This area includes practically the whole of the
Punjab and the North West Frontier Province, the United
Provinces except the sub-montane districts, Sind, a large
portion of Bihar, most of Madras, most of the Bombay
Presidency except a strip along the coast, portions of the
Central Porvinces and a small tract in Burma. It is in this
area t'hat the principal -irrigation works in India are to be
found.

Water Supply. There are, however, other factors which
govern the introduction of irrigation, the most important
being an adequate water supply. The high-lying rocky
plateau, which forms the interior of the peninsula, is very
unfavourably situated in this respect, having an uncertain
rainfall, rivers which, for much of the year, are nearly dry, a
scanty population and but little agriculture as compared with
that which flourishes in the alluvial tracts. Something has
been done, by the construction of reservoirs, to conserve the
monsoon rainfall and extend its benefits over the other seasons
of the year, but by far the greater portion of the central
plateau must, for want of water, remain for ever unirrigated.

The Government irrigation works of Indlia may be
divided dnto two main classes, those provided with artificial
storage, and those dependent throughout the year on the
natural supplies of the rivers from which they have their
origin.

160 IRRIGATION IN INDIA.

Storage Works. The expedient of storing water in the
monsoon for utilization during the subsequent dry weather
has been practised in India from time immemorial. In their
simplest form, such storage works consist of an earthen
embankment constructed across a valley or depression, behind
which*the water collects, and those under Government control
range from small tanks irrigating only a few acres each to
the huge reservoirs now under construction in the Deccan
which will be capable of storing over 20,000 million cubic feet
of water. By gradually allowing water to escape from a
work of the latter type, a supply can be maintained long
after the river on which the reservoir is situated would other-
wise be dry and useless.

Non-storage Works. In actual fact, practically every
irrigation work depends upon storage of one kind or another
but, in many cases, this is provided by nature without man's
assistance. In Northern India, t'he snowfields and glaciers of
the Himalayas hold up water on a scale which man cannot
hope to rival. The storage afforded by soil absorption is, of
course, very limited and consequently, throughout the penin-
sula proper, artificial storage is necessary if a continuous
supply of water is to be assured, except in the case of the
very largest rivers where the catchments are so great that
the drainage from them is sufficient to maintain a supply,
albeit usually a very meagre one throughout the year. Thus,
for example, the Kistna, which drains nearly fOO,000 square
miles of country and discharges :in flood time one and a
quarter million cubic feet of water a second, dwindles during
the hot weather to a small stream, winding among sandbanks
and carrying a quite inconsiderable volume. It is conse-
quently in Northern India, upon the Himalayan rivers, and in
Madras, where the cold weather rains are even heavier than
those of the south-west monsoon, that the principal non-
storage systems are found.

Perennial and Inundation Canals. The canals which rely
solely upon the natural flow of the rivers for their supplies may

IRRIGATION IN INDIA. 161

be divided into two main types, perennial canals and inunda-
tion canals. Perennial canals are provided with some arrange-
ment in the vicinity of their heads, usually in the form of
an obstruction across the bed of the parent stream, by means
of which they are enabled to obtain their supplies irrespective
of the level of the water in the river. The water is, by
means of this obstruction, ponded up to the height required
in the canal, and seasonal fluctuations in the water level in
the river are thus counteracted. The obstruction usually
takes the form of a weir or barrage fitted with shutters and
sluices whereby surplus water, not needed in the canal, can
be escaped down the river.

Inundation Canals. Inundation Canals, on the contrary,
have no such weirs and their supplies fluctuate with the
natural water level in the river. When this rises, the level
in the canal rises, when it falls, the level in the canal falls
with it. Generally speaking, inundation canals obtain a supply
only when the parent stream is in flood and the adequacy or
otherwise of this supply, and therewith the area irrigable in
the year in question, is consequently solely dependent upon
the seasonal conditions. There may be an ample volume in
the niver but, in the absence of any method of raising its
level, it cannot be forced into the canal until the water rises,
of its own accord, to a sufficient height.

It may possibly be asked why, in view of the advantages
to be obtained thereby, all canals have not been made peren-
nial. The answer is: expense. The majority of and by far
the most important inundation canals are to be found in Sind
and the Punjab on the Indus and Sutlej rivers. The task of
harnessing these great rivers has not yet been taken in hand,
it is now proposed to construct a barrage across the Indus, at
a cost of Rs. 569 lakhs, and four across the Sutlej at a cost
of Rs. 384 lakhs, and by linking up a number of the existing
inundation canals to each barrage, to afford to them an as-
sured and controlled supply. It is fully recognised that

162 IRRIGATION IN INDIA.

tinundation irrigation cannot be regarded as other than at*
inefficient substitute for perennial irrigation and steps are now
being taken, wherever possible to supersede it by the latter
class.

Productive, Protective and Minor Works. For the pur-
pose of determining the source from which the funds for the con-
struction of Government works are provided, they are divided
into three classes, productive, protective, and minor works.
Of these only productive works might, under the rules in
force up to the end of the triennium, be financed -from loans.
The main criterion to be satisfied before a work can be
classed as productive is that it shall, within ten years of the
completion of construction, produce sufficient revenue to
cover its working expenses and the interest charges on its
capital cost. Most of the largest irrigation systems in India
belong to the productive class.

Protective works are constructed primarily with a view
to the protection of precarious tracts and to guard against the
necessity for periodical expenditure on the relief of the
population in times of famine.

It is difficult to define the class of minor works other-
wise than by saying that works not classified either as pro-
ductive or protective are classified as minor works. They
include many of the inundation canals which take off from the
Indus and its tributaries in the Punjab and Sind, some of
them being of very considerable size and importance, a number
of old irrigation works and flood protective embankments in
Burma, many small tanks, storage reservoirs and canals or
groups of canals scattered throughout the country and lastly,.
and collectively the most important, some 47,000 minor tanks
and petty irrigation works in the Madras Presidency. Nearly
a third of the whole area irrigated in India from Government
works is effected by these minor works.

There has, during the last forty years, been a steady
growth in t'he area irrigated by Government irrigation works.

IRRIGATION IN INDIA. 163

From 10J million acres in 1878-79 the area annually irrigated
rose to 19J million acres at the beginning of the century and
.to 28 million acres in 1922-23, the record year up to date, from
which figure it fell again to 261 million acres in 1923-24. The
main increase has been in the class of productive works, which
irrigated 4J million acres in 1878-79, 10 million acres in 1900-01
and 18f million acres in 1919-20. The area irrigated by the
protective works has increased, in the same period, from nil
to over three quarters of a million acres, that by minor works
from 6 million to 8 million acres.

Future Development. Some idea of the probable future
development of irrigation can be obtained from the forecasts
appended to the project estimate of the works now under
construction and awaiting sanction. The area irrigated in
1922-23 was, as has already been stated, over 28J million acres.
Schemes completed but which have not yet reached their full
development are expected to add about 100,000 acres to this
total while works under construction will further enhance it
by 2\ million acres. Projects have also been submitted to the
Secretary of State for sanction which, if constructed, will add
another 4f million acres ; a total eventual area in British India
of about 36 million acres is thus at present contemplated from
works sanctioned or awaiting sanction, irrespective of the
natural extension of existing areas and of new projects, of
which several are under construction, which may be put for-
ward in future.

The figures given above are exclusive of the areas irrigated
from the Punjab canals by branches constructed for Indian
States, which amounted in 1919-20 to 650,000 acres. The
Sutlej Valley Project will add nearly 3 million acres to this
area, so that a gross total of some 40 million acres from
'Government works is confidently looked to.

Mileage of Channels. Perhaps, however, the easiest way
of visualizing the growth of irrigation is by reference to the

164 IRRIGATION IN INDIA.

*

(

mileage of channels. In 1900-01, 39,142 miles of Government
channels were in operation; by 1920-21 this length had in-
creased to 55,202 miles, a length more than sufficient to girdle
the earth twice. This connotes an average addition of about
800 miles of channels every year.

Financial Returns. Finally, the general financial returns
may be looked at. The total capital invested in the works
'has arisen from Rs. 4,236 lakhs in 1900-01 to Rs. 7,861 lakhs
in 1920-21, an average increase of Rs. 180 lakhs a year. As
regards revenue, the Government irrigation works in India,
taken as a whole, yield a return of from 7 to 8 per cent,
on the capital invested in them; this is a satisfactory result
as Rs. 1,173 lakhs of the total have been spent on protective
works, which return less than 1 per cent, and Rs. 703 lakhs
on minor works, the yield from which varies between 4 and 6
per cent. The capital outlay also includes expenditure on a
number of large works under construction, which have not
yet commenced to earn revenue. It follows that, besides
increasing the yield of the crops, making agriculture possible
in tracts where, without an assured supply of water, nothing
would grow and protecting large areas from famine and
scarcity, the irrigation works of India form also a remunera-
tive investment for the funds sunk in them.

Brief Mention of Projects. The practice of drawing off
the flood waters of the Indus for the irrigation of Sind and
parts of the western Punjab 'has been followed from a very
early date. In the sub-montane districts of northern India are
sometimes to be found vestiges of ancient irrigating channels
which have been buried for centuries in the undergrowth of
the forests. There are also a certain number of old indigenous
tanks and river works in Burma. Little, however, was done
in t'he construction of large works before the country came
under British rule. There are, however, exceptions the most
notable being the Grand Anicut across the Cauvery in Madras,

IRRIGATION IN INDIA. 165

two canals from the Jumna which were the origin of the
present Western and Eastern Jumna canals and the Hasli
canal from the Ravi which has been replaced by the Upper
Bari Doab Canal.

Early engineering works under the British chiefly took
the form of improvements of these existing works. The
Cauvery Delta system was taken in hand in 1836 and now
irrigates over one million acres in the district of Tanjore.
The Western Jumna canal was remodelled in 1873 ; it now has
2,000 miles of main canals and irrigates nearly a million acres.
The Eastern Jumna canal also reconstructed irrigates about
400,000 acres of the Doab (land between the Jumna and
Ganges).

Since these days innumerable new canals have been con-
structed, many of them projects of the greatest magnitude.
Even the large systems are too numerous for even the
briefest description in the space here available, but some may
be mentioned.

In the Ganges Valley are the Ganges Canal (one million
and a half acres), the Lower Ganges Canal (over one million
acres), the Agra Canal, the Sarda Canal, the Oudh Canal and
many smaller systems.

In the Punjab are the western Jumna (819,000), the
Upper Bari Doab (over one million), the Sirhind Canal
(1,700,000 acres), t'he Lower Chenab (2,395,000 acres), the
Sidhnai. Lower Jhelum, Upper Sutlej and the Triple Canals
Project. The last mentioned is a gigantic work which carries
the surplus water of the Jhelum River first into the Chenab
River, from thence to a level crossing over the Ravi River
and finally into the Lower Bari Doab Canal. It commands
3,997,000 acres or 6,250 square miles. These great systems in
the Punjab do not merely irrigate land already under cultiva-
tion but convert almost uninhabited tracts into the so-called
Internal or Canal Colonies.

166 IRRIGATION IN INDIA.

In Sind are the Desert, Unharwah, Begari canals on the
right bank, and the Eastern Nara, Jamrao, Sukker Canals
and others on the left bank.

In Bombay irrigation has largely taken the form of
artificial storage. The Mutha Canal at Poona was the first
<canal in India with a high dam. The reservoir is Lake Fife
(named after Col. Fife, the Engineer) which is six square
miles in area and stores 4,000 million cubic feet of water. A
similar project is t'he Chaukapur Tank in which the dam is
140 feet high. The Bhandardara Dam is 270 feet high and
creates Lake Arthur Hill which has a capacity of 10,800
million cubic feet.

In Madras great developments in irrigation have taken
place. Besides the Cauvery is the Godaveri Delta System
which has 2,000 miles of distributaries and irrigates about one
million acres. On this system is the Gunnaram Aqueduct
carrying the canal over a branch of the Godaveri. The aque-
duct is of 49 spans, each of 40 feet water-way carrying a
channel 24 feet wide. The Kistna Delta system takes off at
Bezwada and irrigates 700,000 acres. The Peryar system
diverts a large river which would normally flow into the
Arabian Sea into an entirely different drainage basin. This is
accomplished by a dam, the Peryar Dam, 173 feet in height and
a tunnel to take the water across the watershed. The Peryar
Lake formed by the dam holds 15,661 million cubic feet, of
which 9,176 can be used for irrigation.

Attached are tables giving the areas irrigated by Govern-
ment works in the different provinces. As regards the
Punjab there is nothing to approach it anywhere in the world.

IRRIGATION IN INDIA.

167

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XI.

ARCHAEOLOGY.

A COMPLETE account, even in abstract, of the Archaeology
of India cannot here be given, but some help and guidance
to the stranger to India may be contained in the following
references to some of the more obvious Archaeological
features of India. A reference to the brief history of India
given in Section II will explain many of the terms used such
as Mauryan, Gupta, Moghul, etc. Knowledge of the pre-
historic Chalcolithic period of India is entirely recent.

Chalcolithic Age. It was formerly believed that no
building or architectural remains in India were much older than
the period of the Mauryan Empire (300 B.C.)- Recent inves-
tigations by the Archaeological Department of the Government
of India under Sir John Marshall have, however, brought to
light buried cities and a civilisation of an antiquity equal to those
of Egypt and Babylonia. These evidences relate to what is
known as the Chalcolithic age (Copper-stone Culture). Evidences
of the Chalcolithic culture are known from a wide area including,
besides the recently discovered evidences in north India, Egypt,
Syria, Palestine, Thrace, Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Persia,
Baluchistan and Transcaspia. Formerly the prehistoric civilisa-
tion on the Indus, owing to its close connection with the
Sumerian civilisation of Mesopotamia was termed " Indo-
Sumerian." But though certain features exist in common it is
now considered by Sir John Marshall that these indicate only
intimate commercial or other intercourse and that the " Indus "
civilisation was distinct.

The " Indus " civilisation is known to have extended over
Baluchistan and Waziristan, as well as over Sind and the Punjab,
and there is evidence to show that it also extended eastwards'

( 169 )

170 ARCHEOLOGY.

over Cutch and Kathiawar towards the Deccan. That there was
a contemporary civilisation on the banks of the Ganges is
considered by Sir John Marshall almost certain, but it is hardly
probable he thinks that this was of precisely the same character
as that on the Indus.

The most important excavations of the " Indus " civilisation
are at Mohenjo-daro on the Indus and at Harappa in the Punjab.
Mohenjo-daro is between 4 and 5 miles from the present bank
of the Indus and 8 miles from the railway station of Dokri in
the Larkana District of Upper Sincl. The mounds embrace an
area of 250 acres, but parts of the older cities must be below the
present level of the soil. Trial shafts and trenches have shown
that there exist at least 6 strata of buildings one above the other,
the lowest being now 30 feet below the level of the surrounding
plain. Sir John Marshall gives as a probable date for the upper
three cities, which are those so far most fully explored, 3300 to
2700 B.C.

Harappa is in the Montgomery District of the Punjab in a
region that before modern irrigation schemes altered the character
of the country was practically desert. Some of the remains
found here are even older than those at Mohenjo-daro.

An exhibition of articles recovered from these excavations
was recently given in Simla by the Archaeological Department
from which the above very brief description has been taken.
More complete accounts will be found in the Annual Reports of
the Archaeological Survey of India.

Pre-Mauryan and Mauryan. Between the remains of
the Chalcolithic age and the earliest known relics of the historic
period is a gap of 2,000 years. Of such relics the earliest are
those of the time of the Mauryan Empire or somewhat previous
to this (say 500 B.C. to 100 A.D.). Among evidences of this
period are the pillars and rock inscriptions of Asoka. Of the
pillars (monolithic columns) there are nearly 30 known of which
10 carry inscriptions. One of the most perfect is that found at
Sarnath near Benares. Another is in the Fort at Allahabad and
still another, brought from Topra on the bank of the Jumna, is

Pi, ATE A.

TOWER OF VICTORY.

ARCHEOLOGY.

now seen as a prominent landmark in the Feroz Shah Kotila at
Delhi. This has inscriptions of several periods but the original-
one in Pali is an edict of Asoka.

The capital of the Mauryan Empire was Pataliputra, near
modern Patna, where recent excavation by the Archaeological
Department has revealed a portion of the famous wooden palisade-
city wall. Megasthenes, the Greek Ambassador from Seleucus
to Chandragupta's court (about 300 B.C.) described the city as
9 miles long and one and a half miles in breadth protected by a
massive timber palisade pierced by 64 gates and crowned by
570 towers. A portion of this wall has now been opened up
for a total distance of 700 feet by the Department. It is
14 i feet in breadth and hollow inside, its inner and outer walls-
being constructed of heavy .upright timbers spaced at intervals
about equal to their breadth. The passage was roofed over with
heavy beams laid across the top.

At Bhita, 11 miles from Allahabad, excavations by the
Archaeological Department have revealed the existence of a
prehistoric site which was a fortified city from Mauryan times
to the Gupta epoch. The city is surrounded by an earthen
rampart surmounted by a brick wall 11 feet in thickness with
bastions and guard houses. Nearly all the interior of the fort
which has so far been excavated is divided up into well defined
blocks by roads and narrow alleys. The most modern of the
buildings are of the Gupta period and are characterised by the
smallncss of their rooms and the poorness of their construction.
Below these were structures of the early Gupta or Kushan
period constructed from materials from earlier buildings. These
latter are of Mauryan age. Anterior to these (700800 B.C.)
are well made floors of concrete and burnt clay. The houses of
the Maurya and Kushan period are large structures having on
an average 12 rooms on the ground floor arranged round a
courtyard. The upper stories were probably of wood and roofs
were protected by terra cotta tiles. They resemble the dwellings
of the Buddhist monasteries which were presumably copied from
the domestic houses of the period. In the streets are shops with
a raised platform as seen in bazaars in India at the present day.

172 ARCHEOLOGY.

Coins from the north and from Andhra and other kingdoms have
been recovered as also terra cotta statues, figurines, etc., copper
and earthenware vessels and goldsmiths' utensils, toilet boxes
of steatite and marble and personal ornaments. With these are
celts and stone implements of neolithic culture type, evidences
of the occupation of the site by surrounding jungle tribes after
destruction of the city.

Characteristic of the Mauryan period are the early Buddhist
remains. Buddha lived in the reign of Bimbusara of the Sisanuga
dynasty, his death being given as 487 B.C. In Maurya times
Asoka greatly helped to extend and established the religion. The
buildings, etc., referable to this period are Topes, Stupas,
Buddhist Monasteries, etc. One of the most perfect is the great
tope of Sanchi near Bhopal which members will have an oppor-
tunity of seeing. Such buildings usually consist of the central
stupa surrounded by massive stone railings with gates which are
elaborately sculptured. The date of the stupa at Sanchi is that
of Asoka but the railings and gateways have been shown by
recent explorations to date 150 to 200 years later. The monu-
ments at Sanchi constitute the largest and most important of
several groups of Buddhist monuments situated in the neigh-
bourhood of the ancient city of Vidisa (near the modern Bhilsa)
and are often referred to as the " Bhilsa Topes." From the
Buddhist stupas at Bharhut (between Allahabad and Jubbulpore
many sculptures may be seen in the Indian Museum, Calcutta,
Bharhut Gallery). Sarnath, 4 miles from Benares, is where
Buddha preached; there is a stupa of later date and many
archaeological features of interest including a museum for display
of smaller relics found. The temple of Buddha Gaya, 7 miles
south of Gaya, is another famous early Buddhist structure.

The earlier of the Cave Temples so characteristic of western
India belong to this period, e.g., the cave temples of Barabar,
16 miles from Gaya which are among the earliest known examples
having been excavated by Asoka and his grand-son Dasaratha,
the caves of Karli, Bhaja and Bedsa near Malavli on the Bombay-
Poona line (100200 B.C.), certain of the caves at Nasik
(23 caves, 100 B.C. 100 A.D.) and No. 9 cave at Ajanta.

B,

AT MADURA,

ARCHEOLOGY. 173

Associated with these temples (chaityas) were usually viharas or
monastery quarters.

Taxila. On the north-west frontier are remains known
as Gandharan, ruined monasteries and buried stupas, etc., yielding
sculptures having a strong Greek influence. Many of these
belong to the Kushan period (Kanishka, about 125 A.D.) or
earlier. The buried cities of Taxila (1st century B.C.) in
particular have recently yielded much valuable material to
exploration by the Archaeological Department under Sir John
Marshall. The remains of Taxila occupy an area of some 25 sq.
miles and include 3 cities, one forming the Bhir mound, the most
ancient, one known as Sirkap, a Scytho- Parthian city, and a third
called Sirsukh (2nd century) probably founded by Kanishka.

Besides the buildings and streets of these extensive buried
cities there are in the same neighbourhood many structures of
archaeological interest including Buddhist stupas, etc., of various
ages, such as the Dharmarajika stupa (1st century B.C.), Kunala
stupa (1st century A.D.), Mohra Maradu stupa (2nd century
A.D.).

Peshawar was the capital of Gandhara and of the Kushan
empire and at Peshawar is the largest stupa in India (mound of
Shahjikidheri). This period represents the rise of the Mahayana
(greater vehicle) form of Buddhism.

Gupta and Mediaeval Periods. Buddhist stupas, monas-
teries and other remains including bas-relief sculptures have
been obtained at Amravati (Amravati stupa and bas-reliefs) on
the south bank of the Kistna River near Bezwada (former
capital of Andhra). The remains have for the most part been
removed to the British and Madras Museums. More recent
finds have been made on an extensive scale at Gummadidurru
(Kistna District) and at Nagarjunikonda (Guntur District),
the former being of the Amaravati school of sculpture which
from an artistic point of view is the most attractive of all the
early Indian schools.

Of a later period are imposing monuments recently excavated
by the Archaeological Department at Nalanda and Paharpur.

174 ARCHEOLOGY.

Nalanda (Bihar) was a Buddhist University which flourished
from the 7th to the llth century. The finding of copper and
bronze images of the 8th or 9th century with several figures of
Hindu deities shows to what extent Brahmanism had then
encroached upon the preserves of Buddhism. At Paharpur
(Rajshahi) is a temple of immense size with Brahmanical and
Buddhistic sculptures.

From about the 3rd to the 13th century belong many
of the remarkable cave temples of the western parts of India.
At Kanheri in Salsette near Bombay are 109 caves (200
800 A.D.). At Ellora near Daulatabad are 12 Buddhist (350
750 A.D.), 17 Brahmanical (600700 A.D.), and 5 Jain (700
1200 A.D.) cave temples. These caves at Ellora are perhaps the
most remarkable of all the cave temples including the marvellous.
Kailasa Temple, a complete temple 164 feet long, 109 feet broad
and 96 feet high standing in a court 276 feet long, 154 feet broad
and at some parts 100 feet high carved out of the living rock.
The caves of Ajanta, near Jalgaon and Bhusawal, are 29 in
number dating from the time of Asoka to about 600 A.D. They
are famous for their remarkable paintings which are almost if
not quite unique and of the greatest variety of subjects as well
as being of great artistic power. These paintings, now famous,
remained hidden in the Deccan jungles for nearly twelve hundred
years before they were discovered in 1816. Many other caves
of less importance occur in the west and elsewhere in India,
among which may be mentioned the comparatively late period
Cave Temples of Elephanta near Bombay.

Of later mediaeval period are the various temples in the-
northern (Indo-Aryan) and southern or Dravidian style. Of the
former type are the Durga Temple at Aiholi, Bijapur, the Great
Temple and Kadaresvara Temple and several hundreds of other
temples at Bhubaneswar in Orissa (6001200 A.D.), 30 temples
at Khajraha between Jhansi and Allahabad built by the Chandel
dynasty (Rajput) (900 1200 A.D.) of Jain and Hindu type, and
the Dilwarra temples at Mount Abu with what is said to be the
most beautiful stone carving in India (1001200 A.D.). Other
examples are seen at Nagda near Udaipur and at Girnar and

o

I

ML

ARCHEOLOGY. 175

Satrunjaya in Gujarat.. Characteristic of the Indo-Aryan
style is the curvilinear steeple divided by vertical bands
rising above the square sanctuary.

In the Dravidian style are the remarkable Seven Pagodas
(Mamallapuram) on the sea coast south of Madras City. These
temples or rathas five in number are carved not as caves but as
monolithic buildings and are unique. They date from the 7th
century and were executed by Pallava kings. The Pallava
Kailasanatha and Vaikuntha Peramal Temples at Conjeeveram
.and the Virupaksha temple at Pattaclakal near Badami in the
Dharwar area of Bombay Presidency (7th 8th century) are of
this type. Of later date is the Great Temple at Tanjore (llth
century) built by the Cholas and still later, merging into the
modern and dating from the 17th century or later, are the
Srirangam Temple at Trichinopoly, the Great Temple at Madura,
etc. These Dravidian Hindu temples are remarkable for
their extraordinary wealth of sculptured detail which gives them
a character all their own. They are built with a central shrine
surrounded by walls, one outside the other with the gateways
increasing in size as the outer walls are reached. It is these
gateways (Gopuravis) which are often the chief feature of these
temples as they appear from a distance. They rank in magnitude
with any structures in the world not excepting possibly those of

Egypt.

Besides the above are temples in the Deccan type (Chalukyan)
instanced by the temples at Hallabicl, Belur, Somnathpur, Nugge-
halli, etc., in Mysore, Ittaji, Nilanga, Buchanapalli, Warangal,
etc., in Hyderabad and at Dambal, Rattihalli, Tiliwalli and Hangal
in the Bombay Presidency.

Rajput Palaces and Forts. In north-western India
(Rajputana) a feature of great interest are the truly mediaeval
forts and palaces of the various Rajput strongholds. Many of
these will be seen passing in the train from Agra to Bombay, in
particular the huge Gwalior Fort on its precipitous hill close to
which the railway line passes (Gwalior station). Warlike and
independent, the Rajput chiefs during rivalries and wars among

176 ARCHEOLOGY.

the Mohammedan kingdoms were able, during the 14th and 15th-
century, to obtain breathing space and later to become powerful.
Famous in the critical times were the Tomars of Gwalior under
the famous Man Singh (1486 1518). The great buildings of
Chitor and Gwalior date from these times. Of these strongholds
with their palaces, often of great charm and set in wonderful
surroundings, may be mentioned the Palaces of Udaipur and Amber
(1600), Alwar and Deeg of somewhat later date, and Orcha and
Datia near Jhansi (17th century).

Indo-Mohammedan Period. The Forts, Palaces, Mosques,
Tombs and other archaeological remains of Mohammedan origin
are chiefly to be seen in northern India and since Delhi was the
capital of both the Pathan and Moghul empires most of what
is characteristic of this period is to be seen at this city or in its
neighbourhood. Nevertheless outlying provinces and kingdoms
often had special features such as are seen at Jaunpur, between
Benares and Allahabad, the capital of the Sharki dynasty (1394
1476), at Malda in Bengal near which were the old Mohammedan
capitals of Pandua and Jannatabad, and in the Deccan and south
where the kingdom of the Bahmanis (1374 1482) broke up into
the independent kingdoms of Ahmedabad, Gulbarga, Bijapur,
Golconda, etc.

Among Mohammedan structures the most famous are perhaps
the marble and sandstone palaces in the Forts at Delhi and Agra
from representations of the interior of which, with their beautiful
inlaid marble work and carved marble screens, many have directly
or indirectly derived their ideas of what an eastern harem de
luxe is like. Even more famous is the beautiful Taj Mahal.
These date from the time of the great Moghul emperors. A
description of the numerous and interesting as well as beautiful
remains of this period is impossible in the space here available but
the following gives a brief chronological note of the buildings,
cities, etc., in the north under the Delhi Kings (so-called Pathan :
period) and the Moghuls.

A relic of the invasions of the Ghazni period (999 1186) is
to be seen in the so-called representatives of the " Gates of

Q

5

&

ARCHEOLOGY. 177

. Somnath " carried off by Mahmud in his raid on the great temple
of Somnath in Gujerat. These were brought to Agra under
British rule. Of the Ghori dynasty Mu'izz-ud-din Ghori after
conquering north India left as Satrap his slave Qutb-ud-din, who
later became the first of the so-called Slave Kings. Qutb-ud-din
(120610) started the remarkable Qutb Minar seen to the south
of Delhi and the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque near this (Old Delhi,
or the Qutb). Ala-ud-din of the next or Khalji dynasty of the
Delhi kings built Siri, one of the Delhi cities of which little is left
(1303). Tughlaqabad was built by the first emperor of the 3rd
or Tuchlaq dynasty (1321). Feroz Shah's Kotila, one of the
most interesting of the old Delhi cities just outside the Delhi Gate
of the modern city, and with a pillar of Asoka built into one of
its structures as a conspicuous landmark, was built by another of
the Tuchlaq line (1354). The Kalan Musjid or Black Mosque
inside the present city also dates from this period. Most of these
show a very massive type of architecture.

Of the Moghul period there are, of Babar's time (1526 30)
two mosques at Panipat near Delhi and at Sambhal. Somewhat
later (Akbar, 15561605) are Humayun's Tomb at Delhi, the city
of Fatehpur-Sikri, the Fort at Allahabad, the Palace at Lahore
and the Red Palace at Agra. There follows (Jehangir, 160527)
the Tomb of Akbar at Sikandra, the Tomb of Anarkali at Lahore
and the I'tumad-ul-Daula Mosque at Agra. By Shahjehan
(1627 1658) was built the great Jamma Musjid and the Fort
and Palace at Delhi, the inner Fort and Palace at Agra, with the
Moti Musjid or Pearl Mosque, and the Taj Mahal. Of
Auranzeb's time there is a mosque at Lahore, a small mosque at
Benares and the Tomb at Aurangabad.

Among the most pleasing relics of the Moghuls are their
beautiful walled gardens, those of Shalimar and of Shahdara at
Lahore being perhaps best known.

Preservation of Archaeological Sites. A word may be
said on this subject. Twenty years ago the ruins round Delhi
would have been found uncared for and lying in a waste of dust
and broken stones. They are now seen in a setting of beautiful

178 ARCHEOLOGY.

sward and with gardens that are themselves a restful pleasure.
Much too that was buried has been laid bare. Elsewhere in India
too preservation of these irreplaceable monuments of ancient
times is carefully carried out. It is to Lord Curzon in the first
place that this is due and the fostering care of the Archaeological
Department.

XII.

RACIAL ETHNOLOGY.

BY

MAJOR R. B. S. SEWELL, I.M.S., IM,.S., *.z.s v
Director, Zoological Survey of India.

IT is well known that India is one of the most thickly-
populated countries in the world and that within the borders
of this comparatively small area is packed about one-fifth of
the total population of the world. Among this mass of
humanity it is not surprising that there should be a profusion
of races, having different origins and speaking different lang-
uages, and to this welter of humanity all the great races of the
world have contributed.

Circumstances affecting Racial History. In attempting
to reconstruct the early history of this area, one is handicapped
by the fact that up till now no remains of Palaeolithic man have
been discovered, and one must, therefore, rely for evidence,
on which to base one's conclusions, on the characters and dis-
tribution of the various tribes and races that are in existence
at the present time. Wave after wave of humanity has
flocked and is still flocking into this country and in many
instances the earlier inhabitants have been pushed slowly but
surely out of the more fertile areas into remote and often
inaccessible and inhospitable regions, where at the present day
small tribes still linger as evidence of and survivors from an
originally widely-spread and possibly far more prosperous
community. Oceanic islands and deep forests have ever been

180 RACIAL ETHNOLOGY.

the final refuge of these dispossessed races and around the
shores of India or in her dense forests there are, still surviv-
ing, numerous small scattered tribes such as the Andamanese
and Nicobarese of the Bay Islands, the Salons, or as they
call themselves the "Mawken" of the Mergui Archipelago
on the coast of Southern Burma, or the Veddas of Ceylon;
while in the dense forests of the Central Provinces and of
Southern India are other primitive tribes such as the Gonds of
the Central Provinces, the Bhils of Rajputana and Kathiawar,
the Todas of the Nilgiri Hills and the Santals of Orissa and
Chota, Nagpur. Each of these tribes provides us with evi-
dence of the past and where the expulsion of the early com-
munities was not complete, the caste system has stepped in
to perpetuate the evidence of their former existence and
among the lowest castes there still survive the descendants
of the original inhabitants, modified to but a little extent, if
at all, by interbreeding with the successful invader.

Situated as India is on the southern coast of the great
Asiatic continent, with the sea on both east and west and
the barrier of the Himalayan Mountains surrounding her
northern frontier, the number of points of easy access are
but few and it is but natural that the successive migrations of
races and tribes that have moulded and fashioned India into
what she is to-day, have in most instances come in through
the passes on the North-West Frontier, and that at times the
full flood of the mass-migration passed India by, only a lesser
back-wash being flung over the protecting mountain chain
into the Peninsula.

Early Civilisations. The cradle of the human race and
indeed of the whole Primate stock is, in all probability, to be
xound in the Central Asiatic Plateau, and in or near this
centre successive races of mankind appear to have evolved
and from it wave after wave has flooded outwards in all
directions. The earliest records of any civilisation in this
country are the remains that are now being excavated at

EXPLANATION OF PLATO I.

1. An Andamanese woman wearing her late husband's skull.

2. A Naga from Assam.

3. A Savara man of the Ganjam Hills (from Thurston).

4. A Nicobarese man with his scare devils.

5. Thanda Pulaya women of Cochin (from Aiyer).

1.

RACIAL ETHNOLOGY. 181

Mohenjo-daro and Harappa along the Indus Valley and those
found at Aditanallur in the Madras Presidency; the date of
the former is estimated to be about 3000 B.C. and of the
latter a little later. In these remains we have evidence of a
high state of civilisation and culture comparable to the civili-
sations of Egypt and Babylonia, but a study of {he physical
characters of these early peoples and a comparison with the
primitive tribes indicates clearly that the founders of this
culture were by no means the earliest inhabitants of this
country and probably at least two races of mankind had
preceded them ; but for the evidence of the existence of these
earlier races we have to go not to the remains of their culture
but to the actual descendants that are still living in India to-
day. In the following account of the early history of this
country I have adopted the system of classification put for-
ward by Dixon and others and based on the physical characters
and not the cultural or linguistic system of classification of
earlier workers.

Racial Origins. -The earliest stock with which we are
acquainted and possibly the earliest to reach this country was
a race the origin of which is somewhat obscure but which
appears to have been a blend of two stocks, the Proto-
Australoid and the Proto-Negroid. Of these two stocks the
former is regarded as the descendant of Neanderthal man,
the race that is so widely distributed throughout Europe iii
the early Palaeolithic period and the ancestors of the Abori-
gines of Australia and Tasmania. Of the origin of the Proto-
Negroid race but little is known ; up to the present time this
type has only been found in the Grimaldi caves of the Riviera
and in a few areas in South Africa, where the remains of
this or a very similar race, the Boskop, have been found;
but despite our lack of knowledge regarding the origin of
this blend, the evidence appears to be quite clear that the
race was widespread throughout the whole of Southern Asia
and that this long-headed dark-skinned Negroid type ex-
tended from India round the shores of Asia to Kamchatka.

182 RACIAL ETHNOLOGY.

Pre-Dravidian and Dravidian Races. Gradually these
early inhabitants of India became split up and the main body
was pushed southwards, though other descendants are to be
found in scattered tribes throughout the Indian Peninsula.
All these descendants are characterised by the possession of
a long head, with a low vault, a broad or moderately broad
flat nose, dark skin and short stature, the hair varying from
wavy to curly but never actually woolly-like that of the true
Negro. Among these descendants two subdivisions can be
detected; in the one tj^e nose is markedly broad and thi 1 *
class constitutes the wilder and less civilised tribes such as
the Savaras of Ganjam, the Thanda Pulayas of Cochin, the
Shillagas and Irulas of the South, the Gonds of the Central
Provinces, the Bhils of Rajputana and Kathiawar and the
aboriginal tribes of Chota Nagpur including the Santals that
are found also in Orissa, tribes that have been grouped
together under the term " Pre-Dravidians " ; in the second
group, which embraces the Tamils of South India and the
Veddas of Ceylon, the nose is less broad and the term " Dravi-
dian " has been applied to them but, apart from the somewhat
less breadth of the nose and the fact that these people are at
the present day rather more civilised or perhaps it would be
more correct to say less degraded than the others, there is
no evidence that they belong to a different race. It was the
descendants of this latter group that left the traces of their
comparatively high state of civilisation in the remains that
have been excavated at Aditanallur in the Madras Presi-
dency.

Palae-Alpine Race. By the time that this first race had
established itself throughout India a new type had arisen,
probably in or near the same original home of the human
family in Central Asia ; the various offshoots of the first stock
had been characterised by the possession of a long or doli-
chocephalic skull but this new race was a broad-headed one,
of a yellow coloured skin and with straight black hair. This
stock exhibited two main divisions, known respectively as

RACIAL ETHNOLOGY. 183

the Palae-Alpine, in which the nose was broad, and the
Alpine, in which it was narrow. The wave of migration of
this double stock travelled in two directions ; one went east-
wards and spread across Asia and past the Behring Straits
into America and the second travelled westwards into Europe,
" blazing the trail which was followed some thousands of
years later by the Tartar-Mongol hordes" (Dixon). Prob-
ably about the time of this westward migration an offshoot
turned southward and spread through Arabia . and then
turned east and penetrated into India, and this wave has left
its traces all along the Western and North-Western Hima-
layas, where they can still be detected in the so-called Pathan
tribes of Achakzai, Tarin and Kakar, as well as in the
Brahuis of Baluchistan. The pressure of this invasion forced
the original occupants to migrate and the main mass of the
Proto-Australoid-Proto-Negroid stock moved to the south
into Southern India and across the Pamban Pass and Adam's
Bridge into Ceylon; but a part of the older race migrated
eastward and to-day all along the Ganges Valley and still
further east we find the descendants of the broad-nosed or
" Pre-Dravidian " part of the race and especially so in the
lowest castes, the lower the caste the larger being the pro-
portion, and as examples we may cite the Chamar and Koiri,
the aborigines of Chota Nagpur and the neighbouring parts
of Bengal, the Mundas, Korwa, Mal6, Mai Pahari, etc. Along
the west coast of India the invader and invaded appear to
have mixed and interbred, for the Mahrattas, Gujratis and
the Coorgs of Western India show affinities to both the Alpine
and the Proto-Australoid-Proto-Negroid stocks.

Mediterranean Race. Still later a third great wave of
humanity appears to have flooded into India from the same
quarter, namely, the north-west. This new race, the physi-
cal characters of which are the possession of a long head,
usually extremely long, a narrow nose and a brown skin,
established itself in Western Asia and around the shores of
the Mediterranean Sea and built up a high state of civilisation

184 RACIAL ETHNOLOGY.

in Egypt and later pushed northwards into Europe, but a
branch of this stock migrated eastward through Arabia and
Turkestan, probably as far as Western China. This Mediter-
ranean race, as it is called, can be traced through Sumeria
in Mesopotamia and into the Indus Valley and in both areas
their remains are associated with those of a few individuals
of the previous Alpine or Palae-Alpine broad-headed stock,
so that it is at present doubtful whether the culture and civili-
sation of Mohenjo-daro Harappa, the oldest of which we have
any record in India, were built up by the earlier inhabitants
or by the newcomers. Be this as it may, the Mediterranean
race spread into India and gave rise to the Hindus and it is
probable that this invading stock was not quite a pure one
but was mixed witji a certain amount of the Caspian or Nordic
stock, that in the main populated Russia and Northern Europe
at about this time.

Displacement of Palae-Alpine Stock. The descendants of
this Mediterranean race are at the present day predominant
in the North-West Frontier districts and in the Punjab and
the greater part of Rajputana, where they have given rise to
the Sikhs, the Rajputs and to some of the Pathans. The
penetration of the Mediterranean race was accompanied,
though to a somewhat less extent than usual, by a pressure
that forced the Palae-Alpine stock to migrate eastwards and
some offshoots of this displaced race even penetrated as far
east as Assam and Burma, where to-day we find their des-
cendants surviving as a series of scattered tribes, more or
less modified by interbreeding with the earlier inhabitants of
the Proto-Negroid stock; along the Brahmaputra Valley we
now get a series of tribes all of which show this character
in common, viz., the possession of a long head and a broad
nose ; such tribes include the Abors, the Miris, Dafflas, Garos,
Kukis, Manipuris and some of the Nagas, and in all these the
Palae-Alpine character is well-marked ; and in a more or less
broken area in the same general quarter we find other tribes
such as the inhabitants of Tipperah, the Mikir, the Ao Nagas,

RACIAL ETHNOLOGY. 185

the Sema Nagas and the Ahoms, in which the Palae-Alpine
characters are equally well-marked but which show also a
clear trace of the older Proto-Negroid stock.

The Moghal Invaders. At about this period in Indian his-
tory the general character of these immigrations begins to
show a change. Whereas formerly the original inhabitants
were for the most part driven bodily out of the invaded area,
we now find the invaders settling $own in the country and
establishing themselves as' a local aristocracy, the previous
inhabitants being compelled to carry out the menial tasks,
and in consequence of this, the invaders produced a much
less radical change in the character of the population.

The next great invasion came again from the north-west,
and this time it appears to, have been a second invasion by the
Palae-Alpine and Alpine broad-headed races. The main
mass-movement of this migration seems to have had its
origin somewhere in Mongolia and to have moved from east
to west. From its centre it passed westwards through
Russia and on into Europe, but a branch turned southward
and then east again and finally penetrated into India and
established the Great Moghal Empires. It is probable that
this invasion set up a certain degre.e of internal movement
in the existing population, though, as I have already men-
tioned, this feature was becoming less marked, and it may
be that it was at this time that the Todas, the Nambudri
Brahmins and the Nayars of Southern India, all of whom are
long-headed and are related, anthropologically, to the people
of North-Western India, migrated to their present homes.

Further India. The history of Further India appears to
have been somewhat different from that of the Peninsular
region. Here the earliest inhabitants appear to have Seen
the Negrito Pigmy stock, a race that is characterised, as
the name implies, by very short stature combined with a
broad head, jet black skin, and frizzy hair; but at a very
early period in history this stock had become split up and

186 RACIAL ETHNOLOGY.

driven to the south and east. One branch of the race suc-
ceeded in crossing the sea and took refuge in the Andaman
Islands where they still survive as the little tribe of the
Andamanese. These Negritos appear to have been displaced
by a race that was characterised by the possession of a short
stature, brown skin, a long head, a nose that was flattened
and wavy black hair. This later race appears to have been
somewhat akin to the "Dravidian" branch of the Proto-
Australoid-Proto-Negroid race that we found in South India,
but whether or not they are identical it is impossible to say :
the term " Nesiot " has been given to this race by Haddou
and Buxton, and it is this race that has given rise to many
of the tribes in and around Malaya and the islands to the
east. The " Nesiots " forced the Negrito Pigmies to move
to the remote islands around the shores of South-Eastern
Asia, where we still find traces of them in the Philippine
Islands and New Guinea, and themselves occupied the region
of Burma and the Malay Peninsula. At a very early date,
however, a new invasion of this region took place and a
branch of the Palae-Alpine stock made its way southward*
from the Central Asiatic Plateau and established itself in a
settlement around the upper reaches of the Irrawaddy River.
This branch of the False-Alpines corresponds to the stock
that Haddon has called the " Pareoean " race and exhibits a
short stature, broad head, short flattened nose and the
Mongolian eye with straight black hair. At some subse-
quent date, probably about the commencement of the Chris-
tian era a further movement started and a branch of this
Palae-Alpine stock migrated westwards and established a
subsidiary race in the Chindwin and Kaladan Valleys in
Northern Arakan; the line of migration of the main stock,
however, was southwards along the Irrawaddy River, where
they established the kingdom of 'Burma. It was in all
probability this southward movement that forced the earlier
* Nesiot" inhabitants to migrate and while the bulk of them
moved to the Malay Peninsula, a branch took to the islands
of the Mergui Archipelago and are found living there to-day,

RACIAL ETHNOLOGY. 187

where they are known as the " Mawken " or Salons, a small
tribe of boat-dwellers. Whether this mass-movement was
also responsible for the migration of the present inhabitants
of the Nicobar Islands we cannot say; all that appears to be
fairly certain about this latter tribe is that they are related
to the Malays and that similar types can be traced in the
islands around the Malay Archipelago and as far east as
Formosa. At a somewhat later date, about 600 A.D. a
further invasion of the Palae-Alpines swept over Indo-China
and partly penetrated into Burma, where they still remain
as the various tribes of the Shan States.

Modern Race Movements. With increasing facilities for
transport as a result of progressive civilisation and culture,
invasions into India became more frequent and of a some-
what different type. A succession of inroads took place
across the North-Western Frontier, most of which, as for
example, that of Alexander and his forces, were of the nature
of a military invasion and the subsequent occupation of the
country was but transitory and left little, if any, permaneni
effect on the population; similarly the migration of the
Parsees from Persia to Bombay resulted only in the addi-
tion of yet another racial type to the already extremely
complicated population of this country without affecting the
earlier inhabitants.

The last of the great immigrations into India came by
sea and not by land. With the development of shipping in
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and the discovery by
the peoples of the west of the wealth of India, a steady stream
of immigrants of the Caspian-Mediterranean races from
Europe commenced to arrive. The Dutch, Portuguese,
French and British all established trading centres and
colonies and, after varying fortunes, India eventually became
a part of the British Empire. As in the previous invasion
by the Caspian-Mediterranean race, these later invaders made
no attempt to drive out the earlier inhabitants but once

188 RACIAL ETHNOLOGY.

again established themselves as an Aristocracy. Many ot
them settled in the country and in numerous cases interbred.
Within the last few years a new peaceful penetration
has started and is still going on along the North-Easterri
Frontier, where India abuts on China. Though the move-
ment appears to be still in its infancy, the Chinese are steadily,
but none the less surely, penetrating into Burma and by
inter-marriage with the Burmese are establishing a new
race of hajf-caste Chino-Burmese, the counter-part of the
Eurasian or as he is called to-day the Anglo-Indian, Colonies
of pure or half-caste Chinese are springing up in the larger
towns of India and especially in and around the towns and
villages of Burma, and even as far afield as the Nicobar
Islands this Mongol race is establishing itself and is rapidly
causing the disappearance of the original stock, drink and
disease being the two chief factors in this regrettable occur-
rence.

XIII.

ZOOLOGY OF INDIA.

BY

B. PRASHAD, D.SC., F.E.S.,
Zoological Survey of India.

PROBABLY no country on the face of the earth has a richer
or more varied fauna than India, and the study of the problems
connected with the origin and relationships of the different
elements in this fauna has attracted naturalists from very
early times. The lakes, the river systems with their exten-
sive deltaic and estuarine areas and the backwaters of India
offer the most favourable conditions for the study of the
origin of the freshwater and land animals from marine forms,
while the seas and oceans along the coasts and the extensive
coral reefs have as rich a marine fauna as any other region.
The rapids in the higher reaches of the rivers further offer
extraordinary examples in the adaptation of different classes
of animals to their peculiar habitat. It is, therefore, im-
possible to give in the limited space allowed by the Editor of
this volume a conspectus of Indian Zoology, which will be at
once brief and illuminating, and shall contain information
abotlt all the various aspects of Indian Zoology. In the
present note I have limited myself to an account of the
physiography of the area in relation to the fauna, the relation-
ships and origin of the fauna and have added a few notes on
some of the outstanding forms in the various groups of the
Animal Kingdom.

Territories comprised. The limits for this area were
admirably described by Blanford as consisting "of the
, ( 189 )

190 ZOOLOGY OP INDIA.

dependencies of India with the addition of Ceylon, which,
although British, is not under the Indian Government. With-
in the limits thus defined are comprised all India proper and
the Himalayas, the Punjab, Sind, Baluchistan, all the Kashmir
territories with Gilgit, Ladak, etc., Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, ,and
other Cis-Himalayan States, Assam, the countries between
Assam and Burma, such as the Garo, Khasi and Naga Hills
and Manipur, the whole of Burma, with Karenni, and of course
Tennasserim and the Mergui Archipelago, and lastly the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands ;" with this we have also to
include the Laccadive and Maldive Islands. The area of
India is very large, roughly, 1,800,000 square miles, and it will
be presumptuous to claim that we are, by any means, fully
acquainted with all the forms of animal life which inhabit this
vast region, still one would not be far wrong in saying that
we are fairly well informed about the main features, and in
many cases, even the details of this fauna.

Zoogeographical Regions represented. The limits of
India, as defined above, fall mainly within the Oriental
(Wallace), or the Indo-Malay (Elwes) region. There are,
however, some inconsistencies in this classification, and as
Blanford rightly pointed out, parts of the Indo-Gangetic
Plain, as also the Himalayan subregion, are related more to
the Holarctic or the Palsearctic than to the Indo-Malayan or
the Oriental Region. Blanford's conclusions were based
mainly on the distribution of the Vertebrates, but the distribu-
tion of the Invertebrates, so far as they are known, fully
confirms these conclusions.

With our present knowledge of the fauna of India, the
area may be divided into five subregions. This division is
based on the relationships of the various groups of the Animal
Kingdom, both Vertebrates and Invertebrates, and corres-
ponds broadly to the Physiographical divisions of the area.

Subregions. 1. Western Frontier Territory including
Baluchistan, the North Western Frontier Province and the

ZOOLOGY OF INDIA. 191

greater part of the Punjab. 2. The Himalayas consisting of
the Upper Indus Valley with Ladak, Gilgit etc., the Western
Himalayas from Hazara to the western limit of Nepal, and
the Eastern Himalayas from the limit of the Western Hima-
layas to the Mishmi Hills above the Assam Valley. 3. Assam
and Burma comprising the greater part of the Lower Brah-
maputra Drainage System and the Burmese territory including
Tennasserim. 4. The Gangetic Plain to the east of Delhi, and
including the whole of the United Provinces, Bengal and parts
of Assam up to the base of the Assam Hills, together with
the plain of the Brahmaputra as far as Goalpara and includ-
ing- Cachar, Sylhet and the plains of Tipperah. 5. Peninsular
India, with the Malabar zone as a very distinct subdivision,
and Ceylon.

The fauna of the Western Frontier Territory differs
greatly from that of the rest of the area, and is not truly
Indian. Practically all the genera of the Vertebrates met
with in this area are either truly Holarctic or Palaearctic, or
are peculiar to the area; the relationships of t'he latter are
also with the Palaearctic rather than with the Indo-Malayan
forms. Blanford from the distribution of the Vertebrates
suggested that this part of the Indian Territory should be
excluded from the Indo-Malayan Region, and classified with
the Eremian or Mediterranean subregion of the Palsearctic.
This view has received full support from the distribution of
the various groups of the Invertebrates which have been
investigated since. Some forms of the Gangetic Plain are
also to be found in this area, but they have only migrated
from the adjacent region, and are of no value from the zoo-
geographic point of view. The area consists of desert or
semi-desert regions, except near t'he rivers or the artificially
irrigated parts. The annual rainfall is not very heavy and
the fauna on the whole is poor.

In the Himalayas the higher ranges above the forest
limits, a part of the Tibetan plateau and the Upper Indus

192 ZOOLOGY OP INDIA.

Valley including Ladak, Gilgit, etc, form a separate subregiotr.

This area is very bare, the mountains are perpetually covered

\vith snows and there is a great deal of difference between

the elevation of the mountain ranges and the valleys in

between; the annual rainfall is generally low. The region so

^eliminated has an almost truly Palsearctic fauna, and its

animal life shpws no affinities whatsoever with the Indo>-

Malayan types. The forest zone of the Himalayas forms a

belt of varying breadth between the higher mountain ranges-

on the one hand and the Indo-Gangetic Plain on the other.

In this area are included the slopes of the hills from the base-

-to an altitude between 10,00014,000' feet, the uppermost

limit of the forest zone. The rainfall is? heavier, more so in

the eastern than in the western parts, ararf the forests of the

-eastern ranges are more extensive, richer and trtdy tropicaL

A fair number of Tibetan or Palaearctic animals from*

the higher reaches of the mountains wander into the-

forests, while a few forms penetrate northwards into the

-warmer valleys from the plains in the south. The western

forest region has a predominantly Palaearctic fauna, while

the eastern, which has a very marked Malayan element, was

for this reason separated by Blanford with Assam, Burma,

Southern China, etc., into the so-called! Trans-Gangetic

subregion.

In Assam and Burma the northern region comprising the
northern part of the drainage area of the Brahmaputra, and
Assam, consists of hilly tracts with dense forests except in
the plains of Assam ; the annual rainfall m this tract is fairly
heavy. Physiographically, parts of this area belong to the
Indo-Gangetic Plain, but its fauna is distinctly Burmese. In
Upper Burma, which is roughly the drainage area of the
Irrawadi, there is a large number of hills thickly covered by
forests, while the undulating ground b^ween the mountains
is densely overgrown by brushwood and high grass ; the annual
rainfall in this region is pretty heavy. The Tennasserim
area consists of two distinct tracts, (i) the northern, covered
by thick forests on a hilly ground and with a fauna of tte

ZOOLOGY OF INDIA. 193

Burmese type ; and (ii) the southern area which in its physio-
graphy is similar to the northern, but where the annual rain-
fall is not so heavy as in the northern area, and the fauna of
which is distinctly Malayan. The Andaman and Nicobar
islands, which are also included in this subregion, are covered
by dense forests, and have a heavy rainfall. The fauna of these
islands is by no means identical; the Andamans having an
impoverished Burmese fauna, while that of the Nicobars is
undoubtedly Malayan*

Since the main part of the Indus Plain has been separately
considered above in the Western Frontier Territory, I use the
name Gangetic Plain for t'he rest of the Indo-Gangetic water-
shed. Its extent has been noted already, and its physical
features only need be considered. Most of the western area
is cleared and used for cultivation, and only some of the
uncleared areas are covered by tall grasses. The annual rain-
fall generally is not very heavy. In the eastern part of the
area, except for the Sunderban forests in the deltaic region of
t'he Ganges, the country is similar to that in the north-western
part, but the rainfall is heavier, and there are more extensive
tracts of uncleared land. The fauna of the area is generally
of the same type as that of Peninsular India, but in the
north-eastern parts there is a large admixture of the eastern
or Trans-Gangetic types. The freshwater fauna shows a very
marked similarity and in many cases actual identity with the
forms occurring in the Indus System. This is to be explained
by the connection of the Indus and the Ganges in the
Tertiaries, when, according to the geologists, there was a
single river the large Indobrahm or the Siwalik River. This
river is supposed to have run to the south of and parallel to
the Himalayan Chain from Assam in the east to the north-
west corner of the Punjab, and then flowing south-west
opened into t'he Miocene Sea. The elevation of the Himalayas
brought about a dismemberment of this Tertiary river into
the Indus System with the Punjab rivers on the one hand,
and the Gangetic System on the other. The similarity of the

13

194 ZOOLOGY OP INDIA.

fauna in these river-systems is to be traced to this Tertiary
connection.

The greater part of Peninsular India, with the exception
of the Malabar Tract, consists of either cultivated land or low
hilly country covered with brushwood or thin forests; the
average rainfall is from 35 SO inches. In the Malabar Tract,
on the other hand, we have the high mountain ranges of the
Western Ghauts and the west coastal area of the Peninsula.
Most of this part is covered with thick tropical forests, though
there are many places near the coast which are cleared and
cultivated. The island of Ceylon, like Peninsular India, con-
sists of two types of country. About three-fourths of the
island along the north and the east resembles the main area
of Peninsular India, and is almost plain or only slightly un-
dulating country of no great elevation, with an average annual
rainfall of about 50 inches. The rest or the south-western
part of Ceylon, like the Malabar Tract, is 'hilly, with rich
tropical forests and an average rainfall of over 100 inches.

Fauna Constituents. In Peninsular India and Ceylon it
is possible to distinguish three distinct constituents of the
Fauna, and for which the terms Drawidian, Aryan and Indo-
Malayan, as suggested by Blanford, may be employed. The
Drawidian element consisting mainly of Batrachians and
Reptiles, is best represented along the Malabar coast in the
south of the Peninsula and in Ceylon, and gradually disappears
in the north. It is a remnant of probably the oldest fauna of
the area, which inhabited India when Peninsular India was
connected across t'he Indian Ocean by land with Madagascar
and South Africa in Mesozoic and early Cenozoic times. The
Aryan element represented by Reptiles, Birds and Mammals,
has distinct affinities with the Pliocene Siwalik fauna of India
and with the Ethiopian and Palaerctic types ; it has been sug-
gested that this element came into India about t'he Pliocene
times. The Oriental or Indo-Malay element is similarly
represented by Birds and Mammals, and like the Aryan

ZOOLOGY OF INDIA. 195

appears to have migrated into Peninsular India and Ceylon
about the Miocene times ; it has since driven the Drawidian
element to the higher ranges of t*he hills.

In Peninsular India there are further certain genera of
Mammals and Reptiles which occur also in Assam and Burma,
or even in the Malay Peninsula, but are not found anywhere
in the intermediate region of the Gangetic Plain. Amongst
Invertebrates there are also extraordinary examples of
genera occurring in Peninsular India, the nearest allies of
which are found in North Africa or Tropical America. These
relationships of the Indian fauna have been explained as being:
due to early land connections between India and Africa and
earlier on with America, but opinions differ as to their exact
significance and importance, and it is not possible to discuss
the whole question here.

I will now include a few notes about the different groups
of the Animal Kingdom as they are found in India.

Vertebrates. The Mammalian life of India is fairly rich,
and with the exception of the Monotremes and Marsupials,
practically all the different orders and families of this phylum
are represented. It is not necessary to mention well-known
animals like the elephant, th'e rhinoceros, the tiger, the panther,
the deer, etc., but reference may be made to the lion (Felis
lea), which at the present day is verging on extinction in
India and is only found in Kathiawar. Within recent years
the African lion has been introduced into Gwalior, and may
become established in India. Among specially interesting
types may be mentioned the so-called wild-dog (Cyan dukhu-
nensis), the Himalayan red cat-bear (Aelurus fulgens), the
wild sheep of the Himalayas (Ovis spp.), the markhor (Capra
falconeri), the flying squirrels (Pteromys, Eupetawus, etc.)
and a number of other forms. Amongst the aquatic mammals,
the dolphin (Ptatinista gangetica), the porpoise (Orcetta
brevirostris) and the marine dugong (Haticore dugong) deserve
to be noted.

196 ZOOLOGY OP INDIA.

The avifauna of India is rich in species, and according to
a recent list over two thousand species and subspecies are
found in the area. Though not rich in forms with a gorgeous
plumage, as some other tropical regions are, India has many
curious and beautiful varieties of birds. The peacock (Paw
cristatus) and its white mutant and many beautiful pheasants
are worth a mention, and the Parrot family has numerous
representatives. Amongst the birds of prey, many are
trained for falconry. Game birds abound in most parts, and
from amongst the water-birds a great variety of them are
found in the Chilka Lake, the Manchar Lake and other jheels
and marshy areas, w'hile on dry land there are the pigeons,
partridges, pheasants, quails and the red jungle fowl.

In India the crocodile tribe is represented by the river
crocodile (Crocodilus porosiis), the marsh crocodile (C. palu-
stris) and the Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus). There are all
kinds of tortoises and turtles, marine, freshwater and land,
but none of them offer any exceptional points of interest.
The lizards are very numerous, both in numbers and variety,
and we may specially note the small house geckos (Hemi-
dactylus spp.) the monitor lizards (Varanus spp.), the spiny-
tailed lizard (Urcmastix hardwickii) and the flying lizards
(Draco spp.). The Snake family is very fully represented,
from the thin thread-like blind-snakes (Typhlops spp.) to the
two species of the pythons (Python molorus and P. reti-
culattts). Of the poisonous snakes the most dangerous arc
the Cobra (Naia tripudians), the King Cobra (Naia bungarus),
the common Krait (Bungarus caruleus), the banded Krait
(Bungartis fasciatus), Daboia (Vipera russelli) and the saw-
scaled Viper (Echis carinata). There are in addition many
other species of poisonous snakes found in the Indian limits,
but none of them are, so far as is known, fatal to man.

Frogs and toads are represented by large numbers of
forms of cosmopolitan genera like Rana and Bufo, and the
only really interesting types among them are the peculiar

ZOOLOGY OF INDIA. 197"

genera of toads like Callula, Calophrynws, Cacopus, Glypho-
fflossus. Only a single form of newts, Tylototriton verni-
cosus, is found in Eastern Himalayas, while limbless am-
phibians or Csecilidse are represented by genera like
Icthyophis, Urotyphlus and Gegenophis in Peninsular India,
Ceylon, Assam and Burma. Mention may also be made of
the Caeceilian Hcrpele fMeri from Cachar; no other species of
this genus is found in India and its nearest allies are found,
in West Africa and Tropical America.

All water areas like ponds, pools, lakes, rivers, estuaries,
and seas of India abound in fishes of various kinds, and it is
impossible to include here even a summary notice of the
different forms. From the scientific point of view, the really
interesting types are the directly air-breathing fishes like the
climbing perch (Anabas scandens), Magur (Clarias batrachus),
Singi (Saccobranchus fossilis), all of which have accessory
breathing organs and can live outside water. Certain genera
of freshwater fishes like Kanduka, Pseudochineus, etc., have
developed special adaptive characters in response to their
habitat. The marine and estuarine ovo viviparous and vivi-
parous sharks and rays with the peculiar structures for the
feeding of their embryos during a partial or complete intra-
uterine period of existence, deserve a special mention, and so
also the cat-fishes which protect their young by carrying them
in the mouth during the earlier stages. There are also a huge
variety of deep-sea fishes of fanciful forms and with peculiar
light-emiting organs. The common freshwater carps of the
genera Labeo, Catla, Cirrhina and Barbus, and cat-fish of
various genera like Aoria, Arius, Wallago, etc., are chiefly
used as food all over India. The most highly prized fish,
however, is the Hilsa (Hilsa ttisha), an anadromous fish of the
herring-family, which ascends freshwater rivers for spawning,
and is caught in large quantities. The most interesting fish
for the Anglers is the Mahseer (Barbus tor), various forms
of which are found in the rivers all over India and which is
known to reach over 110 Ibs. in weight." From amongst the

198 ZOOLOGY OP INDIA.

sea fishes mention may be made of various genera of sea-
perches, mackrels, pomfrets, mullets, flat fishes, herrings, and
the Bombay Duck.

Invertebrates. The invertebrates whether on land or in
freshwaters, estuaries or the seas, are extremely abundant.
It is not possible to include anything like a summary here,
and I will only refer to a few forms which are of special
interest. The freshwater medusa (Limnocnida indica) from
the tributaries of river Kistna in Peninsular India with its
nearest allies in Tropical and South Africa deserves a special
mention. The freshwater sponges and polyzoa are fairly
numerous and several of them show distinct affinities with the
American and African forms. Amongst molluscs the out-
standing Gastropod genera are Camptoceras of which a species
occurs in Japan, Camptonyx and Lithotis, which are only
found in India, and the Aethirid bivalve Mulleria represented
by a single species in Mysore, other species of the Mulleria
are found in South America. The only outstanding type
amongst the Arthropods as a whole is the archaic form
Typhloperipatus williamsoni, a peculiar form of the Ony-
chophora, which was discovered by Dr. S. W. Kemp in the
Abor country in E. Assam, and which is the only record of a
form of this group within the Indian limits. The Crustacean
element is very well represented by prawns, lobsters, crabs
and other smaller forms, and we may note here forms like the
huge marine Isopod Bathynomus giganteus and the robber-
crab Birgus latro. It is not proposed to consider the insects
of India in detail here, but it may be mentioned that within the
Indian limits there is the home of such interesting forms as
the leaf-butterflies, leaf-insects, praying mantis and several
other grotesque types.

No account of the Zoology of India would be complete
without a reference to the work of such institutions as the
Asiatic Society of Bengal, Indian Museum, and the Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta, Madras Museum, Colombo Museum,

ZOOLOGY OF INDIA. 199

the Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay and several
Entomological institutes like those at Pusa, Dehra Dun,
Coimbatore and Poona, which have done pioneer work in
getting the fauna of this huge country worked out. The
voluntary and disinterested work of such authorities, to
mention only a few, as Hamilton-Buchanan, Legge, Moore,
Hodgson, Mclelland, Blyth, Stoliczka, Blanford, Jerdon,
Hume, Day, Anderson, Wood-Mason, Alcock and Annandale,
also deserves special notice.

The literature on Indian Zoology is very scattered, but an
official "Fauna of British India" is issued by the Secretary
of State and already 47 volumes of it dealing with various
groups, have been published. Of other scientific journals
dealing with the Zoology of India, " Records " and " Memoirs
of the Indian Museum," "Journal and Proceedings" and
" Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," " Journal of the
Bombay Natural History Society " and " Spolia Zeylanica "
(Ceylon Journal of Science) may be specially referred to.

XIV.

INDIAN BOTANY.

BY

J. M. COWAN, D.SC.,
Officiating Director, Botanical Survey of India.

THK study of Indian plants dates from very ancient times.
In classical Indian literature and in the writings of the great
Indian poets, frequent mention is made of the beauty of
plants. Thus the great poet Kalidasa, describing the red
lotus flower, says that it surpasses even the beauty of the
moon. Plants, have been revered even from the earliest
times. In the Rig Veda, the^Soma plant is addressed as
follows :

" Thou Soma, fond of praise, the Lord of plants and

life to us,

Be unto us, Soma, the bestower of wealth, the remover

of disease,

Exulting Soma! increase with all twining plants."

Plants, in India, even more than in most other countries,
enter into the daily life of the people and form an indispens-
able part, not only of their diet but of almost every activity.
One need only visit some of the tribes living in a bamboo
country to realize the extraordinary adaptability and infinite
uses of this plant alone. Many Indian tribes have an inti-
mate knowledge of their local plants and their properties
and the study of the etymology of plant names will often
reveal much of the habits and customs of the people. Al-
though a very considerable knowledge existed, especially of

( 201 )

202 INDIAN BOTANY.

the medicinal properties of plants, before the beginning of
the nineteenth century no systematic investigation had been
made nor was a methodical classification attempted.

Pioneers of Indian Botany. The development of Indian
Botany started with the career of Dr. William Roxburgh,
who was the first Botanist who attempted to draw up a sys-
tematic account of the plants of India. During his busy life in
this country, he prepared a Plora Indica which contains a sys-
tematic description of all the indigenous plants known to him as
well as of many exotics then in cultivation in the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Calcutta, of which he was rightly chosen to be the
first Superintendent in 1793. The Flora Indica was published
after his death by Drs. Wallich and Carey in 1820 and was,
for many years, the only book of reference regarding Indian
Hants.

Dr. Roxburgh, who has been called the " Father of Indian
Botany," was the first of a long line of famous men who have
been associated with the Royal Botanical Gardens and who have
contributed largely to our knowledge of Indian plants.

He was succeeded, as Superintendent, by Dr. Buchanan
Hamilton and then by Dr. Nathaniel Wallich, an able and a
most energetic Botanist, who, during the earlier part of his
term of office, organised collecting expeditions into the then
little known regions of Nepal, Sylhet, Tenasserim, Penang and
Singapore. Dr. Wallich, in fact undertook a botanical survey
of a large part of- the Indian Empire. He was again followed
by Dr. Griffith, Dr. Falconner and Dr. Thomas Thomson, a
traveller and Botanist of much ability, the coadjutor of Sir Joseph
Hooker in the collection and distribution of an extensive and
well-known herbarium of East Indian plants and the joint
author of the first volume of a new Flora Indica.

Flora of British India. The publication of the " Flora of
British India " was begun in the year 1872 by the distinguished
Botanist Sir Joseph Hooker who travelled widely over India

PLATE II.

THE PALMYRA OR TODDY PALM (Borasstis llabeilifer Linn.)

An old Tamil poem, enumerates 801 uses of this tree. A man is seen climbing one

of the trees with the aid of a bamboo.

INDIAN BOTANY. 203

and whose work is still the standard Flora for the whole of
India and which is too well-known to need further description.
The names of Dr. Anderson, Mr. C. B. Clarke and Sir George
King, during whose term of office the " Annals of the Royal
Botanic Gardens " were first published, must also be mentioned,
and of Robert Wight, M.D., F.R.S., author of the famous " Icones
Plantarum Indae Orientalis " and other works on Indian Botany.

Indian Botanists are indebted to Sir Dietrich Brandis, the
pioneer of Indian Forestry for his volume on Indian Trees and
to other forest officers, notably Kurz and Gamble who have
published Forest Floras of different regions.

For a general account of the vegetation of this vast country
with its varying climatic and edaphic conditions, the reader is
referred to "The Sketch of the Flora of British India," by
Sir J. D. Hooker and to the introductory essay to the Flora
Indica by Sir J. D. Hooker and Dr. Thomas Thomson.

Systematic Botany. Our knowledge of the systematic
botany of the different regions in India is now fairly complete
and for descriptions of the botany of the various provinces the
reader is referred to such works as Kurz's " Flora of Burma/'
Pram's " Bengal Plants," Cooke's " Flora of the Presidency of
Bombay" and Gamble's "Flora of Madras."

Herbarium at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sibpur. In

the Herbarium at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sibpur, Calcutta,
probably the oldest and largest in the east, there is now a collec-
tion of about 1,400,000 plants which bear testimony to the
energy of botanists in India. The Herbarium, with its excel-
lent library, is the centre of reference for the whole of India.

Economic Botany. The economic properties of Indian
plants have been worked out in detail by Sir George Watt in his
* Dictionary of Economic Products of India " and in his " Com-
mercial Products of India."

204 INDIAN BOTANY.

Cryptogamic Botany,p Although our knowledge of
Phanerogamic plants is thus fairly advanced, the study of
Cryptogamic botany is still in its infancy except as regards the
Filices, there being two outstanding publications on Indian ferns-
Hooker and Baker's " Synopsis Filicum " and Beddome's " Ferns
of India and Ceylon." The Moses and Liverworts have not been
worked out at all. Attempts are now being made by Botanists
of the different Universities of the Indian Empire and by others
to work out these lower groups of plants. Already a consider-
able number of Algae have been described and Dr. Bruhl of
Calcutta University and others are diligently pursuing this line
of research. The Agricultural Department has undertaken the
study of Fungi, especially those which attack the agricultural
crops and Dr. Butler of the Pusa Institute has pushed a work
on Fungi and Diseases in Plants. The Indian Tea Association's
Research Institute at Toclai is investigating the diseases on Tea
so that Fungi of economic importance are gradually becoming
known.

Fossil Flora. Indian Paleontology is being studied by
Professor Sahani of L,ucknow University.

Plant Physiology. The investigation of the physiology
of. Indian plants is in the hands of the great physiologist
Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose of the Bose Institute, Calcutta, whose
ingenious apparatus, invented by him and manufactured by
Indian workmen has gained a world- wide reputation.

Trend of Botanical Study in India. The advance of our
knowledge of Indian Botany in the near future will probably
move along three main lines:

First, although our knowledge of the systematy of the
higher plants is well-advanced, we know comparatively little of
their habitats and social life. The study of Ecology has undoubt-
edly received a stimulus by the recent publication of the British
Empire Vegetation Committee. Considerable information

INDIAN BOTANY. 205

regarding the ecology of our forest areas is available in Forest
Working Plans but the information is inaccessible as these have
hitherto not been published for general circulation. The Univer-
sities may perhaps be induced to undertake methodical study of
the ecology of non-forest areas. By the co-ordinating of the
information already available with information which might be
readily obtained our knowledge of the vegetation in India could
be very rapidly increased. The possibilities in this direction have
already been indicated by the publication of the Vegetation of
Burma by Lord and Stamp, a publication which would not have
been possible without the pioneer work of Forest Working Plan
Officers.

Secondly, a vast field for research lies open to those workers
who are studying the lower forms of plant life of which, as yet,
our knowledge is most scanty. That this field of research is
attracting students and others in our Universities is evidenced
by the numerous publications in the *' Journal of the Indian
Botanical Society/' which has been edited, since its inception by
Professor Fyson, Principal of the Presidency College of Madras.
The members of the Indian Botanical Society, founded in 1920
by eminent Indian Botanists, are principally University men.

Thirdly, the study of economic products, especially of plants
with medicinal properties on which investigations are already
being undertaken at the Tropical School of Medicine is engag-
ing the attention of botanists to whom will fall the task of finding
out where and in what quantities these are available and also
the conditions under which they could be cultivated.

Meantime this brief survey of Indian Botany serves to
show that, although India has numbered among her botanists
men of world-wide reputation, there is still unlimited scope for
the zeal and ability of those who follow.

XV.

A SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGY OF INDIA.

BY

E. H. PASCOE, M.A., SC.D. (Cantab.), D.SC. (London), F.G.S.,
Director, Geological Survey of India.

Three Geological Regions. Geologically India may be
divided .into three regions : (i) the Peninsula ; (ii) the Extra-
Peninsular region, including Baluchistan, the North-Wefst
Frontier, the portion of the Punjab north-west of the Jhelum
including the Salt Range, the Himalaya, Burma and the
Andaman and Nicobar islands; and (iii) the Indo-Gangetic
Alluvial Plain between the first two. The Shillong Plateau
belongs to the Peninsular region.

Antiquity of Deposits and Physiography of the Penin-
sula. The keynote of the history of the peninsula is. im-
measurable antiquity antiquity even according to geological
standards. This applies emphatically to the formation of the
rocks themselves, but also in no small measure to their
elevation above the sea to form land. Of the rocks, omitting
a few small but highly interesting coast deposits, omitting the
coal basins, and omitting a vast lava flood which poured over
the older rocks, probably none is younger than the Cambrian, the
earliest geological period in which organic remains are definitely
recognizable. By far the greater bulk of the Peninsular rocks,
however, date back to periods which have left no record of life
upon the globe. Soon after the Cambrian period the whole
of the Peninsular region was raised to form part of a

( 207 )

208 A SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGY OP INDIA.

continental area. Land it became and land it has been ever
since.

Dharwar System. The oldest recognizable rocks are
Archaean in age and have been assigned the name of Dharwar
after the district in the Bombay Presidency where they were
first studied. The Dharwar rocks include true sediments and
lava flows, and these, of course* must have been deposited upon
some floor. For many years it was thought that most of the
gneiss, which covers such a large proportion of the Peninsula,
represented this most ancient ocean floor upon which the earliest
sedimentary deposits of India were laid down. During the past
few years, however, it has been shown that much of the gneiss
is the altered product of a molten magma which was intruded into
the Dharwar sediments after they had been deposited; this
gneiss, therefore, though of great age, must be looked upon
as younger than the Dharwar strata. So much of the gneiss
has been shown to be intrusive into the Dharwar that it is
now impossible to point to any of it as being definitely a
remnant of the primeval ocean floor of the Dharwar epoch the
floor which received the first sediments of which any record
remains brought down by the rivers from that very early land.

Primeval Ocean Floor. Nevertheless, an ocean floor there
must have been or the Dharwar sediments could never have
been deposited, and it seems unlikely that the junction
between the sediments and the floor has everywhere been com-
pletely obliterated by the subsequent intrusion of molten
rock. In places the lowest horizon of the Dharwars in contact
with the gneiss is a conglomerate of what appear to be pebbles
of the gneiss, and this was originally regarded as conclusive
proof that the gneiss was the older of the two and had supplied
pebbles to the Dharwar rivers. Most of these conglomerates
are now regarded as subsequent to the induration and folding
of the rocks and produced by fracture and relative movement,
the so-called " pebbles " being merely fragments detached and

A SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGY OP INDIA. 209

ground into more or less globular shape by the movement of
the two uneven walls of the fissure against one another.

Mergui Series. In the Tenasserim division of Burma are
some ancient metamorphosed clays and volcanic material
which are regarded as the probable equivalents of the Dhar-
war system. Amongst the fragments of a volcanic agglomer-
ate were found a few rounded pieces of a granite which has
not, so far, been observed in situ. These are interesting as
being representatives of a rock older than the deposits in
which they occur ; if the correlation of this " Mergui series "
with the Dharwar be correct, this granite is the oldest rock
we definitely know of in the Indian Empire.

Dharwar Sea. Of the extent of the Dharwar Sea we have
very little knowledge ; it covered the northern and probably
also the southern half of Madras and stretched northwards
at least as far as the alluvial belt. It probably covered the
Shillong plateau and extended as far east as Burma. It is
from the Dharwar beds that the Kolar and other great gold-
fields of Mysore and Madras derive their gold. Manganese,
iron and copper are also valuable products from this very
ancient system.

Folding Movement. Whatever the mutual relationship
between the Dharwars and the gneiss may have been, -we
know that the two were afterwards folded up tightly together
by a compressional movement acting in a more or less E.-W.
direction, The two groups were thus thrown into sharp folds
running generally N.-S. but veering to N.W.-S.E. This fold-
ing movement was accompanied or followed by upheaval and
the formation of land. Of the shape and extent of this land
area this forerunner of India we know scarcely anything;
the tightness and frequency of the folds, together with the
enormous quantity of rock which must have been stripped
off by subsequent denudation, point to lofty mountainous country
which may have stretched far beyond the confines of the
present peninsula. An immense period of quiescence then

210 A SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGY OP INDIA.

ensued, during which the continent was subjected to atmos-
pheric denudation so prolonged as to wear off almost all the
old Dharwar deposits. The decrease in size and increase in
isolation of the Dharwar outcrops as one passes south leads
one to infer that the total area these beds now cover is not
to be compared with that which they formerly occupied. All
that now remain are relics of the troughs of a few of the
compressed N.-S. or N.W.-S.E. folds, as the geological map
shows.

Submergence. During the next epoch, christened by Sir
Thomas Holland the Purana, India sank again beneath the
sea. Between this submergence and the end of the preceding
one, the interval, known as the great Eparchsean interval, is
thought to have been so great as to exceed the time which
has elapsed since the first records of life on the Earth up to
the present day.

Purana Epocta Upon the submerged and highly inclined
edges of the denuded Dharwar and gneissic rocks were
deposited a great thickness of sand, clay and limestone, which
lin the Cuddapah area of Madras amounted to some 20,000
ieet. The outcrop of these beds in this basin, including the
portion concealed beneath some overlying younger deposits,
occupies an area of about 14,000 square miles. The Purana
sea 'covered the northern half of Madras, the Central Provinces
and Rajputana, and stretched probably as far as the Himalaya,
and perhaps to Burma ; in the last province the Purana may be
represented by some of the rocks of the broad belt which lies
between the gneiss of the Ruby Mines area and the fossil-
bearing strata of the Shan plateau. The beds containing the
vast and rich deposits of iron ore in Orissa and its Feudatory
States are considered by some to belong to the Purana group.

Aravalli and Central Indian land : Vindhyan Period. The

next event seems to have been a corrugation of the sea floor
t>y a movement having a direction N.W.-S.E. One of the
effects of this movement was the initiation of the Aravalli

INDIA.

GEOLOGICAL FEATU

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Lower Palaeozoic.

A SKETCH OP THE GEOLOGY OP INDIA. 211

Range in Rajputana, and here the folding was comparatively
intense ; elsewhere it appears to have been gentle and broad.
This change ushered in the Vindhyan period and produced
land in the Aravalli area; this we deduce from the absence
of the earliest Vindhyan sediments along the flanks of this
old mountain chain. Over a broad belt stretching from the
Malwa plateau and the so-called Vindhyan Range to the Son
Valley the Lower Vindhyan deposits consist predominantly of
sandstone and clay. In the Son Valley they include volcanic
ashes and more rarely lava flows, indicating the proximity of
paroxysmal vents ; similar volcanic deposits on a large scale
are seen in the Rajputana desert west of Jodhpur. Further
away from the Aravalli land area, over what is now part of
Madras, the deposits comprise more limestone; the lowest
beds are, however, coarse conglomeratic sandstone and were
evidently derived from a not very distant coast. There is
evidence of such land in the form of a broad flat ridge, parallel
to the Aravalli ridge and distant from it some 450 miles away
to the south-east. This more southerly ridge extended from
the region south of the Son Valley through the Mandla, Seoni
and Chhindwara districts of the Central Provinces, probably
across Hyderabad to the Bombay Presidency. This ridge
seems to have formed a barrier sufficient to separate two
different basins of deposition, the Central Indian to the north and
the Kurnool to the south. It is perhaps not entirely fortuitous
that this ancient ridge, which has never since sunk beneath the
ocean, still forms an important watershed in spite of the topo-
graphical changes produced by the Deccan lava (see p. 216) ;
from the Amarkantak section of this ridge rise the Narbada
flowing ultimately westwards, the Son flowing northwards and
north-eastwards, tributaries of the Mahanadi flowing to the south-
east, and the Wainganga and Wardha flowing to the sooith.

Earliest Organic Remains. The most interesting feature
of the Lower Vindhyan deposits is the occurrence in them in
South Indore of organic remains. These have been pronounced

212 A SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGY OF INDIA.

recently to be the chitinous shells of brachiopods allied to
Cambrian forms of Acrothele; on this account the beds have been
assigned to the Cambrian. These are not only the earliest known
fossils of the peninsula, but the only marine fossils found in the
peninsular area at all if we except a few isolated coastal deposits
along the Coromandel and Malabar coasts, and a recently dis-
covered exposure of Carboniferous in the Rewah State of Central
India containing Productus and Spiriferina.

Extra-Peninsular Cambrian. In extra-Peninsular parts
of India the Cambrian is represented by definite faunas. In
the Salt Range of the Punjab is a trilobite and brachiopod
fauna of a very individualistic type but showing some affinity
to Chinese, American and Australian forms. In the Spiti
Valley of the Punjab Himalaya is another and more extensive
fauna which, like that of the Salt Range, contains no species
definitely recognizable in any other part of the world ; it has,
however, a marked resemblance to the Cambrian fauna of
the Rocky Mountains. Its only link with the Salt Range is
the trilobite, Redlichia noetlingi. In all probability these Cambrian
beds extend through the Himalaya with possible interruptions
at least as far as the frontier of Nepal. More doubtful occur-
rences of Cambrian strata are those of Kashmir and the Hazara
district of the Punjab.

Lower Palaeozoic of the Peninsula. In the northern half
of the peninsula the Lower Vindhyan series is invariably suc-
ceeded by the Upper Vindhyan. This is a sandstone scries
and yields the pink or purplish sandstone so largely used for
building purposes. It was especially so used by the Pathans
and Moghals; Akbar employed it in building his city of
Fatehpur Sikri. The Upper Vindhyan must represent a later
series of the Lower Palaeozoic, but has so far yielded no
determinable organic remains; its sandstones, however, exhibit
records of " fossil weather " in the form of ripple-marking,
sun-cracks and rain-pitting.

A SKETCH OP THE GEOLOGY OP INDIA. 213

Ordovician. Ordovician sediments overlie the Cambrian
in Spiti, and contain a brachiopod fauna showing a clear
relationship to the fauna of the American Chazy or Trenton
formations. North-westwards the beds extend into Lahaul
and are probably found in Kashmir. To the south-east
Ordovician beds have been recognized in British Garhwal,
where they contain a Spiti fauna. The best development of
the Ordovician is seen in the Northern Shan States of Burma ;
here there is a rich fauna which, curiously enough, is much
more closely related to that of North Europe than to those
of the Himalaya (Spiti) and America. There seems to have
been an effective barrier presumably of land between the
Central Himalaya Ordovician sea and a sea stretching from
North Burma through China and Siberia to Scandinavia. The
central Himalaya sea was probably connected with the North
American sea by way of Southern Europe through the fore-
runner of the present Mediterranean.

Silurian. The Silurian follows the Ordovician in Spiti
-and Garhwal, and has been identified in Kashmir; its fossils
have elements in common with the American fauna, but their
predominating resemblances are with north European forms.
Silurian beds with a fauna including a rich assemblage of
graptolites succeeds the Ordovician of Burma. One continuous
Silurian ocean seems to have spread round the northern
hemisphere, including the old interior sea of North America,
but to have been shut off from a precursor of the Pacific.

Devonian. The only places where the Devonian system
has been definitely identified are Chitral and Burma, but
certain quartzites in Kashmir, Spiti and Garhwal, from their
position above the Silurian, and some unfoss-iliferous beds
underlying the Trias of the Hazara district, may provisionally
find a place here. iThe Chitral beds contain characteristic
"brachiopods and corals, while the Burma strata contain a rich
assemblage of Devonian foims, including the characteristic
coral Calceola sandalina.

214 A SKETCH OP THE GEOLOGY OP INDIA.

Carboniferotis. Carboniferous strata containing marine
fossils have been found in the Salt Range, Kashmir, Spiti,
(Tarhwal, Chitral and Rewah State; the same beds also occur
in the Northern Shan States, the Tenasserim division and
probably in the intervening tracts in Burma. The discovery
of Productus and Spiriferina in Rewah State, Central India, is
interesting as pointing to the invasion by the early Carboni-
ferous ocean of the peninsular or continental area to this
extent.

The Gondwana Continent. Towards the end of the

Carboniferous and the beginning of the Permian periods we
find India forming part of a great southern continent stretch-
ing across the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean, over the site of
the Seychelles Islands to Madagascar and South Africa, and
thence south-westwards to South America and Antarctica; to
the south-east it was united to Australia and may have cover-
ed the rest of the Indian Ocean. To the north, girding the
greater part of the Earth, was a latitudinal sea, the Tethys,
of which the Mediterranean is a dwindled relic. The back-
bone of the Indian end of this old continent of Gondwanaland
was the Aravalli Range, the oldest mountain range in India,
which at that time must have formed a lofty snow-clad chain
comparable to the modern Himalaya; from its south-eastern
flank flowed glaciers which fed streams in whose basins the
coalfields of India subsequently accumulated. The cold,
however, was not confined to the mountain heights, for
evidence of the proximity of glaciers in the form of ice-
scratched and facetted boulders and pebbles is widespread over
the whole continent from Australia to the Argentine and the
Antarctic regions. This Arctic climate was followed by one
less severe but still cold. A dense undergrowth of ferns and
cycads, apparently of Antarctic habit, covered the land and
gave origin to the beds of coal which characterize the strata
which succeed the boulder beds ; the best known of the ferns
have been named Glossopteris and Gangamopteris.

A SKETCH OP THE GEOLOGY OF INDIA. 215

The Tethys Sea. Meanwhile the Tethys Sea persisted as
the northern boundary of Gondwanaland and in Triassic times
stretched from north-east of Darjeeling through Kumaon and
Southern Tibet, Garhwal and Spiti into Kashmir and west-
wards into Europe across the Pamirs, Bokhara, Afghanistan
and Baluchistan. Its course can be traced by deposits with
Triassic fossils. North of it was a land-mass covering the
greater part of China, Siberia and North Russia, to which the
name of Angaraland has been given. Either a southerly
prolongation of the Tethys or a separate sea occupied the
greater part of Burma, for we find Triassic coastal deposits
along the Arakan Yoma ; to the west was land which in all
probability was continuous with the Madras area over what is
now the Bay of Bengal

Separation of Africa from Asia. It was probably during
the Permian epoch that an arm of the Tethys commenced to
extend slowly southwards along the Red Sea over that portion
of the Gondwana continent which now forms the eastern
margin of Africa. Whatever its time of commencement may
have been, we know that during the following Triassic period
it had penetrated as far as the north of Madagascar.

Jurassic. During the next period, the Jurassic, the .face
of Asia changed considerably and the old Gondwana continent
began to break up. The sea-arm from the Tethys pursued its
way to form the Mozambique channel, separating Madagascar
completely (for a time at least) from Africa, and then seems
to have expanded eastwards to produce the major part of the
Indian Ocean including the Bay of Bengal. The land con-
nection between India and Madagascar was maintained still
across the site of the present Arabian Sea. In some deposits
along the east coast of Madras occur a few coastal fossils
of Jurassic age, including an ammonite found in Madagascar
and South Africa. This occurrence affords us a dim picture-"
amply confirmed by evidence from later deposits of a free

216 A SKETCH OP THB GEOLOGY OF INDIA.

sea connection along a continuous coast from this part of
India to Madagascar. The Coromandel coast and a large
portion of the Indian Ocean including the Bay of Bengal,
therefore, date from the Jurassic era. In Burma sea and land
seem to have changed places during this period, the Arakan
Yoma forming a coast to the newly formed Bay of Bengal,
while the eastern parts of Burma became land. This change
was brought about by an E.-W. earth movement, initiating
the N.-S. topography of Burma which has persisted to this
day.

Cretaceous. Of Cretaceous deposits we find patches along
the east coast of Madras just as we do of Jurassic. From
these younger beds, however, an extensive fauna has been
obtained and this is identical not only with that of similar
beds in Madagascar and South Africa but also with that of
beds of the same age in the Shillong plateau of Assam, show-
ing that the old Gondwana coast-line not only persisted from
Madras to Madagascar but extended north-eastwards during
the Cretaceous period as far as the Shillong plateau.

Deccan Trap. Towards the end of Cretaceous times there
commenced a period of disturbance and earth movement which
brought about further striking changes in the geography of
Gondwanaland. A movement from the north caused the
recession of the already dwindled Tethys from Central Asia,
and initiated the Himalayan chain and the Tibetan plateau
along the northern coast of the continent. At the same time
a continuation of the movement from the east elevated the
Shan plateau and raised the Arakan Yoma above the level of
the sea. These movements in their early stages were ac-
companied by the outpouring of floods of basaltic lava on a
colossal scale. This lava, the Deccan Trap, was ejected
through fissures in the Earth's crust and issued in such
quantities that the relics to-day, after millions of years of
denudation, cover over 200,000 square miles in the Bombay

A SKETCH OP THE GEOLOGY Of INDIA. 217

Presidency, Hyderabad, Berar and the Central Provinces and
Central India. Since the eruptions took place along the
flank of the Aravalli watershed, they did not seriously dis-
turb the drainage scheme of the area.

Early Tertiary. During early Tertiary times the slow
rise of the Himalaya along the Tethys coast produced along
its southern flank a gulf which extended as far south-east as
the meridian of Lansdowne, At its north-western end it
curved southwards to enter the Arabian Sea which was formed
about this time in the following way. As a result probably
of earth movement, a large block of Gondwanaland west of what
is now the Bombay coast was broken off and submerged beneath
the waves. The age of the Malabar coast and the Arabian Sea
is, therefore, probably early Tertiary ; some small coastal deposits
near Quilon with early Tertiary fossils confirm this. The straight-
ness of this coast-line and its lack of indentation are due to this
fracture or faulting and to its comparatively recent age. The
same cause brought about the truncation of the Aravalli drainage,
and for this reason all the important rivers of Madras and
Southern Bombay are easterly flowing and rise within a few
miles of the west coast ; they are in fact but the lower portions
of older rivers which ros'e in the old Aravalli watershed
further west. The disjunction of the submerged part of -the
continent was assisted by faults in other directions; one of
these seems to have coincided with the southern boundary of
the Kathiawar Peninsula and to have initiated the Narbada,
the middle section of which has an unusually straight
course.

Petroleum Deposits. In the early Tertiary gulf of the
Punjab were accumulated the petroleum deposits which are
now being exploited in the Pindigheb district. Similar gulfs,
in which petroleum deposits were formed a little later on,
were also produced further east, one passing up into Assam
from the Bay of Bengal, and the other up what are now the

218 A SKETCH OP THE GEOLOGY OP INDIA.

Irrawaddy and Chindwin valleys. Thus originated the Digboi
oilfield of Upper Assam and the rich oilfields of Yenangyaung
and Singu in Burma.

Initiation of Rivers. As the Himalayan chain continued
to rise, the gulf along its base became silted up and gave
place to a river, the lower section of which coincided with
part of the modern Indus. The gulf in Burma also silted up
and was also replaced by a river coinciding with the present
Irrawaddy and its chief tributary, the Chindwin. This old
Chindwin-Irrawaddy River is thought to have been continuous
with the Tibetan part of the Brahmaputra, the Tsangpo,
which was subsequently captured by the backward cutting
of the Brahmaputra proper, i.e., the Assam Brahmaputra.
The compressional movement which piled up the Himalayan
chain produced a deep trough in front of it which was
simultaneously filled and is still being filled with river sedi-
ments. The movement is, in all probability, still persisting
and the Himalaya still rising.

XVL

THE WEATHER OF INDIA.

BY

C. W. B. NORMAND, M.A., D.SC.,
Director-General of Obscwatories, Simla.

1. Contrasts and Seasons. India presents as great con-
trasts in meteorological conditions as any area of similar size
in the world, and furnishes the typical large-scale example of
the alternation of seasons known as monsoons. The con-
trasts are striking. In the north-west lies the great Rajputana
desert with average annual rainfall of less than 5 inches; in
the north-east is Cherrapunji with an average annual rainfall
of 430 inches. The observatory at Dras in Kashmir has
recorded a temperature as low as 49F. ; that at Jacobabad
has several times registered 126 and over. Hill stations in
the Himalayas, such as Simla, may be shrouded in cloud for
days together in September with humidities of 100 per cent.,
but in November may be overrun with air of practically zero
humidity. The mean annual range of temperature at Cochin
in South India, 20F., is less than the daily range at many
stations in North India and only about one-third of their
annual range. During the winter third of the year the general
flow of the surface air strata is from land to sea and thence
over the Indian Seas as a north-east monsoon; it is a season
of winds of continental origin and great dryness. The
summer third of the year sees a complete reversal of this
condition in a flow from sea to land of the moist winds of
the south-west monsoon; this consequently is a season of
much humidity and cloud and frequent rain. Between these

( 219 )

220 WR WEATHER OP INDIA.

principal seasons of the year are the transitional periods of
the hot weather months, April and May, and of the retreat-
ing south-west monsoon, October and November. The causes
determining the monsoon cui rents are many and complex but
the fundamental cause is certainly the difference of tempera-
ture in the winter and summer months respectively between
Southern Asia en the one hand and the Indian Ocean and
China Seas on the other.

2. The north-east monsoon is fully established in the
Indian land and sea areas in the beginning of January, when
temperature is lowest in the Asiatic continent. There is then
a belt of high pressure wit'h anti-cyclonic conditions stretch-
ing from the West Mediterranean to Central Asia and North-
East China. Clear, skies, fine weather, low humidity, large
diurnal range of temperature, and light, northerly winds are
the usual features of the weather in India during this period,
broken only at intervals by weather disturbances which pass
eastwards across Persia and Northern India, often into China.
These disturbances are ordinarily less intense than, but similar
in type to, the depressions of European latitudes. The pre-
cipitation accompanying them is small in amount, but very
important for the winter crops. Some in their eastward
passage give light rains over the whole of Northern India,
while others which confine their activity to the extreme north
give moderate to heavy rain in the Punjab plains and heavy
snowfall in the higher Himalayas. The disturbances are at-
tended with marked temperature effects, a rise occurring in
front of them, while in the rear unusually dry clear weather
prevails as a rule with stronger and cooler westerly winds.
During this period of the year, rainfall is greatest in the
north-west and decreases towards the south and east; dry
weather prevails generally in the Peninsula and South Burma.
The distribution of temperature is almost similar to that of
rainfall, weather being colder in the north-west than in the
east and south.

WIND CURRENTS
JANUARY.

THE WEATHER OP INDIA. 221

3. The hot weather period of March to May is one of

continuous increase of temperature and decrease of baro-
metric pressure in North India, of continuous decrease of
temperature in the South Indian Ocean and adjacent land areas
of Africa and Australia and of intensification of the southern
anti-cyclonic high pressure area. There occurs a steady
transference northward of the area of greatest heat in India,
and simultaneously of the equatorial belt of low pressure of
the winter season. In March the highest day temperatures,
about 100 F. t occur in the Deccan ; in April the area ot
highest day temperatures, from 100 to 110, lies over the
south of the Central Provinces and Gujarat; while in May
the seat of greatest heat is Northern India, and especially tlv
north-west desert, where day temperatures of 120F. or over
are not infrequent. The area of lowest pressure also lies then
over North-west India, with a trough stretching thence m
Chota Nagpur. A local air circulation, with this trough as
centre, exists over India and causes indraughts from the
adjacent seas of southerly winds across the Bengal coast and
of north-westerly winds across the Bombay coast. The land
and sea winds give rise to large contrasts of temperature and
humidity and consequently to violent local storms, especially
m Bengal, where they are usually called " nor'-westers."
These are sometimes of tornadic intensity and very destruc-
tive.

4. The South-west Monsoon. Towards the end of May
the air circulation over India becomes more and more
vigorous, until, almost abruptly, the south-east trade winds
from south of the equator are induced northwards into the
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal and caught up in the Indian
circulation. In most years this humid current, or the south-
west monsoon, bursts on the Malabar coast during the first
five days of June. It gradually extends northwards and is
usually established over most of the Indian area by the end
of June. The orographical features of India are of great
importance in modifying the flow of the monsoon currents

222 THE WEATHER OF INDIA.

and the distribution of monsoon rainfall. The mountain
ranges to the east and north of India are equivalent to two
sides of a box, through the other two sides of wbich the
monsoon currents stream. The southerly or Bay of Bengal
current is naturally deflected by the two sides of the box
northwards through Burma, and then westwards up the
Gangetic Plain. The Arabian Sea Current surmounts the
Ghats on the west coast, causes copious rain there, advances
over the Deccan and Central Provinces, and generally meets
the Bay of Bengal current along the line of the trough of low
pressure, which normally extends from Orissa to North-west
India. Depressions which both intensify the monsoon rainfall
and tend to concentrate it in their vicinity occasionally form
in the north of the Bay and move along this trough. Further
the trough is not stationary but moves north or south of the
normal position and affects the rainfall distribution as it
moves. Consequently the monsoon period is not one of con-
tinuous rain in any part of India. Bursts of general rain
alternate with breaks partially or generally as the case may
be. The pulsatory character of this action and of the rainfall
precipitation is one of the most important features of the
monsoon period meteorologically, as it is also economically
for the proper growth of the crops. On the average, it may
be said that the strength of the currents and the accompany-
ing rainfall increase from June to July and remain steady till
about the end of August. The monsoon then begins to retreat
trom Northern India. The table below shows the general
distribution of rainfall month by month from May to October
over the Indian land area :

Inches.
May 2'6 .

June - 7'1

July 11-3

August "95

September 6'8

October 31

WIND CURRENTS
JULY.

THE WEATHER OP INDIA. 223

There are four important variations from the normal in
the monsoon rains over the country; firstly, the commence-
ment of, rains may be considerably delayed over the whole or a
large part of India : secondly, there may be prolonged break
or breaks lasting over the greater part of July or August;
thirdly, the rains may terminate considerably earlier than
usual, and lastly the rains may be determined more largely
than usual towards one part of the country than towards
another. Consequences of the third variation are occasionally
very serious and lead to disastrous famines, while the fourth
constitutes the most common abnormality.

5. The retreating South-west Monsoon. The second
half of the wet season forms a transition period leading up to the
establishment of the conditions of the dry winter season.
This transition begins in the early part of October and is
usually not completed until mid-December. The Arabian Sea
monsoon current retreats southward^ from Rajputana, Gujarat
and the Deccan by a series of intermittent actions. The Bay
of Bengal current retreats similarly down the Gangetic Plain.
The low pressure conditions previously prevailing in North
India are obliterated by October, are transferred to the centre
of the Bay at the beginning of November and to the south
of the Bay by the beginning of December, By the end of
that month the belt of low pressure usually passes out of
the Bay limits into the equatorial belt where it forms a per-
manent feature of the meteorology of the Indian Ocean during
the next five months. Similar conditions obtain in the
Arabian Sea also. This retreat is associated with dry weather
in Northern India but with more or less general rain on the
Madras coast districts and over the eastern half of the
Peninsula, w'here October and November are often the
rainiest months of the year.

6. Rainfall Variations. From the foregoing description
as well as from table A below, it will be understood that the
distribution of rainfall over India depends largely on its

224 THE WEATHER OF INDIA.

orographical features. If the hills and mountains of India
were effaced, the country would receive much less rainfall and
would not be able to support its present population. It will
also be seen that the rainiest season in most provinces is the
monsoon period, June to September ; that rainfall during the
cold weather is scanty but essential for the production of
wheat crops over Northern India, and that the important rains
in South-east Madras are those of October to December.
Stress has also been laid on the great variability of monsoon
rainfall in time and space in any one year. The variations in
the amount of precipitation received from year to year are
also surprisingly large. The annual rainfall of the Indian
region, excluding Burma, is 40 inches and variations from this
normal as great as + 9 inches and 11 inches occurred in
J893 and 1899 respectively. Long breaks in the monsoon or
an abrupt termination of rains is disastrous to crops and pro-
duces droughts or famines. These droughts occur particularly in
the interior districts, the percentage variability of annual
rainfall being 100 per cent, or even more in North-West India
and parts of the Deccan. Droughts due to the failure of
winter rains affect mostly the Punjab and the Gangetic
Plain.

On the other hand, tracts of country are sometimes
deluged with rain and suffer distress through excessive
flooding. These heavy downpours occur chiefly near the
tracks of the cyclonic depressions of the monsoon months or
of t'he cyclones that occasionally advance inland from the
Bay of Bengal or Arabian Sea. A fall of 10 inches to 20 inches
in a day is by no means a rare occurrence. The heaviest ever
recorded in the plains in 24 hours is 35 inches at Purnea in
Bihar.

7. Cyclones. At a time when the general meteorology
of India was unknown, Henry Piddington laid the foundations
of our knowledge of the storms of the Indian Seas and intro-
duced the word cyclones to connote them. In these storms,

THE W&ATHBR OP INDIA. 225

oval or circular in shape, the air moves in converging spirals
in a left-handed direction against the hands of a clock. The
winds become fiercer and fiercer as the centre is approached
and reach hurricane force near it. In the innermost central
zone of some ten miles diameter the wind suddenly falls off
to a calm or light air, and the barometric pressure there often
marks an inch, and sometimes as much as two inches, below
normal. Cyclones generally die away soon after they reach
land, but in the coastal districts which they touch may cause
great havoc through high winds, torrential rain and, most
destructive of all in low-lying districts, storm waves. The
latter are due to the huge masses of sea-water swept forward
by the storms and, when aided by a high tide, may inundate
low-lying land to a depth of 20 feet. The storm wave accom-
panying the Bakarganj cyclone of 1876 was one of the most
destructive on record ; about a hundred thousand people were
drowned in half-an-hour on the alluvial flats of the Meghna,
while an equal number died from epidemics of fever, cholera
and other diseases, which almost invariably follow a storm
wave. The principal cyclone months in bot'h the Arabian Sea
and Bay of Bengal are May, October and November. They
may also occur in April, September and December, and,
particularly in the Arabian Sea, in June on the advancing
front of monsoon air.

8. Temperature and Climates. Temperature is perhaps,
next to rainfall, the most important feature of meteorological
observations in India from the economic standpoint. During
one part of the year from January to May or June the
increase of temperature by solar action is greater than t'he
loss by radiation and other actions, and hence temperature
rises more or less steadily in conformity with the increasing
elevation of the sun. During the remainder of the year, the
balance is the other way and temperature steadily decreases
from June or July to December. Though, in most countries
July and August are as hot as, or hotter than, June, the
similar phenomenon is prevented in India by the cloud ami

15

228

WEATHHR OP INDIA.

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XVII.

INDIAN ART.

BY

W. E. G. SOLOMON,
Principal, Sir Janisctji Jcejlbhoy Scliool of Art.

THE present is a time of lively progress in art, as the
visitor to India will easily discover for himself. The wonderful
excavations by the Archaeological Department in Sincl bid fair
to antedate our knowledge of Indian Art by many niilleniiims,
and must tend greatly to modify the existing histories of this
subject; while the vigorous public interest in art which has be-
come prevalent in India (more especially in Western India) has
converted " the Indian Art Renaissance " as it has been called,
into something more than a mere figure of speech. This growth
of interest in Indian Art is of very recent origin ; Mr. E. B.
Ha veil is frequently mentioned as the man who in the first place
" started the ball rolling " by his well-known books, which re-
awakened interest in the Art of Ancient India. But in fixing
dates in this matter it would be safe to say that the inauguration
of a School of Art in India (1854) was one of the first outward
and visible signs that Indian ^Esthetics and Art were to be
encouraged once more after the dreary dearth of patronage
which followed the palmy days of Shahjehan. In 1854, the
" Sir J. J. School of Art/' now the most comprehensive School
of Arts and Crafts in India, was started on a very modest scale,
through the liberality of the late Sir Jamsetji Jeejibhoy, first(
baronet, in Bombay; and soon other Government Art School*
were founded in Lahore, Calcutta, Madras and Lucknow.

( 231 )

232 INDIAN ART.

Facts like these will be sufficient to apprise the enquirer,
who may already know something about Indian Art, that the
difference in the conditions which exist in the India of to-day
as compared with those in the distant Past is in some respects
comparable to that between Hellenic Art and the " Art Nouveau "
of Europe! When one examines the paintings and sculptures
of the Ajanta Caves which were produced during the first six
centuries of the Christian Era, or allows one's imagination to
run riot among the marvellous ruck-cut temples of Ellora one
can easily visualise ancient Buddhist and Hindu India as a vast
Museum of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. Even though
Indian History between the tenth and the sixteenth centuries
reveals an almost complete cessation of the practice of the Fine
Arts for six hundred years, the Pageant of Indian Art is con-
tinued for us by the study of the Mohammedan revival,
the flourishing period of Moghal Painting, and its
parallel Rajput, or as some prefer to term them Hindu
Schools. The glowing phases of Indian Art at which we have
glanced have been periods in which as in Europe the patron
played his part as strenuously as the artist played his. Shah-
jehan was able, we are told, to employ 20,000 men to build the
Taj Mahal, and to spend enormous sums merely upon the
scaffolding for the building to say nothing of what was
expended upon that most wonderful monument itself, facts which
illustrate the achievements of the " gorgeous East " in the
seventeenth century, and seem also to limit the possibilities of
attainment in the prosaic Present. But having once succeeded
in mentally adjusting these historical values, which are so palp-
ably defined, the visitor to India will be able to realise (unless he
belongs to the fortunately decreasing school of Pessimists) that
Indian Art is in truth a modern actuality! It would be impos-
sible within the scope of this brief survey to give even the most
cursory description of the strange and complex beauty of the
various Schools of Ancient Indian Painting. Varied though
they are, through them all runs that highly individualistic point
of view which seems to unite Buddhist Painting, Gupta
Sculpture and Moghul Architecture as links in no common chain.

INDIAN ART. 233

The hall-mark of India is indelibly stamped upon her artistic
monuments, in spite of certain eclectic influences. It is only
when we approach nearer to the present day that the current
coin of Indian Art appears to be noticeably mingled with the
alloy of "Foreign Influence." However, in Indian villages of
the remoter districts, in some of the Indian Art Schools, and in
Indian Art Exhibitions, this fundamental and distinct point of
view which is so fascinating, so characteristically Indian, still
exists though always unorganised, and often unrecognised.
Acquaintance with the country will make this miracle of an
ancient art's survival no miracle at all, for a glimpse of an
[ndian Bazaar, or a view of a Religious Festival will reveal to
us the persistence of this same deeply-rooted national viewpoint
which permeates the domains of religion, literature and popular
belief.

In Europe the vanishing Art Patron of the Middle Ages
was partially if far les* elastically replaced by the mobilised
art patronage of the Academies. But in India both Academies
and Salons are absent, and the small but lively Art Societies are
the chief points of focus for anything like organised effort in
the Fine Arts. The Simla Fine Arts (the oldest), the Bombay
Art Society (the largest) and the Art Societies of Calcutta,
Madras, Anclhra (Southern India), Naini Tal, and others hold
annual exhibitions of pictures, sculpture, architecture and photo-
graphy. Public opinion in Art is chiefly felt in India to-day
in Bombay and \Vestern India, which may well be termed the
cockpit of controversies on this subject, and where public interest
in art is really strongly developing. Bengal is still the spiritual
home of " Belles Letters," and the excellent books on art which
emanate from that poetic Province demonstrate the interest of
at least the intellectuals in the subject; while the paintings of
Avanindranath Tagore, Nancl Lai Bose, and others are justly
celebrated in India and Europe. These are main and easily
attainable channels of Art Culture in India to-day. It is in the
backwaters those still reaches, untroubled by the ripples of
Modernism that the active but inarticulate Art of India most
widely, if silently manifests itself. Not everyone indeed very

234 INDIAN ART.

few Europeans can find their way into the deep jungles, to
track to his haunt in the forests of Kanara, or on the plains of
Sind, or in the remoter regions of Southern India the true sur-
vivor of the artist-stock of Ajanta. The beautiful products of
these hidden and humble but highly talented men and women
(so inevitably exploited by the middlemen) can only be seen
within the towns (ivories, woodcarving, embroideries, etc.) ;
where they can be purchased at five, eight, or ten times the
price which the patient genius who executed them received for
the work. Hence the value of the Indian Art Schools as hunt-
ing grounds for the seeker after Indian talent, for an Art School
naturally acts as a magnet to the more ambitious of the fraternity
of the indigenous artists of India. In the Bombay School of
Art, for instance, are congregated over six hundred Indian
students of Mural Painting, Portrait Painting, Designing,
Modelling, Carving, Carpet Weaving, Brass and Iron Work,
Engraving, Jewellery and Architecture. Even if one is inclined
to endorse the fierce disapproval of Art Schools (as a genus)
by such determined critics as Segantini, the artist, or George
Moore, the writer, it is still essential to pay these centres of
juvenile talent a visit if one would understand the trend of the
Indian genius in the arts and crafts to-day. Such a visit has
converted many a pessimistic theorist into a practical optimist
as to the future of Indian Art.

As to those present-day controversies on Indian Art which
are so strongly agitating the public in Western India, and dis-
tracting the learned of Bengal and Madras the most casual
visitor to some of the centres of art education mentioned wi!!
probably discover that there is but one controversy on Art. The
Western stranger in India of course wants to see Oriental Art,
which, so far as painting is concerned, he does not very often
buy unless it carries a date with it! On the other hand the
Indian patron often prefers Western pictures and portraits.
So the Indian artist (after the approved manner of his kind the
world over) paints for preference work that is wanted, and
ignores the accusations of those who have recently discovered
that an Artist if he happens to be Indian must paint in " Indian

INDIAN ART. 235

Style." The issue between the^e two the silent ability of the
Indian Artist versus his extremely voluble public critics will
amuse, if it fails to instruct, the casual enquirer. To the artists,
however, such a controversy as every artist knows may easily
reach a point at which it adds one more burden to the shoulders
of those whose calling is already in India especially sufficiently
onerous. Such being the case the best and most sympathetic
course is to recall and apply the Poet's tribute to wise Sir Joshua
Reynolds :

"When they talked of their Raphael*, Correggios, and stuff,
He shifted his trumpet, and only took bnufl: ! "

XVIII.

MEDICAL, RESEARCH AND EDUCATIONAL

INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

IN such an extended and thickly populated country as India
'there are naturally a very large number of institutions, medical
:and otherwise. So far as medical institutions go we may classify
them as Hospitals (including also Special Hospitals, Mental
Hospitals, Leper Asylums, Sanatoria, etc.), Medical Colleges and
'Schools, Medical Research Institutions with Pasteur and Vaccine
Institutes and Public Health Laboratories, Medical Health and
Research Associations and Societies, and in respect to Veterinary
Science, Veterinary Research Institutes, Veterinary Colleges and
other Veterinary Institutions. In addition to medical and veteri-
nary institutions proper are institutions of a scientific character
other than medical, some having a definite relation to medicine
such as the Chemical Examiners' Departments, Agricultural
Research Institutes, Meteorological, Zoological and Botanical
Institutions, etc. There are again general educational and other
institutions which may have an indirect bearing on Medicine such
as Science and Technical Educational Institutions, the Universities
and Colleges, Learned Societies, Libraries, Museums, etc.

In what follows a very brief account is given of the more
important of these various institutions, more especially the purely
medical, from which the method of origin and nature of activities,
etc., of such in general may in some small degree be gathered.
The accounts, however, are far too brief ( which was unavoidable)
to give a true view of the often highly individual activities of these
bodies, a defect which the reader may allow for if he sees at work
even an ordinary District or Mission Hospital in their due setting.
Nor can the section even claim completeness within the limits
stated above, for owing to briefness of time available for the
compilation of such a note, very many important institutions

( 237 )

238 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

worthy of mention must undoubtedly have been entirely omitted,
there being no easy method of obtaining a complete list of such
known to the writer. In putting forward the section the. writer
desires to express his thanks to the Local Secretaries who
furnished him with lists and suggestions and also to those in
charge of Institutions, etc., who were good enough, no doubt
often at some inconvenience or loss of time, to write brief accounts
for inclusion. These accounts, owing to the demands of space,
in some cases have been a little curtailed, but it is hoped nothing
of importance has been omitted. Space has also made it desirable
in these short accounts to omit mention of the names of those in
charge or upon the staff except in a very few cases where there
was some very special reason for doing so.

I. HOSPITALS, SPECIAL HOSPITALS AND
DISPENSARIES.

Hospitals are naturally most aggregated in the large
Presidency Cities but there is generally at least one largish
hospital at the headquarter town of a district. Besides these
there are dispensaries many of which have accommodation for a
certain number of in-patients. The number of such public
hospitals and dispensaries in India was, in 1924, 3,669 and the
number of patients treated annually approximately 40 millions
(in-patients 657,820, out-patients 37,401,566). There are in
addition to the above the numerc.us Military Hospitals (British
and Indian Station Hospitals, Family and Cantonment Hospitals,
etc.), a large number of Mission Hospitals and privately endowed
hospitals, as also hospitals in connection with Jails, Police, Canals,
Railways, etc. The total number of State special, Railway and
private owned non-aided Civil Hospitals and Dispensaries was in
1924, 1,506 and the number of patients treated by these 8,205,784.

There are 22 Mental Hospitals in India accommodating in
1924 9,712 patients (7,771 male, 1,941 female). A peculiarity
of India is the existence of special hospitals for purdah women.
Arranged by Provinces the following are hospitals or such like
institutions that for one reason or another may be specially
mentioned.

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 239

ASSAM.

Welsh Mission Hospital, Shillong, was opened in 1922
and is 'situated in a good climate at an elevation of 5,000 feet. It
has 150 beds, a European block, maternity ward, X-rays, electro-
therapeutics, modern operating theatre, modern sanitary arrange-
ments. There are 40 Kliasi nurses working under the super-
vision of three European sisters. Nurses attend both male and
female patients ; there are no dressers and no sweepers.
There is hot and cold water, modern bathrooms and electric
lighting throughout.

Patients from all parts of Assam are treated. Cases of
enteric, B. coli infection and tuberculosis are prevalent. Gastric
and Duodenal Ulcer, Urino-genital and Orthopaedic work, as also
Gynaecology and Obstetrics are prominent features.

Tezpur Mental Hospital, Tezpur, Assam, accommodates
441 patients but after reconstruction, which is now proceeding,
room for 850 will be provided. In many ways its population is
unique owing to the large coolie population imported from other
provinces in India, and to tbe inclusion of many hill tribes within
the administrative limits of the province. The tribes and castes
which this hospital receives include the following: Assamese
proper, residents of Sylhet and Cachar, coolie castes, hill tribes,
e.g., Dtiflla, Aka, Abor, Miri, Mishmi, Nagas, Manipuri, Kuki,
Iviishai, Khasia, Gara and Mikir. The language difficulty here
must be obvious.

Special Kala-azar Ward at the King Edward VII
Memorial Pasteur Institute and Research Institute. Refrac-
tory cases of kala-azar who bave failed to obtain a cure at
treatment centres are largely dealt with. The ward is very popular
and* the latest knowledge in the treatment of kala-azar by antimonial
compounds is always to be found here.

Field Kala-azar Treatment Centres. These are centres,
many of them temporary and lasting only so long as the prevalence
of kala-azar calls for them, scattered throughout the kala-azar
affected areas of Assam. They are placed in the rural areas as
well as in towns and are made therefore especially accessible.

240 MHDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

Over 50,000 cases of the disease, the majority of which are
permanently cured, are treated annually.

BENGAL.

Medical College Hospital, Calcutta. Originally started
in 1838. Enlarged in 1852 when it was moved to its present site.
Now has over 300 beds. The Eden Lying Hospital, the Ezra
Hospital for Jews and the Eye Infirmary were subsequently
added to it. Closely associated with it are the Calcutta Medical
College and Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine with its special
wards. Much of the famous work of Sir Leonard Rogers was
carried out at this hospital.

Presidency General Hospital, Calcutta. For Europeans.
Contains accommodation for 233 patients. Attached to this
hospital is a small laboratory where Sir Ronald Ross carried out
experiments with proteosuma which solved the great malaria
problem.

Campbell Hospital, Sealdah, Calcutta. Has associated
with it the Campbell Medical School. Started in 1867. Is the
largest hospital in India with accommodation for about 800'
patients.

Albert Victor Hospital. Associated with the Carmichael
Medical College, Belgachia. Has accommodation for 100 beds.

BIHAR AND ORISSA.

Ranch! Indian Mental Hospital. Ranch! is the summer
capital of the Government of Bihar and Orissa. The Mental
Hospital is at Kanke 8 miles from Ranchi and 2,300 feet above
sea level. The Hospital covers* 110 acres and accommodates
1,500 patients (1,200 male, 300 female). The Hospital serves
the Provinces of Bengal and Bihar and Orissa and admits all
certified criminal and non-criminal mental cases for treatment as
well as voluntary cases.

The Male section consists of 10 " Q. P." (Quiet Patients)
blocks well fitted with modern appliances, a Refractory Block and
well equipped Infirmary with modern operating theatre. All these-

w

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 241

buildings are provided with the latest sanitary arrangements and
electric light with electric fans in the Infirmaries. The Female
section consists of a Q. P. Block, Refractory Block and Infirmary
of the same size as in the Male section. The Hospital has its
own water supply, electric power house, post, telegraph and
telephone offices, a dairy farm and an enormous vegetable garden.
The medical staff consists of 7 medical officers, the medical
superintendent being an officer of the Indian Medical Service.
The staff includes a lady doctor, matron, 2 nurses and 4 com-
pounders including a female compounder. The attendant staff is
400 including 68 females.

The Purulia Leper Homes and Hospitals. Are situated
201 miles almost west of Calcutta on a fine wooded down 760 feet
above sea level in the district of Manbhum in Chota-Nagpur. An
ea\v night's journey by the Bengal Nagpur Railway from
Calcutta.

The Homes were founded in 1888 by the Rev. H. Uffmann
of the Lutheran Church, who received guidance and all the neces-
sary financial support from the Mission to Lepers of London,
Knglaml. The property to this day continues that of the Mission
t<> Lepers and almost two-thirds of the financial support annually
needed for maintenance is supplied by that Mission. From 1915
onwards, the non- Indian staff has been supplied by the Church
Missionary Society of London and the superintendent has been an
English ordained missionary. In 1926 a fully trained English
nursing sister arrived and this year a qualified English lady
resident doctor.

The effort to eradicate the disease has shown the usual alter-
nations of hope and defeat seen elsewhere. Two members of the
Leprosy Commission of 1891 gave the institution very high praise.
In 1904 Captain Rost's ' Leprolin ' was reported to have com-
pletely cured some anaesthetic cases and greatly improved more
advanced ones. In September 1912 Colonel Drury reported
some improvement liad been noted in most cases in which the
* Nastin ' treatment had been employed. In 1913 however this
treatment was dropped as it is said the patients objected.

16

242 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

' Leprolin ' was tried in 1914 but ' no benefit has been apparent/
In 1915 'Nastin' was again tried with 'doubtful results/ Also
Anti-Leprosy Vaccine on 74 cases "with a beneficial. result in
most cases/' In 1916 ' Alouni/ a preparation of chaulmoogra
oil from Switzerland, was used on 60 cases; 'in some cases
apparently with considerable benefit.'

Dr. Reiser's treatment by intramuscular injections of chaul-
moogra and also Sir Leonard Rogers' Gynocardate of Sodium and
Potassium hyperdermic injections was suggested and of
Dr. Heiser's treatment in 1917 ' in some cases considerable
benefit has been derived/ In 1919, 54 per cent, in eleven cases
strictly observed had markedly improved under Heiser's
treatment.

In 1920, 67 cases were put on Sir L. Rogers' Gynocardate
of Sodium injections. ' Some showed decided improvement.
The genuine results are stated to have been rather disappointing/
Also 6 cases were given Margampuli a preparation made from
the Nim tree. A ' genuine improvement is noted in most cases/

In 1921 Dr. Muir of the School of Tropical Medicine,
Calcutta, began his regular visits to the Homes and R. C. C. O.
treatment was commenced on a large number of cases. 400 500
cases received voluntary treatment once a week. From this time
to the present practically all the experiments with various treat-
ments at the School of Tropical Medicine have gone on here also.
Sub-Assistant Surgeon Isaac Santra was appointed by the Bihar
Government as Research Worker at this Hospital in 1923 and the
Wheeler Research Room opened the same year. From 1921 to
date 99 patients have been discharged * symptom free.' During
the same period no less than 82,453 injections have been given
and at present extensive experiments are being carried out with
Potassium Iodide also.

There were 601 lepers resident in August this year, besides
66 out-patients attending twice weekly from the neighbourhood,
and 63 healthy or recovered children of lepers resident in our
Healthy Children's Homes situated at a distance from the rest of
the Leper Colony. A lakh of rupees has been spent on new
buildings in the last 18 months and the Annual Maintenance

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

243

Expenditure now reaches to Rs. 59,000 plus the cost of three
missionaries' allowances.

The following are some statistics of treatment.

Results of the Anti-Leprosy Treatment at Purulia Leprosy

Hospital.

1921.

1922.

1923.

1924.

1925.

1926.

1927.

Number treated

400

81

148

283

214

256

278

Symptom free

11

4

8

-18

14

19

13

Marked improvement

. . .

25

58

12

18

20

Improvement

51

86

80

138

130

Stationary-

17

57

45

68

75

Getting worse

44

34

63

13

15

Number of inject. ..

15,6?6

7,072

3,780

13,521

13.030

17,210

12,210

Total number of injections 1 ( )21 to July 1<>27, 82,453.
Total number of patients discharged as Symptom Free, 99.

BOMBAY.

St. George's Hospital (European General Hospital),
Bombay. The foundation stone of the present building was
laid in 1889. The Hospital occupies a very central position near
the Alexandra Docks and Victoria Station. It has general and
special wards and is equipped in an up-to-date manner. The
Convalescent Home in connection with this hospital is situated
on the Hill Station Khandalla. The St. George's Hospital
Nursing Association provides a large staff of nurses for the
hospital and also for private out-door work.

The Sir Jamsetji Jeejibhoy Hospital. Built in 1845 at the
joint expense of Sir Jamsetji Jeejibhoy (first baronet) and the
East India Company. Has 250 beds and gives accommodation
mainly for the poorer Indian population of all classes. It has
special buildings for male Parsi patients and for chronic cases.
Adjoining are the Sir Cowasji Jehangir Ophthalmic Hospital, the
Bai Motlabai Obstetric Hospital, Petit Hospital for Women and
Children and the Dwarkadas Lulloobhoy Dispensary. The

244 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

hospital with those adjoining gives clinical facilities to the Grant
Medical College. There is a Nursing Association under charge
of the Sisters of All Saints. There is a fine operation block
known as the Moore Operation Theatre.

Goculdas Tejpal Hospital. Opened in 1874. It is a
general hospital for Indian patients of all denominations. With
the addition of the new Prince of Wales Wards opened by His
Kxcellency the Governor of Bombay on 2nd March, 1027, there is
accommodation for 240 beds. Besides the superintendent and
resident medical officer there is an honorary staff consisting of
Director of Medical Unit, one Director of Surgical Unit, one
Radiologist, one Bacteriologist, one Pathologist and one Chemical
Pathologist. Students from the Grant Medical College attend
for clinical instruction in Medicine and Surgery. Under an
expansion scheme it will shortly be a post-graduate teaching
centre recognised for the purpose of post-graduate study for the
degrees of M.D. and M.S. of the Bombay University.

King Edward VII Memorial Hospital. This Hospital
subscribed to by the people of Bombay as a suitable memorial to
His Majesty King Edward VII is situated in the rapidly develop-
ing northern extension of Bombay. It was formally opened by
His Excellency Sir Leslie Wilson, Governor of Bombay, on 22nd
January, 1926. It is designed on the pavilion system and accom-
modates 334 beds. Its large verandahs are covered in and included
in the wards so as to accommodate at least 100 more beds in case
of emergency. Excluding the value of the free site, the hospital
has cost about Rs. 38 lakhs to construct and about Rs. 5 lakhs to
furnish and equip. Associated with the Hospital is the Seth
Gordhandas Sunderdas Medical College endowed by the Trustees
of the late Seth Gordhandas Sunderdas (sec Medical Schools).

Sir Cowasji Jehangir Ophthalmic Hospital, Bombay.
Was built in 1866. Is intended for the medical relief of poor
people suffering from eye diseases. It is named after Sir Cowasji
Jehangir who contributed very largely towards the erection of the
building. The present Baronet also made a further large contri-
bution towards the new wing added in 1909. There are 8 wards
with 73 beds. The out-patients number over 200 per day. The

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 245

whole Hospital has heen brought up to date with modern and
latest appliances. It is affiliated to the University of Bombay as
a teaching institution for M.B., B.S. and D.O. students and
post-graduate students of the Grant Medical College.

Cama and Allbless Hospitals for Women and Children,
Bombay. These institutions are entirely staffed and managed
by women. The existing accommodation is for 150 beds.
Maternity and its complications represent the special feature of
the work. A day is set apart for Venereal Disease clinics and
ante-natal work. This treatment is very popular and is carried
out in the < >ut-patient Department where the daily average number
of patients exceeds 120. A large number of women living in the
city and suburbs, and especially those classes who wish to be
treated by women, take advantage of the Hospitals.

Nowrosjee Wadia Maternity Hospital, Bombay. This

Hospital situated close to the Seth Gordhandas Sunderdas Medical
College was started to give facilities for confinement to women
of labouring classes in Bombay, particularly in the Mill Industry
and to give training in Midwifery to Medical Students and Nurses.
It was founded by Sir Ness Wadia in 1922 and financed by him
until the end of 1926 when it was taken over by Government and
the Bombay Municipality. It has 135 beds of which 10 are set
aside for delivery.

Arthur Road Isolation Hospital for Infectious Diseases,
Bombay.

Police Hospital, Bombay.

Sassoon Hospital, Poona.

Civil Hospitals at Karachi, Belgaum and Ahmedabad.

Central Mental Hospital, Yeravda, Bombay. This is the

chief mental hospital in the Bombay Presidency and is situated in
the open country 5 miles from Poona. There are sections for
Europeans, Parsis and Indians, the total number of patients
accommodated being 415 males and 215 females. The design
consists of a large number of separate blocks covering an exten-
sive area and grouped round the central administrative buildings.
The activities of the Hospital consist in the general treatment of

246 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

all types of mental disease as found in the Presidency, the most
important being maniac-depressive insanity, dementia prsecox and
the toxaemia of Canabis indica. Hydro-therapeutic treatment has
lately been introduced and is proving highly beneficial. There are
facilities for occupational treatment and a special effort is being
made to increase the opportunities of recreation for recovering
cases.

N. M. Mental Hospital, Thana.

The Acworth Leper Asylum, Matunga, Bombay. Was
founded in the year 1890. It provides accommodation for the
segregation of 364 pauper lepers. The Asylum is maintained by
joint contributions from Government and the Bombay Municipal
Corporation.

A Hindu Temple, a Mahommedan Mosque, two churches,
one Roman Catholic, the other Church of England, a Co-opera-
tive Store, a Cricket pitch, a Football ground, a Badminton
court, a School for leper children, a Model cinema and a hot-
water boiler for bathing may be mentioned among the amenities
provided for the inmates. A garden, a sewage farm and a
carpenter's shop provide work for those who wish to work and
they are paid a small allowance which they use in buying small
luxuries from the Co-operative Store conducted by the lepers in
the asylum grounds.

Treatment of leprosy on modern principles is employed.
All the wards have been provided with the latest sanitary arrange-
ments. The sewage of the asylum is disposed of in the asylum
ground by means of a septic tank. Food is cooked and served
and clothes washed by healthy servants. Mattresses are dis-
infected every quarter. The staff have been provided with free
quarters in the asylum premises. No case of leprosy has occur-
red among them in the 37 years that have elapsed since the
Asylum was founded.

BURMA.

Rangoon General Hospital. Was opened for the recep-
tion of patients in 1854. The present hospital building was
occupied on the 4th April, 1911.

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 247

Accommodation is provided in the main building paying
wards and subsidiary wards for 540 patients. There is a well
equipped , out-patient department with special sections for diseases
of the eye, venereal diseases and leprosy. A new building has
recently been opened for X-ray examinations and electro-thera-
peutics for the 'study of morbid anatomy. The laundry is fitted
with modern machinery and is in charge of a manager who has
been trained in England.

The average number of patients treated during the past
three years is as follows :

Year. In-patients. Out-patients.

1924 .. .. 11,075 80,934

1925 .. .. 11,578 80,216

1926 .. .. 11,649 81,882

The Hospital provides for the treatment of all gynaecological
cases, surgical cases, general medical cases, children's diseases
and diseases of the eye.

The Dufferin Hospital, Rangoon. The Dufferin Hospital
was formerly a Maternity Hospital, managed by the Countess of
Dufferin Kund for Supplying Medical Aid to the Women of India.
It has now been taken over by the Burma Association for Supply-
ing Medical Aid to the Women of Burma and is managed by a
Committee appointed by the Council of that Association. It is
being enlarged and rebuilt by funds supplied by the Local
Government. The Hospital depends largely upon Government
for funds but is supported to some extent by subscriptions from
local bodies and the general public. When completed there
will be 120 beds for maternity cases and 80 beds for gynaecolo-
gical rases. The Hospital is a training school for medical
students and mid wives.

The Rangoon Mental Hospital. The Mental Hospital
serves the whole Province of Burma and the Shan States for
the reception and care of all new cases of insanity requiring
institutional care and treatment. There is a small subsidiary
mental hospital for 130 chronic cases at Minbu in order to relieve

248 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

the Rangoon Mental Hospital of a proportion of its chronic
cases.

The number of persons under treatment in 1926 was 1,194.
Patients are at present treated in Rangoon partly in the old
Mental Hospital established in 1871 and partly in the new Mental
Hospital now tinder construction.

The former institution started on a very small scale housing
only 100 cases who had been collected in jails where they used
to be taken care of when homeless or unmanageable.

The new Mental Hospital is being laid out in five sections
enclosed by a wall outside of which are the areas for the staff
quarters, grazing of cattle, vegetable garden, etc.

The Mandalay General Hospital. The present site was
purchased in 1889 situated in Fort Divfferin which were
demolished. The Hospital was occupied in 1890. In 1895 a
Children's ward was constructed and quarters for nurses were
added. Tn 1 C K)3 the new Out-patient Department and a Dispensary
were added to the Hospital. In 1905 a Maternity Department
was added and in 1908 a new Ophthalmic ward was completed.
In 1926 the construction of a new Women and Children's block
was started and is now Hearing completion. A new scheme for
the complete reorganisation and reconstruction of the Hospital
has been drawn up by a Committee formed for the purpose.
This scheme provides for 382 beds comprising the following
buildings three male blocks, an X-ray and Operation Theatre
block, an Administration block, an Eye Out-patient Department,
Isolation wards, and quarters for the staffs. The average
number of out-patients at present being treated is about 31,000
per year, in-patients about 5,000.

Queen Alexandra Children's Hospital, Mandalay. This is
a small children's hospital organised by the Winchester Mission.
It consists of 30 beds and is supported entirely by voluntary
contributions and is administered by the Winchester Mission,
S. P. G. The Hospital was built and opened in August 1921,
Government providing a grant of 50,000 rupees as its part of
contribution. The average number of out-patients treated per
year is about 3,000 and in-patients about 200.

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 249

The General Hospital, Bassein, has accommodation for
87 males and 28 females. The daily average out-door attendance
is 80 males and 71 females. The average in-door attendance
is 66.

The General Hospital, Akyab. Besides Rangoon, Akyab
is one (if the few towns in Burma that possesses a modern
hospital. It is situated outside the congested areas of the town
and is easily accessible from all parts. There are altogether nine
blocks of buildings laid out in the form of a U facing west.
The average number of patients treated annually is in-door 62
rind out-door 150. The total number of beds is 131.

The General Hospital, MoulmeJn. This Hospital was
opened in 1877. It consists of a long compact single building
with a central block and two wings on either side. The building
is a wooden two-storeyed structure lying north to south and
facing west. The average number of in-patients per year is
about 3,000 and out-patients about 18,000.

Leper Asylum, Rangoon. Is situated on either side of
Hanthawaddy Road off Prome Road. To the south of the road
is the male section, to the north the female. The Asylum is
managed by the Roman Catholic Mission. There is accommo-
dation for 180 patients.

Leper Asylums, Mandalay. There are two Leper

Asylums in Mandalay, one managed by the Catholic Mission and
the other by the Protestant Mission to Lepers.

Leper Asylum, Moulmein. The Asylum is run by the
Protestant Mission to Lepers.

CENTRAL PROVINCES.

Mayo Hospital, Nagpur. This is the principal Hospital
of the Province. It has 178 beds and an addition of 40 beds
for maternity and gynecological cases is in view from September
next. It provides clinical material for the teaching of students
of the Robertson Medical College. It has Honorary Physicians
and Surgeons and special department, Dental, Eye, Ear, Nose
and Throat, in charge of Honorary Specialists in these subjects

250 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

A centre for anti-rabic treatment was opened in 1923. Nursing
classes were instituted in 1925 and these will shortly meet the
demand of the Province for trained nurses.

Victoria Hospital, Jubbulpore. The Hospital is centrally
situated in about ten acres of ground consisting of three parallel
stone and brick buildings, each having an upper storey. The
middle block was constructed in the year 1876. Cases including
maternity and from all classes are admitted. There are three
other blocks of buildings for paying patients and for chronic
cases. The block for the latter is of the pavilion type. There
is a well equipped operation theatre, X-ray Department, and a
Pathological Department where anti-rabic treatment is also
carried out. Cataract and Stone cases are the commoner major
operation. The Hospital staff consists of an officer of the
I. M. S. and five assistants, four nurses, and three michvives.
The Hospital has its own electrical installation.

Mental Hospital, Nagpur. There were two Lunatic
Asylums in the Central Provinces up to 1910, one at Nagpur
and one at Jubbulpore. In 1910 the Jubbulpore Asylum was
amalgamated with the Nagpur Asylum, which is now the only
Institution where insane patients are admitted from the Central
Provinces and Berar and Central Indian States. There is
accommodation for 312 males and 126 female patients including
accommodation for 8 paying patients. There is .special accom-
modation for patients suffering from tuberculosis where they
can be kept separate from the others. There are two vegetable
gardens including a Farm and Dairy and Weaving.

DELHI.

Lady Hardinge Hospital (for Women). In connection
with the Lady Hardinge Medical College for Women, the
Hospital, built on the block system, contains 210 free beds,
divided between the medical, surgical, gynaecology and mid-
wifery, and eye, nose, throat and ear units with private
wards and European rooms and operating theatres attached.
The large Out-patients Department contains also X-ray, Electrical
and Eye Departments. Twenty-six family or Indian cottage

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 251

wards provide accommodation for a patient's relatives to reside
with her during her treatment in hospital. Women and children
come not only from Delhi but from long distances for treatment.
The prevalence in the district of osteomalachia with resultant
gross bony deformities means for a number of patients long
treatment dietetic, medical and manipulative, and the perform-
ance of a number of Caesarian sections.

MADRAS.

Government General Hospital) Madras. The first British
Hospital in Madras was founded on November the 10th, 1664,
and until 1899, when handed over entirely to the Civil Govern-
ment, this Hospital treated both Military patients from the
Garrison and Civil patients from the town. Amongst the
contributors to an earlier hospital built in 1692 was the Governor
Elihu Yale who later on founded Yale University in America.
The present hospital was built in 1753, plans for its erection
having been prepared soon after the Siege of Madras by the
French and after the City bad suffered severely from a cyclone
which wrought much havoc to the existing hospital. The General
Hospital has accommodation for 510 patients, Kuropean and
Indian, in tbe general wards; and has also 18 private paying
wards, primarily intended for Government servants. A scheme
has recently been sanctioned for completely remodelling and
adding to the present hospital at a cost of Rs. 39 J lakhs. The
scheme provides for a complete modern Out-patients Department
(to include special facilities for the treatment of Leprosy and
Skin Diseases), a new Venereal Department, a Radiological
Department and new Operation Theatres.

The General Hospital is the main clinical teaching institution
for the Madras Medical College, the 500 students of which pass
through the wards of the Hospital and receive appointments as
surgical dressers, medical clerks, etc.

Until recent years, the senior staff of the Hospital has been
found from amongst the members of the Indian Medical Service
whose work has added much to the knowledge of Tropical
Diseases. Of more recent workers, Col. Donovan (kala-azar)

252 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

and Col. Maitland (filariasis, etc.) were for many years members
of the Hospital staff.

Government Royapuram Hospital, Madras. Has 350 beds
and provides clinical material for the Royapuram Medical
School.

Government Hospital for Women and Children, Egmore,
Madras. This is perhaps the largest Obstetrical and Gynaeco-
logical centre in the East. On an average about 3,000 women
are confined in the Hospital, nearly 40 per cent, of the cases being
complicated. In the Gynaecological Department over 2,000 cases
are admitted every year and at present there is a provision of
20 beds for treatment of diseases of children. The Hospital is
under the management of the superintendent who is also the
Director of the Obstetrical and Gynaecological Units. He is
assisted by the assistant superintendent, honorary physician.
a resident assistant surgeon, 3 other medical officers and
5 house surgeons.

The medical students of the Universities of Madras, Lahore.
l,ucknow and Andhra, receive their clinical training at this
Hospital. The Hospital afford:? excellent clinical material so
that a large number of post-graduates come for training for
sJiort periods from all parts of India, Burma, Ceylon, Straits
Settlements, Hongkong and Singapore. There is a school
attached to the Hospital, the Giffard's School of .Obstetrics,
where medical students, mid wives and post-graduates are given
all facilities for training. Recently the University has instituted
a Diploma in Gynaecology and Obstetrics the training for which
extends to a period of one year. The Hospital affords special
facilities for the study of Puerperal Eclampsia and Sepsis, and
the ante-natal wards afford facilities for study of the patho-
logical conditions of pregnancy. There is a large Out-patients
Department attached to the Hospital. The Hospital has a pro-
vision of 250 beds and proposals for increasing the accommoda-
tion and build a separate ante-natal block and children's wards
are under consideration.

The Government Eye Infirmary, Madras. The original
buildings on the present site were completed in 1886 and consist

IV.

Haffkine Institute,
View from the front,

Taking venom from a Russell's Viper,

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 253

of 3 blocks, an Out-patient Department, a Central Administra-
tive and Operation block and a block on either side containing
wards to accommodate 56 beds. In 1911 a new block of wards
for cataract cases, an operation theatre and a refraction room
were opened by Lady Lawley. In 1920 the Elliot School for
teaching Ophthalmology was opened comparing favourably in
equipment and design with any school in Europe.

The Hospital has expanded from an Institution capable of
dealing with a limited number of cases in Madras to a hospital
of 170 beds at which cases from all parts of India are received.
The daily number of patients is 220 out of which every variety
of eye disease is admitted for treatment in the Hospital. A
special impetus was given to the treatment of glaucoma by
Lieut-Col. Elliot, who introduced his technique of sclero-corneal
trephining which has received universal recognition. .

Mission Hospital, Madras Presidency. A large part of
Medical Mission work in India is concentrated in Madras Presi-
dency which has 51 hospitals and 28 dispensaries. About 600,OCK>
patients are treated annually. Of the hospitals 25 are for women,.
23 general, and 3 for men.

Work of special nature is carried on in Vellore Medical
School for Women and in the Tuberculosis Sanatorium near
Madanapalle, both Union Mission institutions. The Missions
manage 12' institutions for lepers. There are about 12 men and
40 women missionary doctors engaged in the work and about
30 missionary nurses. 7 hospitals have training schools for
Indian Christian nurses. The great majority of the hospitals,
ire located in rural areas and provide medical relief chiefly to
the poor and to women who are reluctant to avail themselves of
treatment by men doctors.

Lady Willingdon Leper Settlement, Tirumani,
Chingl^put. Founded in 1841 at Royapuram, Madras, the
institution was transferred to its present location at Tirumani,
three miles out of Chingleput in 1925. Government handed over
the management to the U. F. Church of Scotland Mission for a
period of five years from 20th July, 1925.

254 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

The Settlement is divided into three zones tainted, neutral
and clean. The latter zone has a boarding school for untainted
children. The neutral zone has the administrative blocks and
the observation blocks. The tainted zone, besides the housing
accommodation for lepers, has an excellent hospital, dispensary,
and recreation hall.

At present there are seventy-one separate cottages each
housing six patients. This together with the Boarding School,
the Anglo-Indian Married Quarters, and the Hospital, allows us
a total population of about 500. The inmates are mostly of the
beggar class with an undue proportion of " burnt out " cases.
Government are proposing the erection of a separate place for
this type and then the existing place will be converted into a
treatment centre. The most up-to-date anti-leprotic treatment is
given, based on Hydnocarpus Oil and its derivatives, and the
results are very encouraging. An effort is also made to provide
suitable and healthful occupation for mind and body an essential
element in all treatment for leprosy.

The Union Mission Tuberculosis Sanatorium at
Arogyavaram, near Mad&napalle. This Institution was
founded in 1912 and is under the management of 14 missionary
societies. In general and special wards it has accommodation for
170 patients who come from all parts of India. The most
modern treatment of the West is used here with equally good
results, although special attention has to be paid to tropical
complications. Research work on tuberculosis in the Tropics
is carried out. Doctors and medical students are trained, and
courses are given in modern tropical laboratory work. The
Sanatorium is maintained by fees from patients (poor patients
treated free), by government grant and mission contributions.

PUNJAB.

Mayo Hospital, Lahore. Associated with the King-
Edward Memorial Medical College. A hospital was erected and
opened in 1871. It had accommodation for 114 patients,
Fairopeans, Anglo-Indians and Indians. This hospital was
visited shortly after its opening by Lord Mayo, the Viceroy of

MSDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 255

India at that time, who consented to it being named " The Mayo
Hospital." In 1890 a separate wing of the hospital was opened
for Europeans and Anglo-Indians, the foundation stone being
laid by Hf. R. H. Prince Albert Victor, after whom it was named.
In 1902 an Ophthalmic wing with 72 beds was added. In 1905
the Madan Gopal Block of buildings with 28 beds for septic cases
was built, thus increasing the in-door accommodation for Indians
to 200 beds. With the completion of the King Edward Memorial
Scheme the X-ray and Electrical Departments of the Hospital
were extended and equipped with modern apparatus. There is
a Maternity Hospital of 56 beds. The Hospital affords clinical
facilities for the students of the King Edward Memorial Medical
College. It has accommodation in all for 400 patients (sec also
King Edward Memorial Medical College, Lahore).

Sir Ganga Ram Free Hospital, Lahore. This Hospital
started in the heart of Lahore City was primarily intended to
serve as a Dispensary but in the course of 6 years has developed
into a well equipped up-to-date Hospital. There are 40 beds.
During 1926, 764 in-patients and 91,335 out-patients. The work
of the Hospital is divided into Medical, Surgical, Gynecological
and Eye, Ear and Nose Departments. Arrangements are in
progress for Dental and X-ray Departments. A laboratory for
Bacteriological and Pathological work is attached. The staff
consists of two honorary surgeons, two assistant surgeons, one
lady doctor, besides the necessary nursing staff, compounders,
etc. The Hospital is one of a number of charitable institutions
supported by a Trust endowed by the late Sir Ganga Ram.

Punjab Mental Hospital, Lahore. Built in 1900 for the
accommodation of 450 insane patients. It is the only Institution
for the treatment of Mental Diseases in the Punjab. It has been
added. to from time to time and now rather more than 900 patients
are under treatment. They are employed in gardening, weav-
ing, tailoring, etc. The Hospital is self-supporting so far as the
clothing of its patients and vegetable supplies are concerned. It
is of interest as showing the close connection between Asylums
and Jails in older conceptions as the architecture is almost entirely
that of a penal institution, but steps are being taken towards

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 256

remodelling of the Hospital to bring it into line with modern
requirements.

UNITED PROVINCES.

King George's Hospital, Lucknow. Associated with
King George's Medical College and with the Pathological Depart-
ment of Lucknow University, etc., the Hospital was formally
opened by His Excellency the Viceroy in January 1914. The
number of beds is 232, and besides the main block there is an
Isolation Ward and separate Cottage Wards. The building is in
the Indo-Saracenic style to he in keeping with its surroundings
and cost Rs. 30 lakhs of which Government of India provided
10 lakhs. Projects for a Maternity and Women's Hospital, as
also a Tuberculosis and Ophthalmic Hospital and other extensions
are in progress.

Thomason Hospital, Agra. Associated with the
Thomason Medical School, the Hospital was built in 1854.
It has Medical and Surgical Wards with 117 beds, the O'Meara
Ward for septic cases in the charge of an Emergency Medical
Officer with 26 beds, special Operating Theatres and Emergency
( )ut-patients Department, European Wards, Maternity and Gynae-
cological Wards with special Labour Room, Operating Theatre,
Eye Hospital with 75 beds. There are Medical and Surgical and
Women and Children's Out-patients Department dealing with
45,000 cases annually. The nursing staff consists of a matron,
7 staff nurses and 20 probationers.

Infectious Diseases Hospitals at Hardwar, Fyzabad,
Muttra, Naini Tal and Mussoorie and one under construction
at Benares.

Agra Mental Hospital. This is the principal Institution
of this nature in the United Provinces. Besides accommodation
for over 750 patients it provides lectures and practical 'teaching
in the care of Mental cases to the students of the three medical
schools of the Province as well as to those of the Lady Hardinge
Medical College at Delhi. The Hospital was opened in 1869 as
a small institution of some 250 beds. Up to 1904 it was a

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 257

collateral charge of the civil surgeon, but in that year extensions
and alterations were completed, new sections opened out and a
whole-time superintendent put in charge. It was not, however,
until 1911 that a fully qualified Mental Specialist was appointed
superintendent.

The Hospital is situated among well kept grounds some
2J miles from Agra and as the dividing walls between sections
are reduced to a minimum the usual feeling of restraint and
confinement attached to such a place is but little felt. Electro-
therapy and Endocrine Treatment are in daily use giving most
excellent results in certain types of cases. Employment and
recreation receive due attention and it is surprising how much
of the work is carried on by the patients and how happy and
contented they seem to be on the whole.

Up to 1918 the Hospital took Europeans as well as Indian
cases, but in 1918 European cases were all transferred to Ranchi
and since then the Agra Hospital has been purely for the care
and treatment of Indians. Up to July 1927 both criminal and
non-criminal cases were treated, but at that time all criminal cases
were transferred to Benares which became a Criminal Lunatic
Asylum and Agra is now a mental hospital purely for non-
criminal cases. In late years a section has been opened for
Indian Ladies and one for Indian Gentlemen. The former is
regarded by 'the staff with no little pride but the latter requires
enlargement and some alterations before it can be considered
satisfactory.

INDIAN STATES.
AJMER STATE.

The Victoria Hospital, Ajmer. Was opened in March
1927, to replace the old hospital built in 1895. The Hospital was
built from- money given by certain Ruling Princes and the public
of Ajmer-Merwara. The Government of India gave one lakh.
It contains 2 up-to-date Operation Theatres, a good Laboratory
and excellent Wards. An up-to-date X-ray Room is under con-
struction. It is called the Victoria Hospital after the old hospital

17

258 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

which it replaced. It has accommodation for 87 in-patients and
a good out-patient department.

BHARATPUR.

Victoria Hospital, Bharatpur. The Hospital stands in a
picturesque position along the banks of the fort moat and in
extensive grounds and well laid garden. The buildings of the
Hospital are of handsome design having been planned by the late
Sir Swinton Jacob, C.I.E., the famous architect of Jaipur State.
The Hospital was opened in 1900. It has accommodation for
100 in-patients. In 1925-26 the number of out-patients treated
was 56,664 and of in-patients 836. 1,303 operations were
performed.

BIKANIR.

Bhagwan Das Hospital, Bikanir. Has accommodation
for 50 patients. Major operations number about 300 per year.
The Hospital is equipped with C. 10 kilowatts X-ray apparatus
and an electro-therapeutic department. There is a Laboratory
where intravenous injections are given and where there are faci-
lities for blood and urine examination, etc. Out-patients in 1926
numbered 37,349 and in-patients 1,052.

JAIPUR.

Mayo Hospital, Jaipur. Built to commemorate the visit
of Lord Mayo to Jaipur in 1869. Has accommodation for 220
patients. It has Surgical, Medical, Eye and Female Out-patients
and Surgical, Medical and Female Wards. The Curzon Wyllie
Wards built in 1911 are cottage hospitals to accommodate middle
class male patients (5 quarters), the Chappar wards include
general as well as cottage wards for 26 families, the Lady
Hardinge built in 1922 is a double storey building with 9 female
quarters. Old Family wards for 7 families and there are Leprosy
and Tubercular wards for 20 patients (10 each). There is an
Operating Room, X-ray Department, Clinical and Chemical
Laboratory and Medical Store, etc. The number of in-patients
in 1926 was 4,888 and out-patients 54,074. Major operations
numbered 1,605 and minor operations 2,449.

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 259

JODHPUR STATE.

The Hewson Hospital, Jodhpur. Took the place of a
Dispensary opened in 1853. Dates from 1888 but has been con-
siderably added to since then. A New Wing and an Operation
Room were completed in 1900. Three double storey blocks have
been added from time to time and the enclosure has been laid
out as a garden and pleasure ground. The Hospital is named
after Mr. Hewson, i.e.s., who was for some time guardian to
His Highness the Maharaja. The Hospital has accommodation
for 80 in-patients and has an out-patient department. Recent
additions are a Pathological and Bacteriological Laboratory and
a first class X-ray instalment. Out-patients number about 47,500
and in-patients 1,560. The number of operations is about 2,800
in the year.

UDA1PUR.

The Lansdowne Hospital, Udaipur. Is situated inside

the city near the Hathipol. Was built by Mr. Campbell-Thomson
and was opened in 1894. It is a two storey building with a
quadrangle inside and accommodation for 60 beds. There is in
addition 3 detached wards for Police prisoners and Bhils. In
1926 out-patients numbered 38,079 and in-patients 962. Major
operations numbered 236. Two assistant surgeons and two sub-
assistant surgeons are attached to the Hospital.

2. MEDICAL COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS.

Of the Indian Universities 6, i.e., Calcutta, Madras, Bombay,
Punjab, Patna and Lucknow, confer medical degrees through their
affiliated Medical College. Delhi also confers medical degrees for
Women through the Lady Hardingc Medical College. There are
also Medical Schools giving licenses entitling to practice Medicine
and vSurgery. There are 23 such schools distributed as follows,
Bengal 5, Madras 7, Bombay 3, United Provinces 2, Punjab 2,
Burma 1, Bihar and Orissa 2, and Assam 1. Four of the above
schools are for women students only, viz., Missionary Medical
School for Women, Vellore, Lady Willingdon Medical School
for Women, Madras, Agra Women's Medical School and the

260 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

Ludhiana Medical School and College for Women. Medical
Colleges or Schools that may be specially mentioned are :

ASSAM.

Berry-White Medical School, Assam. The Berry-White
Medical School is located at Dibrugarh, Lakhimpur, Assam.
It owes its existence to the foresight and generosity of Brigade-
Surgeon John Berry-White, one of the early medical practi-
tioners connected with the Tea Industry in Assam. By his Will
he bequeathed to Government a sum of Rs. 50,000 for this pur-
pose. This sum was supplemented by Government, and the
School was opened in 1900. The School is the only medical
school in Assam, and undertakes the training of suitable inhabitants
of the Province for the diploma of L.M.P. under the Assam
Medical Act ; those qualified belonging to the sub-assistant
surgeon class. As this class of practitioner is employed very
largely on tea gardens under European medical supervision, the
School supplies a very important class for the medical needs of the
Tea Industry.

The School has accommodation for 200 students and also
undertakes the training of compounder students, who now
number 50. The course of the former occupies four years.
The staff consists of a superintendent and specially selected
instructors from the Government Senior and Junior Services.
The buildings consist of lecture rooms, laboratories, dissecting
room, students' hostels, etc., and the School is affiliated with the
Dibrugarh Hospital of 112 beds.

BENGAL.

Calcutta Medical College. One of the oldest and most
important medical colleges in India, the number of students being
over one thousand.

A Medical School was opened in Calcutta in 1824 to train
native doctors for various establishments with the Civil and
Military branches of the Service. The students were distribute' 1
for clinical teaching to the General Hospital, King's Hospital and
the Hon. Company's Dispensaries and Native Hospital. In 1835

The School of Tropical Medicine, Calcutta.

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 261

the Sanscrit College Medical Class, the Medical Class of the
Madrassa, and the Native Medical Institution were abolished and
a new college, the Calcutta Medical College, formed. The books
and apparatus of the abolished institutions were made over to the
new School and housing given for this in the buildings formerly
occupied by the Petty Court Jail. Anatomical preparations were
obtained from England and a curator appointed to organise a
museum. The College was the first in the world to teach the
preliminary Sciences and give Clinical Training under the same
roof. Sir Leonard Rogers was for long Professor of Pathology
in the College, and the Pathological Museum owes much to his
unremitting toil to do justice to the material available. Associated
with the College is the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine.
For Clinical Teaching the School has the associated Medical
College Hospital, Eden Hospital for women and other facilities.
Carmichael Medical College, Belgachia. This College, the
first recognised non-official Medical College in India, came into
existence in 1916. It was affiliated to the University of Calcutta
in the Preliminary Scientific M.B. Standard in April 1916, and
for the Final M.B. Examination in April 1922. The institution
that developed into the College was at the time of affiliation
known as the Calcutta Medical School and College of Physicians
and Surgeons of Bengal. It had its origin in the year 1886 when
it was decided to start the first private medical school to supple-
ment the efforts of Government under the designation of the
Calcutta School of Medicine (later Calcutta Medical School).
The bulk of the present site was bought in 1896 and the School
was removed to Belgachia in 1903. For clinical instruction the
students originally attended the Mayo Hospital. The Albert Victor
Hospital (one storey building) with 40 beds was formally opened
in 1902. The upper storey was built and new wards were opened
in 1909, the total number of beds being then increased to 100.
The College of Physicians and Surgeons of Bengal, another
private institution started in 1895 aiming at medical education of
the collegiate standard, was amalgamated with the School in 1903
the name of the combined institution being then changed
accordingly.

262 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

During thirty years hundreds of trained medical men passed
out who are doing useful work .under Government, municipalities,
in the various industries (Jute, Tea, Shipping, etc.), or*s country
practitioners. This was rendered possible by .the voluntary, un-
grudging and unpaid work in the School and in the Hospital by
the independent medical profession. In 1911, before the intro-
duction of the Medical Registration Bill, the Governm&it asked
the private medical institutions in Calcutta to unite and form one
good and efficient teaching institution with a view to helping its
recognition by the University or Bengal 'Council of Medical
Registration. Ultimately a scheme was framed and affiliation to
the University of Calcutta was obtained in April 1916. The
College was formally opened as the Belgachia Medical College, by
His Excellency Lord Carmichael, Governor of Bengal, on 5th
July, 1916. The College was named after Lord Carmichael in
1919 in appreciation of his services in connection with its institu-
tion.

The College curricula are in accordance with the M.B.
Examination rules of the Calcutta University. The number of
students in 1924 was 694 and application 944 as against 1,050 in
the previous year.

The government of the College is now vested in a Council
consisting of 11 members, of whom 3 are nominated by Govern-
ment and 1 by the Corporation of Calcutta. The' President is
Sir Nilratan Sircar, Kt. f M.A., M.D., D.C.I,., LL.D.

BIHAR AND ORISSA.

The Prince of Wales Medical College, Patna. Has
evolved out of the Temple Medical School of Patna. This was
opened by Sir William Temple in 1874 and named after him.
The formation of a medical college for the Province having come
tinder discussion, the Hon'ble Maharajadhiraj of Darbhanga
came forward with a donation of Rs. 5 lakhs to be spent in
establishing a medical school at Darbhanga and converting the
Temple Medical School into a first grade medical college. A
fund was started with this object, the Maharajadhiraj contribu-
tion acting as a nucleus.

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 263-

The College buildings consist of separate blocks standing
side by side along the banks of the Ganges. The administrative
block recently built contains the office, library and spacious
examination hall. Anatomy has a separate block. Physiology
and Pathology at present share a common building as do Phar-
macology, Biology and Organic Chemistry. There is a large
and well built Hostel for students in the compound.

The Hospital has about 450 beds with separate block for
Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat cases. A large Hospital for women,
is nearly completed. A new block, the European Cottage Hospital
with six beds has recently been added. There is a well-equipped
X-ray installation. There are residential quarters for the house
and nursing staff in the compound and for the professorial' staff
on the river side. ^

The College teaches up to the final M.B., B.S. and is
affiliated to the Patna University.

BOMBAY.

Grant Medical College, Bombay. This College is the
Government college recognised by the University of Bombay for
all medical examinations. It was established in 1845. Formerly
it gave a Diploma G.G.M.C. (Graduate Grant Medical College),
but upon the establishment of the University of Bombay in 1860
it ceased to grant diplomas and became affiliated to the University.
The College is under a Dean who is subordinate to the Surgeon-
General with the Government of Bombay.

The College consists of a number of detached buildings spread
over an extensive compound and possesses well-equipped and
up-to-date laboratories. The staff consists of 19 professors, 3
associate professors, 3 assistant professors, 19 tutors and 9
demonstrators. For clinical instruction the following hospitals
are associated with the College, J. J. Hospital, G. T. Hospital,
Bai Motlibai and Petit Hospitals, Sir C. J. Ophthalmic Hospital,
Cama Hospital and N. J. Wadia Maternity Hospital. The total
number of beds available for clinical teaching is 536.

The total number of regular students attending the College
is 518, of which 60 are women students. Students are admitted

264 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

0ne a year in June and the number of admissions is restricted to
120. A few scholarships are given to deserving undergraduates
from College endowment funds. 11 fellowships at Rs. 50 a
month are available to fresh graduates to enable them to proceed
to higher degrees.

Seth Gordhandas Sunderda* Medical College, Bombay.
The need for another Medical College in Bombay being felt, the
Corporation of Bombay accepted the offer of the Trustees of the
iate Seth Gordhandas Sunderdas of Rs. 14,50,000 to endow such
a College. The College, which was opened on 4th June, 1925, is in
connection with the King Edward VII Memorial Hospital and is
a handsome three storey building designed in an E shape with
possibilities of future extension. There is a Hostel attached to
the College with accommodation for about 100 students. The
College cost about 18 lakhs to build and 3 lakhs to furnish and
equip.

Byramjee Jeejeebhoy Medical School, Poona. Is named
after Mr. Byramji Jeejeebhoy who donated Rs. 10,000 to
its inception in 1878. It is affiliated to the College of Physicians
and Surgeons of Bombay. Successful candidates at the Final
Examination are granted its licence which is registrable. Its
object is to train the class of subordinate medical officers, for-
merly called hospital assistants. Some of the licentiates are
taken into the Subordinate Medical Service of the Bombay Pre-
sidency as vacancies occur, some engage in private practice, while
others obtain suitable appointments in India and in the Crown
Colonies. Up-to-date laboratories are being constructed and
equipped. The number of students is about 250 of which about
50 are women students.

Byramji Jeejeebhoy Medical School, Ahmedabad. Was
opened in 1879. Like its sister institution at Poona, it takes its
name from Byramji Jeejeebhoy, c.s.i v who generously contri-
buted Rs. 20,000 towards its endowment fund. Students receive
instruction in the curriculum laid down for the diploma of
L.C.P. & S. (Bom.). Clinical instruction is given in the wards of
the Civil Hospital, in the compound of which the School is
situated. The number of students is approximately 150. A

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 265

number of scholarships are open to students, There is a Hostel
accommodating 82 students. Additional buildings have been
recently completed at a cost of Rs. 1,30,932 and the equipment
for the law laboratories is in progress.

Medical School, Hyderabad, SindL The School was
started in 1881 by public subscription aided by Government. It
prepares students for the L.C..P. & S. Bombay. There are 62
students at present. The Hospital was rebuilt in 1906. It is
mainly surgical ancl is chiefly noted for the number of operations
for stone-in-thc-bladdcr. In the past 20 years there have been
9,401 litholapaxies. Last year there were 474 litholapaxies and 29
other operations for stone (18 suprapubic lithotomy, 4 perineal and
7 cystotomy). The majority of the litholapaxies are done as out-
patients, the cases being kept for 24 hours at least under observa-
tion in a " Hostel " and being seen again next day.

College of Physicians and Surgeons, Bombay.

CENTRAL PROVINCES.

Robertson Medical School, Nagpur. About 70 years ago
there was a medical school in Nagpur, training civil and military
hospital assistants. It was however closed, and students from
C. P. were sent to Patna Medical School for training. The present
school was m established by Sir Benjamin Robertson in 1914. It
has 2 lecture halls, a physical and chemical laboratory, a physio-
logical and pathological laboratory: X-ray and electric treatment
room, a pathological, anatomical and materia medica museum. A
library containing about 2,000 volumes, a dissection hall and
attached buildings. It has attached to it 2 good hostels, which
can accommodate over 150 boarders, with attached bath rooms and
dining halls, and large grounds for tennis, hockey, football, volley
ball, etc. A medical troop of boy scouts, under a scout master was
started in 1926.

The school started with 25 students in 1914, at present there
are over 200 students, male and female. The number of ad-
missions every year is limited to 50 60, owing to want of accom-
modation in lecjture hall laboratories which it is proposed to

.266 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

enlarge by adding top stories. Clinical material for teaching
purposes is drawn from the Mayo Hospital situated in the same
grounds, with a total indoor accommodation for 73 medical and
*99 surgical beds. The outdoor department has a daily attendance
of 187-02, consists of medical, surgical, eye, 'ear, nose, throat,
women and children's dental, anti-rabic and venereal departments.
There is a good operation theatre. All buildings have electricity
installed.

DELHI.

The Lady Hardinge Medical College, Delhi. As a College
entirely staffed by women training students (women only) for a
University degree in Medicine, this Institution holds a unique
position.

The College i* affiliated to the Punjab University and provides
a 7 years' course of study in preparation for the F.Sc. Examina-
tion (medical group) and M.B., B.S. degrees of that University.
The students up to 115 in number, drawn from all parts of the
Indian Empire, are resident in five hostels arranged as much as
possible according to religions : i.e., Mahommedan, Hindu Vege-
tarian, Hindu Non- Vegetarian, Sikh, and Christian. Discipline
in the hostels and the welfare of the students are supervised by a
warden with the assistance of student-prefects elected by them-
selves. Various game, social, and dramatic clubs are organised
and managed by student committees and keen interest and com-
petition is displayed in the annual matches between the " Years "
for the holding of the games' cups.

On a site of 55 acres " the Hardinge " includes Administra-
tion Block, College, Hospital, Students' Hostels, Assistant Staff
Hostel, Sisters' and Nurses' Hostel, Senior Staff Bugalows,
Servants* Quarters, Workshops, etc.; with tennis and badminton
courts, hockey and basket ball grounds and promenade gardens.

The College consists of the usual laboratories and lecture
rooms for Science and preliminary medical subjects, with their
accompanying museums; the Pathology laboratories, museum,
culture rooms and post-mortem theatre; and a large library. The
Hospital is referred to elsewhere.

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 267

The eight senior medical staff and professors are supplied
from the Women's Medical Service, India two of whom are also
principal and vice-principal. Science Lecturers hold British,
degrees, 'and the assistants and house surgeons are Indian
graduates chiefly <ormer " Hardinge " students.

The Nurses Training School supervised by a matron and
six sisters (all British-trained) with the help of Indian Staff
Nurses, gives a four years 1 training in Nursing and Midwifery
for Indian nurses forty-seven girls being in training at this
time.

A Compounders School with 4 pupils is staffed by a British-
trained Pharmacist with 2 Indian compounders as assistants ; these
are also responsible for the dispensing for in- and out-patients.

Training is given for 7 nurse dais; in addition three who
have obtained their diplomas are retained on the staff to attend
midwifery cases in the district.

MADRAS.

Madras Medical College. Was originally established as a
Medical School in 1835 by the Right Hon'ble Sir Frederick Adam,
K.C.B., under the terms of G.O. No. 7, dated 13th February, 1835.
The classes assembled originally for instruction in rooms adjoin-
ing the quarters of the Surgeon of the General Hospital. The
accommodation, however, was insufficient for the purpose, and as
the arrangements were otherwise inconvenient, the Government
of India, on the representation of His Excellency the Governor,,
were induced to sanction the erection of a separate building.
The Medical School was accordingly built and opened for work
in July 1836. In 1851 the Medical School became a College and
was affiliated to the University of Madras in 1877. Alterations
and important additions were from time to time undertaken so*
that it is now a well-equipped institution. Up-to-date Physiological
Hygiene and Bacteriological laboratories were opened in 1911. A
Pathological Museum and Library are also attached. A new room
for the Biology and Physics classes was added in 1917. Bio-
chemistry is taught in a separate temporary laboratory. Whole
rime teachers in Bacteriology, Venereal Diseases, Diseases of Ear,

268 MEDICAL, INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

Nose and Throat, Radiology and Infectious Diseases are now on
the staff. Pharmacology will soon be introduced. A new set of
buildings to accommodate the Pathological Institute and the Bio-
chemistry laboratory are being arranged for. The College, which
was originally an institution for supplying the af my with assistant
surgeons and hospital assistants, now also undertakes the train-
ing of students for the L.M.S., M.B., B.S. and B.Sc. degrees
of the University of Madras and for the Chemists, Druggists,
Sanitary Inspectors and Health Officers' certificates. A course of
six months in Dentistry for Civil Apothecaries and senior grade
sub-assistant surgeons not exceeding 5 at a time was started in
1920.

Rayapuram Medical School, Madras. The Government
Kayapuram Medical School accommodating over 500 students is
situated in George Town, Madras, and a senior I. M.S. officer is
its superintendent with a staff of 13 lecturers and 11 assistant
lecturers. Theoretical and practical courses extending to 4 years
in Chemistry, Anatomy, Physiology, Materia Meelica, Pathology,
Medicine, Mental Diseases, Surgery, Midwifery and Ophthalmo-
logy and theoretical courses in Hygiene and Medical Jurisprudence
are given to prepare students for the L.M.P. Diploma of the
Madras Government. They undergo Clinical training in Medicine,
Surgery and Ophthalmology at the Government Rayapuram
Hospital with 350 beds and Midwifery at the RamasWfimy Lying-
in Hospital of 50 beds. The School Library has 1,357 volumes
besides 16 journals. Adjoining the School, there is a hostel for
292 students with a spacious play-ground.

Vizagapatam Medical College. In response to the
requests of the people of the Telugu Districts, the Government of
Madras early in 1923 decided to establish a medical college at
Vizagapatam. The College was opened on July 1923, in the old
Hospital buildings. Since then two new blocks of buildings have
been erected, complete with all modern appliances and up-to-date
in all respects, with fully equipped laboratories and anatomical
rooms, etc. There is also a large modern Hospital with modern
appliances with accommodation for 250 beds. A new Maternity
Unit of 40 beds is nearing completion and extension of the

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN WDIA. 269

Ophthalmic Unit to 80 beds is being carried out. There is a
large staff of professors and teachers.

The number of students is 160, preference being given to
students' from the Telugu Districts. The College forms the
Medical Unit of *the Andhra University and it is expected that the
course and degrees will be recognised by the General Medical
Council of Great Britain this year.

PUNJAB.

The King Edward Medical College, Lahore. The
necessity for a medical school for the Punjab was first recognised
by Sir John Lawrence in 1857, but owing to the Indian Mutiny and
its attendant financial difficulties the construction of a College was
not begun -until 1860 when Sir Robert Montgomery was Lieuten-
ant-Governor of the Province. The original Medical College was
located in the old Artillery Hospital in Anarkali, the site of which
is now occupied by the Government College and its hospital was
first established in the stables of Raja Suchet Singh's house in the
Tibbi Bazar, now the site of a Police Thana and Munsiff's Court.
In 1864 the Institution was moved to a site between the railway
and Nisbet Road, and in 1883 it was further moved to the site of
the Mayo Hospital, the present Out-patient Department of the
Mayo Hospital being all that remains of the College as it then was.
In 1893 the present Anatomical Block was built and soon after
other departments of the College began to expand and there were
built blocks for Pathology and Bacteriology, etc. In 1910 on the
death of King Edward VII it was decided to perpetuate hi.s
memory in the Punjab by a King Edward Memorial in the form
of a new King Edward Medical College and enlargements and
improvements of the existing Mayo and Albert Victor Hospitals.
The- people of the Punjab and Punjab Native States subscribed
17 lakhs and an additional 10 lakhs were given by Government of
India. . The Punjab Government contributed a further 5$ lakhs
and incurred expenditure connected with removal of the Veterinary
College with a view to increased site accommodation for the
School. In all Rs. 41 lakhs or about ^300,000 were expended irt
connection with the scheme.

270 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

The present buildings were opened by Lord Hardinge, then
Viceroy of India, in 1915. They consist of a main block, the
" Patiala Block " which contains the Administrative Offices,
Lecture Theatres for senior students and a spacious Library and
Examination Hall ; a Research Block, " The Bah&walpur Block ""
which contains the Pathology Department on the ground floor and
the Physiology and Hygiene Departments on the first floor all of
which are equipped in an up-to-date and complete manner; the
Materia Medica Block or " Kapurthala Block " an old building
but now thoroughly re-adapted and consisting of Lecture Theatre,
Museum, Practical Class Room and Experimental Pharmacology
Room ; the Anatomy Block, " Faridkot Block " a large and hand-
some building with a spacious Dissecting Room, Lecture Theatre,
Demonstration Rooms and a large Museum, with special cold
storage block and separate Pathological and Judicial Post-mortem
Theatres attached. Besides these there is a Students' Hostel, a
large building with accommodation for 112 students, animal houses,
gas plant and quarters for servants. These buildings comprise
the College portion of the King Edward Memorial.

In the Mayo Hospital are two Clinical Lecture Theatres, a
large Clinical Pathology Laboratory, three Clinical Sight Testing
Rooms, a large Ophthalmoscopic Room, Students' Duty Room
and a large efficiently equipped X-ray and Electrical Department.
The various out-patients departments, hospital wards and side
rooms and operating theatres have also all been designed with
thoughts for the students as well as for the patients. There is a
Venereal Department and a Maternity Hospital of 56 beds in
course of construction and expected to be ready next year. The
library associated with the College contains 7,090 books. In
addition to the one already mentioned there is another Hostel
which provides accommodation for 136 students, or a total of
248 in both hostels.

In 1904 the College was affiliated to the Punjab University
which had been established in 1882. From its commencement in
1860 to 1869 the College granted its own Diplomas to practice
Medicine and Surgery. From 1869 to 1911, the Punjab University
College and its successor, the Punjab University, issued the-

w

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MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 271

Diploma of L.M.S. and the M.B. Degree, but these have been
replaced since then by the present M.B., B.S. Degrees. In 1920
the Sub-Assistant Surgeon Class was moved to Amritsar to make
room for men wishing to take the M.B., B.S. Degrees. Special
post-graduate dasses are held every year for assistant surgeons
and sub-assistant surgeons.

The annual expenditure on the College for the year ending
31st March, 1927, was Rs. 5,50,349 and that on the Hospital for
the year ending 31st December, 1926, was Rs. 5,91,743. The
income to the College on account of tuition fees, etc., for the year
ending 31st March, 1927, was Rs. 77,247.

There are at present 441 medical students attending the
classes. There is a teaching staff of 13 professors and a large
number of assistants. For clinical instruction there is the Mayo
Hospital with accommodation for 400 patients.

Medical School, Amritsar (Punjab). The School was
separated from the King Edward Medical College, Lahore, and
transferred to Amritsar, the next biggest town in the Province,
in 1920. It is at present accommodated in temporary buildings.
Permanent buildings are under construction and will be ready for
occupation by the end of the next year. The staff consists of one
principal, nine lecturers and eleven demonstrators. Eighty-five
candidates are selected for admission out of three to four applicants
each year. The minimum qualification required for admission is
matriculation of the Punjab University.

The curriculum extends over full four calendar years and
provides instruction in Chemistry, Physics, Anatomy, Physiology,
Materia Medica, Pathology, Hygiene, Jurisprudence, Medicine,
Surgery and Diseases of Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat and Mid-
wifery.

Two and a half years are devoted to clinical teaching for
which nearly 250 beds are available in the Jubilee Hospital, the
Eye Department of which enjoys a wide reputation for Smith's
Intracapsular Operation, which attracts a certain number of
visitors chiefly from across the Atlantic. There have been as
many as 282 in-patients on a day in this Department during the

272 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

Cataract Operation Season and 1,669 lenses were enucleated
during 1926.

Another important feature of the School is that it is the
chief centre in India for training candidates for the Sub-Assistant
Surgeon branch of the Indian Medical Department of the
Indian Army. The number of Military Medical Pupils is about
one-fourth of the total on the rolls.

The qualifying examination is for the Diploma of Licentiate
of the State Medical Faculty (Punjab) which is registrable
throughout India. These licentiates arc eminently fitted for pro-
viding cheap ordinary medical aid to the poor masses.

An excellent Hostel, with extensive play-grounds, providing
accommodation for 320 students is attached to the School.

Women's Christian Medical College and Punjab Medical
School for Women, Ludhiaiuu This was the first medical
school opened for women in India. It was founded in 1894 by
the present principal, Dr. Edith Brown ; its object being to train
Indian women as medical missionaries. It was affiliated to the
Lahore Medical School. In 1913, at the request of the Punjab
Government, its doors were opened to receive non-Christian
students, and it became the Medical Training School for all
women students of the Punjab.

Up to the present time 174 women have received registrable
qualifications, 4 having done 26 years' faithful service, and 5
having won the Kaiser-i-Hind Medal. At present there are under
training 83 medical students, 51 nurses, 20 compounclers and
48 midwives.

The present senior staff consists of 8 doctors, 1 science
mistress and 1 pharmacist, all with Home Degrees, 7 hospital
sisters, a secretary and evangelist. The junior staff consist of
7 doctors with Indian diplomas, 8 staff nurses, etc.

The Governing Body (consisting of missionaries belonging to
various Missionary Societies) is in India, and a Representative of
Government is on the Executive Committee. The annual expen-
diture is about Rs. 7,75,000 of which over Rs. 80,000 is contri-
buted by the Punjab Government ; over Rs. 40,000 is received in
professional fees and college fees and scholarships. The

tt

H

CJ

<42

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MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 273

balance is received as subscriptions and donations, mostly from
the British Empire.

The. Hospital has 200 beds for women and children of which
25 are reserved for maternity cases. It is officered entirely by
women. The number of in-patients last year was 2,455 and of
out-patients 92,595 (43,925 new, 48,670 old). The number of
abdominal sections was 200. Maternity work is carried out in
the city and villages, last year 553 cases being attended. Post-
Natal, Ante-Natal and Child Welfare Work has been begun.
The graduates work in all parts of India, Burma and Assam.

UNITED PROVINCES.

Thomafton Medical School, Agra. In association with the
Thomason Hospital, a School for medical tuition has existed
from shortly after the building of the Hospital in 1854. In
1905 12 the buildings of the School were greatly extended and
the number of students raised to 300. The buildings now include
a large Dissecting Hall, an Anatomical Theatre to seat 250
students, a Pathological Laboratory, Physiological and Historical
Class Rooms, an X-ray Room and a Hostel to accommodate
180 students. The staff consists of a principal (an I.M.S.
officer) who is also superintendent of and physician to the
Hospital, the civil surgeon who is surgeon to the Hospital and
lectures on surgery, etc., and 18 lecturers and assistant lecturers
in addition to the 8 house physicians and house surgeons of the
Hospital.

The School from 1926 grants the Licentiate of the State
Medical Faculty and the power to grant the membership is also
under the consideration of Government. The number of students
is about 300 of whom about one-third are qualifying for Military
employ.

Women's Medical School, Agra. This Institution began
with a class for women students started at the Medical School
attached to the Thomason Hospital, Agra, by Dr. Hillson, Civil
Surgeon of Agra in 1883. Men and women attended the same
lectures. No clinical instruction or experience in midwifery was

18

274 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

provided for women students. After a short time a verandah in
the out-door department was curtained off, there women were
seen and women students taught both diagnoris and practical
dispensing. The course of instruction lasted three years only.
In 1886 they were given clinical instruction in the women's ward
of the Thomason Hospital and in the dispensary by two medical
women.

The first buildings of the Lady Lyall Hospital were com-
pleted in 1889 and a Dissection Room for the women students was
opened at the same time. The foundation stone of the Maternity
Hospital was laid in 1888 and the Hospital which at that time
consisted only of private wards and labour room, was opened in
1890. The course of study was lengthened to four years. By
this time it was realised that mixed class of men and women
were not satisfactory and from 1890 the classes were nearly all
separate, though most of the lectures were given by the lecturers
of the Men's School.

The Hostel for students was opened in 1908 and the general
maternity and gynaecological wards with the up-to-date operation
theatre in 1916. The School and Hospitals continued to be ad-
ministered by the Civil Surgeon of Agra, till 1917, in that year
the first woman principal was appointed, though lecturers were
still mostly from the Men's School and the students had to go into
the men's compound for most of their lectures and classes. In
1923 the ambition of many years was realised, a full staff of
women lecturers was appointed, and the school was completely
separated from the Men's School.

The wards and out-patient department of the two Hospitals
provide ample clinical material. Maternity cases are over 600 a
year, including last year 61 cases of Caesarean section, mostly for
osteomalacia ; 80 other cases of abdominal section were also carried
out in the hospitals during the year. Students at present in the
school number 16 Hindus, 3 Mahtommedans, 6 .Sikhs, 46
Christians and 4 others.

The nursing in the Hospital is done by trained nurses with
pupils under them. The training is for three years, 6 months of
which are spent in the male wards of the Thomason Hospital.

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 275

Nurses who wish to take midwifery also spend 3 years in training.
Pupil midwives are also trained in the Maternity Hospital.

3. MEDICAL KESEARCH INSTITUTES, PASTEUR AND

VACCINE INSTITUTES AND PUBLIC HEALTH
LABORATORIES.

Of such Institutions there are a number in India of which
may be mentioned

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA.

Central Research Institute, Kasauli. The C. R. I. was

opened in 1906 as the Central Laboratory of the Scheme for
a Bacteriological Department for India initiated by Col. Leslie,
Sanitary Commissioner with the Government of India. It
functions as the Bacteriological Laboratory of the Central
Government.

The Institute is situated at Kasauli about 10 miles from
Kalka, the terminus of the main line of the East Indian Railway,
and within 3 hours' motor ride of Simla. It is on a prominent
site about 6,000 feet above sea-level directly overlooking the
plains. Though sometimes spoken of as a hill top laboratory
in reality its situation is eminently suitable to the work it is most
concerned with. As a laboratory for basic researches and a centre
for work iij the field throughout India it has a great asset in a
climate in which work can be carried out at full pressure all the
year round. Its record of work cannot be beaten by that of any
other medical research institute in India. Institute buildings
are of a rather miscellaneous character having been extended and
added to constantly as requirements demanded, but the question
of a new Institute has been under consideration for some time.
The staff consists of a Director and three Assistant Directors
with a subordinate staff of about 112. The actual number of
research- officers engaged is usually, however, considerably greater
owing to men being attached or associated with the Institute in
various ways.

The Institute especially functions as a Centre. It has
always been largely concerned directly or indirectly with research

276 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

enquiries carried out in various parts of India, and with India's
medical research problems as a whole. In addition to enquiries
directly staffed and worked by the Institute are many more in
which the Institute is indirectly concerned, either from initiating
the enquiry or by reason of such enquiries being-, directed by men
who are to be regarded as C. R. I. men and who carry the tradi-
tions and methods of the C. R. I. with them. Since the creation
of the Indian Research Fund Association the C. R. I. has been
very closely connected with the working of this body and acts
to a large extent as its chief laboratory.

Besides a centre for enquiries the Institute holds a special
position in regard to basic research. This has been possible
owing to men of especially high technical attainments having
usually been on the staff. Among workers at various times at
the C. R. I. may be mentioned Semple, Harvey, Greig, Christo-
phers, Cragg, Brown, lyengar, Sinton, Shortt, Barraud, Covell.

Through its Serum and Vaccine Section the Institute manu-
factures prophylactic vaccines (other than plague vaccine which
is entirely prepared at the Haffkine Institute) for the whole of
India, Military and Civil, the amounts manufactured by other
laboratories being negligible in proportion. Owing to the large
scale of production stocks can be maintained to meet indents for
almost any quantity at a moment's notice. The production of
prophylactic vaccines on a large scale was commenced during the
war. Demand for military and also civil purposes first for TAB
(Typhoid, para A and para B), then for Influenza and latterly
for Cholera has kept the quantity made ever since at or greater
than it was during the war. In 1926-27 the quantities issued
were Cholera 743,779 c.c., TAB 325,644 c.c., Influenza 42,141 c.c.,
curative vaccines 13,275 c.c. The medium used is prepared
from Casein (produced for trade purposes in India) digested by
locally prepared pancreatic extract and preliminarily filtered and
dried China Grass. Capsules are filled by the Maynard Appa-
ratus and other vacuum devices in case of small tubes. Besides
the issue of prophylactic vaccines the Section also issues Antivenin
or immunised serum against Cobra and Daboia venom, these
being the two common fatal snakes of India. In 1926-27

o
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MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 277

106,240 c.c. of this serum were issued. The Section also deals
with preparation of stock and special autogenous vaccines, the
preparation and g issue of high titre sera and the carrying out of
serological tests. It also undertakes researches in questions
relating to immunity, vaccines and sera, etc., in which connection
may be mentioned the researches of Harvey, Brown, lyengar
and otjiers.

The Malaria Section of the C. R. I. has recently been formed
into the Central Malaria Organisation for India with an increase
of staff to enable it to act as a nucleus of systematic advance in
the study and prevention of malaria in India. It has now a
separate Director who is, however, under the general direction
of the Director of the Institute. The Central Organisation
consists of the original Central Malaria Bureau, with new
buildings in process of erection, a newly purchased building which
is being fitted up as an experimental station in malaria, the
Ross Experimental Malaria Station, Karnal t and a staff consist-
ing of a Director, Assistant Director, 2 special Malaria Research
Officers, an Entomologist and it is hoped shortly a Malaria
Engineer. In connection with the Bureau are very complete
collections of Indian Anopheline and Culicine mosquitoes, collec-
tions of freshwater fish, etc., a useful reference library on malaria
and material of various kinds connected with malaria work in
India. The Organisation (formerly the Bureau) holds an annual
Malaria Class for instruction in practical malaria, in which both
laboratory and field methods are taught. It also publishes
bulletins and other publications of an informative or scientific
character. It has published a Malaria Map of India and cata-
logues, synoptic tables, information on larvacides, larva eating
fish, infectivity of species of anopheles, etc. It carries out free
examination of all material sent by those requiring identification
of specimens. As an organisation it will initiate and carry out,
or assist in, enquiries on malaria, wherever and whenever such
seem desirable and can be arranged for. Surveys of this kind
have recently been completed or are still being carried out in the
Andamans, Sind, Coorg. and Delhi and other surveys are under
projection.

278 MBDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

The Entomological Section under the late Major F. W.
Craggy I. M.S., carried out very valuable basic and epidemiological
work on insect borne diseases, etc. It is at present awaiting a
successor worthy to carry on the work of this well-known
authority whose death from Typhus when investigating this
disease in India is deeply regretted by all his colleagues.

Among various miscellaneous functions the main Institute
carries out a certain amount of routine pathological diagnosis
work. It has a fine store of apparatus with which enquiries are
assisted and (for India) a very good medical library. The
Indian Journal of Medical Research with the Indian Medical
Research Memoirs are edited at the Institute.

Pasteur Institute of India, Kasauli. Is situated at
Kasauli in the Himalayas about 5,000 feet above sea-level. The
Institute has an interesting history. A resolution to start an
Institute in the Punjab, called the Pasteur Institute of India,
similar to that in Paris, was passed at a meeting of private
citizens held in Lahore on the 22nd of April, 1893. A central
committee was formed soon afterwards but the Institute itself
was not opened for the treatment of patients until August 9th,
1900. In spite of this delay it is believed to be the first Pasteur
Institute to be founded in the British Empire. Besides antirabic
treatment, the study, diagnosis and teaching of bacteriology and
the investigation of tropical diseases was also a part of its original
functions. With the opening of the Central Research Institute
in 1905 and the advent of a bacteriological Institute in Lahore
in 1914, this side of its activities came to a close and since that
date antirabic treatment and research has formed its sole func-
tions.

For the first seven years of its life the Institute, as the sole
institution of its kind, in India, drew patients from all parts of
the Indian Continent. Since that time the successive opening of
other Pasteur Institutes has restricted its sphere of influence. At
the present time it attracts patients from the Punjab and the
United Provinces and other parts of North-Western India
including Afghanistan and the North-West Transfrontier
country. Within the last few years the policy of decentralisation

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 279

of antirabic treatment has caused the opening of certain subsidiary
centres dependent on the main institute for supplies of vaccine.
Such centres Jjiave been opened at Lahore, Rawalpindi and
Allahabad.

In spite of the friendly rivalry of its descendants the acti-
vities of the parent institute have never ceased to expand. Three
hundred and twenty-one patients were treated in the first year
of its existence. The numbers who have sought assistance and
advice have gradually increased with the years until in 1926 no
less than 8,623 persons or an average daily attendance of over
300 came for treatment to parent institute and its centres. These
numbers are sufficient to justify the claim that the Kasauli
Institute is the largest institution of its kind in the world.

The Institute, in common with all other institutes in the
East, differs from the European Institutes in that its patients
are nearly all actually bitten, many of them severely, as opposed
to being merely in contact with and licked by rabid animals.
Nearly 50 per cent, of all cases attending at Kasauli are severely
bitten and 25 per cent, of these are of maximum severity. It is
not surprising, therefore, that the general death rate (1.41 per
cent.) is also higher than it is in Europe.

One of the features of the Institute is the detailed nature
of the statistics published in its annual reports. These were
originally compiled by Lieut-Col. Harvey and have been adhered
to with little alteration ever since.

A further interesting feature is the large number of biting
animals which are responsible for the attendance of patients.
Dogs are responsible for 80 per cent, and jackals for 17 per cent.
of cases, the remaining 3 per cent, include human beings, wolves,
horses, cats, donkeys, cows, monkeys, foxes, mongooses, camels,
buffaloes, goats, mules, bears, hyaenas, leopards, sheep and tigers.
Many of the stories told by patients of their encounters with
wild animals are epics in their way.

The Institute has been most catholic in its choice of methods
of treatment. From 1900 to 1907 the original Dried Cord
Method of Pasteur was used. The Dilution Method of Hogyes
was introduced in 1908 and remained in use .until 1911. In

280 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

1912 carbolised vaccine was introduced and is still the main
method of treatment at present. The claims of the etherised
vaccine of Alivisatos and Hempt are being investigated in detail.
The carbolised vaccine at present in use consists of a 1 per cent,
suspension of brain matter in 0.5 per cent, carbolised saline
solution. A daily dose of 5 ccs. of this vaccine is given to all
patients for 14 days. In 1925, 820,000 ccs. of vaccine were
made in the Institute.

The Institute is not a Government Institution but is still
administered by the Pasteur Institute Association which gave its
origin. It is supported by Government grants and voluntary
contributions. All patients, of whatever degree, are treated
free.

The Institute as it stands just now is very different from
the original bungalow which was purchased for the purpose at
the commencement of its career. The main building stands in a
large estate and is surrounded by numerous outbuildings which
include amongst others, a special hospital, houses for the staff,
rabbit runs and breeding houses and a number of boarding
hauses for the different communities, Europeans, Indian chiefs
and gentlemen, Bengalees and Parsees. In addition, there are
quarters for indigent Indians who form the bulk of the patients.

An extensive organisation exists for the despatch and return
of poor patients and their attendants to and from the Institute.
On the certificate of a Magistrate or Civil Surgeon, free travel-
ling, feeding expenses on the journey, free quarters, a daily food
allowance while at the Institute and clothing are provided. These
charges (except for railway travelling which is free as a con-
cession) are ultimately recovered from the Local Bodies or
Governments concerned. The crowd of patients of every class
collected together every morning waiting for treatment is a
unique sight and one which can only be fully appreciated when
seen.

The medical staff consists of a Director, an Assistant to the
Director and two Sub- Assistant Surgeons, one a lady.

Much research work into rabies and other subjects has been
done by officers of the Institute since its foundation. Sir David

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 281

Semple, the original Director, the late Major G. Lanib, I.M.S.,
Lieut-Col. W. F. Harvey, I.M.S., Lieut-Col. A. G. McKendrick,
I.M.S., aad Lieutfr-CoL Acton, all of whose names are well-known
to workers on this subject, have all been directors of the Institute
in times past.

The X-ray Institute of India. This Institution is
situated in Dehra Dun and is primarily a teaching Institute and
a Supply Depot for the equipment of the X-ray Departments
of the Military Hospitals in India and of other Institutions under
the control of the various Provincial Governments.

The Institute is well equipped with up-to-date apparatus for
Radio diagnosis, Radiotheraphy and Electrical treatment, both
for demonstration purposes and for the treatment of patients.
Two courses of Instruction in Radiography are held annually and
some thirty medical men, Government servants either in the
Military or in the Civil Departments, or private individuals attend
each of these classes. Between two and three thousand X-ray
Photographs are taken and an equal number of treatments,
X-ray or Electrical, are given to Government servants during
the year, and in addition a variable number of private individuals
attend the Institute for treatment.

The Indian Military Hospital, Dehra Dun, supplies a constant
stream of patients, who are transferred from other Military
Hospitals throughout India to take advantage of the treatments
offered in this Institute.

A small quantity of Radium is also available for those cases
in which Radium treatment is of value.

Attached to the Institute are well equipped workshops in the
charge of a skilled Electrical Engineer where repairs are made
to damaged electrical equipment sent from all over India for the
purpose,- and wherein a certain amount of apparatus is
manufactured.

There are small branch institutions in Delhi and in Simla,
administered by the Institute in Dehra Dun, for the convenience
of those who live in those towns.

280 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

1912 carbolised vaccine was introduced and is still the main
method of treatment at present. The claims of the etherised
vaccine of Alivisatos and Hempt are being investigated in detail.
The carbolised vaccine at present in use consists of a 1 per cent,
suspension of brain matter in 0.5 per cent, 'carbolised saline
solution. A daily dose of 5 ccs. of this vaccine is given to all
patients for 14 days. In 1925, 820,000 ccs. of vaccine were
made in the Institute.

The Institute is not a Government Institution but is still
administered by the Pasteur Institute Association which gave its
origin. It is supported by Government grants and voluntary
contributions. All patients, of whatever degree, are treated
free.

The Institute as it stands just now is very different from
the original bungalow which was purchased for the purpose at
the commencement of its career. The main building stands in a
large estate and is surrounded by numerous outbuildings which
include amongst others, a special hospital, houses for the staff,
rabbit runs and breeding houses and a number of boarding
hauses for the different communities, Europeans, Indian chiefs
and gentlemen, Bengalees and Parsees. In addition, there are
quarters for indigent Indians who form the bulk of the patients.

An extensive organisation exists for the despatch and return
of poor patients and their attendants to and from the Institute.
On the certificate of a Magistrate or Civil Surgeon, free travel-
ling, feeding expenses on the journey, free quarters, a daily food
allowance while at the Institute and clothing are provided. These
charges (except for railway travelling which is free as a con-
cession) are ultimately recovered from the Local Bodies or
Governments concerned. The crowd of patients of every class
collected together every morning waiting for treatment is a
unique sight and one which can only be fully appreciated when
seen.

The medical staff consists of a Director, an Assistant to the
Director and two Sub-Assistant Surgeons, one a lady.

Much research work into rabies and other subjects has been
done by officers of the Institute since its foundation. Sir David

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 281

Semple, the original Director, the late Major G. Lamb, I.M.S.,
Lieut-Col. W. F. Harvey, I.M.S., Lieut-Col. A. G. McKendrick,
i. M.S., amd Lieufl-Col Acton, all of whose names are well-known
to workers, on this subject, have all been directors of the Institute
in times past.

The X-ray Institute of India. This Institution is
situated in Dehra Dun and is primarily a teaching Institute and
a Supply Depot for the equipment of the X-ray Departments
of the Military Hospitals in India and of other Institutions under
the control of the various Provincial Governments.

The Institute is well equipped with up-to-date apparatus for
Radio diagnosis, Radiotheraphy and Electrical treatment, both
for demonstration purposes and for the treatment of patients.
Two courses of Instruction in Radiography are held annually and
some thirty medical men, Government servants either in the
Military or in the Civil Departments, or private individuals attend
each of these classes. Between two and three thousand X-ray
Photographs are taken and an equal number of treatments,
X-ray or Electrical, are given to Government servants during
the year, and in addition a variable number of private individuals
attend the Institute for treatment.

The Indian Military Hospital, Dehra Dun, supplies a constant
stream of patients, who are transferred from other Military
Hospitals throughout India to take advantage of the treatments
offered in this Institute.

A small quantity of Radium is also available for those cases
in which Radium treatment is of value.

Attached to the Institute are well equipped workshops in the
charge of a skilled Electrical Engineer where repairs are made
to damaged electrical equipment sent from all over India for the
purpose,- and wherein a certain amount of apparatus is
manufactured.

There are small branch institutions in Delhi and in Simla,
administered by the Institute in Dehra Dun, for the convenience
of those who live in those towns.

282 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

ASSAM.

King Edward VII Memorial Pasteur Institute and
Medical Research Institute, Shillong. The pr&pdteal to build
an Institute in Assam for antirabic treatment , was first put
forward by Dr. Macnamara in 1906. In 1910 the Indian Tea
Association supported a proposal which had been put forward
that part of the Eastern Bengal and Assam King Edward VII
Memorial Fund should be devoted to the construction of the
Institute, and in 1912 Shillong was selected as the most suitable
location. The Governing Body of the Indian Research Fund
gave a grant of Rs. 25,000 towards the construction of the
research laboratory and Rs. 15,000 for equipment and books.
The foundation stone was laid on 4th November, 1915, and the
buildings were completed in 1916. On the 5th January, 1917,
a communiqu6 was issued to the Press to the effect that the
Institute was ready to receive patients.

The main building of the Institute has a south frontage and
consists of a central block with four wings. It stands in an
estate of ten acres of plateau on a pine-covered hill at an eleva-
tion of 5,000 feet above sea-level. It is about a mile from the
centre of Shillong and overlooks the Race-course and Golf-links.
There is plenty of room for expansion.

As regards the work there are sections as follows:
(a) Pasteur Institute. During 1917 the number of patients
who attended for antirabic treatment was 569. The number
increased each year until it reached 2,371 in 1923. During this
period patients were treated not only from Assam but also from
Bengal and Bihar and Orissa. In June 1924, a Pasteur Insti-
tute was opened in Calcutta and all Bengal and Bihar and Orissa
cases were henceforth treated here. The result was a drop in
cases at the Shillong Institute in 1925 to 1,176 but they have
since risen to approximately 1,500 annually.

(&) Kala-asar and Research Section. Since the opening
of the Institute research work has been carried out especially
on diseases of importance to Assam such as kala-azar, Naga sore,
malaria, etc., but also on general lines. Microscopical, cultural

X

tt

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 283

and serological examinations are also carried out on specimens
sent to the Institute from all parts of the Province of Assam.

(c)' Vaccine Section. In order to deal with the general
demands for vaccine from the Province, and especially in con-
nection with the Influenza epidemic a vaccine section was
sanctioned as an additional branch of the Institute work and was
finally organised and put into running order in July 1919. The
Section, however, stopped the manufacture of prophylactic vac-
cines in 1922 from which time it has acted as a distributing
centre for Assam of vaccine prepared at the Central Research
Institute, Kasauli.

A Kala-azar Ward is attached to the Institute and a great
deal of experimental work has been carried out here in the
treatment of the disease by various new drugs. This has also
been a training centre for medical men of the Province in the
diagnosis and treatment of l^ala-azar by the most modern
methods.

In addition to the above a portion of the west wing is
utilised by the Public Health Laboratory for the Province.

Provincial Public Health Laboratory, Shillong. This

occupies a part of the building of the King Edward VII Memo-
rial Pasteur Institute, but is in charge of a separate officer. In
this laboratory work of a definitely Public Health character is
carried out, such as chemical and bacteriological analysis of
water, chemical analysis of milk, ghee, butter, oils, atta, tea,
etc., also examination of bleaching powder, alum, etc., and bac-
teriological tests of vaccine lymphs. The Laboratory also under-
takes all the ordinary analyses required in connection with the
diagnosis and treatment of patients in the Kala-azar Ward
attached to the Institute, such as examination of blood films
liver and spleen smears and cultures, also blood counts, colour
index and examination of urine, stools and sputum.

The Laboratory further undertakes the examination ofl
Urea Stibamine and arranges for its distribution for kala-azar
treatment to the District Officers, thus taking a part in the scheme
of Kala-azar Treatment Centres carried out in this Province.

284 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

BENGAL.

The School of Tropical Medicine, the Institute of
Hygiene and the Carmichael Hospital for Tropical Diseases.

These three Institutions form parts of one scheme for post-
graduate instruction and research in Tropical Diseases. The
scheme was formed by Sir Leonard Rogers and it is to his
energy and enthusiasm that the present organisation owes its
existence.

The School, Institute and Hospital were built by funds
which were raised by Sir Leonard from three chief sources.

Original contribu- Present recurring

tion (in round cost (in round

figures). figures).

I. Private funds 8* lacs of rupees 1 lac.

II. Government of India 6 lacs Nil.

III. Government of Bengal 4j lacs 4 lacs

IV. Research Fund Association 2 lacs Ij lacs

The research side of the Institution has been in working
for over six years, the teaching side for over five years.

The Teaching Side. During the years 1922 26 medical
men from all parts of India have been trained in Tropical
Medicine to the number of 324 and in Public Health to the
number of 59. In addition to these, large numbers of medical
men have received special training in such diseases as Leprosy,
Kala-azar, Hookworm Diseases, etc.

The chief object of the instruction at the School is to raise
the standards of efficiency of the teachers and public health
workers of India and to train research workers. Every Local
Government has been invited to become a profit sharer in the
benefits which are available at the School and the ideal which
is aimed at is that a few of the picked medical men from each
province should receive higher post-graduate training at the
School every year. In this way there will be a supply of good
teachers and public health workers and inevitably the standards
of efficiency of the doctors of India will be improved. The
result will be that the people of India will receive better medical
treatment and more effective public health service.

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 285

The Research Side. This aims at the discovery of better
methods of treating and preventing the great disabling diseases
of India; already many important advances have been made by

the workers at the School.

i

Kala-azar is a fatal disease which kills thousands of people
in Bengal, Assam and other parts of India. The Kala-azar
Research Department has demonstrated the practicability of
establishing Out-patient Dispensaries for the treatment of this
disease at a very small cost. Such Dispensaries are now estab-
lished in many places in Bengal. A valuable means of diagnosis
has been discovered and recently the workers at the School have
discovered that a species of sandfly is probably the carrier of
the disease. Owing to this discovery research workers in various
parts of the world are concentrating on the task of demonstrat-
ing the truth of this hypothesis. If as we believe it will finally
lie shown that the sandfly is the carrier, the School will have the
credit of solving the last of the great problems of tropical
medicine.

The work of the Leprosy Department is well-known
throughout the world. The lines of treatment of this disease
which have been worked out at the School are now adopted
by most of the countries in which leprosy occurs. The whole
outlook on life of the leper has been revolutionised. . He is no
longer the 'hopeless victim of an incurable disease and an out-
cast from society, he has a good prospect of recovery and so
comes forward for early treatment instead of concealing his
disease until his condition is hopeless.

It is impossible to deal adequately with all the work which
has been done at the School in a brief statement like this, but
a fe\y of the advances which have been made by our workers may
be mentioned.

The Skin Diseases of India have been systematically
studied for the first time and a text-book on the subject is in
preparation.

The causation of Epidemic Dropsy has been worked out
with some degree of certainty, and it is likely that our work will
be found to have a most important bearing on beri-beri which }

285 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

either the same disease or at any rate closely related to epidemic
dropsy. It is believed that the crux of the problem is the proper
storage of rice.

A fever which had not hitherto been recognised in India has
been discovered and its diagnosis has been placed on a sound
footing. Since the publication of our accounts of this disease
it has been found to be common and widespread in the tropics.

The distribution of Hookworm Disease in India has been
worked out, methods of prevention suitable for various localities
have been published and we are now in a position to form an
accurate idea of the real importance of the disease in the places
in which it occurs. Hitherto we were unable to form any true
estimate of the damage which is done by the disease, so that
steps for its eradication could not be planned on sound working
basis.

Cholera infection appears to persist in many parts of India,
little was known of the conditions under which this occurred,
one of our workers in conjunction with the Chief Medical
Officer of the Asansol Mining Settlement has been at work on
this problem and the results already obtained promise to be of
immense value.

Many Indigenous Drugs have been analysed and tested and
several have been discovered to be of real value. This work is
of great importance as the practitioners of scientific medicine
have often been accused of adopting an attitude of antagonism
towards the use of valuable remedies of indigenous origin. Our
aim is to examine the drugs which are commonly believed to be
of value and to sift the wheat from the chaff.

Valuable Malaria Surveys have been carried out in several
areas and measures have been recommended for controlling the
disease in these places. As this work progresses it is expected
that preventive measures will be devised which will be suitable for
the various localities in which the disease occurs.

The following text-books have been written by members
of the staff, some of tkem in collaboration with other workers.

Major R. Knowhs, LMS.

(1) Introduction to Medical Protozoology.

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 287

(2) Lecture Notes in Medical Protozoology.

Major Knowles and Dr. Senior-White.

(1) jMalaria^ its investigation and control.

Lieut-Col. A. D. Stewart, I.MS., and Major Boyd, I.M.S.

(1) Public Health Chemistry,

Dr. B. Muir.

(1) Kala-azar, its diagnosis and treatment.

(2) Handbook on Leprosy.

Dr. E. Muir and Dr. L. E. Napier.

(1) Kala-azar.

Dr. Muir and Sir Leonard Rogers.

(1) Leprosy.

The training of young Indian Research Workers is one of
the important functions of the School. Many young medical
men have had the opportunity of collaborating with first class
experts and of obtaining an insight into the methods of research,
already some of them have won their spurs and at least one
discovery of first class importance has been made by a pupil of
the School.

The Hospital and Out-patient Departments. The chief
purpose of the hospital is to keep the research laboratories in
touch with practical medicine and to supply suitable patients for
the study of the diseases which are being investigated. The
School, thanks to the foresight of Sir Leonard Rogers, is very
fortunately situated in this respect. Owing to the large popu-
lation of Calcutta and to the fact that it is the " Charing Cross "
of the most populous parts of India the supply of material is
inexhaustible. From the humanitarian point of view the hospital
also plays an important part. The facilities for diagnosis and
treatment of obscure diseases are far greater than those existing
in any other hospital in the East. The Out-patient Departments
which were opened with the object of obtaining material have
become so popular that an embarrassing number of patients come
for diagnosis and treatment. The Pasteur Institute which was
recently opened is already one of the largest in India and large
numbers of patients are saved the trouble and expense of a long
journey to Shillong or Kasauli. Also many are now treated

290 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

temple of Parali-Vaijnath from which the village, now the
important industrial area, known as Parel takes its name.

The earliest reference to the present building is in 1673-
when it belonged to the Jesuits, who erected it on the site of
the temple which they doubtless destroyed. When Bombay
was ceded to the British the Jesuits claimed the church
and convent at Parel but after much contention the Monas-
tery and lands were confiscated in 1719 by the Governor of
Bombay by whom it was used as an occasional residence.
In 1829 it became the permanent official residence of the
Governors of Bombay and so it remained till 1885 when
Lady Fergusson, the wife of the Governor, died there of
cholera, as a result of which tragedy the place was abandon-
ed. It remained vacant till 1887 when plague first made
its appearance in Bombay when the building was used as
a plague hospital.

Two years later, in 1899, Mr. Haffkine, who had been
preparing his prophylactic vaccine at various temporary
laboratories in the city, obtained permission to take over
Old Government House for the manufacture of his
vaccine. It was then known as the Plague Research Labor-
atory and one of its principal functions to this day has been to-
manufacture Haffkine's Plague Prophylactic.

The laboratory continued to expand and came ta
function as the principal centre for research into diseases
other than plague and as a diagnostic centre for the clinical
requirements of Western India and so to indicate the ex-
pansion in its function, its name was changed in 1906 to that of
the Bombay Bacteriological Laboratory.

More recently, owing to a further expansion of its activities
to include antirabic, pharmacological and biochemical research,
its name was again changed in 1925 at the instance of the
present director, to that of " The Haffkine Institute " in memory
of the great investigator who was its founder and its inspirator
and who may be regarded as one of India's greatest benefactors.

During the years of its existence close on thirty million
doses of vaccine have been made and issued to all parts of

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 291

India and the middle East, from East Africa on one side to
China on the other. Worthy as its efforts have been in the
origination and improvement in the technique of plague vaccine
it has equally hijjh claims to fame on the research side. When
the tide of the great plague pandemic broke in India in 18%
and began spreading up the mainland of the peninsula like wild-
fire, the attention of the scientific world was focussed on the ter-
rible drama which was being enacted. In these early days
Haffkine's laboratory was the Mecca for the world's " savants "
^either solitary or in commissions and every one who had an
hypothesis to test came to Bombay hoping to stem the rising
tide which threatened to make of India one vast charnel house.
The conclusions of most of these enquiries may be
passed over for it was not till the British Plague Research
Commission came out in 1905 that the true facts of plague
transmission became known. Working on lines suggested
by Liston (afterwards to be one of the most notable direc-
tors of this laboratory) this Commission worked out the
whole question of transmission and showed by a series of
masterly researches which were carried on till 1912 that the
disease is primarily an epizootic of rats and is transmitted
from them to man by the agency of rat fleas. Once these
facts were known, and they have never been challenged, a
most powerful weapon of prevention was placed in the hands
of sanitarians and public health officials. Research into the
problems of plague has been going on continuously in this
laboratory ever since and at present the chief object of
these investigations is to improve the quality and potency of
Haffkine's prophylactic and to study drugs likely to be
useful in the treatment of the disease.

Another notable investigation which was carried on
in 1906-07 was into the transmission of relapsing fever as
a result of which the body louse was proved to be the
natural carrier of this formidable disease. This successful
piece of work set the seal on the observations made twenty
years previously on the clinical aspect of the disease by one of
Bombay's greatest investigators Henry Vandyke Carter. In

292 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN 1&D1A.

addition other notable researches have been carried on such as
that on the natural history and transmission of guinea-worm
which was proved to be carried from one man to another by the
agency of infected cyclops (water fleas) which infest the wells
of the presidency. In addition work of permanent value has
been done on snake-bite, malaria, tuberculosis, water-borne
disease, schistosomiasis, sprue, leprosy and other diseases prevalent
in Bombay.

The Institute maintains a large number of poisonous
snakes from which venom is collected for the manufacture
of anti-venomous sera and the process of venom extraction
is counted as one of its principal attractions to visitors.

A great effort to increase the educational functions of
the Institute was made in recent years by Lt.-Col. W. G.
Liston who aided by a generous grant by Sir Dorab Tata
put forward a scheme for the foundation of a School of
Tropical Medicine. Just when the scheme was complete
and about to come to fruition the Inchcape axe fell and the
scheme had to be abandoned on financial grounds.

Since his time the new buildings raised for this object
have been opened up for antirabic treatment and fine labora-
tories fitted out for the study of indigenous drugs and for
biochemistry.

The following have been directors of this Laboratory
since its inception:

Waldimir Mordecai Haffkine . . 1899 to 1904

William Burney Bannerman .. 1904 to 1911

William Glen Liston .. 1911 to 1923

Frederic Percival Mackie 1923 till the present date.

The Vaccine Institute, Belgaum. An excellent Institute
with a laboratory attached. Supplies Bombay Presidency,
also Zanzibar, Aden, Goa and the Persian Gulf, etc. * Doses
issued (1924) 1,177,570 with 99 per cent, or over success rate
with primary vaccinations. The vaccine is passed through
rabbits and tested clinically before issue. A training class
in vaccination is held.

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

BURMA.

Pasteur Institute of Burma, Rangoon, was opened ia
1915 and is a 'double storeyed building. The ground floor
is occupied by tfie Antirabic Department, consulting rooms,,
waiting rooms, store rooms, and officers. The upper storey has
large and well-lit laboratories. The kitchen is at the west and
the Serological Department at the east. The two main labora-
tories in the centre are devotee! to Research Work and Clinical
Pathology. In the grounds are quarters for indigent patients
and for the staff, and also animal houses. The Institute has its-
own gas and refrigerating plants.

The average number of patients bitten by rabid animals
treated during the year is about 1,100. At present two-thirds
of these cases come from Rangoon itself.

The Harcourt Butler Institute of Public Health,
Rangoon, was opened by His Excellency the Governor in
January 1927. It acts as a Training School in Hygiene, as
a Central Laboratory for Public Health work and as a
centre for health propaganda. It has a Bacteriological and
a Chemical Section where water and food analysis, etc., is
carried out. Medical Students and Public Health Inspectors
and School Teachers are trained in Hygiene at this Institute
by Officers of the Public Health Department. A course of
study is also conducted for sub-assistant surgeons leading
to a Government License in Public Health. It is proposed
to house a Malaria Bureau in the Institute. A Teaching Museum
is being created in a room on the ground floor.

Vaccine Depot, Meikteila. All vaccine lymph used in
the Province is manufactured by the Public Health Depart-
ment at the Provincial Vaccine Depot, Meikteila. The Depot
was formerly in charge of the Civil Surgeon, Meikteila, but from
1st March, 1927, a whole time Director has been appointed. He
is aided by an Assistant Director of the Civil Sub-Assistant
Surgeon class and a small subordinate staff. The Director
supervises the training class for vaccinators. This class is of"
three months' durattoa and four successive classes are held ir
the year,

294 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

CENTRAL PROVINCES.

Central Provinces, Vaccine Institute, Nagpur. Bovine
calves are used for the manufacture of lymph. On admis-
sion to the Institute these animals are segregated in a special
area for 10 days. During this period they are given an
arsenic bath to get rid of ticks and their blood smears are
sent to the Veterinary Hospital for examination. If ariy animal
is found to be suffering from any disease or the Veterinary
Surgeon gives an unfavourable report on the blood smear
(piroplasmosis), the animal is rejected and sold. After 10
days animals 'are taken to the waiting stable and utilized
for manufacture of lymph. The potency of the lymph is
kept up by frequent passage through rabbits to buffalo
calves. One day previous to the operation the calves'
abdomen, flanks and perineum are shaved. On the day of
the operation the razor is passed over this area again. Up
to January last linear incisions about an inch apart were
made with the blunt point of a scalpel and the seed lymph
rubbed in. Since then the whole area has been scarified
with special fork-shaped scarifiers and the lymph rubbed in.
The yield of lymph by the former method was 34.49 grams
(average), and by the latter method 77.17 grams (average).

After operation the animals are kept in a fly-proof
maturing stable for 5 days and on the 6th morning after
washing the operated area well with neutral soap and water, it is
covered with a sterilized towel and is well moistened with a thin
stream of warm water. The pulp is then scraped away and
weighed. After weighing it is mixed with equal parts by weight
of glycerine and water-dilution 1.4 (one part pulp and 4 parts
of glycerine mixture), and first ground in a glass mortar and
then in a Felix and Plucks' grinding machine. It is finally
stored in the ice-chest (temperature 5C. to 10C.) in test-tubes
of about 30 c.c. size each. Storage is from 4 to 8 months before
despatch. Before despatch it is subjected to bacteriological tests
(plating on agar). Not more than 15 colonies of staphylo-
cocci are allowed per plate. If the plate shows anthrax, strep-
tococci and pyocyaneus^ etc., it is rejected.

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

Lymph is supplied to the vaccinators in the Province in*
1 c.c. vials (20 doses). Total annual manufacture 757,840-
doses. Cost per dose 6 pies. The animals after healing are
disposed of in the local markets. Average loss per animal
Rs. 3. Average purchase cost of animals Rs. 13 per animal.

MADRAS.

The King Institute of Preventive Medicine, Guindy^-

The King Institute is situated at Guindy about seven miles from
Madras. It was founded in 1903 and named after Colonel
W. G. King, c,i.&, I.M.S., then Sanitary Commissioner of
Madras who had been chiefly responsible for its inception.
At first its main work was that of supplying vaccine lymph
to the Madras Presidency but in course of time its activities
extended very greatly and at present are as follows :
For the whole Presidency

(1) The only vaccine lymph depot.

(2) The main general bacteriological laboratory for

all bacteriological and serological diagnostic
purposes and for the manufacture of all vaccines
except plague, as also of sterile solutions and
media, etc.

(3) The only Government Public Health Laboratory

for the bacteriological and chemical examination
of all water supplies, milk, food, etc,

(4) The laboratory for the Public Analyst.

(5) A cold storage and distributing centre for sera

for human and veterinary use.

(6) A general clinical and Public Health Research

Laboratory and the centre for three mobile investi-
gation units.

For all the Madras Hospitals except the General
Hospital :

(7) The clinical bacteriological laboratory an Institute

car collects material daily.

The Institute covers several acres of ground and consists-
of a main building for the Bacteriological and Chemical

296 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

work, a new subsidiary block for Vaccine Lymph work and
many out-buildings for calves, animals, stores and offices.
The Institute has its own water and gas supply, rups a large
cold store and makes its own ice. In the grounds of the
Institute there are a set of experimental water filters with
storage tanks and sand and mechanical filters.

The staff consists of a director and an assistant < director
belonging to the Medical Research Department of the Govern-
ment of India, a public analyst, 1 civil surgeon, 7 assistant
surgeons, 2 non-medical gazetted senior assistants (Bacterio-
logist and Chemist in the Public Health Section), 1 sub-assistant
surgeon and 5 junior assistants. In addition there is a large
staff of laboratory attendants and other subordinates which swell
the total staff to 164.

The Vaccine Lymph Section manufactures and issues
over two million doses of glycerine lymph annually. This is
distributed chiefly to the Madras Presidency. Supplies are
also made to the military authorities in Southern India, to
French India, and to a certain extent to Ceylon.

The General Bacteriological Section has been of increas-
ing use to the Presidency particularly in the performance of
Wassermann tests of which 13,000 were done last year and in
the manufacture of stock and autogenous vaccines. In the
last three months owing to heavy demands 400,000 doses of
cholera vaccine were manufactured.

In the Public Health Section the examination and inves-
tigation of water supplies has always been a prominent
feature. During the course of each year, samples of water
from every protected water supply, whether belonging to
municipalities, railways or jails, are collected by the Institute
sample-takers, brought to the Institute and examined. Samples
from any proposed source of supply are also submitted for opinion
and report. Experiments are carried on with the experimental
filters under the direction of the *Committee on Water and
Sewage Purification, of which the Director of the Institute is the
secretary. During the past few years this section has taken a
leading part in an investigation into the water supply of Madras

MBDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 297

City and has been instrumental in giving the Madras Corporation
much useful advice in this subject.

The Public Analyst has fixed standards for certain food
supplies with a view to bringing the Madras Adulteration of
Food and Drugs" Act into operation. In addition to his own
work he controls the Public Health Section.

The work done by the Mobile Investigation Units, the
first af their kind to be formed in India, have justified their
existence. The annual report for 1926-27 gives a goocf idea
of their activities, which extended over 14 different malarial
surveys and bacteriological researches.

The King Institute has a good record of Medical
Research work done by officers while working on its staff.
Colonel King was and still is one of the leading authorities
on tropical sanitation and of modern methods of vaccine
lymph production. The Protozoological researches of Captain
(now Lt.-Col.) Christophers while Director are well known.
Medical Entomology has formed a very fruitful field for
research in the hands of Majors Patton and Cragg, who
worked in collaboration at the Institute for some considerable
time. The experience gained by these officers culminated
in the publication of their well-known text-book on medical ento-
mology. The Institute was the head-quarters of the Kala-azar
Commission in Madras in 1912.

The interest which 'has always been taken in problems
connected with water purification originated with the work
done, by Major (now Lt.-Col.) Clemesha while Sanitary
Commissioner in Madras. The results of his researches on
tropical standards of purity were published in many of the
reports issued from the Institute, and formed the subject-matter
of his book on " Water Supplies in the Tropics."

The field covered in recent years has been a wide one
and includes investigations into vaccine lymph, filariasis,
kala-azar, relapsing fever, malaria, dysentery, choler*,
puerperal sepsis and the purification of water. The results
of these investigations by the members of the staff have been

298 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

published from time to time in Indian medical journals and
in the annual reports of the Institute. :

The Pasteur Institute of Southern India, Coonoor. The

establishment of a Pasteur Institute at Coonoor was rendered
possible by the generosity of Mr. Henry Phlpps, an American,
who gave several lakhs of rupees to the Viceroy, Lord
Curzon. One lakh was handed over to the Madras, Govern-
ment to help in the establishment of a Pasteur Institute in
Southern India. At the time it was considered essential that
a Pasteur Institute should be located in a cool climate and
Coonoor was agreed upon as the most suitable location, being
cool and on the railway and fairly central. The Institute was
opened for the reception of patients on April 1st, 1907.

From this date to 15th November, 1908, 404 persons were
treated with dilutions of cords preserved in glycerine in
an ice chest till required for use. From 16th November, 1908
to 31st January, 1912, 2,464 persons were treated by Hogyes'
dilution method. On the 1st February, 1912, treatment with
carbolised vaccine was commenced and, up to the 28th
February, 1927, 28,860 persons have been treated with this vac-
cine. The total number treated from 1st April, 1907 to 28th
February, 1927 is 31,729 with a mortality rate of 0-98 per cent,
and a failure rate of 070 per cent.

Up to 1922, all persons bitten by rabid animals had
to come to Coonoor for treatment. In the meantime ex-
periments carried out at the Institute had shown that
carbolised vaccine did not suffer any appreciable loss of
immunizing power in the heat of the plains during the period
allowed for its transit and use. It was therefore decided
to establish centres for treatment with vaccine prepared and
sent out by the Institute. Since 1922, more than 60 such
centres have been established in hospitals in the Presidency
and in Indian States. The vaccine for each patient or batch
of patients is supplied as required and is sent out in sealed
ampoules in two lots at 4 days' interval. Instructions are
printed on the label that the vaccine should not be used more
than 14 days after the date of its despatch. Since 1922 nearly

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

18,000 persons have been treated at these centres with mortality
and failure rates slightly lower than those for persons treated
at the Institute during the same period. Since the decentralisa-
tion of the treatment has been effected, the total number of
persons treated annually has increased by over 1,000 while the
number treated at the Pasteur Institute has fallen from about
3,500 to 500.

In addition to routine work, research work on Rabies.
Kala-azar, Filariasis and on Entomological and other subjects
has been carried out by workers at the Institute and the
results have been published in The Indian Journal of Medical
Research. Since 1918, accommodation has been given to the
workers of the Deficiency Diseases Inquiry under the Indian*
Research Fund Association.

PUNJAB.

The Punjab Vaccine Institute. The Punjab Vaccine Insti-
tute is engaged in the manufacture and issue of vaccine lymph
over a very wide area. Not only is vaccine lymph issued
to all Civil and Military authorities and private medical practi-
tioners in the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province and the
Punjab Indian States but its activities extend to Tibet, Nepal,
Chinese Turkistan, Arabia and Persia.

The average number of doses issued during the past three
years is 3,271,298. The Forster-Java method is employed
for vaccine lymph production, that is (1) Buffalo Calves are
vaccinated with cow calf lymph; (2) Cow Calves are vaccinated
with Rabbit lymph; and (3) Rabbits are vaccinated with Buffalo
Calf lymph. The lymph is glycerinated with a 50 per cent
Glycerine Distilled Water Mixture in the proportion of 1 part
of pulp to 4 parts of mixture, by weight. Vaccine lymph for
issue is "chloroformed" for half an hour immediately tritura-
tion with, glycerine mixture is effected.

Since the adoption of the three-animal method of vaccine
lymph production, the average yield of pulp per calf has
increased threefold and is now per Buffalo Calf 91-0 grammes
and per Cow Calf 27-7 grammes average yield. The quality of

300 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

vaccine lymph has also improved and the case success in' primary
cases is 98-19 per cent, and in re-vaccinations 72-52 per cent.

The Institute in addition to being self-supporting returns
a substantial profit to Government annually.

The Punjab Vaccine Institute carries out the following
additional activities :

(1) The training of Sanitary Inspectors in Hygiene and
Sanitation and the technique and practice of vaccine lynfiph pre-
paration and vaccination.

(2) The training of District Vaccinators in Elementary
Hygiene and Sanitation and practical instructions in vaccine
lymph preparation and vaccination.

(3) Practical instructions to Lady Health Visitors in
vaccine lymph preparation and vaccination.

(4) Practical instructions to Final Year medical students
of the King Edward Medical College in vaccine lymph
preparation and vaccination.

UNITED PROVINCES.

Provincial Hygiene Institute, Lucknow* The work of
this Institute is at present carried on as a temporary measure
in the King George's Medical College. A new institute is being
built at a cost of about four lakhs and the first portion of it will
be completed in April 1928. Projected additions to contain the
Research Laboratories to cost three more lakhs, etc., are under
preparation. The work carried on includes (1) Under-graduate
classes in Hygiene and Public Health for the M.B., B.S.,
Lucknow University. (2) Classes for the Diploma of Public
Health, Lucknow University. (3) Classes for the License in
Public Health of the State Faculty of Medicine, U. P. (4) Classes
for the Apprentice Sanitary Inspectors and Sanitary Inspectors.
(5) Examination of Chief Sanitary Inspectors. (6) Examina-
tion of Medical Officers of Health in Provincial Municipal Law.
(7) Post-graduate courses to the members of the Provincial
Medical Service in State Medicine. (8) Cinema Production.
(9) Grade examination of Medical Officers in charge of Travel-
ling Dispensaries. (10) Training of Laboratory Assistants.

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 301

(11) Examination of water, food, disinfectants, etc. (12) Re-
search.

Government Bovine Lymph Depot, Patwadangar.

The manufacture of calf lymph for the supply of the Vaccination
Department of the U. P., certain Native States in the U. P. and
Rajputana and the Military Department in the U. P. and Raj-
putana. About 2\ million doses of calf lymph are produced
annually in the Depot.

Chemical and Bacteriological Municipal Laboratories.

These have been established under the auspices of the Pub-
lic Health Department for the testing- of municipal water
supplies and food supplies in the following towns: Allahabad,
Benares, Cawnpore, Agra, Meerut, Bareilly, Muttra, Fyza-
bad, Mussoorie, and others are projected. In all these labora-
tories bacteriological examinations are carried out for private
practitioners in accordance with the scale of fees laid down by
the Government of India for Government institutions.

4. MEDICAL, HEALTH AND RESEARCH ASSOCIA-
TIONS AND SOCIETIES.

Space does not permit of an adequate account of these
Associations and Societies which deal with many important
aspects of medical work in India. The following is a very brief
mention of the more important of these:

Indian Red Cross Society. Its activities embrace
arrangements for the sick and wounded and provision of comforts
to H. M. Forces, Tuberculosis Work, Child Welfare, Work
Parties for the Provision of Clothing, etc., Nursing, Health and
Welfare Work, etc,

St. John Ambulance Association (Indian Council).

The Indian Council was constituted in 1910. It has since issued
106,327 certificates of proficiency in First Aid, Home Nursing,
Home Hygiene and Sanitation and 4,917 tokens for special
proficiency in these subjects.

British Empire Leprosy Relief Association (Indian
Council). The main Association was founded in England

302 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

in 1924. The Indian Council was inaugurated at His Excellency
the Vkeroy's invitation in January 1925, at Delhi. His Excel-
lency the Viceroy is President. A sum of Rs. 19 lakhs has been
collected. The activities of the Association include (a) 'Research,.
(&) Training of Doctors in Special Leprosy Treatment, (c) Pro-
paganda, (d) Improvement of Leper Asylums in the various
provinces.

National Association for supplying Female Medical Aid!
to Women of India. Was founded by the Counters of
Dufferin in 1866. The Association is subsidized by Government
of India with a grant of Rs. 3,70,000 annually for the mainten-
ance of the Women's Medical Service of India.

Lady Reading Women of India Fund. Was opened
by H. E. the Countess of Reading with the object, among others,
of establishing an Indian Nursing Association. In connection
with the Fund is the Lady Reading Hospital, Simla, and a Hostel
for Indian nurses at Delhi.

All-India Maternity and Child Welfare League. Was

initiated by Lady Chelmsford and aims at establishing Child
Welfare centres in most of the larger towns of India. It aims
at training of mid wives, instruction of mothers, antenatal work,
care of babies, etc. There are child welfare centres under the
League, Indian Red Cross and other bodies at Bombay (Lady
Willingdon's Maternity Homes, Bombay Infant Welfare Society
founded by Lady Lloyd with 8 child welfare centres), Poona
(Seva Sadan Society), Surat (Henderson Ophthalmic Scheme
for Treating Preventable and Curable Blindness), Delhi (Train-
ing School for Health Visitors, etc.), Madras (many centres
under Provincial Branch of League and Red Cross Society, Co-
operative Midwives Scheme, etc.), Calcutta, Dacca, Lahore,
Karachi, Nagpur, Bijapur and many other places, including
Indian States.

The Lady Reading Health School, Delhi. Is supported
by the Lady Chelmsford All-India League except for a
grant of less than a third of the budget, given by the local Govern-
ment. It has existed for nine years and its past pupils are

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 303

working in all parts of India. The course is based on the
syllabus of English institutions of a similar kind, and lasts for
nine and, a half .months. The teachers are experienced and the
school buildings are new and well adapted for the purpose. There
is a model child* welfare centre close by which provides for the
students' practical work. Candidates applying must be in
possession of a midwifery diploma. Ten scholarships of Rs, 40
per mensem are offered for suitable students.

The Punjab Health School, 15, Abbott Road, Laborer-
Was started in 1922, with the object of training educated Indian
women, native to or domiciled in the Punjab, as Health Visitors.
The All-India Lady Chelmsford League was responsible for this
enterprise, and engaged two qualified workers from England as
staff. The School and the Staff, to whom an Indian worker
has since been added, were taken over, on April 1st, 1927, by the
Provincial Government, the scheme being placed under the
control of the Director of Public Health. Women of good educa-
tion, who must possess the Diploma of the Punjab Central
Midwives 9 Board (an equivalent of the English Central Midwives'
Board qualification), and be between the ages of 25 and 35, are
eligible for scholarships, and the period of training is 6 months,
during which time the pupils are in residence at the Public Health
School, Lahore, where the English staff also reside.

The training is both theoretical and practical, and is a
modification of the English Ministry of Health Course for Health
Visitors, though training in the teaching of the native midwives,
lecturing, home visiting of expectant mothers and mothers and
infants work at an Infant Welfare Centre, record-keeping, etc.,
are emphasised.

On leaving the School, the Health Visitors are sent to work
under local authorities, both in municipal and in rural areas, in
the Province, and part of the duty of the Principal of the School,
is to supervise their work, acting as an advisor to the employing
authority.

On the occasion of her tours, the Principal does as much
Health Propaganda work as possible, lecturing and holding

304 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

informal meetings in schools and colleges, and among purdah
women, and the general public.

The Central Co-operative Anti-Malaria Society, Ltd.,
Calcutta. This society has been registered under the Co-
operative Society's Registration Act on 5th July, 1927. Its aim
is to create autonomous rural units, in each village, throughout
the province of Bengal, whose function will be to control malaria
and other diseases like kala-azar, in their respective area.
Altogether 1,200 rural units have been formed, of which 431 were
registered. Since for carrying on this prevention work against
malaria and kala-azar, help of a medical man is necessary, four
or five such units federate to maintain by their combined resources
a medical man who, besides giving medical relief to the locality,
acts as their health officer. On account of its usefulness supple-
menting the work of the local bodies, Government of Bengal has
helped the movement by occasional contribution to the Central
Society as well as by annual grants to the rural units through
the local bodies. The Central Society has a Board of Directors
consisting of 9 Directors, two-thirds of whom are elected by the
members of the Central Society, one-third by representatives of
rural societies. Though the name of the Central Society might
indicate that the Society's activity is confined to malaria, yet in
fact it has gradually included within its scope of work control of
diseases like kala-azar, cholera, etc., etc.

The Bengal Health Association.

Indian Research Fund Association. Was constituted
in 1911 by the Government of India with a recurring grant of
Rs. 5 lakhs annually for the endowment of medical research. The
Association organises and carries out a large part of medical
research now conducted in India. It employs a number of
research workers, finances enquiries, makes grants to cover
expenses of researches carried out by Government research officers
and others, and in all possible ways encourages the prosecution
of medical research in India. Its activities cover a very wide field
and have enormously added to the scope and extent of work car-
ried out. Its journal is The Indian Journal of Medical Research

3
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MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 305

and there are also The Indian Medical Research Memoirs for
monographic studies. The Association also assists financially in
the publication pf approved works on medical research. The
Association consists of a Governing Body and a Scientific /NW-
sory Board on which latter are representatives of all the major
medical research laboratories of India. In connection with the
Association is a Conference of Medical Research Workers held

annually and attended by delegates from all India.

5. VETERINARY COLLEGES AND INSTITUTIONS.

Imperial Institute of Veterinary Research, Muktesar.

Muktesar is situated in the Himalayan foothills in the Kumaon
District of the United Provinces, 24 miles by road from
Kathgodam, R. & K. Railway, and at an altitude of 7,000 feet.

The Institute had its beginnings in 1890 when an officer
was appointed to work at anthrax and anthracoid diseases in
Poona under the Educational Department. In 1892 this officer
was appointed Professor of Bacteriology and Comparative Patho-
logy and Imperial Bacteriologist to the Government of India.
The facilities at Poona for research into the more severe con-
tagious diseases of animals were, however, found inadequate, and
in 1893, under orders of the Government of India, the Imperial
Bacteriologist, accompanied by the Principal of the Lahore Veteri-
nary College, proceeded to investigate a more suitable site, and
Muktesar, on account of its isolation and availability of material
for research into rinderpest (cattle plague), was selected as a good
location for the erection of a laboratory. It was not, however,
until 1898 that the laboratory was completed and furnished with
necessary equipment. In 1899 the laboratory was totally destroyed
by fire and was re-erected in 1903.

The area of land occupied at Muktesar, known as the
Muktesar Reserved Forest, covers about 8 square miles. The
main laboratory building is two-storied and constructed of stone,
with wide verandahs running along the south and west side and
with work benches facing north. Of accessory buildings may be
mentioned the Sterilizing House, the Mallein Laboratory, the

Centrifuge Room and the Power House all of which are located

20

306 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

close to the main building. There is also a Post-mortem House
with incinerators, a Small Animals' House and a laboratory
building temporarily in use for a special tuberculosis . enquiry.
In addition, there are a number of stone buildings and thatched
sheds for housing animals under experimentation, besides six
out-kraals situated round the circumference of the estate for
accommodation and segregation of cattle before they are required

for the use in the inner sheds.

The Library is situated on the ground floor of the main

building. It contains some 6,000 volumes of journals, 1,600 text-
books and 1,400 miscellaneous publications. The number of
periodicals now received amounts to 183.

A total staff of about 1,000 are employed, including technical,
mental, engineering, farm menials and daily labour.

Activities of the Institute.

The functions of the Laboratory as originally laid down are :
"To investigate diseases of domestic animals in all Provinces
in India and to ascertain, as far as possible, by biological research
both in the laboratory and, when necessary, at the place of out-
break, the means of prevention and curing such diseases."

A most important function of the Institute has come to be,
ir the course of its development, the preparation on a very large
lie of certain products for the prevention of the more formid-
able cattle diseases of India. The following figures representing
the quantities of sera and vaccine issued during the financial year
1926-27 indicate the extent to which manufacture of such
products is undertaken by the Institute.

(1) Anti-rinderpest serum. Issued 5,380,187 (5 c.c.)
doses, of which 491,626 doses were for the serum-simultaneous
inoculation, the remainder being for preventive inoculation.

(2) AntMurmorrhagic septicamia serum and toaccine.
The serum is used at the scene of outbreaks to cut short the spread
of the disease, the vaccine to inoculate cattle in notoriously
affected districts just before the advent of the rains when cattle
are most likely to be attacked. During the year 363,709 doses of

a

3

a

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

tUe serum and 288,350 doses of the vaccine were issued for
these purposes.

(3)^ Anti-blackquartcr serum and vaccine. Issued 28,298
doses of the serum and 130,100 doses of the vaccines, comprising
so-called " pillules " manufactured by the older (Arloins) method,
and 79,600 (5 c.c.) doses of " aggressin." The production of the
latter yaccine, which is perfectly safe and a sure preventive against
the disease, constitutes a notable achievement of the Muktesar
Laboratory during recent years, and the reports concerning its
use, especially as compared with the results obtained with the
" pillule " vaccine, are very encouraging.

(4) Anti-anthrax scrum. 29,047 (5 c.c.) closes were issued
to the field during the year.

Other sera and vaccines, manufactured on a smaller scale,
are those employed for preventive inoculation against strangles,
contagious bovine abortion and contagious equine abortion.
Small quantities of special autogenous vaccines are also issued.
Besides these products are manufactured for diagnostic purposes
Ci mallein," " human tuberculin " ; also " avian tuberculin " for
the " intrapalpebral " or " double intra-dernial " test for Johne's
disease. The revenue from the sale of the above products, for
the most part to Provincial Governments and Indian States, in
the two financial years 1925-26 and 1926-27 was Rs. 13,09,498
and Rs. 11,06,193 respectively, the estimated expenditure during
these two years being Rs. 8,55,815 and Rs. 6,59,490
respectively.

Investigation of Animal Diseases.

There has been during the last five years a considerable ex-
pansion in the research activities of the Institute. The nature of
this research need not be here specified as it has been dealt with
in the section on " Veterinary Research in India." The examina-
tion of specimens of parasitic organisms and of morbid material
forwarded by professional workers in the field as also the giving
of technical advice have also come to constitute items of much
importance in the routine work of the Institute.

308 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

Veterinary Education.

The Institute now provides courses of instruction for Officers
of the Indian Veterinary Service and of the Royal Army
Veterinary Departments. A strenuous endeavour has been made
during recent years, with the limited staff available, to expand the
natural functions of the Institute as a presiding centre of veterin-
ary education and learning in India. The resources in the way of
material are unique and it is believed that the training, particularly
in practical methods of modern disease investigation, of selected
subordinates from the Provincial and States Veterinary Depart-
ments would effectually conduce towards the dissemination of
important information concerning the control of anirrtal diseases
in India.

The Branch Laboratory.

This laboratory is situated in the plains, sub-station at
Izatnagar, at a distance of 3 miles from Bareilly on the R. &
K. Railway. It was erected to relieve the parent laboratory at
Muktesar of as large a portion as possible of the routine work
of serum manufacture. The laboratory was started at Kurgaina
as a small station for the carrying on of certain experimental
work in the winter months. The possibilities of serum manufac-
ture were seen later and in 1913 sanction was obtained from the
Government of India for the purchase of an extensive plot of
,land amounting to 700 acres at Izatnagar and for the erection
^there of the necessary buildings. An advantage over manufac-
ture at the parent laboratory is the decreased cost due to saving
of expenses incurred in the transport of food-stuff for animals
and men from the plains and the higher rates paid for labour.

Bengal Veterinary College, Belgachia.

Bihar and Orissa Veterinary College, Patnau-rThe
Province of Bihar and Orissa has as yet no veterinary institute of
its own, but Government recently sanctioned a schemes, for a
college and research institute on what is known as the Phulwari
site about a mile west of the new city (Patna). The construction
of buildings has already commenced and it is expected thajj the
College will be opened by the middle of 1929. In addition to

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 30$

teaching and research, instruction will also be given in dairying
and the handling of milk as it is proposed to have a large cattle
breeding farm attached where the most modern methods in
dairying and the* distribution of milk will be demonstrated.

The Bombay Veterinary College. This is an educational
institution started in 1886 for the purpose of training veterinarians
for service under Government, for service in Native States, and
for private practice.

The course of study extends to three years and is essentially
practical and not theoretical, especial attention being paid to
attendance at hospital clinique, demonstrations and dissections.
Teaching facilities exist at the College for about 100 students.
Clinical instruction is given in the adjoining Bai Sakarbai Din-
shaw Petit Hospital which is managed by the Bombay Society for
the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and which is affiliated to
the College for this purpose. The diploma of qualification is
" Graduate of the Bombay Veterinary College " and is awarded
after a full course of study at the College to students successful
at the final examination.

The College buildings consist of class rooms, a museum
library, lecture theatre, chemical laboratory, etc., as well as an
operating theatre and forge, etc., etc. The Sir Dinshaw Maneck-
jee Petit Patho-Bacteriological Laboratory is situated in the
Hospital Compound and is utilised for instructional purposes.
There is a students' Hostel affording accommodation to 76
students.

The Rai Sakarbai Dinshaw Petit Hospital for Animals,
Bombay*

Madras Veterinary College. This College was started
in 1903 and it affords theoretical and practical instruction in
subjects appertaining to the veterinary profession. It possesses
a hospital and an up-to-date well-equipped laboratory. The
course of study extends over three years. Forty students who are
above 18 and below 22 years and who have passed the Matricula-
tion Examination of an Indian University or obtained in the
S.S.L.C. Examination the marks required to enable them to study

310 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN' INDIA.

for the College course are admitted each year and 15 of them are
given scholarships at the rate of Rs. 15 per mensem each. Tuition
is free to all students who bind themselves to serve this Govern-
ment for 5 years, if required, after completing the course. All
others are to pay fees at the rate of Rs. 400 per annum.

A Post-graduate class is also held annually for 6 months
and it comprises instruction (Practical and Theoretical) in Histo-
logy, Pathology, Medicine, Bacteriology, Parasitology (including;
Helminthology, Protozoology, and Entomology), Clinique, .and.
Meat and Milk Inspection.

A hostel is attached to the College with accommodation for
63 students ; but students are at liberty to make their own arrange-
ments for their board and lodging.

The Punjab Veterinary College, Lahore. Is among the
best institutions of its kind in the East, or indeed in the World.
The site occupied by the College with its various buildings com-
prises about 22 acres. The buildings consist of (a) the Main-
Block, a two storey building which contains the Museums,.
Students' Library, the Chemical and Physical Laboratories, some
fine Lecture Rooms, the Principal and Clerks' Offices, etc., (b) the
Hospital Section in which the latest model of X-ray apparatus
is shortly to be installed, and which has a fine Operating Theatre,
ample Hospital accommodation and Riding School, (c) The Ana-
tomical and Physiological Section, both with modern equipment,
the former having arrangements by which carcases can be pre-
served for several months without putrefaction for dissectioa
purposes, (d) The Laboratory Section and Contagious Ward. In
the former the subjects Bacteriology, Pathology and Parasitology
are taught. It contains a remarkably fine Students' Class Room-
facing north especially adapted for laboratory work. This section
is excellently equipped with collections of animal parasites, patho-
logical specimens, etc. It prepares antirabic vaccine and other
vaccines.

There is also a well-equipped Canine Hospital which is self-
supporting and complete in all its requirements.

The Institution is primarily a teaching one but also carries-
out research. It has a highly trained staff and provides almost

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 311

unlimited variety of Clinical and Hospital practice for the
students.

. CHEMICAL EXAMINERS AND PUBLIC ANALYSTS
DEPARTMENT,

In each Presidency there is a Chemical Examiner or Public
Analyst Department where medico-legal and certain other kinds
of wrk are carried out. In addition there is at Calcutta the
Imperial Serologist who carries out Precipitation and other Sero-
logical tests especially in relation to medico-legal work. Among
such departments may be mentioned:

The Chemical Examiner's Laboratory, Rangoon. This
Institute is essentially a Medico-Legal Laboratory engaged in
detection of poisons, examination of blood and seminal stains in
criminal cases. In addition examination of opium and cocaine
and other important excise work is carried out.

Chemical Examiner's Department, Punjab, Lahore. Is
under an Officer of the Indian Medical Service assisted by four
officers selected from the -Punjab Civil Medical Service. The
Laboratory deals with Northern India, the work being (a) medico-
legal, (b) miscellaneous. In 1926 the following examinations in
the first class were made (for Punjab only), murder by violence
-373, rape 219, unnatural offences 96, other human 584, cattle 43.
Poisoning is roughly 30 per cent, suicide, and 70 per cent.
.homicide. Suicides favour opium and homicides arsenic, datura
and mercury. The report of the Chemical Examiner is accepted
as evidence in all Courts. Under miscellaneous were 1,458
articles examined for Public Health, Excise, Drugs and Explo-
.sives. Research work is also carried on.

Public Analyst to Government, United Province*.

Analyses samples of food and drugs received from official in-
spectors of localities to which the provisions of the U. fP 1 . Preven-
tion of Adulteration Act, 1912, have been extended. The Act is in
force in 61 municipalities, 8 notified areas and 3 districts. Private
analyses are also carried out on receipt of the prescribed fees.
The work is carried out in the buildings of the Lucknow Uni-
versity.

312 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

7. AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST INSTITUTIONS,

There are a number of large Agricultural Research Institutes
in India and a large Forest Research Institute 3>t Dehr^ Dun as
well as Agricultural Colleges and Forest Colleges. The follow-
ing may be mentioned :

Government of India, Agricultural Research Institute,
Pusa. The Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, owes its
inception to the generosity of Mr. Henry Phipps, an American
philanthropist, who, in 1903, placed at the disposal of
Lord Cttrzon, the then Viceroy and Governor-General
of India, a donation of 20,000 (which he afterwards
raised to 30,000) to be devoted to some object of
public utility in India, preferably in the direction of scientific
research. Part of this donation was devoted to the construction
of a Pasteur Institute at Coonoor in South India, and it was
decided that the balance should be utilized in erecting a laboratory
for agricultural research which would form a centre of economic
science dealing with the development of agriculture on which the
people of India mainly depend. This conception was subsequently
enlarged, and a college and research institute, to which a farm of
640 acres is attached for purposes of experimental cultivation and
demonstration, was established at Pusa under the control of the
Central Government.

The Institute is fully equipped with laboratories/a museum,
herbaria, and an up-to-date scientific library. The activities of
the Institute are mainly directed towards research, experiment and
education.

As regards research, the Institute deals as a rule with problems
of general or All-India importance, or with problems which can
not be studied properly or conveniently by Provincial Departments.
On the educational side, it serves the purpose of a higher teaching
institution, providing post-graduate courses for selected graduates
of provincial agricultural colleges and distinguished science gradu-
ates of Indian Universities. With a view to the ultimate Indian-
ization of the department and to obviate the necessity of students
going to foreign countries for still higher agricultural teaching.

X

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H

* 8
u o

o oj

-
S a

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 313

specialised courses were started in November 1923, with the
object of training students in methods of research and fitting
them for. appointment to the superior posts in the service. Since
its conception, nearly 400 students have taken advantage of the
training given at the Institute.

The Institute publishes in the form of scientific memoirs and
bulletins the results of research work carried out by members of
the staff and by research workers in the provinces. It also
publishes a bi-monthly Agricultural Journal which contains articles
on different phases of Indian agriculture and a quarterly journal
of the Bureau of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, which deals
with questions relating to cattle breeding, dairying and animal
nutrition.

The Institute performs another very important function in
so far as it supplies information and advice on agricultural topics
to all who care to ask for it.

The Institute is under the administrative control of the Agri-
cultural Adviser to the Government of India and Director, Agri-
cultural Research Institute, Pusa, and its staff is divided into six
sections, which deal with agricultural, botanical, chemical, myco-
logical, entomological and bacteriological problems. Pusa is the
head-quarters, too, of the Sugar Bureau which was established in
1919 to collect and disseminate information relating to the Indian
sugar industry. The various activities of the Institute are des-
cribed below :

Agricultural Section. The activities of this section are
mainly directed towards demonstrating the possibilities of large
scale cultivation by machinery and modern implements, the pro-
duction of cheap fodder and the improvement of cattle by selection,
better feeding and cross-breeding. By selection, breeding and
better feeding the milk yield of the herd of Montgomery cows on
the Pusa Farm has been doubled within the last 15 years; while
one of the cross-bred Ayrshire-Montgomery cows has given 12,000
Ib. in one lactation.

Botanical Section. The activities of this section are
directed towards the production of seed of improved varieties of
crops. It has evolved various types of wheat which are known as

314 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

Pkisa wheats. These are now being grown on an area of about
one and a half million acres.

Chemical Section. This section deals with investigations
of fundamental importance in various branches of agricultural
chemistry, e.g., the water requirements of crops, the movements of
soil moisture, the loss of nutrients in drainage water, the avail-
ability of plant food materials in different types of soils, etc.
These researches have helped to place the study of scientific agri-
culture in this country on a broader basis.

Mycological Section. The chief function of this section
is to investigate the conditions most suitable for the development
of fungi responsible for various diseases of cultivated crops and
fruit trees, and to evolve measures for preventing or controlling
such diseases. The section has accumulated a valuable collection
of specimens of Indian parasitic fungi.

Entomological Section. The activities of this section
include an insect survey and researches on the life-histories, bio-
nomics and control measures of insect pests of plants. The
problems also include the study of insect carriers of diseases, and
life-histories and bionomics of many biting flies are being worked
out. There is in the section an excellent collection of Indian
insects which have been arranged in show cases. Plates illustrat-
ing life-histories, habits, etc., of the disease-carriers are also
exhibited.

Bacteriological Section. The primary function of this
section is the bacteriological examination of soil with a view to
determining the relationship existing between bacterial action and
soil fertility. Work on this problem includes the study of the
fixation of air nitrogen by soils, bacterial processes rendering such
nitrogen available as a food for crops, and the various changes in
the organic matter of the soil effected by micro-organisms.

Staff.

Director and Agricultural Adviser to the Government of
India D. Clouston, C.I.E., M.D., D.SC.

Imperial Agricultural Chemist and Joint Director W. H.
Harrison, D.SC.

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA., 315

Imperial Agriculturist G. S. Henderson, N.D.A., N.DJJ.

Imperial Mycologist W. McRae, M.A., D.sc.

Imperial Entomologist T. Bainbrigge Fletcher, R.N., F.L.S.,
tf.E.S., F.z.s.

Imperial Economic Botanist F. J. F. Shaw, D.sc., A.R.C.S.,
F.I..S. (on leave).

Imperial Agricultural Bacteriologist J. H. Walton, M.A.,
M.SG.

Second Entomologist (Dipterist) P. V. Isaac, B.A., M.sc.,
r.H.S.

Agronomist Aga Mohamad Mustafa, B.A.

Physical Chemist Dr. A. N. Puri.

BENGAL.

Agricultural Farm, Dacca.
Cinchona Plantation, Mangpu.

BOMBAY.
Agricultural College, Poona.

CENTRAL PROVINCES.

The Agricultural Research Institute, Nagpur, contains

laboratories for research work in agricultural chemistry and
bacteriology, botany and mycology. It is surrounded by a
botanical garden laid out on systematic lines and is also in close
proximity to the College farm, this farm providing areas where
experimental work in the field can be carried on. Pending further
developments, the Agricultural Research Institute also affords
accommodation for the laboratory work carried on by the Civil
Veterinary Department.

The main problems under investigation in the Agricultural
Research Institute, Nagpur, are those dealing with the fertility of
soils, biological changes taking place in the soils, the improve-
ment of the staple crops of the province and diseases affecting
these crops. There is also a small entomological laboratory on the
College Farm for the study of crop pests, The Agricultural
Chemist acts as Public Analyst under the Central Provinces

316 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

Prevention of Adulteration Act, 1919, and the analytical work
involved is carried out in the Agricultural Research Institute.

MADRAS.
Agricultural College and Research Institute, Coimbatore.

This institution opened in 1908 is the successor to an older
institution at Saidapet, near Madras and stands on expensive
grounds with a large farm of about 500 acres and up-to-date
Dairy. It is situated three miles west of Coimbatore Railway
Station. It is a residental institution with well equipped labora-
tories and halls, quarters for research officers and teachers and
a hostel for 120 students.

During the past 15 years one crop after another has been
taken up for detailed study in separate small areas and there arc
breeding stations for sugar-cane, paddy, cotton, and millets. The
Herbarium contains about 60,000 sheets of South Indian plant*
and is in close touch with Kew. The Pathological and Chemical
Sections pursue their line of work in Soil Chemistry, Soil Physics,
Soil Bacteriology and Animal Nutrition in special laboratories
and culture houses. A matter of special interest to medical and
other people is the investigation of the effect of manuring a crop
on the quality of the resulting seed both from the point of view
of plant and animal nutrition.

On the Educational side, the College is affiliated to the Madras
University and prepares students for a Degree in Agriculture
known as B.Sc.Ag. This institution serves as a heart centre for
diversified activities of the Agricultural Department which arc
manifest in mofussil stations in important tracts.

Madras Forest College, Coimbatore. Opened in July
1912, in the Old Municipal Hospital transferred to the present
site in October 1915. The College course is of two years' dura-
tion. Approximately 5 months of each year are spent in camp,
this period being devoted primarily to practical work. Three
categories of students are admitted, viz., students already in
Government service, students deputed by Native States and out-
side Provinces and private students so far as vacancies after
satisfying (1) and (2) may exist. Students already in

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 317

Government service in Madras are designated Probationary
Rangers and are given a salary of Rs. 65 per mensem. The
following, certificates are granted by the College: The Honours
Certificate, the Madras Ranger Higher Certificate, the Madras
Ranger Lower Certificate. There is a principal, 2 senior instruc-
tors, 1 junior instructor and 1 curator of the Gass Forest
Museum..

NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE.

Experimental Farm, Turnab. About 5 miles from
Peshawar. Is in charge of the Agricultural Officer of the
Province.

PUNJAB.

The Agricultural College and Research Institute,
Lyailpur. The College gives several courses of instruction
to students in those sciences having a direct bearing on Agricul-
ture. Most of the students take the B.Sc. Degree course (run-
ning over four years) in which specialisation in different
branches of agricultural science is possible, while others take the
Leaving Certificate course extending over two years. There
is another short course of six months in the vernacular for the
sons of farmers.

The experimental research station comprises Botanical, Agri-
cultural, Chemical and Entomological Sections in which research
in these sciences bearing on Agricuture is carried out.

Special interest attaches to the Entomological Section whose
activities are especially connected with the investigation and
control of insect pests and the study of their life-history and
habits. This section also carries on work on the destruction
of rats, which are responsible for enormous damages to field
crops and act as carriers of plague.

The Chemical Section is more particularly engaged in investi-
gations on the nutritive values of Indian food-stuffs. The work
involves a large number of analyses of different feeds, fodders,
etc., together with actual digestibility trials. A large scheme of
work is at present in progress being an investigation into the
nutritive values of different fodders and natural pasture grasses,
available in the Funjab, in order to co-relate climatic and soil

318 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

conditions with nutritive value of the food. The Chemical
investigations are carried out at Lyallpur whilst Biological examina-
tion of the nutritive values of some of the wheats grown under
different conditions of irrigation are being conducted at the
Deficiency Diseases Laboratory of the Pasteur Institute, Coonoor.
The work is also being extended to natural agricultural pastures
in certain parts of the Punjab, particular attention being g-iven to
the mineral content.

There are other investigations of Agricultural importance
to which the institution is giving attention, namely, the important
question of Kallar soils and the waterlogging of soils, which has a
direct bearing on the rural population and its health. The develop-
ment of Kallar on the land deprives the zamindar of considerable
area which reduces his income, while waterlogging aids the spread
of malaria which is rampant in many parts of the Punjab and
seriously affects the efficiency of the people.

The Engineering Section of the college is largely occupied
with well-boring and lift-irrigation and is developing its activities
in this direction year by year.

UNITED PROVINCES.

Cawnpore Agricultural College. The College is an
admirably equipped institution erected at an initial cost of about
16 lakhs. There are two courses, the one leads to the Intermediate
Standard after 2 years and then after 2 further years to the
L.Ag., which is recognised as equivalent to the B.A. Degree. This
is intended for larger landlords and as a training ground for the
staff of the Agricultural Department. The other course is a
vernacular course lasting two years. The laboratories attached
to the College are fully equipped for Technical Research with
provision for chemical, botanical, pathological and entomological
work. Researches carried out include investigation of the pink
boll worm pest of cotton, work on sugar-cane, rice, barley and
oilseeds, potato storage, mosaic disease in sugar, etc.

Vocational School, Bulandshahr. Here sons of small
zamindars and well to do cultivators can obtain certificates after
a training of 2 years. As a result of public demand a new school
OH similar lines is being established at Gorakhpur.

Pl,AW, XIV.

Thar-Parkar cow at the Imperial Cattle Farm, Karnal.

Herd of pure bred Thar-Parkar cattle at Imperial Cattle Farm, Karnal

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 319

Government Farm*- There are 7 research and experi-
mental farms in the Province, 17 seed and demonstration farms
and 7 demonstration plots. There are two extensive Cattle Farms
in Muttra* and Kheri Districts and a third is expected to be
established this year in Bundelkhand. These farms issue bulls
for breeding purposes and last year 100 bulls were distributed.

8. 'SCIENCE AND TECHNICAL INSTITUTIONS.

Ajnong such institutions that may be mentioned are :

Government of India, Indian School of Mines,
Dhanbad. This institution has recently been established
by the Government of . India at the important railway
centre of Dhanbad (E. I. R.) for the training of students
for the professions of Mining Engineer and Geologist. As
far as possible it is hoped to provide a counterpart of the
Royal School of Mines in London. The School consists of two
main buildings, the School proper and the Hostel for the students,
who are resident throughout their training. There is at present
accommodation for 150 students, the yearly capacity being about
50. There are in addition mechanical and electrical workshops.
The buildings including the residences of the staff are electrically
lit and the Hostel has been provided with a modern sanitation
scheme which is under the administration of the Public Health
Department. There is a resident assistant surgeon and a hospital
with isolation wards. The School is situated close to the Jharia
Coalfields and within easy reach of other important mining centres,
it is also within close reach of the head-quarters of the Depart-
ment of Mines in India. Although the School was only opened
in November 1926, and is therefore not yet fully equipped,
either in respect of staff or apparatus, the building is complete
and tbe laboratories and workshops can be visited by anyone
interested.

BENGAL.

University of Science, Calcutta*

Bengal Technical Institute, Calcutta.

Bengal Engineering College, Calcutta.

Dr. Rabindra Nath Tagore's Santi-Niketan, Bolepur.

320 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

Bose Research Institute, Calcutta. The Institute was
founded by Sir J. C. Bose for post-graduate research. The
recent investigations carried out at this Institute establish the wide
generalisation of the fundamental unity of pla r ht and Animal life.
Investigation on the physiological mechanism of simple vegetable
life has led to the better understanding of the more complex
mechanism of animal life. The advance of knowledge has been
rendered possible by the invention and construction at* the Insti-
tute, of numerous automatic recorders of high sensitivity and
precision. Among these, the Electric Probe localises the nervous
tissue in the interior of the plant, as also the layer of cells whose
throbbing pulsation causes propulsion of sap. The Resonant
Recorder inscribes time as short as a thousandth part of a second,
enabling the most accurate determination of velocity of nervous
impulse in plants. The Photosynthetic Recorder automatically
inscribes on a revolving drum the carbon assimilation in plant and
exhibits the extraordinary great increase in its power of assimi-
lation produced by infinitesimal traces of certain chemical sub-
stances. The Magnetic Grescograph enables movements, which
are beyond the highest powers of the Microscope to be detected
and recorded. The magnification produced can be carried to
fifty million times. The imperceptible rate of growth and its
induced variations under chemical or electric stimulants can be
instantly measured.

The specific action of a drug can be immediately detected by
its action on the pulse-beat of plant and animal. The pulsating
organ of the plant was first subjected to the action of the drug ;
parallel experiments on the animal heart gave results which are
extraordinarily similar. The recently invented Resonant Cardio-
graph inscribes the different phases of the heart-beat with unpre-
cedented accuracy, the successive dots in the record measuring
time as short as a hundredth part of a second. A very extensive
field of investigation has been opened out on the action ot extracts
from various plants, the medicinal properties of which had not
hitherto been suspected. By the employment of some of these
the heart-machine can be regulated, enhancing or lowering its
activity.

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 321

A complete account of these investigations will be found in
the following books published by Messrs. Longman Green & Co.
Copies ca,n be hajl at the Institute.

(1) Response in the Living and Non-Living; (2) Plant
Response; (3) Comparative Electro-physiology; (4) Irritability
of Plants; (5) Physiology of Ascent of sap ; (6) Physiology of
Photosjrnthesis ; (7 10) Life Movements of Plants, 4 Vols.;
(11) Nervous Mechanism of Plants; (12) Plant Autographs
and Their Revelations.

Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceutical Works, Calcutta.

BOMBAY.

Royal Institute of Science, Bombay.
Sydenham College of Commerce and Economics,
Bombay.

Victoria Jubilee Technical Institute, Bombay.
Sir J. J. School of Art, Bombay.
Dharamsi Morarji Chemical Works, Bombay.
Bhandarkar Oriental Institute, Poona.

CENTRAL PROVINCES.

Victoria College of Science, Nagpur. At a public meet-
ing held in, Nagpur on March 6th, 1901, it was decided to-
raise subscriptions in order to perpetuate the memory of the late
Queen-Empress. For this purpose, a society was formed under
the name " The Central Provinces Victoria Technical Institute/ 9 *
which formulated a scheme for the furtherance of scientific and
technical education in the province. It was decided to construct
a building for the location of an Institute which should include
accommodation for the teaching of Physics and Chemistry and the
allied sciences to the B.Sc. students of the two Arts Colleges in
Nagpur: To this end, the governing body of the Institute paid
Rs. 75,000 to the Local Government, being half the cost of a
combined building for a Scientific Library, the Agricultural
College, and lecture rooms and laboratories for imparting instruc-
tion in Physics and Chemistry.

21

$22 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

The building was opened in October 1906, and in 1908 the
classes were raised to the status of a separate College which was
affiliated up to the D.Sc. Standard of the Allahabad University.
On severing its connection with Allahabad University in August
1923, tlie College was admitted to the privileges of the Nagpur
University, and is affiliated up to the D.Sc. Standard in Physics,
Chemistry and Mathematics.

The College is maintained by the Local Government. Only
the above three subjects are taught so that up to the B.Sc. course
the College works in connection with the two local Arts Colleges.
A Scientific Library is situated in the same building and students
have easy access to advanced text-books and copies of current
scientific periodicals.

The total numbers of students on the rolls at .present is 190,
and for the last four years the laboratory accommodation has
been taxed to its utmost limit. A handsome and commodious
new building is in process of construction, which it is hoped, will
be ready for occupation in July 1929. This will accommodate
about 400 students, and provision will also be made for Botany
and Zoology up to the D.Sc. Standard, and English to the
B.Sc. stage.

The number of members on the Teaching Staff in Physics
is 4, Chemistry 5, and Mathematics 3. The fees for all classes
are Rs. 90 per annum, the same as in the Arts Colleges, and no
extra charge is made for laboratory instruction. The laboratories
are -well-equipped and it is hoped to organise research on a proper
basis when the new building is ready.

A new hostel, capable of accommodating 104 students, was
opened in July 1927.

Schools of Handicrafts and Industrial School. There
are three Government Schools of Handicrafts at Nagpur, Jttbbul-
pore and Akola, and 4 aided Industrial Schools at Amraoti/Saugor,
Dhamtari and Chandametta (in the Chhindwara District). The
object of the schools is to take the sons of carpenters and black-
smiths and train them in the use of improved tools and methods,
to teach them to draw to scale and to understand scale drawing,

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 333

to teach them quick methods of calculating, and the English names
of tools and materials, to enable them to acquire a knowledge of
the properties of materials, from whence derived, and how manu-
factured, so that they will leave the school with hands and intelli-
gence so trained as to make them immediately of substantial use
as craftsmen. Pupils who have passed the 4th Standard Ver-
nacular and are between 16 and 19 years of age are admitted in
these schools. Preference is given to sons of artisans.

A* special course of 3 years is introduced in the Nagpur
School as an experimental measure for backward pupils to
combine general education with technical training.

BIHAR AND OR1SSA.

The Indian Lac Research Institute. The Indian Lac
Association for Research was formed in 1921 as a result of a
report by Mr. Lindsay, C.B.E., i.c.s., and Mr. Harlow, i.*.s., which
was called for by the Government of India. It was decided to
build and equip a Lac Research Institute and to run in conjunc-
tion with this a small experimental plantation. The Institute in-
cluding laboratories for biochemistry and entomology was
finished in 1925 and the plantation of about 80 acres was started
in 1924.

Lac consists of a resinous substance formed by a small insect
on various but not all species of trees, and shellac is the manufac-
tured article 'from this. The work of the Institute consists in
an endeavour to obtain some insight into the methods of produc-
tion of lac in all its aspects.

MADRAS.

College of Engineering, Madras. The College is situated
on the -south bank of the Adyar River, about six miles south of
Madras. The grounds occupy about 200 acres. It is a residential
college having its own hostel, dining rooms and kitchens with ac-
commodation for 450 students. The buildings are the College,
Physical and Chemical Laboratories, Electrical, Strength of
Materials, Hydraulic and Mechanical Laboratories, Machine Shops,
Carpenter's Shop, Smithy, Foundry, Power House, Survey Stores

324 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

and residential quarters for the staff. The Power House is
equipped with steam engines, semi-Diesel engines and suction gas
engines. Current is supplied to the College laboratories and
grounds for lighting and power, to Government House and the
Teacher's College for lighting and to the King* Institute of Pre-
ventive Medicine for refrigeration and lighting purposes. There
is an independent water-supply, and a sewage system of.tl?e latest
water-borne design consisting of .underground drains, pump house,
septic tank, Imhofi tank, an aerobic sprinkling bed, etc. A sub-
assistant surgeon is provided with quarters in the compound and
there is an up-to-date dispensary and a hospital with 8 beds.

MYSORE.

The Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. The Indian
Institute of Science owes its origin to the genius and munificence
of the late Mr. Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata, who in 1896 pro-
posed to vest in trustees properties to the capital value of 30 lakhs.
Effect was given to these proposals by his sons Sir D. J. Tata
and Sir R. J. Tata, contributions being also made by the Mysore
Government and the Government of India.

The Institute is essentially a posy graduate institution having
for its particular object the promotion of advanced studies and
original research with special regard to the educational and
economic interests of India.

As now organised the Institute comprises a Department of
Electrical Technology, a Department of Biochemistry, a Depart-
ment of General Chemistry and a Department of Organic
Chemistry.

The Department of Electrical Technology has been established
with the twofold object of (1) providing advanced courses of
instruction in the subject, (2) affording to students who have
undergone a course of training facilities for carrying out original
investigations.

The Laboratories of the General and Organic Chemistry
Department are intended for students who wish to take up
research work in these subjects. The laboratories offer facilities

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 325

for training in analytical work and in addition possess a unique
collection of small scale plants by means of which operations may
be carried out wifh several hundredweights of material. Among
subjects investigated are the production of white lead, chromates,
alumina, caffeine 'from Indian materials, the distillation of sandal-
wood oil and the destructive distillation of Indian woods*

The 'Department of Biochemistry provides full facilities for
graduates wishing to take up work in bacteriological and enzyme
chemistry, the chemistry and biology of water and sewage, plant
chemistry, certain aspects of agricultural chemistry, fermentation
problems, etc. The department is well equipped with general
biochemical apparatus. New laboratories have recently been
provided with apparatus for various physical measurements
required in biochemistry, etc.

The Institute possesses a first class scientific library. It pub-
lishes The Journal of the Indian Institute of Science and
Electrotechnics. There is a hostel for students and tennis courts,
billiard room; library, etc., for the use of the students.

As a result of the Institute's researches manufacturing con-
cerns, such as factories for white lead production, distillation of
sandalwood oil, etc., have been instituted in Mysore.

UNITED PROVINCES.

Thomason Civil Engineering College, Roorkee. The

necessity for the systematic training for Civil Engineers in India
led to the establishment of this College in 1848. It has met the
needs of the whole of Northern India for training in Civil
Engineering.

The Marris College of Hindustani Music. Was estab-
lished at Lucknow in July 1927, to further and develop
Indian .Music in Schools.

The Hindustani Academy. Has recently been established.
Its main object is to stimulate the production of original works in
Urdu and Hindi with a view to develop and enrich the literature
of these languages.

326 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

9. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.

There are 15 Universities in India, viz., those of Calcutta,
Madras, Bombay, (Punjab, Allahabad, Benares Hindu, Mysore,
Patna, Osmairia, Dacca, Aligarh Muslim, Rangoon, Lucknow,
Delhi and Nagpur. There are 34 Medical Colleges and Schools.
13 Law Colleges, 20 Agricultural Colleges and Schools, 22 Train-
ing Colleges for secondary teachers and 141 Commercial- Colleges.
Of secondary schools there were in 1923-24, 2,424 'and of
primary schools 168,013 with 6,955,634 scholars. Of Educational
Institutions that may be specially mentioned are :

ASSAM.

Cotton College, GauhatL This College was established
in 1901 as a purely Government institution during the administra-
tion of Sir Henry Cotton, after whom it was named. It is
affiliated to Calcutta University up to the M.A. Standard in
English (Group A), to the B.A. and B.Sc. Pass and Honours
stage in English, Economics, Mathematics, Philosophy, History,
Sanskrit, Persian, Physics and Chemistry. In Intermediate Arts
and Science it is affiliated in Botany in addition to the foregoing
subjects. There are two separate hostels for Hindus and
Mohammedans under the supervision and management of four
resident superintendents giving accommodation for 308 boarders.
The staff consists of the principal, assisted by 17 professors and
lecturers.

Murarichand College, Sylhet. Founded in 1886 by Raja
Girish Chandra Roy, Zemindar of Sylhet, the Murarichand College
became provincialized in 1912 and has since made rapid progress.
New buildings were completed in 1925 and the College is now
established in them some three miles from the town of Sylhet, in
its own extensive grounds covering nearly 200 acres.

Students are prepared for the Intermediate Arts and Science,
and for the B.A. and B.Sc. examinations of the Calcutta Uni-
versity. It is affiliated up to the Honours standard in English,
Mathematics, Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, Economics, History and
Philosophy, Physics and Chemistry. The total enrolment is about
550 and about a quarter of the students reside in College hostels.

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 327

It 'possesses a large library and well-equipped laboratory. The
staff consists of 17 professors and 7 lecturers, two being members
of the Indian Educational Service, and three possessing European
qualifications.

BENGAL.

Calcutta University. The Calcutta University was
founded in 1857 and is located at College Square, Calcutta. Of
the University College of Science the Physics and Chemistry
branch is situated at 92, Upper Circular Road, Calcutta, and the
Botany and Zoology branch at 35, Ballygunge Circular Road.
The University buildings consist of the Senate Hail (built in
1874), the Dharbanga Library Building (built in 1912) where
the University Office is held, .the Asutosh Building and the
Hardinge Hostel. The University was at first an examining
body, but, since passing of the Indian Universities Act of 1904,
which made provision for the Indian Universities making arrange-
ments for teaching and research work, the Calcutta University
was transferred, through the genius of late Sir Asutosh Mooker-
jee, into the biggest and foremost teaching University in India.
The Post-graduate Department of the University provides for
and guides research work in various branches of studies and has
produced valuable results, notably in Physics, Chemistry, Botany,
Anthropology, Ancient Indian History and Culture and Philology.
Among the Professors of the University are Professor C, V,
Raman, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S. (Physics), Sir P. C. Ray, Kt., c.i.E.,
D.SC., etc. (Chemistry), Professor P. Briihl, D.SC., etc. (Botany),
Professor B. K. Das, D.SC. (Zoology), Professor S. Radha-
krishnan (Philosophy), Professor D. R. Bhandarkar, ph.D.
(Ancient Indian History and Culture), Professor Abanindranath
Tagore, D.ijtt., C.i.s. (Indian Arts), Dr. Sunitikumar Chatterjee,
M.A., D.wtt. (Indian Linguistics and Phonetics).

The University confers the following degrees : B.A., B.Sc,,
B.T,, B.L., M.L., M.A., M.Sc., D.Sc., M.B,, D.P.H., M.O.,
M.S., M.D., B.E., Ph.D., D.Sc. (Engineering).

The University Law College is located in the Darbhanga
Library Building. In Medicine, there are two Colleges, viz.,

328 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

(1) the Medical College (a Government Institution), Calcutta,
and (2) the Carmichael Medical College at Belgachia in the
northern suburbs of Calcutta, affiliated to the University to teach
up to the M.B. Degree. The M.B. Degree course consists of 5
stages, viz., (1) Preliminary Scientific M.B. Examination one
year (Physics, Chemistry, Zooloogy and Botany), (2) First M.B.
Examination two years (Anatomy and Physiology), (3) 'Second
M.B. Examination one year (Pharmacology and Materia Medica
and Elementary Bacteriology and Pathology), (4) Third M.B.
Examination one year (Forensic Medicine and Hygiene and
Public Health), and (5) the Final M.B. Examination one year
(Medicine, Surgery and Midwifery).

For tlie degrees of M.O., M.S. and M.B., which may be
called post-graduate degrees in Medicine, candidates are required
to submit as part of their examination a thesis embodying their
research work in a specified subject. Candidates who appear at
the D.H.P. Examination generally receive their Instruction in the
School of Tropical Medicine, Calcutta.

The University Library which is located in the Dharbanga
Library Building consists of more than 120,000 volumes in all
subjects mainly Arts and receives about 180 Periodicals and
Journals.

There is also another Library in the Post-graduate Depart-
ment of the University which issues books to the Post-graduate
Students for study at home. This Library has about 17,958
volumes (including Journals and Periodicals).

The University has also a Museum of Fine Arts Collection
representing the Indian Fine Arts in its different stages. In the
Bengali Manuscript Department of the University, there are about
700 volumes of Manuscripts of Bengali texts, old and mecjiaeval.

The University has a Press of its own, which publishes not
only the theses submitted by winners of University Research
Scholarships and Doctorate degrees but also rare and valuable
treatises and original researches bearing on various branches of
Indological studies. About 400 books have been published from
the University Press up-to-date. The Calcutta Review, the
Journal of Indian Chemical Society, the Philosophical Magazine,

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

the Journal of Letters and the Journal of Science are among the
periodicals published in the University Press.

Presidency College, Calcutta.

St. Xavier** College, Calcutta.

University 'of Dacca.

BIHAR AND ORISSA,

P*tna College. This College, which is maintained by
Government, may be said to have taken the place in Bihar of the
Presidency College, Calcutta, in Bengal. Such a statement now
requires qualification, however, in view of the fact that, with
effect from this year (1927-28), thel.Sc., B.Sc. and M.Sc. classes
have been removed; and a separate Science College has been
constituted, incorporating these classes, Patna College hencefor-
ward, therefore, will consist of Arts Departments only, except for
Science teaching in Geography, up to the LA. Standard. There is
provision for 300 I. A. and 300 B.A. (including those who are
reading for Honours) students; and the full number is likely to
be realised from next year. There is provision also for post-
graduate teaching in the following subjects, viz., English Litera-
ture, History, Economics, Sanskrit, Persian, (Philosophy and
Mathematics (the B.A. Honours work and the M.A. work in this
subject being done in the Science College). In all, there is pro-
vision for 180 students, proceeding to the M.A. Degree.

The sanctioned strength of the teaching staff is a principal
and 36 professors, assistant professors and lecturers.

There are at present three Hostels attached to the College,
affording residential accommodation for about 250 students.
When full effect has been given to proposals already sanctioned,
however, there will be Hostel accommodation for nearly 350.
There are residences for the principal and three professors.

The College possesses a library containing upwards of 16,000
volumes; a gymnasium; a commodious Students' Ccfmmon Room;
and adequate playing-ifields. Games and drill are compulsory;
and there are active Students' Societies, like the Debating Society,
the Archaeological and Historical Society, and the Chanakyt
(Economics) Society.

330 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

There is a number of Junior and Senior Scholarships, most
of them worth Rs. 10 to Rs. 12 a month, tenable at the College.

The institution was opened in February 1860, as a Govern-
ment School under the Local Committee of Public Instruction.
In September 1802, it became a Collegiate School; and it was
raised to the status of a College on the 1st January, 1863. A
Law Department was added in May 1864; and an Engineering
Department in July 1896. These now form separate colleges, as
does also the Science College to which reference has been made
above. The Collegiate School became a separate institution in
1910.

The building is generally supposed to have been a Dutch
Factory. It was used as the office of the Collector of Patna from
1828 onwards. The first addition made to the original structure
was the west wing, built in 1871. In 1880 82, the east wing,
and the portico and main staircase, were added ; and a separate
Science Building, connected with the main building by a covered
colonnade, was built. The two main College hostels date from
1908; and new Science Laboratories were opened in 1915. Very
considerable additions to the College buildings have been made
during the past two years.

Patna College was affiliated to Calcutta University up to
1917. On the foundation of Patna University on the 1st October,
1917, it became a constituent college of this University.

Patna Training College. This College for the training
of " English Teachers " for the higher classes in High Schools wa?
started by the Government of Bengal in 1908 to supplement the
work of the other Training Colleges and was for some years
affiliated to the Calcutta University and taught only up to, the
standard of the Licentiate in Teaching. When the province of
Bihar and Orissa was established it was felt that the College should
be further developed, and in 1915 classes for preparing graduates
for the B.T. Degree were opened. The College came under the
Patna University from the date of its establishment in 1917 and
has since then taught the course prescribed by the Patna Uni-
versity,

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 331

At present there are 44 students in the College taking the
Diploma course and 4 taking the B.Ed. The syllabus followed is
prescribed by the Patna University and consists, in the Diploma
course lasting one academic year, of (1 ) the History of Educational
Ideas, (2) The Principles and Methods of Teaching the usual
High School subjects, (3) Hygiene and .Physiology (elementary)
as required for school work, (4) The Principles of Education.
(5) Practical Work, including Demonstrations, Criticism lessons
and Practical lessons. The B.Ed, course involves a more advanced
study of parts of the above course, e.g., mental tests, etc., and
specialized practical work.

The staff consists of a principal and 4 professors. There
is a hostel for 40 students each having his own room, and resid-
ences for the principal and three professors ; there is also a High
School attached to facilitate the Practical Work, with a hostel for
the boys and a residence for the Headmaster. Fields for games
are being acquired adjoining the compound.

BOMBAY.

Bombay University, Bombay.
Indian Women's University, Bombay.
Government Law School, Bombay.
St. Xavier's College, Bombay.
Elphinstone College, Bombay.
Wilson College, Bombay.
The Deccan College, Poona.
Ferguson College, Poona.
The Gujrat College, Ahmedabad.

CENTRAL PROVINCES.

" Morris College, Nagpur. Was founded in 1885 with
funds raised to commemorate the long connection of Sir John
Morrte with these provinces as Chief Commissioner. Until 1915
its affairs were managed by a Council of Eight, with Sir Bepin
Krishna Bose as Secretary, and it is to him the College owes its
present prosperity. Now it has grown beyond the capacity of
private funds and is a Government institution. It has more than

332 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

500 students on its rolls of whom about 50 are in post-graduate
classes. Its staff consists of 26 members including Science
teachers who work under the auspices of the Victoria College of
Science but teach Morris College students. It is situated in the
historic Residency round which the battle of Sitabuldi was fought
in 1818 and has a large Hostel in its grounds.

The Hidop College, Nagpur. Is the only non-Govern-
ment College in the Province. It is financed to the extent of
more than one-third of the expenditure by contributions received
from the United Free Church of Scotland. The institution derives
its name from the Rev. Stephen Hislop, the eminent geologist and
antiquarian. Situated as it is, and always has been, in the city,
the College has played a prominent part in the life of Nagpur.
Very many of the leaders in the public life of Central .Provinces
received their education in whole or in part in this institution.
Alone of the Colleges affiliated to the University of Nagpur, it
offers courses of Biology. By means of public lectures and in
other ways, the Hislop College has borne its part in the work of
University extension.

Robertson College, Jubbulpore. This College which is
affiliated to the Nagpur University up to the B.A. and B.Sc.
Degrees, is a residential institution, beautifully situated near a
lake four miles out of Jubbulpore in about two hundred acres of
park land. It is a self-contained unit with a Dispensary controlled
by a sub-assistant surgeon. A careful system of physical
examination is maintained and a campaign against Malaria is
lessening the ravages of that disease. So far it has been found
proof against Plague, Cholera, and other prevalent epidemics. It
has the longest history of all the Colleges in the Central Prov-
inces.

King Edward College, Amraoti.

Spence Training College, Jubbulpore.- This is a Govern-
ment College for training teachers and has accommodation for
about 125 students. Courses are provided for both graduates and
under-graduates, the former being prepared for the L.T. Degree
of Nagpur University. Besides attending lectures and tutorial

MEDICAL, INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 333

classes students are required to teach under the supervision of the
staff, in the Model High School attached to the College. A
course in physical training is compulsory for all students and
games of all kinds are encouraged. The weights and measure*
ments of students are regularly recorded. Training in Scout-
master's work is also provided for students interested in Scout-
ing. .

Reformatory School, Jubbulpore. This has accommoda-
tion for 200 juvenile offenders and was started in the year
1891, in the enclosure, formerly occupied by the School of
Industry for thugs and dacoits. It is a philanthropic institution
founded by Government for improving the lot of those unfor-
tunate boys, who fall into bad company and commit crime. The
institution was first started under the Jail Department, but was
transferred to the Education Department in 1900, with a view
that educative methods may help in converting these criminals
into useful citizens, and certainly it did so. Besides being taught
to read and write, they were taught carpentry, tailoring, garden-
ing, smithing, cloth weaving, cane work, painting and shoe-
making, but in later years, as the numbers decreased, the last
5 trades were discontinued, and the institution was again trans-
ferred in 1918 to the Department of Industries.

There .is a hospital attached to the institution. The
boys are allowed to play football and other outdoor games,
besides going through a course of physical exercises daily.

In conclusion, it gives me much pleasure in giving below
the following remarks recorded by General Booth Tucker,
when he visited the institution some years back:

" It is certainly one of the best managed and appointed
Reformatories we have seen in India, and we wish it every

success."

MADRAS.

Tbe Presidency CoUege, Madras, was founded 74 years
ago and has occupied the present buildings since 1870. It is
a constituent College of the Madras University and gives in-
struction up to the B.A. Honours and M.A. Standard in

434 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

Mathematics (Pure and Applied), Physics, Chemistry, Botany,
Zoology, Geology, Philosophy, History, Economics, English
and Sanskrit: instruction is given also in Latin, Tamil, Telugw,
Canarese, Urdu and Malayalam. The students number 950
and the teaching staff 60. There is a general library, and
also departmental libraries for each of the above subjects: they
:ontain in all 23,300 volumes. There is a small hostel pianaged
by the College and another 200 students live in the Victoria
Eibstel within sight of the College. There is provision for
:ricket, football, hockey, tennis and badminton. The College
nagazine is published terminally.

NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE.

Islamia College. Is an important educational institution
near Peshawar.

UNITED PROVINCES.

The University of Allahabad. The University was
founded in 1887 and was until 1921 an examining and affiliating
university of the type of the old London University. In 1921
the University was reorganised with a view to establish at Allaha-
bad, a unitary, teaching and residential university. At the same
time it continued to exercise control over the colleges affiliated
to it. These colleges, which formed the external side of the
Allahabad University, have with effect from July 1927, been
transferred to the Agra University. The Allahabad University
provides also facilities for post-graduate research in Science,
History and Economics.

The Agra University. This is a purely affiliating and
examining university of the type of the old Allahabad University
and has been established with effect from July 1, 1927. It has
taken over the academic control of the colleges previously
associated with the University of Allahabad on its external
side,

Lucknow University. This is a unitary, teaching and
residential university of the same type as the reorganised Allahabad
University. It provides the same facilities for teaching and

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 335*

research as are provided by the Allahabad University. A special
feature of the University is the King George's Medical College,-
and Hospital, Luctcnow.

Benares Hindu University, Benares, Is a unitary,
teaching and residential university for all India. It provides
instruction in the same subjects as the Allahabad University but
has two* special features: (1) its Engineering College providing,
instruction in the various branches Mechanical, Electrical, Min-
ing, Metallurgy of Engineering, and (2) the Faculties of Orien-
tal Learning and Theology which provide facilities for research,
in Sanskrit and allied studies.

The Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarhw Is a unitary
residential and teaching university of the same type as the Benares
Hindu University, i.e., an All-India University, and provides-
facilities for instruction and research in Arts, Science, Law,-
Commerce and Theology.

Reformatory School, Chunar. The Reformatory School
has been in existence since 1902. It is meant for the reformation
of juvenile offenders who are trained at the school in some trade
or profession which will enable them to earn an honest liveli-
hood.

10. LEARNED SOCIETIES.

Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta. Founded in 1784
by Sir William Jones a the Asiatic Society. The Society has
its buildings at No. 1, Park Street, Calcutta. It holds a Monthly-
General Meeting on the first Monday of each month. The Medical
Section of the Society meets separately. With the transference
of the Society's biological, geological and archaeological collections
the Indian Museum (in Chowringhee) was started in 1875.

The Society's Library contains about 100,000 volumes ; it is
especially rich in Scientific Serials. Its manuscript collections
include about 15,000 in Sanskrit and 5,000 in Arabic and Persian.
It possesses also a priceless collection of copper-plate grants and
inscriptions. On its walls are many valuable paintings, including
two Joshua Reynolds (one of the Founder of the Society), a
Guido Reni and a Morland. The statues include two by Chantry.,

336 MBDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

The Society publishes two periodicals, " Memoirs " and " Journal
and Proceedings," a continuation of the "Journal" (1832
1904) and "Asiatic Researches" (17881839).

The Bombay Branch Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay-

The Society was instituted in 1804, under the name of the Bombay
Literary Society, for the investigation and encouragement of
Oriental Arts, Sciences and Literature ; but since its incorporation
in 1830 with -the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and
Ireland it has been denominated as the Bombay Branch of that
Society. The Bombay Geographical Society has been amalgama-
ted with and forms a Geographical and Natural Science Section
of this Society. The objects of the Society are (a) to investigate
and encourage Sciences, Literature and the Arts in relation to
Asia and in particular to India and to promote research therein,
(b) to conduct a Journal, (r) to publish works embodying
research, and (rf) to maintain a general library.

Bombay Natural History Society. Founded in 1883 to
promote the study of Natural History in all its branches. Has a
membership of about 1,700 and a museum with extensive col-
lections a large part of which have recently been moved to the
Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum,
Bombay. The Society publishes a well-known and valuable
Journal.

Anthropological Society, Bombay.

11. MUSEUMS, BOTANIC GARDENS, LIBRARIES, ETC.

The Indian Museum, Calcutta. A conspicuous large and
massive building in Chowringhee facing the Maidan. Is the most
important of all the Indian museums, being a centre for zoological
and other research work as well as a place of exhibition. Has
Zoological, Geological and Archaeological Galleries, all of great
importance; also Art and Industrial Sections. Special interest
attaches to the collection of Siwalik fossil mammals from the
famous bone deposits in the Siwalik Hills at the foot of the
Himalayas and to the Indian sculptures brought from various
archaeological sites, etc. There are also Ethnographical, Economic

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 337

and other galleries. The Museum possess a very fine Zoological
Library and large collections stored for purposes of research. In
connection with the Museum is the Zoological Survey of India
also the Mammal Survey. The offices of the Geological Survey
of India are located in the Museum compound.

The Royal Botanic Gardens, Sibpur, Calcutta. Situated
on the* West bank of the Hooghly. The gardens cover 270 acres
and have a frontage of a mile along the river. The gardens are
arranged in the main to bring plants growing in the same regions
together. Among objects of interest is an ancient banyan tree
which with its offshoots covers ground 1,000 feet in circumference.
In the gardens is the Herbarium, well known to botanists, con-
taining unique collections of plants. The Superintendent of the
Gardens is also the Director of the Botanical Survey of India.
In association with the department are Cinchona plantations
notably that at Mungpu, near Darjeeling.

Imperial Library, Calcutta* This, the largest library in
India, was formed at the instance of Lord Curzon, when Viceroy
and Governor-General of India, but the amalgamation of the
Calcutta Public Library and the Government of India Secretariat
Library of the time. The latter had grown out of a number of
separate departmental libraries, the library of the Home Depart-
ment, Foreign Department, etc. The Library is especially strong
in the class of books and pamphlets dealing with India. In manu-
scripts the Library is riot very rich, but there is a very valuable
collection of Arabic and Persian MSS., and a collection of Sans-
krit MSS. There are fair beginnings of collections of prints and
maps. The catalogues of the Library form a body of biblio-
graphical material of very great value.

'The Library, as well as having reading rooms at the Foreign
and Military Secretariat (in Esplanade Street) which are open
to the' general public exclusive of those under 18 years of age,
is a lending library, and as such sends its books all over India,
Burma and Kashmir and occasionally even further. There is no
charge made for using it. The entire cost of the Institution is
borne by the Central Government.

22

338 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

The Prince of Wales Museum of Western India,
Bombay.

The Victoria and Albert Museum, Bombay.
Victoria Gardens, Bombay.
Meteorological Observatory, Bombay.
Central Museum, Lahore.
Phayrc Museum, Rangoon.

Museums also at Lucknow, Nagpur, Bangalore and
chiefly or entirely archaeological at Delhi, Muttra, Sanchi, Sarnath,
Udaipur, Baroda, Jaipur, Peshawar, Trivandrum and elsewhere.

Zoological Gardens at Calcutta, Bombay, Karachi,
Rangoon, Lahore, Madras, Bangalore, Trivandrum, and else-
where.

Botanical Gardens at Calcutta, Bombay (Victoria
Gardens), Madras (Horticultural Gardens), Bangalore, and
elsewhere.

The Marine Aquarium, Madras. This is more than a
mere place for sight seeing and will be found well worth visiting.
It is on the sea-shore and exhibits tropical fish, etc., caught in the
locality.

12. SOME INDUSTRIAL AND MUNICIPAL INSTITU-
TIONS OF MEDICAL OR SANITARY INTEREST.

BIHAR AND ORISSA.

Jamshedpur (Tata Iron and Steel Works). In 1907 what
is now Jamshedpur was jungle with a few small villages. In
1927 it is an industrial town of about 100,000 inhabitants, pro-
ducing pig-iron, finished steel, such as rails, girders, section, and
the like, tin-plate, electric cable and agricultural implements.
There are now 5 Blast Furnaces, 50 Koppers and 150 WHputte
Coke Ovens with bye-product recovery plants attached making
coke for the Blast Furnaces. There is a Sulphuric Acid Plant
making sulphuric acid for the bye-product recovery plants and
for pickling rolled sheets and tin-plates before coating with spelter

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

and tin. 700,000 tons of pig-iron and 400,000 tons of steel are
produced annually.

The .town is laid out on a rectangular gridiron plan regard-
less of natural features of the ground. There is accommodation
for some 28,000 workmen in the Steel Works and 3,000 in the
Tin-plate Works, etc. For each workman the total population
includes. at least two more persons, women, children, shop-
keepers, tradesmen, and the like. In laying out the town the
density of population is limited as far as possible to 12 families
per acre.

Filtered water is supplied to all the western area of the
town. The purification works deal with 2\ million gallons per
day. Settling tanks, Patterson Filters and Chlorinating Plants of
a modern type are in use. Almost all the new town and a large
part of the old is served by an underground sewerage system.
Many of the Indian quarters have wash-down privies connected
to the sewers and houses without separate connections are served
by public water-flushed trough pattern latrines. There are puri-
fication works, the effluent and sludge from which are used for
irrigation and fertilisation of farm lands. The sewerage of some
6,000 persons is pumped by stereophagous pumps . to a small
Activated Sludge Plant which irrigates 30 acres and was put in
as an experiment to see if the activated sludge system was suitable
to India. .With a view to comparing the working of the two
systems a Simplex Plant was installed early in 1927 to deal with
40,000 gallons a day of the same sewage as that in the other
system. Other sewage is still dealt with in temporary works
some of which are only heaps of stones in which the nitrifying
action is started.

The health of the town is taken care of by a Chief Medical
Officer and 18 assistant doctors. There is one principal hospital
consisting of an administration block and a ward block of 72
beds. A second similar ward block is being constructed. There
are 3 outside Dispensaries and 3 First-Aid Dressing Stations.
Free treatment is given to all employees and to all who attend
hospital. There are 5 markets and a Dairy Farm with 125 head
of cattle. Jamshedpur is the head-quarters of the Dhalbhum

340 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

Civil Sub-Division with an Assistant Magistrate and an Assistant
Superintendent of Police. There are civil and criminal courts,
a jail and Government hospital.

BOMBAY.

Bombay Municipal Water-Supply (Tansa Reservoir and
Pipe Line). The chief source of the water-supply to the City
of Bombay is the Tansa Lake which is situated at the foot of the
Western Ghats about 55 miles to the north-east of the City. The
lake is formed by a masonry dam about 2 miles long and 135 feet
high. It impounds 35,604 million gallons of available water.
The drainage area is 53 square miles including 7 square miles of
water surface when the lake is full.

Until 1925 the water from the Tansa Lake was conveyed to
the City through a conduit 55 miles in length formed partly of
pipes 48 inches and 50 inches diameter and partly by a masonry
aqueduct. The pipes are laid across the valleys and connect the
various sections of the masonry conduit while the latter follows
the contours of the hills which in several places have been tunneled
through. In 1920 it was decided to increase the draught from
the lake from 40 to 90 million gallons per diem and two new
lines of 72 inches diameter mains each capable of discharging
45 million gallons per diem have since been laid, the whole
masonry conduit and pipe lines being retained for future exten-
sion of the supply.

CENTRAL PROVINCES.

The Empress Mills, Nagpur. Owned by the Central India
Spinning, Weaving and Manufacturing Co., Limited. The Mills
with its 5 Ginning and Pressing Factories in the mof.ussil were
started in 1877 under the personal supervision of the late
Mr. Jamsetji Nusserwanji Tata, the great pioneer of Indian
industrial development. They occupy 186 acres of property and
employ on an average 8,200 workpeople, turning out annually
98,56,000 Ibs. of yarn for sale and 75,31,000 Ibs. of cloth.

The success of the Empress Mills is chiefly due to the spirit
of loyalty and efficiency created among the workpeople- by incen-
tives to skilled and steady work in the shape of prizes, bonuses,

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 341

prize distribution ceremonies and measures taken to ensure their
safety and well-being. In all matters relating to the welfare of
workpe6ple the Empress Mills have always been ahead of the
times. Tfhey were the first in India to give proper care to venti-
lation and to install apparatus for humidifying the atmosphere
in the dry hot climate. The Dust Removing Apparatus in the
ginning factories and the Vacuum Stripping Apparatus for the
card ipoms of the mills prevent fluff and dust being inhaled by
the \Vorkpeople.

There is a system of Long Service Bonus, a Sickness Benefit
Fund, a Pension Fund, a Provident Fund, a Co-operative Credit
Society and a Co-operative Stores for the benefit of the employees.
There are 4 Dispensaries on the premises in charge of a qualified
Medical Officer and a Lady Doctor, also Dispensaries at the
9 Welfare Work Centres and 3 Creches in the Mills' compound
for babies of the women employees. Medicine and medical
attendance are provided free and women employees in the family
way are granted a maternity allowance of two months' leave
with pay.

The Officers of the Mills are provided with commodious and
sanitary quarters in the vicinity of the Mills. For the work-
people is a Model Village ultimately capable of housing 1,500
families with up-to-date modern sanitary and other conveniences.
For officers there is a Library and Billiard Room and for the
workpeople at each Welfare Centre an Institute and Primary
School. Government 'Factory Schools and Private Schools
attended by the children of the workpeople are also contributed
to financially. For recreation the Mills have their own Cinema
Machine and films. In the bustis sports are held and lantern
lectures are given by the Y. M. C. A. through whose agency the
Milfs' Welfare Work is conducted. The Women's Welfare
Work in the bustis is conducted by the French Sisters. From
their inception to date the Mills have subscribed over Rs. 3 lakhs
to various local and other funds, including famine relief measures,
and relief measures to meet water scarcity in Nagpur.

The Central Provinces Portland Cement Co., Limited
Is situated at Kymore. The factory is designed to yield 1,50,000

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

tons of cement per annum and is the largest works in India.
The factory is equipped with a fine Laboratory and complete
tests of the Raw Material, Clinker and Cement are carried out
during the day and night. The Company also carry out re-
searches on any points requiring investigations and are only too
-pleased to help intending customers at any time in this respect
" Swastika " brand is now well known throughout India and is
used in all Government and other big Departments. .

Messrs. Burn and Co., Ltd, Works, Jubbulpore. The
works at Jubbulpore were established in 1893 with the object of
exploiting the excellent beds of Fireclay for which Jubbulpore
is noted. The Company manufactures Stoneware Sanitary Pipes
and Fittings, Refractories of all descriptions and Roofing and
Flooring Tiles. During recent years the Works have been con-
siderably enlarged and are in a position, owing to the proved
quality of the clays discovered and the installation of the latest
appliances, to produce articles as enumerated above which com-
pare very favourably with the best known Home products. For
many years most of the large Sanitary Schemes in Central and
Western India have been carried out with materials supplied
from Jubbulpore.

MADRAS.

The Buckingham and Carnatic Mills, Madras. Educa-
tional and medical work at the Mills was placed on an organised
footing in 1904. In 1914 the question of providing adequate
and healthy housing was taken up. Since the war these matters
have been actively pushed and in 1922 a Welfare Committee was
instituted. This work now falls chiefly under the heads, Educa-
tional Dispensaries and Medical Attention, Gratuity Fund and
Compensation Allowances, Provision of Chutrams (cooking and
resting accommodation), Workpeople's Institute, Model Villages
for workpeople and Savings Bank.

The total number of boys attending school is 1,300, Besides
day schools there is a Technical School, a Night School and
Special Classes. There is a Nursery Class attached to the day
school. A Creche is not required as there are no inside women

_

* u

13 rt en

MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA. 343

workers. A school kitchen provides light refreshment at a
nominal price and a mid-day meal is provided free to all boys
who attend from a distance over 2 miles.

Each "Mill h&s a dispensary in charge of a fully qualified
doctor and medicines are supplied free., Each Mill is provided
with a Chutram in which workpeople may cook and eat their
meals and take rest. About 2 3,000 workpeople can be accom-
modated in each Chutram and there is separate accommodation
for different castes. There are at present two villages attached
to the Mills, and a Village Hall has recently been constructed.
Arrangements for recreation include Sports, Dramatic Society,
etc.

Cauvery Irrigation Project. Consists of a dam across
the Cauvery and Reservoir at Metur and a distribution system
of canals for 300,000 acres of new irrigation in Tanjore. The
dam will te the biggest in the world. A feature of the head-
works, situated in a somewhat malarious tract, is the unusual
care taken of the ordinary labourer. The temporary camp at
headworks will contain from 5,000 to 8,000 coolies housed in
good tiled sheds at a cost of Rs. 83 per head. Cholera being an
annual occurrence, the camp will be provided with a chlorinated
water-supply with Patterson Filters. The combined industrial
and domestic supply is estimated to cost 9 lakhs and a drainage
scheme and sewage farm 8 lakhs. The camp is being lit electri-
cally. The* completion of the work is expected in 1933.

Peryar Project. The object of this project was to divert
the water of an upper reach of the Peryar River from the west
to the east coast. The object was achieved by damming the river
at Peryar and lowering and tunneling under the watershed. The
clam when constructed was one of the largest in the world and
was built in spite of unprecedented difficulties due to the un-
healthiness and remoteness of the locality. The result of the
project .which was completed in 1895 has been to convert the arid
and famine stricken district round Madura into rich rice lands.

Nellikuppam Factory, near Cuddalore^ Owned by the
East India Distilleries & Sugar Factories, Ltd., London, of whom
the Managing Agents are Messrs. Parry and Co., Madras.

344 MEDICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA.

Sugar is produced by refining Palmyra jaggery (crude sugar)
and from Sugar Cane which is grown round Nellikuppam. The
Company grows several hundred acres of its own cane and
carries out extensive experiments with a view to irrfprove the
quality of the cane. Arrack is distilled mainly from molasses
obtained from the refinery. Denatured and rectified spirits are
also produced for the local markets. C0 2 Gas is collected from
the fermentation vats in the distillery and compressed into
cylinders. Confectionery is made from the sugar produced in
the refinery.

APPENDIX.

List of some useful books and publications on India.

GENERAL.

Murray's Handboak, India, Burma and Ceylon (gives a great deal of

information about India in general).
The Indian Year Book (much general and statistical information).

* India V 1924-25, 1925-26, etc. (general and political).

* Handbook of Commercial Information for India (natural products and

commercial organisation, etc.).

Imperial Gazetteer of India (a complete account of India in 25 volumes, of
which the first 4 are Descriptive, Historical, Economical and
Administrative), Also Provincial series with one or more volumes to
each Province and District Gazetteers (some hundreds) giving detailed
description of each District),

* General Catalogue of Government Publications (should be purchased by

anyon^ interested in, the obtaining of Indian medical or other reports
on sale at the Central Publication Branch, Hastings Street, Calcutta.
Consult regarding Archaeological, Botanical, Geological, Medical,
Meteorological, Zoological Department publications, etc.).

HISTORICAL AND ART.

A History of Sanskrit Literature, Macdonell.

Outline of religious literature of India, Farquhar and Griswold.

Oxford History of India, Smith.

Cambridge History of India, Vol. I. Ancient India, Rapson.

Historical Georgraphy of India, Roberts.

Indian Painting, Percy Brown.

Handbook of Indian Art, Havell.

The Charm of Indian Art, Solomon.

History of Indian Art and Eastern Architecture, Ferguson.

AGRICULTURE, VETERINARY AND IRRIGATION.

Memoirs (also Bulletins and Scientific Reports) of the Agricultural
Research Institute, Pusa. Also Report of the Progress of Agriculture
in India (annual). See also General Catalogue.

Annual Reports of the Imperial Institute of Veterinary Research, Muktesar
(Imperial Bact. Lab., Muktesar). See also General Catalogue.

( 345 )

346 APPENDIX.

Triennial Review of Irrigation in India, 1918-21. This IS a special number
giving a very full and illustrated account of Irrigation in India (Central
Publication Branch, Calcutta).

MEDICAL.

Census of India, 1921 (Vol, I, Report, India) (also Provincial Volumes).
* Annual Report of the Public Health Commissioner with the Government

of India (a summary of medical statistics and record of medical

activities in India).

Annual Reports on Hospitals and Dispensaries, Reports of Directors of
Public Health, Vaccination Reports. Reports of Chemical Examiners
to Government (see General Catalogue).

Annual Reports of Bacteriological Laboratories and Pasteur* Institutes
(Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine, Haffkine Institute, Bombay,
King Institute, Madras, and Pasteur Institutes at Kasauli, Coonoor,
Shillong and Rangoon).

All-India Conference of Medical Research Workers (Annual).

Indigenous drugs of India, Marr.

Indigenous Systems and Medical Science, Burridge.

History of the Indian Medical Service, Crawford.

See also Indian Journal of Medical Research and Indian Medical
Research Memoirs, Indian Medical Gazette, Public Health Bulletins
(including publications of the Central Malaria Bureau").

* Obtainable at the Government of India, Central Publication Branch,
Hastings Street, Calcutta.