W.
5
062
GOVERNMENT OF PORTO RICO
UNIVERSITY OF PORTO RICO
BULLETIN No. 1, 1922
THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH
BY
PORTO RICAN PUPILS
BY
CHARLES W. ST. JOHN
Dean of the University of Porto Rico, Bio Piedras, P. R.
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY
RIO PIEDRAS. P. R.
1922
GOVERNMENT OF PORTO RICO
UNIVERSITY OF PORTO RIGO
BULLETIN No. 1, 1922
THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH
BY
POETO RICAN PUPILS
BY
CHARLES W. ST. JOHN
Dean of the University of Porto Rico, Rio Piedras, P.
PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY
RIO PIEDRAS, P. R.
1922
SAN JUAN, P. R.
BUEEAU OF SUPPLIES, FEINTING, AND TEANSPOETATION
1922
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Pages.
Preface 5
Hie Spelling of English by Porto Rican Pupils:
I. The Most Frequent Misspellings 7
II. A Classification and Analysis of Spelling Errors 25
III. Methods of Instruction 32
IV. A Comparison of Individuals and Groups 47
Errors in English Grammar in Porto Eico 59
2067409
PREFACE.
Some years ago, while serving as Professor of Education and
Psychology in the University of Porto Eico, the writer was im-
pressed by certain persistent errors in spelling in the examination
papers and other written work of his students. "Without their
knowledge he kept for some months complete individual records of
all misspellings in the written work and note books submitted by
each of his two or three hundred students. These records were so
rich in interesting material bearing upon problems of bilingual in-
struction in Porto Rico, and so suggestive of significant facts in the
psychology of spelling, that the author desired to make a more
extensive study of the spelling of English under the unusual con-
ditions existing in Porto Rico.
The present bulletin gives an account of the results of this
investigation, together with some parallel recommendations concern-
ing the teaching of spelling in Porto Rico and Latin-American
countries. It is to be followed within a few months by a series
of text books for use in the teaching of spelling, organized along
the lines suggested herein. There may follow also some attempt to
cull from the material here presented those parts which appear most
significant with relation to the psychology of spelling. The data
available here seem to throw some light on the question of the relative
importance of the several mental factors involved in spelling.
The author wishes to thank the Department of Education of
Porto Rico for the hearty cooperation of the Commissioner and the
Assistant Commissioner of Education, the district Supervisors of
Schools and many teachers in the collecting and preliminary mark-
ing of the composition papers upon which the investigation was
based. To the editor of the Porto Rico School Review he is in-
debted for permission to republish in its present form this report,
which first appeared serially in that publication and has now been
very slightly revised and corrected.
CHARLES W. ST. JOHN.
Rfo PIEDRAS, April, 1922.
THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY
PORTO RICAN PUPILS.
THE MOST FREQUENT MISSPELLINGS.
In brief, the method of this investigation was as follows: On
Wednesday of the first week of school after the Christmas vacation
the pupils in 44 eighth grades (one or more in each of the school
districts of Porto Rico) wrote compositions in English entitled
"How I Spent My Christmas Vacation," the time allowance being
thirty minutes and the work being done quite independently. After
the papers had been marked by the teachers in accordance with in-
structions they were sent to the writer together with certain infor-
mation from the Supervisors of Schools concerning methods of teach-
ing spelling in their districts.
It was found that the marking had not been uniform, and the
writer himself had to mark and score all 44 sets of papers, accord-
ing to rules which had been given a long trial and then revised.
The assurance of absolute uniformity of marking compensated for
this burden of work. This final marking was partially checked up
several times, and exceedingly few errors were found.
At the same time that each individual paper was marked and
scored, a card catalog record was kept of every word misspelled by
any student, of each different misspelling of each word, and of each
repetition of each misspelling. There were 1,131 composition papers,
of which 559 were written by girls and 572 by boys. The total
number of words in the entire set of papers was about 200,000. Ex-
actly 1,000 different words were misspelled and the total number of
errors in spelling was 3,890, in addition to about 1,700 errors in
capitalization (not including those in the title or in the first words
of sentences, which were counted as errors of grammar).
Before the results are reported it may be well to call attention
to certain significant facts. (1) These papers represent the average
"finished product" of the urban elementary schools, being secured
through tests in eighth grades in headquarters towns. (2) The
8 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY PORTO EICAN PUPILS.
spelling is presumably typical of what may be expected in the best
free compositions of the eighth grade, since these compositions were
undoubtedly written with a desire to make the best possible showing.
(3) This was announced as a test in composition, not spelling, and
so gives a more just indication of practical spelling proficiency. (4)
The topic was such as to call forth, in the main, the vocabulary of
every-day life.
Finally, (5) the fact should be emphasized that the reports on
the frequency and types of errors in spelling and grammar in these
1,131 compositions are based upon facts, recorded and available for
verification. The recommendations concerning methods of teaching
spelling, in the third part of this report, are based upon the theory
of the mental processes of spelling as well as the actual results of
this investigation ; the other reports are facts, as far as these 1,131
compositions (200,000 words) are concerned. In view of the large
mass of material examined, probably they may be safely considered
valid for eighth-grade written work in Porto Rico in general.
The errors in capitalization (not including those in the title and
in the first words of sentences) average nearly 1% per composition,
0nd spelling errors other than these, nearly 3^2 per composition.
The average composition contained about 170 words.
Table IV gives a list of all of the 502 words which were misspelled
more than once, arranged in descending order as to frequency of
misspelling. The distribution of errors in capitalization is indicated
in a separate table (V).
Illogically, but to call the reader's attention to the significant
facts before he becomes too fatigued by a long list of misspellings, the
remarks on the list are placed before the list. This is not the place
for a complete commentary, and only the most important points are
given here.
In the rest of this part the word "misspelling" will be used not
to include any errors in capitalization. The words italicized in the
list are those which occurred with unusual frequency because of
the topic of the composition ("Christmas words," we might call
them). They are not counted in any way in the calculations upon
which the following remarks are based thus making the results, we
believe, fairly true of compositions in every-day vocabulary in gen-
eral. After these are eliminated we have 980 different words, with
a total of about 3,500 spelling errors other than of capitalization.
THE MOST FREQUENT MISSPELLINGS. 9
REMARKS.
1. mile over 50 per cent of these 980 misspelled words were
misspelled only once in the 1,131 compositions, yet 10 per cent of all
spelling errors were made on the first four words, "these," "passed/'
"then" and "where". (While some of the errors on "these" and
"passed" might be considered errors of grammar, in the writer's
opinion they are technically, and in the mental processes of the pu-
pils, errors of spelling.) Twenty- five per cent of all spelling errors
occurred in the writing of the first 22 words (1-29 in the list in
Table IV, "Christmas words" being eliminated). The first 102
words (about one-tenth of the total 980) caused 50 per cent of all
of the 3,500 misspellings.
The following tables show these facts in detail.
TABLE I.
DISTRIBUTION OF SPELLING ERRORS.
Serial Number Per cent of
numbers. of words, all words.
Ten per cent of all errors occurred in 1- 7 .5
Ten per cent of all errors occurred in 8- 23 12 1.5
Ten per cent of all errors occurred in 24- 43 18 2.0
Ten per cent of all errors occurred in 44- 73 28 3.0
Ten per cent of all errors occurred in 74 113 39 4.0
Ten per cent of all errors occurred in 114 173 59 6.0
Ten per cent of all errors occurred in 174- 265 86 9.0
Ten per cent of all errors occurred in 266- 405 140 14.0
Ten per cent of all errors occurred in 406- 654 248 25.0
Ten per cent of all errors occurred in 655-1,000 346 35.0
TABLE II.
Twenty-five per cent of all errors occurred in 1- 29 22 2.0
Twenty-five per cent of all errors occurred in 30- 113 80 8.0
Twenty-five per cent of all errors occurred in 114- 307 186 19.0
Twenty-five per cent of all errors occurred in 308-1,000 692 71.0
2. The first aim in spelling instruction should be automatic cor-
rectness in writing the most essential words of the every-day vocabu-
lary. A glance at the accompanying list of misspellings (Table IV)
gives painful evidence that a great deal of careful and skilful instruc-
tion on the spelling of the simplest words is needed. Of the first
400 words in the list (causing 80 per cent of all errors) 191 have but
one syllable, 136 have two syllables, 57 three, 14 four and 2 five.
3. The confusion of the 19 pairs or groups of short words listed
below caused 628 errors in spelling (18 per cent of the total).
10 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY PORTO RICAN PUPILS.
TABLE III.
CONFUSION OP SHORT WORDS. Number
of errors.
1. these and this ___________________ - 147
2. then and them _____________________
3. passed and past ____________________ - 90
4. where and were ____________________________________ 64
5. too, two and to ------------------------------------ 32
6. there and their ____________________________________ 31
7. custom, accustom and costume ----------------------- 25
8. bathe, bath, breathe and breath ----------- 24
9. feel and fill _______________________ - 21
10. think, thing and sing --------- 17
11. went and when ------------------------------------ 15
12. not and no ________________________________________ 13
13. country and county _________________________________ 12
14. later and latter ____________________________________ 11
15. most and must _____________________________________ 9
16. rice and rise _______________________________________ 7
17. seem and seen _____________________________________ 6
18. hear and here _____________________________________ 6
19. fine and find _______________________________________ 6
4. The writer's analysis of the spelling errors has revealed many
distinct classes. Some of these are detected in a brief examination
of Table IV. The cross references o-m, at the end of the list, indicate
some of the most noticeable. Groups g, c, d, a and b include over
10 per cent of all spelling errors.
TABLE IV.
WORDS MOST FREQUENTLY MISSPELLED.
Words in italics have not been considered in the above Eemarks since the
frequency of their occurrence results from the special topic of the compositions.
Under the heading "Misspellings," (writing) means the writing of an m or
w with four curves, or some similar error which cannot be represented in print.
The numerals in parenthesis after words in the first column indicate the se-
rial numbers of other words to be compared. The letters, similarly used, refer
to the Cross References at the end of the list.
^"IJ "2^^ MISSPELLINGS.
" "
= "5 3."n2 Most Second in Third in ^
?C_ ";== frequent. frequency. frequency.
1. these (20) __ ..127 3 this (125) thise (1) theese (1)"
2. passed (78) ------- 93 3 past (83) pased (8) pasted (2)
3. then (45)_- ----- 84 4 them (79) that (3) _
4. Christmas--. 76 21 Chrismas (14) Chritmas (11) Christmast (8)
5. feast ------------ 59 3 fiest (55) fist (3) fest(l)
THE MOST FEEQUEXT MISSPELLINGS.
11
Ml-iSI'KLLIXGS.
6. vacation (j) 56
7. where (22) 52
8. automobile 51
9,. studying (a) 49
10. friend 41
11. night (b) 32
12. there (59) 30
13. and (c) 28
14. beginning (d) 27
15. dance 27
16. feel 27
17. too (69; 147) 25
IS. Christ 24
19. December 24
20. this (1) 24
_'1. i>icnic 23
22. were (7) 23
23. clock 22
24. happiness (e) 22
25. wait 22
26. beautiful 21
27. because 21
28. country 21
29. custom (31) 20
30. town 20
31. accustom (29) (g) 10
32. anxious 19
33. begin 19
34. holiday (42) 19
35. running (d) 19
36. didn't 18
37. my 18
38. prepare 17
39. went (71) 17
40. bathe (63; 203) __ 15
41. bicycle 15
42. holy (34) 15
43. pleasant 15
44. receive '. 15
45. them (3) 15
46. I (c) 14
47. pig 14
48. until (h) 14
49. happiest 13
50. invite . 13
fcf f Most
Jz; T3 S frequent.
14 vaccation (30)
3 were (50)
9 automovil (22)
3 studing (45)
8 frcind (2)
7 nigth (19)
7 their (21)
5 an (17)
2 begining (26)
8 danze (13)
4 fill (21)
2 to (24)
1 Crist (24)
3 Dicember (22)
3 these (22)
14 pinic (6)
6 where (14)
9 clok (13)
6 happines (12)
11 wate (6)
4 beatiful (13)
14 becouse (7)
5 county (12)
7 eostum (9)
4 toun (12)
5 acustom (9)
5 ansious (11)
5 beging (10)
3 holyday(ll)
2 runing (18)
4 din 't (15)
6 muy (8)
7 p repair (6)
7 when (7)
1 bath (15)
6 bycicle (6)
1 holly (15)
6 plesant (9)
5 recive (6)
3 then (13)
5 a (8)
4 pick (10)
2 until'l (8)
4 Happies (10)
9 envite (2)
Second in
frequency.
vacacion (11)
wliare (1)
automovile (14)
studyng (3)
frind (9)
might (5)
they (4)
1(7)
bigining (1) '
danse (4)
fell (3)
two (1)
Diccember (1)
thic (1)
pickness (2)
we (4)
doak (2)
happyness (4)
weit (4)
beautifull (6)
beacause (2)
contry( 5)
costume (3)
twon (5)
acostum (6)
ancious (5)
bigin (6)
'holly day (7)
runining (1)
did't (1)
(writing) (4)
prepear (6)
uent (4)
Third in
frequency.
vaquetion (2)
uhere (1)
automobil (9)
studiying (1)
frend (3)
knight (3)
(2)
dace (4)
feell (2)
Decembrer (1)
his (1)
picknic (2)
well (2)
(2)
(2)
becase (2)
cowntry (2)
costom (2)
tawn (2)
acustum (2)
holliday (1)
dindt (1)
may (3)
pripare (2)
vent (2)
bicicle (4) bycycle (2)
pleasent (2)
recieve (6)
they (1)
and (2)
pit (2)
ontil (6)
invit (2)
(writing) (1)
in (2)
lit (2)
12 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY PORTO RICAN PUPILS.
WORD. -2*-g -2" 1
Sa| gr.
X'ZV r=
51. review 13 3
52. theater (-re) 13 10
53. celebrate 12 7
54. happy 12 5
55. later 12 2
56. left 12 8
57. not (437) 12 2
58. remember 12 4
59. their (12) __1 12 2
60. think (127; 468) _ 12 4
61. tons 12 4
62. assign (g) 11 4
63. bath (40; 203) __ 11 6
64. church 11 7
.65. Santa Claus 11 7
66. saw 11 5
67. seeing (i) 11 2
68. tired 11 3
69. two (17; 146) ___ 11 4
70. walk (320) 11 7
71. when (39) 11 4
72. which 11 4
73. with 11 6
74. coming (d) 10 1
75. in (c) 10 4
76. most 10 2
77. next 10 6
78. past (2) 10 2
79. permission (j) 10 3
80. sorry 10 5
81. stayed 10 5
82. through 10 4
83. very 10 7
84. accept (g) 9 4
85. an (e) 9 2
86. being (i) 9 3
87,. glad 9 7
88. going 9 4
89. immediately (k)__ 9 4
90. life 9 1
91. many 9 7
92. morning 9 4
93. our 9 2
94. spent 9 7
95. accompany (g) 8 2
M I SSPEItLINOS.
Most
frequent.
revew (8)
threatry (4)
selebrate (5)
hapy (4)
latter (11)
let (5)
no (11)
remenber (9)
there (9)
thing (9)
toils (8)
asign (5)
bathe (4)
chorch (3)
Santa Claws (5)
so (4)
seen (6)
tire (8)
(writing) (5)
went (7)
wolk (5)
wich (7)
we (5)
comming (10)
1(7)
must (9)
nest (3)
passed (7)
permision (6)
sory (5)
state (5)
throught (4)
bery(3)
acept (6)
and (7)
been (7)
gladd (3)
goin (6)
inmediatly (5)
live (9)
may (2)
mornning (4)
owr (8)
acompany (7)
pent (3)
Second in
frequency.
reviw (3)
celebrete (2)
happhy (3)
leter (1)
nor (1)
thier (3)
toes (2)
sign (4)
vast (3)
cliourch (2)
sow (3)
seing (5)
tried (2)
to (4)
whem (2)
whic (2)
which (2)
en (1)
mist (1)
mext (2)
pass (3)
permition (3)
sorrow (2)
stated (2)
throw (3)
were (2)
a (2)
bing (1)
Third in
frequency.
re-wiew (2)
heppen (2)
chruch (2)
sau (2)
tair (1)
too (1)
an(l)
nex (2)
permsion (1)
throng (2)
bee ing (1)
inmidiatly (2)
mamy (2)
mourning (3)
awr (1)
accompaign (1)
THE MOST FREQUENT MISSPELLINGS.
13
*i MS.
-S^TS 2'
? ~ S
MISSPELLINGS.
96. afternoon 8
97. ate 8
98. buy 8
99. candies 8
100. eat 8
101. joyful (f) 8
102. play 8
103. pretty 8
104. recite 8
105. return 8
106. roast 8
107. school 8
108. seem (313) 8
109. they 8
110. those 8
111. week 8
112. class 7
113. dinner 7
114. enthusiasm 7
115. etc 7
116. first 7
117. fourth (1) 7
118. gift 7
119. new 7
120. on (c) 7
121. playing 7
122. possible 7
123. rice 7
124. stay 7
125. study 7
126. swimming (d) 7
127. thing (60; 468)__ 7
128. thought (b) 7
129. three 7
130. uncle 7
131. was 7
132. work 7
133. ball 6
134. breakfast 6
135. candy 6
136. commemorate 6
137. eighth (1) 6
138. expect 6
139. hours 6
140. house- 6
Most Second in Third in
frequent. frequency. frequency.
aftermoon (3) afternoom (2)
aet (4) at (2) aete (1)
by (5) bay (2)
candys (5)
eate (6) it (2)
joyfull(5)
pay (5) ply (2) pleay (1)
pritty (3) preety (3)
resite (5)
returm (3) retail (2)
rust (3)
shoal (5) scholl (2) selool (1)
seen (3) seam (2)
the (6) their (1) thej (1)
does (4) thovise (2) '.
weeck (5)
clase (7)
diner (3) deaner (2)
enthusiam (3) entusiasm (3) entuthiams ( 1 )
ect. (6) andsoford(l) -
firsth (1) frith (1) ferst (1)
forth (6) foruth (1)
give (2) guift (2)
mew (4) knew (2) wew(l)
an (4) om (1) 1(1)
plain (3) playind (3) playn (1)
posible (6) posibel (1)
rise (7)
state (5) stey (1) staigh (1)
stody (4) estudy (3)
Fwiming (7)
think (4) thign(l) sing(l)
though (4) sough (1) thoughth (1)
tree (3) the (1) thre (1)
auncle (3) uncl (1) oncle (1)
wos (2)
wark (3)
boll (5) bal (1)
breadfast (4) breastfast (1) breafast(l)
kandy (2)
eonmemorate(4)comemorate (l)commerate (1)
eigth (4) eighty (1) eightth(l)
spect (3) spet(l) spent (1)
ours (3) howrs (2) haur (1)
hause (5) nouse (1)
THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY PORTO RICAN PUPILS.
WORD. I %*
III
141. immediate (k) 6
142. merrily (e) 6
143. reach 6
144. sew 6
145. sitting (d) 6
146. to (17; 69) 6
147. twelve 6
148. we (c) 6
149. you 6
150. all 5
151. almost (h) 5
152. announce (g) 5
153. around 5
154. at (c) 5
155. aunt 5
156. card 5
157. could 5
158. day 5
159. dresses 5
160. eating 5
161. enjoy 5
162. evening 5
163. farm 5
164. felt 5
165. fine (283) 5
166. fruit 5
167. grandmother 5
168. happily (e) 5
169. how 5
170. imagine 5
171. immense (k) 5
172. king 5
173. know (234) 5
174. laugh 5
175. liquors 5
176. make 5
177. me 5
178. Monday (m) 5
179. nine 5
180. noise 5
181. occurred (g) 5
182. Protestant 5
183. remained 5
184. ride 5
185. sleep 5
Sri ^^~
Z = 5 frequent.
2 inmediate (5)
3 merely (4)
2 rich (5)
1 saw (6)
2 siting (5)
5 too (2)
3 twelf (4)
2 he (3)
2 yow (5)
3 oil (3)
3 allmost (3)
3 anounee (3)
3 arround (2)
2 a (4)
3 ant (3)
2 cart (4)
3 cowld (3)
3 they (3)
2 dressess (4)
1 eaten (5)
5 injoy (1)
2 evenning (4)
3 farmer (3)
3 fell (2)
2 find (4)
3 frut (3)
3 gramother (3)
3 happy]y(3)
3 hou (3)
2 imagen (4)
1 inmense (5)
1 kind (5)
1 now (5)
4 laught (2)
2 licors (3)
3 may (3)
3 mi (3)
3 Mondy (3)
1 night (5)
2 noice (4)
5 occurrd (1)
2 Protestan (4)
2 remaind (3)
4 rise (2)
3 asleep (3)
MISSPELLINGS.
Second in Third in
frequency. frequency.
immidiate (1)
merryly (1) merily (1)
rech(l)
sitten (1)
two (1) the (1)
tweve (1) twel (1)
tie (3)
your (1)
al (1) or (1)
all mot (1) almos(l)
announse (1) anouse (1)
round (2) allound (1)
as(l)
aunnt (1) ount (1)
carte (1)
cut(l) cuit (1)
date (1) (writing) (1)
(1)
enjou (1) enjoice (1)
evenig (1)
fam (1) tarm (1)
feld (2) fold (1)
fin(l)
fruite (1) fouit (1)
granmother (1) grantmother (1)
happiely (1) happidly (1)
whow (1) haw (1)
imgine (1)
lauph (1)
liquords (2)
maeke (1)
mee (1)
Munday (1)
laf (1)
my (i)
my (3)
Moniday (1)
nois (1)
occured (1) ocurred (1)
Protestand (1) -
remainded (2)
raide (1) ripe (1)
slep (1) slip (1)
THE MOST FREQUENT MISSPELLINGS.
15
WORD.
= =
186.
187.
188.
189.
190.
391.
192,
193.
]94.
195.
196.
197.
198.
199.
200.
201.
202.
203.
204.
205.
206.
207.
208.
209.
210.
211.
212.
213.
214.
215.
216.
217.
218.
219.
220.
221.
222.
223.
224.
225.
226.
227.
228.
229.
230.
z'Z
some 5
Sunday (m) 5
suppose (g) --
surprise 5
H* S.-.2
MISSPELLINGS.
than
twenty
us
women
Xmas
about
account (g)-
also (h)
5
5
5
5
5
4
4
. 4
always (h) 4
appreciate (g) 4
assist (g; 4
athletic 4
begun 4
breathe (40; 63 )_ 4
brilliant 4
brother 4
can't 4
Catholic 4
climb 4
coach 4
college 4
companion 4
cousin 4
delicious 4
don't 4
drink 4
eve 4
family 4
felicitation (j)_-_ 4
fifteen 4
fifth (1) 4
flowers 4
giving 4
go (c) 4
grandfather 4
handkerchief 4
health 4
hymns 4
January 4
leave 4
like __ 4
Most
frequent.
som (2)
Sonday (3)
supose (5)
surprice (2)
that (4)
tweenty (4)
use (2)
woman (5)
Kmas (2)
abaut (4)
acount (2)
olso (3)
allways (3)
apreciate (4)
r.sist (3)
atletic (2)
begon (2)
breath (4)
brillant (3)
brothe (1)
cann 't (3)
Catolic (3)
dim (2)
couch (2)
collage (2)
Second in
frequency.
son (1)
Sundy (2)
surpraise (1)
tham (1)
twemty (1)
uss (1)
Xma (1)
iccont (1)
allso (1)
alway (1)
assit (1)
atlethic (1)
begone (1)
Third in
frequency.
sorprise (1)
ous (1)
Xms (1)
occount (1)
atthletie (1)
begome (1)
brilluant (1)
frother (1)
con't (1)
Catolict (1)
claim (1)
coache (1)
colege ( 1 )
companyon (1) companium (1)
cousing (2) counsin (1)
delisious (1) delicous (1)
blrother (1)
clib (1)
cochage (1)
colage (1)
companioun (1)
don (2)
drinck (3)
ive (2)
familly (1)
dn't (1)
drimk (1)
eads (1)
fammily (1)
felicitacion (3) felisitation (1)
fifthteen (1)
fith (2)
flours (2)
given (3)
got (3)
fifttin (1)
fift (1)
flowrs (1)
givin (1)
good (1)
deliceous(l)
dont (1)
eaf (1)
famili (1)
fifhteen (1)
fiveth (1)
flores (1)
granfather (3) gramfather (1)
handekerchief (1 )handchief (1)
hearth (3)
Himms (1)
Jannuary (1)
live (4)
lake (1)
headth (1)
himns (1)
Janury (1)
liked (1)
hancherchief (1)
heath (1)
Hym (1)
Juanuary (1)
kike (1)
J6 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY POETO EICAN PUPILS.
02
n a
231.
232.
233.
234.
235.
236.
237.
238.
239.
240.
241.
242.
243.
244.
245.
246.
247.
248."
249.
250.
251.
252.
253.
254.
255.
256.
257.
258.
259.
260.
261,
262.
263.
264.
265,
266.
267.
268.
269.
270.
271.
272.
273.
274.
275.
live
lunch
mass
now (173)
occupy (g)
one
open
order __.
pass
place __,
priest
putting
scholar
shepherd
sometimes
sweet
taking
whole
writing (d) 4
ache
after
afterwards
any
appropriate (g)
arrive (g) 3
asleep 3
awakened 3
balcony 3
banana 3
bed 3
bell 3
between 3
bright (b) 3
bring 3
brought (b) 3
by (e) 3
came 3
camera 3
car 3
carrying (a) 3
cemetery 3
certain 3
chorus 3
close 3
clothes--- 3
1*1
MISSPELLINGS.
i-'S ' Most
Second in
Third in
j-alj frequent.
frequency.
frequency.
3 life (2)
leave (1)
lire (1)
2 lonch (2)
launch (2)
3 mas (2)
mise (1)
meat (1)
2 mow (2)
know (2)
3 ocupy (2)
occuppy (1)
acupy (1)
3 ome (2)
once (1)
on (1)
2 oppen (3)
opon (1)
-
4 alder (1)
orde (1)
orther (1)
1 Das (4}
J_ pda {* )
4 play (1)
pace (1)
plase (1)
1 prist (4)
,
1 puting (4)
.
.
1 schoolar (4)
.
4 sheperd (1)
sheapper (1)
shephered (1)
2 sometime (3)
sometimed (1)
.
3 swit (2)
suit (1)
swet (1)
2 taken (3)
takeing (1)
3 hold (2)
hole (1)
boll (1)
3 eche (1)
eak (1)
age (1)
2 afther (2)
ofter (1)
3 afterwads (1)
afterwars (1)
afterward (1)
2 eny (1)
end (1)
,
3 approppriate(l)apropieted (1)
apropiated (1)
2 arive (2)
arraive (1)
1 sleep (3)
.
1 awaked (3)
.
_
2 valcony (2)
balconey (1)
1 bannana (3)
2 let (2)
beg (1)
. .
3 belt (1)
beld (1)
bird (1)
2 bettween (2)
bet wee (1)
1 brigth (3)
3 brind (1)
brig(l)
(writing) (1)
2 brough (2)
broucl (1)
2 my (2)
(writing) ('\\
2 cane (2)
can (])
1 camara (3)
_
2 card (2)
earr (1)
._
2 carryng (2)
earring (] )
2 cementary (2)
cemetary ( 1 )
2 certian (2)
ceartain (1)
3 corns (1)
chours (1)
chorous (1)
2 clouse (2)
cloose (1)
1 cloth (3)
-
THE MOST FBEQUENT MISSPELLINGS.
17
MISSPELiLINGS.
E
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
H.W
1
3
1
3
1
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
3
1
2
3
2
3
2
1
1
1
3
3
2
1
3
2
1
3
2
2
3
2
1
2
2
3
1
3
1
2 r Most
frequent.
colect (3)
cone (1)
confution (3)
deceide (1)
stablish (3)
excelent (3)
exept (3)
fine (2)
for (2)
fnio-ant (3)
funk'-, (2)
geting (3)
giving (3)
goverment (2)
here (3)
helpped (1)
hear (3)
hose (2)
emportan (1)
joyious (2)
adknowledge(l
litters (2)
mayority (3)
marked (3)
medows (3)
movin (1)
niese (1)
occure (2)
once (3)
order (1)
parck (2)
pacient (3)
peaple (1)
peace (2)
Presbiterian(2;
plasent (1)
ridding (2)
seem (3)
thought (1)
specialy (2)
spened (1)
studyed (3)
super (1)
swing (3)
tolk (2)
Second in
frequency.
Third in
frequency.
277 come
comce (1)
con (1)
279 decide
dicede (1)
diside (1)
fined (1)
force (1)
284 forth
86 funny
fany (1)
govenment (1)
291 helped
kelp (1)
held (1)
292 here (290)
293 horse
house (1)
importance (1)
joyus (1)
) knowlegde ( 1 )
lettle (1)
294 important
importans (1)
296 knowledge
knouledge (1)
297 little
299 market
301. moving
movement (1)
niece (1)
ocurr (1)
muving (1)
mice (1)
302. nice
303 occur (g)
305 other
another (1)
parket (1)
orther (1)
306 park
308 people
peopple (1)
pice (1)
1 Previsterian (1)
pleasant (1)
riden (1)
piople (1)
309 piece
310. Presbyterian
priest (1)
shut (1)
311. present
312. riding
313 seen (108)
314 shot
shoot (1)
spetially (1)
spen (1)
316 spend
expend (1)
317 studied (a)
318. supper
soup ( 1 )
souper (1)
319 swim
320. talk
tok , 1 }
18
THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY PORTO RICAN PUPILS.
WORD. |
a
*
321. taught (b)
Jf
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1l
S.-.2
Jzj-sE
3
o
1
2
3
2
3
J
3
9
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
?.
MISSPELLINGS.
Most Second
frequent. frequen<
fought (1) touch (1)
tall (2) sell (1)
(cap.) Free (l)tre (1)
trolly (3)
in Third in ^
sy. frequency.
tougn (1)
322 tell
323. tree
three (1)
324 trolley
325. Tuesday (m)
326. visit
Thuesday (2) Tuestday
visite (1) visict (1)
weak (2) walk (1)
vals (1) walz (1)
Wcncsday (3)
C\ }
bisit (1)
wals (1)
327. wake
328. waltz
329. Wednesday (m) __
330. won
wound (1) own (1)
wonderfull (2) wondeful
wong (1)
n \
331. wonderful (f)
332. accompanied (g) .
' Most
frequent.
accompanied (1)
adquire (2)
afraid (1)
agreable (2)
and (1)
annother (1)
apetite (2)
at (1)
asalt (1)
asembly (1)
attemp (1)
atract (2)
bak (1)
bear (2)
benefie (1)
besides (2)
vest (2)
bigest (1)
bleu (1)
borned (1)
break (1)
broock (1)
by (2)
coal (1)
came (2)
cary (2)
chauffer (2)
churchs (2)
Clauds (1)
coconates (1)
coffe (2)
cormmerce Cl")
Second in
frequency.
acompained (1)
334. afraid
afreight (1)
335 agreeable
336. am (e)
an(l)
anothere ( 1 )
337. another
338 appetite
339 as (c)
af (1)
asault (1)
assembling (1)
atend (1)
340 assault (g)
341. assembly (g)
342. attend (g)
343 attract (g)
344 back
bad (1)
345 beer
346. benefit
benefit (1)
347. beside
348. best
349. biggest
biges (1)
blew (1)
burn (1)
(writing) (1)
broke (1)
350. blue
351 born
352;. bread
353. brook
354 but (e)
355. call
coll (1)
356. cane _ _
357. carry
358. chauffeur
359. churches
360 clouds
clause (1)
coacunuts (1)
361 coconuts
362 coffee
363. commerce
comprpfi (~\ "I
THE MOST FBEQUENT MISSPELLINGS.
19
WORD.
364. commission (j)
365 compose
f-S
|p-
III:
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
R >
h <o a
ViJS
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
MISSPELLINGS.
Most
frequent.
conmision (1)
compous (1)
continuous (1)
continuet (1)
conversetion (1)
coarse (1)
creasy (2)
crowed (1)
cray (2)
dayly (2)
doughter (2)
decored (2)
deleigh (1)
delightfull (1)
discribe (1)
desapared (1)
dissapoint (1)
dismished (1)
dolar (1)
dont (2)
drunk (1)
durin (1)
eletric (2)
enjoing (2)
fertil (2)
finsh (1)
food (2)
fund (1)
form (1)
game (2)
gaims (1)
gown ( 1 )
goood (1)
gradma (1)
grown (1)
cuitars (1)
happed (1) .
heaving (1)
beared (1)
bight (2)
bin (2)
bane (1)
hopping (1)
is (2)
insted (1)
Second in
frequency.
comition (1)
comppose (1)
continou (1)
continuous (1)
conversacion (1)
cource (1)
366 continue
368. conversation (j)
369. course
371 crowd
crow (1)
379 cr y
373 daily (a)
376 delight (b)
deligt (1)
deliegful (1)
discrive (1)
dissapeared (1)
dissappoint (1)
dismeased (1)
doollar (1)
377. delightful (f)
378 describe
379. disappeared (g)
380. disappoint (g)
381 dismissed
382. dollar
383 done
384. drunken
drunker (1)
duding (1)
385. during
388 fertile
389 finish
finesh (1)
390 foot
391 found
founed (1)
fron (1)
392. from
393 gain
394 games
gaines (1)
gane (1)
god (1)
granmar (1)
grond (1)
ouitars (1)
hapen ( 1 )
haven (1)
heart (1)
395 gone
396 good
398 ground
399. guitars
400 happen
401 having
402. heard
403 high
404 him
405,. home
nome (1)
hoppying (1)
406 hoping (d)
407 if (c)
408. instead
instate (I)
20
THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY POETO EICAN PUPILS.
WORD. ?
5
fc
.2
i
si
11:
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
9
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
* *.S
fit
1
1
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
9
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
9
MISSPELUNGS.
f Most
frequent.
intrument (2)
interested (2)
islan (2)
Jessus (1)
yust (1)
king (2)
lagoom (1)
lost (1)
laught (2)
laid (2)
lern (2)
lessions (1)
left (2)
ligth (1)
loock (2)
lunchs (2)
mad (2)
-made (1)
mattinee (1)
mine (2)
minutis (1)
noon (2)
mucho (1)
nusic (1)
nere (1)
necesary (2)
necesities (1)
naighbor (1)
not (2)
ovserve (1)
ocation (1)
or (2)
opportunity (1)
oit(l)
owe (1)
par (2)
panoram (2)
pasing (2)
f onograph ( 1 )
planed (2)
place (2)
pock (1)
privilage (1)
properous (2)
quiet (1)
Second in
frequency.
410 interesting
411 island
412. Jesiw
Jusus (1)
gust (1)
413. just
414 kind
415. lagoon
lagune (1)
las (1)
416. last
41 8 lay
419 learn
420 lessons
leccions (1)
4 9 1 let
42 9 light (b)
lixe(l)
423 look
4^4 lunches
4~> made
426 (class) mate
-ment (1)
matine (1)
427 matinee
4^8 mind
429. minutes
mis (1)
430 moon
431. much
muck (1)
miusic (1)
neart (1)
432. music
433. near
435. necessities
neccesaty (sing.) (1)
neighbords (pi.) (1)
obserb (1)
ocassion (1)
436. neighbor
437 no (57)
438. observe
439. occasion (g) (j) _
440 of (c)
441. opportunity (g)
442. out
oportunity (1)
owt (1)
oun (1)
443. own
444. pair
445. panorama
446 passing (d)
447 phonograph
phonograp (1)
448 planned (d)
449 plays
450 pork
polk (1)
previlege (1)
nnit Cl "1
452. prosperous
453. nuite
THE MOST FREQUENT MISSPELLINGS.
21
WORD.
454 recited
. aS
^ S * &a
-o ta-o f o7 5
02- S&
aS~ 3 >
fc^g 1 -36
2 1
MISSPELLIl
?GS.
r Most
frequent
recitated (2)
regrest (2)
righ (1)
rode (1)
rokin (1)
roon (2)
sat (2)
seat (1)
Satuesday (1)
see (2)
seventing (1)
several (1)
saw (1)
seak (1)
think (1)
sith (2)
schy (1)
slipping (1)
soo (2)
soom (2)
spectacul (1)
speach (2)
spendid (2)
stike (1)
stoking (2)
strock (1)
sucess (1)
suddent (1)
sum (2)
sorround (1)
teaches (1)
tin (1)
tenus (1)
the (1)
thow (1)
Thousday (1)
tine (1)
tall (2)
truithly (1)
tooke (1)
trompets (1)
vermu (1)
vecinnity (1)
waitting (2)
waste (1}
Second in
frequency.
455. ' ' regressed ' '
2 1
wright (1)
rood (1)
roking ( 1 )
456. rio-ht (b)
2 2
457 road
2 2
2 2
2 1
460 sad
2 i
461. sat
_ 2 2
set (1)
Sarturday (1)
seventheen ( 1 )
sever (1)
shaw (1)
sich (1)
thing (1)
scky (1)
sleepping (1)
462. Saturday (m)__
463. sea
2 1
464. seventeen
2 2
465 severe
2 2
466 show
2 2
467 sickc
468. sing (60; 127) _
469. sixth
p p
2 1
470. sky
2 9!
471. sleeping (d)
2 2
472 so
2 l
2 1
474. spectacle
espeetacle (1)
475. speech
2 1
2 1
477. stick
2 2
steck (1)
478 stocking
2 1
479 struck
stroke (1)
succes (1)
suden (1)
2 2
481. sudden
2 2
482 sun '
2 1
483. surround
surrend (1)
techer (1)
tean (1)
tenis (1)
than (1)
thought (1)
Thirsday (1)
tame (1)
484. teacher
2 2
485 team
2 2
486 tennis
2 2
487 that
9 2
488 though
2 2
489. Thursday (m) _
490. time
__ 2 2
2 2
491 told
2 1
492. took
to (1)
truley (1)
tromp (1)
vermud (1)
visinity (1)
493 troly
2 2
494 trumpets
2 2
495 vermouth
2 2
496 vicinity
2 2
497 waitin" (d)
2 1
498. want
2 2
vant m
22 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY PORTO EICAN PUPILS.
MISSPELLINGS.
499 water
2
a'-tt'a
2
Most
frequent.
watter (1)
Second in
frequency,
warter (1)
500 well
2
1
501 wharf
2
2
warf (1)
wharve (1)
502. whip
2
2
weab (1)
weep (1)
498 other words were misspelled once each in the 1,131 com-
position papers.
1,000 different words misspelled in all (counting those above
listed.)
1,859 distinct misspelling of these 1,000 words.
3,890 words containing errors in spelling, other than in capital-
ization.
1,660 errors in capitalization (not including those in title and
first word of sentence).
5,550 errors of all kinds in spelling in the 1,131 compositions.
CROSS REFERENCES.
a.
Adding vowel suffixes to words ending in Y (as STUDYING).
See numbers 9, 270, 317, 373, 387 (total such errors here, 59).
b.
Words ending in -GHT.
See numbers 11, 128, 263, 265, 321, 376, 422, 456 (total such er-
rors here, 40).
c.
Confusion of short words.
See numbers 13, 46, 75, 85, 120, 148, 154, 223, 266, 336, 339, 354,
407, 440 (total such errors here, 88).
d.
Doubled consonants before inflectional endings.
See numbers 14, 35, 74, 126, 145, 249, 287, 406, 446, 448, 471,
497 (total such errors here, 82).
THE MOST FREQUENT MISSPELLINGS. 23
e.
Adding consonant suffixes to words ending in Y (a* HAPPILY).
See numbers 24, 142, 168 (total, 17).
f.
Words ending in -FUL.
See numbers 26, 101, 331, 377 (total, 14).
g-
Prefixes duplicating initial consonant.
See numbers 31, 62, 84, 95, 152, 181, 188, 196, 199, 200, 235,
254, 255, 276, 303, 332, 340, 341, 342, 343, 379, 380, 439, 441
(total, 87).
h.
Compounds of TILL and ALL.
See numbers 48, 151, 197, 198 (total, 16).
i.
SEEING and BEING.
See numbers 67 and 86 (total, 20).
j-
Confusion of endings.
See numbers 6, 79, 218, 278, 364, 368, 439 (total, 22).
k.
Words beginning with the prefix IM-.
See numbers 89, 141, 171 (total, 18).
1.
The ordinal ending -TH.
See numbers 117, 137, 220, (total, 10).
m.
The days of the week.
See numbers 178, 187, 325, 329, 462,- 489 (total, 20).
24 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY PORTO EICAN PUPILS.
TABLE V.
DISTRIBUTION OF ERRORS IN CAPITALIZATION.
Capitals used where not required--- 1,095
Capitals omitted, general 65
Capitals omitted, "Christmas" and related words 385
Capitals omitted, names of months and days 87
Capitals omitted, Catholic, Protestant, etc 14
Capitals omitted, Spanish, American, etc 14
Total 1, 660
Spelling instruction and drill along the lines which may be
inferred from the Kemarks preceding Table IV will considerably
reduce the amount of misspellings. The elimination of all of these
most frequent misspellings, however, would still leave a great and
perhaps discouraging task, the correcting of the "scattering" errors
which do not readily fall into groups or classes. The next part of
this report will give a detailed classification and analysis of the
spelling errors (down to the simplest phonic units) which will be
of much more assistance in attacking the spelling problem, and the
third part will consist of detailed practical suggestions to the
teacher.
A CLASSIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF SPELLING ERRORS.
Many of the 3,890 misspelled words in the 1,131 composition
papers which provided the material for this investigation exhibit
errors which may be classified readily. The writer's classification
follows in Table VI. This selection of types of errors is based
upon no arbitrary preconceived plan, but is the result only of a
close study of the data.
In a number of cases one word contained errors of more than
one of the types here indicated, in which cases errors were counted
under each of the headings. Also, occasionally, one and the same
error was counted under two headings. Thus the 4,985 errors clas-
sified in Table VI occurred in about 4,750 words. The remaining
mistakes could not be easily or profitably classified.
TABLE VI.
A CLASSIFICATION OF SPELLING ERRORS. Number
of errors.
1. Capitalization 1,660
2. Confusion of English words 1, 077
3. Double and single letters 445
4. Prefixes and suffixes . 348
5. Eules 311
6. Assimilation to Spanish words 259
7. Omission of letters or syllables 222
8. Nasal sounds 127
9. Terminal sounds 109
10. Silent letters 106
11. Insertion of letters or syllables 64
12. Writing 55
13. Transposition of letters 38
14. Confusion of parts of speech .T6
15. Construction 26
16. Compound words 26
17. Initial s, es and ex 20
18. Assimilation to next letter, syllable or word 15
19. Special inflection forms 1J
Total ~4^98l
SUB-CLASSES AND EXAMPLES FOR TABLE VI.
(Each series of examples given is arranged with those of most frequent oc-
currence first, and the rest in descending order.)
25
2(j THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY POETO EICAN PUPILS.
2. CONFUSION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
In Table III (see the first article of this series) 19 pairs or groups of
words wore -iven, confusion of which caused 628 errors. Of the total of 1.077
errors of this class 196 (18 per cent) occurred in homonyms (as: to, too and
two; whole and hole; buy and by, etc.).
3. DOUBLE AND SINGLE LETTERS.
(a) In 275 cases words were spelled with single letters where double should
be used. Ninety-four of these errors were in prefixes (as in: accompany, sup-
pose, assign, etc.). The words of this subclass most frequently misspelled were
running, happiness, accustom, accompanied, passed, assign, possible, swimming.
(b) Double letters were used in place of single in 170 cases. Examples:
vaceation, holliday, latter (later), camming, untill, evenmng, tweenty, writting.
4. PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES.
(a) Errors in suffixes occurred 240 times. Examples: -ing, -tion, -est, -ed,
-ate, -ious, -sion, -ant.
(b) Prefixes were misspelled 108 times. Examples: ac-, im-, bi-, un-, dis-,
in-, re-, sur-.
5. EULES.
The spelling rules given in the section on Orthography in the Guide to Pro-
nunciation of "Webster's New International Dictionary" were used as a basis
for this classification. Violations of these rules (and of indicated rules concern-
ing exceptions !) were as follows (the numbers here referring to corresponding
rules): Number 13, 73 errors; 7, 67; 17, 42; S, 29; 8, 20; 18, 14; 1, 13;
14, 12; 19, 12; 10, 11; gl, 5; 4, 4; 9, 3; 15, 3; 11, 2; 20, I.
6. ASSIMILATION TO SPANISH WORDS.
Examples: feast, written fiest; automobile, automovil, -bil, etc.; accustom,
acostum ; immediate, inmediate ; not, no ; vacation, vacacion.
7. OMISSION OF LETTERS OR SYLLABLES.
Examples: Dance, dace; grandfather, granfather; every, evey; clock, elk;
remember, rember.
8. NASAL SOUNDS.
(This group includes nasal sounds of English words as correctly pronounced,
and also as commonly mispronounced in Porto Eico.) Examples: (a) begin,
beging; son, song; explain, explaing; friend, frieng. (b) them, then; time,
tine; some, son; come, con.
9. TERMINAL SOUNDS.
(Terminal sounds are very generally slurred by Porto Eican pupils.) Ex-
amples: picnic, picney; island, islan; accord, accor; grind, grain; attempt,
attemp.
A CLASSIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF SPELLING EEEOES. 27
10. SILENT LETTERS.
(a) Omitted. Examples: (1) Final e, as in automobile, noise, etc. 53 er-
rors; (2) consonants, as in climb, rhyme, knock, etc. 13 errors.
(&) Added. Examples: (1) Final e, as in walke, cate, glade, etc. 33 er-
rors; (2) substituting kn for n, as in knew, etc. 7 errors.
11. INSERTION OF LETTERS OR SYLLABLES.
Examples: threatre, counsin, bccacause, nrxet, happidly, etc.
12. WRITING.
' Examples: cloth, clotl; inspector, impector; many, mang; we, ue; three,
tlree. Others cannot be represented in print.
13. TRANSPOSITION OF LETTERS.
Examples: chruch, wrechted^ t\von, thign, consits.
14. CONFUSION OF PARTS OF SPEECH.
Examples: being, been; different, difference; like (prep.), liked.
15. CONTRACTIONS.
Examples : didn 't, didt, din 't ; can 't, cann 't.
16. COMPOUND WORDS.
Examples: holiday, holyday; almost, all most; Sunday, Sundy.
17. INITIAL s, es AND ex.
Examples: (a) establish, stablish ; expect, spect. (ft) spectacle, espectacle;
spectre, expectre. (c) spent, pent; steady, teady.
18. ASSIMILATION TO NEXT LETTER, SYLLABLE OR WORD.
Examples: classes, classess; Longnfelloiv, Lonffellow ; as if, af if.
19. SPECIAL INFLECTIONAL FORMS.
Examples: (a) spent, spented; covered, coverd. ( b ) whose, who 's ; family's,
f amilie 's.
Table VII indicates the number of times that an erroneous sub-
stitution of some other letter was made for each letter of the alpha-
bet, and for each diphthong or other combination of letters. It also
indicates for each letter or combination the number of substitutes
which, as used, were phonic equivalents, in English or in Spanish
of the correct letter or combination.
28 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY PORTO EICAN PUPILS.
TABLE VII.
RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF SUBSTITUTIONS FOR LETTERS, DIPHTHONGS AND
OTHER COMBINATIONS.
il I
03 C >S
1 e
KnclUh
M p li o n i e
equivalent.
- 1 Sp n nish
phonic
_, equivalent.
o Not phonic
rquivalent.
I
145
-S 3
31 oy
='=_
16
""I
C *cs
a J>
P. ' 3
Jl ~Z
16
Not phonic
w equivalent.
1
19
2 n
o
140
140
32 wh
\
13
17
3 ea
83
29
20
103
33 f
16
16
4 a
29
]-
64
93
34 eau
15
15
21
q
69
90
35 nk
15
15
6 o
18
10
66
84
36 1
13
13
62
43
19
81
37 aw
9
10
12
8 u
6
60
66
38 ough
7
12
9 ie
T
53
59
39 oa
1
3
10
11
10__ou
11 b
11
22
44
52
55
52
40 ng
41 r
10
10
10
10
12 ee
9
30
43
52
4 ion
o
4
9
13 t
49
49
43 oo
1
2
8
9
14 m
15 y
33
9
48
14
48
47
44 ay
45 gh
4
2
1
1
3
5
7
16__ght
17 th
1
1
45
40
46
40
46 uy
47 ev
5
6
2
2
7
6
18 au
26
4
11
37
48 h
6
6
19 ck
1
6
36
49 i
1
6
20 ch
28
87
6
34
j
50 q
fi
6
21 d
n
31
31
1
4
5
29 k
25
3
6
31
9
2
S
5
23__ai
24 s
24
11
7
10
6
19
30
30
53 ui
54 p
o
4
o
5
4
5
4
25 ow
26 v
16
2
13
28
29
55 qu
56 sh
4
3
4
4
4
27 x
1
25
26
17 ue
9
9
4
28 g
2
9,
20
22
58 z
s
3
99 W
o
o
21
21
30 ei
9
7
10
19
Total
535
328 1,
336
1,871
Table VIII indicates that which is noticeably lacking in Table
VII that is, which actual letters or combinations were most fre-
quently written erroneously in place of the correct ones. The words
in the third column, headed "As in, " are given to indicate the phonic
values of the correct letters. It will be noticed that in some cases
the same phonic value appears several times in the table (as in
numbers 6 and 32; 38 and 52; 2, 24 and 41, etc.), since several
different letters or combinations were substituted for it.
A CLASSIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF SPELLING EKEOES. 29
TABLE VIII.
ACTUAL SUBSTITUTES GIVEN FOR LETTERS, DIPHTHONGS AND OTHER
COMBINATIONS.
Serial Letters
num- Correct substi-
ber. letters. As in tuted.
In m
Number
of substi-
tutions.
132
Serial Letters Nun
num- Correct substi- of su
ber. letters. As in tuted. tuti
32 c dance _ z
ber
bsti-
ms.
13
13
12
12
12
11
11
11
11
10
10
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
8
8
8
8
8
7
7
6
6
2 ea near ie
54
33 t th
3 e me i
50
34 ee needle e
4 b v
49
35 ou out au
36 ou out ow
37 ai fail a
45
6 c dance s
7 u cup o
8 ee needle i
41
32
30
38 c picture ck
39 f v
9 ck back k
29
40 g bag ck
41 ea near e
42 o broke u
43 ee needle ea
44 i like y
10 t d _
29
11 ch ache e
28
1 2 ght night gth___ 25
13 a all o 24
24
45 i like al
15 y (vowel) i
24
46 ie friend i
16 d t
23
47 nk think ng
17k ck
23
48 o broke ou
18 e there ei
21
49 o clock oo
19 i dinner e
19
50 th athletic d
90 s release c
19
21 wh whip w
17
52 c picture k
53 i dinner ea
22 oy enjoy oi
23 th athletic t
16
16
54 iew review ew
15
15
55 1 r
26 ow drown ou
15
57 ai fail ei
27 au taught on
8 ea head e
14
14
58 ou course o
59 au taught aw
29 v b
14
30 x s
14
31 a ate e
13
Total 1
157
REMARKS ON TABLES VI, VII AND VIII.
1. "Confusion of English words" (Table VI, number 1) is more
properly a matter of spelling not merely of general vocabulary
than the phrase suggests, as may be seen readily from the list in
Table III (first part of this series) and in note number 1 following
Table VI. Certainly there are very few cases where the pupils' ideas
were confused as to distinctions of meaning. This one type of error
alone, occurring in relatively few words, accounts for about 28 per
cent of all misspellings (excluding errors in capitalization).
30
THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY PORTO EICAN PUPILS.
2. Probably all of the errors listed under the heading numbered
6 in Table VI, almost all of those under 8, 9 and 17, more than half
of those under 3 and 4, and a number of scattering ones under other
headings in the same table, are quite directly the result of the lan-
guage situation in Porto Rico Spanish being the mother tongue,
and English usage and pronunciation, of course, bearing a distinct
influence from Spanish and the local pronunciation of Spanish.
Errors which show this direct influence are probably about 1,200 or
1,300 in number one-third of all errors. Of course a very large
proportion of the remaining two-thirds can be traced back indirectly
to the peculiar language situation.
3. While the total number of errors which are clear violations
of recognized spelling rules are relatively few, yet (see note number
5 following Table VI) attention should be given to the numerous
errors indicated for the four or five rules mentioned first in this
list. There were 231 errors clearly falling under rules 13, 7, 17,
2 and 8.
4. Table VII shows that the vowels are the worst stumbling blocks
for the speller in Porto Rico. The errors checked against the six
vowels, numbers 1, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 15 (almost all of the errors on ij ;
being in cases where it was used as a vowel) total 525 (46 per cent
of the total for single letters). Of the errors on combinations of
letters, 505 (70 per cent of all combinations) were on diphthongs,
triphthongs or combinations like ow, aw, etc. One thousand and
thirty errors (55 per cent of all listed in the table) were on vowels
or combinations of vowels.
5. The consonants which most frequently trip the unwary are
n and m (188 errors) ; c, s and fc (142) ; t and d (80) ; and b and
v (80). It will be observed that these occupy the entire field of
the single consonants through numbers 1 to 26. The reason for the
grouping of the consonants in the first sentence of this paragraph is
not merely their relationship as letters, but also the frequent substitu-
tion of one member of these groups for its companion. Note (Table
VIII) that m is substituted for n 132 times and the reverse 45 times;
v for b 49 times and the reverse 14 ; s f or c 45 times and the reverse
19; k or ck for c 19; d for t 29 and the reverse 23.
6. If the 79 cases of substitution of them for then are not counted
in Table VIII, number 1, the substitution of m for n will still hold
the second place in the list, with a total of 53 errors.
7. Of the total number of substitutes for simple letters or com-
A CLASSIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF SPELLING ERRORS. 31
binations included in Table VII, 28 per cent were English phonic
equivalents of the correct letters and 18 per cent were Spanish
phonic equivalents (about 40 per cent and 25 per cent, respectively,
if from the total we eliminate the letters or combinations for which
there is no phonic equivalent).
8. A natural tendency to simplify is evident in the fact that one
letter was substituted for two (in one case, two for three) in 49
per cent of all of the diphthongs and other combinations of letters
listed in Table VIII, whereas two letters were substituted for one
in only 17 per cent of the cases of single letters.
9. To all who have examined attentively the facts given up to
the present point in this report, it will be evident that the teaching
of spelling has a much more direct and essential relation to other
features of the teaching of English than is commonly realized. This
relationship will be brought out in the following part.
in.
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION.
The length and details of this account may have led already
to the inference that the writer considers spelling one of the most
important phases of common-school education. Of course correct
spelling is not among the really vital, fundamental aims of educa-
tion. It is one of the formal and superficial products of schooling,
but is sufficiently important to merit study and systematic instruc-
tion.
The very fact of its formal character renders it more easy to
obtain accurate information as to the results of instruction. For
the same reason it is also possible to recommend definite methods
of instruction with some confidence that they fit the needs.
In spite of the length of this particular part, the methods of
spelling instruction recommended are not unduly burdensome in any
way. They are designed to lighten the peculiar difficulties of pupils
studying under a bilingual system, to rationalize spelling instruction
and to better the educational product in a feature which is important
for all Porto Ricans, at the expense only of slightly increased, per-
haps, but much more coherent efforts of teachers and supervisors in
this particular.
Real spelling instruction is not the extremely simple matter of
testing pupils on the spelling of words merely designated (not prop-
erly assigned) for study on the preceding day; careful preparation
and real teaching are necessary.
For economy of space, the general principles of spelling instruc-
tion are not fully discussed here. The aim has been to combine a
maximum of concrete, practical material with a minimum of theory.
The recommendations have special reference, of course, to the
public schools of Porto Rico.
Most of them are grouped about the three central topics; The
Selection of Words; Assignment, Instruction and Study; and Test-
ing and the Correcting of Errors.
A. THE SELECTION OF WORDS.
The suggestions following under this topic are based upon the
following assumptions: (o) that the minimum necessity of any in-
32
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 33
dividual in the matter of spelling is to attain automatic correct
spelling of the -words which he will need to write, and that his first
need is for the words that are, or should be, in most common use :
(&) that one of the spelling problems of first importance is to cor-
rect common errors as promptly as possible; and (c) that the words
most difficult for spelling are not necessarily the longest (see Re-
marks, number 2, Part I of this account), especially in Porto Rico
where short English words of Anglo-Saxon origin are more foreign
than those of Latin derivation, most of which are long.
It is well known that the unaided judgment of teachers as to the
relative spelling difficulty of words for their pupils is exceedingly
unreliable.
In the absence of an official graded spelling book which is known
to be fitted to local needs, the following sources for spelling words
are recommended. They are arranged in descending order as to
the writer's estimate of their value in Porto Rico.
(1) The words actually misspelled in general written work 6r/
the special pupils under consideration, as indicated in (a) individual
lists, kept by each pupil, of the words misspelled by himself in any
written work; (6) class or subject lists, kept by pupils and teacher,
of the words specially related to certain subjects which are com-
monly misspelled by many pupils; and (c) grade lists, kept by
pupils and teacher, of common words generally misspelled by many
pupils in the group.
If written work is always returned with misspelled words marked,
each pupil may be required to add to his individual list all such
words not already included. Bound booklets made by the pupils
may be use for these lists. They should be paged and indexed to
permit an approximation to alphabetical order, so that duplication
of words may be avoided and reference may be facilitated.
To avoid duplication of words in the class list the teacher may
very easily and conveniently keep the list in the form of a card
index, using slips of paper arranged alphabetically in a little box,
only one word being written on each slip. If the dates on which
each word is assigned and reviewed are written on the corresponding
slips, the "follow-up" plan (see number 13 of this article) will be
easier and the pupils may be made more fully responsible.
One of the merits of this method is that it makes spelling more
significant through correlating it with other work.
(2} The irords most commonly misspelled in Porto Rico as in-
dicated in Table IV in the first part of this account. In the upper
34 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY POETO EICAN PUPILS.
grades an immediate and direct attack should be made on these
words, beginning with those most frequently misspelled and pro-
ceeding toward the end of the list, omitting almost no words. Prac-
tically every word in the list should be included in the automatic
spelling vocabulary of the eighth-grade graduate.
It must be remembered that the order of the words in this list
indicates neither the relative frequency of their use nor their rela-
tive spelling difficulty, but a combination of both the relative fre-
quency of their misspelling. For this reason we recommend for the
intermediate and lower grades that selections for assignment be
made first from the top of the list and proceed toward its end,
words being omitted if not needed for the spelling vocabulary of
the grade in question, or if too difficult.
(3) The thousand commonest words in the English language, as
indicated in the Ayres list and other similar lists. The Ayres list
we consider excellent for use in Porto Rico, though of course the
grouping does not accurately represent relative difficulty or prob-
able grade scores for Porto Rican pupils.
(4) Modern American spellers and general reading, selection and
classification being made along lines indicated in numbers 14 and
15 of this article.
A graded English speller for Latin-American countries is very
much needed. No speller prepared for continental United States
schools is well adapted to the needs of Spanish-speaking pupils.
B. ASSIGNMENT, INSTRUCTION AND STUDY.
These three phases of spelling instruction are grouped together
because, in the absence of a suitable graded speller, the three must
be very closely combined in a flexible supervised study scheme.
The following have been taken as basic principles which must
be observed in any effective plan of spelling instruction :
(d) The spelling lesson should be so conducted that there is
formed in the pupil's mind a permanent association between mean-
ing, pronunciation and the correct succession of letters as seen and
as written.
(e} Means must be taken to focalize or concentrate the attention
of the pupil upon the form of the word, especially upon the parts
which offer greatest spelling difficulty the "picture" of the word
must be deeply impressed upon the mind.
(/) Learning to spell and correcting misspellings are processes
of habit-formation, and require time and careful supervision.
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 35
(g) The fundamental and most frequent procedure in spelling
exercises and tests should be written rather than oral in the last
analysis, spelling is a motor habit, and the most direct and econom-
ical Avay of forming a motor habit is to practice the correct move-
ments. Focali/ation of the form of the word is but an important
preliminary and accessory to the forming of the motor habit.
(h) Spelling instruction should be more than merely corrective.
To be efficient it must anticipate and prevent errors. To permit the
formation of an erroneous spelling habit is to double the teacher's
task, for then he has to direct not only the formation of a new habit,
but also the eradication of an old one.
(i) Special periods should be set apart exclusively for spelling
instruction in English, above all in Porto Rico. This principle we
affirm in spite of the recent general tendency to eliminate special
spelling lessons and to rely solely upon incidental spelling instruc-
tion in English and other classes. (For a telling attack upon the
theories and observations advanced in favor of the incidental method
see the second little book mentioned in the concluding paragraph
of this part.)
The concrete recommendations for English spelling instruction in
Porto Rico are as follows:
(5) The number of words. Not too many words should be as-
signed in a single lesson. If instruction is thorough, 10 or 15 new
words per week are enough in the lower grades and 25 or 30 in the
upper grades. "When a higher general standard of spelling has
been attained in our public schools the number should probably be
even less.
(6) Teaching the meaning of words. In general, the spelling of
a word should not be taught, or its form studied, until the mean-
ing is clear. As in almost all subjects, formal definitions are not
to be relied upon. The use of the dictionary for study and the
using of words in sentences for illustrations, instruction and test-
ing are recommended. Teaching the meaning of words, of course,
must be a much more important and extensive part of the spell-
ing lesson in Porto Rico than among pupils whose mother-tongue
is English. Especially in the lower grades (notwithstanding the
merits of the "direct" method of language instruction) perhaps
the judicious use of translation to Spanish is an acceptable method
for teaching the meaning of spelling words in difficult cases. Al-
ways, whether translation is used or not, particular care should be
36 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY POETO KICAN PUPILS.
taken to teach distinctions in meaning where words nearly correspond
in form in the two languages, but have different meanings.
The meanings and uses of words may be brought out effectively
in oral English lessons and then assigned for spelling, thus making
the spelling lesson meet a real need, in enabling the pupils to use
in writing the new words that they have learned.
(7) Teaching pronunciation. Pupils should acquire as early as
possible the ability to learn the pronunciation of new words from
the dictionary, but in Porto Eico imitation of the pronunciation
given by the teacher should be the principal method, and the teacher
must be insistent upon as close an approximation to the correct
English pronunciation as is possible. Words should be pronounced
by teacher and pupils when assigned.
Mispronunciation frequently leads to misspelling. Three types
of mispronunciation common in Porto Rico are reflected in the three
classes of spelling errors numbered 8, 9 and 17 in Table VI (Part
II). A very large proportion of the misspellings listed in Table IV
(Part I) show clearly, to one familiar with the local pronunciation
of English, the influence of mispronunciation. See, for example,
the following numbers in Table IV: 1, 3, 7, 16, 20, 22, 27, 29, 32,
33, 36, 45, etc. Many of the substitutions listed in Table VIII
(Part II) clearly show this same influence.
(8) "Eye and ear lists." The pupils' difficulties may be con-
siderably reduced by the use of "ear lists" and "eye lists," the
former containing words that are perfectly regular and may be
spelled "by sound," and the latter containing irregular words like
through, ocean, etc. The pupils may be required at the time of as-
signment to add the new words to one or the other of these lists,
as the case may be, and to use the lists for study and review.
(9) Visualizing the words. The desired centering of attention
upon the forms of the words and the impressing of the "word-pic-
ture" upon the mind may be assisted by the use of the following
methods : Writing the new word on the blackboard, erasing it quickly,
and then asking the pupils to write an exact copy of it ; using cards
each of which has one new word of the spelling lesson written upon
it, and which is shown to the pupils for a very short time, after
which they are asked to make exact copies from memory. This
"flashing" of new words (whether by blackboard or cards) may
be repeated several times while the pupils are instructed to make
sure that their copies are correct, and the method may be used also
in review exercises.
METHODS OF INSTKUCTION. 37
Parts of words which are known generally to cause special dif-
ficulty (see Tables VII and VIII, Part II) may be focalized by
the above methods, with the added feature of the underscoring or
writing in a different color of the difficult parts. Occasionally in
such eases (as ght, th, wh, etc.) the troublesome part may be writ-
ten upon the blackboard quite separated from the rest of the word
and left before the class for some time.
For purposes of visualization as well as word study, words which
are confusing because of their length may be broken up to reveal
familiar words or other units (as child-hood, en-courage-ment, etc.) :
words with similar combinations (cough, enough, rough, etc.) may
be compared; homonyms (too, two and to; boiv and bough; their
and there, etc.) may be carefully compared, the distinction being
brought out clearly.
Leaving the words conspicuously written on the blackboard for a
day or more is, in general, not as effective as the ''flash" methods,
since attention is never as sharply concentrated upon the list or upon
the individual words, but this method is good for supplementing
the others.
In general, it is preferable for the pupils to study and focalize
the words in script as they are written rather than in print.
(10) The dividing of words. Both pronunciation and visualiza-
tion may be aided by the dividing of words. A recommendation
has just been made for divisions which assist in visualizing. For
use in either pronunciation or visualizing, division into syllables is
recommended for children in the lower grades, and into larger units
for upper grades. For a little child the division, re-la-tion-ship, is
more helpful than relation-ships, whereas for an upper-grade pupil
the latter is more helpful and economical.
(11) Forming the correct motor habits. As indicated in (r/),
above, writing a word is the most reliable method of forming the
desired motor habits. To this, however, a caution must be added,
namely, that if it is required that a word be written many times,
as a part of the studying of the lesson, special care should be
taken to avoid errors during the process. Either the pupils must
be emphatically cautioned to write exactly and carefully and to
keep in mind the "picture" of the word, or else there must be
direct supervision by the teacher.
A good habituation method is the distinct and attentive writing
of each word five or ten times by the pupil, supplemented by purely
38 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY POETO RICAN PUPILS.
mental study of the spelling, and the writing by each pupil of good
original sentences containing the words assigned two or three sen-
tences for each word. These may be read and given to the teacher
at the time of the spelling recitation. This sentence writing mav
also be correlated with the general English lessons.
(12) Vocalization during study. The learning process is aided,
probably in almost all cases, if the drill exercise (the writing of the
word five or ten times) is accompanied by vocalization that is,
if the pupil "pronounces mentally" or very softly whispers each
syllable or larger unit as he writes it.
(13) A "follow -up" system. For many words, especially thoso
that have been previously misspelled, one lesson is not sufficient to
firmly establish the correct spelling habits. Teachers are all too
familiar with the fact that words spelled correctly in special spelling
lessons and tests are frequently misspelled in free composition. The
spelling lesson is very largely wasted unless it is followed by
systematic review and a close scrutiny of general written work to
detect and correct errors when they first occur.
The checking-up of errors in written work is covered by the keep-
ing of individual, subject and grade lists of misspellings, to which
reference has already been made. The importance of this cannot
be overestimated. To expect the elimination of spelling errors in
any way except through such systematic attention is quite as un-
reasonable as to expect the habit of thumb-sucking by a two-year-old
child to cure itself without special care on the part of the parent.
For the systematic reviews referred to at the end of the second
paragraph above, the following plan is excellent. It has been used
with remarkable success in the Cleveland schools for several years.
It provides for the including in each lesson, as subordinate words,
of all the new words assigned during the two weeks just preceding ;
also special more extensive reviews once each week; also, at the en.l
of every eight weeks, oral and written contests, between the same
grades of different schools where that is possible in any case re-
garded as special events, and based upon all words studied during
the past eight weeks, or even since the beginning of the year; also
annual contests shortly before the end of the school year.
This scheme of reviews, in the absence of an official speller, clearly
necessitates the keeping of a notebook by the teacher, indicating all
new words assigned for each regular lesson.
These, like all reviews, should involve new study, not merely i
repetition of old lessons. This and other ends will be served if the
METHODS OF INSTEUCTION. 39
words are grouped or re-grouped for reviewing and treated in the
ways indicated in number 15 of this part, These groupings, in turn,
should be reviewed.
The prt-cfiliii;;- recommendations arc .specili;- :uid refer to the methods of in-
struction and study for a special group of words assigned. The following three
recommendations are concerned more with systematic instruction of a general and
preventive character.
The assignment in the spelling lesson of words most commonly misspelled in
Porto Eico (already recommended) is a specific preventive measure as well as
corrective. More general preventive instruction should be even more effective.
(14) Instruction on the peculiar spelling difficulties' of Porto
Eican pupils. The pupils should have special lessons on the follow-
ing topics, and should have these facts repeatedly recalled to their
attention until they are permanently impressed upon their minds:
A. The relative frequency of occurrence of special classes of
spelling errors, as indicated in Table VI (Part II). Special at-
tention should be given to the following: (a) capitalization and
the errors in capitalization which are characteristic here; (&) the
exceedingly large number of errors resulting from confusion of
English words, and the importance of clear distinctions in meaning
and form between words resembling each other; (c) the character-
istic ways in which Spanish spelling is reflected in errors in English
spelling (see Table VI, numbers 3, 4, 6 and 17, and especially Remark
number 2 in Part II ; also numbers 3, 4 and 29, 8, 24, etc., in Table
VIII, Part II) ; (d) pronunciation; and (e) the errors resulting from
carelessness and lack of pride in spelling (as numbers 7, 11, 12, 13
and 18, Table VI).
B. The most troublesome letters and combination?, as indicated
in Tables VII and VIII, with special consideration of the following
facts: (a) vowels and certain special groups of consonants (see
Remarks, numbers 4 and 5, Part II) ; (&) the tendency to sub-
stitute single letters for diphthongs (see Remarks, number 8, Part
II) ; and (c) the tendency even more common and natural here
than in the United States to substitute phonetic spelling for irreg-
ular spelling, and the importance of giving particular attention to
the words classed as "eye words."
C. The five or six rules, including the rules of capitalization in
English, of which violations occur most frequently in Porto Rico
(see examples given for number 5, Table VI). Only in the
most important cases should exceptions to the rules be taught in
connection with the rules. Rules should be taught inductively that
40 THE SPELLING OF EXGLISI-I BY POETO RICAX PUPILS.
is, with the study of illustrative eases preceding the learning of
rules.
(15) Inductive word study. An excellent basis for such word
study is the use of groupings such as the following: (a) by meaning
(food stuffs, as rice, sugar, bread; household furnishings, as table,
chair, picture; synonj^ms, as discover, invent, reveal; antonyms, as
conquer, surrender}; (b) by phonograms (as enough, rough, tough;
design, assign}; (c} by homonyms (as too, two, to} ; (d^ by the
lesser phonic units indicated in Tables VII and VIII, Part II,
special emphasis being placed, of course, upon those misspelled most
frequently (as near, hear, fear; dance, chance, force; night, bought,
straight} ; (e} by prefixes, suffixes and word stems, special emphasis
being placed upon the most troublesome, as indicated in the ex-
amples for number 4 of Table VI (as account, acknowledge, acquire;
immediate, impossible; unnecessary, untrue; studying, bem.r/, swiin-
ming ; vacation-, promotion; permission, transmission; immediate,
Mediterranean, median; act, action, transact).
Inductive methods in this case are those which do not begin with
abstract principles, but which permit the pupils to discover for
themselves the word relationships and principles of word structure.
They may be led to discover the groups themselves and to seek ex-
amples among words already assigned for spelling or in advance
of assignment, or in some cases they may be given a few examples
and then asked to find others. In either case special study should
be given to the groups arranged by the pupils.
After several related groups are prepared, profitable compari-
sons may be made among them, leading to broader conclusions con-
cerning word relationship and structure.
It goes without saying that is unnecessary, unwise and. from
the viewpoint of the allotment of time, impossible to have such les-
sons every day. They fit in best with the weekly or other reviews,
and then serve to make the reviews more significant and interesting.
and at the same time to prepare the way for advance instruction.
The results of such systematic word study would Avell repav the
teacher in Porto Rico, even if the burden of the selection of words
and organization of the system rested upon himself.
This method joins admirably with the Morin method of general
English instruction. For present upper-grade pupils who have not
been instructed under that system it is entirely practicable, and
when that system has "grown up" through the grades these methods
will be merely a further application of the principles of that system.
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 41
beginning in the lower grades where the English vocabulary begins
to expand fairly rapidly. In effect, this and other parts of the spell-
ing work would be integral parts of the system of general English
instruction.
(16) The use of the dictionary. Pupils should be thoroughly
instructed and trained in the use of the dictionary, in finding words
and learning their meanings and pronunciation, both for advance
study and for correcting their own spelling errors. Using the dic-
tionary should become a regular habit. Once the child has left
school, the dictionary must take the place of the teacher and the
spelling lesson. In the United States the use of the dictionary is
generally begun in about the fourth grade, and there is probably
no good reason why it should not be begun at that point in Porto
Rico.
C. TESTING AND THE CORRECTING OF ERRORS.
The following are taken as guiding principles: (j) that the real
ultimate test of spelling proficiency is in free composition, and that
the most reliable special test is that which most nearly conforms
to the conditions of this ultimate test (namely, being written rather
than oral, and the attention being primarily directed upon the ideas
expressed rather than the details of spelling) ; and (k) that the
processes of corrective instruction and study should differ in some
respects from those of general or preventive instruction and study.
(17) Testing: individual, subject and grade lists of misspell-
ings. This method of testing is the only one which approaches
the ideal test indicated in (j) above.
(18) Testing: writing from dictation. For special tests, writ-
ing from dictation is superior to any oral methods, according to the
principle stated above, and the dictation of sentences is superior
to the dictation of isolated words.
When written tests of any kind are used the work should in-
variably be corrected, and troublesome words reassigned and "fol-
lowed up."
(19) Testing: oral. Aside from the general pedagogical defects
of oral testing, as indicated in (}), there is the added defect that
each pupil is tested on only a small number of all of the test words
used. On the other hand, the stimulus of rivalry and competition
among the pupils and the mere variation from other methods tend
42 THE SPELLING OF EXGLTSTI BY PORTO EICAX PUPILS.
to arouse interest, and the oral method is more rapid. Oral tests
may probably be used advantageously half as frequently or exten-
sively as written tests. The acceptable relative use of the two may
be judged somewhat by the teacher if a good "follow-up" plan is
faithfully used.
(20) A principle for the correcting of errors. "When words have
actually been misspelled and are assigned from individual, subject
or class lists for study, the immediate aim of the teacher should be
to specially direct the attention of the pupil or class to the error
committed and to the correct form. This may be accomplished by
visualizing devices such as are suggested in number 9 of this part
(especially in the second and third paragraphs), the erroneous and
the correct forms being presented together.
(21) A principle for preventive instruction. "Where the purpose
of the lesson is to prevent errors in the spelling of words that are
known to present unusual special difficulties to most students, there
is little doubt that it is best, at the time of assignment, not to in-
form the pupils as to common erroneous spellings, but to lead to
specially vivid visualization of the word and particularly of the
most difficult parts. "Where it is possible to use them, inductive
methods such as those described in the second and third paragraphs
of number 15 of this article are excellent.
As examples of types of words for which this kind of preventive
instruction is suited, the following may be cited : Homonyms, double
and single letters, words whose spelling differs but slightly from
that of corresponding Spanish words, words, with nasal sounds (as
correctly or incorrectly pronounced by Porto Kican pupils), words
with silent letters etc.
D. GENERAL.
(22) Interest and pride. Granted that pedagogically sound
methods are exceedingly important, the fact remains that the ef-
fectiveness of spelling instruction depends quite as much upon the
degree of interest in the work, and pride in the results, experienced
by the pupils. The most fundamental sources of this interest and
pride are () the pupil's consciousness of the need and value of
good spelling; (&) the direct intrinsic appeal of interesting subject-
matter and good organization and presentation of the work, and
(c) the pupil's consciousness of the progress that he is making.
METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 43
The teacher must adopt for himself the most valuable methods
for stimulating the first of these, (a), in his own particular pupils.
The teacher who intelligently and faithfully makes use of good meth-
ods will arouse the second. For the third it is recommended that
each pupil prepare a chart, planned by the teacher, for indicating
daily the marks for each spelling lesson and the number of words
misspelled in general written work, for a series of weeks, and be
required to keep a careful record for himself. The teacher should
examine these records frequently and give each individual his du<?
in the way of advice, commendation or censure. Special honors may
be given periodically to the pupils who improve most.
Some tactful teachers can successfully use the method of exhibit-
ing to the class the records of all of the pupils. The danger in this
is that unpleasant rivalry and jealousy may result, and that the
principal aim of the pupils may become merely personal pre-
cedence.
A more superficial method of arousing interest is (d) the use of
contest and games. Most children take great pleasure in "spelling
matches," which are frequently given as special features on Fridays.
Probably the most suitable classroom spelling game other than
"spelling down" is "building words" from letters printed or writ-
ten on little cards. Each child is given several letters, and each
tries to spell more words than any other by arranging and rear-
ranging the letters. Of course the words must be correctly spelled
to be counted. In the upper grades the cards need not be used, but
letters or a word may be written on the blackboard and the pupil
may write all of the words that he can "build" with the given
letters. This game may be used occasionally as a diversion, especially
as a reward for good work. The winner of this game is not neces-
sarily the best speller in the group, since psychological factors other
than spelling ability are involved in the game.
(23) The allotment of time for the spelling lesson. In ten oc
the leading American cities, where a certain spelling investigation
was conducted, an average of a little more than 7 per cent of the
entire available time is devoted to spelling as a special subject.
This is about 108 minutes per week, an average of a little more than
20 minutes per day. It is doubtful if as much as this is necessary
with English-speaking pupils if a good "follow-up" system is in
use. In Porto Rico the pupils need more special English spelling
44 .THE SPELLING OF ! BY TOItTO EICAN PUPILS.
instruction and drill than on the continent, but we already suffer
from a crowded program because of the bilingual system.
The writer recommends the allotment in urban graded schools
of at least 75 minutes per week preferably 100 for special spelling
instruction in English. Of course in the lower grades the class pe
riods should be short (with, perhaps, two periods on some days, one
being for instruction and the other, shorter, for drill).
This recommendation implies a second, that pupils be given a
special scholarship mark in English spelling.
In view of the language situation in Porto Rico, and of the
character of the official method of English instruction for the lower
grades, a special spelling period is probably not necessary below the
third grade.
It may not be out of place to mention, in connection with this
recommendation for special periods, that the type of spelling instruc-
tion outlined is of considerable value for general language training.
So many details have been given that the entire matter may now
appear rather incoherent to the reader. For that reason the follow-
ing summary of most of the concrete recommendations is added.
After each a note is given, designed to indicate, not the teaching aim
involved, but the location, so to speak, of that particular item with
respect to the several "parts" of the lesson.
"Individual" lists of misspellings-selection, testing and "follow-up."
Table IV of this series selection.
Ayers' thousand words selection.
Meaning of words assignment, study and recitation.
Pronunciation of words by pupils assignment, study and recitation.
"Ear and eye lists" assignment and study.
"Flash methods" assignment and study.
Division of words assignment and study.
Writing words assignment, study and testing.
Systematic reviews testing and study.
Table VI of this series study.
Tables VII and VIII study.
Word study study and recitation.
Dictionary study (see 6, 7 and 16.)
Dictation testing.
Appeal to interest and pride funeral.
Pupils' record charts general.
Games testing.
Special spelling periods general.
Scholarship mark in spelling general.
METHODS OP INSTRUCTION. 45
It is clear that in many cases there is very little distinction be-
tween "assignment" and "study."
Of course it is not supposed that any one lesson will contain all
of these features. "Wide variation in methods will occur, for adap-
tation to the special aim of the respective lessons and for mere variety
itself.
In concluding his recommendations the writer wishes to lay special
stress upon the importance of the methods of selection of spelling
words, the principle of few words mid thorough instruction (not
merely TESTING), the "follow-up" plan with individual lists of mis-
spellings and systematic reviews, and the type of word study recom-
mended for Porto Rican pupils.
The writer does not believe in rigidly prescribed, ' ' cut-and-dried "
methods or systems of instruction designed to cure all evils in cer-
tain fields of instruction. No claims are made for any magic values
in the suggestions embodied in this article, but they are offered with
confidence that they are adapted to local conditions.
Their adoption would involve no radical changes. A fair trial
would necessitate the endorsing of the general plan and the official
allotment of time for special spelling periods by the Department of
Education, perhaps the preparation of some more explicit but flexible
instructions for teachers by the Department of Education or the
supervisors, careful supervision and insistence upon the following
of the general plan, and more careful and systematic preparation of
spelling lessons by teachers.
The adoption of the recommendations concerning more uniform
spelling standards, which follow in the next article, would involve
no burdensome changes.
The composition papers upon which this investigation is based
vrere accompanied bv typical lesson plans for spelling and by descrip-
tions of spellins; methods actually in use. A hundred, more or less,
of these plans and general descriptions have been very carefully
examined. They provide the most convincing evidence of the very
general lack, not only of any similarity of methods, but also of clear
ideas concerning 1 the general principles of spelling instruction and
the fact?, and principles of special significance in Porto Rico.
A graded English speller, specially prepared for the public schools
46 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY PORTO EICAN PUPILS.
of Porto Rico, perhaps organized along the lines blocked out in this
account, is very much needed. Until this need is met no fair spelling
product will be obtained from the schools, and the teachers and
supervisors will be heavily burdened with the organization of the
spelling work, or it will be neglected.
Of the many books and articles on spelling which the writer has
consulted in his studies and has made free use of in the preparation
of this article, he wishes to refer the reader to two. Suzallo's little
book, "The Teaching of Spelling" (Houghton Miffln, New York), is
perhaps, for those not desiring too much theory, the most readable
and practical and useable of those that cover the general field of
theory and method. Wallin's "Spelling Efficiency" (Warwick and
York, Baltimore) is mentioned especially for its vindication of the
teaching of spelling as a special subject as contrasted with the "inci-
dental" method so much discussed in recent years.
IV.
A COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS.
The data reported in this article are quantitative, treating only
of differences in the degree of spelling proficiency among different
individuals and groups.
Errors in capitalization, which have not been specially considered
previously in these reports, were counted in the calculations reported
in this article. These errors constitute 30 per cent of all.
The index of the degree of spelling proficiency here used the
"mark" or "score" given for the spelling in each composition is
a number indicating the per cent of words in the composition which
were misspelled. This score was not based upon an actual count of
all the words since that would have been too long and laborious a
process. The method used involved first ascertaining the average
number of words per line in the composition (determined by an
actual count of a number of lines in each of a large number of com-
positions chosen at random from many groups). The standard line
being established, the score for each paper was obtained by counting
the number of standard lines (allowance being made for variations
in the length of lines and size of handwriting), multiplying this by
eight (the number of words in the standard line), and dividing the
number of misspelled words by the result of the above calculations.
An extensive checking up of these scores with scores obtained by an
actual complete count of words revealed very little error and showed
that no group of pupils, and exceedingly few individuals, suffered
or profited to any considerable extent from the method of scoring
here described.
A. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES.
The average of all the 1,131 scores in spelling is 3.21 (that is,
3.21 per cent of all words were misspelled) and the median score
(above and below which an equal number of scores are found) is
2.35..
Table IX indicates the distribution of the individual spelling
scores. It should be read horizontally. The first line indicates that
175 pupils (15.5 per cent of all) obtained scores between and .9;
48 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY POBTO RICAN PUPILS.
in the second line it is shown that 238 (21.0 per cent of all) received
scores between 1.0 and 1.9, etc.
The reader should note that the smaller scores correspond to the
greater spelling proficiencies, the relation being inverse because the
score represents the per cent of error.
TABLE IX.
DISTRIBUTION OF INDIVIDUAL SCORES.
Number
Per cent of
Stores.
of cases.
all cases.
0- .9
15. 5
1.0- 1.9
2C8
21.0
2. 0- 2. 9
235
20.8
3.0- 3.9
115
12.8
4. 0- 4. 9
119
10.5
5. 0- 5. 9
95
8.4
6. 0- 6. 9
4. 4
7. 0- 7. 9
25
2.2
8. 0- 8. 9
20
1. 8
9. 0- 9. 9
9
.8
10.0-10.9
6
. ~i
11. 0-11. 9
4
. 4
12. 0-12. 9
5
.4
13. 0-13. 9
3
.3
14. 0-14. 9
.0
15. 0-15. 9
2
" 2
1, 131 100.
Average score 3. 21
Median score 2. 35
Examples illustrating individual differences. Since the above fig-
ures give an insufficient idea of the facts, compositions have been
very carefully chosen to indicate the different degrees of spelling
proficiency corresponding to certain scores. These compositions (un-
less so indicated) are not necessarily typical in the exact nature of
the errors in spelling or in the frequency or nature of errors in gram-
mar or composition. They indicate differences in the number of
spelling errors.
The following composition corresponds exactly to the average of
the 1,131 in the frequency of spelling errors, and also almost exactly
in the frequency of errors in grammar and in the length of the com-
position.
A COMPARISON OK IM)I VI DTA L8 AND GROUPS. 49
How I SPI-XD MY CHRISTMAS VACATIONS
That was the time I have pass better in my whole life.
As a custam hero in our town is to dined at twelve o 'dock when the nedle
a: the watch marks that hour on Noehe Buena (as we call the night on which
God was born) my family as a whole sat at the table and after thinking in the
fiest we were going to celebrate he began to talk until the dine was all served.
On the New Years Day T take walk on foot to my house and afterward I
rode on coach to go to my grandmother's house where she wait for us to give
lit, some good lessons to be done in the New Year's days. Afterward on the
ether days I remerib&r that I have to study my lessons and study for a long
time.
The following may be called typical of the 150 or 200 poorest com-
positions. The score on this composition is 7.5. There are some 60
or 70 with lower scores. Table IX shows that there were several
compositions with 50 per cent more errors and that a few had twice
as many as occurred in this.
o
How I SPENT MY CHRISTMAS VACATIONS
Christmas is a great feast selebrated at the end of every year. In Porto
Eico it is the greatest feast we can have.
On the 24th we have the first branch. I spent it in a place where a pig was
Bowing to be rosted. when it was all ready, we sat at table and eat it up, in
precence of some (Eon and anis). A great ball was made, and at the end of
ton-minutes we were enjoing (Noche Buena) by dancing and having lots of fun.
Fron this day on we had great (Parandas) where many people were bunched
together and we had great fun of it.
When new year's came we had another great feast. Deaner was prepared,
And with a great ball we finished the day.
The third (Thre Kings Day) we spent an the farms.
No example of the best compositions is given, since these were per-
fect as far spelling is concerned, or contained only one or two errors.
B. GEOUP DIFFEEENCES.
Compositions were received from 44 eighth grades. For each of
these grades the average of all the individual spelling scores was
obtained. This number, which will be called the group score, gives
a fair indication of the spelling proficiency of the group in question.
The average of the 44 group scores is 3.20 and the median is 3.26.
The average deviation is .80 and the standard deviation is 1.00.
50 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY POETO RICAN PUPILS.
The distribution of these 44 groups scores is indicated in Table
X, which is to be read in the same way as Table IX 5 groups (11.4
per cent of all) received group scores between 1.5 and 1.9, etc.
TABLE X.
DISTRIBUTION OF GROUP SCORES.
Group
scores.
Number
of cases.
Per cent of
all cases.
1. 5-1. 9
5
11.3
2. 0-2. 4
7
15.9
2. 5-2. 9
7
15.9
3. 0-3. 4
8
18.2
3. 5-3. 9
10
22.6
4. 0-4. 4
2
4.6
4. 5-4. 9
2
4.6
5. 0-5. 4
1
2.3
5. 5-5. 9
2
4. 6
44 100.
Average score 3. 20
Median score 3.26
Table X gives more detailed information as to the distribution
of individual spelling scores in each of the 44 groups.
Owing to lack of absolute uniformity in the conditions under
which the original test was given to the different groups, the writer
does not have full confidence in the exact correspondence between
the scores of individuals and groups here given and their actual
spelling proficiency. For this and other reasons the groups are not
named but are indicated by Roman numerals. The writer will be
glad to inform any supervisor of schools as to the number which
corresponds to the group or groups in his district, and to provide
any other accessible information desired about the record of the
pupils in his district.
The first line of Table XI indicates that in Group I the average
or group score was 1.66 (1.66 per cent of all words were misspelled)
and that of the 50 pupils in the group 70 per cent received scores
between and 1.9, 28 per cent between 2.0 and 3.9, and 2 per cent
between 4.0 and 5.9.
A COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS.
51
TABLE XI.
DISTRIBUTION OF INDIVIDUAL SCORES BY GROUPS.
Group.
Aver-
age
score.
Num-
ber in
group.
50
18
16
14
45
13
29
16
24
13
14
16
23
17
15
37
35
22
19
27
23
20
46
41
15
47
32
17
21
47
41
32
22
33
36
18
19
28
11
36
49
12
12
10
to
1.9
2.0 | 4.0 6.0
to to i to
3.9 5.9 ! 7.9
8.0
to
9.9
10.0
to
11.9
12.0
to
15.9
I
1. 66
1.76
1.78
1.94
1.98
2.07
2.10
2. 11
2.23
2.25
2.33
2.46
2.61
2. 62
2.63
2.71
2.75
2.79
2.81
3.04
3. 11
3.23
3.29
3.33
3.34
3.45
3.46
3.52
3.52
3.59
3.63
3.69
3.70
3.70
3.76
3.79
3.99
4.00
4.08
4,72
4.88
5.04
5.66
5.81
70%
28%
22
31
43
20
15
45
25
54
38
14
38
39
35
40
27
34
27
47
30
39
35
46
32
47
%
47
58
32
39
28
27
36
28
11
63
28
37
31
24
25
8
20
2%
6
6
II
III
63
57
69
77
48
56
38
40
64
50
39
47
40
46
46
50
37
41
35
45
24
32
27
28
25
18
14
30
22
22
27
30
28
44
11
32
18
22
16
8
IV
V
9
2%
8
VI
VII
7
19
8
16
14
6
22
12
13
24
14
18
22
17
5
22
27
13
15
34
30
14
26
32
44
27
18
31
17
11
21
18
14
31
33
50
10
VIII
IX
X
XI
8
XII
XIII
6%
XIV
6
7
3
6
5
5
4
5
5
6
7
13
6
7
5
14
4
5
3
18
10
6
17
5
7
18
17
15
17
33
40
XV
XVI
XVII
XVIII
XIX
5
4
5
10
o
2
XX
XXI
XXII
XXIII
XXIV
XXV
XXVI
4
2%
XXVTI
XXVIII
XXIX
XXX
6
2%
XXXI
2
XXXII
3
XXXIII
XXXIV
3
6
11
5
4
9
8
8
3
3
XXXV
XXXVI
XXXVII
5
4
XXXVIII
XXXIX
4
XL
XLI
XLII
8
4
2
17
XLIII
XLIV
Average-
8
10
10
10
3.20|
25.7!
37. 0%
33. 5%
18. 0% 7. 5%
1
2. 5%
1. 0%
0.5%
52 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY PORTO RICAN PUPILS.
Examples illustrating group differences. The following composi-
tion bears a score equal to the average score of the best group
(Group I) :
3.
How I SPENT MY XMAS VACATIONS.
I passed the vacations very happy because I was with my whole family and
also because 1 went to dance to many parts.
When the vacation were begining my father told me if I wanted to go to work
in his office and I told him that I will be very glad if I could work, then in the
morning I went to work and worked five days receiving three dollars and fifty
cents in all.
Then in the twenty six of December I went to dance in the Casino, I danced very
much because there were many girls that I like, about two o'clock in the morn-
ing I went to sleep an. at seven o'clock in the morning I was in the work.
Some days latter I knew that there was a party in , I went to it and passed
a good time there.
In that way I passed the vacations and in Jan. 6 I went to dance in the .
Then the next day I studied very much to be prepare to go to school, then at
night I went to sleep.
The following corresponds to the average score of the poorest
group:
4.
How I SPENT MY CHRISTMAS VACATION.
I am passed my Christmas vacation very happy. I went to my house friend
at and all the time I had passed dancing and singing with her. Some days
I went with her near the seashore, take a boat and went from one side to the other
of the sea.
My friend name is Mery and she has a little brother whose name is John.
John said many funish thing to me and for that reason I lafing niuch in
account of the little boy. John love me much because went his father weab him
I defend it.
When I go bad back to my home John craying much and I Graying 1 also in
alder to see him.
When I was at home father sent me to to me uncle house in alder 1 to
see him because it is sick.
When I went to the automobi from the railroad it passed an accident that )
iiever forget. The automobi 1 broke and I had to state in the railroad a night in
alder J to put it well. I put very sorry but inmediate it passed.
The reader should note that compositions 4 and 5 above corre-
spond in frequency of spelling errors almost precisely to the average
spelling scores of the best and poorest groups respectively.
1 Spelling errors which were repeated in a composition were counted only once in the
author's calculations.
A COMPAEISON OF INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS. 53
C. SEX DIFFEEENCES.
TABLE XII.
SEX DIFFERENCES.
CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY.
Girls. Boys.
Average 2.68 3.72
Median 2.23 3.09
Average deviation 1.54 1.99
TABLE XIII.
SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES.
NUMBER
PER CI
iNTOF
OF CAS
ES. ALL CASES.
Scores.
Girls.
Boys.
Girls.
Boys.
0- .9
119
58
21.3
10.1
1. 0- 1. 9
132
105
23.6
18.4
2. 0- 2. 9
121
115
21.6
20.1
3. 0- 3. 9
57
88
10.2
15.4
4. 0- 4. 9
61
58
10.9
10. 1
5. 0- 5. 9
36
58
6.4
10.1
6. 0- 6. 9
16
34
2.9
6.0
7. 0- 7. 9
6
19
1. 1
3.3
8. 0- 8. 9
5
15
.9
2.6
9. 0- 9. 9
3
6
.5
1.0
10. 0-10. 9
1
5
.2
.9
11. 0-11. 9
2
2
.4
.4
12. 0-12. 9
4
.7
13. 0-13. 9
3
.5
14. 0-14. 9
15. 0-15. 9
2
.3
559 572 100.0 99.
D. EETAEDED PUPILS.
Each pupil was asked to indicate on his paper, among other things,
how many years he had been in school, and the teachers were requested
to state how many years each pupil had been in the eighth grade.
According to these reports (doubtless incomplete) there were 231
pupils who had been in school more than the normal number of years.
54 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY POETO RICAN PUPILS.
TABLE XIV.
RETARDED PUPILS.
CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY.
Retarded All
pupils. pupils.
Average - 3. 28 3. 21
Median -2.80 2.64
Average deviation .- 1. 78 1. 82
TABLE XV.
RETARDED PUPILS.
DISTRIBUTION OF INDIVIDUAL SCORES.
XI MBEK
OF CASES.
Retarded All
Scores. pupils. pupils.
0- .9 26 175
PEE CENT OF
ALL CAPES.
Retarded All
pupils. pupils.
11. 3 15. 5
1. 0- 1. 9
49
238
21.2
21.0
2. 0- 2. 9
51
235
22.1
20.8
3. 0- 3. 9
34
145
14.7
12.8
4. 0- 4. 9
23
119
10.0
10.5
5. 0- 5. 9
20
95
8.7
8.4
6. 0- 6. 9
13
50
5.6
4. 4
7.0- 7.9
6
25
2.6
2.2
8. 0- 8. 9
3
20
1.3
1.8
9. 0- 9. 9
3
9
1.3
.8
10. 0-10. 9
1
6
.4
.5
11. 0-11. 9
1
4
.4
.4
12. 0-12. 9
5
.4
13. 0-13. 9
3
.3
14. 0-14. 9
15. 0-15. 9
1
2
. 4
.2
231 1,131 100.0 100.0
REMARKS.
Individual differences. A measurement of the height, for exam-
ple, of a large number of pupils of a given grade in a number of schools
would give results of the following general character. Assuming
that the typical, median or average height is four feet six inches,
we will find the majority of all pupils ranging between four feet
A COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUALS AND GEOUPS. 55
four inches and four feet eight inches, with the number above these
limits about equal to those below and the numbers decreasing regu-
larly in either direction., so that the very small group of pupils four
feet tall is about equal to the number five feet tall.
Using this as an analogy, we find that our measurement of "spell-
Ing stature" has revealed (with four feet six inches as the average
height) some 500 from four feet four to four feet eight, 250 just
above and below four feet ten (spelling score 1.0), some 50 five-foot-
ers, and 011 the other side 100 at four feet two inches, 50 at four feet,
GO between three and four feet and a good two dozen pigmies, the
smallest being about two feet high! To the writer this seems rather
n startling display.
This analogy appears to represent fairly accurately the facts set
forth in this article, though it must be taken with reservations and
amplifications, some of which are indicated in the following remarks.
1. (a) The variations in spelling in free compositions on every-
day topics in the eighth grade should not be as great relatively as
in height, for example, since the processes of instruction and selec-
tion operate upon spelling but not upon stature. (6) The varia-
tions in these compositions are much greater than should be expected.
One hundred and seventy-five pupils misspelled less than one word
in a hundred. More than 200 misspelled from five to fifteen words
in a hundred It is no exaggeration to state that there were many
of these 1,131 pupils whose spelling was from fifteen to twenty-five
times worse than that of a considerable number of the best.
It should be remembered that the privilege of "dodging" the
difficult words and substituting easy ones is open to all in free com-
position, but is made use of most frequently by the poor spellers.
The composition papers examined in this investigation show clearly
that the pupils with the best scores used more difficult and varied
spelling vocabularies than those ranking lowest thus deserving a
considerably higher rating than they actually received.
2. The average or typical composition contained more spelling
errors than should be expected under existing conditions if due at-
tention were given to the matter. The reader should consider again
that the typical free composition of twenty lines contained five mis-
spelled words, and he should read again Example 1 in this article,
which example very fairly represents the above-mentioned typical
case.
Group differences. 3. Reference to Tables X and XI and a com-
parison of Examples 3 and 4 (which, remember, truly represent the
56 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY POETO EICAN PUPILS.
typical spelling of the best and poorest groups respectively) will
lend weight to the assertion that there is an astonishing difference
in spelling proficiency among the eighth grades of different districts,
and that this extreme variation should not exist. The writer is con-
fident that the difference among groups is almost if not quite as great
as indicated in the tables and examples above cited, in spite of the
fact that there is no absolute assurance that the conditions under
which the compositions were written were uniform.
Sex differences. 4. The marked superiority of the girls as com-
pared with the boys in spelling is normal, according to all investi-
gations that bnve dealt with that phase of the matter, and is com-
monly .isjncinted with the characteristic superiority of girls in the
notinor of visual details (also established by experiments and gen-
eral observation). This superiority probably has no very important
pedagogical significance in relation to spelling instruction.
Retarded pupils. 5. The fact of negligible inferiority of retarded
pupils as compared with all pupils in spelling likewise appears to
have no very important pedagogical significance.
These remarks may be briefly summarized in the statement that
to the writer the significant facts seems to be that, in the elementarv
schools, at least, standards of spelling proficiency in the ultimate test
of free composition are apparently entirely lacking or disregarded
or too low in most cases.
It seems to the writer entirely possible, in a very short time and
without unduly exalting the place of spelling or making any in-
roads upon other subjects or acquiring any new teaching person-
nel, to cause to disappear almost entirely from our eighth grades
the degree of spelling proficiency corresponding to the scores above
4 (received by 30 per cent of the pupils tested in the present inves-
tigation) or even above 3 (received by 43 per cent of the pupils),
and to render very unusual the misspelling of more than one or two
words in a hundred in free composition. Of course this is not as
an ultimate goal, but as an immediate one, to be reached and passed
at the best speed possible for an educational machine bearing the
burden of a bilingual system of instruction.
This improvement in spelling proficiency is not to be accomplished,
of course, through non-promotion. A pupil who is othervise pre-
pared to advance to the next grade should never be held back and
made to lose the really vital and important benefits resulting from
his further studies because of deficiency in spelling only, which is
but superficial after all. But pupils should not be permitted to reach
A COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS. 57
the point of promotion without having progressed in spelling, as
in other subjects, in proportion to their capacity. The pupil who was
"born a poor speller" for such there are, undoubtedly should re-
ceive individual attention throughout the year, and should be passed
on to receive the same attention and care in the following grade.
The concrete recommendations that follow are simple; they are
shrouded in no confusion of technique or mystery of theory. It is
hoped that they will not be regarded as less important for that
reason.
RECOMMENDATIONS.
1. The first essential for reducing the extreme differences in spell-
ing proficiency among individuals and groups is careful and rational
and systematic spelling instruction a matter already considered in
the preceding articles.
2. The second essential is the adoption of standards of practical
spelling proficiency and an insistent effort to reach and maintain
them.
To be more specific, there is a limit to the number of misspelled
words that may be accepted as permissible in normal free composi-
tion (when the attention of the pupil is directed primarily upon the
ideas being expressed rather than upon spelling). A pupil who mis-
spells more than this number of words is deficient in spelling, and he
should know it and his teacher should know it. The knowledge should
not be used as a weapon, but should be considered as a symptom of
an abnormal condition that needs treatment.
The unit of measurement and the method are simple. Composi-
tions not written for this express purpose may be obtained occasion-
ally throughout the year and examined to determine the proportion
of misspelled words. This proportion should be compared with the
accepted standard. Individuals or groups should be informed of
any deficiency or stimulated by knowledge of meritorious records.
There should be a definite general standard for the entire school
system. In groups or districts where the present attainment is spe-
cially low, progressive goals should be set, leading up to the general
standard. But these provisional standards should be fixed definitely.
The propriety and efficiency of definite educational standards is well
established.
The following is suggested as a first general standard for our
eighth grades not more than three misspellings for every hundred
words in ordinary free composition. Forty-three per cent of our
58 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY PORTO RICAN PUPILS.
1,131 pupils fell below this suggested standard (misspelling from
3 -f- to 15 words in a hundred), but it is the writer's belief that it
is not at all visionary to conceive of the almost complete elimination
of cases deficient on this basis in a very short time, and then the set-
ting of a higher general standard.
Whether it would be necessary to adopt different standards for
the several grades is a question that probably may be answered in
the negative. Of course the vocabulary increases as pupils advance
through the grades and the increase in the total number of words
whose spelling has been taught is accompanied by. the demand for
a broader and more varied spelling vocabulary.
The adoption and reasonable observance of definite standards
would be neither laborious nor showy, but effective.
ERRORS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR
IN PORTO RICO.
While studying the spelling errors in compositions written by the
pupils in 44 eighth grades in Porto Rico the writer had an opportunity
to give some attention incidentally to the errors in grammar. A
classification of errors in grammar was adopted after a preliminary
examination of the compositions, tried and revised, and then for each
error which was found in reading the papers a check mark was
recorded for the corresponding class.
Probably not all classes of the fairly common errors in grammar
were included in the list and no attempt was made to include general
errors in language or idiomatic expressions. Some parts of the classi-
fication are not fully detailed. On the other hand, the writer is sure
that the most common errors of grammar are listed and that the mis-
takes and omissions in the recording of -those listed were few.
The compositions were written in January, 1917, on the topic,
"How I Spent My Christmas Vacation," and the instructions re-
quired that the writing be done quite independently of books or
teacher.
In the 1,131 compositions received 11,842 errors in grammar were
marked. The average length of the compositions was 170 words, and
the average number of errors in grammar per composition was a trifle
over ten.
The most numerous of the errors recorded are the following:
1. Use of the present tense for the past (4,220 errors, 35.5 per
cent of all). This was counted only when the context showed clearly
that the past tense should be used, as: "When the vacations came I
go to the seashore."
2. Omission of capitals in the title of the composition (1,426 errors,
12 per cent of all). The practice in regard to capitalization in titles
varies somewhat. Here it was considered that all words in the title
of this composition should be capitalized.
3. Use of the singular for the plural 'in nouns and pronouns (969
errors, 8 per cent of all). "All the children went to their home and
on Three Kings' Day they received his gifts."
4. Use of the plural for the singular in nouns and pronouns (511
errors, 4.3 per cent of all).
60 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY POETO KICAN PUPILS.
5. Omission of the capital in the first word of a sentence (455
errors, 4 per cent of all).
6. Use of the verb form of the past tense for the 'infinitive form
(441 errors, 3.7 per cent of all). "The boys liked to played base-
ball."
7. Use of cardinal for ordinal numerals (356 errors, 3 per cent
of all). "On the 25 day of December;" "On the five day of the
vacation. ' '
8. Use of adjective forms as adverbs (337 errors, 2.8 per cent
of all ) . ' ' He ran so slow that all the boys passed him ; " ' ' We passed
the day very happy." This last might perhaps be considered cor-
rect, but the many similar cases were all counted as errors.
9. Use of the uninflected (or infin'itive) verb form for the past
participle (292 errors, 2.5 per cent of all). "After we had go to
our homes. ..."
10. Use of plural forms in adjectives and possessive pronouns
(268 errors, 2.3 per cent of all). "...theirs friends;" "...those
Jiappies days."
11. Omission of entire possessive endings (245 errors, 2 per cent
of all). "He went to his cousin house."
12. Incorrect adding of the inflectional verb ending -s (165 errors,
1.4 per cent of all). "They goes swimming;" "I gives him the
present."
13. Omission of the inflectional verb ending -s (159 errors, 1.4
per cent of all). "He visit his grandfather" (present tense).
14. Dividing of words (142 errors, 1.2 per cent of all). "Horsi 1
hack," "base ball," "every body."
15. Unnecessary use of the hyphen (141 errors, 1.2 per cent
of all). "Base-ball;" "horse-back;" "moving-pictures;" "to-mor-
row."
16. Omission of apostrophe from the possessive forms of plural
nouns (140 errors, 1.2 per cent of all). "They went from house to
house and played with all their friends toys."
17. Special verb irregularities (108 errors. 1 per cent of all).
"Spended;" "putten" (past participle of "put").
18. Omission of the hyphen (106 errors, 1 per cent of all).
"Twenty four;" "brother in law."
19. Omission of apostrophe from the possessive forms of singular
nouns (102 errors). "Juans house is by the sea."
20. Apostrophe placed before instead of after the possessive end-
ERRORS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN POETO RICO. 61
ing -s in plural nouns (88 errors). "They visited all their friend's
houses."
Ninety per . cent of all the errors classified are included in the
above twenty classes.
The entire list of errors recorded follows:
VERBS.
1. Use of present tense for past tense - 4,220
'2. Use of past tense for infinitive 441
3. Use of infinitive for past participle 292
4. Incorrect adding of the verb ending g___ 165
5. Omission of the verb ending H 159
(i. Special verb irregularities (number 17 above) 108
7. Use of past tense for present tense 77
8. Use of infinitive form for present participle 58
9. Use of present participle for past tense 45
10. Use of past participle for past tense 45
11. Use of present perfect for past perfect-.. 37
12. Use of past perfect for present perfect __. 30
13. Use of past perfect for past tense 25
14. Use of present tense for infinitive form 21
15. Use of past tense for past participle--- 20
16. Use of past participle for present participle 20
17. Use of present tense for past participle 19
18. Use of past tense for past perfect 19
19. Use of persent participle for past participle 16
20. Use of present perfect for past tense 14
21. Use of present participle for infinitive form 13
22. Use of past participle for infinitive form 12
23. Miscellaneous errors in verbs 86
5, 943
CAPITALS.
24. Omitted in title of composition 1,426
25. Omitted at beginning of sentence 455
26. Omitted at beginning of direct quotation 17
1, 898
NUMBER.
27. Singular for plural (nounc and pronouns) 969
28. Plural for singular (nouns and pronouns) 511
29. Adjectives and possessive pronouns in plural 268
1. 748
APOSTROPHE.
30. Omitted from plural nouns (possessive forms) 140
31. Omitted from singular nouns (possessive forms 102
32. Misplaced: should follow s (possessives) 88
33. Omitted in contractions 66
34. Used unnecessarily, general 64
35. Miscellaneous 13
473
62 THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH BY PORTO EICAN PUPILS.
NUMERALS.
36. Use of cardinals for ordinals 356
37. Use of ordinals for cardinals 7
363
ADVERBIAL FORMS.
38. Use of adjective forms for adverbs 337
39. Use of adverb forms for adjectives 24
361
POSSESSIVE FORMS.
40. Omission of entire possessive ending 245
41. Unnecessary use of possessive forms 15
260
HYPHEN.
42. Unnecessary use of hyphen 141
43. Omission 106
247
44. Dividing words 142
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
45. Special irregular comparisons __. 23
46. Use of the comparative for the superlative 20
47. Use of the possessive for the comparative 10
48. Miscellaneous 18
71
GENDER OF PRONOUNS.
49. Use of masculine for neuter 14
50. Use of masculine for feminine 11
51. Miscellaneous 17
42
11, 842 11, 842
This list does not represent quite fairly the relative difficulty of
all the classes included, for the reason that in a written composition
where he has time (and a half hour was used for these compositions)
the pupil can avoid expressions of which he is uncertain, using other
phrases or omitting that part entirely.
o-O-o
A 000 037 001
