Full text of "Spices and condiments"

LIBRARY

OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

OIF-T OF*

Cfes

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DIVISION OF CHEMISTKY.
BULLETIN No. 13.

OOD

AGRICULTURAL

LIBRARY '

CALIFORNIA.

FOOD ADULTEKANTS

BY DIRECTION OF

THE COMMISSIONER OP AGRICULTURE.

PART SECOND:

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

CLIFFORD RICHAEDSOK

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING* OFFICE.

1887.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY.

BULLETIN No. 13.

FOODS

AND

FOOD ADULTERANTS

liY DIRECTION OF

THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

PART SECOND:

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

CLIFFORD RICHARDSON.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTINGS OFFICE.

1887.

[BULLETIN No. 13.]

PART 2.-SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY,
Washington, D. (7., March 15, 1887.

SIR : Having been directed by you to make an examination of the
adulteration of spices and condiments, I have been engaged at different
times during the past year upon the subject, and with some aid from
the assistants in the laboratory in performing the chemical determina-
tions have prepared the following report, which forms part 2 of Bulletin
No. 13 of this Division. It has been my endeavor to collect all the
available information in regard to the extent and character of this
adulteration in all parts of the world, and to describe for the benefit of
investigators the means to be employed for its detection. More par-
ticularly I have entered into an examination of the spices and condi-
ments found in the markets of Washington and Balitimore, and have
tested with them the methods of investigation which are described.

It has seemed appropriate to divide the report into two parts, the
first being devoted to a popular exposition of the origin of the spices
and the means employed for their adulteration, while the second con-
tains a more extended technical discussion of the subject and of the
results of analysis, both microscopical and chemical, and the methods
which have been proposed by recent authorities for the detection of
sophistication. I have been assisted in the chemical work by Messrs.
Kuorr, Trescot, and Fake, assistants in the laboratory of the Division,
who have completed a large portion of the determinations under my
supervision, and I am indebted to Dr. Battershall, of New York, for
the privilege of examining the advanced sheets of his work on food
adulteration.

To the standard authorities, Hassall, Koenig, Schimper, and others,
I owe much for the information derived from them, although their work
is not entirely applicable in this country, and I have copied from Schim-
I per some of his diagramatic drawings of the spices, which, although
> extremely deceptive to the beginner, may in their proper way be made
' /( of value for reference. Other sources of information I have acknowl-
edged in the body of the report.

22823 Bull. 13, pt. 3 1 129

130 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

The amount of adulteration which has beeii detected is extremely
large and of a nature which apparently arouses but little prejudice on
the part of the consumer, being free from associations of uncleanliness.
Could only a portion of the unfortunate dislike for oleomargarine be
directed toward the spices, the result would be that much wasted energy
would be turned into a profitable channel. The necessity for some
means for the suppression of the present universal sophistication of
spices and condiments seems urgent.
Very respectfully,

CLIFFORD RICHARDSON.

Dr. H. W. WILEY.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

PART I.

Under this head are included substances which while not in them-
selves foods serve to render the latter more palatable, and to stimulate
digestion. They occupy an important position in the diet of the human
race, and are largely subject to ad ulteration or sophistication. Among
the more common are : Peppers of various kinds, mustard, cloves, cin-
namon, cassia, allspice or pimento, nutmeg, mace, ginger.

These substances are so often and seriously adulterated because it is
readily accomplished, owing to the custom of putting them on the mar-
ket in a ground condition, which prevents the recognition of quality
from mere appearance, and because so many cheap substitutes or dilu-
ents are readily found which resemble the real article. In addition,
the demand on the part of the poorer classes for the cheapest possible
supply and the competition brought about by this demand in the trade
has, owing to general high prices attached to most of the spices of good
quality, fostered and extended the practice.

At the present time in several of our largest cities the price to be
paid for a spice is named by the retail dealer, and he is then furnished
from the spice-mill with a mixture containing the largest amount of
pure material which can be supplied for the money, the necessary
weight being made up of diluents of some cheap but harmless sub-
| stance, different grades being distinguished by one firm as pure, extra,
No. 1, and superior, none of which are pure and many of which are mere
variation in labels with none in quality. As examples, the fact that a
New York firm, it is understood, in a short time used and put upon the
market in their spices more than 5,000 pounds of cocoanut shells, and
the following quotations from a journal devoted to spice milling show
how universal and open the custom has become. On a prominent page
is found :

" All necessary information for spice manufacturing supplied."

Attention should be paid to the use of the word manufacturing.

131

132 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

Then the following advertisements appear, from which the names
have been stricken out :

MANUFACTURER OF

SPICES, SPICE MIXTURES, AND MUSTARDS,

181 Street, N. T.

Goods made to order for Wholesale Grocers and Druggists ; also, Grinding
done for Jobbers who pack their own Goods.

Spice Mixtures and Cayenne Pepper a Specialty.

17 STREET, NEW YORK,

MANUFACTURER OF
ALL KINDS OF SPICE MIXTURES.

My celebrated brand of P. D. Pepper is superior to any made.

Samples sent on application. Goods shipped to all parts of the United States. Spice
mixtures a specialty. Spices ground for the trade. We are the Inventors of Suc-
tion Coolers.

The firms advertising do not hesitate to call themselves manufact-
urers instead of millers.

It is easy to see how difficult it must be to briog this state of things
to an end without some governmental action, it being improbable that
by any means of agreement among themselves the grinders of spices
could unite in doing away with the practice, or that any education of the
masses will teach them to refuse to purchase a ground spice at a price
which is far below that of the uuground article. This alone, the rela-
tion between the prices of ground and unground spices, is often suffi-
cient to point out the fact that a ground spice must be largely diluted,
and, on the other hand, when purchasing from a reliable dealer, a slight
increase in cost over that of the spice in its original form is fair evi-
dence of the purity of the powder. Those who desire pure ground spices
can almost always obtain them by paying their value. They are by no
means uncommon in the market, but as long as there are those who do
not know that it is for their interest to buy the best, rather than a cheap
article on account of its low price, such people must suffer or be pro-
tected by legal enactments which shall prevent and prohibit the exist-
ence of such mixtures. Until this is done the supply of a demand which
certainly exists may be considered to be, at the least, justifiable on the
part of the spice millers, and education of those ignorant of the state
of the trade must be the preliminary to legislation upon the subject.
When proper legislation has found a place on the statute-books the j
manufacturers will find themselves in a position where, without detri- j
ment to themselves, they can all unite in giving up the practice. Under

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 133

the laws for the prevention of the adulteration of foods which have
been in operation in Germany, England, France, Canada, and a few of
our States, during a longer or shorter period of time, a large share of
attention has been given to the adulteration of spices and condiments
and the means of detecting them. Fortunately the latter are not diffi-
cult, and the results have been an awakening of the communities in
these countries to an appreciation of the advantages of pure spices
and the placing of the method of detection on a more certain basis.

EXPERIENCE IN COUNTRIES HAVINGr PUBLIC ANALYSTS.

In England the public mind had been so far educated by the publica-
tions of private investigators, such as Hassall, that in 1860 laws were
passed for the prevention of the adulteration of food and drink. These
have been modified and repealed, so that the present law dates from
1875 and amendments of 1879. Unfortunately there is no Government
report, of which we are aware, upon the results of the scientific work
done by those employed under the act, and we are indebted to the So-
ciety of Public Analysts for a large portion of the information which is
at our disposal in regard to adulteration in England. We have also in
the publications of Hassal, Blyth, and Allen volumes which give the
most recent scientific data as to the best methods for the detection of
adulteration, and illustrations of the forms in which foreign matter oc-
curs. On Dr. HassalPs work is founded many of our present methods of
examining foods microscopically, and especially spices and condiments.
In the Analyst, the publication of the Society of Public Analysts, will
be found among the proceedings of the society, in papers of individ-
uals, and in reports of prosecutions, much information in regard to the
status of adulteration in England during the last eleven years, includ-
ing the material used for adulteration of spices and the means of de-
tecting it. The lack of an official publication of the results of all that
has been done in regard to particular samples and of the methods em-
ployed for their examination is, however, much to be regretted. There
is the same difficulty in Germany. The law of the Empire of 1881 pro-
vides for the prevention of the adulteration of the substances which we
have under consideration, but no reports on the execution of the law or
of the results, scientific or otherwise, have been made available to us.
Much, however, has been published in the German technical and scien-
tific journals on the methods of detecting adulterants, which is of the
greatest value.

In France, the laboratory of the prefecture of police of Paris, which
has control of the investigation of the food supplies of that city, makes
an elaborate report annually, of which, however, but a small portion is
devoted to spices, although they are recognized as being largely adul-
terated, pepper, for example, being mixed to an astonishing extent
with ground olive stones. Other cities of France have municipal lab-
oratories whose reports, if any there are, have not reached us.

134

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

In this country Canada makes a much better statement of the results
which have followed the enforcement of the adulteration -of -food act of
1876 than is done anywhere else. The commissioner of inland revenue
has published annually for eight or ten years a statement showing the
entire number of samples analyzed, the persons supplying them, and
their composition and adulterants. Spices occupy a prominent position
in the reports, and a collation of the results of the investigations of the
several public analysts is of interest. la 1878, when the reports first
become available to us for reference, the summary of the spices analyzed
showed :

Articles.

Unadul-
terated.

Adul-
terated.

Per cent,
adul-
terated.

Allspice .-

1
2
3
3
5

11
2
15

8
38
28

92.5
50.0
83.3
CC. 6
61.5
100.0
70.0

Cassia

Cloves

Ginger ... ..

Pepper

This enormous amount of adulteration, amounting to nearly a uni-
versal custom, was followed in 1879 by a similar report :

Articles.

Unadul-
terated.

Adul-
terated.

Per cent,
adul-
terated.

Allspice

62 5

Cassia

50 2

84.2

55.5

Mace. ....................

16.6

Mustard

Pepper. ..................

48.8

In 1880 there were reported as the results of the public analysts'
work :

Articles.

Unadul-
terated.

Adul-
terated.

Per cent,
adul-
terated.

31 6

Cloves

45.5

Cinnamon

72.7

Ginger

47.1

Mustard

100.0

Pepper

42.9

There is a very slight improvement apparent, but it must be remem-
bered that in examinations of this description the specimens selected
are always of a suspicious nature, those which are already known to be
pure being omitted, so that year by year the list of brands which are
excluded from examination increases.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 135

In 1881 and the following years results were tabulated as follows:

31.

18f

18*

S4.

18f

?5.

Articles.

Gen-
uine.

Adul-
ter
ated.

Gen-
uine.

Adul-
ter-
ated.

Gen-
uine.

Adul-
ter-
ated.

Gen-
uine.

Adul-
ter-
ated.

Gen-
uine.

Adul-
ter-
ated.

Allspice

Cloves

Cinnamon or cassia...

Mace

Mustard

*39

Nutmeg

Pepper

Cayenne

Total

II 9

103

118

*Many labeled mixtures.

It is seen that several years after the enactment of the law adultera-
tion of spices is as enormous as at first. This, however, seems to arise
largely from lack of prosecution and non enforcement of the law. Of
the occurrence of adulterants in spices, the chief analyst says, in his
report for 1885 :

During the year considerable attention, was paid to spices and condiments. View-
ing the fact that in the past a very large .amount of adulteration had been reported
as prevailing in these substances, and with a view to ascertaining whether the adulter-
ation was practiced by the manufacturers or by the dealers, a systematic visitation
was made of all the spice grinders in the Dominion (or of all that could be recognized
as such), and their factories and stores were inspected under sections 7 and 8 with the
results as shown in the appendix.

The examination of nineteen samples of ground cinnamon resulted in finding seven
genuine; four to consist of a substitution of cassia; one was adulterated with cassia,
and six with other inert matter ; one consisted of cassia adulterated with foreign
vegetable matter.

Of ground cloves, twenty-two samples were examined. Twelve proved to be pure
and ten adulterated, the adulterant chiefly used being clove stems, pea-meal, roasted
and ground cocoanut shells.

Of sixty-six samples of ground ginger, twenty-nine were reported as being adulter-
ated, almost exclusively with wheat flour, non-injurious to health, doubtless ; but
unless the purchaser be duly warned of the nature of the compound his pocket would
be seriously prejudiced, if not injured, as this sophistication was practiced to the
extent of from 10 to 15 to from 25 to 40 per cent., the pungency being imparted by the
judicious admixture of cayenne pepper.

Fifty samples of mustard were examined, and many of these were properly sold as
"compound" or mixtures, but one of the worst samples was sold with a label guar-
anteeing it to be " ground from finest English seed, and free from adulteration." Of
the fifty samples, nine were reported genuine, two of excellent quality, and thirty-
nine were all, more or less, admixtures of mustard seed or mustard cake (from which
the natural fixed oil had been expressed) with wheat flour and turmeric, and, in some
cases, with corn-starch or bean meal, in varying proportions, up to as high as 50 or
even GO per cent. It was formerly contended that the addition of wheat flour or
other inert matter was a necessity, to give the ground mustard keeping qualities and
make the condiment palatable by softening its natural acidity. But the most repu-
table manufacturers have demonstrated the fallacy of this contention by the produo*

136 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

tion of an absolutely pure mustard, which has received public acceptance and appre-
ciation, and two, at least, of our home manufacturers are happily following in their
steps. It is a question yet to be decided how far the use of mustard cake, deprived
of the natural fixed oil, is permissible in the manufacture of this condiment. Dr.
Ellis' observations on this matter are very much to the point, and have received con-
firmation by sinvlar experiments in my laboratory, and doubtless when next the
analysts meet in conference this question will be settled in a manner favorable to the
use of mustard cake.

Twenty-four samples of cayenne pepper were examined, of which fourteen were
reported adulterated, but three cf these were appealed to the judgment of the chief
analyst, and the decision of the public analysts was not sustained, as will be seen on
reference to "appeal cases." The remaining ten were reported adulterated with
wheat flour and colored earth, in one case to the extent of 50 per cent. The other
ten samples were reported unadulterated, save one, which was doubtful, it apparently
having been artificially dressed with a fixed oil.

Sixty samples of ground pepper, black and white, were examined, of which thirty-
one are reported as unadulterated, one doubtful, and twenty-eight all more or less
adulterated the generality of them to the extent of from 10 per cent, to 20 per cent.,
but the more flagrant cases from 30 up to even 75 per cent, in one case. The adulter-
ant is chiefly farinaceous matter, also mustard husk, pepper hulls, clay, sand, and,
not the least conspicuous, ground cocoanut shells doubtless an innocent admixture, so
far as health is concerned, but decidedly not a material of a character to improve the
flavor or value of the pepper as a condiment.

As stated, these samples of spices were all obtained from either the actual producer
or wholesale distributers ; and the results prove that whether or not the retail vender
still further " improves" his spices, &c., before retailing them, his demand fora
cheap, adulterated article is amply provided for by the manufacturing dealer.

For the most part, the producers of these sophisticated goods expressed themselves
anxious for the enforcement of the law, that, if sold, they should be distinctly labeled
as impure. Some, on the other hand, contended that the public was benefited by a
slight admixture that a really better article could be supplied at a lower price ii
the finest and freshest spices were ground with an admixture of inert matter, than a
thoroughly pure article, but ground from old or perished spices a specious conten-
tion, utterly untenable in the true interests of the public.

But have not the producers of these sophistications some justification ; is not the
supply of a demand which, undoubtedly, has existed, a justifiable enterprise, what-
ever that demand may be, so long as it is within the law ? Ignorance does, undoubt-
edly, demand cheapness, and a demand thus ignorantly made is only too surely sup-
plied, and hence the need for costly legislation to protect an ignorant and thoughtless
public against itself, for it does demand the very goods which the analyst must con.
demn and the vender be prosecuted and fined for selling, whereas the public's reck-
less ignorance is the chief cause, and should suffer some measure of the penalty. It
is time that through the operation of this act such ignorance should be cleared away,
and the public be enlightened and awakened to its own true interests.

These remarks apply equally well to much of the spices sold in the
United States. Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, and Michigan
alone have laws* of any value in regard to the adulteration of food, and
it is easy to see in what condition the spices and condiments sold in
other parts of the country must be. In Massachusetts, where investi-
gations under the law have been going on since 1882, it has been shown,
as in other localities, that the adulterants of spices are numerous but
harmless. Dr. Sharpless, in his report of 1882 upon the subject, remarks,

* See Appendix.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

137

that be agrees with the opinion expressed by Dr. Leeds, of New Jersey,
in his report of 1880 to the New Jersey State board of health, that
there has been much sensational writing upon the subject. This is per-
haps the case with some few writers of that stamp, but it can have done
no harm, for it has not produced sufficient effect upon the public to ere.
ate a demand for any purer spices, as appears from the figures of Dr.
E. S. Wood in 1882, who reports in regard to the samples he examined
as analyst of foods for Massachusetts :

Articles.

Genuine.

Adulter-
ated.

Per cent,
adulter-
ated.

Black pepper ......

68. 75

White pepper
lied pepper

13
5

70. 45

Mustard

61.84

Ground cloves
Cassia

11
2

100. 00
100. 00

Gin <*er

This is nearly as serious a condition as was found in Canada, but again,
in 1885, Dr. Wood reports:

Articles.

Genuine.

Adulter-
ated.

Com-
pounds.

Per cent,
adulter-
ated.

Mustard

64 8

83 5

Cassia and cinnamon..
Giu <r f.r .

48
55

36.0
23 6

Allspice

21 1

1!)

78 6

W hite peper .........

The above is little or no improvement. He found the common adul-
terants of mustard to be flour, turmeric, and sometimes a little cayenne.
Cloves suffered from extraction of the volatile oil and the addition of
clove stems, allspice, burnt shells, and other cheap substances. Cassia
contained ground shells and crackers; ginger was in many cases col-
ored, and in some instances wheat and corn flour and clove stems were
present. Allspice is too cheap to be often adulterated, but in eight
samples mustard hulls, grnmd shells, clove stems, and cracker dust
were found. In mace, flour and cornmeal were diluents, and for the
peppers, crackers, mustard hulls, pepper dirt, powdered charcoal, rice,
corn, and buckwheat.

Under the New York law of 1881, Prof. S. A. Lattioaore investigated
a number of spices and spice mixtures submitted to him.

Professor Lattimore's report furnishes abundant proof in support of
the common impression regarding the adulteration of spices.

138

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

On the results of his examination of the commercial ground spices
he comments, after giving the proportions which were found adulter-
ated, in tliese words :

Articles.

Samples
examined.

Adulter-
ated.

Percentage
of adulter-
ation.

Mustard

66 6

Allspice

70 4

81 8

Cassia ............

57. 1

76 2

Pepper:
Black

70.0

"White

71.4

Red

50.0

Mace

50.0

Nutmeg ........

40.0

As tlie above table shows, a large proportion of them are adulterated, and that with
substances presenting a certain uniformity. The spices present an inviting field for
the exercise of fraudulent arts. They are almost universally sold in the form of fine
powder and in opaque packages, which do not admit of easy examination on the part
of the purchaser. Consequently any cheap substance which may be easily pulver-
ized to a similar degree of fineness, and which possesses little distinctive taste or odor
of its own, answers the purpose ; so that the list of adulterants for this class of ar-
ticles is naturally very large. The adulterations found in the samples now under
consideration may be classed into four groups. First, integuments of grains of seeds,
such as bran of wheat and buckwheat, hulls of mustard seed, flax seed, &c. Second,
farinaceous substances of low price, such as are damaged by the accidents of trans-
portation or long storage such as middlings of various kinds, corn-meal, and stale
ship's bread. Third, leguminous seeds, as peas and beans, which contribute largely
to the profit of the spice mixer. Fourth, various articles chosen with reference to
their suitableness for bringing up the mixture as nearly as possible to the required
standard of color of the genuine article. Various 'shades, from light colors to dark
browns, may be obtained by the skillful roasting of farinaceous and leguminous sub-
stances. A little turmeric goes a great way in imparting the rich yellow hue of real
mustard to a pale counterfeit of wheat flour and terra alba, or the defective paleness
of artificial black pepper is brought up to the desired tone by the judicious sifting in
of a little finely pulverized charcoal. Enough has been already given to show that
the field for sophistications of this sort is a wide one, and offers large scope for the
development of inventive genius; so that each manufacturer of articles of this class
would be likely to possess his own trade secrets. It will be observed that the adul-
terating materials just mentioned all belong to the class claimed to be harmless. In
no instance has any poisonous substance been discovered. The proportion of foreign
and genuine substances in the spices varies between wide limits, in some instances
the former being slight; in others, the latter seemingly present in just sufficient
quantity to impart faintly the requisite taste or odor. Even this small proportion of the
professed article is occasionally further diminished by the substitution of other sub-
stances ; as, for example, in imparting to corn-meal finely ground a pungency sug-
gested by real ginger by the addition of a little salt and red pepper.

It is probably not so widely known as it should be that the demand for the mate-
rials for adulteration has called into existence a branch of manufacturing industry of
no insignificant magnitude, having for its sole object the production of articles known
as " spice mixtures" or "pepper dust." The use of " pepper dust," or, as the article
is commonly designated in the technical language of the trade by its abbreviatiou
" P. D.," is a venerable fraud.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

139

The manufacture of " P. D." is now a regular branch, of business, and the original
and specific term u pepper dust " has expanded with the progress of inventive art to
generic proportions, until now we have as well-known articles sold by the barrel
"P. D. pepper," "P. D. ginger," "P. D. cloves, "and so on through the whole aromatic
list. When it is considered that these imitations, lacking only such flavoring with
the genuine article as the dealer thinks necessary to make his goods sell, are sold at
from three to four cents a pound, and the retail price paid by the consumer is com-
pared with it, the strength of the temptation to engage in such practices is clearly
seen. When manufacturers openly advertise themselves as assorters and renovators
of merchandise, and openly propose to cleanse musty and damaged beans by a new
and patented process, it is full time that its significance should be considered by the
public.

From the investigations, which have been quoted, it appears that the
adulterants which are met with in this country are very numerous.
Under the head of spice mixtures, or " P. D., ?? much refuse of all descrip-
tions is used up, and there are such changes in the character of the ma-
terial from time to time as the sources of damaged material or refuse
at hand may suggest. The diluents used in Baltimore and in the Dis-
trict of Columbia seem to be different from those in New York, and, in
consequence, some of the adulterants whiqh are mentioned most com-
monly in the reports from the North are not found in the spices of
southern millers. While it is possible, therefore, to give a list of sub-
stances which have been used as adulterants, it is quite out of the ques-
tion to say in what directions the ingenuity of spice-mixers will extend
in the future. The following contaminations in the various spices have
been already noted in this country :

Spices.

Allspice.
Cayenne

Cassia ,

Cinnamon

Cloves

Ginger . .
Mace....
Nutmeg.
Pepper .

Mustard

Adulterants.

Spent cloves, clove stems, cracker dust, ground shells or charcoal,

'mineral color yellow corn.
Rice flour, salt and ship-stuff, yellow corn, turmeric, and mineral

red.

Ground shells and crackers, turmeric, minerals.

Castia, peas, starch, mustard hulls, turmeric, minerals, cracker dust,

burnt shells or charcoal.
Spent cloves, clove stems, minerals, allspice, roasted shells, wheat flour,

peas.

Cereals, turmeric, mustard hulls, cayenne, peas.
Cereals or starch, buckwheat, wild tnace.
Cereals or starch, wild nutmeg.
Refuse of all sorts, pepper dust, ground crackers, or ship stuff; rice,

mustard hulls, charcoal, cocoanut shells, cayenne, beans, bran,

yellow corn.
Cereals and starch, turmeric, peas, yettow corn meal, ginger, gypsum.

The materials in italics have been identified in spices examined in the
laboratory of this division, but some of the commoner adulterants have
not been found. Considering the spices individually, there are certain
peculiarities, as they are met with pure and in the trade, which should
not be overlooked.

MUSTARD.

Mustard, as sold in the ground state, should be the farina or flour of
the black or white mustard seed that is to say, the flour from the in-
terior of the seed bolted or separated from the hulls. The two kinds of

140 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

seed, although derived from plants of the same genus, are somewhat
different in their chemical composition. The black seed is much the
most pungent, and develops, on mixing with water, a volatile oil, which
gives this condiment its penetrating character. There is also present
in the seed a complicated organic substance of a bitter nature, to which
is due some of the peculiar flavor, and while the white seed forms no
volatile oil with water, it contains more of the bitter substance. It is,
therefore, very common to mix the two in grinding. The sources of the
seed are various. In our markets at present there are quoted Califor-
nia black and white, Dutch, Trieste black, and English the last being
the most valuable.

In the manufacture of the seed into flour for the market, two customs
have arisen which change the nature of the original substance, and there-
fore would commonly come under the head of adulteration. One is ex-
tremely old, the addition of wheat flour for the purpose of making the
condiment keep better. This necessitates the restoration of the yellow
color by turmeric, or other dye-stuff. These diluents are harmless as a
rule, but there seerns to be no reasons for their use, and it is gradually
becoming commoner to find mustard free from them in English brands.

The other custom is the abstraction of the fixed oil by pressure before
grinding the seed. The percentage of this oil is over 30. It adds nothing
to the flavor of the mustard, probably injures its keeping qualities, makes
the seed more difficult to mill, and its removal is therefore a benefit. It
is a nearly universal custom at the present day in this country, and is
not considered as fraudulent by the Canadian analysts.

Falsifications of mustard other than those mentioned are not common,
although gypsum has been found in low-grade mustard and several
other adulterants, among them ginger of low grade. The hulls bolted
from the flour in the process of manufacture are preserved and form the
basis of the adulteration of many other spices.

Pepper is more in demand than any other spice, and in consequence
is more adulterated. Its appearance in the ground form, especially of
the black, is such as to make it possible to use all sorts of refuse for this
purpose, and almost everything that has been used as an adulterant
has been found in pepper. White pepper, which is simply the black
deprived of its outer black coats, is, of course, less easily falsified; but in
France is diluted to an immense extent with ground olive stones, which
bear a striking resemblance. Among the samples from Washington
grocers, pepper sweepings that is, husks and dirt rice or corn, and
mustard-hulls were the commonest admixtures. Sand is said to be
very commonly added abroad, but has not been met with here. In Can-
ada and New York ground cocoanut-shells are a cheap source of adul-
teration, but they have not extended so far south.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 141

Specimens from Baltimore mills of very low-quality goods were found
to contain but little pepper, and that of the worst quality, being made
up of cracker dust, yellow corn, cayenne, and charcoal in so disgraceful
a way as to be visible to the unassisted eye on close examination.

The quality of a ground pepper can be told by an expert from its
weight and color, and on examination with a lens of low magnifying
power. The particles are not coarsely ground, and it is not difficult to
pick out pieces of husk, yellow corn, and rice, and, if necessary, a more
careful investigation under a microscope of higher power will serve for
confirmation. Black pepper, in our experience, is much more liable
to adulteration than white, although it is perfectly easy to dilute the
latter with broken rice or cracker dust, which are inexpensive. All
these materials, fortunately, owing to the grossnessof the adulteration,
are readily recognized, and there is hardly the necessity for recourse to
chemical analysis. There has been, however, considerable investiga-
tion in this direction, so that there are means of confirming the optical
examination which are of great value. Determination of the amount
of starch is one of the methods upon which some reliance can be placed ;
for, if under the microscope foreign starch is not detected, then the ad-
dition of " P. D.' 7 or other starch free adulterants, will diminish the per-
centage found, and the reverse. In this way, too, one is able to arrive
at an approximate conclusion as to the proportion of adulterants added,
which can only be estimated within wide limits under the microscope.

In spite of the immense amount of adulteration, it is possible, from
the best shops, to obtain pure ground peppers, but it is at the same
time safer with a family spice-mill to grind the whole berries as they
are needed. The sources of our pepper supply are Tellicherry on the
west coast of Hindostan, which is graded high, and Penaug and Sing-
apore for the east, Sumatra, Java, &c. The importations are princi-
pally through London, and not direct. The supply of ground pepper
from England will usually be found more pure than our own brands,
and at the same time is naturally more expensive.

CAYENNE OR RED PEPPER.

This condiment should consist of the ground pods of any of several
species of Capsicum, known as chilies or peppers. It is said to have been
adulterated with many substances, brick dust, red lead, and coloring
matters; but this has only been found to be the case in two cheap Balti-
more cayennes, while in Washington only rice has been detected, but
that quite frequently. Inferior material is no doubt often ground, but
the small value of the pods and the small quantity consumed does not
tend to increase adulteration.

GINGER.

Ginger is the root, or, technically, rhizome, of a plant somewhat similar
in appearance to our iris and flag. It is grown in various parts of tbe
world and prepared with great care and great carelessness, being at

142 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

times scraped and bleached, at others simply dried in any condition, so
that there is an immense number of varieties and qualities to be found
in the market, They all, however, retain sufficiently the marked pecu-
liarities of the starchy fibrous root to make the detection of adulterants
easy. The common ones are the addition of wheat flour or some starch
as a diluent, the coloring with turmeric to suit a popular fancy for
gingerbread or of spent material which has been used in making
tincture. Mustard hulls and cayenne are also found in some cases, but
have seldom been detected here. They are added to give pungency
and make up for the addition of flour. Their detection is easy. The
sources of our supply are Jamaica and the West Indies, Cochin China,
Africa and India. Jamaica is the best and most carefully prepared.

CLOVES.

The flower buds of the clove tree carefully picked and dried consti-
tute the spice known by that name. Their valuable properties are due
to the volatile oil which they contain, the best having as much as 16
per cent.

The removal of this oil is so very easy that it is the commonest method
of deception to do so before grinding the spice and to then dispose of
it as pure. We have ready means of determining the loss chemically,
but the microscope gives no indications. The addition of the cheaper
clove stems is also practiced, as they cost but 6 cents when the buds
cost 27. The microscope reveals their presence by certain cells which
they contain which are absent in the buds.

Pimento is sometimes substituted in part or entirely, as it has a clove-
like flavor but only 4 or 5 per cent, of volatile oil. It is worth less than
one-fifth the price of cloves. Its chemical composition and its struct-
ure, that of a berry, reveals its presence. The addition of the coarser
adulterants, mineral matter, cocoanut shells, flour, peas, and the like,
have only been observed in two instances, but no doubt frequently
occur, as has been found in Canada.

The sources of our supply are the East Indies (Amboyna), African
(Zanzibar), and American, ranking in value in the order named. Cloves
should, if possible, be always purchased whole, as they deteriorate less
readily in that form.

CINNAMON AND CASSIA.

These spices are the barks of several species of the genus Cinna-
monum, the true cinnamon being a native of Ceylon, where it is largely
cultivated, and the cassias being derived from several other species
growing in China, India, and the East Indies. Cinnamon as it reaches
the market is very thin, the outer and inner coats of the bark having
been removed. Cassia on the other hand is thick, as it consists of the
entire bark and can be distinguished by its retaining its natural outer
surface. Cinnamon is by far more valuable than the cassia, as there
is a smaller supply and intrinsically it contains a much greater propor-

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 143

tioii of volatile oil and that of higher and more delicate aroma. In con-
sequence cassia is largely substituted for cinnamon, and in fact not a
particle of ground cinnamon can be found in the market. It can be
found in the whole condition in good quality only in drug stores. Cas-
sia exists in many forms and qualities, and sells at wholesale at from 7
to 40 cents a pound. That known as Saigon is the best, and that ex-
ported from Batavia the poorest. Cassia buds also hold a small place
in the market.

The detection of the substitution of cassia for cinnamon, since the
barks are of trees of the same species, is more difficult than is usually
the case and may prove troublesome to a novice. The presence of more
woody fiber in the latter with the aid of chemical analysis serves, how-
ever, as a reliable distinction. In the samples which have come into
our hands not a particle of material labeled ground cinnamon proved
to be anything other than cassia. The spice millers appeared, however,
to be satisfied to stop at this point and in only one case was there ad-
dition of cheap stuff to the cassia. When added there is no difficulty
in detecting it as has been done here and in Canada, where peas, starch,
ground shells, and crackers have been found in powder labeled both
cassia and cinnamon.

The barks can, in most cases, and especially the cinnamon, be used
nearly as well in the whole condition and should at least be so pur-
chased and then ground. A slight acquaintance with the appearance
of the different qualities will teach one the proper selection to make.

NUTMEGr AND MACE.

These spices are different portions of the fruit of a tree known as the
nutmeg tree, Myristica fragrans, the nutmeg being the inner kernel and
the mace one of the outer coats or arillus. The tree grows principally
on the Banda Islands and the spices reach us through Londou. They
can always be obtained in their original condition and should be so
purchased. When ground they are mixed with diluents of various de-
scriptions, principally cereals and their refuse, which are easily detected.

Owing to the infrequency of the sale of the powdered nutmeg and
mace, their adulteration has attracted but little attention.

SOURCES OF OUR SPICE SUPPLY.

Although the countries where the spices are grown have been al-
ready given in a general way and in a later chapter will be given more
in detail, these countries, in many instances, are not the direct sources
of our supplies. For instance, of the pepper imported in the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1886, amounting to nearly 12,000,000 pounds, over
8.000,000 came to us from England, and about 3,000,000 from the British
East Indies, including the ports of Singapore and Penang. In regard
to the other spices data are found in the annual statement of the Bureau

144

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

of Statistics of the Treasury Department and in some additional tables
furnished to this office by the Bureau, which are here given:

Imports of unground spices, free of duty, for the year ending June 30, 1886.

Countries from which imported.

Nutmegs.

Pepper.

All other.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Pounds.

2,128

$225

194

$32

Ontial AiiH'ricaii States:

Chili

5,905
344, 552

498
45, 808

Chi DA

11,825

$3, 982

257, 402

21, 737

Gneuland, Iceland, and the Faroe

300

120

Miquelnn, Langley, and Saint Pierre

French Possessions in Africa and

4,740
247, 839

2, 293
98, 412

16,831
2, 003, 255

1,832
176, 535

8, 214, 037

1, 157, 264

Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and

Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, and the
Northwest Territory

1,465

338

740

British Columbia

Newfoundland and Labrador

British West Indies

3,344

889

480

3, 017, 943

146, 880

British Honduras . .

British East Indies

464, 862

179, 169

2, 927, 472

403, 090

1, 006, 938
1, 089, 089

1, 563, 073

66, 536
91, 650

59, 101

British Possessions in Africa and

11, 984

1,042

British Possessions in Australasia.

840

Hayti

Italy

Liberia

4, 233
907
31,038

296
100

7,292

50
210, 635

37
83,412

48, 255

7,528

Netherlands .. ........

Dutch West Indies

Dutch Guiana

Dutch East Indies

245, 912

90, 065

3,261

360

817, 756

35, 618

Peru..

Portugal

Azore, Madeira, and Cape Verde
Islands

Portuguese Possessions in Africa
and adjacent islands

Spain

151

856
101,338

36
241
4,302

Porto Rico

Sweden and Norway .... ........

Switzerland

Turkey in Europe

Turkey in Asia.

Venezuela

1,160

All other countries and ports in
Asia

All other countries and ports in
Africa

283, 062

28,154

851, 307

66, 624

Total

1, 189, 507

458, 379

11, 843, 453

1, 644, 3b3 10, 767, 211

678, 936

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

Imports of ground spices, dutiable, for the year ending June 30, 1886.

145

Countries from which im-
ported.

Quantity.

Value.

Countries from which im-
poi ted.

Quantity.

Value.

Argentine Republic .........

Pounds.

British East Indies

Pounds.

991

$ < >'>5

114

Brazil ...

and adjacent islands

Central American States:
Costa Rica

British Possessions in Aus-
tralasia

Guatemala

British Possessions, all other

Greece

Nicaragua

Hawaiian Islands ...... .

San Salvador ..........

Hayti

Chili

Italy

China . ...

Japan ...... ......

Denmark

Liberia ............ .......

Mexico

448

Greenland Iceland and the

Netherlands

3 31 9

246

Dutch "West Indies

France

3 9 8

913

Dutch East Indies

French "West Indies . .

Peru

French Guiana

Azores, Madeira and Cape

Miquelon, Langley, and Saint

Verde Islands

Pierre Island^

Russia on the Baltic and

French Possessions in Africa

White Seas

1 101

and adjacent islands

San Domingo

French Possessions all other

Spain S

35 442

3 087

Germany

556

103

Cuba

2 734

351

644, 022

164, 687

Porto Rico

Scotland

Ireland .

1,758

611

Sweden and Norway

Nova Scotia New Brunswick

and Prince Edward Island .

Turkey in Asia

Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba,

United States of Colombia. .

and the Northwest Terri-

115

Venezuela

British Columbia

Nmvfourdland and Labrador

iu Africa

British West Indies

British Guiana

Total . .

693 699

170 4 9 3

British Honduras

Statement showing, &// customs districts and porls the quantities and values of spices im-
ported and entered for consumption in the United States during the year ending June 30,
1886.

FREE OF DUTY.

Customs districts and ports.

Cassia buds.

Cassia, cassia vera.

Cinnamon, and
chips of

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Pounds.

Baltimore Md

12, 127

$824. 00

Chicago 111

Corpus Christi Tex.

Detroit Mich

Duluth* Minn

Key West Fla

.50

New York N Y

232,718

$14, 496

1, 838, 649

114, 681

64, 555

10, 274. 00

Paso del Norte Tex

Philadelphia Pa

5,313

566

12, 451

978

Saluria Tex'

2,243

387. 00

Willamette Ore"

Total

238, 031

15, 062

1, 851, 100

115,659

78, 927

11, 485. 50

22823 Bull. 13, pt. 2 3

146

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

Statement shoiving, ly customs districts and ports, the quantities and values of spices im-
ported and entered for consumption, fie. Continued,

FREE OF DUTY.

Customs districts and ports.

Cloves.

Clove stem.

Ginger root.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Pounds.

11, 098
20, 708

$1, 500. 00
2, 632. 00

88, 214
954, 716

$4, 961. 00
38, 664. 00

30, 000

$675. 00

Chicago 111 ...........

6,606
3,931

1,011.00
601. 00

1.00

742

35.00

Key West Fla

6.20

New York N Y

1, 234, 576

145, 634. 00

266, 127

5, 057. 00

3, 192, 245
420

174, 178. 00
4.00

Paso del Norte Tex

Philadelphia Pa

13, 091

1, 732. 00

34,534

2, 392. 00

8,101

1, 232 00

986
5,900

51.00
194. 00

Willimette Ore 01

Total

1, 298, 883

154, 383. 20

296, 127

5, 732, 00

4, 277, 110

220, 415. 00

FREE OF DUTY.

Customs districts and ports.

Mace.

Nutmegs.

Pepper, white and
black.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Aroostook, Me

Pounds.

Baltimore Md

22, 314
66, 465

$8, 634
27, 462

429, 849
476, 990
460
23, 746
139, 726

$57, 075
54, 951
102
3,575
20, 424

6,733

$1, 907. 00

Brazos de Santiago, Tex

Chicago, 111

Cincinnati Ohio

Detroit, Mich

Duluth, Minn

Galveston, Tex

Key West, Fla

115

11.50

Middletown. Conn

Minnesota Minn

New Orleans, La

New York N. Y

115, 022

28, 617. 00

1, 008, 282

395, 583

9, 119, 301

1, 309, 084

Oregon, Oreg

Oswegatchie, N. Y

1,465

338

Paso del Norte Tex

Philadelphia Pa

139

118. 00

177

162

195, 455
25
509, 882
98, 887

25, 702
8
71, 296
15, 255

Saluria, Tex

San Francisco, Cal

86, 014
6,204

23, 643

2,858

Saint Louis, Mo

Willamette, Oreg

Total

122, 009

30, 653. 50

1, 189, 456

458, 342

10, 995, 786

1, 557, 810

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

147

Statement sltowiny, by customs districts and ports, the quantities and values of spices im-
ported and entered for consumption, fc. Continued.

FREE OF DUTY.

Customs districts and ports.

Pepper, cayenne.

Pimento.

All other, n. s. e.,
or p. f.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Pounds.

130

11, 585

920. 00

Chicago 111

Corpus Christi Tex ....

9,552

$1, 296

37, 446

6,111.00

Detroit Mich

Dulutb Minn

Key West Fla

5.20
2, 400. 00

Middletown Conn

New Tork N Y

723, 459

73, 789

2, 500, 523

109, 605

33, 600

Paso del Norte Tex

1,081
79,118

47
5,503

Philadelphia Pa

130

151, 313
16, 329

21, 5ii. 66

1, 265. 00

Willamette Oreg

Total

813, 210

. 80,635

2, 500, 783

109, 615

250, 327

32, 212. 20

DUTIABLE.

Customs districts and ports.

Mustard, ground or pre-
serred, in bottles, or o.

All other,
ground or produced,
n. s. e. or p. f.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Pounds.

10, 660
24, 670

$1.35
2, 839. 00
7, 074. 00

Pounds.

Baltimore Md

894

$392. 00

Brazos de Santiago, Tex

Chicago, 111

Cincinnati, Ohio

Corpus Christi, Tex

1.00

Detroit, Mich

896
5
1,800
3

278. 00
1.00
317. 00
.42

Duluth Minn

5.00
349. 41
246. 00
9.00
3, 704. 00
498. 00

Key West, Fla

2,762
3,312
90
36, 982
2,295

Middletown, Conn

Minnesota, Minn

45, 207
404, 099

8,810.00
100, 609. 00

New York, N. Y

Oregon, Oreg

Oswegatchie, N. Y

Paso del Norte, Tex

442
420

70.62
157. 00

Philadelphia, Pa

106, 735

30, 701. 00

Saluria, Tex

San Francisco, Cal

38, 985
4,490

11, 195. 00
3,111.00

Saint Louis, Mo

Willamette, Oreg

94^

5.26

Total

637, 555

162, 936. 77

47, 317i

5, 431. 29

148

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

Unfortunately, with the exception of pepper and nutmeg, the tables
giving tho countries from which the imports were made do not distin-
guish between the spices. We are, however, able to see that a large
portion of our supply comes through England, and the effect of this
upon its quality is certainly not to improve it. The amount of each
spice entered for consumption is visible in the last table and the port
of arrival as well. New York of course receives the largest portion,
followed by Boston and Baltimore, which are both milling centers.

As the spices are offered by the wholesale merchant they have a va-
riable value, the quotations in New York for the week ending Decem-
ber 27, 1886, being as follows:

Kind of spices.

Price per
pound.

Kind of spices.

Price per
pound.

Cassia

Cents.

Cents.
48 to 50

Batavia . . . ....

7 to 7J

Pepper

China

Saigon :
Holla

36 40

West coast
Acheen prime ....

15i 1C
15

Broken

25 26

Chips

9 10

Singapore white

28 29

Buds

10i 10k

lied-

Cloves:
Prime

Zanzibar

** I

Amboyna ........

Stems

Mustard

Ginger :
African

California:

Qa 44.

Calcutta

3| 4

Yellow

3J 4*

Cochin

Mace:

10 13

Dutch

English . . .

5J 6

r,' ;.\

Batavia

6j 5*

Ban da

Penang .

It is of interest to examine these figures and compare them with the
prices of wholesalers and retailers of ground spices.

The following figures show that prices alone are often a good indica-
tion of adulteration, the ground article being sold at wholesale or
even retail for less than the cost of the pure unground spice.

Pure whole spices

Price per pound.

Wholesale.

Small lots.

Ginger root :
Bleached :
Jamaica ....

Cents.

16
14

12
8
10

30
32

32
18
18

12
12

8
8

10
42
10
9

American

Unbleached :

Cochin

74 to 11

32 4
6

26 27

24
10 J 16
15|

5i 5J

8 8

32 4i

7 7i
36 40
9 10

Calcutta

Clove stems

Clove :

Amboyna

Pepper :
White Singapore
Best west coast . .

Acheen

Mustard seed :
Brown Trieste

Yellow English

California .

Brown California
Cassia bark :
Batavia

Saigon stick

Saigon chip

Ligna sticks

Singapore black pepper
Zanzibar red peeper...

17i 17J
9.V

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
Prices as supplied l\j spice mills.

149

Name.

Price per pound.

"Wholesale,
barrels.

Small lots
in tin.

Durham mustard

Cents.
12
16
18
12
10
12
10
7
6
12
10
6
5
20
17
50
25

Cents.
16
20
22
1C
14
16
14
11
10
16
14
10
9
24
21
54
29

Extra strong mustard ..

Extra American mustard...
B. Pure Pepper

Pure cinnamon

Best cinnamon ............

Best ginger

Pure cayenne...... .........

Pure allspice

Best allspice

Pure cloves

Best cloves . . . ...

Pure mace

Pure white pepper

CHARACTER OF THE SPICES IN THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.

The spices found in Washington are from various markets. The first
class grocers carry the best English and rarely good American brands.
Adulteration, however, is frequent, especially among the mustards, pep-
pers, and cinnamon, the first having lost its oil and added flour, and the
last having cassia substituted for it. Among the cheaper class of dealers
adulterated spices are nearly universal, the supply being obtained
largely from Baltimore and to a small extent ground in Washington,
both places in which yellow corn and charcoal are much used as adul-
terants.

Of a series of samples collected impartially fro rcuall classes of shops the
ratio of adulterated to non- adulterated was as follows :

Variety of spice.

Pure.

Adulter-
ated.

Substi-
tuted.

Inferior
or sus-
picious.

Cassia

Cinnamon

Cloves

Ginger

Mace

Mustard. ...

10*

Nutme "

Peppe 1 ' :

Black

White

Red .

Pimento

* Oil expressed in one case and tumeric added and oil expressed in all American brands.

The preceding samples, which have proved to be so largely adulter-
ated, have been used in connection with a collection of authenticated
whole spices obtained directly from the importers as a means of inves-
tigating the methods which have been recommended for the detection

150 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

of adulterants, and the results of our examination of published methods
and our own work are presented in the following pages, giving to the
analyst a large amount of technical and scientific information which is
of less interest to the general reader.

PART II.

THE DETECTION OF ADULTERATION OF SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

In attempting to detect the adulteration of spices and condiments
the methods which can be employed are of three kinds and depend
upon the differences in structure between the adulterants and the sub-
stances to which they are added, and upon their proximate composi-
tion. The former differences are recognized by mechanical separation
and the use of the microscope and the latter by chemical analysis. In
the use of the microscope a knowledge of and ability to recognize the
principal tissues which constitute the particular plant parts which are
used as spices and also of those used as adulterants is necessary, while
in the chemical examination the principles of proximate analysis must
be understood and applied.

It is as necessary that the analyst should be thoroughly acquainted
with the application of the microscope to the determination of cellular
structure as to be able to make determinations of proximate prin-
ciples in the substances under examination. In fact, a mechanical sep-
aration and microscopical examination is much more expeditious and
more at the command of the majority of persons searching for adultera-
tion.

Chemical analysis requires a systematic and extensive investigation
of large numbers of samples, both pure and adulterated, to fix a stand-
ard of comparison, and this has hitherto been seldom done, owing to
the elaborate nature of the work and the expense involved. It should
not be neglected, however, since it serves as a most certain confirmation
of the microscopic results, besides furnishing information in regard to
the quality of the specimen examined and as to the quantity of any
adulterant, which cannot be obtained in any other way. "While, there-
fore, the microscopic method will always retain its value for preliminary
and qualitative examinations, it must, with the development of the
means of chemical investigation, become more and more a mere adjunct
of the latter, as in fact the microscope has become in all branches of
science. The application of the microscope to the detection of adulter-
ants will, therefore, be considered first.

MECHANICAL SEPARATION AND MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF SPICES

AND CONDIMENTS.

As a preliminary to the microscopic examination a mechanical sep-
aration by means of sieves of different mesh furnishes a means of de-
tecting adulterants and selecting particles for further investigation,

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 151

which is of the greatest value and often reveals without additional
means the presence of foreign materials. Many adulterants are not
ground as fine as the spice to which they are added, and by passing
the substance through a sieve of from 40 to 60 meshes to the inch the
coarser particles remaining will either be recognized at once by the un-
aided eye or with a pocket lens or the microscope. In this way turmeric
is readily separated from mustard, and yellow corn, mustard hulls and
cayenne from low-grade peppers $ in no case was the aid of more than
an ordinary pocket lens necessary for subsequent recognition, although
higher powers of the microscope were confirmatory.

Without entering here into the practical manipulation of the micro-
scope, it may be said that for the purposes of the food analyst it is only
necessary to have a stand of good workmanship, not necessarily, though
preferably, furnished with substage condenser, but supplied with Nicol
prisms for the use of polarized light. Objectives of inch, half-inch, or,
for some of the starches, one-fifth inch equivalent focus are sufficient.
One eye-piece of medium depth is also enough. It is also desirable to
be provided with a dissecting microscope for selecting particles for ex-
amination from large masses of ground spice. For those who can afford
it, the large stand of Zeiss made for this purpose proves most useful,
but simpler forms or even a hand lens will serve perfectly well.

For smaller apparatus it is unnecessary to provide anything aside
from what is found in ordinary laboratories. A few beakers, watch
glasses, stirring rods, and specimen tubes, with bottles for reagents will
be sufficient in addition to the ordinary glass slides and cover glasses.

The reagents which are required include, in case no permanent mounts
are required :

Alcohol, strong.
Ammonia.

Chloralhydrat, solution 8 parts to 5 of water.
Glycerine.

Iodine solution : water 15 parts, iodide of potash 20 parts, iodine 5 parts.
Water, distilled.

Schulze's reagent, a mixture of chlorate of potash and dilute nitric acid pre-
pared as wanted.

Balsam in benzol and glycerine jelly are desirable for mounting
media and some sheet wax for making cells.

In addition the analyst should supply himself with specimens of whole
spices, starches, and known adulterants which can be used to become ac-
quainted with the forms and appearances to be expected. It is easier
to begin one's study in this way on sections prepared with the knife
than upon the powdered substance, and it is often necessary to refer
to them for comparison in the examination of trade samples.

PHYSIOLOGICAL STRUCTURE IN THE SPICES AND THEIR ADULTERANTS.

The vegetable tissues which made up the structure of the spices, and
the material of a vegetable origin which are added as adulterants, con-
sist of cells of different forms and thickness. Those which are most

152 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

prominent and common are the parenchyma, the sclerenchyraa, fibrous
tissue, and the fibro-vascular bundles. Spiral and dotted vessels are also
common in several of the adulterants, and in the epidermis other forms
of tissue which it is necessary to be well acquainted with though not
physiologically. The parenchyma is the most abundant tissue in all
material of vegetable origin, making up the largest proportion of the
main part of the plant. It is composed of thin-walled cells, which may
be recognized in the potato and in the interior of the stems of maize.
In the latter plant, also, the fibro-vascular system is well exemplified,
running as scattered bundles between the nodes or joints, and easily
made out.

Fibrous tissue consists of elongated thick-walled cells or fibers which
are very common in the vegetable kingdom and are well illustrated in
flax. They are not as common in spices as in the adulterants. They
are optically active, and in the shorter forms somewhat resemble the
cells next described. They are seen in one of the coats of buckwheat
hulls and in the outer husk of the cocoanut.

The sclerenchyma is found in the shells of many nuts and in one or
two of the spices. The cells are known as stone cells, from the great
thickening of their walls, and to them is due the hardness of the shell
of the cocoanut, the pits of the olive, &c. Their structure is illustrated
in Fig. 5 from Strasburger.

FIG. 5. Sclerenchyma or stone cells. X 240. (After Strasburger.)

Spiral and dotted vessels are common in woody tissue and are readily
recognized. . With all these forms the analyst should familiarize him-
self, and as an aid may consult Bessey's Botany in the American
Science Series.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 153

In pepper and in mustard the parenchyma cells are prominent in the
interior portion of the berry, while those constituting the outer coats
are indistinct from their deep color in the pepper, but in the mustard
characteristic of the particular species. In fact, in many of the spices,
especially those which are seeds, the forms of the epidermal cells are ve'ry
striking, and even if no attempt is made to classify them their peculiari-
ties must be carefully noted, as the recognition of the presence of for-
eign husky matter depends upon a knowledge of the normal appearance
in any spice. The fibro- vascular bundles are most prominent in ginger
and in the barks, where in the powdered spices they are found as stringy
particles.

The sclerenchyma or stone cells, are commoner in the adulterants, es-
pecially in cocoannt shells, where may also be seen numerous spiral cells
and in the exterior coats fibrous tissue.

As aids to distinguishing these structures, the following peculiarities
may be cited.

The stone cells and fibrous tissue are optically active and are there-
fore readily detected with polarized light, shining out in the dark field of
the microscope as silver white or yellowish bodies.

The fibro- vascular bundles are stained deep orange brown with iodine,
owing to the nitrogenous matter which they contain, while parenchyma
is not affected by this reagent aside from the cell contents, nor has it
any action on polarized light, remaining quite invisible in the field with
crossed prisms.

STARCH.

Aside from the cellular tissue, starch is the most important element
in the plant for the analyst, audits peculiarities will* be considered quite
fully.

It possesses an organized structure and is distinguished by its reac-
tion with iodine solution, with which it strikes a deep blue or blackish
blue color, varying somewhat with different kinds of starch and with
the strength of the reagent.

Conversely its absence is marked by no blue color under the same
circumstances. Heat, however, as in the process of baking, so alters
starches, converting them into dextrine and related bodies, that they give
a brown color with iodine instead of a blue black. They are then in
fact no longer starch, although their form, often not being essentially
changed, permits of their identification.

Although a practical experience in recognizing the starches by these
characteristics is essential for their rapid detection when occurring as
adulterants, a valuable guide may be supplied to a certain extent by
artificial classification s 5 such as Vogel, Muter, and Blyth, after Tripe's
work, have arranged.

VogePs and Muter's are based on the form and size of the granules,
of the hilum or central depression or nucleus and the prominence and
position of the rings. Tripe showed that with polarized light and

154 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

selenite the starches of tubers showed a more varied play of colors than
the cereal and leguminous starches which are produced above ground.
On this fact Blyth has made another classification. Both are of value
and interest.

VogeVs table of the different starches and arrowroots of commerce.
A. Granules simple, bounded by rounded surfaces.

I. Nucleus central, layers concentric.

a. Mostly round or from the side lens-sLaped.

1. Large granules .0396 - .0528 mm , rye starch.

2. Large granules .0352 - .0396 mm , wheat starch.

3. Large granules .0264, barley starch.

b. Egg-shaped, oval, kidney-shaped. Hilum often long and ragged.

1. Large granules .032 - .079 inm , leguminous starches.

II. Nucleus eccentric, layers plainly eccentric or meniscus shaped.

a. Granules not at all or only slightly flattened.

1. Nucleus mostly at the smaller end .06 - .10 nim , potato starch.

2. Nucleus mostly at the broader end or towards the middle in simple gran-

ules .022 - .060 mm , maranta starch.
I. Granules more or less strongly flattened.

1. Many drawn out to a short point at one end.

a. At most .060 mm long, curcuma starch.
1). As much as .132 mm long, canna starch.

2. Many lengthened to bean-shaped, disk-shaped, or flattened ; nucleus near

the broader end .044 - .075 mm , banana starch.

3. Many strongly kidney-shaped; nucleus near the edge .048 - .056 mm , sis-

yrinchium starch.

4. Egg-shaped ; at one end reduced to a wedge, at the other enlarged ; nu-

cleus at smaller end .05 - .07 mm , yam starch.

B. Granules simple or compound, single granules or parts of granules, either bound-
ed entirely by plane surfaces, many angled, or by partly round surfaces.

I. Granules entirely angular.

1. Many with prominent nucleus. At most .0066 mr

2. Without a nucleus. The largest .00d8 r

II. Among the many angled also rounded forms.

a. No partly rounded forms present, angular form predominating.

1. Without nucleus or depression very small, ,0044 mm , oat starch.

2. With nucleus or depression .0132 - .0220 nim .

a. Nucleus or its depression considerably rounded ; here and there the
granules united into differently formed groups, buckwheat starch.

I. Nucleus mostly radiatory or star-shaped; all the granules free,
maize (corn) starch.

b. More or less numerous kettle-drum and sugar-loaf like forms.

1. Very numerous eccentric layers ; the largest granules .022 - .0352 mm ,

batata starch.

2. Without layers or rings .08 - .022 mm .

a. In the kettle drum-shaped granules the nucleal depression mostly

widened on the flattened side, .008 - .022 mm , cassava starch.

b. Depression wanting or not enlarged.

an. Nucleus small, eccentric, .008 - .016 mm , pachijrhizus starch,
bb. Nucleus small, central, or wanting.

aaa. Many irregular angular forms. 008 - .0176 inm , sechium starch.

bbb. But few angular forms ; some with radiatory nucleal fis-
sure, .008 - .0176, castanospermum starch.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

155

C. Granules simple and compounds, predominant forms, egg form and oval, with,
eccentric nucleus and numerous layers, the compound granule made up of a largo
granule and one or more relatively small kettledrum-shaped ones, .025 - .066 mm ,
sago starch.

Muter's table for the detection of starches when magnified about 230 diameters.*

[All measurements are given in decimals of an inch.l
Group I: All more or less oval in shape and having both hilum and rings visible.

Name.

Shape.

Normal meas-
urements.

Remarks.

Oval with flat ends

00370 to. 001 85

Potato

Oval

00270 00148

and incomplete rings.

00148 00129

plete, shape and size very
variable.

00148 001 9 9

shape variable, rings faint.

Natal arrowroot
G alangal

Broadly ovate
Skittle-shaped

. 00148 . 00129
t. 00135

faint, shape not very vari-
able.
Hilum annular, in center and
well marked complete
rings.
Hilum elongated very faint

Calurnba

Broadly pear-shaped .

t. 00185

incomplete rings.
Hilum semilunar faint but

t. 00092

complete rings, shape var-
iable.
Hilum faint shape charac-

Turmeric .

Oval-oblong conical .

t 00148

teristic.
Very strongly-marked in-

Gincer

Shortly conical with

t 00148

complete rings.
Hilitm and rings scarcely
visible shape variable but

rounded angles.

characteristic.

Group II: With strongly-developed hilum more or less stellate.

Oval-oblong

t. 00135

Fairly uniform.

00111 00074

Lentil

t 00111

granules under . 00111 pre-
ponderating.
Hilum a long depression

Nutmeg

Rounded

t. 00055

seldom radiate.
The small size and rounded

Dari

Elongated hexagon .

t. 00074

form distinctive.
Irregular appearance and

Mai/,o ....

Round and polygonal

t. 00074

great convexity distinct-
ive.
The rounded angles of the

polygonal granules dis-
tinctive.

Group III : Hilum and rings practically invisible.

Wheat

00185 to 00009

Barley

t 00073

Rye

00148 00009

jalap

Rhubarb.

00055 . 00033

Sonega

. 00148 . 00009.

1'ay berry

00074 . 00011/

Suinbul...

...do ...

. 00074 . 00009,-

Very variable in size and

very dull polarization in

water.
The majority measuring

about .00073 distinctive.
Small granules, quite round,

and hero and there

cracked.

Polarizes brightly in water.
Polarizes between jalap and

wheat, and runs smaller

and more convex.

Measurements the only
guide.

* Analyst 1, 172-174, November 15, 187G.
t Abo lit.

{ And a few four times this size.
For small granules,

156

POODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

table for the detection of starches, $c. Continued.
Group III: Hilurn and rings practically invisible Continued.

Name.

Shape.

Normal meas-
urement.

Remarks.

Chestnut

Verv variable

. 00090 . 00009

Variable form and small but

Round-oval . ...

*. 00074

regular size, distinctive.
Small and uniform si/e dis-

0029G . 00180

tinctive.
Laro'e size and shape char-

Liquorice

Elongated-oval

*. 00018

acteristic.
Small size and shape dis-

IIt'lU'l>ore (Teen or black)

Perfectly rotund

. 00037 . 00009

tinctive.
Small, regular size and ro-

Hellebore (white)

Irregular

. 00035 . 00009

tundity, distinctive.
Irregular shape and faint

central depression, distinc-
tive.

Group IV: More or less truncated at one end,

Cassia

Hound

00111 to. 00018

Like cassia

.00074 .(0009

Sago (raw)

Oval-ovate

.00260 .00111
. 00260 . 00111

00074 00055

* 00056

Colchicum

*. 00074

Scammony .

. ..do

*. 00045

Canella .. .. ......

Very variable .........

. 00033 . 00022

Podophyllnm ...

Like tapioca .. ......

*. 00040

Aconite

.. do

*. 00037

Round or muller shaped
granules and faint circular
hilum.

More frequently truncated
than cassia, and smaller.

Has circular hilum at con-
vex end and rings faintly
visible.

Has a- la-ge oval or circular
depression, covering one-
third nearly of each gran-
ule.

A little over 50 per cent,
truncated by one facet,
and a pearly hilum.

Smaller than tapioca and
truncated by two facets.

Not distinguishable from
tapioca.

Larger than tapioca, and
contains many more trun-
cated granules.

Smaller than tapioca, more
irregular, and hilum not
visible.

Very variable, form and
small si^e the only points.

Like scammony, but ha a
visible hilum in most of
the granules.

Like tapioca, but half the

Group V: All granules more or less polygonal.

Tacca

Poly or hexagonal

.00075 to. 00037
*. 00037
. 00030 . 00020

. 00020 . 00002
*. 00018

Distinguished from maize
by its sharp angles.
Larger than rice and hilum
visible in some granules.
Measurement using ono-
eighthorone-twell'th inch-
power, and then hilum vis-
ible.
Do.
Some round and truncated
granules, adhering in
groups of three.

Oat

Rico

do . . .

Pepper ...

'About.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

157

Myth's classification'.

DIVISION 1. Starches showing a play of colors with polarized light and seleuite
plate.

Class I. The hilum and concentric rings clearly visible, all the starches oval or
ovate, including tous lesiuois, potato, arrowroot, calumba, orris root,
ginger, galangal, and turmeric.

DIVISION II. Starches showing 110 iridescence, or scarcely any, when examined by
polarized light and selenite.

Class II. The concentric rings all but invisible, hilum stellate, including bean,
pea, maize, lentil, dari, and nutmeg.

Class III. Starches having both the concentric rings and hilum invisible in the
majority of granules. This important class includes wheat, bar-
ley, rye, chestnut, acorn, and many starches in medicinal plants.

Class IV. All the granules truncated at one end. This class includes sago, tap-
ioca and arum, several drugs, and cinnamon and cassia.

Class V. In this class all the granules are angular in form and it includes oats,
tacca, rice, pepper, as well as ipecacuanha starch.

Of the starches which are included iu the preceding classification but
a limited number will be met with in spices and their adulterants or in
the commoner foods. One must, however, be able to readily recognize
the following :

Starches natural to
spices and condiments.

Ginger.

Pepper.

Nutmeg.

Cassia.

Pimento.

Cinnamon.

Cayenne.

Starches of admixture.

Wheat and other

cereals.
Corn.
Oats.
Barley.
Potato.
Maranta and other

arrowroots.
Kice.
Beau.
Pea.
Sago.
Buckwheat.

The remainder may be found in other foods and in drugs and cannot
well be omitted. therefore from our classifications.

No one of these is complete in itself, but from the characters given and
with the aid of our illustrations the starches which commonly occur in
the substances which are here considered may usually be identified with-
out difficulty.

In practice the manipulation of the microscope and the preparation
of the object requires some little experience, but not more than analysts
usually have had. For the benefit of those who have had none, it may
be said that a small portion of the starch or spice is taken up upon a
clean caineFs hair brush and dusted upon a common slide. The excess
is blown away and what remains moistened with a drop of a mixture
of equal parts of glycerine and water or glycerine and camphor- water
and covered with a cover glass. It is well to have a small supply of
the common starches in a series of tubes, which can be mounted at any
moment and used for comparison. They can be permanently mounted by
making with cork borers of two sizes a wax cell-ring equal to the diam-
eter of the cover glass, and after cementing the cell to the slide with

158 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

copal varnish thinned with turpentine and introducing the starch and
glycerine mixture, fixing the cover glass ou after running some of the
cement over the top of the ring. A little experience will enable one to
put the right amount of liquid in the cell and to make a preparation
which will keep for some time. After several months, however, it is
difficult to distinguish the rings which mark the development of the
granule, and although for reference as to size and form the preparation
is satisfactory, it is always advisable in doubtful cases to examine some
fresh material.

For other purposes the starches should be mounted in prepared Can-
ada balsam or dammar by well-known methods. In this medium they
can be preserved indefinitely, but are scarcely visible with ordinary
illumination, and must be viewed by polarized light, which brings out
distinctive characters, not seen as well or at all in other mounts.

Appearance in glycerine and water. When mounted in the manner
already described, or in water alone if for only temporary use, and ex-
amined under a microscope with an objective of equivalent focus of
one-half to one-fifth inch, and with means for oblique illumination, the
starches will display the characteristics which have been mentioned,
and which are illustrated on Plates 26, 27, and 28. These illustrations
have been drawn from nature by Dr. George Marx, and represent the
starches as nearly as possible, as they are seen, and not as in many of
the absurd illustrations of the handbooks of rnicroscopists of the past
and present day, which are entirely ideal, representing the granules
not as extremely translucent bodies, but with the rings or layers as
strongly-marked lines. Examined in this manner the size, shape, pres-
ence or absence of a nucleus or hiluin, and of the rings and their ar-
rangement, can be made out, and the starch referred to its proper posi-
tion.

Appearance in balsam with polarized light. Mounted in balsam the
starches are scarcely visible under any form of illumination with ordi-
nary light, the index of refraction of the granules and the balsam being
so nearly alike. When, however, polarized light is used the effect is a
striking one, and is illustrated in Plates 19 to 21. It is very easy to
distinguish all the characteristics, except the rings, the center of the
cross being at the nucleus of the granule.

With the selenite plate a play of colors is produced, which is peculiar
to some of the starches and forms the basis of Blyth's classification.

The principal starches which are met with may be described as fol-
lows, in connection with our illustrations, beginning with those of the
arrowroot class, including the potato, ginger, and turmeric.

Potato starch. The starch grains of the potato are very variable in
size, being found from .05 to .10 mm in length, and in shape from oval and
allied forms to irregular and even round in the smallest. These varia-
tions are illustrated in Fig. 57, but the frequency of the smaller granules
is not as evident as in Figs. 30 and 31. The layers are visible in some
granules with great distinctness and in others hardly at all, being rather

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 159

more prominent in the starch as obtained from a freshly cut surface.
The rings are more distinct, too, near the hilurn or nucleus, which in this,
as in all tuberous starches, is eccentric, shading off toward the broader
or more expanded portion of the granule. The hilurn appears as a
shadowy depression (Fig. 57) and with polarized light its position is well
marked by the junction of the arms of the cross, and it will be found by
comparison of Figs. 31 and 32, on Plate XYI, that in the potato it is
oftener at the smaller end of the granule and in the arrowroot at the
larger. With polarized light and a selenite plate the beautiful play of
colors is obtained which is the basis of Blyth's classification. The
smaller granules, which are nearly round, may readily be confused with
other starches, but their presence serves at once to distinguish this from
Maranta or Bermuda arrowroot starch.

Karely compound granules are found composed of two or three sin-
gle ones each with its own nuclus.

Of the same type as the potato starch are the various arrowroots,
the only one of which commonly met with in this country being the
Bermuda, the starch of the rhizome of Maranta arundinacea, and the
starch of Turmeric.

Maranta starch. The granules are usually not so varied in size or
shape as those of the potato, as may be seen in Figs. 30, 31, and 32,
averaging about ,07 mra in length. They are about the same size as the
average of the latter, but are never found as large or as small, which,
together with the fact that the end at which the nucleus appears is
broader in the Maranta and more pointed in the potato, enables one to
distinguish the starches without difficulty. With polarized light the
results are similar to those seen with potato starch, and this is a ready
means of distinguishing the two varieties, by displaying in a striking
way the form of the granule and position of the hilum, as is illustrated
in Figs. 31 and 32.

Curcuma or turmeric starch. Tumeric contains a starch (Fig. 63,
Plate XXVIII), which, although of the arrowroot class, is quite distinct
in appearance from those which we have described. It is most irregular
in outline, so that it is impossible to define its shape or to do more than
refer to the illustration. Many of the granules are long and narrow and
drawn out to quite a point. The rings are distinct in the larger ones.
The size is about that of the Maranta.

Ginger starch (Figs. 41 and 42, Plate XXI, and Fig. 58, Plate XXVII).
This starch is of the same class as those from the potato and Maranta
and several others which are of under-ground origin. In outline it is not
oval like those named, but more rectangular, having more obtuse angles
in the larger granules and being cylindrical or circular in outline in the
smaller.

It averages nearly the same size as Maranta starch, but is much more
variable both in size and form. The rings are scarcely visible even with
the most favorable illumination.

160 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

Sago starch. This exists in two modifications in the market : as raw
and as prepared sago. Iii the prepared condition it is characterized by
a larger circular depression in the center of most of the granules. The
rings are not visible. They are mostly circular in form or approaching
it, and vary from .025 to .065 mm in diameter.

Leguminous starches, pea and bean (Figs. 39 and 40, Plate XX, and
Figs. 60 and 61, Plate XXVII). These starches produce but a slight
effect with polarized light. The rings are scarcely visible, and the hiluin
is stellate or much cracked along a median line; the bean more so than
the pea, the latter resembling fresh dough kneaded again into the cen
ter as in making rolls, and the former the shape assumed by the same
after baking. They are both somewhat variable in size, ranging from
.025 to .10 mm in length.

Nutmeg starch (Fig. 64, Plate XXVIII). This starch, which in-some
respects resembles the preceding the rings being scarcely visible and
not iridescent witU polarized light is much smaller in size and quite
variable. The larger granules are at times as long at .05 mm and the
smallest smaller than .005 mra . They are of extremely irregular forin,
with angular depressions and angular outlines, and are distinguished
by a budded appearance, caused by the adherence of small granules to
the larger.

Capsicum starch (Fig. 67, Plate XXVIII) is nearly circular or rounded,
polyhedral in form, with scarcely visible rings, and in most cases a de-
pressed hiluin resembling in size and shape corn starch, but having
peculiar irregularities, which distinguish it, such as a rosette-like forma-
tion on a flattened granule or a round depression at one end. It does
not polarize as actively as maize starch, and can be distinguished from
rice by the greater angularity of the latter.

Pepper starch (Fig. 65, Plate XXVIII) is the most minute starch that
is usually met with, not averaging over .001 mm , nor exceeding .005.
It is irregularly polyhedral, polarizes well, but requires a high power to
discover any detail when a hiluin is found. It cannot be confused with
other starches.

Cinnamon starch (Fig. 46, Plate XXIV, and Fig. 66, Plate XXVIII)
has an extremely irregular, polyhedral or distorted granule, often
united in groups with smaller granules adherent to the larger one^s. lu
size it varies from .001 to .025, averaging nearly the latter size. In
some granules a hiluin can be distinguished, but no rings. It is read-
ily detected with polarized light.

Buckwheat starch (Fig. 62, Plate XXVIII) is very characteristic. It
consists of chains or groups of angular granules, with a not very evi-
dent circular nucleus and without rings. The outline is strikingly
angular and the size not very variable, being about .01 to .015.

Maize or corn starch (Fig. 33, Plate XVII, and Fig. 54, Plate XXVI).
The granules of corn-starch are largely of the same size, from .02 to
.03 mm in diameter, with now and then a few which are much smaller-
They are mostly circular in shape or rather polyhedral, with rounded

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 161

angles. They form very brilliant objects with polarized light, but with
ordinary illumination show but the faintest sign of rings, and a well-de-
veloped hilurn, at times star-shaped, and at others more like a circular
depression.

Rice starch (Figs. 35 and 36, Plate XVIII, and Fig. 55, Plate XXYI)
is very similar to corn starch, and easily confused with it, being about
the same size. It is, however, distinguished from it by its polygonal
form, and its well-defined angles. The hilum is more prominent and
more often stellate or linear. Several granules are at times united.

Wheat starch (Fig. 34, Plate XVII, and Fig. 50, Plate XXVI) is quite
variable in size, varying from .05 to .012 mm in diameter. It belongs to
the same class as barley and rye, the hilum being invisible and the
rings not prominent. The granules are circular disks in form, and
there are now and then contorted depressions resembling those in pea
starch. It is the least regular of the three starches named and does
not polarize actively.

Barley starch (Fig. 37, Plate XIX, and Fig. 51, Plate XXVI) is quite
similar to that of wheat, but does not vary so much in size, averaging
,05 mm 5 has rings which are much more distinct, and very small granules
adhering to the largest in bud-like forms.

Rye starch (Fig. 52, Plate XXVI) is more variable in size, many of the
granules not exceeding .02 uim , while the largest reach .06 to .07 mra . It
lacks distinctive characteristics entirely, and is the most simple in form
of all the starches we have described.

Oat starch (Fig. 38, Plate XIX, and Fig. 53, Plate XXVI) is unique,
being composed of large compound masses of polyhedral granules from
.12 to .02 mm in length, the single granules averaging .02 to .015 mm. It
does not polarize actively as may be seen in figure and plate, and dis-
plays neither rings nor hilum. The illustration shows its nature with
accuracy.

Our descriptions, it will be seen, do not agree entirely with those, of
other authors, which in the same way do not agree among themselves.

This shows a variation in the peculiarities of size, shape, &c., which
must be carefully allowed for, and the necessity for every investigator
to compare a starch which he is desirous of identifying with authentic
specimens.

STBUCTUEE AND PECULIARITIES OF THE COMMONER ADULTERANTS.

Before proceeding to the consideration of the normal structure and
composition of the spices and condiments and the adulterations detected
in commercial specimens, it is well to become familiar with the charac-
teristics of the common adulterants and materials which are liable to
be used for this purpose.

The starches have been already described and their value as a means
of identifying different vegetable materials noted. By this means we are
able to detect the different cereals which are often added as diluents.
22S23 Bull. 13, pt, 2 3

162 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

Maize, or corn as it is commonly known, is a common adulterant. By
selecting particles from the ground material and crushing them the
character of the starch may be recognized, but in a cursory examina-
tion the first sign of the presence of this cereal is the discovery of one
of the thin outer coats of the grain which becomes detached in milling
and, being tough, is not readily reduced. In yello^ corn it has a pecul-
iar pinkish color and simple structure of longitudinal cells. One should
learn to recognize it from a specimen ground for the purpose.

Rice, which in its broken unmarketable form is sometimes used as a
diluent, may be recognized by the brilliant appearance of the hard white
particles which must be picked out of the spice under a hand lens,
crushed, and examined as usual. Rice bran has not been met with.

The two cereals named are the only ones which are commonly met
with which introduce starch. Barely clean wheat bran is added, which
can be recognized by its distinctive structural character, illustrated in
many hand-books, but which can be learned much better from an authen-
tic specimen, which should be soaked in chloral hydrate.

As modified cereals, we find refuse bread, cracker-dust, and ship-bread
in which the wheat starch is much changed from its original form by
the heat and moisture of the cooking process so that at times it might
be confused with a leguminous starch. The softness of the particles
and the ease with which they fall to pieces in water reveals the nature
of the material. It is a common diluent.

Oil-seed, oil-cake, and husks are very commonly used in many parts of
the country for purposes of sophistication. They are most readily recog-
nized by the peculiar structure of the outer coats of the seed. The
particles which can usually be found and selected with a dissecting mi-
croscope should be examined in alcohol or glycerine, or a mixture of
the two, as the outer coats of some seeds, such as mustard, are swollen
by water and become indistinct. The appearance of mustard hulls is
given on page 172, and the many varieties of the cruciferous seeds re-
semble it much, so that it is difficult to distinguish them, which is, how-
ever, not important. They are generally distinguished by the outer
layer of hexagonal cells, and a middle and an inner coating which con-
sist of peculiar angular cells, the latter much larger than the former,
which are the most characteristic, and should be compared with speci-
mens of seed of known origin. The structure of some of them is dia-
gramatically presented in fig. 6, from Schimper. After soaking in chlo-
ral hydrate the remaining interior layers are perhaps more easily made
out, and in some cases after moderate bleaching with nitric acid and
chlorate. The interior of these seeds is not blued by iodine.

Peanut or groundnut cake is recognized by the characteristic struct-
ure of the red-brown coat which surrounds the seed, which consists of
polygonal cells with peculiar saw-toothed thickening of the walls. The
seed itself consists of polygonal cells, full of oil and starch granules,
which are globular in form and not easily confused with pepper starch.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

163

The structure of the browu membrane is best made out iu chloral hy-
drate, which removes the red color and leaves the fragments of a bright
yellow.

Linseed calte distinguished by the fact that its husk is made up of
one or two characteristic elements. The outer coat or epiderimis is
colorless and swells up in water, forming a mucilage like the mustard
seed. Beneath this is a layer of thin round yellow cells, while the third
is very characteristic, and consists of narrow, very thick-walled dotted
vessels. Next to these is an inner layer of compact polygonal cells,
with fairly thin but still thickly dotted white walls and dark-brown con-
tents, containing tannin. The endosperm and embryo are free from
starch ; nor are they colored yellow by potash, as is the case with mus-
tard and rape cake.

PIG. 6.

FIG. 7.

FIG. 8.

FIG. 9.

1.1

FIG. 6. Rape-seed husk (exterior surface).

FIG. 7. Linseed kusk. A more, H less magnified.

FIG. 8. Almond shell fragment, h hairs, g spiral vessels.

FIG. 9. Palm-seed. Interior. X 240. (After Schimper.)

X70.

Palm-cake is probably not common enough in this country to be used
as an adulterant; nor are olive stones, which as they consist, after
bleaching with Schulze's reagent, almost entirely of very thick stone
cells, are easily made out under polarized light.

Cocoanut shells are often used, it seems from the evidence of the Can-
adian analysts. They are similar to the olive stones in structure but
more complicated, as in addition to the numerous short stone cells there
are many long ones with thinner walls, and here and there spiral ves-
sels, from the fibrous tissue, all of which are only readily seen after

164

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

bleaching. When the shells are roasted or charred they refuse to bleach,
and it is then only possible to class the particles on which the reagents
do not act as roasted shells or charcoal. They are frequently used in
peppers to give color to material rendered too light by white adult-
erants.

The composition of these substances is shown in the following deter-
mination which reveal the effect of their addition upon the normal
composition of the spices :

Olive
stones.

Cocoanut
shells.

"Water

5.63

6.15

Ash

4.28

2.13

Fiber

41.33

37.15

1 56

1 25

.25

.20

More in regard to olive stones will be learned when the discussion of
the adulteration of pepper is considered.

Buckwheat hulls after bleaching with Schulze's reagent show a pre-
ponderance of tissue made up of long, slender, and pointed scleren-
chyma cells and a smaller amount of reticulated tissue resembling the
cereals somewhat and cayenne pepper. Portions of the endosperm or
interior of the seed are also visible, and consist of an agglomeration of
small hexagonal cells which originally contained starch. The starch is
readily recognized by its peculiar characteristics. The sclerenchyma
is, of course, optically active and forms a beautiful and distinctive ob-
ject with polarized light.

Sawdust of various woods may be recognized by the fragments of
various spiral and dotted vessels and fibrous material which are not
found in the spices or other adulterants.

Baric, in some parts of the world a common addition to pepper, is de-
tected by its stone cells, which are larger than those of pepper, and of
different form and more numerous, and by its fibrous vessels which are
made out readily after bleaching. The source of a particular bark can-
not, however, be made out.

Rice bran. This, as several other similar products, is made up promi-
nently of two series of cells at right angles to each other, which make
up the outer coats of the grain. The structure is best made out after
soaking in chloral-hydrate. The cells of one series are long, small, and
thin-walled, and are arranged in parallel bundles. The others have
very much thickened walls, and are only two or three times as long as
broad. They are at times distinguished, for convenience, as the longi-
tudinal and transverse cells. The remaining layers of the bran are not
prominent.

Clove stems , used frequently as a diluent, can be distinguished by their
peculiar yellow-dotted vessels and their large and quite numerous stone-

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 165

cells, neither of which are 'seen prominently in the substances which
are adulterated.

These suggestions of the peculiarites of the different adulterants
should, of course, be confirmed and supplemented, and the eye accus-
tomed to recognize their structure by means of a study of the actual
substances, which should always be at hand in the dry and ground con-
dition for reference. Quickness and certainty will be much advanced
by such facilities.

Reference may also be fittingly made here to chemical operations of
a general nature, which are applicable to all the spices.

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION.

Determinations of a quantitative nature should include

Water. A portion of the powdered spice which should pass a 60-
mesh sieve, one gram, is to be dried at 105 to 110 C. in an air
bath, provided with a regulator, until on successive weighings a gain is
found showing that oxidation has begun. Twelve hours, or overnight,
usually suffices. The loss is water, together with the largest part of
the volatile oil. Deduction of the volatile oil, as determined in the
ether extract, will give a close approximation to the water.

Ash. In the same portion the ash is determined by incineration at a
very low temperature, such as may be best obtained in a gas muffle,
which is a most convenient arrangeuient for work of this description,
and far superior to any kind of lamp or burner. The proportion of ash
insoluble in acid may also be determined where there is reason to be-
lieve that sand is present.

Volatile oil and ether extract. Two grams of the substance are ex-
tracted for twenty hours in a siphoning extraction apparatus on the
Soxhlet principle, with Squibbs's best ether. The apparatus we use in
this laboratory, arranged by Mr. A. E. Knorr, he describes as follows:

The substance under examination is placed in a test tube, which is then
inserted into a continuous extraction apparatus of the intermittent si-
phon class. The tubes used for this purpose are ordinary test tubes,
the bottom of which has been blown out. A wad of washed cotton of
sufficient thickness is put into the lower end of the tubes to prevent
any solid particles of the sample from finding their way into the receiv-
ing flask ; another wad of cotton is packed on top of the sample, and
the apparatus is then so adjusted that the condensed ether drops into
the tube, and, percolating through the sample, siphons into the receiving
flask, when the operation is continued ad infinitum.

It is absolutely necessary to use the best Squibbs's ether in order to
avoid extracting substances other than oil and soluble in alcohol, and to
continue the extraction for at least the time named, as piperine and
several other proximate principles are not extremely soluble in ether.
If these precautions are followed we have found no difficulty in extract-
ing all the piperine, for example, and obtaining duplicate results of

166

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

great accuracy. On stopping the extraction the extract is washed into
a light weighed glass dish, and the ether allowed to evaporate sponta-
neously and not too rapidly, as in the latter case water is condensed in
the dish, which it is difficult to remove. When the ether has disap-
peared which ought not to take too long, as in that case some oil is vol-
atilized the dish is placed in a large dessicator, with pumice and sul-
phuric acid chloride of calcium having been shown to be useless* and
allowed to remain overnight, to remove any moisture. The loss of oil
by this process is hardly appreciable. The dish is then weighed, and
afterwards heated to 110 0. for some hours, to drive off the volatile
oil, beginning at a rather low temperature, as the oil is easily oxidized,
and then is not volatile. The residue is weighed, the difference being
calculated to volatile oil, and then examined as to its composition of
purity. The results are fairly satisfactory, as appears from the follow-
ing duplicates :

Duplicate fat and volatile oil determinations in spices.

No.

Percent.

Per cent.

No.

Per cent.

4629. .

5.49

8.38

4632.. .

4.11

3.66

4629.

5.23

8.51

4632.. .

3.93

4.22

4630.

5.15

6.54

4633.. .

5.06

6.94

4630. .

4.72

6.50

4633..

5.33

7.68

4631.

6.64

13.19

4634. . .

5.15

3.50

4631. .

6.84

12.14

4634.. .

2.26

3.59

Alcohol extract. This may be made in the same manner as the ether
extract, using, of course, the substance already extracted. The solvent
may be either absolute alcohol, that of 95 per cent, by volume, or 80
per cent, by weight. The latter is preferable in most cases, as there is
no definite point with the stronger spirit at which the extraction is
complete.

In the investigation of spices merely for adulteration this extraction
is of little value.

Starch, &c., reducing sugars. The amount of reducing material pro-
duced by boiling the spices with dilute acid serves with several as an
index of purity. In the case of pepper, which contains naturally a large
amount of starch, the addition of the common fibrous adulterants re-
duces the equivalent of reducing sugars which are indicated by Fehl-
ing's solution after boiling with acid. Lenz and several others have
examined the value of this determination. The conclusions which are
deducible from their experience and our own are that with attention to
proper condition to insure complete conversion to dextrose the results
are of value, though apt to fall out too low. It has been found desirable
in our laboratory to run as a check a parallel determination on a sub-
stance of known reduction equivalent. In this way any variation may
be detected.

Fleischer, E., 1884, Zeit. Anal. Chem., 23, 33.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 167

The method of Lenz is described under pepper and its composition.
The conditions which we have found most desirable are as follows :

The 2 to 5 grams of the material, usually 4, which should pass an 80-
mesh sieve, must be extracted with strong alcohol and with cold water
for some time to remove substances not starch which might be acted on
by the acid or reduce Fehling's solution. Then, without drying, it is
washed off the filter into an Erlenmeyer flask with about 175 c. c. of
water and enough strong C. P. hydrochloric acid added, about 25 c.
c., to make the liquid 4 to 5 per cent, of acid gas. The flask is then
supplied with a condenser and boiled for four hours, or the liquid may
be put in a patent rubber-stoppered beer bottle and digested in a steam
bath ; but the latter method is not as certain. After the boiling and
cooling, the residue is filtered out, the liquid accurately neutralized
with sodic hydrate and made up to 500 c. c. It is then titrated as
usually, and can be calculated to glucose or starch on any basis desired.
Thorough previous extraction and uninterrupted boiling are the two
most important conditions. Without extraction the results are most
uncertain and unreliable.

Determination of tannin. The amount of tannin in certain spices, such
as cloves and allspice, is quite constant when they are of good quality.
Dr. Ellis of Toronto has therefore recommended this as a good means of
detecting adulteration in these spices. He has published as yet noth-
ing in regard to his methods of application. In oui experiments it has
been found to be of some value, but that it is hardly worth while as a
mere aid to the detection of adulteration to go so far as the actual de-
termination of tannin, it being quite sufficient to determine the amount
of material oxidizable with permanganate which is extracted by water
after the careful removal of the oil, &c., by ether. This avoids the
tedious use of hide powder, or glue, and furnishes results which are rel-
atively of the same value.

The analyst should therefore prepare himself for carrying out the
first part of the modified Loweuthal process, as it is described in Sutton,*
and more elaborately in the Berichte liber die Yerhaudlungen der Com-
mission zur Bestellung einer einheitliche Methode der Gerbstoffbe-
stimmung, and in Anuales de la Science agronomique, Tome 1, 1886.

Particular pains should be taken to secure a good article of indigo
carmine, as without this the results are unreliable. That recommended
by Schroder is manufactured by Gehe & Co., of Dresden, and is known
as Carminum cceruleum. It should be imported for use.

Without going into particulars as to the reagents employed in the
process, which are probably familiar to all, a few words of caution as

detail of manipulation will be of value.

As has been said, preliminary extraction of the material with Squibbs
best ether is necessary to remove oil and other substances not tannin,
on which the permanganate may act. Ordinary ether will not answer,

* Sutton, Volumetric Analysis, 3d edition, pp. 276.

168

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

as it contains so much alcohol and water as to dissolve some of the tan-
nin. The substance freed from ether should be extracted with boiling
water, and the extract made up to such dilution that 10 c. c. is equal to
about 10 c. c. of the thirtieth normal permanganate solution used. The
titration must be performed slowly to insure accuracy, the permanganate
being run in at a rate of not more than a drop in a second or three
in two seconds. The eye must become accustomed to the bleaching of
the indigo and select some one tint of yellow as the end of reaction. It
js then possible to obtain duplicates agreeing within .1 c. c. even on en-
tirely different tests, as the following figures show :

Serial

C. c. of

Per ct. of

No.

Perm.

tannin.

4904

4.33

22.46

4.3

22. 36

4.35

22.62

4.15

21.58

The

results may be calculated to oxygen consumed or to percentage
of quercitannic acid, which would not be strictly correct, 1 c. c. of -

permanganate being equivalent to .0052 grams of quercitanuic acid. The
results obtained with cloves and allspice will be found under those
spices.

Crude fiber. This is a merely relative determination, as the term
crude fiber designates nothing absolute beyond the fact that a cer-
tain amount of substance is insoluble in acid and alkali of certain
strength after treatment for a definite length of time at a definite tem-
perature. The conditions selected by us are, 2 grams of substance, 200
c. c. of 5 per cent, hydrochloric acid, steam bath two hours, raising the
liquid to a temperature of 90 to 95 C., fiilration on linen cloth, washing
back into beaker with 200 c. c. 5 per cent, sodic hydrate, steam bath two
hours, filtration on asbestos, washing with hot water, alcohol, and ether,
drying at 120 weighing, ignition and crude fiber from loss in weight.
This method agrees practically with that known as the Weende method,
and while furnishing results which are of some comparative value,
leaves much to be desired. The subject will probably be reviewed soon
by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists of the United States-

Nitrogen and albuminoids. The methods of determining nitrogen and
albuminoids have been discussed and described at length in Bulletin
No, 12 of this division. The details of the method of Kjeldahl, as given
by Dr. Jenkins, which is the most convenient, are as follows :

Determination of nitrogen by the method of Kjeldahl.

REAGEXTS AND APPARATUS.

(1) Hydrochloric acid whose absolute strength has been determined, (a) by precipi-
tating with silver nitrate and weighing the silver chloride, (b) by sodium carbonate,
as described in Freseuius's Quantitative Analysis, second American edition, page 680,

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 169

and (c) by determining the amount neutralized by the distillate from a weighed quan-
tity of pure ammonium chloride boiled with an excess of sodium hydrate.

(2) Standard ammonia whose strength, relative to the acid, has been accurately
determined.

(3) U C. P." sulphuric acid, Sp. Gr. 1.83, free from nitrates and also from ammo-
nium sulphate, which is sometimes added in the process of manufacture to destroy
oxides of nitrogen.

(4) Mercuric ox'de, HgO, prepared in the wet way. That prepared from mercury
nitrate cannot safely be used.

(5) Potassium permanganate tolerably finely pulverized.

(6) Granulated zinc.

(7) A solution of 40 grams of commercial potassium sulphide in one liter of water-

(8) A saturated solution of sodium hydrate free from nitrates, which are sometimes
added in the process of manufacture to destroy organic matter and improve the color
of the product.

(9) Solution of cochineal prepared according to Fresenius's Quantitative Analysis,
second American edition, page 679.

(10) Burettes should be calibrated in all cases by the user.

(11) Digestion flasks of hard, moderately thick, well-annealed glass. These flasks
are about 9 inches long, with a round, pear-shaped bottom, having a maximum di-
ameter of 2 inches, and tapering out gradually in a long neck, which is three-fourth-
of an inch in diameter at the narrowest part, and flared a little at the edge. The
total capacity is 225 to 250 cubic centimeters.

(12) Distillation flasks of ordinary shape, 550 cubic centimeters' capacity, and fitted
with a rubber stopper and a bulb tube above to prevent the possibility of sodium
hydrate being carried over mechanically during distillation. This is adjusted to the
tube of the condenser by a rubber tube.

(13) A condenser. Several forms have been described, no one of which is equally
convenient for all laboratories. The essential thing is that the tube which carries
the steam to be condensed shall be of block tin. All kinds of glass are decomposed by
steam and ammonia vapor, and will give up alkali enough to impair accuracy. (See
Kreussler and Henzold, Ber. Berichte, XVII, 34.) The condenser in use in the labora-
tory of the Conn. Exp. Station, devised by Professor Johnson, consists of a copper tank
supported by a wooden frame, so that its bottom is 11 inches above the work-bench
on which it stands. This tank is 16 inches high, 32 inches long, and 3 inches wide from
front to back, widening above to 6 inches. It is provided with a water-supply tube
which goes to the bottom and a larger overflow pipe above. The block- tin condensing
tubes, whose external diameter is f of an inch, 7 in number, enter the tank through
holes in the front side of it near the top, above the level of the overflow, and pass
down perpendicularly through the tank and out through rubber stoppers tightly fitted
into holes in the bottom. They project about \\ inches below the bottom of the tank,
and are connected by short rubber tubes with glass bulb tubes of the usual shape,
which dip into glass precipitating beakers. These beakers are 6 inches high, 3
inches in diameter below, somewhat narrower above, and of about 500 cubic centi-
meters capacity. The titration can be made directly in them. The seven distillation
flasks are supported on a sheet-iron shelf attached to the wooden frame that supports
the tank in front of the latter. Where each flask is to stand a circular hole is cut,
with three projecting lips, which support the wire gauze under the flask, and three
other lips which hold the flask in place and prevent its moving laterally out of place
while distillation is going on. Below this sheet-iron shelf is a metal tube carrying
seven Bunsen burners, each with a stop-cock like those of a gas combustion furnace.
These burners are of larger diameter at the top, which prevents smoking when cov-
ered with fine gauze to prevent the flame from striking back.

(14) The stand for holding the digestion flasks consists of a pan of sheet-iron 29
inches long by 8 inches wide, on the front of which is fastened a shelf of sheet-iron

170 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

as long as the pan, 5 inches wide and 4 inches high. In this are cut six holes If
inches in diameter. At the back of the pan is a stout wire running lengthwise of
the stand, 8 inches high, with a bend or depression opposite each hole in the shelf.
The digestion flask rests with its lower part over a hole in the shelf and its neck in
one of the depressions in the wire frame, which holds it securely in position. Heat
is supplied by low Bunsen burners below the shelf. Dr. Jenkins has used asbestus
paper under the flasks, but finds that with a little care the naked flame can be applied
directly to the flask without danger.

THE DETERMINATION.

One gram of the substance to be analyzed is brought into a digestion flask with ap-
proximately 0.7 gram of mercuric oxide and 20 cubic centimeters of sulphuric acid.
The flask is placed on the frame above described in an inclined position and heated be-
low the boiling point of the acid for from five to fifteen minutes, or until frothing has
ceased. The heat is then raised till the acid boils briskly. No further attention is
required till the contents of the flask has become a clear liquid, which is colorless or
at least has only a very pale straw color. The flask is then removed from the frame,
held upright, and while still hot, potassium permanganate is dropped in carefully
and in small quantity at a time till after shaking the liquid remains of a green or
purple color. After cooling, the contents of the flask are transferred to the distilling
flask with water, aud to this 25 cubic centimeters of potassium sulphide solution are
added, 50 cubic centimeters of the soda solution, or sufficient to make the reaction
strongly alkaline, and a few pieces of granulated zinc. The flask is at once con-
nected with the condenser and the contents of the flask are distilled till all ammonia
has passed over into the standard acid contained in the precipitating flask previously
described and the concentrated solution can no longer be safely boiled. This opera-
tion usually requires from twenty to forty minutes. The distillate is then titrated
with standard ammonia.

The use of mercuric oxide in this operation greatly shortens the time necessary for
digestion, which is rarely over an hour and a half in the case of substances most diffi-
cult to oxidize and is more commonly less than an hour. In most cases the use of
potassium permanganate is quite unnecessary, but it is believed that in exceptional
cases it is required for complete oxidation, and in view of the uncertainty it is always
used. Potassium sulphide removes all mercury from solution and so prevents the
formation of mercuro-ammonium compounds which are not completely decomposed
by soda solution. The addition of zinc gives rise to an evolution of hydrogen and
prevents violent bumping. Previous to use the reagents should be tested by a blank
experiment with sugar, which will partially reduce any nitrates that are present
which might otherwise escape notice.

This method cannot be used for the determination of nitrogen in substances which
contain nitrates or certain albuminoids.

In case non-album inoid nitrogen is to be determined reference can
be made to Stutzer and Ladd.*

These methods of analysis are suitable to all the spices and have
been used with them. They are nothing but general processes, and
are dependent for their value on uniformity in the way they are carried
out and the manner in which peculiarities of proximate composition in
different spices are considered in drawing conclusions. Determinations
of particular substances, such as piperine, require, however, modifica-
tions, which must be described when discussing the analyses of each
spice.

*Rept. anal. Chem., 5, 162, 163; Abs. Ber., 19, 1885; and Ladd Kept, of New
York Agric. Exp. Sta., 1886.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 171

MUSTARD.

Mustard of commerce is the seed, whole or ground, of several species
of the genus Brassica, cruciferous plants which grow wild and are cul-
tivated under very various conditions. The two common varieties are
the black or brown mustard, which has a very small seed and furnishes
the most kroma, and the white, which is two or three times as large,
often used in the whole condition in pickles and ground, either by itself
or ofteuer in mixture with the brown seed, for the purpose of obtaining
the desirable qualities of both.

In the ground mustard is found only the interior of the seed and
small portions of the husks which have escaped the operation of bolt-
ing, which is always employed to remove the coarse fragments. The
presence of these particles from their characteristic structure enable
us to recognize the source from which the flour is derived and to detect
the use of the mustard hulls as adulterants of other food materials. The
husk of white mustard is represented, after a drawing by Schimper, in
Fig. 10.

The outer colorless epidermis consists of angular plates or hexago-
nal tabular cells with a center of different brilliancy. They swell up
and become slimy in water and must therefore, be observed in glycer-
ine. At the best it requires some manipulation to see it well, and it is
far less prominent in the brown seed. The next coat, denominated the
subepidermal, is not prominent and can only be seen at all easily in the
white seed.

The third layer is an important one. In it is found the coloring mat-
ter of the brown seed, and its absence is the cause of the lack of color
in the white variety. Fragments of this layer are common in ground
mustard. It is distinguished by the thick or colorless brown cell walls
and their irregular dotted appearance. Once examined it will be readily
recognized under other circumstances, as, for example, when the hull
is used as an adulterant of pepper.

Between this layer and the next are some unimportant and difficultly
discernible cells carrying in the brown seed some color.

Within these comes the important layer denominated the inner tunic
by Hassall and the plasma layer by Schimper. It separates readily
from the other parts of the husk and is often found by itself in the
ground mustard. As its contents are broken up by water or chloral
hydrate, glycerine or oil must be used as a mounting medium. The
cells of which the layer consists are large, and with their contents are
similar to the embryous envelope or false gluten cells of wheat, to
which they correspond. They are much alike in both white and brown
mustard. These structures are diagramatically represented in Fig. 7.

From the character of the exterior layer and the lack of color in the
third layer, as well as minor differences which are not describable, but
will appear to the patient investigator, it is always possible to tell

172

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

whether the flour of mustard is a mixture of the two varieties or from
one alone. Mounts in chloral hydrate, to a certain degree, are use-
ful for adding to the transparency of the substance. The interior of
the seed is made up of small soft parenchyma cells containing the oil
and other constituents of the mustard, but without any trace of starch.
For this reason the presence of starch is a certain indication of the ad-
dition of some diluent of a farinaceous nature. Simple treatment with
iodine will therefore reveal the presence of wheat flour, which is a com-
mon adulterant of this condiment. The white color of the flour of
course reduces the yellow color of the mustard, and it is usual, there-
fore, to restore the tint by either turmeric or Martin's yellow.

FIG. 10. Husk of white mustard, a, b, plasma layer ; c, sub-epidermal ; d, epidermis

The former can be detected by a mechanical separation or a brown
coloration with ammonia or by the peculiar color cells which it contains
and the starch granules of the arrowroot class. The latter is not suffi-
cient in amount to be confused with potato starch or that of flour. It
has been already described.

Martin's yellow can be identified by extraction with cold 95 per cent,
alcohol and examination, after evaporation of the solvent, as suggested
by Waller and Martin, and this coloring matter seems to be often used,
and cannot be pronounced as harmless as turmeric.

The substances mentioned are the common adulterants of mustard,
in fact, so common that they have been accepted as necessary dilu-

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 173

ents, being considered desirable for toning down the pungency and
adding to tlie keeping qualities of the ground material. Of late years,
howe ver, a reaction has taken place, and it is now possible to find
brands of pure ground mustard.

In most of the samples which have come into our hands for examina-
tion flour and coloring matter are the only foreign substances which have
been met with. From the investigations of foods chemists abroad, it
would appear on the authority of Hassall and others that other species
of mustard seed, rape seed, cayenne pepper, ginger, potato flour, rice
pea flour, seed meals, and several mineral substances are frequently
found in the mustards of commerce, a conclusion which we have found
justified by the presence in some of the lower-grade mustards which have
come into our hands of yellow corn, ginger, mustard hulls, gypsum, and
sand. The presence of these adulterants, which is only too common in
the cheaper article when sold in bulk and under no brand, can be deter-
mined by mechanical means and by their structure, which is quite dif-
ferent from that of the mustard, and by the starches, which character-
ize some of them, as already explained.

While the adulterants of mustard, therefore, are, owing to the char-
acteristic structure of the seed, easily detected with the microscope, in
cases where there is doubt, or where further information is desired as
to the probable proportion of diluent, recourse must be had to deter-
minations of the chemical constituents of the sample.

CHEMISTRY OF MUSTAKD.

Several investigators have made proximate analyses of mustard.
Hassall has collected the following in regard to its composition, and has
also made several analyses of pure and adulterated samples :

Of these seeds no very complete quantatitive analyses have as yet been made, al-
.ough many highly important particulars have been ascertained respecting their
mposition ; thus black or brown mustard, as it is now generally named, consists
the most part of fixed oil, myronic acid CioHigNS^Oiq, which is combined with pot-
ih, forming a myronate of potash, and which acid is converted into the volatile oil

mustard or aulpliocyanide of allyl C4H 5 NS r n tr ( S through the agency of the

in, another constituent of brown mustard, when the two are brought into con-
tact through the medium of water, vegetable albumen, a bitter principle, a little gum
and sugar, a peculiar green substance, cellulose and mineral matter.

White mustard differs essentially in its composition from brown; it also contains
fixed oil, but in lie u of myronic acid, convertible as described into the volatile oil of
mustard, it contains a non-volatile, bitter and acrid salt, termed sulpliocyanide ofsyna-
piwetCnH^N-SOftOr CieHoaNOoCNHS), myrosin, gum, cellulose, and mineral matter.

Now it is on the volatile oil and the acrid and somewhat bitter salt that the pungency
and acridity of mustard depends, and hence wo see a strong reason why in the mus-
tards of commerce the farina of the two species should be blended together ; of the two
active principles the volatile oil is by far the more important, and hence the seed of
the brown mustard possesses the greatest commercial value. It should be stated that
Henrie and Garot affirms that brown mustard contains the acrid principle as well as
the white ; this statement wo have been able to verify as shown specially by the
action of nitric acid, caustic potash, and ferric chloride on the alcoholic extract.

174

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

The acrid principle of wLite mustard appears to possess but little stability,
and although it is stated by V. Babo to bear a temperature of 130C., we find that it
is readily affected by heat, and that it is not safe to evaporate the alcoholic solution
containing it at a higher temperature than about 30C. If subjected to a much
higher temperature it quickly loses its acridity and acquires a bitter caramel-like taste.

Of neither brown nor white mustard had any percentage analysis been given until
those made and published by ourselves in an article on mustard and its adulterations,
in " Food, Water, and Air," for February, 1874 ; and in the few cases in which the quan-
tities of any of the constituents are stated, they vary greatly according to different ob-
servers. Thus, according to Pereira, the fixed oil forms about 28 per cent, of the seeds
of black mustard, while Watts puts the yield at 18 per cent, only, but white mustard
seed, he says, furnishes 36 per cent. The volatile oil amounts to 0.20 per cent. , accord-
ing to Boutron an d Robiquet ; 0.55 per cent., according to Aschoff, and 0.50 per cent,
according to Wittstock ; all of which quantities are much below the mark, as will be
seen hereafter. Now, as will be shown presently, there is little or no difference in
the amount of fixed oil furnished by the two descriptions of mustard, that obtained
by me from the farina of brown mustard reaching 35.701 per cent., and that from the
white mustard 35.768 per cent. Again it is shown by the analyses given below that
the volatile oil occurs in much larger quantities than those enumerated above, the
amount which we have obtained from one sample being no less than 1.271 per cent.

Of both brown and white mustard we append the following original percentage
analyses, first published in the article referred to :

BROWN MUSTARD FARINA.

Per cent.

Water

4 845

Fixed oil

35 701

Myronic acid

4 840

Myrosin and albumen - ..... ..

29 536

3 588

Cellulose . .

16 765

A&h

4 725

Volatile oil

100. 000
1 271

5 068

Sulphur . .............. ........ ...

1 413

The oil extracted by ether from the brown seed is of a bright and beautiful emerald
green color, owing to the presence of the peculiar green principle described as one of its
constituents. So deep and remarkable is the color of the oil that it would be easy,
by means of a graduated scale of tints, to determine with very tolerable certainty
the percentage of brown mustard contained in any samples of mixed mustard.

WHITE MUSTARD FARINA.

Per cent.

Water

5 360

Fixed oil

35 758

10 983

Myrosin and albumen ......

27 484

16 295

Ash

4.110

Nitrogen.. .....,,.. .....

100. 000
5 285

Sulphir"

1 224

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 175

These analyses, whether regarded from a scientific or practical point of view, are
possessed of much interest.

The small quantity of sugar found in mustard would, from the method of analysis
pursued, be included under the bitter principle and the gum with cellulose.

Of the methods of analysis, Hassall writes :

Estimation of myronic acid. Myronate of potash decomposes, under the influence
of the nitrogenous matter contained in brown mustard, into volatile oil, glucose, and
acid sulphate of potash. The quantity of each of these products of decomposition
gives, therefore, by simple calculation, the quantity of myronic acid. One hundred
parts of this acid yield 23.85 parts of volatile oil. From 40 to 50 grams of the mus-
tard farina are placed in a flask of about one-half liter capacity ; 250 c. c. of tepid
water are poured over it, the flask closed with a cork, and the whole is well shaken.
After twenty-four hours' standing the flask is connected with a Liebig's condenser,
and its contents are heated to boiling. Into the receiver 30 c. c. of strong ammonia
are poured, and the end of the condenser is dipped below the surface of the liquid.
Water and the volatile oil pass over, the latter at first floating in the shape of oily
drops on the surface of the liquid, which soon sink to the bottom, especially when the
liquid is gently agitated. When the distillation is finished, which is the case when
no more oil globules pass over, the receiver is closed with a cork and allowed to stand
twenty-four hours. At the end of that time all the oil is dissolved and is now con-
tained in the liquid in the form of thiosinnamin. This solution is evaporated on the
water bath in a weighed platinum basin, the residue dried and weighed. The quan-
tity of thiosinnamine obtained, minus one molecule of ammonia, represents the
amount of volatile oil.

Estimation of the myrosin or albumen and of the sulphocyanide of sinapin. The total
amounts of nitrogen and sulphur contained in the mustard are next ascertained.
The former by combustion with soda-lime in the well-known manner, the latter by
deflagration of the mustard and oxidation of its sulphur in a mixture of nitrate of
soda and carbonate of potash. The fused mass is dissolved in water or dilute acid,
and the sulphuric acid contained in the solution is estimated by means of chloride of
barium. From these data the amounts of the inyrosin and of the sulphocyanide of
sinapin, the acrid principle, are thus calculated ; as much sulphur and nitrogen are
first deducted from the totals of these substances obtained as is contained in the
quantity of myrouic acid previously determined. Next, the whole of the remaining
sulphur and as much of the nitrogen as is required are then calculated into the acrid
principle ; lastly, the surplus nitrogen is calculated into inyrosin, which has the same
formula as vegetable albumen. But now, having got approximately the amounts of
the acrid principle and of the myrosin, a further calculation has to be made, since
myrosin contains about 1 per cent, of sulphur. This has to be deducted from the
total acrid principle, a corresponding quantity of nitrogen being in its turn calculated
into myrosin. By those acquainted with algebra it will readily be perceived that a
more precise calculation may be made, but the results would not, even then, differ to
any practical extent.

Acting on this method, Hassall made several analyses of genuine
mustards of the trade and also of adulterated articles, which are here
presented, merely dropping the third place in decimals, which is of no
value.

176

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

Analyses of genuine mustard.
[Hassall, pp. 514-516.]

Genuine
mustard.

Genuine
double
superfine.

Genuine
superfine.

Genuine
Fine.

Pure.

House-
hold.

5.70

5.16

5.59

5.68

5.08

5 29

Fixed oil .....

36 49

35.94

34.71

35 24

33 98

36 75

Myronic acid

2.70

2.21

1.97

.92

.96

1 72

31 69

27 36

31 02

27 90

27 62

8 75

Acrid salt and bitter principle..
Cellulose

5.72
13.37

9.09
15.58

7.10
15.29

10.06
15 55

11.26
16.81

27.48
3 69

Ash

4 33

4 66

4 32

4 65

4 29

16 32

Oil of mustard .

100. 00
71

100. 00
.58

100. 00
52

100. 00
.24

100. 00
.25

100. 00
45

Nitrogen ..............

5.34

5.05

5.46

5.16

5.21

5 03

1 31

1 42

1 25

1 30

1 40

1 31

Analyses of mixed and bulk mustard.

Double
super-
fine.

Fine.

Supe-
rior.

Suerls.

Alexan-
der.

Lind-

sey.

Gilbert.

Good-
man.

Clark.

Water

4 94

6 51

4 97

8 94

8 34

8 87

6 28

8 95

9 5g

Fixed oil

27.52

23 16

25.17

23. 88

29 60

21 54

22 06

26 90

18 31

3 14

1 36

1 >?

1 57

1 92

1 13

1 82

1.85

5 81

4 31

6 45

3 15

6 21

4 25

5 is

7 03

M vrosin

23.16

19.50

23.24

14.48

13 89

21.76

15 30

15 58

20 82

Wheat flour and turmeric .
Cellulose

22.99
13 05

27 20
12 84

25. 82
11 50

33. 81-
7.08

30.52
8 99

25.21
11 69

88.82
8 41

30.56

7 27

32. 81
8 65

Ash

3.35

3.62

3.79

3.59

3.74

3 75

3 74

2 41

Volatile oil

4.24

3.85

4.07

3 34

3 16

4 30

3 46

3 37

3 33

Sulphur

.95

.96

1.06

1.00

.90

.94

.82

.94

" Of the first six analyses of genuine mustards " Hassall says that
they " prove two things ; first, that all the samples are genuine ; this is
shown by the quantities of fixed oil, nitrogen, and sulphur obtained;
and that they consist of mixtures of the two mustards in different pro-
portions, the higher qualities containing larger proportions of the
brown mustard ; that this is so is demonstrated by the different quan-
tities of volatile oil obtained."

In the analyses of the adulterated mustards allowance in the calcu-
lation was made for the nitrogen of the wheat flour.

Hassall says:

From an examination of the foregoing analyses it is apparent that genuine brown
mustard should contain about 36 per cent, of fixed oil, at least 1 per cent, of volatile
oil of mustard, about 4 per cent, of acrid principle, and that it should furnish about
1.5 per cent, of sulphur and 5 per cent, of nitrogen ; that genuine white mustard should
yield about the same amount of fixed oil, over 10 per cent, of acrid principle, and
nearly the same amount of nitrogen and sulphur as the black ; that the composition
of genuine mustards, which are made up in various proportions of brown and white
mustard seed, differs according to the quantities of each kind present, the relative
proportions being determinate by analysis with considerable precision ; that in the
mixed or adulterated mustards the proportions of fixed and vol atile oil, of nitrogen,
and sulphur are all much reduced, according to the extent of the admixtures, these
consisting in the mustards now reported upon in all cases of wheat flour and tur-
meric.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 177

Thus the fixed oil was reduced in one of the samples from 36 per cent., the normal
amount, to about one-half or 18 per cent., the volatile oil to 0.1 per cent., and the
nitrogen to 3.32 per cent., while in another sample the sulphur was as low as 0.81 per
cent. The amount of wheat flour and turmeric varied from 22.91 per cent, to 38.82
per cent., that is to say, from one-fourth to one-third of the article.

These results furnish an excellent basis for the examination of the
mustards met with in our country. In addition, however, we have the
work of several other investigators. 0. H. Piesse and Lionel Stausell*
have given their results of the analyses of several samples of pure
farinas and their ashes, largely after the method of Hassall. Blyth
copies them, t and adds several pages on the chemistry of mustard and
its adulterations, adding nothing new to what has been quoted from
Hassall, with the exception of a formula for calculating the percentage
of added flour in mixtures from, the amount of fixed oil found. He
says :

Estimation of fat or oil. This is particularly useful when wheat starch is the
adulterating agent. Wheat Hour does not contain more than 1.2 to 2.1 per cent, of
oil; mustard, on the other hand, from 33.9 to 36.7 per cent. A weighed portion of the
previously dried samples may be placed in an extraction apparatus, and from the oil
found the following formuhe will serve as a guide to the amount of flour prese lit :
x = amount of mustard, y amount of oil found.

33.9 x 1.2 (IQO-a) _ 36.7 x 2 (100-aQ

100 " 100 100 " 100

according as the greater or less amount of oil is taken as being present in the pure
farina and the flour.

Accepting the mean for mustard and 2.0 per cent, as the proper figure
for flour, the formula would read more conveniently, it would seem,

1.333

where #=100 when the mustard is pure. Of the amount of ash Blyth
says :

" The total ash of dried mustard averages 5 per cent. The highest number the
writer has obtained is 5.3 per cent.; the lowest 5.088 per cent. Of this ash 1.2 at
least is soluble in water ; in other words, the ash of mustard consists of 30 parts per
cent, soluble, 70 parts per cent, insoluble in water. It hence follows that if found
above 5.5 per cent, mineral matters of foreign origin are present; if below 4 per cent,
it is an indication of some organic adulterant."

Albert B. Leeds and Edgar Everhartf have taken up Hassall's and
Bly th ? s work and shown that thelatter's formula for calculating added
flour from the percentage of oil found will not serve in all cases, as it is
not uncommon to express some of the oil from the seed before grinding,
to adulterate with oil cake or seeds, or to add cheap oils to the flour
used as a diluent to cover any deficiency. They also analyzed a sample
of pure farina of brown mustard according to a method devised by
themselves as a modification of Hassall, in which the determinations
should be direct instead of calculated. Briefly, it is as follows :

* Analyst, 5, 161-165, 1880.

t Foods and their adulterations, 485-486.

t Zeit. anal. Chern. 21,389-394,1882.

22823 BULL. 13, pt. 2 4

178

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

METHOD OF LEEDS AND EVERHART.

Moisture and ash are determined as usual; oil, in a portion of mus-
tard dried at 105, by ether in an extraction apparatus, with subse-
quent drying at 100. From the dried residue the sulphocyanide of sin-
apin and the myronate of potassium are extracted in a similar way by 50
per cent, alcohol. The extract is dried, weighed, and ignited, and from
the sulphate of potash in the ash the myronate is reckoned and the
sulphocyauide obtained by difference. The residue, containing myrosin,
and cellulose and a little coloring matter, is freed from alcohol and treated
with one-half per cent, sodic hydrate solution. The washed residue is
weighed and ignited for cellulose. The filtrate containing all the
inyrosin is nearly neutralized with dilute hydrochloric acid, 50 c. c. of
Bitthausen's copper sulphate solution added, and then dilute sodic hy-
drate to near neutrality. The heavy green myrosin copper compound
is filtered off, dried at 110 C., weighed, and ignited. The difference is
the myrosin.

Analyses carried out after this method in triplicate are as follows :

Per cent.

Water

6.78

6.90

6.82

Sulpho-cyanide of sinapine.- ..
Mvrosin....

10.97
28.45

11.19

28.70

11.21
28.30

Oil

29 22

29 21

29 19

Cellulose (by difference)

20 24

19 55

20 06

Ash

3.73

3.84

3.70

The amounts of nitrogen and sulphur in this mustard were :

Nitrogen 5.337

Sulphur 1.489

Calculated from these figures according to the method of Hassall
would be found the following :

Myronate of potassium 61

Sulphocyanide of sinapine 10.71

Myrosin 28.52

Showing a close agreement with the direct determinations.

Direct methods are, however, usually preferable and this would, no
doubt, be a good one were it not that dilute alcohol in the case of ad-
mixture of flour would dissolve so much of the albuminoid matter and
ash of the latter as to invalidate the determination of myronate. It is
therefore open to criticism.

E. Waller and E. W. Martin * in 1882 made an examination of mus-
tards manufactured and sold in New York City, attention being paid
to moisture, oil, and soluble and insoluble ash. They also examined
mustard pastes, and compared their results with some pure mustards
from the English market. Their analyses are as follows :

* Analyst 9, 166-170.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
Dry mustard manufactured and sold in Neiv York City.

179

No.

Moist
ure.

Fixed
oil.

Soluble
ash.

Insolu-
ble ash.

Total.

Coloring.

Remarks.

197

204

6.15
8 03

21.17
12 79

.30
1.39

5.54
5.39

5.84
6.78

Martin's yellow..
Turmeric .

Contains starch.

206
207

208

7.35
8.23
8 50

12.54
8.42
10 92

.23
.15

2.90

4.69
1.90
13. 15

4.92
2.05
16. 05

Martin's yellow. . .
Turmeric ....... .

Ash fixed starch.
Contains starch.
Contains starch Ca SOi

209
213
214

7.24
7.65
7.60

6.81
13. 32

7.74

.10
.64
1. 53

3.55
5.17
1.69

3.65
5.81
3.22

Martin's yellow...
Turmeric

Co'ntains starch
Contains starch, ash-fused.

215
216
217
218

7.15
5.45
6.50
8.45

9.02
20.57
8.59
14.59

.20
.15
1.52
2.15

2.91
5.12
5.65
6.65

3.11
5.27
8.17
8.80

do
do
do
do

Contains starch.
Contains starch.
Contains starch, Ca S0 4 .
Contains starch Ca S04

219

6 62

22 56

1 62

4 86

6 48

294

9.86

6.21

1.16

3.54

4.70

Martin's yellow...

Mustard paste, German mustard manufactured in New York City.

No.

Moist-
ure.

Acetic
acid.

Oil.

Other
organic
sub-
stance.

Soluble
ash.

Insolu-
ble ash.

Total.

Common
salt.

Oil on
dry sub-
stance.

Metallic
copper.

221
222
237

77.02
l. 52
79 62

2.76
1.98
2.43

2.55
3.50
3.90

14.18

10.67
12.60

2.51
1.77
2.52

0.93
.56
.97

3.49
2.33
3.49

2.11
1.63

24.98
21.24
19 51

.001
Trace.
009

242
244

76.54
81.45

3.69
2.94

4.57
3.73

11.53
9.09

2.69
2.14

.98
.65

3.67
2.79

1.86
1.77

23. 14
22.44

.003
Trace.

Mustard flour (bolted} purporting to be pure.

No.

Moist-
ure.

Oil.

Soluble
ash.

Insolu-
ble ash.

Total.

Remarks.

201

6.10

26.42

.21

5.92

6.21

New York manufacture.

220

5.50

25.70

.86

4.80

5.66

New York manufacture, Trieste and Bombay seed,
mixed.

273

4.85

36.67

.175

3. 725

3.900

English samples, whole seed.

274

4.75

41.70

.125

4.425

4.550

English samples, brown seed, ash-fused.

Ground mustard seeds.

No.

Kind of seed.

Moist-
ure.

Oil.

Soluble
ash.

Insolu-
ble ash.

Total.

231

American market :

7 52

36 96

1 25

4 37

5 62

232

Trieste

6 35

36 45

.70

3 70

4 40

233

California vellow

4.95

34.00

.50

4.40

4.90

234

6 10

35 46

4 55

4 SO

271

English market :
White

7.10

34.45

.70

3.90

4. CO

272

Brown

7.30

34.71

.85

3.90

4.75

As commeiit they say :

The results obtained for oil on Nos. 201 and 220 led to inquiry, the result of which
ras the discovery that it is the regular practice of the mustard manufacturers here
to express a portion of the oil from the ground mustard seed before working it up
into the condiment sold as mustard. In these samples, as well as in No. 219, which
was sold under guarantee of being pure nmstard without admixture, no starch, col-
oring material, or other material known to be foreign to the mustard seed was found.

180

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

If we calculate, then, that these mustards Lave been made up from mustard flour
similar to 201 and 220, and containing 25 per cent, of oil, by multiplying the per-
centages of oil given in the table by four, we shall get approximately the proportions
of mustard flour present, in percentages.

These investigators also examined a specimen of English mustard
which was mixed with starch, and yet contained a normal amount of oil
which, on extraction, was decidedly more fluid than mustard oil. This
points to the truth of the assertion that the extraction of the mustard
oil is often covered by the addition of oil of inferior character.

The common use of Martin's yellow (Dinitrouapthol) as a coloring
matter is startling, as it can hardly be anything but injurious. They
detected it by extracting the flour with cold, strong alcohol, evaporating,
taking up with water and dyeing wool with it. Crystals, however, could
not be obtained, but the authors came into possession of a sample of the
coloring matter which was analyzed.

In Canada, large numbers of samples of mustard have been examined
with results which have already been quoted, showing that the manu-
facture of mustard from mustard cake and the addition of farinaceous
matter is as common there as elsewhere. In the report for 1885, out of
fifty-one specimens, only 10 contained over 25 per cent, of fixed oil and
no starch, and but three contained over 30 per cent, oil, as they should,
if of best quality. The chief analyst, however, is of the opinion that the
removal of the oil is an advantage, as the flour will keep better and be as
pungent without it.

With the information of the nature which has been given a number
of samples of mustard purchased in the open market in Washington,
some of low grade obtained direct from Baltimore spice mills, and others
in the whole seed from the importers and dealers, have been examined
microscopically and chemically. They may be described as follows :

Serial
No.

Price
pound
(retail).

Remarks.

4510

Cents.

White seed.

11
22
27
32
36
42
50
51
4241

30
20
20
30
36
30
20
20

Guaranteed pure.
Ground in District of Columbia.
Ground in Baltimore.
English brand.
Ground in Baltimore.
English brand.

Ground in New York.
Mohawk N. Y.

London strong extra Baltimore Md

4971

4835

Ground in Baltimore ; 'extensively advertised as pure.

White-seed husk ground in laboratory

California yellow mustard seed.

4900

California brown mustard seed.

English yellow mustard send

Trieste brown mustard seed.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

181

The analytical determinations gave the following results :

Analyses of mustard.
[Whole-seed flour.]

C *

Source.

o sic

Quality.

"fl

^ a

4510

White seed

635

5 57

4.23

33.56

.00

5 40

28 88

91 33

100

4 62

4885

White flour

3 33i 5 23

1 84

34 83

9 05

25 56 20 16

100

4 09

4886

Seed husk

480

6 171 4 Q9

28 12

9 50

23 4427 23

100

3 75

4899

California yellow

.460

4 83

5 96

1 27

31.96

.00

8 50

31 13 16 35

100

4.98

4900

California brown

. 135

4. 11

4.88

1.35

36.63

.00

16.18

24. 69 12. 16

100

3.95

4901

419

3 11

4 07

2 06

31 51

6 90

an 95 99! in

100

4 84

4902

Trieste brown . . .

.423

4.62

5.61

.63

39.55

.00

10. 84 25. 88

18.87

100

4.14

f Commercial mustard flour.]

4511
4522

4527
4532
4536
4542
4550
4551
4871
4872
4971

(1)

Colored

Adulterated .
....do

5.97

9.38
9.73
5.84
6.60
3 25
5.80
6.70
4.57
7.25
6.03

6.55

7
4.40
4.90
9.70

3.6.-,

3.15
1.90
3.24
3.35

5.98

.43

.24
.80
2.11
.50
2.01
.37
1.31
2.02
2.32
.65

18.16

11.20
9.85
30.84
14.72
32.26
7.89
6.50
.77
5.54
19.46

.00

21.15
29.14
7.26
9.00
8.50
40.50
45.00
31.50
34.63
5.70

7.35

2.95
2.40
4.63
3.75
14.98
2.43
2.97
2.90
1.23
3.48

37.44

20.63
13.31

25.88
14.50
25.19
14.38
13.63
20.31
19.63
33.06

24.10

27.04
30.37
18.54
41.23
10.16
25.46
21.99
28.60
26. 05
25.64

100

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

5.95

3.30
2.13
4.14
3.92
4.03
2.30
2.18
3.25
3.14
5.29

District of Colum-

Baltimore

English

Baltimore .....

English

....do

(?)

New York

Baltimore .......

..do

Baltimore

Abnormal figures in full-faced type.

DISCUSSION OF THE ANALYSES.

The results obtained with pure seed, ground in the laboratory, show
that flour of mustard is fairly constant in its composition.

Water is present in small amount, as is generally the case in oil seeds,
varying between 3 and 7 per cent. Hassall found from 5.16 to 5.70,
and Waller and Martin 7.52 to 4.95.

Ash is quite constant between 4 and 6 per cent., so that the presence
of foreign mineral matter is readily detected. Blyth places the varia-
tion between 5.1 and 5.3, Waller and Martin between 4.40 and 5.62,
while in ground samples it falls as low as 2.05, Waller and Martin, or
1.90, our own results, owing to the addition of organic adulterants, such
as wheat flour, or rises to 16 per cent, from the addition of gypsum. The
determination is therefore an extremely valuable one.

Volatile oil is present naturally in the seed in but small amount.
The percentage we have found to be rather variable, as much as 2.06
having been found in an English yellow seed and as little as .55 in
another. Hassall found from .71 to 24 per cent. Its presence is not of
importance.

Fixed oil is one of the most prominent constituents of the seed, vary-
ing in amount from 31 to 37 per cent. Waller and Martin give results

182

FOODS AtfD FOOD ADULTERANTS.

varying from 34 to 37, and Hassall 34.71 to 36.49. It has become an
almost universal practice, however, to express a portion of the oil, so
that in good flour as little as 18 per cent, has been found.

Starch is entirely absent, a contrast to the cereal grains and many
other seeds. Its addition is of course common.

Crude fiber varies in a way dependent on the method of milling and
of determining its amount. Our samples were found to contain much
more than the best flour of commerce, as our means of separating the
husk are imperfect. With careful milling not more than 6 to 7 per cent,
should be present, according to modern chemical methods. Hassall, on
the other hand, found from 13 to 17 per cent.

Albuminoids make up a large part of the seed, varying from 25 to 32
per cent. Anything below 20 per cent, points to dilution with material
poor in nitrogen.

The undetermined matter consists of gum and some unidentified sub-
stances soluble in alcohol, whose estimation is of no particular value as
a means of detecting adulteration.

Our results, as a whole, agree closely with those of other investiga-
tors, so that for general reference the following standard may be used :

Per. cent.

Water

3to7

Ash

4 6

Volatile oil

4 2

Fixed oil:
When from entire seed.
When from cake .

31 37
16 18

Starch

None.

Crude fiber

5 18

Albuminoids

25 32

When, however, the flour is ground from cake all the percentages
may be somewhat increased.

As compared with the pure mustards the flours of commerce give re-
sults which show at once the universal extent of the adulteration which
takes place, aside from any microscopic examination.

4511, purchased in Washington but ground elsewhere, has been de-
prived of nearly half of its fixed oil, that is to say, is ground from mus-
tard cake. It is the only specimen which contains no farinaceous ma-
terial, and is higher in albuminoids than any of the pure seeds or flours.
This is due to the fact that abstraction of the oil raises the relative per-
centage of albuminoids, and this is not reduced at all by the addition of
any diluent. The amount of fiber is relatively high for the same reason.
It contains also a very small amount of mineral adulteration. The mi-
croscope shows the presence of turmeric as coloring matter.

This brand is perhaps the purest met with, as its only defects are lack
of, oil which has been considered not a loss, the small amount mineral
matter, and the presence of a little coloring matter.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 183

4522, represented by two different specimens, has, in one case, that
analyzed, been deprived of more oil than the preceding, has a consid-
erable amount of gypsum in its ash, and 21 per cent, of starch in the
shape of wheat flour. The relative percentages of fiber and albumin-
oids are thereby reduced somewhat, since 21 per cent, of starch would
correspond to about 30 per cent, of flour. Color is given by turmeric. In
the other case the changes were similar, except that no turmeric was
added, but large amounts of white mustard hulls.

4527, ground in Baltimore, consists to a large extent of flour, be-
tween 40 and 50 per cent., and is made from mustard cake, the oil hav-
ing been removed. The color has been restored by turmeric. The sam-
ple leaves on sieving quite a large amount of husky and fibrous matter
contaminated with wheat flour and turmeric. The husks are not those
of the original mustard, and have not been identified, but seem to re-
semble the exterior coats of ginger, and may represent an addition of
spent ginger or ginger tailing.

4522, sieving leaves white mustard hulls and yellow corn meal, but
no color 5 wheat flour is also present.

4551. This sample contains turmeric, wheat flour, and salt.

4532. An English brand, is made from whole seed and is diluted with
but little flour and color, about 10 per cent, of the former.

4536 is made from mustard cake, contains a large amount of gypsum
and some starch, and is colored (with turmeric). The large amount of
undetermined matter would point also to the presence of other adulter-
ants not identified.

4542 resembles the other English brand examined, 4532 being only
altered by the addition of a little flour and color.

4550 and 4551 are perhaps the worst samples we have examined.
They are made from cake, contain no mineral adulterants, but are more
than half flour, and are of course much colored with turmeric. They
were purchased from the same grocery. One also contained salt, de-
tected by sifting.

4871 and 4872 are similar and but little superior. They were obtained
directly from a Baltimore mill in a lot of spices, which were all adulter-
ated.

4971 has been much advertised as quite pure, but was found to con-
tain sand and flour, but no color. It is made, as usual, from seed cake.
From these samples we learn the quality of the ordinary flour mustard
of the groceries. It is not good, and certainly demands reform.

PEPPER.

he ordinary black and white peppers of commerce are the fruit of
e true pepper plant, Piper nigrum, which grows in the East and West
ies. Bed pepper,]or cayenne, is not a pepper, but the fruit of several
cies of Capsicum. Tinder the title of " pepper," therefore, attention

184 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

will be confined to the genus Piper, reserving for a separate chapter the
remaining substances which are commonly miscalled peppers.

The pepper plant is a perennial climbing shrub, with a small, round,
sessile, fleshy fruit, which grows spontaneously on the Malabar coast,
and whose culture has been extended to Siam, Hindostan, Indo-China,
Malacca, Singapore, Penaug, Ceylon, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the
neighboring islands, and to a small extent in Guiana and Cayenne.

The greatest production is in Sumatra, and the ports of export are
principally Singapore and Penan g, the Malabar pepper coming from
Tellicherry. Our imports are principally through England, and not
direct, and it seems that, in England at least, it is customary to mix
peppers of different origin in grinding, taking Malabar for weight, Pe-
nang for strength, and Sumatra for color.

Of the other characteristics and history of pepper a most complete
account may be found in " Fliickiger and Hanbury's Pharinaco-
graphia."* Of its preparation for the market these authors say :

When one or two berries at the base of the spike begin to turn red the whole spike
is pinched off. Next day the berries are rubbed off with the hands and picked clean,
then dried for three days on mats or on smooth, hard ground or on bamboo baskets
near a gentle fire.

As thus prepared it is the black pepper of the trade.
When the berries are allowed to ripen, and the black outer pericarp
is removed on drying, they are known as white pepper.

The grains of white pepper are of rather larger size than those of black, and of a
warm, grayish tint. They are nearly spherical or a little flattened. At the base the
skin of the fruit is thickened into a blunt prominence, whence about twelve light
stripes run meridian-like toward the de pressed summit. If the skin is scraped off the
dark-brown testa is seen inclosing the hard, translucent albumen. In anatomical
structure, as well as in taste and smell, white pepper agrees with black, which, in
fact, it represents in a rather more fully-grown state.

A study of the structure of black pepper will, therefore, furnish every
information in regard to the white. There are also two species of Piper
which furnish a berry used in a similar way to that of Piper nigrum.
They are known as long pepper, Piper longum and Piper officinarum.
Their structure is similar to that of the common pepper, with some
characteristic differences. It is difficult to say how far they are an ar-
ticle of commerce in this country. They come principally from Penang
and Singapore, being brought from Java and other places.

The structure of black pepper is described as follows in the work last
quoted :

The small, round berry-like fruits grow somewhat loosely to the number of twenty
to thirty on a common pendulous fruit stalk. They are at first green, then become red,
and, if allowed to ripen, yellow, but they are gathered before complete maturity, and
by drying in that state turn blackish gray or brown. If left until quite ripe they lose
some of their pungency and gradually fall off.

The berries after drying are spherical, about one-fifth inch in diameter, wrinkled on
the surface, indistinctly pointed below by the remains of a very s horfc pedicel, and

* London, McMillan & Co., 1879.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

185

crowned still more indistinctly by the three or four lobed stigma. The thin pericarp
tightly encloses a single seed, the embryo of which, in consequence of premature gath-
ering, is undeveloped and merely replaced by a cavity situated below the apex. The
seed itself contains within the thin red-brown testa a shining albumen, gray and
horny without and mealy within. The pungent taste and peculiar smell of pepper
are familiar to all.

The transverse section of the grain of black pepper exhibits a soft yellowish epider-
mis, covering the outer pericarp. This is formed of a closely-packed yellow layer of
large, mostly radially arranged, thick-walled cells, each containing in its small cav-
ity a mass of dark brown resin. The middle layer of the pericarp consists of soft tan-
gentially extended parenchyme, containing an abundance of extremely small starch
granules and drops of oil. The shrinking of this loose middle layer is the chief cause of
the deep wrinkles on the surface of the berry. The next inner layer of the pericarp ex-
hibits towards its circumference tangentially arranged, soft parenchyme, the cells of
which possess either spiral striation or spiral fibers, but towards the interior loose
parenchyme free from starch and containing very large oil cells. The testa is
formed in the first place of a row of small yellow thick-walled cells. Next to them
follows the true testa, as a dense, dark brown layer of liguified cells, the individual
outlines of which are indistinguishable. The albumen of the seeds consists of angu-
lar, radially arranged, large-celled pareuchyme. Most of its cells are colorless and
loaded with starch, others contain a soft yellow amorphous mass. If thin slices are
kept under glycerine for some time, these masses are slowly transformed into needle-
shaped crystals of piperin.

IG. 11. Pepper husk, cross-section, ep, epidermis; a, stone cells; &, parenchyme with oil cells; c,
spiral vessels ; d, inner parenchyme; e, inner layer of stone cells. (After Schimper.)

Of the structure described so well in the preceding lines, of a portion
)f which a diagramatic illustration is given in Fig. 11, after Schimper,
mly parts are readily found in the powdered pepper of the shops. The
ingular cells of the interior of the seed are of course the most prominent,

id when once seen their characteristic form and contents are easily rec-
)gnized again. The structure of the outer coats is made out with more
lifficulty. It is well, before attempting to do so on a ground pepper,
to soften some whole black and white pepper-corns in glycerine and
cut sections from various parts of the exterior of the berry. Taking
the white pepper first it will not be found difficult in such sections
mounted in glycerine to pick out three layers of different cells compos-

186 POODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

ing the outer coat of the corn, beside the angular large cells of the in-
terior, which are filled with starch and piperine, the latter being yellow
in color. The first of these layers and outer one is made up of colorless
large loosely-arranged cells, with some fibers, more compact toward the
exterior than the interior of the layer and carrying globules of oil. This
layer makes up the principal part of the husk of white pepper. The
second layer is a part of what Fliickiger calls the testa, and consists of
small yellow cells, thick walled and closely appressed. Next the third
layer and second portion of the testa consists of liginified brown cells,
which in their transverse appearance resemble some of the cells of mus-
tard hulls., the individuality not being made out easily owing to the
thickness of the walls. Having become thoroughly familiar with these
appearances the white ground pepper should be examined and will be
found to differ in the way in which these coats are presented. They can
be recognized, however, and must be studied until thoroughly under-
stood. The presence of the least portion of adulterant is then readily
detected.

The black pepper is not as simple in its arrangement as the white.
The maturity of the latter gives its structure more distinctness.
while in the black the more or less shrunken character of the berry ren-
ders the recognition of the various tissues difficult. In a section from
the exterior of a softened black pepper the interior coats, after what
has been learned with the white, will be quickly recognized, but will be
found to not be as plainly developed. The coats of the outer pericarp,
which in the white pepper were wanting, will be found t o be dark-col-
ored, shrunken, and confused, so that it will require much study to dis-
cover the forms of cell which Fliickiger describes. It will be found
easier, perhaps, in the ground black pepper. There the structures al-
ready recognized in the ground white pepper will be seen and in addi-
tion dark-brown particles, portions of the outer coats. Careful exam-
ination of different particles will detect some which consist of the elon-
gated vertical exterior cells, containing resin, while others are the
shrunken parenchyma cells of the second layer, whose structure is in-
distinct.

Fliickiger calls the first layer yellow, which hardly seems correct, as
the appearance is nearly black. It is unnecessary, however, to at-
tempt a minute study of these cells, as one is only required to be able
to recognize their appearance and in addition to know something of
the relative proportion of ground pepper which they should form as
they are added in excess as pepper dust, the wast e hulls of pepper be-
ing often used as an adulterant. The colored portion of a ground black
pepper it will be found divides itself into two classes, the dark par-
ticles which have just been mentioned and the deep reddish ones, which
are made up of the testa of the seed and its adherent parenchyma.
The two will be readily recognized and distinguished from adulterants
by the investigator.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

18?

The differences in the appearance of the peppers from various sources
is sufficiently marked to be readily noticed when samp les of each are
placed side by side, but otherwise it is almost impossible to identity
them. The best method of judging their quality and the one in use in
the trade is by weight. Malabar is considered the heaviest. Blyth
gives the following figures :

100 peppercorns of Grams-

Penang 6.2496

Malabar 6.0536

Sumatra 5. 1476

Trevy 4.5736

Tellicherry 4.5076

Tellicherry is the Malabar or West Coast port, so that variations must
occur, as would be natural, in different samples.
We have found some samples to weigh

Serial No.

Source.

Weight per
100 grams.

Percentage
of dust and
dirt.

4514

Black.
Unknown

5. 9000

4840

Unknown

5. 4600

4894

Acheen

4 525

2 5

4895

West Coast

5.085

4 3

489G

Singapore

4.870

8 3

4516

White.

5 1300

4898

Singapore

4 9600

1 4

The white pepper is of course the cleaner.

ADULTERANTS.

The common adulterants to be found in peppers are said to be flours
)r starches of cereals and potatoes, sago, mustard hu sk, linseed and
capsicum, pepper dust, sawdust, gypsum, and other odds and ends.

Of the adulterations of pepper Blyth enumerates many, among them
the celebrated pepper dusts designated as " P. D.", " H. P. D. ? " and
11 W. P. D.," and known as pepper dust, composed of linseed cake ; hot-
pepper dust, composed of mustard husks chiefly, and white-pepper dust,
composed of ground rice. In this country the use of ground corn or rice,
mustard hulls, cocoanut shells, and other similar refuse is* very com-
mon, but whether they have been derived from goods sold asH. P. D. and
W. P. D." we were unable to ascertain. Other refuse is also frequently
found in cheap peppers, but sand does not seem to be as often added here
as abroad. We have found the white peppers much freer from adul-
teration than the black. It is learned from Dr. Ellis, of Toronto, that
roasted cocoanut shells are in common use now as an adulterant of all
spices, and are of course easily intr oduced into peppers. They have not
been found in the specimens which we have examined. Pepper husks,

188 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

mustard hulls, yellow corn, cracker dust, charcoal, and mineral matter
have been detected by their characteristic appearances. The presence
of pepper husks and charcoal is generally known by the immensely in-
creased proportion of black particles in the field, as appears in Fig. 43,
Plate XVII. A careful sorting of the coarser particles tin der a low power
of the dissecting microscope and selection, for example, of the shining
white grains of rice or yellow particles of corn from the more oily pepper
cells, enables us to examine the starches separately with plain and polar-
ized light. The appearance of the true pepper powder and one in
which rice starch is present is given in Plate XXII, Figs. 43 and 44.
Pepper starch is so much smaller than any other which we meet with,
that it is not easily confused with it. Fig. 65, Plate XXVIII, gives an
idea of its size as compared with others. With the dissecting micro-
scope it is also convenient to go over the pepper powder and pick out
any other class of suspicious particles for examination with higher power.
With a little practice it soon becomes easy to tell an adulterated speci-
men even with a cursory examination with a lower power or a hand lens.
In this way, in our experience, one or two foreign substances have been
found which have not been identified, but which were evidently parts
of the husks or coverings of some seed or fruit. The shell of the cocoa-
nut, as has been said , has not been met with as an adulterant, but it is
not at all difficult to identify, as its structure, with its innumerable
stone cells and fibrous tissue, is very characteristic after treatment witli
Schulze's reagent.

The microscopic examination thus gives very certain indications of
the quality of peppers, although frequently the eye with out aid will
detect a fictitious appearance. The chemical examination, on the other
hand, as will be shown, serves as a reliable means of confirmation in
many instances, and gives evidence of the quantity as well as kind of
the adulteration. A considerable amount of information has been ac-
cumulated in regard to the proximate composition of peppers. Fliick-
iger quotes authorities for the statement that black pepper contains
from 1.6 to 2.2 per cent, of volatile oil, of the character of a terpeue and
optically active; also a nitrogenous substance known as piperine to
the extent of 2 to 8 per cent. Husemann and Hilger* give reference to
papers byjseveral investigators (seebiobligraphy), and describes piperine
as soluble in alcohol, and less so in ether. This substance, which is
characteristic, will be found, therefore, in the ether extract of the spice,
together with the volatile oil.

Blyth has made an examination of several peppers, and gives results
which are useful for reference.

Die Pflanzenstoffe, B. 2, S. 486.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

Analysis of ash of Telliclierry pepper.

189

Per cent.

24 38

Soda ...

3 23

Magnesia

1'i 00

11 60

Phosphoric acid .. . .............................

8 47

Sulphuric acid

9 61

7 57

Carbonic acid

14 00

Sand

6 53

'The sand, be finds, the most variable constituent, but never above 9
per cent, of the ash except in cases of willful adulteration. Phosphoric
acid averages 8.5 per cent, of the ash, which is considered characteristic.
He has also identified nitrates in peppers, finding in

Per cent.

04470

03858

088GO

Sumatrai

06560

Trang

. 11870

The average proximate composition he finds to be

Per cent.

Volatile oil ...

1 04

1 77

Piperine - --

5 17

Substances soluble in water, gum, starch, and other matters

14 74

Substances insoluble in alcohol and water ......

G7 75

9.53

100. 00

Following are some analyses made by Blyth in 1876 :

Piperine in pepper.dried
at 100.

Resin in pepper, dried
at 100.

Aqueous extract in pep-
per, dried at 100.

Ash in pepper,
dried at 100.

Soluble in water.

Penan g

9.53
12.90
10.10
10.54
11.66
10.30

5.57
4.68
4.70
4.63
4.60
5.60
1.80

2.08
1.70
1.74
1.74
1.70
2.05
.80

18.33
16. 50
17.59
20.37
18.17

2.21
3.38
2.62
3.45
2.53
.56
4.47

4.18
5.77
4.31
5.19
4.77
1.12
8.30

Tellicberry

Malabar

White pepper (com.) ...
Loner pepper . . .

16.82

190

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

The process for the estimation of pipeline approved by Blyth is ex-
traction with petroleum ether and treatment of the extract with sodic
hydrate to remove the resin. Subsequent investigations by Lenz con-
demn this method, however.

More recently Eottger * has investigated the pepper-corn with especial
consideration of the question of detection of adulteration, and decided
that the examination of commercial peppers should be directed to de-
terminations of the inorganic constituents, the percentage of water, and
the microscope, with determinations of the soluble and insoluble ash
and piperine in certain instances. He decides that the alcohol and
ether extracts are of no value, quoting great variations in his results
and those of others. He found

For ether ex-
tract, indirectly
determined.

For alcohol
extract of 90
per cent.

White pepper ...

Per cent,
8 to 10 7

Per cent.
10 to 11 8

Black pepper

7. 9 12. 1

12. 3 16. 7

Borgman, Wolff, and Biechelet likewise have determined the amount
of alcohol extract, but have neglected the ether extract. It seems diffi-
cult to understand why the alcohol extract should be selected, as the
ether is much simpler, and refers almost directly to the amount of vola-
tile oil and piperine which the spice contains, without so much of the
indefinite resin and sugar which the alcohol extracts. The determina-
tion of water was made as follows by Eottger : The powdered pepper
was placed for three hours over sulphuric acid, and a portion then
weighed out and dried at 100 C. for one and a half hours, then for a quar-
ter of an hour at a time until it begins to gain weight. He found the
variations to be between 12.6 and 14.7 for black pepper, and 12.9 and
and 14.5 for white pepper.

This striking agreement, he considers, makes this determination of
value. It is open to serious criticism and is of little value, in our view,
for the following reason: By consulting our investigations on the hy-
groscopic character of organic matter in a state of fine division,! it will
be seen that allowing peppers to remain over sulphuric acid for three
hours would not accomplish the end desired, at least in our climate, viz,
reducing the moisture in all to a constant figure, and in addition Eottger
takes no account of the volatile oil lost at 100. In our analyses we find,
in fact, much less water than he does, as is usual in all organic material
in our drier climate, and no greater variation among the peppers than
the adulterated specimens. Practical tests of the method also proved
unsatisfactory.

* Ber. uber d. 4 Ver. Bayrisch. Vertreter der angew Cheraie, 97-102.

tVide Bibliography.

+ Bull. No. 4, Div. of Chem., Department of Agriculture.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

191

The per cent, of ash Bottger finds for black pepper to be between
3.4 and 5.1 per cent., white pepper between .8 and 2.9 per cent., with
an exception in the case of Laiupong pepper, which has 6.4 per cent.
He concludes, with other investigators, that 6 is the highest allowable
figure for ash in black pepper, with anything above 5 as suspicious.
Three per cent, is, in the same way, the highest allowable figure for
white pepper.

Of the composition of the ash he says :

The facts point to the conclusion that an exhaustive investigation of the mineral
constituents in many cases may be of benefit in forming an opinion of the quality
and purity of peppers. *

He found the following extremes :

Black.

White.

FexO?

MnaOs

K->O

27 4 to 34 7

5 1 to 71

56 87

5 9

Si0 2

15 63

1.0 2. 6

PzOs water sol

11 91

PaOe, insol

82 12 5

10 8 30.7

He gives the following detailed analyses :

Percentage composition of the pepper ash.

Black pepper.

White pepper.

Unknown ori-
gin.

Malabar,
1883.

Unknown
origin.

Singapore.

SiO 2 ... .
HC1 ... .
SOs
COa

6.30 to 1.61
5. 59 6. 83
4. 03 4. 05
17. 28 20. 10
11.10 9.46
32. 4!) 34. 72
1. 55 4. 77
16. 07 13. 55
3.31 4.46
2. 1C . 99
.81

1.54
8.71
4.00
19.17
11.06
27.39
5.50
15. 02
7.56
.85
.18

2.62
.58
3.24
11.90
29.34
5.10
.74
35.12
9.54
2.22
.89

1.46
.90
3.75
10.01
30.75
7.15
.84
31.05
11.64
1.86
.21

P 2 5 ... -
K20... .
Na 2 O . . .
CaO

MgO
F 2 0,
MnzOs . . .

Eottger then discusses the determination of the piperine, and allows
lat for simplicity and accuracy drying the powder with milk of lime
ind extraction with ether is to be preferred. When the ether is pure,
Iry, and free from alcohol we find lime is of little use, or rather a com-
plication, and that for purposes of detecting adulteration the ether ex-
tract alone furnishes all the information desired.

Lenzf has determined the amount of sugar produced by inverting the
starch in fourteen peppers, and in the common adulterants, with acid.
[e found all the samples gave an equivalent of more than 50 per cent.

* Halenke has more recently discussed this subject: vide bibliography, Appendix A,
t Zeit.Anal.Chem., 1884, 23, 501.

192 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

of sugar oil tlie ash free organic matter of the pepper, while all the
adulterants gave less than 30 per cent., with the exception of those
which are starchy, as flours and meals.

Kottger repeated this determination, showing that some other sub-
stances besides starch were inverted by the acid, and obtained the fol-
lowing results :

Black pepper sugar equivalent 57.2 to 60.3

White pepper sugar equivalent 59.6 to 74.4

The Lampoug pepper gave only 41.70. Such great variations he con-
siders fatal to the method as a means of detecting adulterations. His
conclusions seem not entirely justified, as a review of Leuz's figures will
sho w.

Lenz in his paper affirms that any extract determination is useless,
as with various adulterants the results may be very close to actual
pepper. Petroleum ether he shows to be unreliable, the amount of ex-
tract depending on the kind of extraction apparatus used. There cer-
tainly should be no difficulty of purely manipulative detail of this de-
scription, for if sufficient time is given the solvent will work the same
under all conditions, but not less than twenty hours' continuous extrac-
tion should be allowed, and it is not fair to generalize on an analysis
where the extraction was continued less than that time, the poor re-
sults being due only to a probable faultily manner of manipulation, as
we have met with no such trouble.

Lenz's conclusions seem hardly just, and while there may be cases
where adulterants would not be detected by an extract determination,
in the majority it is a great assistance. Lenz also refers to the method
of separation of the powdered particles of pepper adulterants by means
of liquids of certain specific gravities, and pronounces it usuitable. He
prefers the treatment with iodine solution and the selection of the par-
ticles not blued for examination under the microscope as adulterants.
We have found it perfectly simple and desirable to use the method of
separation with sieves, and to examine the coarse powder, with or with-
out treatment, under the microscope, when, with a little experience, it
is easy to distinguish and recognize the source of particles not pepper
after a careful examination with high powers.

He also casts doubt upon the value of an ash determination, and
owing to the great variations which be finds quoted as possible, recom-
mends calculating all results on an ash free basis. He, however, admits
that a carefully and properly cleaned pepper-corn will not usually con-
tain more than 6 per cent., and his strictures, therefore, do not seem to
be consistent. He places reliance only on the process of his own inven-
tion, determinations of sugar corresponding to the starch and other in-
vertible substances, with supplementary determinations of water and
ash and microscopic examination. His results were as follows :

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

193

List of equivalent percentage of reducing sugars in ash free organic substance of peppers and

adulterants.

No.

Name.

Ash.

Dry
residue.

Ash free
dry resi-
due.

Sugar
equivalent
in sample.

Sugar
equivalent
in ash free
dry sample.

Remarks.

1
2

Black Batavia pepper
Long pepper (2)

3.85
8. 68

87. 68"

88.77

83.83
80.12

43.8
44.2

52.3
55.2

Inverted directly.
Inverted after ex-

Black Singapore
Do -

3.62
3 62

86. 88
86 88

83.26
83 26

43.9
45

52.8
54 1

traction with wa-
ter.
Inverted directly.
Inverted after ' ex-

3.62

86. 88

83.26

44. 1

53.0

traction with alco-
hol.
After water.

White pepper
Palm-cake meal (1) . .

Do .

.99
3.71

3.71

87. 59
89.76

89.76

86.60
86.05

86.05

51.8
22.7

19.1

59.9
26.4

22.2

Do.
After water and al-
cohol.

3 71

89 76

86 05

22 7

26 4

Hi r Ant

10
11

Palm -cake meal (2) ...
Do

3.65
3.65

89.35
89 35

85.70

85 70

< 22. 4
1 22. 5

19 7

26.1
26.2
23

} DO.

After water

12
13

Palm-cake meal (3) . .
Palni-cake, pure

Pepper husks

3.54
1.89

15.61

8. 88
93.44

89.50

86.34
91.55

73. 89

19.4
11.1

11.5

22.5
12.1

15.6

Do.

After ether and al-
cohol.

20
21
22

Pepper husks picked
out o f commercial
pepper.
Commercial pepper
husks.
Commercial pepper
powder containing
palm-cake meal.
Pepper (3), with 28
per cent, of palm-
cake meal (3).
Same with 42.4 per
cent.
Walnut shells
Buckwheat meal
Dried and roasted

9.21

20.29
5.15

3.59

3.58

1.04
2.10
1.15

88.64

88.42
88. 7C

87.88

88.38

89.34
86. 58
100. 00

79.43

68.13
83.55

84.29

84.80

88.30
84.48
98.85

13.0

11.5
35.9

36.0

33.7

17.7
56.1

16.4

16.9
43.0

42.7

39.7

20.0
66.4
86.3

Do.

Do.
Do.

Do,

Do.

Do.
Direct.
Do

bread.
Do

1.15

100. 00

98.85

62.6

Lenz's method of i averting was this : 3 to 4 grams of the substance to
be examined was treated for three to four hours in a flask with 250 c.c.
of water, being repeatedly shaken. It was then filtered off, washed
with water, and the moist powder washed back into the flask, and to
200 c.c. of water 25 c.c. of 25 per cent, hydrochloric acid added. The
flask was provided with a cork and tube one meter long and placed in
a bath of boiling water and kept there three hours, with shaking. It is
then made upon cooling to SODc.c., after careful neutralization with
soda. This liquid was then titrated with Fehliug solution. When
palm-cake was present it was found necessary to add a little zinc chlo-
ride to clear the solution. Most of the surrogates for pepper used in
Germany Lenz found to be free from starch, so that this method would
seem to be of wide applicability. He remarks, however, that other sub-
stances besides starch may be inverted, and for this reason it is neces-
sary to adhere closely to one method of working. We shall from our
own experience and that of others learn more in regard to the capa-
bilities and usefulness of this method.
22823 Bull. 13, pt. 2 5

194

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

Haslinger ami Mosliuger* have also published some observations on
pepper and its adulteration which are of interest. They show that in
Germany the addition of grains of paradise, the seed of Amomum
Melcgueta, is a common practice whose detection can be accomplished
most readily with the microscope, after a study of the structure of the
grains of paradise, which is very characteristic. The starch cells are
larger than in pepper, 3 to G times as long as hard, but the starch itself
is scarcely distinguishable. The cells are arranged in parallel lines
forming bundles pointed at the end. The cells remain white when
treated with hydrochloric acid, while those of pepper are yellower.

These writers also looked into the ash of commercial samples of pep-
per and found from 4.1 to 27.0 per cent, of inorganic substance insoluble
in hydrochloric acid where in peppers ground by themselves only .3
and .8 per cent, occurred. They also found pepper siftings, pepper
husks, and other refuse in use as adulterants and followed up Leuz's
suggestions as to determination of reducing sugar produced from tbe
samples by acid, by examining pure pepper corns ground by themselves,
and also pepper husks, and extending the determinations to ci-llulose
also. The " dextrose," as they denominate it, was determined accord-
ing to Allihn, the "cellulose" according to Heiiberger. The results
were as follows :

Dextrose.

Cellulose.

Black pepper puro

1"> G

1G 4

Four samples fbr investigation :

40 4

23 4

40 g

9 S 1

III

44 9

'){ j

41 5

t>tj g

Pepper siftiii' T s

21 6

37 4

From these figures they give the following formulae for calculating
adulterations where :

#=per cent, of pure pepper.

y= per cent, of hulls.

s=per cent, of dextrose or cellulose in sample.

a=per cent, of dextrose in pure pepper.

b= per cent, of dextrose in husks.
For the dextrose figures :

100s- 1640

For the cellulose figures :

4500 100s

* Ber. 4. Ver. Bay. Verterter ang. Chemie, 104-110.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 195

Calculated cm this basis the four samples were found to consist of:

Pure pepper husks and pepper.

On the ground
of dextrose det.

On ground of
cellulose det.

75. 8 and 24. 2
01.6 38.4
72. 1 27. 9
G3. 3 36. 7

73. 5 and 26. 5
37. 5 42. 5
74. 26.
65. 4 34. 6

II .

Ill

These figures show a fair agreement, and, in the opinion of the au-
thors, entitle the method to consideration. They condemn, however,
severely placing any reliance on determinations of the alcohol extract.

Weigmann* has also examined a number of pure peppers, and obtained
results which do not harmonize with those of Lenz. He finds :

White.

Black.

Ash

1. to 3.
55. 63.
5. G.
12. t

3.0 to 7.0
32. 44.
12.0 15.0
015.0

Starch (Lenz method) . .
Fiber

Water

Our experience with the inversion of starch by acids is such as to
make it seem very probable that, without the necessary attention to de-
tails, it would be very possible to obtain such results as those last given
from lack of complete conversion of starch to reducing sugar or the
inversion of other substances, and in the discussion of our analyses
this will be referred to.

In the second reportt of the Laboratoire Municipal de Paris the sub-
ject of pepper and its adulteration as practiced in France is discussed.
There whole peppers are made artificially from plaster, gum, and a little
pepper, and the ground article with the most diverse substances, such
as hemp-seed cake, colza, rape and beechnut cakes, starches, residues
from the manufacture of potato starch, mineral matter, sweeping of
spice warehouses sold as pepper dust, and so forth. The residue from
the manufacture of potato starch has, after fermentation, a pungent
taste which makes it a desirable adulterant, but the most common one
is the powdered kernel of the olive, which is yellowish white in color
and possesses all the outward characteristics of white pepper and gives
practically the same amount of ash. To give this powder the proper
taste and pungency there was added Cayenne, powdered bay leaves,
and dried and powdered orange skins. The mixture is recognized with-
out difficulty by chemical and microscopic examination, the latter of
which gives an absolute proof of the character of the substance.

It is recommended to separate the olive kernels from pepper by the
use of a mixture of glycerine and water of a Sp. Gr. of 1.173 at 10 C.,
in which the former sink. After decantation they can be examined

"Rep. anal. Cliem. 6, 399-40.

f Documents sur les falsifications desMatieres aliinentaires, Paris, 1885, p. 688-695.

196

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

microscopically. The structure is that characteristic of the hard thick-
ened schlereucbyma or stone cells, polyhedral and elongated in shape
with thickened walls and little filiform canals. They are most readily
made out with polarized light, toward which they are optically active,
while the remaining particles of pepper or pepper husks are not seen in
the dark field, being inactive.

Of this adulterant H. Rabourdin has made some investigations, pub-
lishing his results in an interesting paper,* giving a general account of
the various peppers of commerce and the use of olive stones as an
adulterant, as well as other materials already mentioned. He finds no
difficulty in recognizing the falsification owing to the presence of the
numerous sclerenchyma or stone cells, which are distinguished readily
with polarized light, but the quantitative determination is more difficult.
This, however, he affirms, can be accomplished by determining the resi-
due left on boiling the suspected sample for one hour with 1 per cent,
sulphuric acid after thorough washing with water. In the course of
the operation the presence of the olive stones is apparent from their
clinging in the form of a reddish powder to the walls of the flask or
beaker in which the digestion has taken place, and separating more or
less from the pepper hulls on account of their different specific gravity.

For pure peppers the following percentage of residue was found :

Per cent.

Mean.

TeJlicherry

30 3 to 27 8

29 4

Alepy

31 5 31 8

31 7

Saigon

28 7 29 2

29 o

Singapore ......

33 2 34

33 7

Penang ...... ......

33.8 34 2

Sumatra

Java ......

37 5 37 7

37 (;

White, pure ...

17 5

Powdered, pure
Do

29. 2 29.
30. 5 35 5

On the other hand olive stones were found to contain;

Per cent.

Mean.

74 2 to 75

74 5

Fine gray

74 2 74 6

74 4

Coarse white

74.5
74 5

Pepper dust , .

65 5

From these figures the following factors are derived

Per cent.

White pepper

17.5
30.0
32.0
35.
74.5
75.5

Malabar, Tellicherry, and Saigon
Alepy

Others known as light peppers

Pepper refuse

*J. do Pharni. ct dc Chioiie, [5], 9, 289-297.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 197

ADC! if y is the per cent, of residue, a the per cent, in pure pepper, b the
per cent, in olive stones, the amount of addition can be calculated from
the following equations:

p-a

y= -

1) a

where b can be replaced by 74.5 or 65.5 as the case may be.

Working in this way 10 ground peppers, guaranteed pure, were found
to contain from 40 to GO per cent, of olive stones, and these contained
"P. I)." to the extent of 14 to 20 per cent,

Control experiments with known mixtures seem to have been satis-
factory.

The same author also extended his experiments to a comparison of
the properties and separation of the cellulose derived from a mixture of
pepper and olive stones, depending upon the difference in specific
gravity, with re3ults which can be found in his original paper.

The residues of starch factories always contain enough starch grains
to make their identification easy.

Very recently Chas. Heisch* has given in the Analyst his experience
in the examination of peppers, to see if there were any reliable mode
of judging of the amount of adulterants in adulterated samples except
by determinations of ash which give no indication of added organic
matter. He also endeavored to find if it were possible to cleanse pep-
per corns so that the ash should be free from sand. Assisted by a
large buyer and grinders of pepper he found that as the result of the
grinder's experience no ground pepper should be sent to market which
contains over G per cent, of total adi. In this respect they agree with
the Bavarian chemists. He also placed some faith in the determina-
tion of starch and calculated, as did Lenz, his results on dry ash free
organic matter.

The starch was estimated u by boiling tho finely ground pepper for
three hours with 10 per cent, hydrochloric acid, and taking the rotation
in the resulting liquid." He endeavored to check his results by deter.
mining that there was insufficient " gum or other matters to affect the
rotatory power" but neglects to see how much of the substances allied
to cellulose are converted into optically active substances which would
probably be important. Stating the results, however, as reducing sugar
equivalent to pepper with Lenz, the error becomes of slight importance.

The determination of piperine was rough, and the results seemed of
i little service.

"Aualyst, 2, 180-190, October, 1880.

198 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

The results were as follows :

No.

Name of sample.

Water.

Ash of dry pepper.

On ash and water
free pepper.

,29
w

a
*5

Insoluble.

Alkalinity as
K 2 0.

Starch.

Alcohol ex-
tract.

G.04
4.05
7.14
G.88
9.38
7. SfJ
6. 30
6.06

5.54
6.14

f>. n

4. 51
4.70
4.50

1.71
1.70
4.84
4.10
1.15

2.02

2
3
4
5

7
8

in
11

12
13
14

15
]6
17
18
19
20

21
22

Black Pepper:
Aclieen Penan ^ . .

9.46
9.22
14.36
13.76

8.99

8.85
5.41
5 28

1.54
1.60

2.07
3.34
3.10
2.38
2.48
2.48

0.62
.22

.25

.16
.50
.37

2.28
2 37
2.12
3.00
1.02

2.02
.96

2.88
1.68

3.07
3.83
2.52
1.90
2.44
2.84
2.18
1.51

2.80
0.85
.92

.90
1.50
1.03

5.52
5.83
6.37
4.12
6.47

4.07
1.05

1.78
1.39

4.38
3.42

.82
.04
.91
1.20
.73
.36

.36
.22
.69

.ii

.17
.00

5.68
3.69
3.41
1.92
43. 90

8. 61
1.84

.38
.03

.72
.81
.91
1.41
1.19
1.57
1.09
1.14

.22
.00
.11

.00
.11
.11

.53
. 83
.48
.02

.80

.80
0.21

1.14
.89

48.53
54.06
56.24
56. 67
51.06
55. 87
54 93
54.54

77.68
76. 35
76.27

75.31

84. 69
85. 26

58.98
46.16
41.71
47.36
30.66

35. 85
0.00

49.98
88.21

12.26
12.28
12.41
12. 67
16.20
13.62
11.62
10.47

9.73
9.49
9.23

10.60
9.53
9.63

8.29
8.52
13.81
13.07
7.52

11.57
2.31

Trang

Singapore

Tellicherry

Penang

12.98
13. 01
13.94
14.10

15.86
17.32

6. 45
6.41
5.39
4.35

3.78
1.28
1.81

1.58
2.18
1.41

13.48
11.98
11.90
9.04
51.39

14.70
3.85

5.04
3.10

Tellicherry (brushed)
Gray li <r ht dusty Singapore

Good B Singapore

White Pepper:
Penan "

Si am

13.67

13.90
14.13
14.40

12.15
14. 93
12.37
12.60
7.96

11.12
8.52

13.34
12.76

As ground for market:
Fine "white

Finest

I super

L K.T. r . : ...

No. 2 T

Black pepper Lusks

Do., with same whole

Sifting before grinding

Black pepper, for sale of which
fine was inflicted

Poivrette used to mix with pepper
10 per cent, poivrette, 90 per cent.
No 4

30 per cent, rice, 70 per cent. No. 4

Of the above samples Nos. 1 to 5 and 7 to 8 were black pepper corns
ground just as imported. The uniformity in the starch in all these lead
Ileisch to believe that any result under 50 per cent, should be regarded
as suspicious, it being very easy to detect the addition of foreign starchy
such as rice. Of the white peppers the first three are white pepper
corns ground as imported, the next three black corns decorticated in
England and then ground.

Of the long pepper Ileisch says the starch is double the size of the
ordinary and much more angular and like rice. Care must be taken
therefore not to confound them. The poivrette is made from olive
stones.

The figures are of interest and would seem to confirm the work of
Lenz.

Prof. J. Campbell Brown has devoted much time to the subject of
pepper and has very recently called attention in England to an adul-
terant which first made its appearance in Liverpool last summer and
since then has been often met with. It is known as pepperette or
poivrette, and proves to be the same adulterant so often mentioned iu
France, olive stones. It resembled walnut shells and almond shells
somewhat, but olive stones more so.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
Brown gives the following analyses and says :*

199

Ash.

Matters
soluble by
boiling in
diluted
acid.

Albumi-
nous and
other mat-
ters soluble
in alkili.

Woody
fiber, insol-
uble in acid
and alkali.

Starch.

White pepperette .. .... . ......

1.33

38 32

14 08

48 48

2 47

34 55

17 66

47 69

2 05

23 53

24 79

51 68

Tsr ne '

Ground olive stones .... ........

1.81

39 08

15 04

45 38

The stones of olives, imported in pickle for table use, gave 3.68 percent, of ash, but
well-washed olive-stones, thoroughly burnt to a white ash, gave under 2 per cent, of
ash-like poivrette. " White poivrette" is therefore cleaned very pale, and perhaps
partly bleached olive-stones or precisely similar tissue ; black poivrette is the same,
mixed with a little black husk. It is to be noted that although it contains no starch,
yet it yields some sugar to Fehling's solution, after being boiled for some time with
dilute hydrochloric acid. The quantity depends on the length of time and strength
of acid, but may be stated approximately about 10 per cent. It is important to bear
this fact in mind when making a full chemical analysis of pepper containing poivrette.
After removing from such a mixture the matters soluble by boiling in dilute caustic
alkali, the woody fiber which remains has a yellow color. It consists of the poivretto
and some of the cells of pepper husk and one of the subcortical layers of the pep-
per berry. The pepper cells are made lighter and the poivrette cells darker by the
alkali, so that the two are more nearly of a similar yellow color after treatment with
alkali. This renders it more difficult to distinguish such of the cells as have some-
what similar markings, but it enables us to distinguish more clearly as poivrette the
many torn particles which have no definite form or markings. The final examination
of the complete cells is better made with good daylight rather than with artificial
light, and in a portion which has been treated with water only.

The pepper cells are mostly different in shape and are colored, and have generally
a dark substance in the interior. They are not numerous, but the quantity varies in
commercial samples, owing to the modern practice of decorticating the pepper berry
to every different extent possible, and mixing the various portions so obtained, in-
cluding husks, in every variety of proportion with each other or with ordinary pep-
per. Each individual analyst must make himself familiar with both kinds of cells, as
no description can convey an adequate idea of either. In order to form a judgment
regarding the proportions of the different chemical constituents of commercial sam-
ples, we require to know the chemical composition of the different layers of the pep-
per-corn, and I hope soon to communicate to the society some figures bearing on this
point, as well as to notice some other substances used in the sophistication of pepper.

It is interesting to note that the exemption, mentioned in section 8 of the sale of
food and drugs act, in the case of a label being affixed to the article sold intimating
that the same is a mixture, does not apply in the case of poivrette, the admixture be-
ing made manifestly for the purpose of fraudulently increasing the weight and bulk.

In a subsequent note Brown t warns analysts not to confuse an exces-
sive amount of cortical cells of the pepper husk for poivrette, as they
ire somewhat similar. This, however, would certainly not occur if

ithentic samples of pepper and olive-stones were used for comparison.

Brown also contributes a paper to the Analyst on the use of "long
," Chavica Roxburghiij as an admixture to the ordinary ground

200

FOODS AND POOD ADULTERANTS.

article, showing that it should be discouraged, from the fact that .
brings with it a large amount of dirt and mineral matter, and has a dis-
agreeable offensive odor developed by warmth. Brown says :

It is now time that all should take up a decided position in regard to this form of
adulteration. Long pepper is the fruit of Chavlca Roxburgltii* and does not consist
merely of the berries analogous to the pepper-corns of the true pepper-plant; it hears
much the same relation to them that wild grass-seed would hear to oatmeal. It consists
of the small berries with the husks and indurated coverings hardened together and
to the central woody stem, much in the same way that in pines the seed and cover-
ings are all hardened into one cone. Long pepper is for the most part derived from
wild plants of Chavica Boxburgltii, which grow by the sides of the water-courses in
India. Consequently it always brings with it a mass of dirt, picked up from the soil
of the banks whereon it grows, embedded in the crevices and irregularities of the
fruit, which dirt the native collector takes care not to lessen, but rather to increase,
seeing that he is paid by weight for what he brings down to the merchants.

In commerce we find accordingly that it has always from 3 to 7 per cent, of insoluble
sand and clay, in addition to the proper ash of the fruit. And it is difficult, if not im-
possible, to clean long pepper before grinding in the way that true pepper can easily
be cleaned ; it can with difficulty be cleaned by hand.

The ash contains a very large proportion of salts insoluble in hydrochloric acid.
When ground, the hard husk and woody center, as well as the dirt, are necessarily
ground along with the minute berries. The ground long pepper contains not only
sand, but more woody fibre than ground genuine pepper of the corresponding shade,
although not so much total cellulose as the most husky black pepper. It has the
composition shown by Mr. Heisch in his paper. I can confirm his results by the fol-
lowing :

Analyses of long pepper carefully cleaned by hand.

a
#3

*%
1*

'a
>>

ind and as
soluble in .

otal matter
ble in 10
cent. HCI.

,arch and
ters convei
into sugar.

IbuminoTis
ter soluble
kali.

stracted b
cohol.

ci
(4

otal nitrog<

8.91

1.2

G7.83

44.04

15.47

15.70

7.7

5.5

2.1

8.98

1.1

68.31

49.34

17.42

10.50

7.6

4.9

2.0

9.61

1.5

65.91

44.61

15.51

10.73

10.5

8.6

2.3

Although the cost of long pepper is at present nearly as high as some very inferior
varieties of black pepper, yet the price is generally decidedly lower ; even now long
pepper is much cheaper than the pepper with which it has been sometimes mixed of
late, and its use affords a handsome illegitimate profit, to the detriment both of tho
grocer and his customer. Long pepper has been, and is, legitimately used for pickles,
but it is not known, nor has it been recognized by the trade, as ground long popper;
and all the respectable grocers, and others of whom I have inquired, say decidedly
that they would not buy, nor retain, if received, any ground pepper which they knew
or suspected to contain an admixture of long pepper. In fact, it is no more right to
give pepper containing long pepper in response to a request for simply "pepper"'
than it would be to give horse-chestnuts instead of Spanish chestnuts in response to
a request for simply " chestnuts." It may, of course, be sold as ground long pepper
without offense, but no one would buy it. Not only is long pepper a fraudulent ad-
mixture in ground pepper, but it is objectionable on the score of quality and flavor.
Its disagreeable, offensive odor is developed by warmth. Any candid person can-
convince himself of the real cause of the objections which housekeepers and grocers

~ Known also as Piper officinarum and Piper Long urn.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 201

alike have to ground long pepper if lie will heat np a piece of cold meat between two
plates and sprinkle some fresh long pepper on it ; the smell and flavor are so offensive
that he will feel obliged to reject the meat.

Much of that which one gets whole in shops is very old, and has lost much of its
flavor and strength, so small a sale does it command.

The presence of long pepper in ground pepper may be determined by the follow-
ing characters :

1. Color. If any serious quantity of long pepper is ground in with the ordinary
pepper it imparts some of its peculiar slaty color; but this is made much lighter by
the now very common practice of sifting out much of the darker or husky portions of
the long pepper before mixing it with the genuine pepper. Bleaching is also resorted
to, but not hitherto very effectively.

2. The odor of the mixture when warmed is unmistakable by an educated olfactory
sense, even if the quantity is comparatively moderate. Attempts are made to disguise
the odor by bleaching, but this has not been successful. The ethereal extract also,
and even the alcohol extract from which the solvent has been evaporated at a low
temperature, yields, when warmed, the characteristic odor very plainly.

3. Long pepper introduces sand into the pepper with which it is mixed, often to
a considerable amount. If the pepper is white, this has more importance than has
hitherto been accorded to it ; for white pepper does not contain, even as imported, 2
per cent, of sand, and any white pepper containing so much sand must have had the
sand improperly introduced, either by direct mixing of Calais sand or in some other
way.

Long pepper from which the husk particles have been sifted out when added to
white pepper invariably introduces its sand along with it, as well as some spent
bleach, if attempts have been made to bleach it.

4. The woody matter in ground long pepper is always considerable, arising both
from the smallness of the berries, compared with the hardened setting, and from the
central woody tube. This may be detected either by chemical analysis or by the
microscope, and some of it by the naked eye or a large hand lens.

If the sample is spread out in a smooth thin layer on strong paper, by means of
an ivory paper-knife, pieces of fluffy woody fiber will be detected, especially if the
smooth thin layer be tapped lightly from below. Those pieces come from the central
part of the indurated catkin which cannot be completely ground fine as genuine
pepper stalks are, and are very characteristic if carefully examined. Much of these
are of course removed by the grinders' sieves, but enough finds its way through the
meshes of the silk to be useful as a corroborative indication.

5. Particles of husks, if present, can be distinguished from genuine pepper husks.
0. A proportion of the starch granules of long pepper are of larger size, above

.0002 inch, and of angular shape, very slightly smaller than rice granules, and more
loosely aggregated in clusters or isolated.

Brown also calls attention to the statement of authorities that genuine
pepper starch is round in form, and shows that this is not always the
case. By reference to our illustration, Fig. 65, Plate XXVIII, it will
be seen that he is correct. He has lately found* that Dhoura corn, a
variety of sorghum, is being largely used in England as a diluent of pep-
per. The grain is well known in this country as Egyptian corn, and is
a common crop in the South and Southwest, but has not been used here
as an adulterant. Brown says :

I have met with it only about four times in popper, but it probably occurs more
frequently in o<her districts. It is known in England as great millet or Turkish

* Analyst, 12, 89-90.

202

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

millet, and is the grain (with an integument, but without the husk) of one of the
cereal grasses, Sorghum vulgare.

It is a roundish or oval somewhat flattened grain, size from one-eighth to one-fifth
of an inch in diameter, white in color and brittle, with a thin, smooth integument or
testa, showing under a high microscopic power, on the inner surface, an aggregation
of very small granules, which become blue by iodine. The body of the seed is very
white, and consists mainly of roundish or irregular starch granules, varying in size
from .0001 up to .0006 of an inch in diameter, and showing under polarized light a
nearly right-angled cross ; and of larger irregularly rounded granules of starch from
.0005 up to .0013 of an inch in diameter, showing no cross, or only a very faint one,
under polarized light.

Some of the first-named granules have a hilum and star in the centre, somewhat
like bean starch. By boiling with caustic alkali the cellular membrane which binds
the starch granules together is disclosed.

The influence of an admixture of sorghum with pepper upon analysis of the latter
will be seen from the following analysis of sorghum grains :

Moisture 11 per cent.

Composition of Ike dried sample.

II.

4sh

1 31

J 69

Soluble in 10 per cent, hydrochloric acid

90.70
75 20

87.80

7:$ do

Albuminous matters soluble in caustic alkali
Cellnlo.se -

G. 71
2. 50

7. %
4. 19

10 30

7 ( x;

Ethereal extract . ....

10. 10

7. 30

Nitrogen

1.82

1.79

There would be no difficulty in detecting it.

Although as yet these substances do not seem to have reached us as
far as the samples which we have examined show they must be care-
fully watched for.

In this country considerable has been published as to the adulterations
of pepper, but little in regard to the manner of detecting them. We
have already spoken of the large numbers of samples which have been
examined in different years by the public analysts of Canada and smaller
numbers by those of Massachusetts and New York. Reference to the
reports of the department of inland revenue of the Dominion (supple-
ments on adulteration of food) shows th at wheat flour, husks, cayenne,
coacoanut shells, and pepper dust, nulling refuse, pea meal, and sand
and clay are in very common use. In the United States the samples
examined have apparently proved no better, for while in Canada in 1885
twenty -nine out of sixty samples were adulterated mostly from 10 to 20
percent., but reaching 75 per cent.; in New York in 1882, out of forty-
seven, thirty- three were adulterated, and in Massachusetts in 1884 Wood
found one hundred and four in one hundred and ninety-nine impure,
and in 1883 G9 to 70 per cent, were bad.

We are thus supplied with considerable experience in the examina-
tion of peppers, the results of which furnish the basis of a scheme for
general use. Thus in examining a sample 1 should propose to proceed
as follows :

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 203

METHOD OF EXAMINING PEPPERS MICROSCOPICALLY.

As a preliminary the sieve examination, already mentioned, is of
value, the coarser particles left upon a 40 or 60 mesh sieve frequently
revealing the nature of the adulterant or the too large proportion of
pepper husk. Afterwards it is well, with a good dissecting microscope
and a power of 15 to 30, to sort over the ground pepper, and judge of
the frequency of the occurrence of the coarse particles, which after a
little experience there will be no difficulty in doing. The presence of
sand or a notable excess of P. D. can also be detected and estimated in
this simple way. Backgrounds of white and black, with reflected light
and afterwards transmitted light, may be used in the manner so con-
veniently afforded by Zeiss's stand, made for this purpose.

A portion of the powdered pepper or the separated coarse particles
should also be treated with chloral-hydrate solution for twenty-four
hours, +o render it more transparent for examination with higher pow-
ers, and in the mean time the coarse particles sieved from the powder
may be examined under a one and a one-half inch objective, and then
crashed and re-examined, using both plain and polarized light. In
this way husky matter may bo distinguished and foreign starches
detected. Polarized light is then the means of bringing out more
plainly the starches, the proportion of which iodine will reveal, mak-
ing due allowance for the small granules of pepper starch and all op-
tically active tissue, such as the bast fibers and sclerenchyma or stone
cells, which are found in olive-stones and cocoa nut shells.

The structure of the pepper itself, as has been explained, is so char-
acteristic as not to bo readily confused with foreign matter. In the
chloral hydrate preparation, which should now be examined, much of
this disappears as the starch is much swollen by this reagent. The
husky matter present is rendered thereby so much clearer on the other
hand that its identification and differentiation is made much easier, and
it is here that the possibility of fixing the source of the adulterant will
often lie.

Experience with a half dozen samples from a cheap grocery in com-
parison with a laboratory sample of pure pepper will soon teach one the
best means of making out what has been briefly described.

It has also been found most valuable to digest about a. gram of pep-
per with nitric acid, sp. gr. 1. 1, and chlorate of potash for several hours,
or until the color is bleached. It is then possible to distinguish the
denser cellular structure more easily than in any other way, particu-
larly the stone cells which make up the larger part of the cocoanut
shells and ground olive stones, especially with polarized light, being
careful not to confuse the stone cells of the pepper husk with those of
olive stones or other adulterants. Charcoal at the same time remains
unbleached.

To determine the merits and correctness of the various chemical pro-
cesses and statements in regard to them previously referred to, a series

204

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

of pure whole peppers, direct from importers, and of the commercial
ground article, have been collected. The results also reveal the extent
and nature of the adulteration practiced in this part of the country.
The specimens were of the origin described below.

Sources of specimens of pepper.
WHOLE PEPPERS.

No.

1514
4H40
4894
4893
4898
4516
4898

Kind.

Remarks.

Whole black...
..do
...do

First quality, probably west coast.
West coast, direct from importer.
Aachen, direct from importer.
West coast, direct from importer.
Singapore, direct from importer.
First quality, source doubtful.
Singapore, direct from importers.

Whole white
Do

GROUND PEPPERS.

4515
4523

33
37

43
52
53

4883
4884
4524
4544
4555
4882

Bla^k

First quality, grocers' guaranteed pur^.
Grouud in Washington.
Ground in Baltimore.
Do.
Do.
Ground in London, guaranteed
Ground iu Washington.
Do.
Ground in Baltimore, low grade" Best."
Ground in Baltimore, low grade "Pure."
Ground in Washington.
Ground in London, ''Pure."
<irotvnd in Washington.
Ground in Baltimore.

....do

....do
..do
.,..do
....do
....do
.. do

....do

White .. ..

...do ..

... do
. do

MECHANICAL AND MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION.

The weight of the whole peppers and the amount of dirt present, as
they are imported, have been given already. In the ground condition
they of course displayed the normal structure of the berry, as has
been already described. No further reference is necessary, therefore,
under this head. In the ground specimens the following peculiarities
were noted .

4515. Sifting reveals the presence of pepper stems which should not
be present, showing that the pepper was ground without cleaning and
an undue proportion of husky matter, unbleached by nitric acid and
chlorate.

4523. This specimen is very coarsely ground, a large proportion of
husk remaining on the 40-mesh sieve, among which evidence of the
presence of maize could be distinguished, and that P. D. in some form
must be present.

4528. Sifting separated light chaffy and fibrous mattrr. The micro-
scope detected yellow corn and its hulls.

4533. This proved of very bad quality, the siftings consisting of bran,
roasted shells or charcoal, and corn. The microscope was confirmatory,
and the presence of the roasted shells prevented bleaching with
Schulze's reagent. This is evidently a P. I), pepper of the worst sort.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 205

4537. Sifting and examination showed the presence of P. D. in some
form and corn. It contains no roasted matter or charcoal.

4543. Proved to be quite pure and well ground, all the material pass-
ing a 40-inesh and nearly all a 60-mesh sieve. This is the only pure
ground sample met with.

4552. Sifting shows the presence of a complicated collection of adul-
terants, husks of various origin, &c. Microscopic examination detected
mustard hulls, corn, roasted shells, or charcoal not bleachable, and other
foreign material not identified.

4553. Contains mustard hulls and branny matter, but no charcoal.
Bad.

4883 and 4884. From the same mill in Baltimore were the worst speci-
mens met with. They contained but little pepper and were made up of
P. D.. yellow corn, cracker dust, cayenne, charcoal, and other foreign
matter.

4882. A white pepper from the same source was of the same origin,
leaving out the black elements.

4524 and 4544. These white peppers were found to be pure, but the
former not carefully decorticated.

4555. Contained foreign starchy matter and probably cayenne. Sift-
ing revealed nothing abnormal.

These examples serve to show the variations which are met with and
what the analyist may expect. It is always well, also, to be on one's
guard for something new.

As a confirmation of the physical examination and a means of deter-
mining the amount of adulteration in the several cases determinations
were made of the proximate composition:

206

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTEKANES.

| g
3 I
* I

09JJ
UO '1

uoddad

apnpay;

epioutcanqiY

pu.tjxo loqoaiY

IIISOJ
p U U 9 U I I9dl t

qsy

t^ CO *

O5 CO CJ CO C5

t^rHO 00

00 O'

S3SS8

C~ i t-

Tji ^ CO

00 00 30 OS OJ

OOt

JO '

^8Up

o o m \o o

i^sss

If5 O -^i irf Tj5

agqumu iBtjgg

r-5rH

05 0>

050

Re
Im

S^r^Sr^riSrSrHr^

ooooooooog

O CO O' rH

oo <r o

o -o so >

"g < S j j

g o q o o : o o o

Sooooooogo

m.eo ooeot-eoiMMco

t-eoiMMco-n

CO^l^lCOOOO

irf Hi O <
SMrHrH

^ lO W-*

Pure
do
do
Adulterated

imo
.do
.do
.do

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 207

The analyses of the pure specimens of pepper show that m all the
amount of water was between 8 and 10 per cent. This is of course va-
riable with surrounding conditions. The ash in black peppers did not
exceed 4.7 per cent., and in white 1.4. It is fair to believe that anything
above 5 per cent, for black and 2 per cent, for white is suspicious, other-
wise adulteration or dirt are certainly present.

The volatile oil varies in black pepper from. 1.69 to .70, and in white
1.26 and .57 were found. This determination is not of great value as a
means of detecting adulteration. Piperine and resin, however, fur-
nish a most valuable check on the purity of the samples. In the whole
berries ground by us both black and white contained from 7.90 to 7.24
of these substances, showing great constancy in amount, and on the ad-
dition of adulterants this is plaiuly affected, It serves, in my opin-
ion, as well or better than determinations of pure piperine, the latter
being difficult and involving loss, as has been shown by careful exper-
iments made by Mr. Knorr under iny direction. It has also proved im-
possible to make determinations of piperine by the combustion or Kjel-
dahl methods by application of Stiitzer's copper hydrate process, the per
cent, of nitrogen being so small, 4.912 in piperiue, as to make the error
very large when converting the former to the latter, the necessary fac-
tor being 20.36. Rottger's objection to the value of the determination
of the ether extract is not sustained in our experience, and it seems
that he must have employed inferior ether, which is often the cause of
serious error. Only the best Squibb's ether or its equivalent should be
used for extractions.

The alcohol extract appears to be of no value.

The determination of starch or its equivalent in reducing sugars has
been looked into with care and the conclusions arrived at are that the
results are of value when carried out in the manner which has been de-
scribed under the general head of methods of analysis. A prelimi-
nary extraction with alcohol and water is necessary to obtain results
which are fairly constant. Determinations made in this way show that
black peppers contain from 34 to 38 per cent, of starch, or 42 to 47 per
cent, of substances of reducing sugar equivalent calculated on dry ash
free substance. White peppers contain in the same way from 40 to 43
per cent, of starch, and give from 50 to 55 per cent, of reducing sugar
equivalent on dry ash free substance. These figures are not as high as
those given by Leiiz, but are the result of careful work on pure samples,
extending over a long time and involving much experience. It is be-
lieved that they must be nearly correct. In our opinion there is no ad-
vantage in calculating the results to a sugar equivalent unless excessive
moisture or ash is found to be present.

The crude fiber in the black peppers, as determined by our methods,
Iocs not vary far from 10 per cent. One sample contained but 8.74,
of course in the white peppers the amount; is much reduced, de-
iding to a certain, extent on the perfection of the decortication j 4 to

208 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

8 per ceut. are probably fair. limits. The determination is of compara-
tive value, revealing the presence of foreign woody or fibrous matter.
The albuminoids do not vary widely, 10 per c ent. being the average,
with extremes in our experience of 7.69 and 11.50. The addition of ui-
trogenous seeds of course increases the amount, and of fibrous or woody
matter diminishes it. As will be seen, therefore, the determination is a
useful one. The variations, then, may be summarized as follows :

Black.

White.

Water

8.0 to 11.0
2. 75 to 5.0
.50 to 1.75
7.0 to 8.0
32.0 to 38.0
8.0 to 11.0
7.0 to 12.

8.0 to 11.0
1.0 to 2.0
.50 to 1.75
7.0 to 8.0
40.0 to 44.0
4. 11 to 8.0
8.0 to 10.0

Ash

Volatile oil ....

Starch

Crude fiber . ...

With these pure peppers the ground samples must be compared. In
the table the determinations which are suspicious are printed in full-
faced type. All but one of the black peppers are convicted of adultera-
tion on the chemical evidence.

The first, 4515, has too little piperine and resin, too little starch,
and too much fiber. It is apparent that some fibrous or woody diluent
has been added, as appears from the microscopic examination to be true.

Without discussing each analysis in detail it may be pointed out that
only three samples contained an excess of ash, as a rule being free from
mineral adulterants, and the three cases are probably only dirty, so that
the addition of minerals is not common in this country.

The piperine and resin were deficient in all the specimens except the
one pure one, revealing at once sophistication.

Starch was deficient in all the specimens, in the pure specimen falling
below the usual limits, which at the same time was more than usually
husky, thus accounting for the difference, and in fact in all but two
cases there was present more fiber in the peppers than we have consid-
ered normal, another indication of the presence of adulterants or dirt.

The albuminoids in two cases were present in excess i ve amount, reveal
ing the presence of some foreign seed rich in nitrogen. In the other
specimens the adulterants did not throw this determination far away
from the normal.

In the white peppers the presence of an excessive amount of starch in
4555 makes it suspicious, and the great deficit in piperine and excess
of starch and fiber show that 4882 is adulterated.

The value of the chemical determinations is thus plainly illustrated.
Perhaps with no one of the substances which are considered in this re-
port are the indications more certain. It would be possible, too, in an
indirect way, by means of proportions such as have been already men-
tioned, to calculate with an approximation to accuracy the extent of the

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

209

adulteration. It is fortunate that iu a material which is probably more
frequently adulterated than any other the presence of foreign matter is
so easily detected.

CAYENNE.

Cayenne or red pepper is the powdered pod of several species of Cap-
sicum, a genus of the family Solanacece, to which the potato and tomato
belong, the commonest species being C. annuum and C.fastigiatum,
known also under many synonyms.

The first, Fliickiger and Hanbury state, furnishes the larger kinds of
pod pepper, and, as they believe, much of the cayenne pepper which is
imported into England iu a state of powder.

C.fastigiatwn is the species which is officinal iu both the British and
United States pharmacopeias. It is grown in tropical Africa and America
and appears in our market as Zanzibar pepper. The color of its pow-
der is lighter yellow than that of the preceding. The two species fur-
nish the market with its cayenne pepper, although a few other species
are sought in small amount for their peculiar flavor.

Of the microscopic structure Fliickiger and Hanbury say :

The pericarp consists of two layers, the outer being composed of yellow thick-walled
cells. The inner layer is twice as broad and exhibits a soft shrunken parenchy me,
traversed by thin fibro-vascular bundles. The cells of the outer layer especially are
the seat of the fine granular coloring matter. If it is removed by an alcoholic solution
of potash, a cell nucleus and drops of fat or oil make their appearance. The struct-
ural details of this fruit afford interesting subjects for microscopical investigation.

FIG. 12. Cayenne; A, outer epidermis. /?, stone cells of the inner epidermis; C, epidermis cells of
the edge of seed. (After Scbimper.)

The peculiarities described above are so distinctive that the presence
of foreign matter is easily detected. The cells of the pericarp or epider-
mis are of a peculiar flattened and chain-like angular form v/hich are
22823 Bull. 13, pt. 2 G

210

FOODS AND FOOD ADULNERANTS.

characteristic of cayenne. The other structures are not as prominent,
but are not liable to be confounded with those of any adulterants. Dia-
grammatic representatives of this structure are given in Fig. 12, and the
appearance of the pure ground cayenne under polarized light in Fig. 48,
Plate XXIV. The portions of the seed in the powder are not readily
distinguished without careful examination, They are, however, char-
acteristic and contain starch, the form of which is shown in Fig. 67,
Plate XXVII. The adulterants, which are said by Hassall to be more
numerous and frequent than with ordinary pepper, are given by author-
ities as mineral coloring matter added to hide the loss of color which
takes place on exposure of cayenne to light, to add to the weight, or to
cover the addition of colorless diluents, ground rice, turmeric, husks of
mustard, etc.

Mineral adulterants were met with in but one sample of a low grade,
obtained in the Baltimore market. The organic ones, on the contrary,
were almost always present, among them yellow corn meal being found,
but rice or corn flour often er. The latter was readily detected with
the polariscope, as illustrated in Fig. 49, Plate XXIV. The few starch
grains in the lower layers of the pericarp and in the seed are very small
and cannot be confused with the added rice or corn. Turmeric and
mustard are recognized by their peculiar structure.

Of the chemistry of Capsicum but little had been written until 1884,
when Strohmer undertook an investigation of the proximate composi-
tion of the pod. Bracconot had announced the discoverv of the active
principle, and named it capsicine. Wilting had asserted that it was a
crystalline alkaloid. Thresh had discovered a crystalline body capsi-
cine, which he regarded as the substance to which the pungency was
due, but Strohmer showed that there was present in the cayenne

(1) A fixed oil, without sharp smell or taste, that required 201.9 of
KOH for saponificatiou and occurred almost entirely iu the seed.

(2) A camphor-like substance which tastes and smells sharp, and
which constitutes the peculiar principle of the cayenne (capsicine). It
is contained in the pods and seeds, although in greater amount in the
former than in the latter, where it is dissolved in a fixed oil.

(3) A resinous body, the red coloring matter, (capsicum red) which
is only contained in the pod.

Quantitative determinations were made of the fruit of Capsicum cui-
grown in Hungary.

Seed.

Pod.

Whole
fruit.

Water at 100

8 12

14 75

11 94

Albuminoids

18 31

10 69

13 88

1'at. 'ether extract)

28 54

5 48

15 26

Nitrogen free extract by difference

2 1 33

38 73

32 63

Crude fiber

17 50

23 73

21 09

Ash

3 20

6 6

5 20

Total

100 00

Nitrogen

'> gj

1 71

2 22

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

211

The percentage of water given is probably too high, owing to the
volatilization of the camphor-like substance.

The ether extract of the seed was nearly pure fat, that of the pod
capsicum red.

As to whether a pepper is adulterated or not, Strohtner considers that
these determinations will furnish the evidence. He found in commer-
cial Cayennes:

(I) Rosen-
paprika,
prima.

(11) Roaen-
paprika,
sekunda.

(III) Ko-
nio's,
paprika.

Water

17.35

14 39

12 69

14 56

14 31

13 19

Ether extract

14 43

15 06

13 35

Ash

5. 10

5 66

7 14

The latter specimen was adulterated with stems, &c., and the results
show the agreement between the degeneration in quality and the analyt-
ical determinations.

In our investigations several specimens have been examined with the
following results:

4517. English brand.
4545. New York brand.
4554. Bulk, corner grocery.
4554. 1 Public lunch-room.

4880. Baltimore spice mills.

4881. Baltimore spice mills.

4897. Zanzibar; pure, whole, from importers.

Microscopic examination.

4517. Pure, Crosse and Blackwells. Bottled.
4545. Adulterated rice flour.
4554. Adulterated rice flour.
4554. J Adulterated rice flour.

4880. Adulterated i

4881. Adulterated } > 7ellow corn '

The analytical results were:

rcclocher.

10 -d

jrial No.

Quality.

T3'g

2. 35

9. 06

0. 12

26. 99

16. 88

13. 13

41. 47

100. 00

2.10

Pure.

5. 74

5. 24

1. 58

17. 90

18. 10

11. 20

40. 24

100. 00

. 79

Do.

45 ..

3 70

6. 10

3. 40

14. 50

15. 40

10! is

46 75

100. 00

. 62

A- d u Iterated

54..:....

5! 20

a 65

14.11

9! 98

51.88

100.00

.60

Do.

1. 41

4. 68

4! oo

9. 41

14! 70

7. 70

58. 10

100. 00

. 23

Do.

81..

1. 93

8.69

3. 48

6. 66

13. 33

7. 00

5&91

100. 00

; . 12

Do.

212 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

From the data it is not difficult to detect the presence of adulterants.
The whole Zanzibar pepper ground in the laboratory has 26.99 per cent,
of noil- volatile ether extract, much more than was found byStrohuier, and
the other pure specimen 17.90 per cent. None of the others reach these
figures. In. albuminoids the addition of starchy and mineral diluents
also makes a marked difference, their presence being revealed in a
striking way.

The unexplained presence of so much volaltile matter on the two
worst specimens and of so much ash in the Zanzibar of good grade as
compared with these same specimens containing mineral adulterants, is
remarkable and shows that too hasty conclusions must not be drawn
from the chemical data. It should be noticed also that the water in
our specimens falls far below that given by Strohmer, a peculiarity
which has been noted in other cases. In the detection of adulteration
of Cayenne by chemical methods, determinations of water and ash,
ether extract and albuminoids are, it seems, of value and as a rule will
serve to reveal the means of adulteration. When combined with a mi-
croscopic examination the estimation of the amount of the diluents
present would not be difficult.

GINGER.

The rhizome, or commonly root, of Zingiber offidnalc is known as
ginger. It is a " reed -like plant, with annual leafy stems 3 to 4 feet
high, and flowers in cone-shaped spikes borne on other stems thrown up
from the rhizome. It is a native of Asia, in the warmer countries of
which it is universally cultivated, but is not known in the wild state.
It has been introduced into most tropical countries, including the West
Indies."

Ginger occurs in two forms dried with the epidermis as coated gin-
ger and as scraped ginger when the epidermis is removed. The un-
coated ginger is prepared by scraping and washing the rhizome and
then drying it in the sun. Thus prepared, Fliickiger and Hanbury say :

It has a pale buff hue and breaks easily, exhibiting a short and farinaceous fracture
with numerous bristle-like fibers. When cut with a knife the younger and terminal
portion of the rhizome appears pale yellow, soft, and amylaceous, while the older
part is flinty, hard, and resinous.

Coated ginger or that which has been dried without the removal of the epidermis is
covered with a wrinkled, striated brown integument, which imparts to it a somewhat
coarse and crude appearance, which is usually remarkably less developed on the flat
parts of the rhizome. Internally it is usually of a less bright and delicate hue than
ginger from which the cortical part has been removed. Much of it, indeed, is dark,
horny, and resinous.

In our markets we find Jamaica ginger, which is the finest variety,
being very carefully prepared and scraped, and several qualities of
brown ginger which is unscraped and not carefully prepared, and is
imported from India and the Bast. The latter is sometimes bleached

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 213

and coated with gypsum or carbonate of lime to improve its appearance.
This method of treatment appears to be very common.

Of the microscopic appearance of the rhizome Fliickiger and Han-
bury write as follows :

A transverse section of coated ginger exhibits a brown, horny external layer, about
one millimetre broad, separated by a fine line from the whitish mealy interior por-
tion, through the tissue of which numerous vascular bundles and resin cells are
irregularly scattered. The external tissue consists of a loose outer layer, and an inner
composed of tabular cells; these are .followed by peculiar short prosenchymatous
cells the walls of which are sinuous on transverse section and partially thickened,
imparting a horny appearance. This delicate felted tissue forms the striated surface
of scraped ginger and is the principal seat of the resin and volatile oil, which here
fill large spaces. The large-celled parenchyme which succeeds is loaded with starch
and likewise contains numerous masses of resin and drops of oil. The starch gran-
ules are irregularly spherical, attaining at the utmost 40 mm . Certain varieties of
gingsr, owing to the starch having been rendered gelatinous by scalding, are through-
out horny and translucent. The circle of vascular bundles which separates the outer
layers and the central portion is narrow and has the structure of the corresponding
circle or nucleus sheath on turmeric.

In the best ground ginger of the trade little is seen of this structure.
The appearance is one of predominating starch grains which are so
abundant in the parenchyma, and whicli are figured in Plate XXI, Fig.
41, and Plate XXVII, Fig. 58. They are so characteristic in shape and
in their appearance with polarized light, that they are readily dis-
tinguished from adulterations.

Among them are seen scattered the fibre-vascular bundles, the tur-
meric-like resin bodies, and less prominently the oil globules, which are
few in number.

When the source of the powder is the ordinary uuscraped ginger,
the outer horny layer is prominent, but not distinct in its character,
and at times when the rhizome has been scalded the starch grains are
swollen and the whole structure is more difficult to make out. It is
not, however, as a rule, difficult to detect foreign matter in the powder
of this spice.

ADULTERANTS.

The principal adulterants are said to be mineral matter, sago, tapioca,
flour of rice, wheat, and potato, cayenne, mustard hulls, turmeric, and
exhausted ginger. The foreign starches, cayenne, and mustard hulls, are
easily detected, but the turmeric cells, from their resemblance to the
resin globules of the ginger, are more confusing. The too frequent
occurrence of such cells is suspicious. For the detection of exhausted
ginger recourse must be had to proximate analysis. The recommenda-
tion also of Hassall, to wash away some of the starch, or the use of a
sieve, will be found of advantage, the remaining coarse particles being
then seen in greater numbers and with more ease. We have found in
the gingers of the trade rice flour, turmeric, and hulls of foreign seeds.
But two of the specimens were derived from coated root.

214

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.

Owing to the practice of diluting the ground spice with the residues
from extraction for turmeric, &c., the normal proximate composition is
of importance.

W. C. Young* has examined seven well-authenticated specimens with
results which have been reprinted here.

i a

" i

ti r ^

-3

a .

Sources.

Moist ure at
C.

rfl "

Aqueous ex
2 per cen
coction.

Mucilage.

Alcohol ext
5 percent
coction.

Afiiranl

15.8

3.4

1.34

2.06

24.8

18.0

8.5

African 2

14.5

4. 3

1.58

2.72

52.2

lf> 7

Jamaica.

15.0

5.4

1.22

4. 18

55.7

32.3

ti. 5

.25

15 2

5 8

3.28

2 52

35 1

21 8

12 5

4 5

15.2

8.0

5.82

2. 18

34.3

19.4

8.3

2 8

.Malabar

10.2

3.4

1.6

1.8

30.1

22.4

4. 1

1.7

Bengal

20.50

4.75

2.36

2.39

51.4

41.1

4 3

These specimens were all scraped with the exception of the last two.

The analyses do not seem to have been carried out on accepted prin-
ciples, and are not of great value except for ash and perhaps fiber, but
in complete want of any data they have been copied. The fact that tlie
decorticated specimens contain no more fiber than the others is peculiar.
The methods of determining "resin" and " mucilage " and the mean-
ing of the terms also are not given. Little is therefore learned from
them.

Tresht has investigated the ether extract of the rhizome, but his
results furnish us with no data of analytical use. Lately E. W. T.
Jonesf has, under the title " The Amount of Starch in Ground Ginger,"
obtained some data which are of value, but unfortunately are con-
fined to only one specimen of ginger. He determined water and ash
as usual, extracted with ether, after moistening with alcohol (Sp. gr
0.90), at 35-38, and with water at the same temperature. The residue,
after gelatinizing the starch, was submitted to diastatic action. In the
filtrate from the unacted-upon substance, which was weighed as fiber,
the dextrine and maltose were determined by the polariscope. Fiber
was also determined by the usual method of treatment with acid and
alkali. The results were :

*Aualyst, 9, 214-215, 1884.

t Pharrn. J., Trails., 37, 610, 721, 1882.

t Analyst, 11,75-77, 1886.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

215

Moisture, loss at 100 C

Ether extract

Alcohol extract

Water extract

Starch, calc., from dextrine and maltose

Fiber, residue from diastatic action

Crude fiber by acid and alkali

Ash

Matter not accounted for in the starch products

Per
cent.

10.10

3. 58

3.38

3.66

52.92

19. 12

2.60

4.80

1.50

99.06

Practically we have learned from all that has been hitherto done in
the proximate examination of ginger that the ash may vary from 3.4 to
8.0 per cent, in genuine samples, and fiber from 1.7 to 9.0 per cent.
Young and Jones differ altogether too much on other points to be of any
value. We are therefore in need of further information to enable us to
detect the addition of spent ginger as an adulterant, the differences in
determinations of fiber being so wide as to render this determination of
no value, since it is possible to even reduce the amount of fiber by such
an addition and judicious selection.

With a view to extending our knowledge of the subject we have ex-
amined a number of pure gingers, obtained from the importers and
several samples of ginger found in the local markets, some of which, as
was learned from the microscopic examination, were adulterated with
farinaceous matter and foreign hulls. The results were :

Analyses of gingers.
Sources of samples :

4506. Scraped Jamaica, limed, whole.

4889. Whole Calcutta ginger root, unscraped and unbleached.

4890. Whole Cochin ginger root, unscraped and unbleached.

4891. Whole Jamaica ginger root, unscraped and unbleached.

4892. Whole Jamaica ginger root, London market, bleached.

4893. Whole Jamaica ginger root, American market, bleached.

4507. White ground Jamaica, " pure."
4521. Brown, ground in Washington.
4526. Brown, ground in Baltimore.
4541. Genuine Borneo, English brand.
4549. Brown.

4242. Mohawk, N. Y.

4875. Ground giuger ; Baltimore Spice Mills, " pure."

4876. Ground ginger, Baltimore Spice Mills, "best."
Microscopical examination :

4506 and 4889-4893. Pure standards.

4507. Not as much fiber matter as in the preceding, but no adulterants detected.

4521. Good brown ginger.

4526. Starch, turmeric, and foreign husks.

4541. Good and white.

4549. Starch, and perhaps turmeric ; brown.

4242. Starch and some questionable substance.

4875 and 4876. Cereals and cayenne; perhaps exhausted ginger.

216

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

Analyses of gingers.
[Whole ginger root

Source.

r*3

fcfl

4889

Calcutta

9.60

7.02

2.27

4.58

49.34

7.45

6.30

13.44

100

1 01

1^'tO

Cochin

9.41

3.39

1.84

4.07

53. 33

2.05

7.00

18 91

100

489 1

Unbleached Jamaica

10.49

3.44

2.03

2.29

50. 58

4.74

10.85

15.58

100

1.74

4892

Bleached Jamaica, London

11. 00

4.54

J.89

3.04

49.34

1.70

9.28

19.21

100

1.48

4893

Bleached Jamaica, Amei i-

10.11

5.58

2.54

2.69

50.67

7.65

11 66

100

1 46

4506

9.10

4.36

.96

3.09

46. 16

3.15

5.25

27.93

100

[Commercial ground.]

Source.

!gri

V
'o
e

.^H

Bl.MCllfcd

Pure

8.06

3.47

1.78

3.11

48.92

2.65

6.13

25.88

100

459 1

Unbleached

11.20

6.02

1.61

4.12

50.00

4.08

6.28

16 69

100

] Q4

4526

.. do

Adulterated.

10.35

5.83

1.52

4.66

46.49

3.48

8.75

18. 92

100

1.40

4541

8.90

3.45

.95

3.65

49 12

3.45

6 30

24 18

100

1 01

4549

....do

Adulterated

9.45

4.75

1.45

4.30

50.58

4.20

8.93

16.34

100

1.43

4875

Brown

....do

11.82

7.34

2.61

3.21

46.49

4.98

7.35

18.20

100

1 18

4876

do .

11.33

7.94

2.11

3.51

49.12

3. ?,0

7.35

15 44

100

1 18

From these results it appears that the ash is quite variable, a pure
sample having as much as 7.02 per cent, and as little as 3.44 per cent.,
the whiter varieties having the least and the brown the most. From
the ether extract little can be learned. There is no distinction even
between the pure and adulterated, the adulterations having a very
similar amount of extract. Of the pure samples the white has the least,
as well as the least ash. Of fiber the least, as would naturally be ex-
pected, is found in the whitest and best scraped and prepared varieties.
Of albuminoids it may be said that there is no greater variation in the
pure samples than in those which proved to be adulterated. When
foreign hulls are present the amount may be much larger. The deter-
minations of starch do not show that the samples have been diluted with
cereals or any farinaceous matter, neither could any be detected under
the microscope.

The chemical examination proves consequently most unsatisfactory,
and it is only possible to give the following hints for pure ginger :

Ash

Volatile oil

Fixed oil

Starch

Crude liber

Albuminoids ..

Per cent.

Water 11. 00 to 9.10

7. 02 to 3. 39

2. 54 to . 96

4. 58 to 2. 29

f)3. 33 to 46. 16

7. 65 to 1. 70

10. 85 to 5. 25

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 217

In our markets ginger is drier than abroad, as is usually the fact with
all such substances in our climate. The percentage of ash among
Young's samples reached 8.0, but did not go below our lowest determi-
nation, and our variations in fiber include his figures and those of Tresh.

In other respects our determinations agree with those of the two in-
vestigators mentioned, and from their increased number serve as a fair
basis for comparison.

A careful qualitative examination of the character of the extracts at
times may reveal the presence of an adulterant, but the chief depend-
ence must, it seems, in the examination of this spice, be placed upon
the microscope. This, however, will not reveal the presence of ex-
hausted ginger, and a careful study of the effect of exhaustion on the
proximate composition of the ground root is therefore desirable. It
would naturally increase the relative of percentages of fiber and albu-
minoids and starch and diminish that of extractive matter.

CINNAMON AND CASSIA

Cinnamon and cassia are the barks of several species of the genus
Cinnamomum, the true cinnamon (C. zeylanicum) being a native of Cey-
lon, where it is also largely cultivated, while the cassias are derived
from several species growing in Bengal and in the countries east of In-
dia, especially China and in the Indian Archipelago. In our markets
the Chinese and Malabar cassias occupy the most prominent place,
Batavia and various other localities supplying a poorer quality. Cey-
lon cinnamon is only found in small amount and usually is in use as a
drug. In our experience it is not to be procured in a ground condition.
In their original form there is no difficulty in identifying the various
barks by their peculiar characteristics. Ceylon cinnamon, during its
preparation, is deprived of its outer corky coat and of the inner cortical
layers. It is therefore thin, not more than one-eighth to one-sixteenth
inch thick, and is distinguished by having the quills, which curl in ward
on each side, arranged one within the other, forming a flattened cylin-
der, originally a yard long. Its color is a dull brown, and the removal
of the outer coats is discovered by the appearance on the exterior of the
peculiar wavy structure of the inner layers of the bark.

Cassia, on the other hand, commonly shows the outer corky coat of the
bark, and is, in consequence, much thicker, rougher, and of not so red
color. In some cases, however, the bark is scraped, but the character of
the surfaces are still distinctly marked, and it is thicker and deeper in
color than cinnamon.

Microscopically, true cinnamon consists of thin layers, which in the
ground drug are represented most prominently by the long cells of woody
fiber or liber fibers which are scattered through the bark, and which are
distinctly seen under polarized light, the stellate cells of the outer
layers and the thinner cells of the interior carrying the few starch
grains. In cassia, which of course bears a close general resemblance

218 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

to cinnamon, the woody fiber is comparatively small in amount, as is the
n umber of the stellate cells. Th e presence of starch is, on the other hand,
more marked. A view, therefore, of a true ground cinnamon and cas-
sia with polarized light reveals at once differences which are character-
istic enough to distinguish the specimens, and which are illustrated in
figures 46 and 47, plate XXIY. In the ground specimens which we have
had in hand, however, no specimens of true cinnamon have been found.
Reference was made, therefore, to ground samples prepared from au-
thentic specimens of Ceylon and Chinese barks, and before any micro-
scopic work is attempted it is necessary to make a comparative exam-
ination of this description to acquire a knowledge of the appearances
to be expected and which cannot be described in detail. Reference may
also be usefully made to Fllickiger and Haubury, Pharmacographia, for
many details in regard to .the growth, cultivation, preparation, &c.

Of the addition of cedar sawdust, roasted hulls, oil meals, and min-
eral and coloring matter we have had but little opportunity to judge.
Adulteration in these markets is mainly confined to replacing cinnamon
by cassia, and the adulterants mentioned are found only in the lowest
grades, while their entire difference in structure make their detection
microscopically a matter of no difficulty.

Schimper in his Anleitung zur mikroskopischen Untersuclmny der Nah-
rungs- und Genussmittel, describes in detail the appearance of these for-
eign substances which in Germany seem to be often used and which
Wood in Massachusetts has detected in the forms of ground crackers
and nut shells, and in Canada are represented by ground peas and
wheat, flour, and, as we have found in Baltimore, by minerals and color-
ing matter. As will be shown, the determination of fiber and ash are
valuable means of discovering the presence of such additions.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND REACTION.

Of the proximate composition of any of the barks but little is known.
Numerous determinations and analyses of the ash have been made with
a view to detecting peculiarities or the addition of mineral matter.

Hilger* has recently found in five samples of Ceylon cinnamon the
following amounts of ash :

Soluble per ct.
(1) 4.5 53.0

(2) 4.8 72.3

(3) 3.9 88.1

(4) 4.3 61.7

(5)-3.4

Hehnerf in 1879 made an extended investigation into the substitution
of cassia for cinnamon, and examined the iodine test, finding it useless,
as has been the case when employed in our laboratory. He then inves-
tigated the mineral constituents, thinking that the more woody cassia

*Arch. d. Pharm., 223, 826~
t Analyst, 4, 223-228.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

219

bark would contain more lime and magnesia than the more delicate cin-
namon. Some of his figures are as follows :

Kind.

0> -S

p,g

i-l

*. d.

1 10

1?. 67

4.78

40.09

.86

25.04

74.96

12.05

4.59

36.98

. 97

28. 98

71.02

3 6

11.38

4.66

40.39

. 13

25.22

74.78

3 6

11.64

3.44

34. 32

.62

26. 36

73.64

8 6

12. 94

4.28

36. 99

.59

27.67

72. 33

11.25

4.44

42. 11

.34

18.34

81.66

Cassia lignea:
Whole

S 14. 22

1.84

25.29

5.11

40.58

59.42

) 1 1 . 88

2. 54

34.49

4.94

26. 78

73.22

Ground

11.05

2.55

28. 63

3.55

30.91

69.09

Cassia vera

( 10. 37

4.08

52. 72

1.13

8.36

91.64

\ 11. 36

4.85

43. 40

1.53

15. 89

84. 11

* Containing wood.

From these analyses Hehner concludes that the ash in cinnamon
varies between comparatively narrow limits. Cassia vera, or Malabar
cassia, contains as much as cinnamon, Cassia lignealess ; that one quarter
of the ash is soluble in water in cinnamon, less in C. vera, and still less
in C. lignea; that cinnamon ash contains less than 1 per cent, of oxide of
manganese, C. vera more than 1 per cent., and C. lignea far more, even
up to 5 per cent. This is the most noteworthy feature and is shown
in the color of the ash, cinnamon ash being white, while those of cassias
are gray or brown. Cassia vera, the Malabar cassia, is not so readily
distinguished from cinnamon as C. lignea, but its occurrence is less fre-
quent. The percentages of lime and magnesia were not distinctive,
as had been expected. For cinnamon, 40.09. 36.98, and 40.39 were the
amounts of lime in three specimens. In one of Cassia lignea 25.29 per
cent, was found. In one of C. vera, 52.72. The less fibrous C. lignea
contained the least lime. Of magnesia there was 2.G5, 3.30, and 3.86
in the cinnamon and 5.48 and 1.10 in the Cassia lignea and vera respect-
ively. Little seems to have been learned, therefore, which would form a
sound basis for distinguishing these barks. The presence of manga-
nese is more or less accidental and cannot be considered as an essen-
tial element of the ash or one from which such definite conclusions could
be drawn as to serve as the basis of legal testimony. Our results, in
fact, failed to show any large amount in any of the specimens.

Of the proximate organic constituents, the presence of volatile oil,
tannin, mucilage, coloring matter, resin, an acid, starch, and lignin is
noted by Ilassall, without any details in regard to their proportions.
The essential oil, according to Pharmacographia, however, amounts to
only one-half to 1 per cent, of the bark of cinnamon and must be less
in the inferior cassias. Beyond this no data are found. We have ex-
amined a number of specimens of the ground bark bearing different

220 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

designations and three or four samples of bark obtained ungronnd
and several authenticated specimens direct from the importers. The
sources and descriptions of the material examined were :

DENOMINATED CINNAMON.

4502. Bark from grocers, D. C. Poor quality.

4503. Ground, from same grocers. Both guaranteed, pure.
4519. Ground in Washington, 30 cents per | pound.

4529. Ground in Baltimore, 20 cents per | pound.

4531. Ground in Baltimore, 30 cents per | pound.

4539. Genuine Java cinnamon (cassia), English, 10 cents per pound.

4547. Cinnamon, Java, ground in Washington.

4556. Ceylon cinnamon bark. Druggists.

4558. Ceylon cinnamon bark. Druggists, 15 cents per ounce.

4868. Cinnamon, pure, Baltimore, Md.

4869. Cinnamon, best, Baltimore, Md.

DENOMINATED CASSIA.

4557. Cassia bark. Druggists.

4559. Cassia bark, 10 cents per ounce. Druggists.
4640. Cassia bark, 10 cents per ounce. Druggists.

4906. Saigon cassia chips, collected in Baltimore markets by Z. D. Gilman.

4907. Cassia ligua bark, collected in Baltimore markets by Z. D. Gilman.

4908. Batavia bark, collected in Baltimore markets by Z. D. Gilman.

4909. Saigon cassia bark, collected in Baltimore markets by Z. D. Gilman.

A mechanical and microscopic examination showed that the ground
specimens were hardly what they were represented to be.

4503, guaranteed pure cinnamon, proved to be a good quality of ground
cassia.

4519 and 4529 consisted of substitution of cassia for cinnamon.

4531 was a low grade cassia mixed with considerable foreign material.

4539 was an excellent specimen of good cassia.

4547 was a poor quality cassia, adulterated with foreign material, but
so finely ground as to make its identification impossible.

48G8 and 4869, although labeled cinnamon, were mixtures of the
lowest grade, consisting of cassia, turmeric ochre in small amount, mus^
tard hulls or those of a similar seed, cracker dust, and burnt shells.

The remaining specimens were purchased unground, and, with the
exception of the one English brand labeled Java cinnamon (cassia), no
ground cassia could be purchased under such a designation.

The data obtained in a chemical way were as follows :

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

221

patnai

- u i iu i o T v"

l{0 9[t^[OA

i{sy

panod

J O d 90UJ[

00000000000000

oi o^ffi W

s |

: c od to .o * oi od irf 5 oi 06 o oi -Sf

1(^4 C^lt irHr-(T>lr-li 1r tr-(r-*r-(rH CS

O "ft O IO IO 00 CO 00 lO O O O !M -M I

CO T^ CO OJ rH id 00 5M' O irf ^ TO C5 C^ irf M r^ :

I *<*

icoooca

oog

222 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

The preceding figures show that there is nothing particularly distinct-
ive between the cinnamons and cassias, and that the determination
of volatile oil points more to the character arid value of the bark than
any other, though, at the same time, there is nothing distinctive there-
in, as the variation in amount is so large in theciunamons as to at times
furnish samples containing far less volatile oil than even a fair cassia.
The percentage of ash is extremely variable, depending on the age and
quality of the bark. Saigon chips were found to have 8.23 per cent.,
while a specimen of unidentified cassia bark had only 1.75 per cent. Cin-
namon bark will probably average less than cassia. Fiber, like ash, is
extremely variable, and forthesaine reasons ; 26.29 percent, were found
in Saigon chips and 33.08 per cent, in a cinnamon and from 14 to 20 in
ordinary cassias. This determination, therefore, reveals nothing, and is
of no assistance in detecting adulterants.

Albuminoids are variable, but within narrow limits, the extremes being
4.55 percent, in Saigon bark and 2.45 iu an. unidentified cassia. The Ba-
ta via and Saigon barks appear to contaiu the most, over four per cent.,
and this percentage would seem to be an indication of inferior quality.

The amount of tannin, in these barks is extremely small, not reaching
in our specimens an equivalent of quercitanuic acid by the Lowenthal
process of two per cent. The addition, therefore, of material contain-
ing tannin can be readily detected, but in no case under our observation
did such an addition occur.

Aside from the determination of volatile oil, chemical analysis seems
to be of little value. The principal dependence must, with our present
knowledge, be placed on the mechanical and microscopic examination,
since the worst mixtures, 4868 and 4861), scarcely revealed in their com-
position the fact of their inferiority.

CLOVES.

Cloves are the flower-buds of an evergreen tree, Eugenia caryophyllata,
growing wild in the Malaccas and introduced into Arnboyna, the neigh-
boring Zanzibar islands, Cayenne, and a few other places in the tropics.
They are picked by hand when their development has reached a red
color, and are dried in the sun, becoming dark brown. They are classed
as East Indian, African, and American, and are valued in that order.

Fliickiger and Hanbury's description of them is as follows :

Cloves are about six-tenths of an inch in length, and consist of a long cylindrical
calyx dividing above into four pointed spreading sepals which surround four petals,
closely imbricated as a globular bud about two-tenths of an inch in diameter.

The petals, which are of a lighter color than the rest of the drug and somewhat trans-
lucent from numerous oil cells, spring from the base of a four-sided epigynous disc, the
angles of which are directed toward the lobes the calyx. The stamens, which are
very numerous, are inserted at the base of the petals and are arched over the style.
The latter, which is short and subulate, rises from a depression in the center of the
disc. Immediately below it, and united with the upper portion of the calyx, is the

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 223

ovary, which is two-celled and contains many ovules. The lower end of the calyx
(hypantium) has a compressed form; it is solid, but has its internal tissue far more
porous than the walls. The whole calyx is of a deep rich brown, has a dull wrinkled
surface, a dense fleshy texture, and abounds in essential oil, which exudes on simple
pressure with the nail.

The varieties of cloves occurring in commerce do not exhibit any structural differ-
ences. Inferior kinds are distinguished by being less plump, less bright in tint, and
less rich in essential oil. In London price-currents cloves are enumerated in the order
of value thus: Penang, Bencoolen (Sumatra), Amboyna, Zanzibar.

A transverse section of the lower part of a clove shows a dark rhomboid zone, the
tissue on either side of which is of a lighter hue. The outer layer beneath the epi-
dermis exhibits a large number of oil cells, frequently as much as 300 micromilli-
ineters in diameter. About "200 oil cells may be counted in one transverse section, so
that the large amount of essential oil in the drug is well shown by its microscopic
characters. The above-mentioned zone is chiefly made up of about 30 flbro- vascular
bundles, another stronger bundle traversing the center of the clove. The fibro-vas-
cular bundles, as well as the tissue bordering the oil cells, assume a greenish-black hue
by alcoholic perchloride of iron. Oil cells are also largely distributed in the leaves,
petals, and even stamens of Eugenia. No starch is found in it, however.

Preparations from whole cloves enable one to familiarize himself with
the structure, which in the ground cloves is recognized with greater
difficulty. In both cases the use of chloral hydrate solution is desirable,
is the sections and fragments are otherwise not transparent. Pre-
liminary examination of the powder in water for starch should, how-
ever, be made, as the starch granules swell in the chloral hydrate solu-
tion.

Among the fragments will be seen a large amount of debris of no
apparent structure, but the larger pieces are chiefly the cells of the
epidermis interspersed with the large oil cavities or cells, which are not
as readily detected as in carefully prepared sections, being coucealed-
by a layer of the epidermal cells. Next in prominence are the fibro-
vascular bundles with their spiral vessels and with shreds of deep
brown cellular matter attached. Pollen grains and, at times, whole
anthers are present, and concretions of oxalate of lime. All these
characteristic appearances are made out much more easily under polar-
ized light, the long cells of the fibro-vascular bundles being optically
active, as are also the pollen grains, oxalate of linie to a less degree, and

e contents of the oil cells which are thus easily distinguished.

After a study of standard powder of cloves, the presence of adulter-
ants is not difficult to recognize. Pimento is often added, and may be
identified by the starch which it contains and the characters described
under that spice.

Clove stems are said to be the commonest adulterant, and the pres-
ence in them of thick- walled stone cells and long yellow fibrous tissue
serves as a means of recognition, since similar structures are not found
in the clove, at least in the same abundance. The fruit of the clove is
also added, and since it contains starch and a large embryo they are de-
tected readily. We have not met either of these adulterants.

224 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTEKANTS.

Iii the cheaper forms of ground cloves, where from the price it is evident
that adulteration has been practiced, the common substitutes, which are
added as diluents to all the spices, must be sought for and require no
further experience beyond what has been obtained in the examination
of pepper.

In most of the samples which were examined during the preparation
of this report the microscope revealed nothing foreign, and for a de-
cision as to their quality it was necessary to have recourse to chemical
analysis. Two specimens from Baltimore of the same low grade as
several of the spices previously mentioned were found, however, to be
mixtures of all sorts of cheap material, containing mineral coloring
matter, roasted shells or charcoal, corn, and hulls of seeds.

The sources of the cloves examined were as follows, being largely the
ordinary article for sale at grocers :

SOURCES OF CLOVES.

4504. Whole cloves, guaranteed, Washington.

4903. Amboyna cloves, whole, direct from importers.

4904. Singapore cloves, whole, direct from importers.

4905. Clove sterns, whole, direct from importers.
4G41. Whole cloves, druggists', 10 cents per ounce.
4042. Whole cloves, druggists', 10 cents per ounce.
4643. Whole cloves, druggists', 10 cents per ounce.

4505. Ground cloves, guaranteed, Washington.
4520. Ground gloves, ground in Washington.

4540. Ground cloves, genuine Amboyna, 30 cents per - pound ; English brand,
4548. Ground cloves, Washington grocers, second class, 26 cents per ^ pound.

4629. Ground cloves, Washington grocers, second class, 20 cents per pound.

4630. Ground clones, Washington grocers, 30 cents per pound.

4631. Ground cloves, " strictly pure," 40 cents per pound.

4632. Ground cloves, Washington grocers, second class, 30 cents per pound.

4633. Ground cloves, Washington grocers, second class, 30 cents per pound.

4873. Ground cloves, Baltimore Spice Mills ; "pure."

4874. Ground cloves, Baltimore Spice Mills ; " best."

The results of the analyses are as follows:

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

225

OS O

I S

226

FOODS AND POOD ADULTERANTS.

In comparison with these results it is of interest to refer to what has
been already published.

Fluckiger states that from 16 to 20 per cent, of volatile oil is present,
and gives details in regard to its composition and reactions ; but be-
yond this nothing.

Dietsch gives the following figures as the percentages of oil to be
expected in cloves from different sources;

Per cent.

Amboyna 16 to 21

Zanzibar 12 to 17

Cayenne 9 to 1$

There are one or two very old analyses in detail which are hardly re*
liable, and Dr. Ellis, of Toronto, has made investigations, still unpub-
lished, in regard to the amount of tannin present, with a view to using
the determination as a check on adulterants ; but with these exceptions
we are not aware of any other work upon the composition of this spice,

The authentic whole samples show that the percentage of water may
be very variable, being at times as low as 2.90 per cent., and again as
much as 10.67, which is high for so oily a substance. The ash, too, has
rather wide extremes, varying from 5 to 13 per cent. The usual
amount would not, however, be far from 5.50 to 6.50 per cent. Volatile
oil falls in no case below the amount given by Dietsch, and serves as,
perhaps, the best means of judging of the quality of the specimens.
The extremes found in the pure specimens were 10.23 and 18.89 per cent.,
while but five out of the eleven ground specimens reached 10 per cent.

Other determinations do not seem especially characteristic. The ex-
tremes, which cannot be exceeded without casting suspicion, are ;

Per cent.

Water ...

11 00 to 2 75

Ash

13 00 to 5 00

Volatile oil

21 00 to 9 00

Fixed oil and resin . . .
Crude fiber ...

11. 00 to 4. 00
10 00 to ti 00

Albuminoids

8. 00 to 4 00

The determination of tannin, following the suggestions of Dr. Ellis,
of Toronto, has been examined with results showing it to be of some
value, but not as great as that of volatile oil. Our experience showed
that it was as well to determine the matter oxidizable by permanganate,
after removal of oil, &c., by Squibb's ether, as to make a more elaborate
determination of tannin itself. In the best whole cloves from the im-
porters the quercitamiic acid equivalent of the oxidizable matter varied
from 18.72 to 22.13 per cent., and in the stem reached 23.24 per cent.
The determination will not, therefore, show the presence of stems in
ground cloves. The amount fell also in one unidentified specimen of
whole cloves to 11.70 per cent., but the quality of these buds was un-
known. It is fair to assume, then, that good cloves should contain ex-

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 227

tractive oxidizable matter equivalent to 18 per cent, of quercitannic
acid, or require an oxygen equivalent of about 4.50 per cent, for its re-
duction.

Of the 11 specimens of ground cloves examined, although none of
them were of first quality, this tannin equivalent exceeded 18 in all but
3. The addition of stems and allspice would not be discovered, as both
contain tannin in considerable amount. This determination is, then, in
no way conclusive, but merely furnishes an indication which must be
corroborated by other means. For the method of carrying it out refer-
ence must be made to our pages on analyses. As has been said, none of
the ground specimens of cloves were first class, analyses showing that
in only one case did the essential oil reach as high as 13.93 per cent.,
and although but 2 from Baltimore contained cheap foreign adulterants
and none were sophisticated with allspice, all the specimens must have
been made from a low grade of buds and many with the addition of
large quantities of stems and spent cloves. The two cheapest specimens,
4873 and 4874, were, as has been said, terrible compounds of mineral
coloring matter, leaving a dark ferruginous ash, corn meal, and hulls,
evidence of which appears in the analyses from the low oil, 3.59 and 4.06
per cent., and the high crude fiber. The addition of so much organic
matter low in ash conceals the presence of mineral coloring matter which
is detected by its ferruginous appearance. In the ash of the whole*buds,
while there are at times some of a light reddish tinge, the color is dis-
tinctly or often dark green from the presence of manganese.

Our results show the universal and alarmingly poor quality of the
commercial supply of ground cloves.

PIMENTO OR ALLSPICE.

Pimento is the fruit of Pimenta officinalis, an evergreen tree common
in the West Indies. It is the only one of the common spices which had
its origin in the New World. It is a small, dry, globular berry from two
to three tenths of an inch in diameter, having a short style and sur-
rounded by four short thick sepals which often, however, have become
rubbed off, leaving a scar-like ring. The berry has a woody shell, or
pericarp, easily cut, and of dark, ferruginous brown, rugose by means
of minute tubercles filled with essential oil. It is two-celled, each cell
containing a single seed. The seed is less aromatic than the pericarp.

Under the microscope the outer layer of the pericarp, just beneath
the epidermis, appears as a collection of very large brown parenchy-
matous cells filled with oil. The more interior layers consist of thick
walled or stone cells loaded with resin, the most characteristic struc-
ture of the pimento, parenchyma cells, and smaller crystals of calcic ox-
alate which are not easily seen. The whole tissue is traversed, but not
plentifully, by fibro-vascular bundles. The seeds contain much starch
in minute grains and have a few oil cells. The embryo is large and spi-
rally curved. The hulls of the seeds consist of a delicate epidermis

228

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

and of large tbin- walled cells with light or dark red contents, which are
very characteristic and are called by Hassall the port- wine cells, which
should be examined in water, and after treatment with chloral hydrate,
the starch grains being made out in the water preparation and the re-
maining structure among the particles rendered transparent by the
chloral hydrate. Most prominent among the latter under polarized light,
which is here a great assistance, are the stone cells or thick walled cells
partly grouped and partly separate, and often, with plain light, showing
shreds of parenchyma adherent to them. The brown cells which con-
tain the oil are made out with less distinctness, but most striking are
the red or port-wine cells of the seed hull, which are seen scattered ev-
erywhere, and in color and form are very characteristic. Shreds of the
embryo are also now and then seen.

FIG. 13. Allspice powder, a, starch ; &, port- wine cells ; ft, hairs; , stone cells ; p, parenchyma. X 240.

Schimper's diagramatic illustrations of this spice are here copied in
Fig. 13, and serve as a slight aid to the recognition of the structures
mentioned, but merely as suggestions, as nothing exactly correspond,
ing to the drawings will be found in the ground powder.

Polarized light is a most important aid in examining this spice. It
brings out strongly the stone-cells and ligneous tissue and differentiates
therefrom the great mass of other matter. It also makes the oil cavi-
ties more distinct.

The adulteration of this spice does not often occur, owing to its cheap-
ness. We have only found three cases, and those from Baltimore. In
No. 4530 a substitution had been made for allspice, of which not a par-
ticle could be detected, of inferior cloves from which much of the volatile
oil had been extracted, and Nos. 4877 and 4377, where yellow corn and
mineral coloring matter were plentiful. In these instances chemical
analysis confirmed the microscopic examination.

Abroad clove stems are said to be largely used as an adulterant. They
differ from cloves, as has been already explained, in the presence of

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

229

numerous stone-cells and fibro- vascular bundles, and in Canada peas
and roasted corn have been found. The presence of these cheap dilu-
ents should be sought for, as in peppers, but they are less common in
this spice.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ALLSPICE.

But little has been published in regard to the proximate principles of
the pimento. The amount of volatile oil is said by Fliickiger to be from
3 to 4J per cent., while starch and much tannin are present in the berry.
Dragendorff has also found a minute quantity of an alkaloid of the odor
of coumarine. Hassall gives analyses, which are too old to be of any
value, and quotes Pereira as an authority for the fact that the essential
oil of pimento is made up of two distinct oils, which, of course, may be
true in one sense but is hardly of value as a definite distinction, both
for this spice and cloves, as has been already remarked.

As a matter of fact but little is known of this spice. We have ex-
amined seven samples with the results here given :

4500. Whole allspice.

4501. Ground allspice, guaranteed pure, Washington.
4513. Ground allspice, ground in Washington.
4525. Ground allspice, ground in Baltimore.

4530. Ground allspice, ground in Baltimore.
4534. Ground allspice, ground in Baltimore.
4538. Ground allspice, English brand.

4877. Ground allspice, best, cheap grade, Baltimore.

4878. Ground allspice, pure, cheap grade, Baltimore.

All the samples were ground by diiferent firms except the last two.
Analyses of pimento, allspice.

Serial
No.

Description.

Water.

*
<

e
,2

"cS

Fixed oil.

Undetermined.

Crude fiber.

Albuminoids.

Nitrogen.

H~
'3
a

ad
H

O required.

4500

Whole

6.19

4.01

5. 15

6. 15

59.28

14.83

4.38

.70

10.97

2.81

4501

Commercial ground.

5.51

3.93

2. 93

6.10

58.24

17.95

5.34

.86

13. 10

3.36

4518

do .. ...

8 03

4 83

2 07

5 50

57.20

18. 00

4 38

.70

9 31

2.39

4525

. .do

8.82

4.91

3.32

6. 18

57.90

13.45

5.42

.87

9.39

2.40

4530

11 59

6 02

8 17

7 64

59 57

11 93

5 08

.81

18 72

4. 80

4534

7 31

3 45

3.16

6.92

58.58

16.55

4.03

.64

12.74

3.27

4538

8.71

4.50

1.29

5.35

55.90

18.83

5.42

.87

10.92

2.80

4877

7 98

5 53

2 80

3 77

56 86

18 98

4.38

.70

8.27

2.12

4878

7.31

5.19

1.82

1.60

56.45

23.60

4.03

.67

4.32

1.11

In our analyses there is considerable variation among the samples.

iking the whole berry as the standard the others fall off very much in
luality, as judged by the volatile oil, with the exception of number 4530,
which, too, from its low fiber, high asb, and high volatile and fixed oil is
suspicious, and proves to be a substitution of cloves and clove stems.
The microscope has shown that this sample is inferior cloves, and it
must- therefore be rejected.

230 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

The amount of essential oil in our best sample exceeds Flilckiger's
highest, but on the ground specimens falls off sadly, 4538 and 4878
being almost worthless as far as this valuable ingredient goes, perhaps
in the first case having been exhausted for the preparation of the oil,
although the ash is but little reduced in amount, and in the latter being
nothing but mixtures, as shown under the microscope.

The other determinations show no important variation in the constit-
uents, and estimation of the volatile oil would perhaps be the only
thing necessary in a chemical way in examining it, without it is desired
to go into the determination of tannin, which is as serviceable a means
of discriminating among allspices as was found to be the case with
cloves.

In the same way our results show that good allspice contains oxid-
izable matter extracted by water after removal of oil, etc., by ether
equivalent to from 9-11.0 per cent, of quercetannic acid, the amount
being considerably smaller than is found in cloves. This determination
points out at once that specimens 4530 and 4878 are abnormal, and that
4534 is suspicious. It may be made of value and must be carried out
in the same way as with cloves. Of the eight ground specimens ex-
amined three were adulterated and one was suspicious, so that even of
this cheap spice we can hardly expect a pure supply without some pro-
tection.

NUTMEG.

Nutmegs are the interior kernel of the fruit of Myristica fragmns, a
tree growing in various parts of the East, but principally in the Banda
Islands.

Flu'ckiger and Hahbury describe in a most excellent way their char-
acteristics as follows :

The fruit is a pendulous, globose drupe, about 2 inches in diameter, and not unlike
a small round pear. It is marked by a furrow which passes around it, and by which
at maturity its thick fleshy pericarp splits into two pieces, exhibiting in its interior a
single seed, enveloped in a fleshy foliaceous mantle or arillus, of fine crimson hue,
which is mace. The dark brown shining ovate seed is marked with impressions corres-
ponding to the lobes of the arillus ; and on one side, which is of paler hue and slightly
flattened, a lino indicating the raphe may be observed.

The bony testa does not find its way into European commerce, the so-called nutmeg
being merely the kernel or nucleus of the seed. Nutmegs exhibit nearly the form of
their outer shell with a corresponding diminition in size. The London dealers esteem
them in proportion to their size, the largest, which are about one inch long by eight-
tenths of an inch broad, and four of which will weigh an ounce, fetching the highest
price. If not dressed with lime, they are of a grayish brown, smooth yet coarsely
furrowed and veined longitudinally, marked on the flatter side with a shallow groove.
A transverse section shows that the inner seed coat (endopleura) penetrates into the
albumen in long narrow brown strips, reaching the center of the seed, thereby impart-
ing the peculiar marbled appearance familiar in a cut nutmeg. * * *

The tissue of the seed can be cut with equal facility in any direction.

Of the microscopic structure they say :

The testa consists mainly of long, thin, radially arranged rigid cells, which are
closely interlaced and do not exhibit any distinct cavities. The endopleura which

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

231

forms the adhering coat of the kernel and penetrates into it, consists of soft walled,
red brown tissue, with small scattered bundles of vessels. In the outer layers the
endopleura exhibits small collapsed cells j but the tissue which fills the folds that dip
into the interior consists of much larger cells

The tissue of the albumen is formed of soft-walled parenchyme, which is densely
filled with conspicuous starch grains and with fat partly crystallized. Among the
prismatic crystals of fat large, thick rhombic or six-sided tables may often be ob-
served. With these are associated grains of albuminoid matter partly crystallized.

In carefully made preparations from the whole nutmeg the structure
above described can be made out by care and patience. In the ground
spice, however, of these characteristics only the interior parenchyma
cells with their starchy contents can be seen when mounted in water,
with the alternate use of common and polarized light. The fatty crys-
tals we have not observed, and the fragments of the endopleura or red-
brown tissue are characterized only by their color. In chloral hydrate
the starch cells and grains are swollen, but the red-brown tissue is much
more transparent, sufficiently so, in fact, to reveal any differences be-
tween it and any adulterant which might bear a resemblance. There
are but few bundles of fibers to be found. The structure as a whole is
so simple that the addition of any foreign material can be readily de-
tected.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF NUTMEG.

Analysis of these samples of nutmegs of the following origin have
been made :

4512. Whole limed nutmeg, grocers.

4513. Ground limed nutmeg, grocers.
4546. Ground in Baltimore.

Serial Ko,

Water.

Ash.

Vola-
tile oil.

Fixed
oil or
fat.

Starch,
&c.

Crude
fiber.

Albumi-
noids.

Total.

Nitro-
gen.

4512

6 08

3 27

2 84

34 37

36 98

11 30

5 16

100 00

4513

4 ]'.

2 22

3. 97

37 30

40 12

6 78

5 42

100 00

4546

6 40

3 15

2 90

30 98

41 77

9 55

5 25

100 00

Fluckiger states that the volatile oil of nutmegs amounts to between
3 and 8 per cent., and that it is of the nature of a terpene. The fat or
fixed oil he places at one-fourth of the weight of the nutmeg, or 25.0
per cent., the principal constituents being starch and albuminoids.
Beyond these facts gathered by this authority nothing of value seems
to have been published in regard to the proximate percentage composi-
tion of nutmegs.

Our results with only three samples are fairly concordant. The vola-
tile oil hardly reached the limit which has been mentioned. It is no
doubt a variable quantity. The fixed oil or fat, on the other hand, far
exceeds what was expected. Our more perfect methods of extraction
may be partly the cause of these results, and it may be also due to a

232 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

resinification of the portion of the volatile oil, thus reducing the percent-
age of this substance and increasing that of the fat.

The amount of starch and allied substances seeins fairly constant,
while that of albuminoids is rather lower than would be expected. The
fiber is also low, but our methods of determining so called fiber are so
indefinite that such determinations are of only of comparative value.

Without any actual trials it would seem that determinations of oil
and fat, and perhaps of albuminoids and fiber, would serve well to
detect foreign substances which would certainly modify in a striking
way the normal relations of these proximate principles.

At present nutmegs are almost entirely sold whole and grated in the
kitchen. Attempts at adulteration have, therefore, been few in number.

MACE.

The mantle or arillus of the nutmeg, a coat between the outside peri-
carp and the seed, is known as mace when separated and dried. The
coat is not continuous, but is a net- work the form of which is recogniz-
able in the dried spice.

Of its microscopic structure Fluckiger and Haubury say :

The uniform, small-celled angular parenchy me is interrupted by numerous brown oil
cells of larger size. The inner part of the tissue contains also thin brown vascular bun-
dles. The oells of the epidermis on either side are colorless, thick walled, longitudinally
extended, and covered with a peculiar cuticle of broad, flat ribbon-like cells, which
cannot, however, be removed as a continuous film. The parenchyme is loaded with
small grannies, to which a red color is imparted by Millon's test (solution of mercurous
nitrate) and an orange hue by iodine. The granules consequently consist of albumin-
ous matter, and starch is altogether wanting.

This statement has been fully confirmed, and the presence of starch
claimed by several writers disproved. Iodine produces a peculiar deep
brown color approaching the black-blue given with starch, which, in
connection with the granules, has given riso to the statements that
starch is present.

In the ground powder of mace all the details of structure described
by Fliickiger are readily made out, especially in chloral hydrate prep-
arations with polarized light, as the brown vascular bundles, the rib-
bon-like and epidermal cells all are polarizing substances, while the
large mass of granular parenchyma cells are not. The ribbon-like cells
are particularly interesting in the varied forms they assume. Adultera-
tions can be readily detected.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MACE.

Fliickiger and Hanbury found in mace 8.2 per cent, of essential oil and
24.5 per cent, of aromatic balsam or resinified aromatic oil but no fat;
also 1.4 per cent, of uncrystallizable sugar and 1.8 of mucilage, or a
body between that and starch, blued by iodine. The composition of
mace they therefore fiud to be very different from that of nutmeg, con-
trary to the assertion of Hassall.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

233

Three samples, which we have examined, gave the following results :

4508. Whole mace, guaranteed.

4509. Ground mace, guaranteed.
4535. Ground mace, Baltimore.

4879. Ground mace, Baltimore, low grade.

Analyses of mace.

Serial number.

Water.

Ash.

Vola-
tile
oil.

Resin.

Undeter-
mined.

Cruue
fiber.

Albumi-
noids.

Total.

Nitro-
gen.

4508

5 67

4 10

4 04

27 50

41 17

8 93

4 55

100 00

4509 ....

4 86

2 65

8 66

29.08

35 50

4 48

6 13

100 00

4535

10.47

2.20

8 68

23. 33

34.68

6 88

5 08

100 00

4879

8 90

3 23

5 39

35 09

28 01

12 20

7 18

100 00

1 15

The percentages of volatile oil agree with the determinations of Fliick-
iger except in the sample ground from the whole nutmeg in our labora-
tory, which is deficient. The amount probably should always reach 8 per
cent, in good nutmegs. The resin found averages rather higher than
in Fliickiger's specimen, but the presence of so large an amount is cer-
tainly very characteristic of this spice, as well of the nutmeg itself, and
the presence of adulterants would, without doubt, unless skillfully pro-
vided for, be detected by the absence of more than 20 per cent, of this
extractive matter.

Ko qualitative estimation was made of sugar and gum ; they were de-
tected qualitatively in small amounts, but from the determinations of
fiber and albuminoids it is evident that a large amount of extractive
matter not starch is present, and as Fliickiger found only about 3 per
cent, of substances soluble in alcohol and water and no starch, and as
the non-nitrogenous material removed by acids amounts to 35 per cent.,
it is probably one of the numerous members of the cellulose group, re-
lated to gum or starch, which is contained in the parenchyma cells. In
the absence of adulterated specimens it is difficult to say what methods
of procedure should be taken for their detection ; but aside from the mi-
croscopical examination, which would readily reveal most adulterants,
the chemical characteristics seem to be so marked as to make the pres-
ence of any foreign substance evident in the results of analysis.

APPENDIX A.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE LITERATURE OF SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.

The following bibliography consists of a list of such, books and papers of any in-
terest as have appeared, to my knowledge, within the last fifteen years. There has
seemed to be no necessity for including anything published earlier than 1870, as the
progress of investigation has left everything behind which was done before then.
Blyth, however, in his work entitled "Foods, their Composition and analyses," gives
lists of the ancient literature of the subject, which can be referred to by those who
are interested in the historic rather than the analytical aspects of the subject. The
works which were published before the date named and which are of interest to the
analyst may also be found in a list given by Dr. Battershall in his recent publication.

GENERAL WORKS.

BATTERSHAL, J. P. [Adulteration of Food.] 1887.

BELL, JAMES. Food, Chemistry of. 1883. London.

BLYTH, A. WYNTER, 1876. A Dictionary of Hygiene, comprising the detection of

adulteration. London, 1876.
BLYTH, A. W., 1882. Foods : their Composition and Analysis. Chailes Griffin &

Co., London.

CANADA, DOMINION or, 1876 to date. Department of Inland Revenue. Reports on
adulteration of food, being Supplement No. Ill to the report of. Ottawa,
McLean, Roger & Co.

CHEVALLIER, A,, 1878. Diclionnaire des alterations et falsifications des substances ali-
mentaires, mddicamenteuses et commerciales, avec 1'indication des moyens
pour les reconnaltre. Paris, 5e <5d., 1878, 2 Th.
DAMMER, OTTO. Illustrirtes Lexicon der Verfalschungen und Verunreinigungen der

Kahrungs- und Genussmittel. Leipzig, 1886.
[ETZSCH, OSCAR, 1884. Die wichtigsten Nahrungsmittel und Getranke, deren Ve-

runreinigungen- uud Verfiilsohungen, u. s. w. Zurich, 1884, pp. 352, 8.
JNER, FRITZ, 1882. Die Praxis des Nahrungsinittel-Chemikers. Hamburg-Leipzig,

Leopold Voss, 1882, 8, 216 ss.

.UCKIGER, FREDRICK A., & HANBURY, DANIEL. Pharmacographia. A History of
the Principal Drugs, etc. 2d edit. London, Macmillan & Co., 1879, pp. 803.
f'RANC. AISE, REPUBLIQUE, PREFECTURE DE POLICE. Documents sur les Falsifications
des Matieres alimentaires et sur les travaux du laboratoire municipal. 3
tomes. Paris, G. Masson.
TAUSECK, T. F., 1884. Die Nahrungs- und Genussmittel aus dem Pflanzenreiche.

Kassel, 1884, ss. 485.
JALL, ARTHUR HILL, 1876. Food. Its Adulterations and the Methods for their

Detection. London, Longmans, Green & Co., 1876, 8, 896 pp.
[ILGER^ ALBERT, 1885, Sept. Vereinbarungen betreffs der Untersuchungen und Beur-
teilung von Nahrungs- und Genussmittel sowio Gebrauchsgegenstanden.
Herausgegeben im Auftrage der freien Vereinigung bayrisher Vertreter det
angewandten Chemie. Berlin, Julius Springer. 1885, pp. 283,

235

236 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

HILGER, A., and KAYSER, R., 1886. Bericht iiber die 4. Versammlung der freien
Vereiuigung Bayrischer Vertreter der angewandeten Chemie zu Number g
7. uud 8. Aug., 1885. Berlin, Julius Springer, 1886, 118 as.

KAYSER, R., HOLZNER, VOGEL, HANS, PRIOR, E., LIST, E., and SENDTNER, R., '83.
Sechs Vortriige auf dem Gebiete der Nahrungsmittel-Chemie. 1. Unter-
suchung von Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, sowie Verbrauchsgegenstanden
mit Bezugsnahme auf das Reichsgesetz von 14. Mai von R. Kayser. 2.
Ueber Schultze'sche Tafeln von Holzner. 3. Ueber Milchuntersuchung
und Milch-Control von Hans Vogel. 4. Untersucliung iiber den Hopfen. 5.
Die Sckwefelsiiure in Wein, von E. List. 6. Die Untersuchung der Butter,
von R. Sendtner. Wurzburg, 1883.

KLENCKE, HERMANN, 1878. Illustrirtes Lexicon der Verfalschungen derNahrungs-
mittel und Getranke. Leipzig, 1878.

K5NIG, J., 188'. Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, ihre Herstellung, Zusammensetzung
und Beschaffenheit, ihre Verfalschungen und ihre Nachweisung. 2. Band.
Berlin, Julius Springer, 1882, 8ss. 620 and 351.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE BOARD OF HEALTH, LUNACY, AND CHARITY, 1879-188'. Sup-
plements, containing the reports and papers on public health to the first,
second, fourth, fifth, and sixth, etc., reports of.

MOLLER, 1836. Mikroskopie der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel aus dem Pflanzenreich.
1886.

NEW YORK STATE BOARD OF HEALTH. Annual reports of 1880 to date. Albany. 8.

SCHMIPFER, A. F. W., 1886. Anleitung zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Nah-
rungs- und Genussmittel. Jena, Gustav Fischer, 1886, ss. 140.

SOUBEIRAN, J. LEON, 1874. Nouveau dictionnaire des falsifications et des alterations
des aliments, des medicaments, &c. Paris, 1874.

WALCHNER, J. H., 1875. Die Nahrungsmittel der Menschen, ihre Verfiilschungen und
Verunreinigung. Berlin, 1875, 8, 324 ss.

WOOD, H. C., REMINGTON, J. P., and SADTLER, S. P., 1883, Jan. The Dispensatory
the United States of America, 15. edition. Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott &
Co., 1883, 8, pp. 1928.

GENERAL ARTICLES REFERRING TO SEVERAL OF THE SPICES.

BIECHELE, 1881. (Untersuchung gepulverte Gewiirze.) (Extractive matter.) Abs.
Zeit. anal. Chem. 20,229-298, from Correspbl. d. Verein anal. Chemikers,
2,70.

BORGMANN, E., 1883. Gewiirzeuntersuchungen (Alcoholic Extracts.) Zeit. anal-
Chem. 22, 535-537.

FISCHER, FERD., 1830, Jan. (Zur Verfalschung, und Untersuchung von Nahrungs.
und Genussmittel.) Title : Chem. Centbl. 11, 221, from Poly. J. 235, 140-150.

FISCHER, FERD., 1879, Dec. (Ausnutzuug der Nahruugsmittel.) (1.) Nahrungsbe-
darf des Menschen, J. Raiike. (2.) Nahrwerth verschiedener Nahruugsmit-
tel, Rubner. Title : Chem. Centrbl. 11, 151 fromPolyt. J. 234, 486-489.

HlLGER, A., 1879, 18 August. (Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel.)
(Michl. Wurstwaaren, Essiguud Gewiirze.) Abs. Chem. Centbl. 1O, 40, from
Arch. Pharm. [3] 13, 428-433.

LAUBE,G.,and ALDENDORF, H., 1879. Wider die Nahrungsfalscher. (Analyses of
Spices.) Hannoversche Monatsschrift, 1879, 83. Vide Konig, J.

LEEDS, A. R., 1881. Upon the adulteration of food, drink, and drugs from the chem-
ists' standpoint and upon the attitude of chemists in the matter of appoint-
ment of government analysts. Am. Chem. Soc. Jour. 3, 60-62. Chem. News,
44, 56.

SELL, EUGENE, 1883, 28 September. (Vortrag uber Nahrungsmittel Chemiker und
Nahrungsmittel Chemie. Abs. Chem. Centbl. 14, 731-732.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 237

WIGNER, G. W., and others, 1881. (Adulteration, Definition and Proposed Laws.)

Analyst, 6, 3.
WOLFF, C. H., 1881. Untersuchung gepulverter Gewiirze. (Extractive matter.)

Zeit. anal. Chein. 2O, 296-298, aus Corbl. d. Verein anal. Cliemiker, 2, 91.

ARTICLES ON STARCHES.

DAFERT, F. W., 1885. Zur Kenntniss der Starkearten. Landw. Jahrb. 14, 831-838,

15, 259-276 ; Abs. Bied. Centbl. 15, 279-680.
MUTER, J., 1878. Organic Materia Medica. London, 1878.
NAGELLI, 1858. Die Stiirkemehlkorner, 1858.

STRASSBURGER, EDUARD Das botaniscbe Prakticum. Jena, 1884, ss. 666.
TRIPE, J. W., 1879, December. On the discrimination of starches by polarized

light. Analyst 4, 221-223.

WEISNER. Einleitung in die technischen Mikroskopie. Wien, 1867, 8.
Vide also Hassall, Bly th, Konig, and others.

ARTICLES ON PARTICULAR SPICES.

PEPPER.

ANONYMOUS, 1883. (Test for pepper on aqueous iodine.) Pharm. Centralhalle, 24,

510. Pharin. Centralhalle, 24, 566. Vide Lenz, W. Zeit. Anal. Chem. 24, 510.
BROWN, J. CAMPBELL, 1887, Feb. On Poivrette. Analyst, 12, 23-25.
BROWN, J. CAMPBELL, 1887, March. Further note on Poivrette. Analyst, 12, 47-48.
BROWN, J. CAMPBELL, 1887 On long pepper. Analyst, 12, 67-70.
BROWN, J. CAMPBELL, 1887, April. Poivrette, Caution to Analysts. Analyst, 12, 72.
BROWN, J. CAMPBELL, 1887, May. Another new pepper adulterant (Dhoura Corn).

Analyst, 12, 89.
DIEHL, C. LEWIS, 1881. Report to National Board of Health on adulteration of drugs

(including pepper). Ball. Nat. Bd. Health, Supp. No. 6, Analyst, 6, 50.
GEISSLER, E., 1883. (Untersuchung des Pfeffers.) Chem. Centbl. 15, 70-71, aus

Pharm. Central halle, 24, 521-523.

HAGER, H. (Pfeffer Verfalschungen.) Heating with oxalic acid and water and de-
termination of extract formed. Vide Lenz, Zeit. anal. Chem. 24, 510.
HALENKE, A., 1886, Aug. 6. Referat iiber die zuliissige Grenze von mineralischen

Verunreinigungen des gemahlenen Pfeffers. Ber. 5te Vers. Bay. Vert, d

angew. Chemie, 21-32.
HALENKE and MOSLINGER, ' 1885, Aug. 7 and 8. Ueber Pfefferverfalschung. Ber.

Bayrischer Vert, angew. Chem., 1885, 104. Berlin, J. Springer, 1886.
HARVEY, SIDNEY, 1886, Nov. 10. Note upon the conversion of starch into glycerine

by means of hydrochloric acid (in peppers). Analyst, 11, 221-223. Abs.

Am. J. of Pharm. 59, 31-32.
:EISCH, C., 1886, Oct. Analyses of pepper. Analyst, 11, 186-190. Abs. J. Chem.

Soc., 52, 312.
HILL, BOSTOCK, 1885. Note on a sample of adulterated pepper. Analyst, 1O, 122-

123.
LENZ, W., 1884. Ein Beitrag zur chemischen Untersuchung von Pfefferpulver.

Zeit. anal. Chem., 23, 501-513.
MEYER, ARTHUR > 1883, Dec. (Die mikroskopische Untersuchung von Pflanzenpul.

ver, speziell iiber den Nachweis von Buchweizenmehl in Pfefferpulver und

iiber die Unterscheidung des Maismehls von dem Buchweizenmehl.) Abs-

Chem. Centbl., 15, 201. From Arch. Pharm. [3], 21, 911-918.
NIEDERSTADT, 1886. (Piperin Bestimmung.) Rep. anal. Chim., 3, 68.

238 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

RABOURDIN, H., 1884. De 1'essai des poivres du commerce au point de vue de leur

falsification par les grignons d'olive et les grabeaux. J. de Pkann. et de

Chim., [5], 9, 289-297. Abs. Pharm. Zeit., 29, 375.
ROTTGER, DR., 1883, Aug. 7 and 8. Zur Untersuchung dea Pfcffers. Ber. 4. Vers.

Verein Bayrisch. Vertreter u. s. w., 1885, 97.
SCHUSCIIING, H., 1885. (Pfeffer im Kleinhandel. ) Abs. Chein. Centbl., 16, 170. From

Arch. f. Pharin.
WEIGMANN, H., 1836. Zur chemischen Untersuchung des Pfeffers. Abs. Deutsch.

Chem. Zeitbl., 397. Title: Chem. Centbl. 17,744. From Rep. anal. Chem.,

6, 399-402.

MUSTARD.

HASSALL, A. H., 1877. (Ueber den Senf und dessen Verfalsshungen. ) Title: Chem.
Centlbl. 8, 247, from Arch. Pharm. 3, 10, 156.

LEEDS, ALBERT R., and EVERHART, EDGAR, 1882, July. (Erne Methode zur Analyse
des Senfes.) Zeit. anal. Chem. 2 1, 389-394. Abs. Chem. Centbl. 13, 646-647.

PIESSE, CHARLES, and STANSELL, LIONEL, 1880. Analyses of black and white mus-
tard. Analyst 5, 161-165. J, Pharm. et de Chimie [5] 3, 252-254. Chem.
Centbl. 1 2, 374.

STEFFECK, H., 1887. Ein neues Falschungmittel des weissen Senfes (Sinapis alba)
Land. Vers. Sta. 33, 411-415.

WALLER, E. and MARTIN, E. W., 1884. An examination of mustards manufactured,
and sold in New York City. Analyst, 9, 166-170.

CAYENNE

STROHMER, F.,1884. Die chemische Zusammensetzung and Prttfung des Paprikas
VorlJiufiger Mith. Chem. Centbl. [3], 15,577-580.

GINGER.

JONES, E. W. T., 1886, April. The amount of starch in ground ginger. Analyst, 11,

75-77.
TRESH, 1883, May. (Die Bestandtheile des Ingwers.) Note, Chem. Centbl. 13,539,

aus Pharm. J. and Trans. [3], 61O, 721. Arch. Pharm. [3], 2O, 372.
YOUNG, W. C., 1884. Some analyses of ginger. Analyst, 9, 214-215.

CINNAMON AND CASSIA.

HEHNER, O., 1879. On the mineral constituents of cinnamon and cassia. Analyst

4,225-228.
HILGER, A., 1836. Aschegehalt von Ceylon Zimmt. Arch. d. Pharm. 223, 826. Abs.

Zeit. anal. Chem., 25, 592.
LOTZE, 1886. Sur 1'essence de cannelle de Chine. J. Pharm. et de Chimie [5], 14, 419-

423.

APPENDIX B.

SOME OF THE LAWS RELATING TO ADULTERATION OF SPICES AND

CONDIMENTS,

The following laws are the most valuable and important which have been recently
enacted, and are of such character as to make their enforcement possible. There are
a few other States having laws which are practically dead letters.

gome portions not relating to the subject of this part of the Bulletin are omitted,*

LEGISLATION,

The New York State general law, of 1881, for the prevention of the adulteration of
food and drugs is as follows :

SECTION 1. No person shall, within this State, manufacture, have, offer for sale, or
sell any article of food or drugs which is adulterated within the meaning of this act,
and any person violating this provision shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor?
and upon conviction thereof shall be punished by fine not exceeding fifty dollars for
the first offense, and not exceeding one hundred dollars for each subsequent offense.

2. The term "food," as used in this act, shall include every article used for food or
drink by man. The term l( drug," as used in this act, shall include all medicines for
internal and external use.

3. An article shall be deemed to be adulterated within the meaning of this act :
a. In the case of drugs.

(1) If, when sold under or by a name recognized in the United States Phar-

macopo3ia, it differs from the standard of strength, quality, or purity laid
down therein,

(2) If, when sold under or by a name not recognized, in the United States

Pharmacopoeia, but which is found in some other pharmacopoeia or
other standard work on materia medica, it differs materially from the
standard of strength, quality, or purity laid down in such work.

(3) If its strength or purity fall below the professed standard under which

it is sold.
&. In the case of food or drink.

(1) If any substance or substances has or have been mixed with itao as to re-

duce or lower or injuriously affect its quality or strength.

(2) If any inferior or cheaper substance or substances have been substituted

wholly or in part for the article.

(3) If any valuable constituen t of the article has been wholly or in part ab-

stracted.

(4) If it be an imitation of, or be so Id under the name of, another article.

(5) If it consists wholly or in part of a diseased or decomposed, or putrid or

rotten, animal or vegetable substance, whether manufactured or not,
or, in te case of milk, if it is the produce of a diseased animal.

* I am indebted to the secretaries of the various States and Dr, Battershall for the

material here collected,

239

240 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

(6) If it be colored, or coated, or polished, or powdered, whereby damage is

concealed, or it is made to appear better than it really is, or of greater
value.

(7) If it contain any added poisonous ingredient, or any ingredient which

may render such article injurious to the health of the person consum-
ing it : Provided, That the State board of health may, with the ap-
proval of the governor, from time to time declare certain articles or
preparations to be exempt from the provisions of this act: And pro-
vided further, That the provisions of this act shall not apply to mix-
tures or compounds recognized as ordinary articles of food, provided
that the same are not injurious to health and that the articles are dis-
tinctly labeled as a mixture, stating the components of the mixture.

4. It shall be the duty of the State board of health to prepare and publish from
time to time lists of the articles, mixtures, or compounds declared to be exempt from
the provisions of this act in accordance with the preceding section. The State board
of health shall also from time to time fix the limits of variability permissible in any
article of food or drug or compound, the standard of which is not established by any
national pharmacopoeia.

5. The State board of health shall take cognizance of the interests of the public
health as it relates to the sale of food and drugs and the adulteration of the same,
and make all necessary investigations and inquiries relating thereto. It shall also
have the supervision of the appointment of public analysts and chemists, and upon
its recommendation whenever it shall deem any such officers incompetent the ap-
pointment of any and every such officer shall be revoked and be held to be void and
of no effect. Within thirty days after the passage of this act the State board of
health shall meet and adopt such measures as may seem necessary to facilitate the
enforcement of this act, and prepare rules and regulations with regard to the proper
methods of collecting and examining articles of food or drugs, and for the appoint-
ment of the necessary inspectors and analysts ; and the State board of health shall
be authorized to expend, in addition to all sums already appropriated for said board,
an amount not exceeding ten thousand dollars for the purpose of carrying out the
provisions of this act. And the sum of ten thousand dollars is hereby appropriated,
out of any moneys in the treasury not otherwise appropriated, for the purposes in
this section provided.

6. Every person selling or offering or exposing any article of food or drugs for sale,
or delivering any article to purchasers, shall be bound to serve or supply any public
analyst or other agent of the State or local board of health appointed under this act,
who shall apply to him for that purpose, and on his tendering the value of the same,
with a sample sufficient for the purpose of analysis of any article which is included
in this act, and which is in the possession of the person selling, under a penalty not
exceeding $50 for a first offense and $100 for a second and subsequent offense.

7. Any violation of the provisions of this act shall be treated and punished as a mis-
demeanor; and whoever shall impede, obstruct, hinder, or otherwise prevent any
analyst, inspector, or prosecuting officer in the performance of his duty shall be
guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be liable to indictment and punishment therefor.

8. Any acts or parts of acts inconsistent with the provisions of this act are hereby
repealed.

9. All the regulations and declarations of the State board of health made under
this act from time to time, and promulgated, shall be printed in the statutes at
large.

10. This act shall take effect at the expiration of ninety days after it shall become
a law.

Amendment of April 29, 1885.

SECTION 1. The title of chapter 407 of the laws of 1881, entitled "An act to prevent
the adulteration of food and drugs," is hereby amended to read a.s follqws: "An a.ctj

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS, 241

to prevent the adulteration of food, drugs, and spirituous, fermented, or inalt liquors
in the State of New York."

***####

3. Section 2 is hereby amended to read as follows :

tl 2. The term food as used in this act shall include every article of food or drink by
man, including teas, coffees, and spirituous, fermented, and malt liquors. The term
drug as used in this act shall include all medicines for internal or external use."
* * * * * * #

5. Section 5 is hereby amended to read as follows :

"5. The State board of health shall take cognizance of the interests of the public
health as relates to the sale of food, drugs, spirituous, fermented, and malt liquors,
and the adulteration thereof, and make all necessary inquiries relating thereto. It
shall have the supervision of the appointment of public analysts and chemists, and
upon its recommendation, whenever it shall deem any such officers incompetent, the
appointment of any and every such officer shall be revoked and be held to be void and
of no effect. Within thirty days after the passage of this act, and from time to time
thereafter as it may deem expedient, the said board of health shall meet and adopt such
measures, not provided for by this act, as may seem necessary to facilitate the en-
forcement of this act, and for the purpose of making an examination or analysis of
spirituous, fermented, or malt liquors sold or exposed for sale in any store or place of
business not herein otherwise provided for, and prepare rules and regulations with
regard to the proper methods of collecting and examining articles of food, drugs,
spirituous, fermented, or malt liquors, and for the appointment of the necessary in-
spectors and analysts. The said board shall at least once in the calendar year cause
samples to be procured, in public market or otherwise, of the spirituous, fermented, or
malt liquors distilled, brewed, manufactured, or offered for sale in each and every
brewery or distillery located in this State, and a test, sample, or analysis thereof to bo
made by a chemist or analyist duly appointed by said board of health. The samples
shall be kept in vessels and in a condition necessary and adequate to obtain a proper
test and analysis of the liquors contained therein. The vessels containing such sam-
ples shall be properly labeled and numbered by the secretary of said board of health,
who shall also prepare and keep an accurate and proper list of the names of the dis-
tillers, brewers, or vendors, and opposite each name shall appear the number which
is written or printed upon the label attached to the vessel containing the sample of
the liquor manufactured, brewed, distilled, or sold. Such lists, numbers, and labels
shall be exclusively for the information of the said board of health, and shall not be
disclosed or published unless upon discovery of some deleterious substance prior to
the completion of the analysis, except when required in evidence in a court of justice.
The samples when listed and numbered shall be delivered to the chemist, analyst, or
other officer of said board of health, and shall be designated and known to such chemist,
analyst, or officer only by its number, and by no other mark or designation. The re-
sult of the analysis or investigation shall thereupon, and within a convenient time,
be reported by the officer conducting the same to the secretary of said State board of
health, setting forth explicitly the nature of any deleterious substance, compound, or
adulteration which may be detrimental to public health and which has been found
upon analysis in such samples, and stating the number of the samples in which said
substance was found. Upon such examination or analysis the brewer, distiller, or
vendor in whose sample of spirituous, fermented, or malt liquor such deleterious sub-
stances, compounds, or adulterations shall be found, shall be deemed to have violated
the provisions of this act, and shall be punishable as prescribed in section 7 of this

act."

*******

7. Section 7 of said chapter 407 of the laws of 1881 is hereby amended to read as
follows :

" 7. Upon discovering that any person has violated any of the provisions of this act,
the State board of health shall immediately communicate the facts to the district at-

22823 Bull, 13, pt. 2 3

242 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

torney of the county in which the person accused of such violation resides or carries
on husiness, and the said district attorney, upon receiving such communication or
notification, shall forthwith commence proceeding for indictment and trial of the ac-
cused as prescrihed by law in cases of misdemeanor."

8. The State board of health shall be authorized to expend, in addition to the sums
already appropriated for said board, an amount not exceeding $3,000, for the purpose
of carrying out the provisions of this act, in relation to spirituous, fermented, or malt
liquors. And the sum of $3,000 is hereby appropriated out of any moneys in the treas-
ury not otherwise appropriated and expended for the purposes of this act.

9. This act shall take effect immediately.

The New Jersey general law is the same as that of New York.
Following are the rules of the New Jersey board of health for its inspectors and
analysts :

DUTIES OF INSPECTORS.

1. The inspector is to buy samples of food or drugs, and to seal each sample in the
presence of a witness.

2. The inspector must affix to each sample a label bearing a number, his initialsj
and the date of purchase.

3. Under no circumstance is the inspector to inform the analyst as to the source of
the sample before the analysis shall have been completed and formally reported to
the president or secretary of the state board of health.

4. Inspectors are to keep a record of each sample as follows :

(1) Number of sample.

(2) Date and time of purchase.

(3) Name of witness to sealing.

(4) Name and address of seller.

(5) Name and address of producer, manufacturer, or wholesaler, when known,

with marks on original package.

(6) Name of analyst and date of sending.

(7) How sent to analyst.

5. If the seller desires a portion of the sample, the inspector is to deliver it under
seal. The duplicate sample left with seller should have 'a label containing the same
marks as are affixed to the portion taken by the inspector.

6. The inspector is to deliver the sample to the analyst, taking his receipt for the
same, or ho may send it by registered mail, express, or special messenger.

DUTIES OF THE ANALYSTS.

1. The analyst is to analyze the samples immediately upon receipt thereof.

2. Samples, with the exception of milk and similar perishable articles, are to be di-
vided by the analyst and a portion sealed up, and a copy of the original label affixed.
These duplicates are to be sent to the secretary of the state board of health at the
end of each month, and to be retained by him until demanded for another analysis,
as provided for in section 3 of these rules.

3. Should the result obtained by any analyst be disputed in any case, an appeal may
be made to the State board of health, through its secretary, by the defendant or per-
son selling the sample, or his attorney, and said secretary shall then require another
member of the committee of public analysts to repeat the analysis, using the dupli-
cate sample for such purpose. But when an appeal shall be made, a sum of money
sufficient to cover the expenses of the second analysis shall be deposited with the
president of the state board of health, which sum shall be paid over to the analyst
designated by the president and secretary of the board to perform the second analy-
sis, in case the analysis shall be found to agree with the first in all essential particu-
lars.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 243

4. In the case of all articles having a standard of purity fixed by any of the laws
of the State, the certificate of the analyst should show the relation of the article in
question to that standard.

5. Where standards of strength, purity, or quality are not fixed by law, the com-
mittee of analysts shall present to the State board of health such standard as in
their judgment should be fixed.

6. Each analyst should keep a record book, in which should be entered notes, as
follows :

(1) From whom the sample is received.

(2) Date, time, and manner in which the sample was received.

(3) Marks on package, sealed or not.

(4) Results of analysis in detail.

This record should be produced at each meeting of the committee.

7. At the completion of the analysis a certificate in the form given below should be
forwarded to the person from whom the sample was received, and a duplicate copy
sent to the State board of health.

CERTIFICATE.

To ivhom it may concern :

I t , a member of the committee of public analysts, appointed by the State

board of health of Now Jersey under provisions of an act entitled "An. act to prevent
the adulteration of food and drugs," approved March 25, 1881, do hereby certify

that I received from , on the day of , 188-, a sample of , sealed

as required by the rules of said board, and bearing the following words, to wit:

I carefully mixed said samples and have analyzed the same, and hereby certify and
declare the results of my analyses to be as follows: .

[Signature.] .

EXCEPTIONS.

The following exceptions are adopted :

Mustard. Compounds of mustard with rice flour, starch, or flour may be sold if
each package is marked " Compound Mustard," and if not more than 25 per cent, of
such substance is added to the mustard.

Coffee. Compounds of coffee with chicory, rye, wheat, or other cereals, may be
sold if the package is marked " A Mixture," and if the label states the per cent, of
coffee contained in said mixture.

Oleomargarine and other imitation dairy products may be sold if each package is
marked with the name of the substance, and in all respects fulfils the terms of the
special law as to these.

Sirvys. When mixed with glucose, sirup may bo sold if the package is marked
"A Mixture."

The following are the statutes of the State of Massachusetts relating
to the adulteration of food and drugs :

GENERAL LAWS RELATING TO ADULTERATION.
FOOD AND DRUGS.

SECTION 1. No person shall, within this Commonwealth, manufacture for sale, offer
>r sale, or sell any drug or article of food which is adulterated within the meaning
)f this act.

2. The term " drug" as used in this act shall include all medicines for internal or
:ternal use, an tiseptics, disinfectants, and cosmetics. The term " food " as used herein

ill include all articles used for food or drink by man.

3. An article shall be deemed to be adulterated within the meaning of this act
(a) In the case of drugs. (I) If, when sold under or by a name recognized in the

Tnited States Pharmacopoeia, it (lifters from the standard of strength, quality, or

244 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

purity laid down therein, unless the order calls for an article inferior to such stand-
ard, or unless such difference is made known or so appears to the purchaser at the
time of such sale ; (2) if, when sold under or by a name not recognized in the United
States Pharmacopoeia, but which is found in some other pharmacopoeia, or other
standard work on materia medica, it differs materially from the standard of strength,
quality, or purity laid down in such work ; (3) if its strength or purity falls below
the professed standard under which it is sold.

(&) In the case of food. (1) If any substance or substances have been mixed with it
so as to reduce, or lower, or injuriously affect its quality or strength ; (2) if any in-
ferior or cheaper substance or substances have been substituted wholly or in part for
it; (3) if any valuable constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted from it ; (4)
if it is an imitation of or is sold under the name of another article ; (5) if it consists
wholly or in part of a diseased, decomposed, putrid, or rotten animal or vegetable
substance, whether manufactured or not, or in the case of milk, if it is the produce of
a diseased animal; (6) if it is colored, coated, polished, or powdered, whereby dam-
age is concealed, or if it is made to appear better or of greater value than it really is;
(7) if it contains any added or poisonous ingredient, or any ingredient which may
render it injurious to the health of a person consuming it.

4. The provisions t>f this act shall not apply to mixtures or compounds recognized
as ordinary articles of food or drinks, provided that the same are not injurious to
health and are distinctly labeled as mixtures or compounds. And no prosecutions
shall at any time be maintained under the said act concerning any drug the standard
of strength or purity whereof has been raised since the issue of the last edition of the
United States Pharmacopoeia, unless and until such change of standard has been
published throughout the Commonwealth.

5. The State board of health, lunacy, and charity shall take cognizance of the in-
terests of the public health relating to the sale of drugs and food and the adulteration
of the same, and shall make all necessary investigations and inquiries in reference
thereto, and for these purposes may appoint inspectors, analysts, and chemists, who
shall be subject to its supervision and removal.

Within thirty days after the passage of this act the said board shall adopt such
measures as it may deem necessary to facilitate the enforcement hereof, and shall
prepare rules and regulations with regard to the proper methods of collecting and
examining drugs and articles of food. Said board may expend annually an amount
not exceeding ten thousand dollars for the purpose of carrying out the provisions of
this act : Provided, however. That not less than three-fifths of the said amount shall be
annually expended for the enforcement of the laws against the adulteration of milk
and milk products.

6. Every person offering or exposing for sale, or delivering to a purchaser, any
drug or article of food included in the provisions of this act, shall furnish to any
analyst or other officer or agent appointed hereuuder, who shall apply to him for the
purpose and shall tender him the value of the same, a sample sufficient for the pur-
pose of the analysis of any such drug or article of food which is in his possession.

7. Whoever hinders, obstructs, or in any way interferes with any inspector, analyst,
or other officer appointed hereunder, in the performance of his duty, and whoever
violates any of the provisions of this act, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding
fifty dollars for the first offense, and not exceeding one hundred dollars for each sub-
sequent offense.

8. The State board of health, lunacy, and charity shall report annually to the
legislature the number of prosecutions made under said chapter, and an itemized
account of all money expended in carrying out the provisions thereof.

9. An inspector appointed under the provisions of said chapter two hundred and
sixty-three of the acts of the year eighteen hundred and eighty-two shall have the
same powers and authority conferred upon a city or town inspector by section two
of chapter fifty-seven of the public statutes..

SPICKS AND CONDIMENTS. 245

10. Nothing contained in chapter two hundred and sixty-thrse of the acts of the
year eighteen hundred and eighty-two shall be in any way construed as repealing or
amending anything contained in chapter fifty-seven of the public statutes.

11. Before commencing the analysis of any sample, the person making the same
shall reserve a portion which shall be sealed ; and in case of a complaint against any
person the reserved portion of the sample alleged to be adulterated shall upon appli-
cation be delivered to the defendant or his attorney.

12. Whoever knowingly sells any kind of diseased, corrupted, or unwholesome pro
visions, whether for meat or drink, without making the same fully known to the
buyer, shall be punished by imprisonment in the jail not exceeding six months, or by
fine not exceeding two hundred dollars.

13. Whoever fraudulently adulterates, for the purpose of sale, bread or any other
substance intended for food, with any substance injurious to health, or knowingly
barters, gives away, sells, or has in possession with intent to sell, any substance in-
tended for food, which has been adulterated with any substance injurious to health,
shall be punished by imprisonment in the jail not exceeding one year, or by fine not
exceeding three hundred dollars ; and the articles so adulterated shall be forfeited
and destroyed under the direction of the court.

14. Whoever adulterates, for the purpose of sale, any liquors used or intended for
drink, with Indian cockle, vitriol, grains of paradise, opium, alum, capsicum, cop-
peras, laurel-water, logwood, Brazil wood, cochineal, sugar of lead, or any other sub-
stance which is poisonous or injurious to health, and whoever knowingly sells any
such liquor so adulterated, shall be punished by imprisonment in the State prison
not exceeding three years ; and the articles so adulterated shall be forfeited.

15. Whoever fraudulently adulterates, for the purpose of sale, any drug or medi-
cine, or sells any fraudulently adulterated drug or medicine, knowing the same to be
adulterated, shall be punished by imprisonment in the jail not exceeding one year or
by fine not exceeding four hundred dollars; and such adulterated drugs and medi-
cines shall be forfeited and destroyed under the direction of the court.

16. Whoever sells arsenic, strychnine, corrosive sublimate, or prussic acid, without
the written prescription of a physician, shall keep a record of the date of such sale,
the name of the article, the amount thereof sold, and the name of the person or per-
sons to whom delivered; and for each neglect shall forfeit a sum not exceeding fifty
dollars. Whoever purchases deadly poisons as aforesaid, and gives a false or fictitious
name to the vendor, shall be punished by fine not exceeding fifty dollars.

CHAP. 171. AN ACT concerning the adulteration of food and drugs.

Be it enacted, etc., as follows :

Section two of chapter two hundred and sixty-three of the acts of the year eight-
een hundred and eighty-two is hereby amended so as to read as follows : The term
"drug " as used in this act shall include all medicines for internal or external use, an-
tiseptics, disinfectants, and cosmetics. The term " food "as used herein shall in-
clude confectionery, condiments, and all articles used for food or drink by man.
Approved April 29, 1886.

RULES AND REGULATIONS OF THE STATE BOARD OF HEALTH, LUNACY, AND CHARITY
OF MASSACHUSETTS RELATIVE TO THE INSPECTION AND ANALYSIS OF FOOD AND
DRUGS.

1. The state board of health, lunacy, and charity shall appoint analysts and in-
spectors, as provided in section 5 of chapter 263, acts of 1882.

2. It shall be the duty of the inspectors to procure samples of drugs and articles of
food at such times and places as the health officer shall direct, in the manner provided
in section 6 of chapter 263 of the acts of 1882, and in section 3 of chapter 289 of the
acts of 1884, and in all acts amendatory of said provisions.

FOODS AND FOOD ADULTE&ANT*.

3. Under the direction of the health officer, one of the inspectors shall, for the
identification of samples, affix a number to each sample of food or drugs obtained by
him, beginning with number one, and taking every alternate or odd number there-
after, without limit; and the other inspector shall use and affix each alternate or
even number, beginning with number two, and following such form of numbering,
without limit, also, as far as may be directed. Under 110 circumstances shall an in-
spector convey any information to an analyst as to the source from which any sample
was obtained.

4. The inspectors shall keep records of each sample, each record to include the
following items :

(a) The inspector's number.

(6) The date of purchase or receipt of sample,

(d) The name of the vender.

(<;) The name of the city or town and street and number where the sample is ob-
tained, and in the case of a licensed milk peddler, the number of his license.

(/) As far as possible, the names of manufacturers, producers, or wholesalers, with
marks, brands, or labels stamped or printed upon goods.

5. It shall be the duty of the analysts so appointed to determine, under the direc-
tion of the health officer, by proper examination and analysis, whether articles of
food and drugs, manufactured for sale, offered for sale, or sold within this Common-
wealth, are adulterated within the meaning of chapter 263 of the acts and resolves
passed by the general court of Massachusetts in 1882, and all acts amendatory thereof,
adulteration being defined as follows, viz :

In the case of drugs, (1) If sold under or by a name recognized in the United States
Pharmacopoeia, it differs from the standard of strength, quality, or purity laid down
therein, unless the order calls for an article inferior to such standard, or unless such
difference is made known or so appears to the purchaser at the time of such sale. (2)
If, when sold under or by a name not recognized in the United States Pharmacpceiia,
but which is found in some other pharmacopoaia or standard work on materia medica,
it differs materially from the standard of strength, quality, or purity laid down in
such work. (3) If its strength or purity falls below the professed standard under
which it is sold.

In the case of food, (1) If any substance or substances have been mixed with it, so
as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality or strength. (2) If any inferior
or cheaper substance or substances have boon substituted, wholly or in part, for it.
(3) If any valuable constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted from it. (4)
If it is an imitation of or is sold under the name of another article. (5) If it con-
sists wholly or in part of a diseased, decomposed, putrid, or rotten animal or. vegeta-
ble substance, whether manufactured or not, or in the case of milk, if it is the prod-
uce of a diseased animal. (6) If it is colored, coated, polished, or powdered, where-
by damage is concealed, or if it is made to appear of better or of greater value than it
really is. (7) If it contains any added poisonous ingredient, or any ingredient which
may render it injurious to the health of the person consuming it.

6. It shall also be the duty of the analysts to receive such specimens of food and
drugs for analysis as may be delivered to them by the health officer, or by the inspect-
ors, and to examine the same. To avoid, as far as possible, all suggestion or danger
of specimens having been tampered with, each analyst shall keep each specimen in
his possession in a suitable and secure place, labeled in such a manner as to prevent
any person from having access to the same, without the knowledge and presence of
the analyst.

Analyses of perishable articles should bo made promptly after they are received.

7. An analyst shall give no information, under any circumstances, regarding the
result of any analysis to any person except to the health officer of the board?* prior to
any trial in court in reference to such analysis.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 247

Tho analysts shall carefully avoid any error regarding the inspector's number at-
tached to each sample, and shall report the results of their work in detail to the health
officer.

In the case of all articles having a numerical standard provided by statute, the re-
sult of the analysis should show their relation to such standard.

8. Before beginning the analysis of any sample, the analyst shall reserve a portion
which shall be-sealed, and in the event of finding the portion analyzed to be adulter-
ated, ho shall preserve the sealed portion, so that in case of a complaint against any
person the last-named portion may, on application, be delivered by the health officer
to the defendant or to his attorney.

9. Each analyst shall present to the health officer on the Thursday before the first
Saturday of each month, a summary of the analyses made by him during the previous
month.

Each analyst shall also present, on or before the first of January of each year, an
annual report of the work done for the year ending on the 30th of September pre-
ceding.

10. The health officer shall have charge of the reports of analyses, and shall cause
cases founded on such reports to be submitted to the courts for prosecution.

In each case of a retailer, and of every dealer not a manufacturer or producer, he
may, if the party has not been previously complained of in court, issue a notice or
warning of any violation of the law relative to the adulteration of food and drugs,
and of the offender's liability to prosecution on a repetition of the sale.

11. Should the result obtained by any analyst be questioned in any given case, an-
other analyst shall repeat the analysis, unless otherwise instructed by the board, pro-
vided a sufficient sum to meet the expense of the analysis bo deposited with the
health officer by any interested party feeling aggrieved, which sum will not be re-
turned unless the second analysis fails to confirm the first in essential particulars.

12. Any appeal from the decision of an analyst shall be filed with the health offi-
cer, who shall report it, and any matter in controversy, to the board, giving his judg-
ment thereon, and the board shall supervise and control the action of its officers, in
executing the law.

13. Where standards of strength, quality, or purity are not fixed by the act, the
analysts shall present to the health officer such standard as in their judgment should
bo fixed, and the health officer shall report the same to the board for its action. The
standards set by the British Society of Public Analysts will bo followed as nearly as
practicable, until otherwise ordered.

14. Whenever a drug or preparation not described in a National Pharmacopeia or
)ther standard work on materia modica, shall bo manufactured, offered for sale, or
used in this State, the standard of such drug, and the standard and proportion of the
ingredients of such preparation, and the range of variability from such standard or
standards shall bo ascertained by the analysts, who shall report the same through
the health officer to the board.

15. Tho analysts shall occupy such time in the performance of their respective
duties as a reasonable compliance with the terms of the statute shall require, and
shall bo present one hour of each day at such time of the day and at such place as
shall bo designated by the committee on health of the board, to meet the conven-
ience of interested parties and the public.

16. The compensation of the analyst of articles of food shall be at the rate of
$1,500 per annum, and that of the analyst of drugs shall be at the rate of $1,000.

That of the analyst of milk for the ten eastern counties of the Commonwealth
shall bo at the rate of $830 per annum, and that of the analyst of the four western
counties shall bo at the rate of $500 per annum.

The compensation of each inspector shall be at the rate of $1,000 per annum.

'248 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

The laws of Michigan are as follows :

ADULTERATION OF FOODS, DRINKS, DRUGS, OR MEDICINES,

208. (7727.) SEC. 2. If any person shall fraudulently adulterate, for the purpose
of sale, any substance intended for food, or any wine, spirits, malt liquor, or other
liquor intended for drinking, he shall be punished by imprisonment in the county
jail not more than one year, or by fine not exceeding three hundred dollars, and the
article so adulterated shall be forfeited and destroyed. $9317.

209. (7728.) SEC. 3. If any person shall fraudulently adulterate, for the purpose
of sale, any drug or medicine, in such manner as to render the same injurious to
health, he shall be punished by imprisonment in the county jail not more than one
year, or by fine not exceeding four hundred dollars, and such adulterated drugs and
medicines shall be forfeited and destroyed. $9318.

ADULTERATION OF FOODS, DRINKS, AND MEDICINES, AND SALE THEREOF WHEN

ADULTERATED.

Act No. 254, laws of 3881, entitled "An Act to prevent and punish the adulteration of articles of
food, drink, and medicine, and the sale thereof when adulterated/'

210. SECTION 1. The People of the State of Michigan enact, That no person shall
mix, color, stain, or powder, or order or permit any other person to mix, color, stain,
or powder any article of food with any ingredient or material so as to render the ar-
ticle injurious to health, with the intent that the same may be sold ; and no person
shall knowingly sell or offer for sale any such article so mixed, colored, stained, or
powdered. 9324.

211. SEC. 2. No person shall, except for the purpose of compounding in the nec-
essary preparation of medicine, mix, color, stain, or powder, or order or permit any
other person to mix, color, stain, or powder, any drug or medicine with any in-
gredient or ingredients or materials so as to affect injuriously the quality or potency
of such drug or medicine, with intent to sell the same, or shall sell or offer for sale
any such drug or medicine so mixed, colored, stained, or powdered. $9325.

212. SEC. 3. No person shall mix, color, stain, or powder any article of food,
drink, or medicine, or any article which enters into the composition of food, drink,
or medicine, with any other ingredient or material, whether injurious to health or
not, for the purpose of gain or profit, or sell or offer the same for sale, or order or
permit any other person to sell or offer for sale any article so mixed, colored, stained,
and powdered, unless the same be so manufactured, used, or sold, or offered for sale
under its true and appropriate name, and notice that the same is mixed or impure is
marked, printed, or stamped upon each package, roll, parcel, or vessel containing the
same, so as to be and remain at all times readily visible, or unless the person pur-
chasing the same is fully informed by the seller of the true name and ingredients (if
other than such as are known by the common name thereof) of such article of food,
drink, or medicine at the time of making sale thereof or offering to sell the same.
$9326.

213. SEC. 4. No person shall mix any glucose or grape sugar with syrup, honey,
or sugar, intended for human food, or any oleomargarine, suine, beef fat, lard, or any
other foreign substance, with any butter or cheese intended for human food, or shall
mix or mingle any glucose or grape sugar or oleomargarine with any article of food,
without distinctly marking, stamping, or labeling the article, or the package contain,
ing the same, with the true and appropriate name of such article, and the percentage
in which glucose or grape sugar, oleomargarine, or suine, enter into its composition;
nor shall any person sell, or offer for sale, or order or permit to be sold, or offered for
sale, any such food into the composition of which glucose, or grape sugar, or oleo-
margarine, or suine lias entered, without at the same time informing the buyer of the
fact, and the proportions in which such glucose or grape sugar, oleomargarine, or
suine has entered into its composition. $9327.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 249

214. SEC. 5. Any person convicted of violating any provision of any of the forego
ing sections of this act shall be fined not more than fifty dollars or imprisoned in the
county jail not exceeding three months. $9328.

215. SEC. 6. It is hereby made the duty of the prosecuting attorneys of this State to
appear for the people and to attend to the prosecution of all complaints under this
act in all the courts in their respective counties. $9329.

216. SEC. 7. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with the provisions of this act
are hereby repealed. 9330.

The Canadian law is as follows, in addition to which there is an elaborate act re-
specting the inspection of staple articles of Canadian produce:

CHAPTEU 107. An Act respecting the adulteration of food, drugs, and agricultural fertilizers.

Her Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate and House of Com-
mons of Canada, enacts as follows :

SHORT TITLE.

1. This act may be cited as " The adulteration act." 48-49 V., c. 67, s. 1.

INTERPRETATION.

2. In this act, unless the context otherwise requires

(a) The expression u food " includes every article used for food or drink by man or
by cattle.

(ft) The expression " drug " includes all medicines for internal or external use for
man or for cattle.

(c) The expression " agricultural fertilizer" means and includes every substance
imported, manufactured, prepared, or disposed of for fertilizing or manuring pur-
poses which is sold at more than ten dollars per ton and which contains phosphoric
acid or ammonia or its equivalent of nitrogen.

(d) The expression " officer " means any officer of inland revenue or any person au-
thorized under this act or " Ihe fertilizers act" to procure samples of articles of food,
drugs, or agricultural fertilizers and to submit them for analysis.

(e) Food shall be deemed to be "adulterated" within the meaning of this act

(1) If any substance has been mixed with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously
affect its quality or strength.

(2) If any inferior or cheaper substance has been substituted, wholly or in part, for
the article.

(3) If any valuable constituent of the article has been wholly or in part ab-
stracted.

(4) If it is an imitation of, or is sold under the name of, another article.

(5) If it consists wholly or in part of a diseased or decomposed or putrid or rotten
animal or vegetable substance, whether manufactured or not, or, in the case of milk
or butter, if it is the produce of a diseased animal or of an animal fed upon unwhole-
some food.

(6) If it contains any added poisonous ingredient or any ingredient which may
render such an article injurious to the health of a person consuming it.

(/) Every drug shall be deemed to be " adulterated" within the meaning of this
act

Cl) If, when sold or offered or exposed for sale under or by a name recognized in
the British or United States pharmacopoeia, it differs from the standard of strength,
quality, or purity laid down therein.

(2) If, when sold or offered or exposed for sale under or by a name not recognized
in the British or United States pharmacopoeia, but which is found in some other gen-
erally recognized pharmacopoeia or other standard work on materia medica, it differs
from the standard of strength, quality, or purity laid down in such work.

250 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

(3) If its strength or purity falls below the professed standard under which it is
sold or offered or exposed for sale.

(g) Provided, that the foregoing definitions as to the adulteration of food and drugs
shall not apply

(1) If any matter or ingredient not injurious to health has been added to the food
or drug because the same is required for the production or preparation thereof as an
article of commerce, in a state fit for carriage or consumption, and not fraudulently
to increase the bulk, weight, or measure of the food or drug or to conceal the inferior
quality thereof, if such articles are distinctly labeled as a mixture, in conspicuous
characters, forming an inseparable part of the general label, which shall also bear
the name and address of the manufacturer.

(2) If the food or drug is a proprietary medicine, or is the subject of a patent in
force, and is supplied in the state required by the specification of the patent.

(3) If the food or drug is unavoidably mixed with some extraneous matter in the
process of collection or preparation.

(4) If any articles of food not injurious to the health of the person consuming the
same are mixed together and sold or offered for sale as a compound, and if such ar-
ticles are distinctly labeled as a mixture, in conspicuous characters, forming an in-
separable part of the general label, which shall also bear the name and address of
the manufacturer.

(ft) Every agricultural fertilizer shall be deemed to be " adulterated" within the
meaning of this act if, when sold, offered, or exposed for sale, the chemical analysis
thereof shows a deficiency of more than one per cent, of any of the chemical sub-
stances, the percentages whereof are required to be specified in the certificate, by
" the fertilisers act" required to be affixed to each barrel, box, sack, or package con-
taining the same, or (if the agricultural fertilizer is in bulk) to be produced to the in-
spector ; or if it contains less than the minimum percentage of such substances re-
quired by the said act to be contained in such fertilizer, 48-49 V., c. 67, s. 2.

ANALYSIS.

3. The governor in council may appoint one or more persons possessing competent
medical, chemical, and microscopical knowledge as analysts of food, drugs, and agri-
cultural fertilizers purchased, sold, or exposed or offered for sale within such terri-
torial limits as are assigned to each of them respectively, and may also select from
among the aforesaid analysts so appointed, or may appoint, in addition thereto, a
chief analyst, who shall be attached to the staff of the department of inland revenue
at Ottawa.

(2) No analyst shall be appointed until he has undergone an examination before a
special examining board appointed by the governor in council, and until he has ob-
tained from such board a certificate setting forth that he is duly qualified to perform
the duties attached to the office of analyst. 48-49 V., c. 67, s. 3; 49 V., c. 41, s. 1.

4. The governor in council may cause such remuneration to be paid to such chief
analyst and to such analysts as hie deems proper, and such remuneration, whether by
fees, or salary, or partly in one way, and partly in the other, may be paid to them out
of any sums voted by Parliament for the purposes of this act. 48-49 V., c. 67, s. 4.

5. The officers of inland revenue, the inspectors and deputy inspectors of weights
and measures, and the inspectors and deputy inspectors acting under " the general
inspection act," or any of them, shall, when required so to do by any regulation
made in that behalf by the minister of inland revenue, procure and submit samples
of food, drugs, or agricultural fertilizers suspected to be adulterated, to be analyzed
by the analysts appointed under this act. 48-49 V., c. 67, s. 5,

G. The council of any city, town, county, or village may appoint one or more in-
spectors of food, drugs, and agricultural fertilizers; and such inspectors shall, for the
purposes of this act, have all the powers by this act vested in officers of inland rev-
enue ; and any such inspector may require any public analyst to analyze any sam-

SPICES AND COKDIMEOTS. 251

pies of food, drugs, or agricultural fertilizers collected by him, if sucli samples have
hoen collected in accordance with the requirements of this act.

(2) The said analyst shall, upon tender of the fees fixed for the analysis of such
class of articles by the governor in council, forthwith analyze the same, and give the
inspector a certificate of such analysis.

(3) Such inspector may prosecute any person manufacturing, selling, or offering or
exposing for sale within the city, county, town, or village for which he is appointed
inspector, any article of food, drug, or agricultural fertilizer which has been certified
by any public analyst to have been adulterated within the meaning of this act.

(4) Notwithstanding any other provision of this act in respect of the disposition of
penalties, all penalties imposed and recovered at the suit of any such inspector shall
be paid into the revenue of the city, county, town, or village by the council of which
such inspector was appointed, and may be distributed in such manner as the council
of such city, county, town, or village by by-law directs. 48-49 V., c. 67, s. 6.

7. Any officer may procure samples of food, drugs, or agricultural fertilizers which
have not been declared exempt from the provisions of this act, from any person who
has such articles in his possession for the purpose of sale, or who sells or exposes the
same for sale ; and he may procure such samples either by purchasing the same or
by requiring the person in whose possession they are to show him and allow him to
inspect all such articles in his possession, and the place or places in which such arti-
cles are stored, and to give him samples of such articles, on payment or tender of the
value of such samples. 48-49 V., c. 67, s. 7.

8. If the person who has such articles in his possession, or his agent or servant, re-
fuses or fails to admit the officer, or refuses or omits to show all or any of the said
articles in his possession, or the place in which any such articles are stored, or to
permit the officers to inspect the same, or to give any samples thereof, or to furnish
the officer with such light or assistance as ho requires, when required so to do in
pursuance of this act, he shall be liable to the same penalty as if he knowingly sold
or exposed for sale adulterated articles knowing them to bo adulterated. 48-49 V.,
c. 67, s. 8.

9. The officer purchasing any article with the intention of submitting the same to
be analyzed, shall, after the purchase has been completed, forthwith notify the seller
or^iis agent selling the article of his intention to have the same analyzed by the pub-
lic analyst, and shall, except in specific cases, respecting which provision is made by
the governor in council, divide the article into three parts to be then and there sepa-
rated, and each part to be marked and sealed up, as its nature permits and shall
deliver one of the parts to the seller or his agent, if required by him so to do.

(2) He shall transmit another of such parts to the minister of inland revenue for
submission to the chief anaylist in case of appeal, and shall submit the remaining
part to the analyst for the district within which the samples were taken, unless
otherwise directed by the minister of inland revenue. 48-49 V., c. 67, s. 9.

10. The person from whom any sample is obtained under this act may require the
officer obtaining it to annex to the vessel or package containing the part of the
sample Avhich he is hereby required to transmit to the minister of inland revenue the
name and address of such person, and to secure, with a seal or seals belonging to him,
the vessel or package containing such part of the sample, and the address annexed
thereto, in such manner that the vessel or package cannot be opened, or the name
and address taken off, without breaking such seals; and the certificate of the chief
analyst shall state the name and address of the person from whom the said sample
was obtained, that the vessel or package was not open, and that the seals, securing to
the vessel or package the name and address of such person, were not broken until
such time as ho opened the vessel or package for the purpose of making his analysis;
and in such case no certificate shall be receivable in evidence, unless there is con-
tained therein such statement as above, or a statement to the like effect. 48-49 V.,
c,C7,8,10.

252 POODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

11. When the officer has, by either of the means aforesaid, procured samples of the
articles to be analyzed, he shall cause the same to be analyzed by one of the analysts
appointed under this act, and if it appears to the analyst that the sample is adulte-
rated within the meaning of this a<;t, he shall certify such fact, stating in such cer-
tificate, in the case of an article of food or a drug, whether such adulteration is of a
nature injurious to the health of the person consuming the same; and the certificate
BO given shall be received as evidence in any proceedings taken against any person in
pursuance of this act, subject to the right of any person against whom proceedings
are taken to require the attendance of the analyst, for the purpose of cross-examina-
tion. 48-49 V., c. 67, s. 11.

12. If the vendor of the article respecting which such certificate is given deems
himself aggrieved thereby, he may, within forty-eight hours of the receipt of the first
notification of the intention of the officer or other purchaser to take proceedings
against him (whether such notification is given by the purchaser or by the ordinary
process of law), notify the said officer or purchaser in writing that he intends to ap-
peal from the decision of the analyst to the judgment of the chief analyst : and in
such case the officer or purchaser shall transmit such notification to the chief analyst,
and the chief analyst shall, with all convenient speed, analyze the part of the sample
transmitted to the minister of inland revenue for that purpose, and shall report there-
on to the said minister; and the decision of such chief analyst shall be final, and his
certificate thereof shall have the same effect as the certificate of the analyst in the
next preceding section mentioned. 48-49 V., c. 67, s. 12.

13. Every analyst appointed under this act shall report quarterly to the minister
of inland revenue the number of articles of food, drugs, and agricultural fertilizers
analyzed by him under this act during the preceding quarter, and shall specify the
nature and kind of adulterations detected in such articles of food, drugs, and agricult-
ural fertilizers; and all such reports, or a synopsis of them, and the names of the
vendors or persons from whom obtained, and of the manufacturers when known, shall
be printed and laid before Parliament as an appendix to the annual report of the
said minister. 48-49 V., c. 67., s. 13.

ADULTERATION,

14. No person shall manufacture, expose or offer for sale, or sell any food, drug, or
agricultural fertilizer which is adulterated within the meaning of this act. 48-49
V., c. 67, s. 14.

15. If milk is sold, or offered or exposed for sale, after aiy valuable constituent of
the article has been abstracted therefrom, or if water has been added thereto, or if it
is the product of a diseased animal fed upon unwholesome food, it shall be deemed
to have been adulterated in a manner injurious to health, and such sale, offer, or ex-
posure for sale shall render the vendor liable to the penalty hereinafter provided in
respect to the sale of adulterated food; except that skimmed milk may be sold as
such if contained in cans bearing upon their exterior, within twelve inches of the
tops of such vessels, the word ''skimmed" in letters of not less than two inches in
length, and served in measures also similarly marked ; but any person supplying
such skimmed milk, unless such quality of milk has been asked for by the purchaser,
shall not be entitled to plead the provisions of this section as a defense to or in ex-
tenuation of any violation of this act :

(2) Nothing in this section shall be interpreted to permit or warrant the admixtnre
of water with milk, or any other process than the removal of cream by skimming.
48-49 V., c. 67, s, 15.

16. Vinegar sold, or offered or exposed for sale, shall be deemed to be adulterated
in a manner injurious to health if any mineral acid has been added thereto, or if it
contains any soluble salt having copper or lead as a base thereof whether such min-
eral acid or salt is added either during the process of manufacture or subsequently.
48-49 V., c. 67, s. 16.

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS. 253

17. Alcoholic, fermented, or other potable liquors sold, or offered or exposed for sale,
shall be deemed to have been adulterated in a manner injurious to health if they are
found to contain any of the articles mentioned in the schedule of this act, or any
article hereafter added to such schedule by the governor in council. 48-49 V., c. 67,
6.17.

18. The governor in council may from time to time declare certain articles or prepa-
rations exempt in whole or in part from the provisions of this act, and may add to the
schedule to this act any article or ingredient the addition of which is by him deemed
necessary in the public interest ; and every order in council in that behalf shall be
published in the Canada Gazette, and shall take effect at the expiration of thirty days
from the date of such publication. (48-49 V., c. 67 s 18.)

19. The governor in council shall from time to time cause to be prepared and pub-
lished lists of the articles, mixtures, or compounds declared exempt from the provis-
ions of this act in accordance with the next preceding section, and shall also from
time to time fix the limits of variability permissible in any article of food or drug or
compound the standard of which is not established by any such pharmacopeia or
standard work as is hereinbefore mentioned ; and the orders in council fixing the same
shall be published in the Canada Gazette, and shall take effect at the expiration of
thirty days after the publication thereof. (48-49 V., c. C7, s. 19.)

20. Whenever any article of food, any drug, or any agricultural fertilizer is reported
by any analyst as being adulterated within the [meaning of this act, the minister of
inland revenue may, if be thinks fit, order such article, and all other articles of the
same kind and quality which were in the same place at the time the article analyzed
was obtained, to be seized by any officer of customs or inland revenue, and detained
by him until an analysis of samples of the whole is made by the chief analyst. (48,
49V., c. 67, s. 20.)

21. If the chief analyst reports to the minister of inland revenue that the whole or
any part of such articles are adulterated, the minister may declare such articles, or
so much thereof as the chief analyst reports as being adulterated, to be forfeited to
the Crown ; and such articles shall thereupon be disposed of as the minister directs.
(48-49 V., c. 67, s. 21.

PENALTIES.

22. Every person who willfully adulterates any article of food or any drug, or orders
any other person so to do, shall

(a) If such adulteration is within the meaning of this act deemed to be injurious
to health, for the first offense incur a penalty not exceeding fifty dollars and not less
than ten dollars and costs, and for each subsequent offense a penalty not exceeding
two hundred dollars and not less than fifty dollars and costs.

(b) If such adulteration is within the meaning of this act deemed not to be injuri-
ous to health, incur a penalty not exceeding thirty dollars and costs, and for each
subsequent offense a penalty not exceeding one hundred dollars and not less thanfifty
dollars and costs. (49-49 V., c. 67, s. 22.)

23. Every person who, by himself or his agent, sells, offers for sale, or exposes for
sale any article of food or any drug which is adulterated within the meaning of this
act shall

(a) If such adulteration is within the meaning of this act deemed to be injurious
to health, for a first offense incur a penalty not exceeding fifty dollars and costs, and
for each subsequent offense a penalty not exceeding two hundred dollars and not less
than fifty dollars and costs.

(6) If such adulteration is within the meaning of this act deemed not to be injuri-
ous to health, incur for each such offsense a penalty not exceeding fifty dollars and not
less than five dollars and costs.

(2) Provided, That if the person accused proves to the court before which the case
is tried that he did not know of the article being adulterated, and shows that he
could not, with reasonable diligence, have obtained that knowledge, he shall be sub-

254 FOODS AND FOOD ADULTERANTS.

ject only to the liability to forfeiture under the twenty-first section of this act. (48-
49V., c. 67,8.23.)

24. Every compounder or dealer in and every manufacturer of intoxicating liquors
who has in his possession or in any part of the premises occupied by him as such any
adulterated liquor, knowing it to be adulterated, or any deleterious ingredient speci-
fied in the schedule hereto, or added to such schedule by the governor in council, for
the possession of which he is unable to account to the satisfaction of the court before
which the case is tried, shall be deemed knowingly to have exposed for sale adulter-
ated food, and shall incur for the first olfense a penalty not exceeding one hundred
dollars, and for each subsequent offense a penalty not exceeding four hundred dollars.
(48-49 V., c. 67, s.24.)

25. Every person who knowingly attaches to any article of food or any drug any
label which falsely describes the article sold or offered or exposed for sale, shall incur
a penalty not exceeding one hundred dollars and not less than twenty dollars and
costs. (48-49 V., 0. 67, s. 25.)

26. Every penalty imposed and recovered under this act shall, except as herein other-
wise provided, and except in the case of any suit, action, or prosecution brought or in-
stituted under the provisions of the next following section, bo paid over to the minis-
ter of finance and receiver-general, and shall form part of the consolidated revenue
fund. (48-49 V., c. 67, s. 26.)

GENERAL PROVISIONS.

27. Nothing herein contained shall be held to preclude any person from submitting
any sample of food, drug, or agricultural fertilizer for analysis to any public analyst,
or from prosecuting the vendor thereof, if such article is found to be adulterated, but
the burden of proof of sale, and of the fact that the sample was not tampered with
after purchase, shall be upon the person so submitting the same :

(2) Any public analyst shall analyze such sample on payment of the fee prescribed
in respect of such article or class of article by the governor in council. (48-49 V., c.
67,8.27.)

28. Any expenses incurred in analyzing any food, drug, or agricultural fertilizer, in
pursuance of this act, shall, if the person from whom the sample is taken is convicted
of having in his possession, selling, offering or exposing for sale, adulterated food,
drugs, or agricultural fertilizers, in violation of this act, be deemed to be a portion of
the cost of the proceedings against him, and shall bo paid by him accordingly; and
in all other cases such expenses shall be paid as part of the expenses of the officer, or
by the person who procured the sample, as the case may be. (48-49 V.., c. 67, s. 28.)

29. The governor in council may, from time to time, make such regulations as to
him seem necessary, for carrying the provisions of this act into effect. (48-49 V., c. 67,
6.20.)

30. The provisions of " the inland revenue act," whether enacted with special ref-
erence to any particular business or trade, or with general reference to the collection
of the revenue, or the prevention, detection, or punishment of fraud or neglect in
relation thereto, shall extend, apply, and be construed, and shall have effect with ref-
erence to this act, as if they had been enacted with special reference to the matters
and things herein provided for.

(2) Every- penalty imposed under this act may be enforced and dealt with as if im-
posed under the said act, and every compounder, and the apparatus used by him, and
the place in which his business is carried on, and the articles made or compounded by
him, or used in compounding any such article, shall be " subject to excise " under the
said act. (48-49 V., c. 67, s. 30.)

SCHEDULE.

Cocculus indicus, chloride of sodium (otherwise common salt), copperas, opium,
cayenne pepper, picric acid, Indian hemp, strychnine, tobacco, darnel seed, extract
of logwood, salts of zinc, copper, or lead, alum, methyl alcohol and its derivativ
amyl alcohol, and any extractor compound of any of the above ingredients.

The English laws will be found in Hassall or Blyth.

ium,
,ract
ives, |

INDEX

Page.

Adulterant, bark as an 164

clove stems as an 164

cocoanut shells as an 163

groundnut cake as an 162

maize as an 162

oil seed as an 162

olive stones as an - 198

palm cake as an. .- - 163

peanut cake as an 162

rice as an 162

rice bran as an - 164

sawdust as an 164

lultcrants, found in this investigation and by others 139

of pepper - * - 187

structure of 151,161-164

Adulteration of allspice 228

Adulterations of cassia 218

cinnamon 218

spices and condiments, detection of...; 150

Albuminoids, determination of 168-170

Allspice 227-230

adulteration of 228

chemical composition of 229

structure of 227

Analysis, chemical, Methods of. 165

of spices, mechanical 150

microscopic - . ..-, 150

Bark as an adulterant 164

Bibliography of spice and condiments 235-238

Blyth, analyses of pepper 189

determination of fixed oil in mustard 177

Borgmann, Wolff, andBiechele, alcoholic extract of pepper 190

Brown, long pepper as an adulterant 199

olive stones as an adulterant of pepper 198

I Canada, Dominion of, law for the prevention of adulteration of food and

drugs 249-254

results of investigations in 134

255

256 INDEX.

Page.

Cassia v. cinnamon and cassia

characteristics and adulterations of 142-248

structure of 217

Cayenne 209-212

bibliography of 238

characteristics and adulterations of 141

composition of 210

original analyses of 211

structure of 209,210

Chemical analysis of spices 165

Cinnamon and cassia 217-222

adulterations of 218

and cassia, analyses of 219-221

bibliography of 238

characteristics and adulterations of 142

character of specimens examined 220

chemical composition and differences 218

distinction between, Hehner 218

Ceylon, ash in 218

structure of 217

Cloves - 222-227

characteristics and adulterations of 142

clove stems as an adulterant 223

determination of tannin in 226

extremes in composition of 226

oil in 226

original analyses of 225

stems as an adulterant 164

of cloves 223

structure of 222

Cocoanut shells, use of, as an adulterant 131,163

Corn v. maize

Detection of adulterations of spices and condiments 150

Determination of albuminoids 168-170

crude fiber 168

fixed oil in mustard, Blyth 177

nitrogen 168-170

non-albuminoid nitrogen 170

oil, volatile 165

oil in mustard, Leeds and Everhart 177

piperine 191

starch .... 166

tannin 167

in cloves 226

Dhoura corn as an adulterant of pepper 201

E.
England, original investigations in 133

Fiber, crude, determination of 168

France, investigations in ,...., , - , 133

INDEX. 257

Page.

Germany, investigations in 133

Ginger 212-217

adulterants of 213

amount of starch in 214

bibliography of 238

characteristics and adulterations of 141

chemical composition of 214

extremes of composition in 216

original analyses of 215, 216

structure of 212, 213

Groundnut cake as an adulterant 162

Haslinger and Moslinger, cellulose in peppers 194

reducing equivalents of pepper 194

Hassall, chemical composition of mustard 173-177

original investigations of 133

Hehner, distinction between cinnamon and cassia 218

Heisch, ash in pepper 197

reducing equivalent of pepper 197

Hilger, ash in Ceylon cinnamon 218

J.
Jones, starch and ginger 214

Lattimore, Prof. S. A. , investigations and opinion of 1 37-139

Laws relating to the adulteration of spices and condiments 239-254

Dominion of Canada, for the prevention of adulteration of food and drugs. 249-254

Massachusetts, for the prevention of adulteration of food and drugs 243-247

Michigan, for the prevention of adulteration of food and drugs 248, 249

New Jersey State, for the prevention of adulteration of food and drugs.. 242,243
New York State, for the prevention of adulteration of food and drugs. . . 239-242

Leeds and E verhart, chemical analysis of mustard 178

determination of oil in mustard 177

Leeds, Dr. A. R. , opin ion of, regarding adulteration 137

Legislation relating to spices and condiments 239-254

Lentz, reducing sugar equivalent of peppers 191, 192, 193

Long pepper, analyses of 200

Mace 232

characteristics and adulterations of 143

chemical composition of 232, 233

Maize as an adulterant 162

Manufacturers of spice mixtures 132

Massachusetts, law of, for the prevention of adulteration of food and drugs . 243-247

results of investigations in. u 136

Mechanical separation of spices 150

Michigan, law of, for the prevention of adulteration of food and drugs 248, 249

Microscopic examination of spices 150

Mustard, analyses of, during this investigation 181

Artificial color of ., 172

258 INDEX.

Page.

Mustard, bibliography of 238

characteristics of 139

character and composition of 171-183

chemical analyses of, Leeds and E verhart 178

composition of, Hassall 173-177

examination of, Waller and Martin 178-180

description of samples used in this investigation 180

/ determination of fixed oil in, Blyth 177

oil in, Everhart 177

extremes in composition of 182

Mustards, character of those investigated 182,183

Nc\v Jersey, law of, for the prevention of adulteration of food and drugs . . . 242, 243

New York State, law of, for the prevention of adulteration of food and drugs 239-242

Nitrogen, determination of 168-170

non-albuminoid, determination of 170

Nutmeg 230-232

characteristics and adulterations of 143

chemical composition of 231

structure of 230,231

Oil seed as adulterants 162

volatile, determination of 165

Olive stones as an adulterant of pepper, Brown 198

detection of, in pepper 195

Palm cake as an adulterant 163

Peanut cake as an adulterant ., 162

Pepper 183-209

Pepper, adulterants of 187

alcohol extract of, Borgrnann, Wolff, and Biechele 190

analysis of, best methods for 207, 208

analyses of, Rottger 190, 191

Blyth 189

ash in, Heisch 197

bibliography of 237,238

black and white 183-209

characteristics and adulteration of 140

character of specimens analyzed 204,205

chemical composition of 206

description of specimens analyzed. 204

Dhoura corn as an adulterant 201

extremes in composition of 208

fermentation residues as an adulterant 195

long pepper as an adulterant of, Brown 199

on the use of, as an adulterant 199

mechanical examination of 205

microscopic examination of 203, 204

olive stones as an adulterant of, Brown 198

percentage of dirt in whole 187

proportion of adulterated 202

red r. Cayenne

reducing equivalent of, Haslinger and Moslinger 194

Heisch 197

Lentz .. ..191,192,193

INDEX 259

Page.

Pepper, structure of 184-186

weight of 100 pepper-corns 187

P. D. Pepper 132

Pepperette v. olive stones

Peppers, cellulose in, Haslinger and Moslinger 194

reducing equivalent of, Weigmann '. 195

Piesse and Stansell, chemical analyses of mustard 177

Pimento v. allspice

Piperine, determination of 191

Poivrette v. olive stones

Rabourdin, olive stones as an adulterant of pepper 196

Reagents 151

Red pepper #. 'Cayenne ,

Rice as an adulterant 162

bran as an adulterant 164

Rottger, analyses of pepper 190, 191, 192

Sn \vdust as an adulterant 164

Spice, importations of 144-147

mixtures, manufacture of 132

supply, sources of our 143

Spices and condiments, bibliography of 235-238

detection of adulterations of 150

in the District of Columbia, character of 140

ground, price per pound 149

physiological structure of 151

price per pound, wholesale in New York 148

proportion found adulterated 149

Starch 153-161

determination of 166

in pepper v. pepper reducing equivalent

Starches, Blyth's classification 157

bibliography of 237

description of various 158-161

met with in pure and adulterated spices 157

Muter's table of .- . 155

size of 1C4-156

Vogel's table of 154

Structure of adulterants 161-164

physiological, of spices and adulterants 151

^annin, determination of 167

in cloves 226

'ransmittal, letter of ., 129

r aller and Martin, chemical examination of mustard 178-1 80

Weigmaun, reducing equivalent of peppers 195

r ood, Dr. E. S., results obtained by, in Massachusetts r 137

Young, analyses of ginger 214

BULL.N9I3 DIV.OF CHEMISTRY

PIRATE XTTT

/"*

6 * o*

-o ^ "^

^ . " ^ *

STARCH,

ILLUMINATION x43

^f^u

STARCH STATNED WITH IODINE x43

Clifford Richardson .

BULL.N9I3 DIV.OF CHEMISTRY.

MARTOTA STARCH

MARILNTA STARCH x!4O

Clifford Riclifu <!.. ii

A.HnenXCa Helincaustir.Baltn

BULL.N9I3 DIV.OF CHEMISTRY.

POTATO STARCH

Clifford Richardson

A HDBII IL'D. Heliocaustic.Baltir

BULL.N9I3 DIV.OF CHEMISTRY.

POTATO STARCH x!44<

MARUXTA STARCH

Photo.by Clifford Richardson .

ehncauslic.BaltimDrE.

BULL.N9I3 DIV.OF CHEMISTRY.

XYtt

MAIZE STARCH x!45

Fiti 34

STARCH x!43

Pivoto.by Clifford Ri< -li;,r.l^.

A.Hnen SCo. HElinoausticJaitimDre.

BULL.N<?I3 DIV.OF CHEMISTRY.

RICE STARCH xloO

RIC;E STARCH x450

Plioto.ty Clifford Ric;har<lson

BULL.N^IS DIV.OF CHEMISTRY

BARLEY STARCH

OAT STARCH :sl6O

.by Clifi'ord Ri.v

A.Hnen ICo. Helmciustic. Haiti

BULL.N^IS DIV.OF CHEMISTRY.

BEAN STARCH x!45

PEA

Photo.by Clifford Riehaj-cJson .

A.HUPII SCo Helfocsustie.Baltii

BULL.NI3 DIV.OF CHEMISTRY.

GINGET? STARCH x!45

GINGER ADULTERATED x!45

Photo. tv Clifford Richardson .

A.HDBII XCo. HeliDcausbe.Baltir

BULL.N9I3 DIV.OF CHEMISTRY.

xxn

'.- - *

*;S V

A ' $k * *^

^- >

-*i^-* - ; w

;.*

*' .' *":

BLACK PEPPER PD.

PEPPER ADULTERaTED

PJiolo.by Clifford

A.Hnen iCn Heliocauslic, Baltimore.

BULL.N9I3 DIV.OF CHEMISTRY.

Fi 45

CIN1MAMOX ADULTERATED

PJiolo.T>y Clifford Richards*

A.Hnen iCa. Heliooaustic.Baltr

BULL.N9I3 DIV.OF CHEMISTRY.

PLATE XXIV

CINNAMOK

Fig 47

CASSIA

Pholo.by Clifford

A.Hnen&Ca.Xeliocaustic. Baltimore.

BULL.N9I3 DIV.OF CHEMISTRY.

yx\r

CAYENNE

CAYENNE .ADULTERATED

Pliolo."by Clifford Richardson.

A.HDEnlCoHelincaustic. Baltimore

BULL. No. 13, DIV. OF CHEMISTRY.

PLATE XXVI

WHEAT

BARLEY

FIG. 52

FIG. 53

RYE

OATS

FIG. 55

CORN

RICE

i:\ (JKO. MARX.

A. HOEN & CO. IIELIOCAUST10, BALTIMORE.

BULL. No. 13, DIV. OF CHEMISTRY.

PLATE XXVII.

FIQ. 56

MARUNTA

POTATO

GINGER

BEANS

DRAWN I!Y <iF,(X MAKX.

A. IIOEN & CO. HEUOCAURT1C, BALTIMORE.

BULL. No; 13, DIV. OF CHEMISTRY.

PLATE XXVIII.

FIG. 66

FIQ, 63

BUCKWHEAT

TURMERIC

FIG. 65
O

' s>

NUTMEG

4 v
PEPPER

CAPSICUM

A. HOEN & CO. IIEMOCAUSTIC, BALTIMORE.

LIST OF PRINCIPAL PUBLICATIONS CONSULTED,

The following is a list of the principal publications (with the excep-
tion of periodicals) that have beeii consulted in the course of this in-
vestigation :

KOENIG. Die inenscliliclien Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. Berlin, 1880.

DIETZSCH. Die wichtigsten Nahrungsmittel und Getrliuke, deren Veruureinigungen

undVerfalschungen. Zurich, 1884.

ELSNER. Die Praxis des Nalirungsmittel-Chemikers. Hamburg und Leipzig, 1882.
HILGER. Vereinbarungeu betreffs der Untersuchuug und Beurteilung von Nahrungs-

und Genussmitteln. Herausgegeben im Auftrage der Freien Vereinigung Bayris-

cher Vertreter der angewandten Chemie. Berlin, 1885.
EARTH. Die Weinanalyse. Kommentar der im kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte 1884

zusauiuiengestellten Beschliisse der Kommission zur Beratung einheitlicher Me-

thoden fur die Analyse des Weiues. Hamburg uad Leipzig, 1884.
MEYER und FINKELBURG. Das Gesetz betreffeud den Verkehr mit Nahrungsmitteln,

Genussmitteln und Gebrauchsgegeustiiuden, vom 12. Mai 1879. Berlin, 1885.
HILGER und KAYSER. Bericht liber die vierte Versaramluug der Freien Vereiniguug

Bayriscber Vertreter der angewandteu Cheinie zu Niirnberg am 7. und 8. August

1885. Berlin, 1886.

HILGER, KAYSER und And. Bericht liber die fiinfte Versammlung der Freien Verein-
igung Bayrischer Vertreter der angewandten Chemie zu Wurzburg am 6. und 7.

August 1886. Berlin, 1887.
Documents sur les falsifications des niatieres alirnentaires et sur les travaux du Labora-

toire Municipal, deuxieme rapport. Paris, 1885. G. Masson, dditeur.
BLYTH. Foods : their composition and analysis. London, 1882.
HASSALL. Food : its adulterations and the methods for their detection. London, 1876.
ALLEN. Commercial organic analysis. 1 vol. 2d edition. London, 1886.
PRESCOTT. Chemical analysis of alcoholic liquors. New York.
GARDNER. The brewer, distiller, and wine manufacturer. Philadelphia, 1883.
Wagner's chemical technology. By Wm. Crookes. New York, 1872.
BUELL. The cidermaker's manual. Buffalo, 1874.
Annual report of the State Board of Health of New York, 1881-'86, inclusive. Albany,

N. Y.
Annual report of the Department of Health of the City of Brooklyn for 1885 and 1886.

Brooklyn.

Uuiversity of California, College of Agriculture. Report of professor in charge, 1879,
1880, 1882, and 1884. Report of viticultural work during the seasons 1883-'84 and
1884-'85. same 1885 and 1866. Sacramento,

263

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