The Spread of Christianity in the Modern World

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The University of Chicago Publications
in Religious Education

EDITED BY

ERNEST D. BURTON SHAILER MATHEWS

THEODORE G. SOARES

HANDBOOKS OF ETHICS AND RELIGION

THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY
IN THE MODERN WORLD

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY

BIW TORS

THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON AND EDIVBUBSH

THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA

TOKYO, OSAKA, KTOTO, FUKUOKA, SINDAI

THE MISSION BOOK COMPANY

8HAKOHAI

THE

SPREAD ^CHRISTIANITY

IN THE MODERN

WORLD

By

EDWARD CALDWELL MOORE

Plummer Professor of Christian Morals in Harvard University, Chairman of the

Board of Preachers to the University, and President of the American

Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS

io-irr

Copyright 1919 By
The University of Chicago

All Rights Reserved

Published July 191 9
Second Impression November 191 9

3 2>\

Composed and Printed By

The University of Chicago Press

Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.

TO

MY COLLEAGUES

WITH WHOM I HAVE SERVED FOR TWENTY YEARS

IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE

AMERICAN BOARD

PREFATORY NOTE

I delivered in October and November, 1913, in
Mansfield College, Oxford, the Dale Lectures on "The
Expansion of Christendom and the Naturalization of
Christianity in the Orient in the Nineteenth Century."
The book was finished in 191 5. Its publication has been
delayed because of the war. The publisher has con-
sented that certain general considerations which are
elaborated in that book shall appear in brief in the
introduction to this. The publishers of this book have
acceded to the same request. Apart from the statement
of their common point of view which is thus provided
for, it is hoped that the two books may serve as com-
plementary the one to the other. This book attempts
a survey of the history of missions since the beginning
of the modern era. It aims to depict the missionary
movement against the background of general history.
It seeks to present an outline of the main facts so far
as this is possible within so small a compass. The other
book assumes knowledge of the facts, both those which
relate to the spread of the influence of European civiliza-
tion and as well those which directly concern the propa-
ganda for the Christian religion. It proposes to interpret
this history and to discuss the philosophical and religious
principles involved.

Edward Caldwell Moore

Cambridge, Mass.
August 18, 1918

IX

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART I: GENERAL OUTLINE

CHAPTER PACE

I. The Expansion of Christendom 5

II. The Expansion of Modern Europe: Before the

Middle of the Eighteenth Century ... 25

III. The Expansion of Modern Europe: The Period

since 1757 37

IV. The Expansion of Europe in America and Rus-
sian Asia 61

V. The Opening of Africa 71

VI. Missionary Theory and Instrumentalities . . 79

PART II: HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN MOVEMENT

WITH INDICATIONS OF THE PRESENT

SITUATION IN DIFFERENT LANDS

VII. India 109

VIII. Japan 141

IX. China 177

X. The Ottoman Empire and the Moslem World . 211

XL Africa 251

XII. The Americas and the Islands 285

Conclusion 318

References 321

Index 347

XI

PART I
GENERAL OUTLINE

CHAPTER I
THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTENDOM

CHAPTER I

THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTENDOM

i. Periodicity in the Christian movement

2. Relation to other world-movements

3. The first period

4. Characteristics of Christianity in this period

5. The first era of arrest

6. The second period

7. Characteristics of the second period

8. The second era of arrest

9. The third or modern period

10. Characteristics of the period

11. The Roman church

12. The Protestant bodies

13. Changes in the colonial empires

14. An era of world-evangelization

15. The unity of history

16. Otherworldliness

17. Religious propaganda and modern history

18. The human factor

19. Missions and civilization

20. Humanitarianism

21. Co-operation with missions

22. Conclusion

CHAPTER I
THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTENDOM

i. Periodicity in the Christian movement. — It might
be supposed that the obligation of Christians for the
dissemination of their faith would have been felt by
the more ardent and responsible among them at all times
and in every place. The history of Christianity shows
that this has been by no means the case. There have
been periods in which the enthusiasm for the carrying
of the gospel of Jesus to those who had it not was a con-
spicuous trait of Christian mind and life. Such eras
of missionary activity have alternated, however, with
others in which even the most zealous piety took quite
another form. There have been ages in which propa-
ganda for Christianity among new peoples practically
ceased. There have been centuries during which the
boundaries of Christendom were not enlarged. At times
even the area won for the faith by earlier efforts was
diminished.

2. Relation to other world-movements. — These eras of
stationariness or of retrogression are not always to be
ascribed to a diminution of the vitality of the Christian
movement. Ages of arrest in the expansion of Chris-
tendom have sometimes been those in which high
vitality was absorbed in a different task. The energy
of the movement was taken up in the consolidation of
gains already made. Races won for nominal Christian-
ity were being slowly assimilated to its spirit. Chris-
tianity was undergoing a gradual adjustment to the

6 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

culture and civilization of these races. It was becom-
ing naturalized and nationalized among them. They
were being Christianized and not merely evangelized.
There is thus something altogether normal in this
alternation which has marked the Christian advance.
There is a close relation of this periodicity in the expan-
sion of Christendom to other world-movements. The
relation of missionary endeavor to contemporary con-
ditions, political and commercial, social and intellectual,
is one which in the history of the Christian movement
has not always been sufficiently emphasized. It is one
of the purposes of this book to set forth that relation.

3. The first period. — Broadly speaking, the first three
centuries of the Christian movement were characterized
by a great enthusiasm for the dissemination of the faith.
The Christian passion was evangelism, the telling of the
message of redemption. Before the end of this period
the gospel had been preached everywhere in the basin
of the Mediterranean and in the western parts of the
ancient Asiatic empires. The spread of the influence
and teachings of Jesus was, however, in the earliest
period, owing in but small part to men whom we should
call missionaries. It was the achievement of men of
every trade and occupation and of every order in society.
Soldiers, scholars, travelers, even slaves, carried to the
farthest limits of the empire that secret of the inner life,
that new attitude toward the world, which in their
experience constituted salvation. The means of com-
munication in the empire facilitated such a movement.
Other oriental religions had spread in much the same
way. Something like a uniformity of law, language, and
civilization obtained at that time within the limits of

THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTENDOM 7

the empire in a manner which has had no parallel in the
world until our own day.

4. Characteristics of Christianity in this period. — The
new religious movement, great as was its ultimate effect
upon the classic civilization, was of itself world-shy.
It was not primarily a new doctrine or culture. It was
hostile to many aspects of the current civilization. That
civilization was profoundly hostile to it. It did not
seek to establish a new world-order. It sought rather to
flee the world and to prepare its votaries for another and
better existence. It was profoundly convinced of the
approaching end of the present world-order. It believed
in the sudden and miraculous setting up of a new wrorld-
order. It was a gospel of the inner life. It was a
message from a despised corner of the earth to a world
in which a high and self-conscious civilization already
prevailed. Only gradually did Christianity become con-
scious of itself as a principle for the transformation of
this present life and world. Only slowly did it gather
adherents from among the cultivated and powerful.
Not till the end of the period of which we speak did
it cease to be the faith of a persecuted sect and become
one of the religions acknowledged by the Roman state.

5. The first era of arrest. — The decline of the Roman
Empire, the invasions of the barbarians, the natural
development of the church as a great institution, caused
the church in some sense to take the place of the decaying
empire. The demoralization of the ancient world, the
necessity of training the new northern peoples who had
seized upon its mastery, set the church which was now an
organized and self-conscious hierarchy a new task. That
task was no longer the enlargement of the boundaries of

8 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

nominal Christendom beyond the basin of the Medi-
terranean. It was that of the Christianization both of
the peoples of the ancient civilization and of the new
elements which were found in such strange admixture in
all the lands which bordered upon the inland sea. It
was the problem of making a really Christian world out
of those areas to which Christianity in name at least
had been carried before the decline of the empire had
begun. Meantime the church had changed its own idea
as to what constituted a Christian world. It was not
therefore altogether a contradiction that the missionary
period of the early church ended abruptly almost at the
moment when the church attained a position of outward
power and influence. That the church was able in the
interval between the middle of the fourth and the middle
of the seventh centuries to Christianize the world even
in the measure that it did and after the pattern that it
chose was a very great achievement. That it was itself
in startling degree secularized and assimilated to that
world was an inevitable consequence. It was, however,
a consequence of which Christians were almost wholly
unaware.

6. The second period. — When, toward the end of the
sixth century, the Christian propaganda was resumed,
it had for its aim the conversion of the races of Northern
and Western Europe, which had lain outside of the
ancient Roman Empire or only nominally within it. The
emissaries of the gospel went out from three centers.
Southern Russia and the Balkan Peninsula were evan-
gelized from Constantinople. Germany and the Low
Countries, northern Gaul and Britain, ultimately also
Denmark and Norway and Sweden received most of

THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTENDOM 0

their emissaries from Rome. A portion of this area was,
however, the field of devout labor on the part also of
Celtic monks, who represented a British Christianity
antedating the dissolution of the ancient province of
Britain. The conversion of the Northern European
races to Christianity brought gains to Christendom
which in some measure offset the tremendous losses
suffered through the conquest of the old seats of
Christian faith and civilization in Northern Africa,
in Syria and Asia Minor, in Persia, and in the
valley of the Euphrates by the forces of Islam. It
completed that occidentalizing of Christianity which
had been in progress ever since the western journeys
of St. Paul.

7. Characteristics of the second period. — In striking
contrast with the method of the earlier era the men
engaged in this grand mission to the Northern European
races were almost invariably ecclesiastics. They were
the agents of a highly organized institution of religion.
They were priests, indeed in large part they were monks.
They represented an ascetic view of life, in the West at
least a celibate practice, a theory of the relation of reli-
gion to the world which had come to be recognized as the
superior form of piety and the more spiritual interpreta-
tion of Christianity. This theory had certainly not been
put forth by Jesus nor by the earliest church. Neverthe-
less, such were the needs of the peoples among whom
these monks and missionaries went that, in spite of their
view of the relation of religion to the world, they became
practically everywhere teachers of the elements of
culture, exponents in these new fields of an old and
high civilization. They became the founders of a

to THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

world-order. In large part they determined the political
and economic, the intellectual and social and moral char-
acteristics which are familiar to us as those of Europe
in the Middle Ages. They preserved and transmitted
a learning which was fundamentally Hellenic. They
perpetuated the power and order which mankind owed
to the Roman genius for organization. They gave to
much of the life of the Middle Ages the ecclesiastical
cast which it never lost until the Renaissance.

8. The second era of arrest. — The period of the con-
version of Northern Europe covered about four centuries.
Then just as before there followed an interval of approxi-
mately four hundred years when practically no effort
was made to carry the gospel to regions beyond. The
Russian and Balkan area took on a religious station-
ariness from which it has not yet emerged. Mediaeval
Europe, so religious and Christian in its own way, possess-
ing a civilization so much more wonderful than we are
apt to acknowledge, had lost almost all remembrance
of a non-European world of which the classic civilization
had been so well aware. The East, which it vividly
realized, was only the margin of Islam, the region in
which it had conducted the wars of the Crusades. Those
wars themselves had built a barrier between the West
and the Near East which has begun to crumble only in
modern times. The Far East, India, China, Japan, and
even Africa were almost a realm of legend. They were
nearly as much unknown as if they had been on another
planet. Little islands of Greek and Eastern Christianity
still stood out above the rising tide of Mohammedanism.
Constantinople remained until 1453 the last bulwark
against Islam. Yet, in the Fourth Crusade, Venice

THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTENDOM it

betrayed Constantinople as if she had been her chief
foe. Neither from Constantinople nor from the ancient
churches of Syria or Asia Minor went out any effort
toward regaining the East which had once been Chris-
tian. The Crusades, the European effort within this
area, were the very opposite of a missionary movement.
9. The third or modern period. — The middle of the
sixteenth century witnessed a great revival of enthusiasm
in the Roman church for the spread of the faith among
non-Christian peoples. Jesuit and Franciscan mis-
sionaries followed the discoverers and explorers, the
conquerors and traders who in Portuguese, Spanish,
and French ships traversed every sea and brought to
Europe the knowledge of the lands of two hemispheres.
Of this movement navigators and traders had been the
precursors since the middle of the fifteenth century.
Their aims had been those of conquest and commerce.
These adventurers had claimed continents for one and
another of the crowns of Europe. They had opened
the way for colonial empires which were presently to
enrich many European states. The world-movement
which was thus ushered in ultimately brought among
other things the knowledge of the gospel to every people
on the earth. It was, however, primarily a secular
movement. It sought to add to the domain and to the
wealth of the sovereigns of Europe. It became a phase
of the rivalry of European states among themselves.
The exploitation alike of the ancient civilized peoples
of the Far East and of the half-civilized or uncivilized
aborigines of the West was but an instrumentality of
the aggrandizement of the European peoples. These
last had for various reasons emerged from the Middle

12 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Ages relatively more powerful and aggressive than all
other peoples of the earth.

10. Characteristics of the period.— -The conquerors and
traders of whom we speak had but little religious impulse,
at all events of the sort which we should now recognize
by that name. They sought, indeed, to conquer in the
name of Christianity. The sovereigns whom they
represented made much of these conquests for the cause
of Christ. The adventurers had primarily no impulse
to transform the ancient civilizations of India or China
or Japan in the spirit of Christianity. In fact, the
provincialism of these representatives of Christendom
was such that they showed but slight comprehension
of the fact that India or China had any civilization, just
as they would certainly have assumed that these nations
had no true religion. They had little zeal to bestow
what have since been called the benefits of Christian
civilization upon the nations of the Orient. Indeed,
they were so intent upon conquests and profits that they
showed mainly the dark side of that civilization.

ii. The Roman church. — The priests who accom-
panied the adventurers had also something of the
mediaeval conquerors' instinct. They planned com-
pletely to displace the indigenous faiths. They were
anxious to add multitudes to the numbers of the adher-
ents of their own church. They were eager to offset
the losses which at that time the Protestant Reformation
was inflicting upon their church in Europe. Yet they
also left the question of the relation of the faith which
they ardently preached to the civilization and culture
of the peoples among whom they preached it very much
on one side. They entered into easy accommodations

THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTENDOM 13

with those civilizations. It was long before they came
to regard themselves as the emissaries of a spirit which
was to be, abroad as well as at home, the secret of the
transformation of every relation of man's life on earth.
Without doubt this was because, in the mission fields
as in the home lands, they regarded religion as having
mainly to do with another world and the future life.
They apprehended Christianity as a matter of creeds
and rites rather than of spirit and conduct.

12. The Protestant bodies. — This remark would be
measurably true of the earliest stages of the Protestant
missionary movement when at last that movement
began. The Reformation had been inaugurated some
decades before the departure of Francis Xavier for India.
Yet the Protestant churches sent out practically no
missionaries until after the end of the seventeenth
century. Protestant nations, the Dutch, the Danes,
and the English, had succeeded the Latin races in the
movement of conquest and trade both in the East and
in the West. The Protestant peoples, however, under-
took no world-evangelization on a great scale until the
end of the eighteenth century. Something in their mode
of apprehension of the gospel in the churches of the
home lands made them also, at the first and for a long
time, feel themselves to be the emissaries almost exclu-
sively of a doctrine concerning the inner life and a
future state. The full force of their gospel as a secret
of the transformation of this world also has hardly
begun to be felt until our own day.

13. Changes in the colonial empires. — Meantime the
empires of conquest and trade built up by the various
European powers had waxed and waned. Those of the

14 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Latin races, except that of France, had practically
vanished. Those of the Dutch and Danes had almost
disappeared. That of the Russians is an episode of
very modern times, at all events in its relation to Western
civilization. The establishment and maintenance of
these empires was marked at times by cruelties and
unscrupulousness toward weaker races and by fierce
rivalry among the colonizing powers. These facts
brought reproach upon Christendom. Colonial empires
have at times conferred great benefits upon subject
peoples. They have also inflicted many and deep
injuries. It is only within the last century and a quarter
that any of these empires have understood it to be a part
of the purpose of their existence to confer benefits upon
subject peoples. The way has been opened for the
gospel by secular agencies. Yet also the cause of the
real gospel has been at times sorely compromised by
association with these agencies.

14. An era of world-evangelization. — The period of
this third and greatest expansion of Christendom has
thus again been a little less than four hundred years
The area of expansion is not now the basin of the
Mediterranean. It is not the northern and western
part of the little continent of Europe. In this epoch
the area has been literally the whole of the habitable
earth. The effort for the spread of Christianity has
been, as we have said, but an episode in a far larger
world-movement, a movement which has resulted in
bringing the whole earth under the influence of Europe.
Even so, and despite the fact that the period of intense
effort for the evangelization of the world has been barely
a century and a half, the task of mere evangelization

THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTENDOM 15

may be said to be approaching completion. In the
sense merely of the proclaiming of the gospel in all lands
the work is entering upon its later stages. An arrest
of this mere evangelizing process parallel to that which
we have already twice observed in Christian history
seems near. There will soon be comparatively few men
anywhere who have not had a chance of listening to the
word of the grace of God as revealed in Jesus Christ.
How much that avails is another question. How far
we still are from the real Christianizing of the world is
brought home to us with terrific force in these days of
war. It sometimes seems as if we were so far from
that goal within Christendom itself that we have little
to say to the rest of the world. Yet even that dis-
semination of the word of Christianity of which we
spoke and the beginning made of the transformation of
men by its spirit have put practically all the nations of
mankind in a position to judge between Christianity
and Christendom. How vast is the task of this natural-
ization and nationalization of Christianity among all
the races of the earth, including our own, must be
obvious to anyone who thinks.

15. The unity of history. — These brief paragraphs
serve to show that it is impossible adequately to deal
with the history of the spread of Christian ideals and
influence without taking cognizance of the complex
relations of the religious movement to* culture and
civilization in general. It is not possible to depict the
various stages in the advance of Christianity without
reckoning with the world -situations which from time
to time have called forth these zealous endeavors. The
direction and characteristics of these successive efforts

1 6 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

have been determined by conditions over which the
ardent propagandists had but little control. Decisive
factors in the history of missions have often been those
of which, with all their sense of a divine obligation and
of the divine aid, the missionaries were not the creators —
rather they in common with all the men of their time
were created by these conditions. The life of the race,
like the garment of Jesus, to which in a profound sense
it might be compared, has always been woven all of one
piece. The incarnation itself was a true entering of
the divine into human life with all the temporal and
local, the passing and partial, the exalted and pathetic
elements which are inseparable from any historic mani-
festation. The gradual embodiment of the spirit of
Jesus in the life of mankind in so far as it has yet been
accomplished has known no other conditions.

1 6. Otlierworldliness. — It has pleased the votaries of
Christianity at times to seek to make another world,
the world of the religious, within and in large part
isolated from the world of ordinary men. So we might
describe the effort of eremites and monks in every
age. It has pleased enthusiasts of other eras not to
make another world in this, but to seek to make for
another world. So we might describe the idea of the
enthusiastic martyrs in the first period, of many mystics
and ascetics in all periods, and, with differences, the
most otherworldly of the Protestant forefathers. The
prevailing mood of our time is that which esteems that
the problem is neither to make for another world nor
yet to make another world in this, but through men who
are being saved to make this another world. The point
to be noted is that the circumstances which determined

THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTENDOM 17

the relative success or failure of these various endeavors
were circumstances given in the life of their respective
times. Not only so, but even the causes which led the
representatives of the same faith at different times to
set before themselves such divergent aims have always
been given in the common inheritance of mankind from
its past, in the dangers and duties of the present, and
in the specific ideals which have possessed the minds of
successive generations as to the future.

17. Religious propaganda and modern history. — The
Christian movement is a part of the world-movement.
It is part of a propaganda for European ideas which at
the present moment is extremely zealous for many ideas
besides those of the Christian faith. It may at times
serve the purpose of scientific investigation to isolate
one organ of the body under the microscope or to devote
volumes to the description of one function in the body's
life. Another purpose is meantime defeated if it be
forgotten that the function under discussion is never
operative save in connection with other functions. It
pleased some of the church fathers to think of Christ's
church as an ark of safety wherein a few souls were to
be saved. Under a favorite image converts of the early
Protestant missionaries have been described as brands
plucked from the burning. For reasons which are not
far to seek these images of the nature and effect of reli-
gion do not now appeal to the majority. There is every
reason why there should be a specific literature of mis-
sions. It is possible, however, that to many minds an
understanding of the cause of missions may be rendered
easier by the effort to set forth this bit of history as
but a part of the real history of the world. There is

18 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

value in the endeavor to show that the religious move-
ment has had and now has its place within the frame-
work of a far larger world-movement.

1 8. The human factor. — In his vision Peter's waver-
ing purpose to carry the gospel to those who as yet had
it not was reinforced by an image of living creatures let
down from heaven in a sheet. In the Apocalypse the
city of God is represented as coming down out of heaven.
In reality Peter's missionary endeavors, in so far as we
know anything about them, were very much like those
of other well-wishers of mankind who have trodden, with
sore and yet sure feet, the common earth. We may be
as much assured as were men of old that the secret of
the kingdom comes down from God, who is spirit, into
the souls of men, who are spirit too. The Christian
nation does not thus come down. It grows up. It is
built and established by the labors of men like ourselves
and under conditions which in a general way have pre-
vailed and always will prevail in the building of cities
and kingdoms. On this basis the missionary movement,
despite the defects which it shares with all other human
movements, becomes one of the most imposing in the
history of our race. On this basis its history constitutes
one of the most impressive chapters in the history of
mankind.

19. Missions and civilization. — That which has been
said applies with peculiar force to the modern era of
missions. In the second period, as we have seen, the
church took the initiative in a movement which resulted
in the carrying of large elements of the civilization of
the ancient world to all the nations of mediaeval Europe.
The movement was primarily a religious movement, only

THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTENDOM 19

secondarily an ameliorating and educating movement,
although it is true that from the first its emissaries
recognized themselves as bearers of a civilization as well
as of the gospel. In the third period, that with which
we are to deal, the case is reversed. The religious
movement has been only a part, in some respects a
belated part, of a movement for an expansion of Europe
into all the earth which had far different motives. That
movement aimed primarily at conquest, although that
conquest was to be also in the name of the church.
Later, commerce became the great ideal. In its com-
mercial stage the movement was often indifferent or
even frankly hostile to the religious propaganda. Con-
versely, missions were often suspicious of humanitarian
efforts when these began to be made, hostile to mere
social and reforming aims, alienated from those who
sought simply the general uplifting of mankind.

20. Humanitarianism. — A humane and ameliorating
impulse, a desire to confer the benefits of civilization as
Europeans understood these benefits, began to make
itself felt in the conduct of Western nations toward
the East after the middle of the eighteenth century. It
coincided with that rise of enthusiasm for humanity
which swept over Europe as the period of rationalism
declined. It had relation to romanticism. It reflected
itself in the treatment of prisoners and in the attitude
toward slavery. It altered the policy of Western
governments toward Eastern peoples whom they had
subjected to themselves. Much of this reforming
earnestness had its origin in the quickened conscience
of Europe. It bore undeniable relation to the great
liberal and idealistic movement of the time. It is

20 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

certain that one of the sources of the modern missionary
movement was in this new feeling for humanity as a
whole. Yet the advocates of many of these generous
efforts on behalf of humanity accused missionaries of
having neglected the whole problem of the life of man
upon earth in their zeal to save his soul in heaven.

21. Co-operation with missions. — These two move-
ments, which have really worked together in striking
fashion to produce certain results which we see at the
beginning of the twentieth century, have often worked
together most unwillingly. They have served a com-
mon end, although they have often been jealous of one
another while serving it. Only within the last two
generations have missions thrown themselves without
reserve into civilizing and ameliorating endeavor, into
efforts of a social and economic and intellectual sort
on behalf of those whom for three or four generations
they have been seeking to evangelize. They have
realized that they must touch the outward life as well.
Only within the last two generations, on the other hand,
have governments and commercial companies and
enthusiasts for certain specific reforms rid themselves
of their prejudice, often gravely unjust, against those
who sought to reach the universal human problem
primarily from the side of the inner life. A similar
rapprochement of the two factors of religion and of the
rational and humane movement in civilization, the move-
ment of civil, social, and economic progress, has been one
of the outstanding traits of the life of the European
nations and of America within the same generations.

22. Conclusion. — It is clear therefore that we have
to try to depict the modern missionary movement against

THE EXPANSION OF CHRISTENDOM 21

the background of the history of the modern world in
general. We have to speak of many things which are
supposed to lie outside of the range of the history of
missions. We shall be compelled to deal with these
things only in barest outline. Indeed, the history of
the missionary movement itself which we are able to
offer can be nothing but the barest outline. A manual
like this can hardly attempt to do more than to sketch
roughly that which has been accomplished at vast cost
and by means of heroic consecration. It will endeavor
to show, in some measure at least, the part which mis-
sions have played in making the modern world what it
is. It will seek as well to show the part which the
modern world with all of its manifold elements and
complex tendencies has had in making modern missions
what these have been and what they now are.

CHAPTER II

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE

BEFORE THE MIDDLE OF THE

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

CHAPTER n

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE: BEFORE THE
MIDDLE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

2$. The voyages of discovery

24. Participation of Spain and Portugal

25. Participation of England, Holland, and France

26. The motive of conquest

27. The motive of trade

28. English and Dutch trade

29. French exploration

30. The age of rationalism

31. The Mediterranean and the Moslem invasions of Europe

32. French settlements by religious refugees

33. English and Scotch who sought religious liberty

34. Voyages of discovery at the end of the eighteenth century

35. Conclusion

CHAPTER II

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE: BEFORE THE
MIDDLE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

23. The voyages of discovery. — The first impact of
the civilization of Europe upon the ancient civilizations
of the Far East, those of India, of Japan, and China, as
also upon the half-civilized and uncivilized races of
North and South America, came at the end of the fifteenth
century. In 1492 a Genoese, Christopher Columbus, in
a Spanish ship and bearing a letter to the Khan of
Tartary, set out from Palos seeking India and discovered
America. He landed on San Salvador. In a later
voyage he reached Trinidad and other islands on the
coast of South America. In 1497 another Italian, John
Cabot, possibly a Genoese but long resident in Venice,
sailing from Bristol, England, under the patronage of
Henry VII reached Nova Scotia. In a later voyage he
touched Labrador and possibly Newfoundland. In
1496 Vasco da Gama, sailing from Lisbon under the
mandate of the king of Portugal, rounded the Cape of
Good Hope, cruised along the southwestern and south-
eastern coasts of India and landed at Calicut, not far
from Madras. In 1500 Cabral, a Portuguese pupil of
da Gama, made the first voyage to Brazil. All these
adventurers were seeking "the East," a region of fabled
wealth for the whole of which they used the vague name
"India" or "The Indies." The epoch-making voyages
which we have named all took place within one decade.
That fact shows that several nations at the end of the

25

26 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

age of the Renaissance were ready to transcend the con-
fines of Christendom, waiting to conquer territory and
gain wealth for peoples quickened with thoughts and
ambitions such as the Middle Ages had never known.

24. Participation of Spain and Portugal. — A decree
of the Borgia pope, Alexander VI, sought to adjust the
rivalries of Spain and Portugal by assigning all lands
discovered or to be discovered west of a parallel of
longitude running a hundred miles west of the Azores to
the Spaniards and those east of that parallel to the Portu-
guese. His decree is in more ways than one a curiosity.
Nevertheless, it had significant effect for the develop-
ment both of the Western Hemisphere and of European
empires in the Far East. At the end of the sixteenth
century the sea power and colonial empires of both
Spaniards and Portuguese began to decline. After the
defeat of the Armada in 1588 the English were able to
gain freedom for their commerce both in the West and
in the East, a commerce the beginnings of which had
been made almost a century before.

25. Participation of England, Holland, and France. —
By the middle of the seventeenth century the Dutch
were rivals with the English for trade on all seas and
colonial possessions on the margin of every continent. In
1605 the French under Champlain had established Quebec
and laid the foundations of what was to be called "New
France." French explorers and adventurers, fur traders,
and priests ascended the valley of the St. Lawrence to
the basin of the Great Lakes and the headwaters of
the Mississippi. They descended this river to New
Orleans. They named a region which had practically
on boundaries, save perhaps the Appalachians on its

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE 27

eastern side, "Louisiana." Spaniards from Florida
and from regions which are now Texas and Mexico had
already pushed westward in similar fashion to the Pacific
Coast. Later they moved northward nearly as far as
the present northern boundary of California. Portu-
guese, in spite of the pope's edict, had entered Brazil
and made the valley of the Amazon and the great plains
to the south of it part of a Portuguese world-empire;
likewise the Spaniards had gone eastward to the Philip-
pines. Even smaller European states, like Denmark, had
established centers of trade on Iceland and Greenland
and the West Indies and on both coasts of India and
the Malay Peninsula.

26. The motive of conquest. — Everywhere in this
movement we observe two motives, at times distinct
the one from the other and at times in more or less effec-
tive combination. There was the motive of conquest.
Of this phase of the movement the Spanish conquests
in America may be taken as typical. In them the im-
pulse to seize land, to subject peoples, to appropriate
the movable wealth of these peoples, especially their
gold and silver, was the dominant trait. These adven-
turers sought to wrest sovereignty from the infidels and
to exploit the fabled wealth of peoples inferior to them-
selves in arms. The expeditions were made up almost
wholly of soldiers and sailors and a few priests. There
were few traders. Men interested in agriculture rarely
came with them, or even men interested in mining,
save merely to superintend the labors of the unfortu-
nate aborigines and the black slaves soon introduced.
They brought few women. Only later did they seek
permanent settlements. There was never a Spanish

28 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

civilization in America bearing the same relation to the
Spain of the sixteenth century which the civilization of
practically the whole United States bears to that of the
England of the seventeenth century.

27. The motive of trade. — The Portuguese, although
they also exemplified at times the zeal of conquest, were
more distinctively traders. They developed commerce
in the seaports of the East to which they were permitted
access. Conditions in India and still more in Japan
would, indeed, never have permitted a small body of
aggressive Europeans to launch upon such vast terri-
torial conquests as followed upon the invasions of the
Spaniards and the French in North America or of the
Portuguese in South America. Yet even where, as
in East Africa, it was not difficult to conquer territory
the Portuguese showed the intention of developing the
territory conquered, of making it the consumer of Portu-
guese goods and sending African products to Portuguese
markets. Goa and the Portuguese settlements on the
Coromandel Coast were essentially commercial settle-
ments. The Portuguese were ready to defend themselves
and sometimes even to force trade. They were not dis-
posed to spoil the willingness of the natives to trade by put-
ting themselves forward too aggressively as conquerors.

28. English and Dutch trade. — The remark made as to
the Portuguese would apply to the Dutch when they
took their place in this world-movement. They were
before all things a commercial people. They wished to
trade with all nations and thus to gain outlet for the
energies of their own dense population, confined to a
small territory, part of which had been rescued from the
sea. There was cheerful fighting on the part of the

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE 29

Dutch with the various Eastern and Western peoples
who objected to their trade and also with Europeans
who were their rivals in that trade. Trade was, however,
the great object. Even of the English these remarks
would be true in general down to the middle of the eight-
eenth century. Then the breath of a new time began
to make itself felt in British world-politics.

29. French exploration. — The French voyages and
journeys of adventure had had a character of their own.
Much valor had been shown, but the French never
conquered territory with the ferocity with which the
Spaniards set themselves that task. They aspired,
or at least Colbert, Louis XIV's greatest minister,
aspired, to build up French commerce and to develop a
new France on the other side of the sea. The fur trade
was of vast proportions. The centralization of power,
however, in the Bourbon monarchy, the bureaucracy
which Richelieu and Mazarin had done their utmost to
develop, proved fatal to that freedom and initiative
which all successful overseas empires have shown. To
this difference in national organization and, as things
then were, in race temperament as well, one may largely
attribute the success of the English commercial empire
both in America and again in India. This latter also
steadily advanced while the French faded away.

30. The age of rationalism. — A great change came
over the mind of the European world after the end of
the Thirty Years' War in Germany and of the Civil
War in England. Motives imperial and ecclesiastical
of the sort which had ruled in the Middle Ages took
second place in men's minds. Even the spirit of nation-
alism which had been so marked in the fourteenth

30 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

century now changed its form. New motives, all
connected, it would seem, with the rise of rationalism,
took possession of peoples and their policies. Trade
was to be preferred to conquest. Peace might be more
advantageous than war. There was a new sense of the
rights of all nations to the fruits of the struggle of the
human race. There grew up in Europe an apprehension
of international law. There was a dawning sense on
the part of Europeans that there might be value in
other civilizations than their own and in other religions
than those with which they were familiar. These
ideas never permeated Spain or Portugal in any degree.
They permeated in high degree Holland, Denmark, and
England. Despite the great intellectual achievements
of France in the age of Louis XIV, despite the breadth
and fineness of the French spirit, these ideas did not
widely prevail in the France of the grand monarque.
Before they came to prevail France had temporarily
lost her place in the world-movement of European
expansion which we are seeking to describe. Germany
had had no place in that movement, for the simplest of
all reasons — there was no Germany. There were only
a few score of petty and jealous German potentates.
Italy had no place in this movement. There was no
Italy. There were only a few score Italian cities and
principalities.

31. The Mediterranean and the Moslem invasions of
Europe. — Venice had once been the only commercial
state in Europe on a grand scale. The issue of the
Crusades had, however, put an end to the power and
gradually destroyed the commerce of Europe in the
Levant and on the northern coast of Africa. The disco v-

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE 31

ery of America and of the Far East had turned the
channels of trade and given other direction to the spirit of
adventure. These events, with the fall of Constantinople,
had prepared the way for a colossal and awe-inspiring
impact of the Mohammedan civilization of the Near
East upon Europe itself, an attack which reached its limit
so late as the Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1683. In the
two centuries during which European Christendom had
been pressing upon the Far East and upon America the
followers of the Prophet had made victorious invasion,
not alone of Central and Southern Russia, but of the
Balkan Peninsula and of considerable portions of Hun-
gary and Austria. They had practically driven the ships
of Christendom from the Mediterranean. Ferdinand the
Catholic, who sent Columbus to America, drove the last
Moors from Spain. It was twenty years after the fall
of Constantinople that Ivan III won final victory for
the Russians over the Tatars, who were by that time
largely of the Moslem faith. In 1459 Mohammed II
had put an end to the old Serbian Empire and made
of Serbia a pashalic under the Porte, a state of things
which continued until 181 7. It was only in 1829 that
Greece won her independence from the Turk. It was
in 1878 that Bulgaria could first call itself an indepen-
dent state. The fate of the Balkans was again one of
the things which was at stake in the present war. The
fate of the Ottoman Empire is itself at stake.

32. French settlements by religious refugees. — Only
two remarks remain to be made before concluding this
sketch of the early days of the movement of the expansion
of Europe, which we have carried down to about the
middle of the eighteenth century. One relates to French

32 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

and then later also to certain English and Dutch settle-
ments both in Africa and in America which had a (lif-
erent motive from those named. In 1558 Villegagnon,
who himself turned traitor to the high purpose, had led
to Rio de Janeiro a colony of French Protestant refugees
sent out from France by Admiral Coligny. To this
colony went women and little children. The colonists
sought to find in the New World the religious and
political liberty which was denied them in France.
Almost the same story repeated itself at Beaufort on
the island of Port Royal off the coast of South Carolina.
Here also was a bona fide settlement of Huguenot
refugees who sought just what the Pilgrims later sought
in coming to Plymouth and the Puritans to Massachu-
setts Bay. Huguenot refugees later settled among the
Dutch in South Africa and again in New Amsterdam,
but they lost their identity as representatives of France.
33. English and Scotch who sought religious liberty. —
Jamestown in Virginia, settled in the fourth year of
James I, 1607, was indeed largely a commercial venture,
yet not lacking a religious character. Plymouth and
Salem and Boston were settlements quite on the model
of these tragic little attempts of the French of which
we have spoken. They were ultimately upon far larger
scale and achieved a significance second to that of no
settlements ever made in the world. These settlers
were indeed rarely of the Quaker or of the missionary
mind, yet they were not exactly conquerors. Their
trade amounted to almost nothing. They were at
first religious refugees, and then, after the beginning of
the reign of Charles I, political refugees. They sought
within the area of the civil and spiritual life an inde-

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE 33

pendence and democracy which were not accorded
them at home. Many of the first settlers went back
to England after the beginning of the Civil War had
opened up to them the prospect of transforming England
itself according to their mind. They left Great Britain
again after the downfall of the Commonwealth. They
laid the foundations of states and churches here in
America which have made America what it is. They
achieved immortal distinction. They were the pre-
cursors of other refugees, civil and religious, in many
portions of the world. The issue of their acts, an issue
unforeseen by themselves, has made this episode one of
the great chapters in history. The Scotch who left Scot-
land after 1661 and Ireland after 1692 had much the same
history. We note here the injection of a new and widely
different motive from that either of conquest or of com-
merce into the course of events with which we deal.

34. Voyages of discovery at the end of the eighteenth
century. — Finally, in curious fashion and as if it were a
belated chapter of a much earlier movement, English
navigators of the end of the eighteenth century, Cap-
tain Cook and his compeers, discovered or rediscovered
the continents of Australia and New Zealand and almost
all of the South Sea Islands. The African explorations
of the middle of the nineteenth century are a still more
belated chapter of this same phase of our movement.
In the case of those continents and islands in the South-
ern Hemisphere, no sooner were they discovered and
annexed to the then rapidly expanding British colonial
empire than British trade, British political ideals,
British social life and religious spirit entered at once
into the development of territories for the most part

34 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

very sparsely settled, and whose civilization, in so far
as they had any, had probably been unchanged for
uncounted generations. Africa on the other hand was
reserved to be the area of the struggle of the European
nations for colonial possessions late in the nineteenth
and at the beginning of the twentieth century.

35. Conclusion. — All the events of which we have
been speaking point to the fact that there is somewhere
near the middle of the eighteenth century a dividing
line in this history of the expansion of Europe. It is a
line which we shall more and more clearly note. There
are certain common qualities of the movement so far
as we have yet traced it. We might call the era thus
far depicted that of the expansion of Europe mainly
through conquest and trade and finally through emi-
gration of refugees. From another point of view we
might describe it as the period in which little effort was
made by Europeans to alter the civilization of the
races with which they came in contact, whether these
were already highly civilized or whether on the other
hand they had no civilization at all. The contacts of
Europeans with other races were during this period not
without traits which might be called religious. In so
far as their efforts were of a missionary character they
were almost exclusively on the part of the Roman Catho-
lic church. Protestant men of profound religious con-
viction were finding places in the new worlds. They
were busied, however, laying the foundations of religious
institutions and Christian national and social life for
themselves and not yet for peoples of other races.
Protestants had barely begun to enter upon their
missionary movement before 1757.

CHAPTER III

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE:
THE PERIOD SINCE 1757

CHAPTER in

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE: THE PERIOD

SINCE 1757

36. The rivalry of England and France

37. The British East India Company

38. Sea power of Great Britain

39. Territorial gains in India, losses in America

40. The old motives of conquest and trade

41. The new motive, propagandise!

42. Universal ideals

43. New enthusiasm for charity, philanthropy, and reform

44. Change of view in government under the Company

45. Relation of the new enthusiasm for missions

46. Common elements

47. Common methods

48. Identical faults

49. Assimilation of vital elements

50. Authoritative character of the Roman Catholic missions

51. Democratic aspects of Protestant missions

52. Parallel of Methodism and home missions

53. Parallel of the antislavery movement

54. Change of mind on the part of non-European peoples

55. Racial self -consciousness in the East

56. The example of India

57. The example of Turkey

58. The example of Japan

59. The spirit of the Japanese

60. The example of China

61. Effect of the war

62. Assimilation of West and East

63. Nature of this assimilation

64. Appropriation of certain outward factors

65. Naturalization of the deeper and more permanent elements

CHAPTER III

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE: THE PERIOD

SINCE 1757

36. Tlie rivalry of England and France. — One of the
dominating aspects of the history of the eighteenth
century in Europe was the struggle for mastery between
Great Britain and France. This contest was carried
on not merely in Europe but also in Asia, in Africa,
and in America. The War of the Spanish Succession,
the participation of England and of France first on one
side and then on the other in the Seven Years' War,
the so-called French and Indian wars the issue of which
gave Canada to Great Britain, the victory of Clive
over the French in India, which opened the way for
the ultimate British conquest of the whole peninsula,
were but episodes in one great struggle. Already it
was beginning to be evident that in some respects the
fate of oriental peoples was being settled in the chan-
celleries of Europe. Conversely policies of European
states were being determined, wars on European soil
were being fought, in view of competing interests of
the various states in the opposite hemisphere. Already
it was being demonstrated how great a role sea power
was to play in the future as the nations sought to weld
continents into an imperial unity.

37. The British East India Company. — Thirteen
years after the defeat of the Armada, two years before
the death of Elizabeth, in 1601, a charter was granted
to the British East India Company. This commercial

37

3 8 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

organization had decisive influence in the building up
of the colonial empire of Great Britain as it is today.
There were in other countries, notably in Holland,
companies which existed for the furtherance of world-
wide commerce. No one of them attained so soon or
exercised so long the privileges of a virtual monopoly
within the areas assigned to it by its government.
None ever intrenched itself in the economic and social
life of its own country as did the British East India
Company through Parliament in the eighteenth cen-
tury. Communication with far lands in those days
was difficult. All the colonial administrations had need
that discretion be accorded them in their scattered
settlements. None ever had granted to it the position
of a quasi-government in the sense in which this was
yielded by crown and Parliament to the British Com-
pany. To all intents and purposes the Company was
in India the government of Great Britain. Many of
the abuses which led to successive modifications and at
last to the revocation of the charter of the Company
were due to what now seems to us an inexcusable con-
fusion of powers. Nevertheless, under the masterful
leadership of such men as Clive and Hastings and
Wellesley this quasi-governmental character of its
regime explains the amazing rapidity of the develop-
ment of the Company's interests and the consolidation
of its power.

38. Sea power of Great Britain. — Add to this the
fact that the decline of Portugal and Spain had given
Great Britain the mastery of the seas. The Dutch
were not numerous enough long to dispute that mastery.
Richelieu in 1629 thought to make the French navy

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE 39

equal to the British. Even Napoleon until 1805 cher-
ished the same dream. The French overseas empire
which had not been commercially successful under
Louis XIV was sacrificed through the stupidity and
corruption of the monarchy under Louis XV. We have
here suggested some at least of the conditions which
led to the enormous expansion of Great Britain both
in respect of territory and of trade after the middle of
the eighteenth century.

39. Territorial gains in India, losses in America. —
The British were unwilling any longer to trade on the
coasts of India without penetrating the interior. War-
like native states confronted both French and British.
The French had shrewdly played off these states one
against another and all against England. The Com-
pany did the same against the French. After the
Battle of Plassey, Great Britain inaugurated a series of
military movements against the native principalities
covering, with intermissions, fully a century. These
never ceased until the whole peninsula, and finally
Burma also, were added to the territory owning alle-
giance to the British crown. While this conquest in
India was still in its beginning Great Britain lost the
Atlantic seaboard colonies of North America which she
had long fostered. It has been said that she lost them
by a fatuous war which might easily have been avoided.
Rather she lost them by a development of independence
within the colonies themselves which rendered their loss
inevitable so long as the view then current of the relation
of colonies to the mother-country obtained . She retained,
however, Canada and British America, part of which she
had only a few years earlier acquired from France.

40 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

40. The old motives of conquest and trade. — We might
say therefore that the middle of the eighteenth century
witnessed something like a revival of the impulse of
territorial aggrandizement. Of these conquests for the
next century and a half, by far the greater part has
fallen to the share of Great Britain. Yet France has
in our own day in Africa recouped herself for many of
her territorial losses. Italy has, also in Africa, begun
to take part in a movement in which at the first she
had no place. Germany found Africa practically the
only place left for large territorial gains. In this same
period there has been an expansion of the trade of
European nations such as makes the trade of the earlier
portion of our era seem trifling by comparison. In
this trade Great Britain again has had by far the largest
share. Yet states like Germany, which in the earlier
period had no portion, have come to take large place.
Russia during this period gained a vast though loosely
organized Asiatic empire. Even the United States,
which is of itself only an extension of Europe, has come
to seek its share in world-traffic and committed itself
almost unintentionally to the holding of a subject
population overseas. One cannot say therefore that in
the nineteenth century the old motives of territorial
aggrandizement and of trade have had no place.

41. The new motive, propagandism. — In the century
and three quarters which have elapsed since the vic-
tories of Clive at Plassey and of Wolfe on the Plains
of Abraham a new motive has, however, entered into
the movement of European expansion, the motive of
propagandism. There has come also within the last
half-century an extraordinary change in the attitude of

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE 41

Asiatic peoples toward Europeans and the movement of
the expansion of Christendom. Of this change of attitude
Japan is by far the most conspicuous example. China
is now following eagerly in the footsteps of Japan.
Many things in India illustrate the same change of feeling.
42. Universal ideals.— After 1775 a new spirit began
to show itself in the dealings of European powers, but
especially of Great Britain, with Asiatic peoples. The
subject peoples were henceforth not merely to be an-
nexed to growing empires, nor were they simply to be
exploited in the interests of trade. Not merely was
something to be taken from them, their liberty or their
goods. To them were to be extended the benefits of
the civilization of European peoples. Upon them were
to be bestowed gifts, especially those relating to the
higher aspects of life, governmental, social, intellectual,
moral, and religious. These characteristics of the
European civilization were the product of long ages of
struggle in the Western World. To some of them
Europeans felt that the oriental world presented no
satisfactory counterpart. There was often sufficient
provincialism even in this view, but it was better than
no view at all. It began to be felt, especially in Britain,
that not only had conquest and trade thus far been
negligent of all the higher aspects of life among Asiatics
but that the inner principles of European civilization
had often been grossly violated in the progress of con-
quest and trade. Christendom had met ancient civili-
zations, not merely with no perception of their values,
but with no recollection of the higher values in its own.
It had met barbarous peoples by the methods of more
powerful barbarians.

42 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

43. New enthusiasm for charity, philanthropy, and
reform. — There passed over Europe after the middle of
the eighteenth century a great enthusiasm for humanity.
The political movement which came to its full fruition
in the French Revolution had at its back a contention
for the rights of man as man. It was only one step
from the contention that these rights were shared by
men of all classes within a given nation to the assertion
that they were shared by the people of every nation.
The atrocities of slavery and of the slave trade were
brought home to men who a few decades earlier had
viewed these with complete indifference. Many re-
forms, especially economic and social, which still wait
for their fulfilment are the logical issue of contentions
which were then laid down. It was the quickened
conscience of Great Britain which led to attacks in
Parliament upon the policy of the East India Com-
pany. The revelations of the barbarity and corruption
of the Company appalled the public mind. The
impeachment of Warren Hastings for conduct no worse
than that which had been condoned in the case of his
predecessors was an event full of significance. It was
the more striking because of the really brilliant services
which Hastings had rendered.

44. Change of view in government under the Company.
— Both Parliament and the Company launched now
upon ventures for the amelioration of the condition of
the subject peoples in India of a sort which the men
of the previous generation would never have considered.
Great educational projects were set on foot. Partici-
pation of the Indians in the government of their own
land began to be provided for. Administration of

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE 43

justice as Great Britain understood justice came to be
viewed as one of the responsibilities of government in
these lands. Although the government was chary of
interfering with social customs, and above all with
religious prejudices, cruel and obscene rites and cere-
monies began to be done away with and abominable
customs to be abolished. Even under the Company,
whose charter was not finally withdrawn until 1858, there
had arisen, especially after 1829, a generation of civil and
military functionaries in British India whose high sense
of responsibility, whose enthusiasm for every good thing
in the life of the Indian peoples, and whose determina-
tion to do away with the evils of the ancient system of
government and business cannot be too highly praised.

45. Relation of the new enthusiasm for missions. —
It is easy to see that, of this enthusiasm for humanity
which marked the end of the eighteenth century and
found utterance in revolutions and reforms in many
areas of life, the outbreak of missionary zeal which
brought the Protestant churches into the field for the
first time was but a part. The new missionary move-
ment was but a phase of that awakening to the rights
and dignity and destiny of mankind which in all Euro-
pean countries and America had vast effect in preparing
the way for the progress of democracy in the nineteenth
century. As applied to the men of conquered races,
exploited, oppressed, enslaved as these were in other
portions of the world, the impulse showed itself in
efforts both to ameliorate conditions in this life and to
prepare men's souls for the life to come.

46. Common elements. — The same sense of the value of
human life in all its relations animated both endeavors.

44 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

There was the same sense of the wrongs which man-
kind had suffered, the same idealism about the life
of all men if only they could be delivered from their
disadvantages. This made of one man a passionate
abolitionist, a prison reformer, by and by a Chartist,
a socialist, set on redressing some outward obvious
wrong. It made of another the enthusiastic pietist
or evangelical, who himself cared little for the outward
life, who held that the greatest wrong ever committed
against men had been the withholding of the knowledge
of redemption as it is in Christ. The otherworldliness
of these men was scoffed at by their opponents. The
unqualified individualism of their view of religion was
indeed opposed to the rising social apprehensions of
the time. The antithesis of those who seek to reach
every social problem through the transformation of
personality and, on the other hand, of those who hope
by change of circumstance to quicken and uplift the
soul is with us still. Yet, when all is said, it is obvious
that the two tendencies did have their origin in the
common love of mankind.

47. Common methods. — With the progress of the
nineteenth century humanitarian endeavor moved stead-
ily toward the higher levels of the moral and spiritual
life of man. Conversely, the religious zeal which at
first repudiated the thought of anything but soul-
salvation has gradually perceived the unity of man's
life. It has perceived that there can be no salvation
of the soul which does not seek to show itself in the
doing away of evil and the bringing in of every form
of good in this world also. As a matter of fact, with
missionaries has lain, in most of the lands of which we

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE 45

speak, the inauguration of almost every form of charity
and philanthropy, of educational and social and eco-
nomic regeneration. On the other hand those who had
spoken scornfully of proselyting, who repudiated the
thought of meddling with the inner life of man, who
wished to be merely civilizers, have discovered that the
deep roots of civilization are always in morals and
faith and that the end of civilization is the character
of the men whom it raises up.

48. Identical faults. — There was a period, indeed, in
which the civilizers and the religionists alike were
guilty of a common fault. They manifested a naive
exaggeration of the value of the forms of culture or
again of faith which were familiar to themselves. They
took smugly superior attitudes toward the civilizations
and the faiths of other men. There was a period when
it seemed self-evident to these conscientious well-
wishers of mankind that there was but one religion,
just as also to some of the self-constituted reformers
of the economic life of the effete Orient it was obvious
that money divided itself naturally into pounds, shil-
lings, and pence. All those who had been born outside
of the circle of these indisputable benefits were lost
either for this world or for the world to come or both.
Remnants of this absurd racial and religious provincial-
ism still survive. The larger part of it has passed
away. The civilizations which the various races have
developed in the long ages of their isolation are now
seen to have each one of them its own peculiar elements
of beauty and power as well as also probably its par-
ticular defects. The faiths which have sustained the
different races in their long struggle upward are seen

46 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

to have had not merely a profound relation to the
nature of the races among whom they have prevailed.
They have emphasized also particular spiritual problems
and have offered touching and wonderful solutions of
those problems which the world would be the poorer
were it to forget.

49. Assimilation of vital elements. — If all this was
evident before the war it is still more evident in the
light of that which the war has brought about. No
one religion is simply to take the place of all the others,
as perhaps our ancestors dreamed when they talked
about the triumphs of the cross of Christ. Even with
those men of new races with whom Christianity may
take the place of their indigenous faith it will receive
form and color from their ancient inheritance and from
their especial environment. The indigenous faiths may
be profoundly altered by the changes in civilization and
by the rivalry of Christianity. It is not likely that
they will soon disappear. Only those who do not know
the history of their own religion fail to realize that
Christianity also, in the two thousand years that it
has been journeying from nation to nation, has gone
through many such transformations and amalgamations
with elements from the past of the races who adopted it.

50. Authoritative character of tlie Roman Catholic
missions. — One more point needs to be touched upon
in this connection. In it the contrast of the most
modern and especially of the Protestant propaganda
with that of the Roman Catholic missions of the six-
teenth century comes out. In that earlier stage which
we might call the Roman Catholic period of the expan-
sion of Christendom the effort for the spread of Chris-

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE 47

tianity was official. It was the work of the orders,
primarily of course of the Society of Jesus. It was
the task of recognized agencies in the Christian insti-
tution. It was authoritative and had behind it the
highest ecclesiastic responsibility. It went out from
the church and sought to bring men into the church.
It gained much by this authoritative character. It
had plan. It avoided waste. Yet there were limita-
tions and losses which went far to offset this gain.

51. Democratic aspects of Protestant missions. — In
contrast with this, in the great outburst of missionary
enthusiasm which followed the spread of the Pietist
movement and had its first signal illustration in the
work of the Moravian communities, one may say that
the absence of ecclesiastic authority and responsibility
was almost the universal trait. There was no central
religious authority among Protestants. Such developed
organizations as existed among them were at the first
almost invariably hostile to the missionary movement.
Pietists were not looked upon with favor among the
Lutherans. Those Independents who, with certain mem-
bers of other dissenting bodies, formed the London Mis-
sionary Society in 1795 were not the representatives of
the dissenting churches as such. The establishment of
the Church Missionary Society was something like an
active rebellion within the Anglican church, so different
were the views which obtained among these evangelical
enthusiasts from the views which were held in authori-
tative circles in the Establishment at that time. The
first missionary societies were not as a rule represen-
tative of any denomination. They were groups of men
and women from various sects drawn together by their

48 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

interest in this particular cause, a cause in which their
denominations were frequently not interested.

52. Parallel of Methodism and home missions. — It
must be remembered that in very similar fashion Wesley
had felt called upon to inaugurate, in 1738, what we
should now call his great home missionary movement
for the neglected among the population of the new
towns and the declining rural districts in England and
among the miners in Wales. Although he was a clergy-
man of the Church of England, he yet found himself
opposed by the church. The movement which he had
intended to be a reform within that church ended in
the complete separation of the Wesleyans from that
church. Yet the church has since sought to accomplish
many of the purposes which Wesley's eager spirit set
before itself. Similarly the great missionary societies,
most of them, have in the course of the nineteenth
century been appropriated by the churches when these
at last came to realize the significance of the cause
which at first they had opposed. Most of the mis-
sionary societies were originally chartered corporations.
They were not ecclesiastical bodies nor even the
servants of such bodies.

53. Parallel of the antislavery movement. — In some-
thing of the same manner, the great secular reforming
movements at the end of the eighteenth century, which
were the congeners of the Protestant missionary move-
ment, began in almost every case in the work of
individuals or of small groups who had upon their con-
science the prosecution of a particular reforming task.
The antislavery movement had this history in Great
Britain. In America those who opposed slavery had

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE 49

in the end to face a civil war. It is one of the pathetic
curiosities of the situation that they had also very
generally to face the hostility of the clergy and the
Christian church, which in this particular sided often
with organized society. The missionary movement in
India had for a generation all the power of the British
East India Company against it. Yet in the end Protes-
tant missions have certainly exerted a greater influence
upon education, medical work, charity, philanthropy,
and reform in the lands to which they have gone than
they would have done had they represented an authori-
tative institution like the Roman church. It is probable
that they have also exerted a greater influence than they
would have done had they had from the beginning the
favor of the European states which dominated the peoples
whom the missions sought to aid.

54. Change of mind on the part of non-European
peoples. — In the last sections various aspects of a change
of mind on the part of European nations toward the
peoples of the Orient were mentioned. That change
took place toward the end of the eighteenth century.
After the middle of the nineteenth century there came
a great change also in the attitude of Indians and
Japanese toward the ideas and influences of the West.
At the beginning of the twentieth century we have seen
the same change in the attitude of China and of the
Turkish Empire. No one of all the changes in the
oriental world within the last two generations is more
conspicuous or significant than is this alteration of the
oriental mind. A warlike nation like Japan, which
until 1854 had been hermetically sealed for two cen-
turies against all influences of the West, has in fifty

50 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

years freely adopted large elements of Western civili-
zation and become in some sense a Western nation in
the East. A peaceful nation like China, which so late
as 1900 was fatuous enough to throw down the gauntlet
to all the world at once, now seeks in feverish haste
to transform herself according to the principles of a
civilization which two decades ago she despised.

55. Racial self-consciousness in the East. — Certainly
Asiatics do not view with greater favor than formerly
the extension of Western sovereignties or the contin-
uance of those which already exist. Japanese and
Chinese have perceived, however, that the adoption of
Western arms and training for their armies and navies
and of Western methods in their business, the appro-
priation of the results of scientific discovery and inven-
tion in all areas of life, represent the only method by
which the peoples of the East can make stand against
the aggression of the nations of the West. It is not
that there is less of racial self -consciousness and national
aspiration than in former years among these peoples.
Quite the contrary; the resurgence of racial and national
feeling is one of the marked characteristics of the pres-
ent stage of our movement. It is a feeling which has
been directly fostered by the spread of the Western
empires and the violence and injustice with which that
expansion has too often been attended. Equally it
has been fostered by the growth of liberty and enlight-
enment and that amelioration of life among oriental
peoples which it has been the conscientious aim of
high-minded administrators of Western governments, as
in India, or again of European and American missionary
enthusiasts in Turkey or China, to bring about.

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE 51

56. The example of India. — The governors of India
in the first half of the nineteenth century grew ashamed
of the neglect which had characterized the earlier period
and inaugurated a system of education which is one
of the glories of India today. They esteemed that
this education in the history and principles of Western
and particularly of British life would tend to bind
India to Great Britain. As a matter of fact no incon-
siderable part of the unrest which exists in India today
exists among those who on the very basis of English
education, of British law and liberty, of Anglo-Saxon
freedom of speech and of the press, agitate in the sense
of the phrase " India for the Indians." To be sure
the war has brought out the fact that there exists a
very strong pro-British sentiment in India and this
among the classes most influential in the life of the
Indian peoples. Here is a great tribute to the essential
justice of the British rule. Yet one would altogether
deceive himself if he failed to realize that even this
fact is also an evidence of the intensity of Indian racial
aspiration. The leading minds of India believe that
those racial aspirations have more hope of realization
under British administration, for the present at least,
than they could possibly have in an India nominally
independent but really delivered over to division within
itself or else subject to some other foreign power.

57. The example of Turkey. — The awakening in the
Ottoman Empire manifested in the revolution of 1908
and 1909 surprised those who knew that empire best.
It was the result, in part, of an inner transformation
of certain subject peoples of the empire by elements of
Western education and of moral and religious stimulus

52 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

which had been introduced into Turkey by missionaries
within the last ninety years under treaties with Euro-
pean nations, which the Turkish government would
have been glad at any time to break. It was the result
in a measure also of a parallel recognition, hesitant
indeed and vacillating, yet in a measure genuine, upon
the part even of Turks themselves. They had come
to feel that the only hope of escaping the pressure
which Western powers, ever since 1829, had exerted
upon the Porte lay in permitting its army to be trained
after European fashion and some, at least, of its admin-
istrative and educational functionaries to be educated
in the capitals of Europe. The revolution represented
only a more consistent adoption by the party of progress
of a view which the old sultan alternately adopted and
abandoned. It was the view that the Turkish govern-
ment must be in some measure Europeanized if the
empire was to avoid dismemberment.

58. The example of Japan. — Japan, early in the
sixteenth century, admitted Portuguese traders and
presently also their Dutch and English competitors,
not indeed gladly, yet without any of the fierce hostility
which later showed itself. She permitted the inaugura-
tion of a Christian propaganda in the Japanese Empire
which for a time had extraordinary success. Then,
early in the seventeenth century, the Japanese turned
upon the Christians and indeed upon all foreigners.
They closed their ports against traders. Through the
insular position of Japan and by the warlike character
of its population they were able to carry out this isola-
tion of the island empire from the world in a manner
which seems almost incredible. In the year 1854 a com-

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE 53

mercial treaty with Japan was practically forced by the
United States. Fifteen years later the Japanese showed
themselves entirely convinced that the only safety of their
empire lay in the adoption of large elements of Western
civilization. They inaugurated reforms, political, civil,
social, educational, and economic, which have within fifty
years made Japan an effective competitor of any nation
in Christendom in almost any area of life.

59. The spirit of the Japanese. — No one imagines
that the Japanese have gone through this miraculous
transformation because they have not a proud sense
of their own race, of the glory of its past, or of the sig-
nificance of its future. The reverse is the case. They
have transformed Japan in order that they might remain
Japanese. One might say that we have thus in Japan
the most conspicuous example of the effect of the meas-
urable Europeanizing of a portion of the Orient upon the
free and enthusiastic movement of the mind and temper
of the people themselves. It has taken place in a nation
upon whose soil no European conqueror ever set foot.
One might say that as we think of Japan we gain a new
sense of our phrase "the expansion of Europe." We
realize that this expansion is not limited to relatively
empty continents, like America, which European settlers
filled, nor yet to populous territories like India, in which
European colonial empires have been set up. The phrase
is applicable also to a country which has done all that it
has done in Europeanizing itself in order that no Euro-
pean empire may be there set up.

60. The example of China. — China admitted Portu-
guese, Dutch, and English .traders to certain of her
seaports practically at the same time of which we

54 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

spoke in reference to Japan. She admitted Jesuit mis-
sionaries soon after the death of Francis Xavier. In
China also these missions achieved at the first astound-
ing success. From China also they were ejected with
something like the same severity. China also, though
never with the same effectiveness, sought to exclude
from the Celestial Empire the foreigner with all his
ways and works. So remarkable an episode as the
siege of the legations in Peking in the summer of 1900
must be interpreted as the last spasm of old China in
the effort to prevent the spread of European influences.
With the failure of that effort even the government of
the Dowager saw itself compelled to make the same
decision which Japan had taken forty years before.
It must accept a measure of Europeanization or cease
to be an autonomous power. Because the Europeani-
zation did not proceed fast enough for the enthusiasts
in China the Manchu dynasty was dethroned in the
revolution of 19 13 and China declared a republic. A
startling radicalism is the direct expression of the
quickened racial and national enthusiasm of the most
conservative people in the world.

61. Effect of the war. — There has been, indeed, a
general rapprochement due to increased intercourse of
nations within the last generation. Considerable num-
bers of the upper classes from all oriental countries
traveled and studied in European countries and in
America. Large numbers of the working classes had
found temporary employment in Western lands and
then returned to their own. There was a growing
recognition that the strong points of one civilization
might He in one direction and those of another in quite

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE 55

a different direction. There was a measure, none too
great, of international good-will. This international
good-will has been in some directions gravely dimin-
ished by the war. In some other directions it has
been greatly increased. The bringing of the nations
of the East into the life-and-death struggle of the West
will have altered profoundly the position of the Eastern
nations with reference to world-problems. The men of
the score of races who have fought on the battlefields
of Europe will never again take up the same position
which they had before they fought. The men of
Europe and America can never again assign them to
the same position. In the problems of reconstruction
which will face the whole world when the war is over,
Asia and also Africa will have part in a manner never
before dreamed of. The general assumption of the
superiority of Western civilization has been rudely
shaken. It has been shaken for orientals. It has been
shaken for Europeans and Americans themselves. It
is not true that in the minds of thoughtful men in tne
East the war has in principle discredited Christianity.
Christendom is discredited because it has fallen so far
below the level of Christianity. Chinese men know
this as well as do Englishmen and Americans.

62. Assimilation of West and East. — The things
which we have been saying show that one outstanding
trait of the contacts of West and East in the nineteenth
century has been what we may call the tendency to
assimilation of West and East. Conquests have con-
tinued. In Africa especially, European lust of conquest
led after 1878 to a veritable scramble for territorial pos-
session. Trade has been more extensive than ever before.

56 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Yet there has been also a disposition upon the part of men
of the West to impart all elements of their life to the men
of the East. Conversely, there has been a disposition on
the part of these latter to receive and naturalize among
themselves many elements, both the superficial and the
deeper ones, of Western civilization. Motives on both
sides have been complex. There is now a tendency
toward a measurable uniformity of type of civilization
which everywhere shows itself. Certain elements of the
life of Europe and America with which we are familiar
at home meet us in every land upon the face of the
earth in curious juxtaposition with elements native to
the particular region to which we have transported our-
selves. You may pass a door in Shanghai and see a
woman with bound feet speaking through a telephone.
63. Nature of this assimilation. — When we reflect
that the European-American civilization is no better
than it is, we have moments of profound depression.
We have times when we deeply deplore this tendency
to assimilation. We wonder if all that is great and
beautiful in the ancient civilizations of the East is to
disappear before the advance of a civilization concern-
ing which we must ourselves admit that, although it
has elements which are great and good, it has mon-
strous elements of evil as well. If we really believed
that the European civilization was to displace all
others we might well doubt concerning the issue of a
movement begun long ago, which has now passed com-
pletely beyond our control and of which the results
are highly problematical. The comfort lies in the fact
that no such complete displacement of ancient civiliza-
tions, cultures, or religions is going to take place. There

THE EXPANSION OF MODERN EUROPE 57

will be a measure of uncertainty in the movement at
the first. In the last analysis we may be sure that
only those things in Western civilization which have
vitality in the East will survive. Just so those things
in the Eastern civilizations which have sufficient vitality
will also certainly survive. These two sets of vital
elements, disparate as they have been in their origin
and acute as may be the present conflict between them,
will coalesce in something vital for the nations which
are to be. Moreover, it is certain that vital elements
in the Eastern civilizations, cultures, and faiths will
influence the West far more profoundly in the twentieth
century than they have done in the nineteenth.

64. Appropriation of certain outward factors. — Grant-
ing this principle of assimilation, it is interesting to
note that certain elements of European civilization are
apparently more easy for non-European races to take
over in their entirety than are certain others. To put
it differently, certain elements of European civilization
practically unaltered do displace corresponding elements
in Asiatic and African civilizations. Certain others
never make headway until they have been profoundly
altered by the play upon them of the genius of the
race concerned. Manufacturing, mining, and industrial
processes, which involve the application of the physical
sciences developed until recently only in the West,
are reproduced in Japan and will be reproduced in
China practically without alteration. Western medi-
cine has completely taken the place of what passed
for medical practice among the Japanese two genera-
tions ago. In certain outward things life in the East
will some day not merely resemble life in the West, it

58 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

will be identical with life in the West. The railways
and factory chimneys in Hankow or Osaka or Milan or
Manchester or Chicago remind us of this fact every day.
65. Naturalization of the deeper and more permanent
elements. — The moment one passes, however, into the
sphere of inner freedom, of government, of education
in its larger human aspects, of social life and morals,
and most of all of religion, the case is different. Here,
in what we may call the spiritual area, the individual
reaction is immeasurably greater. Characteristic results
of freedom everywhere manifest themselves. Industrial
life may be the same or nearly so the world over. Social
life, art, poetry will never lose the traces of their past.
It would be deplorable if they should do so. The
moral and religious life of some of these peoples is an
area within which they have made vast achievements
in time past, achievements before which we of the
West must stand in awe and reverence. The results
of these ages of moral and spiritual conflict, feeling,
thought, will never be entirely lost. We ought to give
thanks that this is so. Elements of the Western man's
social life and moral system and religious aspiration
may well pass into the life of the East through free
adoption of them on the part of individuals and groups of
Eastern men. They will never thus pass without being
altered by the free play of the life and character of the
race concerned. Doctrines will never find expression
native to these peoples except against the background of
their ancestral cultivation. The interpretation of religion
and of Christianity itself, in so far as these peoples adopt
Christianity, will be the richer and more wonderful by
the racial contributions which these peoples make.

CHAPTER IV

THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN AMERICA
AND RUSSIAN ASIA

CHAPTER IV

THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN AMERICA AND

RUSSIAN ASIA

66. Present situation as to colonial empires

67. The spread of the spirit of Europe in the autonomous nations
of the East

68. A third sense of the expansion of Europe as illustrated in
North America and Australia

69. Latin America

70. Religious history in the Americas

71. The Protestant sects

72. Asiatic Russia

73. Religious history of modern Russia

74. Freedom in Russia

75. Russian conquests in Asia

76. Russian settlements and missions in Asia

77. Missions of the Holy Orthodox church outside of Russia

CHAPTER IV

THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE IN AMERICA AND

RUSSIAN ASIA

66. Present situation as to colonial empires. — We have
used the phrase " expansion of Europe" in the sense of
the great empires of conquest and trade, the establish-
ment of which became the object of the ambition of
European powers as early as the middle of the sixteenth
century. The older of these colonial empires have
practically vanished, not without leaving their mark
upon the trade and civilization of the world. Great
Britain continues in possession of an empire which at
the end of the reign of Victoria contained one-fourth of
the habitable land of the globe and one-fifth of the human
race. France has in part recouped itself for territorial
losses through the partitionment of Africa in the last
quarter of the nineteenth century. Italy and Belgium
and Germany, which earlier had no part in this colonial
development, held at the beginning of the war large
possessions in Africa.

67. The spread of the spirit of Europe in the auton-
omous nations of the East. — We have seen, however, that
the phrase " expansion of Europe" may be used in quite
a different sense from that of colonial possessions under
governmental sway. It may describe a state of things
like that in Japan where certain elements of European
civilization have been freely taken over with varied
motives by great nations of the East. In these cases the
phrase denotes the adoption and adaptation by Asiatic

61

62 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

and other races of European ideas and institutions which
have taken place without the establishment of an outward
sway of European states. It is a change of the mind of
peoples, some of them peoples with a great history and
a highly developed civilization of their own, which yet
in governmental and industrial and educational matters
have been profoundly influenced by the spirit of a
civilization which had its origin and its slow evolution
entirely in Western Europe and America.

68. A third sense of the expansion of Europe as illus-
trated in North America and Australia. — We have now
to note that the phrase "expansion of Europe" may be
used with still a third meaning. Of this third significance
of the phrase, Australia and New Zealand, almost all of
South America, and the whole of North America may be
taken as representative. The United States constitutes
the typical example. Here European states did at first
establish actual sovereignty. These sovereignties were,
however, established in vast regions of sparse population
and of no highly developed civilization. The aboriginal
population has almost disappeared. There has been
no influence of an American Indian civilization upon the
civilization of the people who now inhabit the United
States. There is but one great factor in the population
of the United States which is not of European descent.
This is made up of the descendants of African slaves.
They also had no civilization of their own the elements
of which could enter into composition with that of the
Europeans who ruthlessly brought them to these shores.
In the major aspects of its civilization therefore this
great area which has now arrived at primary significance
in the history of the world is but a portion of Europe

EUROPE IN AMERICA AND RUSSIAN ASIA 63

transferred bodily to the Western Hemisphere. This
situation is not altered by the fact that the territory in
question long ago severed its political connection with
Europe and established itself as an independent nation.
It belongs to the area from which direct and powerful
influences for the Europeanizing of the world go out.

69. Latin America. — Mexico and almost all the states
of Central and South America have also thrown off their
allegiance to the European powers, of which they were
originally colonies. The remnant of the aboriginal
populations is relatively larger than in the case of Canada
or of the United States. There has been more of admix-
ture of Caucasian blood with these aboriginal elements.
The South American states and the islands have also a
large African population. The civilization of Mexico
and Peru seems to have been considerably higher than
that which was anywhere found in the north of North
America. It has left but little trace behind. The
European impulses which these southern peoples received
in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were then
for a long time broken off. Spain and Portugal were
declining. Mexico has many characteristics of the
Spain of the sixteenth century rather than those of
the Spain of the nineteenth century. Australia has
the characteristics of the British Isles of the present
moment. The United States, with its unexampled
admixture of European populations as it is today, has
had a development all its own and in the full tide of the
development of the modern world.

70. Religious history in the Americas. — Religiously
also the Americas and Australia are but a Europe over-
seas. But little trace is left of the religions of the North

64 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

or South American Indian tribes. There has been no
composition and fusion of Christian with other elements,
such as we have seen in the lands of the East. Heroism
in missionary endeavor on the part of French Jesuits on
behalf of the North American Indians and again on that
of the Spanish Franciscans in the interest of populations
of the Southwest and of the Pacific Coast was not lacking.
These populations have, however, almost disappeared
from the earth. The Christians helped them to dis-
appear in a measure not creditable to their Christianity.
In the religion of the negro population there are psycho-
logical traits easily recognizable as traits of African
paganism. Yet the mythology and religious folklore
of these children of Africa in America has curiously little
reminiscence of anything which is African. It is Chris-
tian or Jewish in form. Its most pathetic trait is its
recurrence to the idea of the deliverance of Israel.
In the large the Christianity of these continents is
therefore the Christianity of Europeans themselves,
developed indeed in a new environment and under new
conditions but under impulses and with diversifications
which almost all had their origin in the history of the
church in Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. The original Christianity of the United
States was Roman Catholicism in the south and
again in the far north. It was Protestantism almost
exclusively in the middle area.

7 1 . The Protestant sects. — Protestant sects are numer-
ous in the United States and Canada. Most of them
trace their origin to the fact that these regions were
settled at a time when in Europe and especially in
England after the Civil War the tendency to sectarian

EUROPE IN AMERICA AND RUSSIAN ASIA 65

division and denominational disruption was at its height.
In many instances sectaries left their own countries of
purpose that they might have a free field for the expres-
sion of their own religious peculiarities. In the United
States and Canada these denominations have, during
the nineteenth century, taken upon themselves respon-
sibility for participation in the Christian missionary
activity of the world. Undoubtedly they have increased
the perplexity of converts to the Christian faith in Asia
and Africa when they have been too insistent as to
idiosyncrasies which can never have any meaning for
the Asiatic and are rapidly ceasing to have any for
the American. Perhaps the development of Christian
thought and institutions in the missions will help to do
away with these petty divisions which have long been
the bane of occidental Protestantism.

72. Asiatic Russia. — Allusion has been made to
Russia as having extended within our period the influence
of Europe throughout the whole northern part of the
continent of Asia somewhat as England and other Euro-
pean states have spread that influence in the southern
portion of that continent. There are, however, great
and characteristic differences. The Russian Empire is a
continuous land empire. Sea-borne commerce has had
practically no part in its development. Until the rail-
ways the old caravan routes were the only arteries of
traffic. Russia has not been, in the modern sense, an
industrial or commercial state. The passion for enlarge-
ment of territory even in regions where agriculture and
mining values were not as yet much thought of was at
the first the main motive. As the Tatars pressed upon
Russia until the victory of the Don, as the Russians

66 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

once paid tribute to the Khan in the valley of the Amur,
so the Russians in turn have pressed eastward upon the
Tatars until the chieftains of the Amur paid tribute in
Kiev and Moscow and Petrograd.

73. Religious history of modern Russia. — Russia had
no part in many of the movements which went to make
the modern European states. She had no part in the
Crusades. Yet in the five hundred years of struggle
against the Tatars she may be said to have had a crusade
of her own. Russia had no part in the Renaissance.
Yet through her unbroken connection with Constan-
tinople it is doubtful whether in the period before the
Renaissance the culture of Little Russia and Poland was
not at a higher level than that of large parts of Western
Europe. Russia had no experience parallel to that of
the Protestant Reformation. The establishment of the
patriarchate of Moscow was rather the emergence in
Russia of a power like that of the pope which Western
Europe at that very time was seeking to break. The
breath of the intellectual and spiritual reformation which
touched Cyril Lucar, the illustrious patriarch of Con-
stantinople, and made him the correspondent of Anglican
churchmen in the seventeenth century never touched
Russia. The Reformation movement once so significant
in Poland was crushed by the Roman church.

74. Freedom in Russia. — There was no democratic
and individualist movement in Russia like that which in
England and more slowly in France followed upon the
period of the Reformation. Russia failed to receive
that quickening which the rationalist movement every-
where gave to all phases of the life of Western Europe.
The individualism of much of the present-day movement

EUROPE IN AMERICA AND RUSSIAN ASIA 67

in Russia may be ascribed to the tyrannical postpone-
ment of the slow and beneficent effects of a normal
national awakening just as the excesses of the French
Revolution may be credited to the repression practiced
by the Bourbon state and the Gallican church. In the
Russian revolution the church seems to have gone by the
board as truly as the state. That happened in France
also after 1789.

75. Russian conquests in Asia. — It was Ivan the
Terrible, who reigned from 1533 to 1584, who began the
great advance of Russia into Asia. Jarmak, a man from
beyond the Urals, was the first great conqueror. By his
so-called gift of Siberia to the crown he purchased his
restoration to the favor of Ivan in 1583. Within eighty
years the Russians had reached the Amur River and the
Pacific Coast. At the end of a hundred years they had
penetrated deep into North America. The conquest
of the Caucasus regions, partly from Persia and partly
from the Porte, was one of the great objects of the reign
of Nicholas I. The reign of his successor, Alexander II,
who died in 1881, brought to Russia indeed doubtful
success in the war with Turkey, but it also witnessed
vast expansion of Russian territory in Central Asia.
It gave to the Czar the whole area lying between Siberia
on the north and Persia and Afghanistan on the south
and stretching from the Caspian to Chinese territory.
The question of the relation of Siberia to the civil and
social salvation of Russia emerges in unexpected fashion
in the later stages of the Great War.

76. Russian settlements and missions in Asia. — The
settlement of the conquered country has been slow. The
population is still sparse. Cossack troops were sent tp

68 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

follow up the invasions. Imperial guards were located
in the main towns. Peasants fled from Russia to escape
serfdom or conscription. Again, peasants have been
settled on the land by the government, and sectaries of
every sort have fled from Russia to escape religious
persecution. Political exiles were once very numerous
in certain regions. Everywhere the Russian church has
followed with more or less success this essentially Russian
population. Everywhere it has attempted mission work
among the non-Christian populations. In considerable
parts of Siberia the primitive paganism is disappearing.
Russian priests were closely associated with the govern-
ment in administration of the Asiatic provinces. No
great influence has been exerted by the church through-
out the Asiatic domain in the direction of education or
social reform.

77. Missions of the Holy Orthodox church outside of
Russia. — The Russian church has three foreign mission-
ary endeavors of not inconsiderable significance. Its
oldest field is that in China. Missions were established
at Peking in 17 14 in face of strong opposition on the part
of the Jesuits and the Roman Catholic church. There
is a very successful mission of the Russian church in
Japan, established in 1863 by the Archimandrite Nicolai,
only recently dead. It is said to have some thirty
thousand Japanese adherents. Thirdly, there is an
extensive missionary work of the Russian church among
Indians and Eskimos in Alaska and the Aleutian
Islands dating from the time when this territory belonged
to Russia.

CHAPTER V
THE OPENING OF AFRICA

CHAPTER V

THE OPENING OF AFRICA

78. Early trade and slavery

79. Portuguese Africa

80. Dutch Africa

81. Missionaries and explorers

82. Partitionment of Africa since 1879

83. Africa and alien civilization

84. The struggle against slavery and the slave trade

85. Industrial conditions in South Africa

CHAPTER V
THE OPENING OF AFRICA

78. Early trade and slavery. — Africa was the first
of the continents with which Europeans came in con-
tact when, in the age of the Renaissance, the movement
of European expansion began. It is the last of the
continents upon which the partitionment of large parts
of its territory among European powers has been at-
tempted. For centuries trade was carried on by Euro-
peans upon the coast before serious effort was made
even to explore the interior. Christian missionary
endeavors, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, though
early inaugurated, have not yet passed much beyond
the primitive stages appropriate to a people of but
little developed civilization. On the other hand, a
great and successful propaganda in the name of Islam
has been carried on in Africa for more than a generation.
The black race shows nowhere marked tendency to
diminish in numbers or vitality before the advance of
white men as did the Indians of North America and the
islanders of the South Seas. This is true in spite of the
fact that, great as were the injustices practiced by
settlers toward the Indians, these never for a moment
bore comparison with the atrocities of the slave trade.

79. Portuguese Africa. — Portuguese adventurers pat-
ronized by Henry the Navigator doubled Cape Bojardo
in 1434. By 1480 the whole of the Guinea coast was
known. Items of commerce mentioned were slaves,
ivory, and gold. The discovery of America after

71

72 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

1492 stimulated the slave trade, which before that time
had been largely an overland traffic and confined to
Mohammedan Africa. The supremacy of the Guinea
coast passed from Portugal to Holland in the seventeenth
and to England and France in the eighteenth and nine-
teenth centuries. The Portuguese long held most of
the east coast south of Cape Gardafui, with Mozambique
as their center. They knew of gold mines in the interior
in what is now Rhodesia, but their attempt to establish
a hold over these regions was never effective.

80. Dutch Africa. — The Dutch made permanent
settlement at Table Bay in 1652. To this Dutch
colony at the Cape went many French Protestants.
They were absorbed into the life of the Dutch colonies
which were later to become the Boer republics and have
but recently passed into the hands of Great Britain.
The eighteenth century saw almost no progress in the
penetration of the interior of the continent. The slave
trade from the two coasts dwarfed everything else. In
this trade the seaboard colonies of North America came
to take a large part.

81. Missionaries and explorers. — The Napoleonic
era distracted European attention from Africa. Yet
the temporary possession of Egypt, first by France and
then by England, may have suggested the establishment
in 181 1 under Mohammed Ali of a regime almost inde-
pendent of the Ottoman Empire. Also in 1832 the
Arabs began to penetrate the interior from Zanzibar.
There had been Roman Catholic missions at various
places on the coast from the beginning. The English
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel inaugurated
its work in 1752. Moravians followed in 1792. Prot-

THE OPENING OF AFRICA 73

estant missionaries, like Rebmann and Krapf , who were
German Pietists under English auspices, became
explorers and discoverers and agitators for the abolition
of the slave trade. The typical person in this group
is, above all, Livingstone, who, in the period from 1849
to 1873, crossed Africa from ocean to ocean three times.
He spent his life in the struggle against the slave trade,
in the endeavor to heal what he called "the open sore
of the world. " Burton and Speke, Baker and Cameron,
Schweinfurth and Stanley, with their compeers, had by
1875 made Africa to be no longer the Dark Continent,
the mystery which it had remained since the world
began.

82. Partitionment of Africa since 187 g. — Before
1875 the only powers with considerable territorial
interests in Africa were the Portuguese, the British,
and the French. After 1854 even the British took but
languid interest in African affairs. The opening of the
Suez Canal in 1869 changed the face of matters. Yet
even in 1879 not a tenth of the area of the continent was
claimed by European powers. Then in 1884 came the
effort upon the part of the Germans, beginning with
Togo and Kamerun, to express in world-relations the
greatness of the German Empire united since 1870.
France also in the same period undertook to make good
the loss of the glorious empire in America which she had
sacrificed in the eighteenth century. The British were
virtually in possession of Egypt with the guardianship
of the Canal after 1882. They extended their territory
southward into the Sudan and reached the sea at
Mombasa. When after the Boer War the old Dutch
republics had fallen into English hands, nothing but the

74 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

territory of German East Africa interrupted a continuous
British sovereignty from Cairo to the Cape. Similarly
nothing save the British possession of the Egyptian
Sudan prevented the French from holding a continuous
empire from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean. Belgium
also entered the struggle of European powers for African
possessions, obtaining in 1885 a protectorate over the
so-called Congo Free State, which became a Belgian
colony in 1908. Germany presently added to her pos-
sessions a great area on the west coast north of Cape
Colony. Italy, after an abortive effort in Abyssinia,
obtained the Eritrean coast on the Red Sea. Within
the last few years she has appropriated also a large part
of Tripoli. The portions of Africa which still own
allegiance to the Porte are by this time very small.
Those portions which by any stretch of language could
be described as autonomous African states are smaller

still.

83. Africa and alien civilization. — It is true that the
development of Africa has waited apparently through
all the ages for the impact of the civilization of Europe.
It is true that the black races, the immemorial inhabi-
tants of by far the larger part of this continent, have
never developed any high civilization among themselves
or made appreciable advance, save when in contact
with other races. It is also true that no continent
has ever suffered such monstrous wrongs in its contacts
with the civilizations of Asia, Europe, and America.
Slavery has been known in the history of many races.
No one race has been singled out as everybody's slave
as has the colored race. There is something profoundly
disturbing in the opening decades of the twentieth cen-

THE OPENING OF AFRICA 75

tury of Christianity in the spectacle of the struggle of
European nations for the possession each of its own part
of this magnificent continent, with the least possible
recognition that the races who have lived in it since the
world began have rights to independent development
which anyone is bound to respect.

84. The struggle against slavery and the slave trade.
— Great Britain abolished slavery in the empire in 1833.
The slave trade had been abolished in 1806. Certain
northern states of the United States, one after another,
abolished slavery before 1806, but in the United States
as a whole the end came only as the result of a bitter
civil war, in 1863. The British took up the war upon the
African and Arab slave raiders in Africa in 1882. The
partitionment of Africa had hardly begun. The slave
trade from the Congo country to the east coast was
at its very worst. The struggle lasted until 1909.
Its most picturesque figure was surely Chinese Gordon
who lost his life at Khartoum in 1884. Neither slavery
nor the slave trade is yet stamped out in Africa. They
are certainly reduced far beyond the measure which
anyone of Gordon's generation would have dared to
hope.

85. Industrial conditions in South Africa. — Mean-
time the development of trade, particularly of mining,
in British South Africa since the Boer War, with the
building of railways and the navigation of the great
lakes and rivers, has set up a movement among the
African tribes themselves which bids fair now swiftly
to alter conditions which have existed since before the
dawn of history. The isolation of local tribes, their
permanence upon the spot of soil with which they have

76 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

always been identified, is ceasing or has ceased. The
tribal dialects, the whole social system, patriarchal or
of whatever sort it was, are giving way before this
migration. A hundred or more languages and dialects
are spoken daily in Johannesburg. Laborers who until
yesterday lived exactly as their ancestors lived ever
since the Pharaohs now live in the suburbs of Johannes-
burg much as laborers live in a mining camp in Colorado,
on the Yukon, or in Siberia. The problem of main-
taining government over this population is sufficiently
difficult. The problem of their education and of the
maintenance of moral distinctions and religious values
among them is greater still.

CHAPTER VI

MISSIONARY THEORY AND INSTRUMEN-
TALITIES

CHAPTER VI

MISSIONARY THEORY AND INSTRUMENTALITIES

86. Effect on indigenous faiths

87. Transformation of these faiths

88. All classes feel the strain

89. Religious unrest in the Orient

90. Abortive results of the movement

91. Other considerations

92. Changed view concerning missions

93. Absolute religion and revelation

94. Comparative study of religions

95. Studies in the history of Christianity

96. Religion of the spirit

97. Religion of soul salvation

98. Social salvation

99. The spirit of progress

100. The abiding need

1 01. Origins of the Society of Jesus

102. Francis Xavier

103. The Congregation "de Propaganda Fide"

104. Organizations of the Established Church of England

105. Other British societies

106. German Pietists

107. The Moravians; other Continental societies

108. American societies

109. Women's boards

no. Origin of the Young Men's Christian Association
in. Work of the Association

112. Origin of the Bible societies

113. The work of the Bible societies

CHAPTER VI

MISSIONARY THEORY AND INSTRUMENTALITIES

86. Effect on indigenous faiths. — In many of the non-
European countries which come within our view, the
change in ideals of life, the relaxation of old authority
has had, temporarily at least, injurious effect upon the
social and moral life of whole strata of the population.
Not merely foreigners who have the interest of these
nations at heart, but representatives of the peoples
themselves view this situation with grave concern.
They feel that unless the old faiths which once func-
tioned serviceably can be revived or unless other
sanctions can be found, the last end of the boasted prog-
ress of their countries will be worse than the first.
These facts explain the efforts at the reform of Hinduism
which have been made by enlightened spirits in India
within the last two generations. This anxiety besets
many high-minded men in Japan. It animates both
their effort at the revival of the ancient faiths and also
their attitude of open-mindedness toward the foreign
faith to which they were formerly hostile. That the
hope of many of these men takes the form of an adequate
restatement and readjustment of their own ancestral
faiths to the new conditions of their nation's life is
altogether natural. Whether these ancient faiths can
ever really achieve so radical a transformation of them-
selves, whether they can ever become again in their
vastly altered environment the sources of spiritual
insight and of moral corroboration which they were

7Q

80 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

under the earlier conditions, is a question which only
time and the adherents of these faiths can answer.
Western civilization in some measure all these nations
are determined to have. In considerable measure they
already have it. What will be its effect upon Eastern
religions ?

87. Transformation of these faiths. — In some sense
these changes which have become imperative for oriental
faiths are parallel to those through which Christianity
itself has passed in Europe and America within the
nineteenth century. Many of the same problems which
we have met, Buddhism in Japan and Hinduism in
India must now meet, only in these latter cases the
adjustment to modern conditions seems more difficult.
The gulf fixed between these faiths and the modern mind
and life seems to us greater than it can possibly be in
the case even of those Christians who offer stoutest
resistance to all new interpretations. Yet even in
Christendom only too many men are left practically
indifferent to religion because they have never conceived
of it except in terms which they are unable in intellec-
tual integrity to accept. It is no wonder if certain
Japanese and Hindus are becoming non-religious,
if not actually irreligious, because they cannot state
their Buddhism or Hinduism in terms which they as
scientifically trained modern men can honestly accept.

88. All classes feel the strain. — Nor should it be
implied that the effect we seek to describe is limited to
the educated classes. On the contrary, just as in
Christendom, this influence is felt in strata of the
population which themselves have little or no modern
training. To them, nevertheless, the attitude of mind

MISSIONARY INSTRUMENTALITIES 81

of others has spread in that marvelous contagion of
opinion which everywhere exists in the modern world.
Nor is it to be forgotten that some of those who have been
most zealous in the cause of Christian missions have in
times past appeared not to feel in its full force that neces-
sity of restatement and adjustment of Christianity to
modern conditions which was implied above. Some of
them have thought of the doctrinal and ritual forms of
their own faith as unchangeable. They have expected
nothing of their converts but that these should give up
absolutely their inherited faith and take over the faith
and life of one of our Western sects in its entirety. The
beauty of the Christian character of some who have
conscientiously held this mistaken view, their exemplary
life with the treasures of their love and self-sacrifice,
have won and held converts to the more thoughtful of
whom their theoretical views must have been difficult
in the extreme.

89. Religious unrest in the Orient. — The whole reli-
gious and moral life of the Orient is seething with unrest,
just as is also that of the Occident. It sometimes seems
as if we had succeeded mainly in imparting to the
East our own unrest, an unrest of which it is gratui-
tously assumed that the Orient knew nothing until
the Western man appeared. Certain it is that there
will be no solution of the problems which this unrest
creates, either in the East or in the West, save upon the
basis of the discovery of the relation which our complex
and ever-changing modern life bears to the eternal facts
and truths of morals, of idealism, and of religion. In
this quest upon which we are now launched, in this
struggle to which the whole race is committed, in this

82 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

profound dissatisfaction which we all feel, and to the
faith which in our most trying moments we all cherish,
it is more than likely that the oriental races have their
own grand contribution to make.

90. Abortive results of the movement. — It would not
be strange if some among us, profoundly impressed
with the weaknesses and unworthinesses of the life of
our Western World, had moments of regretting that we
have thus drawn the whole human race within the vortex
of our own ills. We have infected them with our own
vices as if they had not already enough of their own. We
have set them only too vivid an example of our crimes.
We have given them our intellectual doubts. We
have conferred upon them our own economic and social
fallacies. We have brought to them the contribution
of our diseased and deadly individualism, an individual-
ism which, while it is the root of much that is good, is
equally the root of much that is evil in our own nations.
This individualism, never more marked than in certain
current phases of socialistic agitation, is in striking con-
trast with the solidarity, the community sense, the sub-
ordination of the individual to the family and race, which
in some form or other almost every Eastern people shows,
or at least has shown almost down to our own day.

91. Other considerations. — It would indeed be sorrow-
ful if in thus reflecting we could not set over against
the evils which we have done, both wittingly and unwit-
tingly, vast and substantial benefits as well. It requires
no boastfulness, it does not express mere provincial
complacency, if we say that great benefits have been
conferred by the West upon the East. The greatest of
all the benefits which we have conferred have not been

MISSIONARY INSTRUMENTALITIES 83

comforts and luxuries. They are not mere appliances
for getting on in life. The greatest benefits have been
inner impulses, stimuli to the mental and moral and
spiritual existence of those ancient races which we hope
may help them to live the life which is being forced upon
them as upon ourselves in the new world. In truth
the moral and spiritual good which we may yet hope to
do is the only offset still possible to the otherwise irre-
mediable harm which we have already done. It is
too late to arrest the great movement of the assimilation
of the world to Europe which we in these pages are
endeavoring to describe. It is too late inanely to
mourn over it. For better or for worse, or rather for
worse and for better, it has taken place. The Orient,
Africa, and the Islands wish to have it continue to take
place. We have given so much that it is too late to
consider anything now save royally giving the rest.
We have given of our outward life. Those of us who
have anything which we understand to be the inner
secret of our life must give that as well.

92. Changed view concerning missions. — Underlying
all that has been said in these last few paragraphs is the
implication that the Christian propaganda has in some
respects changed its point of view within the century
and a half which we survey. This is true and these
changed aspects of the missionary movement are of
great significance. The changes are in a measure parallel
to those which we have already observed in the secular
movement. They are coincident with changes in the
interpretations of Christianity which have taken place
in Europe and America within the period of which we
speak. The emphases in religion within Christendom

84 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

itself were widely different at the end of the nineteenth
century from that which they were at the beginning.
The main differences may be summarized under two
heads.

93. Absolute religion and revelation. — It does not
admit of question that the pioneers of the missionary
movement believed in the Christian religion as an
absolute religion, the one faith whereby men could be
saved. They viewed the ethnic religions as more or less
completely erroneous, creations of the darkened minds
and superstitious fears of men, or else bare fragments
of an almost forgotten revelation from God. One and
all were evil, misleading, and soul-destroying. The
zealots were for the most part not aware that in thus
arguing they were departing from the nobler tradition
of the Christian apologetic as exhibited in Clement of
Alexandria and Origen. Furthermore, with their alle-
giance to the ecumenical creeds and the reformation
symbols as embodying the gospel as this fell in original
purity from Jesus' lips, with their sense also that their
own forms of government or ritual were guaranteed in
the words of an oracular Scripture, they could not but
expect that the church in China, the Ottoman Empire,
or Africa would assume the form which it had had in
England or New England and would always keep that
form.

94. Comparative study of religions. — The scientific
study of religions is a development largely of the last
generation. The philosophy of religion within that same
period has undergone a revolution. Students of the
last twenty years have had opportunity to become
conversant with these themes. Points of contact and

MISSIONARY INSTRUMENTALITIES 85

of contrast in the great faiths of men appeal to us in
a manner widely different from that which our fathers
understood. Moreover, experience in the field now
affects the minds of some devoutest emissaries of
Christianity in a way which would once have been
esteemed hardly consonant with loyalty. We now feel
that the spiritual elements in an indigenous faith are
to be joyfully recognized. Its ethical achievements and
possibilities should be availed of. The points which
unite us to the men to whom we preach should be dwelt
on before the points dividing us should be brought into
view. This all belongs to a theory of missions which
seems to us so axiomatic that we can hardly make real
to ourselves that it has not always prevailed.

95. Studies in the history of Christianity. — Of even
greater significance perhaps than this growing apprecia-
tion of the worth of other religions has been an insight
which the last half-century has brought us into the na-
ture of our own. The view of the nature and authority
of Scripture has been transformed. There has been a
kind of contagion of the influence of the historic spirit
even among those who possess little or nothing of the
learning of the historian. It appears axiomatic to minds
of but limited training that all things have had a develop-
ment, have passed through stages of progress, have
unfolded and been but gradually revealed. This
dynamic view of all things in the universe, including the
fact of religion and the essence of Christianity, is as
instinctive with the modern man as was its contrary,
the static view of these same matters, three or even two
generations ago. Therewith is conceded the relativity
of Christian doctrines, institutions, and practices.

86 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Therewith becomes obvious that these all have had in
them, besides their permanent factor, an element of
that which was partial, passing, adapted to the time
which produced it, and giving place under the exigencies
of a new time and in the conditions of a new environ-
ment. The great revelation was personality. The
documents of revelation are nothing but the deposit of
some part of the characteristic impulse of that person-
ality, the reminiscence of it, the interpretation of it,
with such fidelity as earnest men are capable of and with
such errors and idiosyncrasies as nothing human ever
quite escapes. There is no creed of Christendom, there
is no dogma or system of theology, there is no ritual of
worship, there is no rule of practice which has not this
composite character, this relativity, this human body
and parts.

96. Religion of the spirit. — The same historic view
has re-created Old Testament studies and given us a
history of the people of Israel and of the literature and
religion of Israel, truly critical indeed, but full of vener-
ation for all that which the ancient covenant meant to
the world. It is the same view which compels us to
see in the dogmatic and institutional and social develop-
ment of Islam most interesting and instructive parallels
to corresponding phases in the evolution of Christianity.
It is the same view which makes the investigations of
primitive religion, in so far as we are able to form any
clear picture of the religion of primitive man, so impor-
tant for the understanding of Christianity itself. We
see in certain aspects of current Christianity probable
survivals of nature religions and of the religions of the
law which antedated the emergence of the religion of

MISSIONARY INSTRUMENTALITIES 87

redemption. Few would any longer contend that a
religion is to be judged by its origins alone. Most would
assert that, on the contrary, the highest religions are
to be estimated by their highest stages.

97. Religion of soul-salvation. — Again, there has been
the greatest change in the estimate of the relation of
religion to the life of the world. Those who were at
first interested in modern missions truly described them-
selves as interested mainly in the salvation of souls. The
literature of Pietism, the records of the Moravians, the
sermons of Carey, the exhortations of the inaugurators
of the American movement, leave no doubt as to that.
It was not a general program for human amelioration
which they had in mind. It was a ministry to the souls
of men through the gospel. It was the proclamation
of the love of God as manifested in the atonement
wrought by Jesus Christ. It was the proclamation of
the sufficiency of these benefits if a man had nothing
else in the world. The missionaries cannot be blamed
for declaring this to the heathen; they believed it for
themselves. And indeed upon "the heathen in his
blindness" no greater boon ever was conferred or ever
can be conferred than just this inward transformation
which made him conscious victor over his state, no
matter how dreadful that state might be. No higher
boon has ever been conferred upon any man anywhere
than is this victory of the spirit. It is the identical
boon which the gospel upon the lips and in the hands of
Jesus conferred. It is the boon in light of which Paul
cried, "What things were gain to me, those I counted
loss." Rationalists and radicals were alienated from
the church at home and hostile to missions abroad on

SS THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

just this ground. They held that it was narrow and
exclusive. They were right. But it was religion. A
larger view of the world might modify it. The truest
view of the world could never take its place. A world-
view is never a substitute for religion. Amelioration
is not redemption.

98. Social salvation. — Meanwhile a larger view of the
world has come to us. We have come to a juster judg-
ment of the relation of religion to the world. It is one
of the great achievements of the nineteenth century,
this transformation in the interpretation of Christianity.
The world has become the subject of redemption. The
life of the body, the life of the mind, the life which men
live in their trades and crafts, in their families and
states, in their classes and masses, in their labor and
pleasures, this all has been taken up into the great en-
thusiasm of religion. The church at home is abused for
not having earlier realized its privilege and obligation
in these regards. A man of insight may quite frankly
say that the greatest risk which the cause of religion at
the present moment runs is that of coming to construe
itself in no other terms than these. If it was once too
otherworldly, it is clear that its peril is now that of
being too completely and entirely absorbed in aims which
begin and end in this life and world. We repeat that
the original impulse of Protestant missions was one which
concerned itself almost exclusively with the transcend-
ent aspects of the life of man. The pietist has always
stood thus over against his world in instinctive opposition
to it, shrinking from many contacts with it, mistrustful
of its powers, indifferent to its charms, untouched by
many of its motives.

MISSIONARY INSTRUMENTALITIES 89

99. The spirit of progress. — We have swung from one
extreme to the other. Christians have repented them
of their otherworldliness, even those who had but little
of that quality to be repented of. Those who want
nothing but civic righteousness and social salvation,
economic redemption, commercial ethics, the gospel
of hygiene and eugenics, the divine ministry of comfort
and even of leisure and pleasure are much in evidence.
Phrases like these are the rallying cries of movements
within the church and of men without it who would lay
down a program for it. They are the watchwords of
agitation, the catchwords of popular appeal. The
contention here involved is partly valid. It is of
vast significance in the new interpretation of religion.
What is new is mainly the isolation of the contention.
That isolation is false. The contention may answer as
a corrective of one-sidedness. It intimates enlarged
scope in the application of religion. As an exclusive
view of religion or as a substitute for religion it is ridic-
ulous, stupid, and dangerous.

100. The abiding need. — When we compare this with
the old accusation that missions in their zeal for soul sal-
vation did nothing for the needs of men's bodies and
condition we are reminded of the word of One who said
that he had piped unto men and they had not danced and
mourned unto them and they had not lamented. Never-
theless, here is much wholesome truth. One may keep
his soul in the midst of a very miserable world, one
may lose it in the midst of a very comfortable one, or,
again, one may never develop a soul sufficiently large to
be lost. Some of those who most completely lose their
souls are not those who have the comforts but are

90 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

merely sufficiently set on obtaining them. If Buddha
taught men this, it would indeed be a pity that the
emissaries of Christ should undo the benefit of the
teaching. Religion may be one of the great creators of
civilization. It creates civilization, however, only as
a by-product. It is not created by civilization, though
it is sometimes thus profitably amended. In our pre-
cipitancy we should not forget that religion is the only
remedy that we have against an inherent tendency of
high civilization to destroy character and personality.
Nothing is more evident than is this truth in our own
nation where yet the civilization which has been the slow
achievement of our own ancestors has been paid for in
blood and tears which are not altogether forgotten.
How much more must this be true in the case in which a
complex civilization has been not evolved but simply
appropriated, where it has not grown up as part of the
nation's life but is simply put on like a new and gaudy
but ill-fitting coat. It is absurd to suppose that we
can go back to that apprehension of the gospel wherein
the present lif e and world stood for nothing and the trans-
cendent world with the inner life for all. Yet what is
needed is still that kind of ministry to character, that
alchemy of character, which none among men has ever
so exemplified as did Jesus and which true followers of
Christ seek to exemplify. It is the alchemy which can
make a son of God and a saint out of the most forlorn
being in an untransformed world but which will also
infallibly set that saint upon the transformation of his
world.

101. Origins of the Society of Jesus. — Allusion has
been made to the part played by the Society or Company

MISSIONARY INSTRUMENTALITIES 91

of Jesus, the so-called Order of the Jesuits, as the great
agency of the Roman Catholic church in the inaugura-
tion of foreign missionary work in the beginning of the
era with which we are concerned. The Society was the
instrument of many of the changes in the Roman church
which together constituted the counter-Reformation.
It was the means of the reassertion of characteristic
principles of that communion and of the establishment
of that church since the Council of Trent in the position
which it has taken over against the great fact of the
Protestant schism. The activity of the Society in the
propagation of the faith in the non-European world is
one of its great titles to fame. It unfolded that activity
from its earliest years and availed itself of the oppor-
tunity afforded by the conquests and commerce of
Portugal and Spain in the opening of the new Eastern
and Western worlds. Mission work, first among heretics
and afterward among the heathen, and education were
named as their special tasks by the members of the
little company as they defined their objects on their
first visit together to Rome in 1537.

102. Francis Xavier. — Pope Paul III, by his bull,
"Regimini, ': September 27, 1540, confirmed the new
order. New privileges facilitating the ministrations of
the company in all parts of the world were conferred
in 1545 and 1549, Loyola having been made general in
1 541. The member of the original company who
devoted himself to foreign missionary work was, however,
the Navarrese, Francis Xavier, often called "The
Apostle of the Indies. " He was a student in Paris at
the time that he was won, not without difficulty at the
first, by Loyola for his missionary schemes, and he was

92 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

one of the seven who took the original vows on Mont-
martre in 1 534. In 1 53 7 the two were at Venice planning
to start for Palestine to convert the Moslems. War
hindered. Loyola remained henceforth involved in the
affairs of administration. Xavier sailed from Lisbon in
1 541 and reached Goa in 1542, having been more than
a year upon the voyage. In 1549 he went to Japan in
company with a Japanese whom he had met at Malacca.
On that voyage he formed his plan to go also to China.
On the island of Changchuen Shan off the coast of Kwang-
tung he died of fever in 1552, having given to his society
and communion by his faith and energy a foreign mis-
sionary impulse which they have never lost.

103. The Congregation "de Propaganda Fide." —
Missionary work in the new world was later inaugurated
also by Franciscans and by groups of monks from certain
other orders. There was rivalry among the societies.
The Congregation of the Propagation, de Propaganda
Fide, was established by Gregory XV in 1622 and added
to by Urban VIII, who founded the celebrated College
of the Propaganda for the education of missionaries
and set up a polyglot press for printing liturgical books
for the East. The Congregation had charge of the
administration of the Roman church in all non- Catholic
countries, for which it discharged the functions of all
the other papal congregations except in doctrinal and
strictly legislative matters. The missions begin every-
where by establishing apostolic prefectures under the
charge of priests. The prefecture is later transformed
into an apostolic vicariate having at its head a bishop.
Finally the hierarchy, that is the diocesan episcopate,
is established in the country with residential sees. The

MISSIONARY INSTRUMENTALITIES 93

Constitution "Sapienti," in 1908, withdrew from the
Propaganda and put under the common law of the church
most of those parts of the world in which the hierarchy
had been previously established or re-established, as for
example in the United States. The Propaganda is the
Roman church in its specific missionary activity.

104. Organizations of the Established Church of
England. — When we come to speak of the organization
of the Protestant world for missionary work we meet,
in contrast with this imposing unity of the Roman
church, bewildering variety. The oldest society in
Great Britain is the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel in Foreign Parts. It may claim to be the official
representative of the Church of England, since it was
brought into existence as the result of a resolution
passed by Convocation in 1700 and all diocesan bishops
in England are ex officiis members of its standing
committee. The Society was founded with the two-
fold aim of ministering to English settlers beyond the
seas and of spreading the gospel among the heathen with
whom the settlers might be brought into contact. It
supplied clergy for the dependencies of Great Britain
and began work in 1702 among negroes and Indians
of North America. This official character of the Society
for the Propagation did not, however, prevent the estab-
lishment in 1 799 of a voluntary organization, the Church
Missionary Society, which sent its first missionaries to
West Africa. This society was brought into being by
the great evangelical and missionary revival which
passed over Britain and portions of the Continent and
America in the last years of the eighteenth and early
years of the nineteenth century.

94 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

105. Other British societies. — In Scotland, John Knox
had declared his belief that the gospel should be preached
throughout the whole world. Yet it was in 1796
that the Scottish, afterward called the Edinburgh,
Society was organized which sent out as its first mission-
ary a gardener, a member of the Secession Church,
who was afterward murdered in West Africa. The
Established Church of Scotland formed a Foreign
Missions Committee in 1825. When the disruption took
place in 1843 by which the Free Church of Scotland came
into being the General Assembly of this church formed
also a Foreign Missions Committee. Indeed the Free
Church movement served vastly to enhance the mission-
ary interest in Scotland, just as the formation of the
Church Missionary Society had expressed a new enthu-
siasm in England. Ever memorable is the formation of
the Baptist Mission Society in 1792 as the result of the
appeal to his fellow-Baptists by William Carey, the
Northamptonshire cobbler who became its first mis-
sionary. Typical in another respect is the London
Missionary Society founded in 1795. For years it was
an interdenominational body, although now sustained
chiefly by members of the Congregational church.
These are but a few examples of the many organizations
for both general and special missionary purposes which
the early days of the movement brought forth and later
years tended ever to increase.

106. German Pietists. — Before this awakening in the
British Isles noteworthy endeavors had been put forth
on the Continent by German Pietists and by the
Moravian church. Indeed, the Pietist and Moravian
effort had much to do with the awakening of evangeli-

MISSIONARY INSTRUMENTALITIES 95

calism and Methodism in England. Spcner, the father
of the Pietist movement, did not wish his followers to
separate themselves from the Lutheran church. He
wished rather to reform that church from within. They
wished to return to that devotion to the Bible which had
characterized the Lutheran Reformation. Spener's
younger colleague, Francke, after 1692 professor in
Halle and founder of the famous orphanage and schools
for the children of the poor, took deep interest in foreign
missions. Halle became the center for the education
of men who wished to preach the gospel in foreign parts
as well as for those who dedicated themselves to the work
of the Pietist revival in Germany. Schwartz, who was
perhaps the greatest of the Halle missionaries, worked in
Danish possessions in India under state appointment.
Men of the same German race and Pietist type worked
under the English both in India and in the West Indies
during the period before the commercial companies were
yet hostile to missions and before the religious mind of
Britain had begun to feel its responsibility.

107. The Moravians; other Continental societies. —
In the little communities of the Moravians, Pietism
became the basis of a church which was recognized by
the Saxon state. These members of the Unitas Fratrum,
inheritors of the Hussite tradition, fleeing in 1722 from
persecution in Austria, found refuge on the estates of
Count Zinzendorf at Bertelsdorf and later at Herrnhut
near Dresden. Zinzendorf had been a pupil of Francke
at Halle. He withdrew from the service of the state
because of his convictions. As bishop of the Moravian
community after 1737, he traveled widely in Europe and
America. The Moravian church conducted an ardent

96 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

propaganda for its principles in many countries. Its
chief title to fame, however, is its devotion to the cause of
foreign missions. No body of believers in modern
times has given so large a proportion of its communicant
membership or of its money to missionary work. It
was the glory of the Moravians to go to those portions
of the world whither no one else wished to go. The
general cause received from the Moravians throughout
the eighteenth century an impulse which was quite
incomparable. The German societies of the present
day are all voluntary societies and all bear trace of the
Pietist influence. On the other hand, the established
Church of Holland has a considerable mission in the
Dutch East Indies. The Basel Society has close
affiliation with the German organization. The Protes-
tant body in France is small, yet it has done, through
its Paris Evangelical Mission Society, a work of great
effectiveness in Africa and Madagascar.

108. American societies. — The enthusiasm for foreign
missions found its first expression in America in 1806
when three students in Williams College, Mills, Hall,
and Richards, resolved to form a society, the object of
which should be "to effect in the person of its mem-
bers a mission to the heathen. " Mills and Hall entered
Andover Seminary in 18 10, where they met Newell
and Judson, who shared their aims. The desire of these
young men to be sent out as missionaries led to the
founding by the General Association of Congregational
Churches of Massachusetts in 18 10 of the American
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. In 181 2
the first five missionaries, of whom Judson was one,
sailed for Calcutta. Hall was peremptorily ordered by

MISSIONARY INSTRUMENTALITIES 97

the Company to leave Calcutta, but he became one of
the founders of the Marathi Mission. Judson, during
his voyage, had become convinced of the validity of
Baptist contentions. He became instrumental in the
founding in 1814 of the Society known after 1846 as
the American Baptist Missionary Union. He spent his
life in Burma. In 181 2 the Presbyterians decided to
support the American Board. In 1837, however, the so-
called Old School Presbyterians withdrew to form the
Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions. In 1870 the
New School Presbyterians also, uniting with the other
branch of their church, joined in support of their own
denominational board. Similarly, the Reformed Dutch
church in America supported the American Board until
1855, when it withdrew to establish a society under its
own name. Since 1870 the American Board has been the
organ of the Congregational churches only and in ever
closer relation to the organization of those churches.
The Methodist Episcopal church in the United States
inaugurated in 1833 a foreign missionary work which has
grown to vast proportions. The Prostestant Episcopal
church in the United States sought in 18 17 to establish a
basis of co-operation with the Church Missionary Society
of England, but was urged by that society to organize
a work of its own. In 1820 the Domestic and Foreign
Missionary Society of this church was formed, and in
1835 the church itself took over this society, reorganiz-
ing it into two committees under the authority of the
church. The societies named are but examples. There
is scarcely a denomination of Christians in America
which is not organized in some way for foreign propa-
ganda. Only typical cases have been taken.

98 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

109. Women's boards. — Many of the Protestant soci-
eties, especially those in America, have auxiliary bodies
composed of and directed by women of their denomi-
national constituency. These societies are sometimes
merely branches or committees. Sometimes they are
special chartered corporations. Many of them were
established after the middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury, when the number of unmarried women sent out
in the service of the boards greatly increased. At the
same time the expansion of specific work for women
in the field rendered appropriate the assigning of such
work to the responsibility of women in the home lands.
The last half-century has seen great changes in the
position and activities of women in Western lands.
Large numbers of women teachers and more recently
considerable numbers of nurses and physicians have
gone to the Orient and to Africa. Zenanas and harems
at one time presented a problem which only women
could reach. Work for children has always been largely
in their hands. Through their work in no small measure
have come about the changes in the status and outlook
of women in Eastern lands. They have opened careers
for women in which foreign women have been for a time
the leaders. The education of women is now part of
the accepted order of things in almost all these countries.
Again the introduction of women into factory labor, as
in Japan and India, creates conditions parallel to those
which exist in the great industrial centers in the West
and calls for the type of women's work familiar in our
settlements. Furthermore, in view of the preponderance
of women in Protestant churches and of their influence
in homes, it is doubtful if the boards could have met

MISSIONARY INSTRUMENTALITIES 99

the ever-enlarging opportunity which recent decades
have brought them without that characteristic element
which the co-operation of women has furnished, both
in respect of the maintenance of the personnel and of
the appeal for funds.

no. Origin of the Young Men's Christian Associa-
tion.— It remains to speak of two interdenominational
organizations, one of which is also international, which
have largely aided the foreign missionary work under-
taken either by the churches or by bodies of Christians
less or more closely related to churches. These are the
Young Men's Christian Association and the Bible soci-
eties. The Young Men's Christian Association was
founded by George Williams, a London merchant, in
1844. It grew out of meetings which Williams held
for prayer and Bible reading among his fellow- workers
in a dry goods business in the city of London. The
primary object of the new Association was to provide
a rendezvous in large towns for young men who were
compelled to live in lodgings or in apartments provided
by the great business houses. Membership was condi-
tioned not merely upon moral character and sympathy
with the aims of the Association but also upon the
acceptance of the doctrines of evangelical denomina-
tions. The Association thus reflected in its very origin
the reaction against liberalism. This reaction character-
ized revival movements widespread and influential in
both Great Britain and America in the middle decades
of the nineteenth century. At the same time, the
Association did really express the eagerness of the time
to escape denominational animosities and exaggerations,
which were also characteristic of those decades.

ioo THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

in. Work of the Association. — Furthermore, its en-
deavor was related to the growing enthusiasm for
the application of the religious motive to the ameliora-
tion of social conditions. This was another of the
marked traits of the spirit of the age. The associations
soon became centers of effort for the popularization of
certain elements of education and for the redemption
of sport and athletics from connections which had at
times been reprobated, by none more sincerely than
by earnest Pietists and evangelicals. Upon the lines
of these endeavors the Association came presently to
have great influence also upon the student life of both
England and America. On the whole, the movement
appears to have had far larger development in the
United States than in the country of its origin. The
first American associations were established in Montreal
and Boston, both in 185 1. The original aims of the
institution were thus quite different from those of the
foreign missionary cause. The background of the two
movements was, however, much the same. It is clear
also that the Association could easily become an agency
of greatest usefulness both to the youth of Europe and
America resident in the commercial centers of the non-
Christian world and as well to the youth of non-
Christian races as these also gathered in the old treaty
ports or again in the rapidly enlarging student centers
of the Orient. Modifications of the Association's activ-
ities to meet parallel needs of young men of all lands
and many faiths gave rise to the international phase
of its development. The Association has thus become
an auxiliary missionary agency co-operating with others
already in foreign fields. It had in mind primarily a

MISSIONARY INSTRUMENTALITIES 101

special service and that to a specific constituency, the
young men of the lands which the missions and com-
merce had opened to the contacts of Christendom. It
is easy to see also that the organization of the Chris-
tian Association has made it capable of rendering unique
service to the mission cause in the home lands. By its
international and interdenominational character it was
peculiarly fitted to act as intermediary in the common
interests and transactions of those concerned with mis-
sions. As a matter of fact almost all the great interna-
tional and interdenominational missionary conventions
of more recent years have been organized through the
machinery of the Association. In growing measure,
also, publications relative to the cause and such as are
of use to many or all of the societies are issued through
agencies which the Association has brought into being.
Propaganda among college and university students who
might be led to volunteer to give themselves later to
the missionary life has been largely conducted through
this instrumentality. A similar though as yet a smaller
development and influence have attended the Young
Women's Christian Association, whose world-organi-
zation was formed in 1894. Eighteen national associa-
tions are now affiliated. Several of them maintain
their characteristic work for women at many centers
in foreign lands.

112. Origin of the Bible societies. — The same era
which brought into being most of the great modern
missionary societies witnessed the founding also of the
other great co-operating agency which we have in mind,
namely the Bible societies. Here also we can choose
but one or two typical examples which may serve to

102 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

show what is meant. The British and Foreign Bible
Society, established in 1804, might be said almost to
have had its origin in the phrase of a Mr. Hughes,
who, when listening to the claim of needy Wales for
copies of the Bible, exclaimed: "And if for Wales, why
not for the whole world?" Once this society and
others like it were launched upon their world-wide
endeavor, the missions which were the creation of the
same new enthusiasm were the natural organizations
through which the desired distribution of Bibles could
take place. They were also the sources whence new
suggestions as to needed translations arose. They were
the areas from which alone, in most cases, the trans-
lators were forthcoming. On the other hand, once the
missions had faced their task, they must have realized
that the books which the Bible societies furnished could
multiply the endeavors of their evangelists and preach-
ers a thousand fold. They could be to the nascent
Christian communities all over the world the basis of
culture, the means of the uplifting and fortifying and
educating of the spirit of nations, just as the Bible had
been in all the nations of the Protestant world since
the era of the Reformation. As we look back upon
the history of these two movements either seems almost
unthinkable without the other.

113. The work of the Bible societies. — The British and
Foreign Bible Society published in connection with its
hundredth anniversary in 1904 a monumental catalogue
of its collection of Bibles, a collection which from many
points of view is without rival in the world. It is a
book of four large volumes. It contains more than
nine thousand entries of Bibles or parts of Bibles in

MISSIONARY INSTRUMENTALITIES 103

more than six hundred distinct languages or dialects
which are now spoken, and in some eighty which
are now obsolete. In overwhelming proportion these
versions have been published by one or another of the
three great Bible societies — the British, the American,
and the Scottish — or else they have been made possible
through subvention from one or another of these soci-
eties to missionary presses in all lands. It may be
doubted whether the Bible existed in thirty different
languages or dialects in the year 1804, in which the
British Society received its charter. In overwhelming
proportion these translations, made during the nine-
teenth century, are the work of missionaries and of
native scholars called to their aid in the fields in which
the missionaries worked. In some cases, as in those of
the versions into the Mandarin or into Arabic, or for
the benefit of the Brahmans in India or the Buddhists
in Japan, the work has been commonly done by com-
missions, groups of men, Christian and non-Christian,
equal in learning to any scholars of their day. These
translators aimed to set the Scriptures of the Christian
faith in worthy fashion side by side with sacred books
of the East in the very homes of those sacred books
and the seats of their immeasurable influence. At the
opposite pole from these relatively few translations into
the languages of the world's great religions are the far
more numerous cases in which the tongues of the vari-
ous peoples whom it was sought to reach had perhaps
never been reduced to writing. They contained but
poor equivalents, or no equivalents whatsoever, for
the words and phrases fundamental to the Christian
speech. Jest has been made as to the difficulty of

104 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

translating, for example, a psalm touching the praise
of God in nature as men know nature in Palestine
into the language, say, of the Eskimos upon their
treeless shores, with their limited fauna and their frozen
streams. There was the difficulty of describing sheep
and camels and even horses to a South Sea islander,
whose only quadrupeds were pigs and rats. These are,
however, minor difficulties compared with the rendering
of such words as "faith," "justification," "atonement,"
"sanctification," and "redemption," into the speech of
peoples whose very religion contained no such notions.
Such translations have, however, been made not only
scores but hundreds of times in the nineteenth century.
They have been made almost inevitably by missionaries
who were giving their lives to the tribes or the islands
concerned. The American Bible Society alone issued
in the year 191 5 something over six million copies of
Bibles, or parts of the Bible, in some one of the one
hundred and sixty-nine different languages on its list.
In the hundred years of its existence it had issued more
than one hundred and ten million copies of the Bible
or of portions of the Bible. It had spent $38,000,000.
The British and Foreign Bible Society, in its first hun-
dred and twelve years, from 1804 to 19 16, had four
hundred and ninety-seven languages to its credit on
its list of versions. It had issued three times as many
copies of Bibles or of parts of the Bible as the American
Society and had spent two and one-half times the
income. It is certain that the major societies have
put into circulation within the last century more than
five hundred million copies of the Scriptures, by no
means all gratis yet practically always below cost.

PART II

HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN MOVEMENT

WITH INDICATIONS OF THE PRESENT

SITUATION IN DIFFERENT LANDS

CHAPTER VII
INDIA

CHAPTER VII

INDIA

114. Beginnings of Christianity in India: Francis Xavier

115. Xavier's successors and their methods

116. Beginnings of Protestant missions: the Pietists

117. The India of the eighteenth century

118. Beginnings of British missions: Heber and Henry Martyn

119. Carey

120. Duff

121. The first American missionaries

122. Antecedents of the Mutiny

123. The Mutiny and its consequences

124. Expansion of mission work after the Mutiny

125. Sectarianism

126. Caste

127. Language

128. The indigenous church

129. The Christian movement

130. Missions and the industrial situation; government co-
operation

131. Missions and education

132. Philanthropy and reform

133. Reform and revival of Hindu religions

CHAPTER VII

INDIA

114. Beginnings of Christianity in India: Francis
Xavier. — India was the first Asiatic country in which
Christian missionary work was organized after that
revival of the spirit of missions which culminated in
the establishment of the Society of Jesus. There is a
legend to the effect that the apostle Thomas preached
the gospel in Southern India. His tomb is shown today
at Mylapore. The tradition is not of very ancient
origin. The name " India" was used by early Chris-
tian writers for several different countries. We are
perhaps on firm ground if we connect the beginnings
of Christianity in India with the wanderings of Nes-
torian exiles. References in Marco Polo, John of
Monte Corvino, and Sir John Mandeville prove the
presence of Christians in India in considerable numbers
before the coming of the Portuguese. In 1500 Cabral
brought to Calicut monks, Franciscans and Domini-
cans, who were to conduct mission work under the
patronage of the king of Portugal. In 1534 Goa was
constituted a bishopric. Its constituency was mainly
of Europeans and of men of mixed race. In 1599
the Portuguese endeavored to force so-called Syrian
Christians into obedience to the See of Rome. In 18 16
the English Church Missionary Society sent a "mission
of help " to revive the Syrian church in India. The man
to whom, however, the personal leadership in work for
India was to fall was Francis Xavier. He arrived at

109

no THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Goa in 1542. Before that time thousands of the pearl
fishers of low caste had suffered themselves to be bap-
tized in return for protection afforded them by Portu-
guese soldiers and sailors against Mohammedan pirates.
No priest had been sent among them to teach the mean-
ing of baptism. Xavier spent a year among them,
living as one of their number. At no time during the
years of his residence in India did he make effort to
learn any language in which he might communicate
with those among whom he labored. He urged the
king of Portugal to force the governors, by fear of royal
disfavor, to gain adherents for Christianity. The
bishopric claimed 300,000 Christians in 1557. We have
many interesting letters of Xavier. It is but fair to
say that he was profoundly dissatisfied with the results
of his labor. There is, moreover, no Christian mission-
ary concerning whom it is more just to acknowledge
his personal devotion and his power to inspire others,
while at the same time we realize that he was the child
of his own time.

115. Xavier1 s successors and their methods. — A dis-
tinguished Italian Jesuit, di Nobili, who reached India
in 1605, inaugurated his work outside of the area in
which Portuguese political influence prevailed. He
determined to make himself an Indian in order that
he might win Indians to Christ. He adopted the dress
of a Brahman and put the sacred marks upon his fore-
head. He kept himself aloof from the lower castes.
Among di Nobili's successors, those who worked for
the higher castes refused intercourse even with mission-
aries who worked for the lower castes. In 1703 the
papacy repudiated many of these practices of the

INDIA 1 1 1

Jesuits, especially condemning the refusal of the com-
munion to pariahs. There is record of measurable
success of the Jesuit missions in Northern India also,
especially at the court of the Mogul Emperor Akbar.
Three princes of the royal blood are supposed to have
been baptized at Lahore in 1670. Yet despite much
labor and self-denial the testimony of the Abbe Dubois
in 1823 was to the effect that Roman Catholic mis-
sionary work in the part of India of which he had
knowledge was relatively a failure. The attitude of
the natives was such as to render the prosecution of
the work almost hopeless. The suspension of the
Society of Jesus in 1773 had everywhere injured their
work. The missionary work of the Roman church at
the beginning of the nineteenth century deeply needed,
as it also received, a revival and renewal parallel
in many ways to that which affected the Protestant
bodies at the same time.

116. Beginnings of Protestant missions: the Pietists.
— The British East India Company, especially in its
earlier years, permitted chaplains sent out under its
auspices to consider also the religious welfare of Indians
with whom they came in contact. The Company had
not yet taken up the attitude of hostility to missions
which it later assumed. It was the Danish government
which first took direct responsibility for Protestant
missionary work in India. The court chaplain of
King Frederick IV, not being able to find suitable men
in Denmark, applied to Francke in Halle. Francke
named to him Ziegenbalg and Pliitschau, who were sent
out from Copenhagen by the bishop of Zealand in 1705.
Ziegenbalg worked in Tranquebar, winning the aid of

H2 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

the English Society for the Propagation of Christian
Knowledge and the favor of King George I. Pliitschau
made the Tamil translation of the New Testament.
The most distinguished of these German Pietist mission-
aries, however, was Schwartz. First at Tranquebar and
then at Trichinopoly, he ultimately became a sort of
minister to the rajah of Tanjore. He lived in India
for nearly fifty years. He left the Danish mission in
1767 and became a chaplain under the British Com-
pany. The rajah before his death, in 1787, desired to
appoint Schwartz the guardian of his heir and regent
of his kingdom. To both of these posts he was
appointed two years later by the British authorities.
The commander of the British army in South India
wrote in 1783: "The knowledge and integrity of this
irreproachable missionary have retrieved the character
of Europeans from imputations of general depravity."
When Hyder Ali, the nawab of Mysore, refused to
receive an embassy from the English, whom he dis-
trusted, he said, "Send me the Christian, Schwartz
will not deceive me." The monument which the East
India Company erected to his memory in Madras in
1798 speaks of him as having rendered incomparable
service to the highest ends which the Company set
before itself.

117. The India of the eighteenth century. — The eight-
eenth century had been a century of great changes in
India. The Mogul Empire founded in 1526 by Baber,
fifth in descent from Tamerlane, was disintegrating.
Its greatest figure had been Akbar, who reigned from
1556 to 1605, almost exactly the years of Queen Eliza-
beth, and over a larger portion of India than had ever

INDIA 113

before acknowledged the sway of one man. He ruled
at Delhi and Agra, his son Jahangir at Lahore. The
last emperor of character or ability had been Aurungzeb,
who died in 1707. Thenceforth the empire of the Grand
Mogul became more and more a name, although the
last scion of the house atoned for his association with
the Mutiny so late as 1857. The decline of the Mogul
power had made easier the beginnings of European
trade and settlement on the coast, although the Moguls,
who had come from Tartary over the roof of the world,
were never interested in the coast. The Dutch had
" factories," as they were called, on Ceylon and Suma-
tra. In 1608 they founded Batavia in Java. The long
warfare of Dutch and English for commerce in tht
East was not ended until William III united the tws
crowns in 1689. Sir Francis Drake had shown the waj
for Englishmen to India. By 161 2 they had wrested
supremacy from the Portuguese. In 1661 the British
received Bombay as part of the dowry of the Infanta
Catarina and Charles turned it over to the Company.
Calcutta was not founded until 1690. After the death
of Aurungzeb, Hyderabad declared its independence.
The Carnatic was ruled from Arcot. Mysore was
becoming a third Indian state. The French were
at Pondicherry skilfully playing off one nation
against the other and all against their rivals, the Eng-
lish, at Madras. Clive turned Dupleix' weapons
against himself. The Battle of Plassey in 1757, which
was really an episode of the rivalry of France and Eng-
land in the Seven Years' War, put an end to French
supremacy in India. Clive's great successor, Warren
Hastings, came to India in 1772. He triumphed in the

114 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Marathi wars and over Mysore. His government of
India brought out bitter protest in England and marked
the beginning of the struggle for the limitation of the
power of the Company. His successor, Lord Morn-
ington, better known as the Marquis of Wellesley,
arrived the very year of the death of Schwartz, 1798,
inspired with imperial projects which were destined to
change the map of the country.

118. Beginnings of British missions: Heber and
Henry Martyn. — It would be a mistake to suppose that
during all the time of this remarkable expansion of their
trade and territory the British people had had no care
for the maintenance of the means of grace and the
extension of the knowledge of the gospel in the lands
which were gradually being subjected to the crown.
From the time of Cranmer different movements for
colonization had recognized in principle, at least, the
necessity of Christian missions. The Society for the
Promotion of Christian Knowledge was organized in
1698, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in
Foreign Parts, in 1701. This society gave a subvention
to the Danish-Tamil mission in 1705. Throughout the
latter part of that century it sent chaplains to India,
who were allowed to do a certain measure of missionary
work. Until the beginning of the nineteenth century,
however, the interest of the Church of England in such
work in India was not great. It was the Church Mis-
sionary Society, a chartered body, which represented
the evangelical revival of the spirit of missions. It
was founded in 1799. The bishops declined' to ordain
its candidates and it was not until 18 19 that this diffi-
culty was removed. It ought to be said that the

INDIA 115

field which the Church Missionary Society at first had
in mind was Africa. Its founders were, many of them,
agitators against slavery and the slave trade. Its first
missionary went to India in 18 13 after the opening of
India to such work under the revised charter of the
Company. At the instigation of the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel, Middleton was consecrated
first bishop of Calcutta in 18 14. The most distin-
guished of the early bishops was surely Reginald Heber,
who died in 1826. Henry Martyn, starting from a
company chaplaincy, was easily the most illustrious of
those who developed an enthusiasm for work among
the peoples, first of India and then of Persia. He was
a linguist of extraordinary attainments. He translated
the New Testament into both Hindi and Persian. He
was at Cawnpore until 18 10 and died at Tokat in 181 2,
in the thirty-second year of his age, having made over-
land journeys which were then almost unparalleled
and left record of the countries and peoples which are
still classic and made the impression of a man of exalted
character and devotion.

119. Carey. — In 1793, however, there had come to
Bengal William Carey, a cobbler of Paulersbury, North-
amptonshire, who had been sent out by the newly
founded Baptist Missionary Society of Great Britain in
1792. Carey was the impersonation of the new impulse
which was now to make itself felt among the peo-
ple of Great Britain as it had done in the Pietist
Moravian communities in Germany. He was of limited
education and income, preacher in a Baptist church at
Moulton after 1786. He had wished at first to go to
Tahiti or West Africa. He was appointed along with

n6 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Thomas, a surgeon who had resided in Bengal. He
was obliged by the attitude of the Company to sail in a
Danish vessel and to land at Serampore. He believed
that it was his duty to support himself. He intended
to farm, but was soon chosen superintendent of
an indigo factory. He preached, taught, and trans-
lated the New Testament into Bengali. When Fort
William College was founded at Calcutta under the
Company, Carey was appointed by the Marquis of
Wellesley professor of Sanskrit, Bengali, and Marathi,
a post which he held for thirty years. That which
gave him his fame, however, was his translation of the
Bible or parts of the Bible into twenty-four Indian
languages or dialects. He showed extraordinary ability
in his management of the Serampore press, where all
this great business was carried on. He wrote articles
on the natural history and botany of India for the
Asiatic Society of London, of which society he was a
member after 1805. He worked passionately for many
reforms in India, especially for the abolition of suttee,
the burning of widows on the funeral pyres of their
husbands. When in 1829 Lord William Bentinck
signed the decree abolishing the rite the paper was
sent to Carey to be translated into Bengali. Carey
died in 1834. He was one of the most modern of mis-
sionaries. To a far greater extent than any of his
predecessors he realized the comparative futility of
scattered missions and the impossibility of converting
India by the work of European traveling preachers.
By concentrating the greater part of his activities
within a narrow circle and by spending his time
upon the education and training of Indian teachers

INDIA 117

he inaugurated a new method of missionary work
the importance of which it is still impossible to ex-
aggerate.

120. Duff. — The impersonation of another move-
ment in Indian missions which has been very fruitful
was Alexander DufT. Duff was the first missionary
sent out to India by the Established Church of Scot-
land. In right of nature he was fitted to be a great
educational figure in his own land. He was a Saint
Andrew's University man and had been much influ-
enced by Dr. Chalmers. He came to India in 1830,
having been at sea eight months and shipwrecked twice
upon the way. He determined to strike into the great
educational movement which had lain as an ideal before
Carey and which in quite different aspects of it was
beginning to be one of the concerns of the Company.
He realized the necessity of reaching the higher classes.
He proposed to provide schools for youth of the higher
castes of Northern India in which, through the medium
of the English language, a liberal education in all sub-
jects was to be offered to those who were willing to
receive Christian instruction at the hands of mission-
aries thoroughly competent in educational matters. He
thought English the only language in which, as things
then were, a comprehensive Western education could
be given in India. He thought also that it was the
only language in which foreigners at all events could
make plain to Indians the meaning of the Christian
faith. The Company, on their part, had in mind the
multiplicity of languages and dialects in India and the
necessity of a common medium of communication.
They hoped that an English education would tend to

Ii8 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

bind the higher classes to England. Duff's schools
were filled and emptied several times upon the issue
of his insistence upon instruction in the Christian
religion. The government schools were naturally on
the basis of strict religious neutrality. Nevertheless,
Duff and his compeers exerted the greatest influence
upon the whole government system of education in
India exactly in the period of its most rapid and sig-
nificant expansion. Lord Bentinck officially declared
that Duff's schools had produced unparalleled results.
Interestingly enough Duff was supported in his views
by Ram Mohan Ray, who became one of the great
leaders of reformed Hinduism. Duff, broken down,
left India in 1863. By that time there was hardly a
great denomination of Christians in India which had
not founded colleges practically on Duff's lines.

121. The first American missionaries. — The first
missionaries of the American Board, Nott and Hall,
also went to India. When they sailed in 181 2 America
was at war with England and the East India Company
had not yet accepted the clause in its charter which
permitted missionary work. Rebuffed at Calcutta,
the Americans determined to begin their work in Ceylon
and Bombay. The present work of the Board in the
Indian Empire thus dates from 18 16. Emissaries of this
Board were at Ahmednagar after 1831 and at Madura
in 1836. The withdrawal of a part of the Presbyterian
constituencies from co-operation with the American
Board in 1837 had been already forecast by the estab-
lishment, under the Presbyterian name, of American
missions in the United Provinces and the Punjab.
Judson, who had brought into being the Baptist Soci-

INDIA 119

ety, opened the work in Burma, which was not yet
subject to Great Britain. He was a man who might
well be measured by the standards of Carey. On the
whole the American work in India in the period before
the Mutiny was mainly on evangelistic lines. Yet
most of the American missions in India in the decade of
the fifties were beginning to feel strongly those tend-
encies which have been suggested in what we said of
Duff. A deputation sent out to visit American Board
work in India in 1855 had reported in a sense adverse
to educational work. The report had been accepted
at home only after two years' delay and not without
dissent. Changes were soon to be precipitated by the
catastrophe of the Mutiny, the so-called Sepoy Rebel-
lion, which altered everything in India. The revolt
led to the revocation of the Company's charter in 1858,
to the taking over of the government of India by the
crown and parliament, and to the readjustment of com-
merce on the basis of free trade. The revolution thus
constitutes a dividing line between two eras in the
affairs of India.

122. Antecedents of the Mutiny. — There had been
since 18 13 significant changes in the charter of the
Company, all of them in the direction of the limitation
of its arbitrary power and the increase of its respon-
sibility for the welfare of subject peoples. Lord William
Bentinck, who was governor-general from 1828 to 1835,
was the first of a succession of rulers of British India of
a character and benevolent spirit perhaps as high as
have marked the administration of any land. In the
famous words of Macaulay, Bentinck " abolished cruel
rites, he effaced humiliating distinctions, he gave liberty

120 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

to the expression of public opinion, his constant study
was to elevate the intellectual and moral character of
the nations committed to his charge.' ' He established
a just and effective system of finance. He widened the
gates by which Indians could enter the service of the
Company. His abolition of suttee and his suppression
of the thugs, based as they were upon his sense of what
a government owed in the fostering of mercy and pre-
venting of crime, may nevertheless have left ground
for appeal to the fanaticism of a portion of the people.
In his time the Company lost its monopoly of trade.
Lord Dalhousie, governor from 1848 to 1856, was,
again, a man of peace but was compelled to fight two
wars, one for the pacification of Oudh and the other in
Burma. The system of administration carried out in
the conquered Punjab by the two Lawrences was prob-
ably one of the most difficult and most successful
pieces of work of the sort ever performed by English-
men. Dalhousie founded the public works department
and paid special attention to roads and canals. He
promoted steamer communication with England via
the Red Sea and a camel route at the Isthmus. He
introduced cheap postage and the telegraph. One
would have said that the causes of unrest in India
were diminishing with every year. The things which
the rebels demanded were rapidly being granted. The
government of the Company had, however, been at
one time profoundly selfish and unjust. The increase
of enlightenment and liberty always makes for unrest.
Dethroned princes and their heirs naturally became
leaders, but the seat of the rebellion was really in the
lower orders. If Bentinck's policy had touched their

INDIA 121

superstitions, Dalhousie's introduction of things char-
acteristically Western stirred their prejudice. The
number of English troops in India had been reduced
by the Crimean War. Russia was supposed to be
winning that war. A little thing proved an occasion.
New rifles served to the Sepoys used cartridges which
required to be bitten by the teeth in loading. The
cartridges were greased with beef tallow or hog's fat.
The one of these was sacred to a Hindu and the other
an abomination to a Moslem. The growth of mis-
sionary enterprise in India lent color to the notion that
here was a deep-laid plot to compel the native army to
become Christians by making them outcasts from their
own religions.

123. The Mutiny and its consequences. — In April,
1857, part of a cavalry regiment at Meerut refused to
accept their cartridges. The rest of the troops resented
the punishment of the offenders and shot their officers,
plundered the quarters, and streamed off to Delhi.
The Delhi troops and city mob proclaimed a revival
of the Mogul Empire. There were but three thousand
British troops at Delhi. They were driven out, but,
reinforced from the Punjab, they returned and cap-
tured the city on September 21. Meantime, Cawnpore
under Nana Sahib had been the scene of an indiscrimi-
nate massacre in which many missionaries with many
civil servants suffered. Lucknow was another center
of the struggle. At the beginning of the siege there
Sir Henry Lawrence lost his life. The Mutiny was in
no sense a national uprising. The fighting races of
the Punjab never cast in their lot with the rebellion.
The Sikhs and Gurkhas remained faithful. The chief

122 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

result of the Mutiny was that it ended the rule of the
Company. There have been considerable additions of
territories to the British domain since the Mutiny.
The most significant of these is Burma. Apart from
minor wars, however, the attention of rulers and people
has been given to the development of India on lines
already laid down before the rebellion. Education has
been carried forward on a great scale, not merely the
higher training, but also education in the vernaculars
for the lower orders of the people. The expansion of
the railway systems and the state expenditure for irri-
gation have diminished the liability of famine. The
freedom of the press and of speech is that accorded in
England. An Indian National Assembly has no legis-
lative power but greatly influences public opinion. The
part taken by India in the present war shows how deep
is the sense of what Britain has done for India. Equally
it makes certain that Great Britain must and will do
more.

124. Expansion of mission work after the Mutiny. —
Missions had suffered severely during the rebellion.
Few of the northern stations had escaped destruction.
Many native Christians had laid down their lives rather
than deny their faith. It is a commonplace in the
history of missions that nothing so stimulates interest
in the cause as does an experience like that through
which the missions and the incipient Indian churches
had passed. The places of missionaries who had lost
their lives in the Mutiny could have been filled ten
times over the moment the facts were known in England
and America. Not merely did all the societies formerly
engaged in this work resume their activities on an

INDIA 123

enlarged scale, but new communions henceforth included
India in their plans. Among these was the Methodist
Episcopal church of North America, whose most
conspicuous personalities in this period were per-
haps Bishop Thoburn and his sister Isabella Thoburn.
Special organizations came into being for the meeting
of specific needs. For example, the great expansion of
medical work done under missionary auspices in India,
as indeed in all other fields, has come since the decade
of the fifties. Dr. John Scudder, a missionary physi-
cian of the American Board, had lived in Ceylon after
18 19 and in Madras after 1836. Yet in 1849 ft was
said that there were but forty medical missionaries in
the world and only six of these in India. Similarly,
work for women supported and carried out by women
was greatly enlarged in scope in the decade of the six-
ties. The peculiarly hard position and hopeless outlook
of certain classes of women in India had even earlier
made appeal in England. A society for work in the
Zenanas had been founded in London in 1852. To a
certain extent the increasing zeal for work by women
on behalf of women corresponded to a change which
was rapidly taking place in regard to the education and
general status of women in England and America.
Similarly, certain conditions of manufacturing and trade
stimulated in extraordinary degree the production of
newspapers, journals, and books in Europe and America
in the decade of the sixties. By the decade of the seven-
ties the increase in the variety and volume of printed
matter of every sort issued in India had become phe-
nomenal. The education of a reading public, both in
the vernaculars and in English, had begun to tell.

124 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Propaganda for every cause, native and foreign, was
being conducted in print. The propaganda for Chris-
tianity, both in the vernacular and in English, followed
the example thus set. A devotional and also a contro-
versial literature appeared for which India before the
Mutiny offered no parallel. The truth was that India
after i860 was in the great stream of the life of the
world as it had never been before.

125. Sectarianism. — The two generations which have
passed since the Mutiny have laid ever-increasing em-
phasis upon the needs of the indigenous church. The
work of propaganda until the middle of the nine-
teenth century, largely evangelistic as it had been, had
resulted in the formation of many bodies of Christian
believers the land over. These had given full evidence
of their faith and fortitude in endurance of the suffer-
ings which the time of the Mutiny brought upon them.
The Christian converts were as yet in little groups
about the different missions from which they had heard
the message of the gospel. They were lamentably
divided on the lines of denominational distinctions
which obtained in England and America. Not merely
the great division between Catholics and Protestants,
but those separating Anglicans from either Catholics or
Protestants and again those among the sects and sub-
divisions of Protestants were in evidence. Distinctions
which had little meaning for a Hindu divided him from
fellow-Christians to whom Christianity meant as much
as to himself. The docility of the Indian of that era,
his gentleness and tractability toward the race which
dominated India, together with the rather uncom-
promising sectarianism which obtained in England and

INDIA 125

America at that time had this consequence. There
was as yet no strong feeling of "India for the Indians."
There was no democracy in India as yet. The churches
were in an extraordinary degree missionaries' churches.
Some of the foreign leaders of the native Christians
showed high qualities of leadership. It would be
wrong to impugn their motives. They knew no other
system. Yet as we now see clearly this was only a
passing phase. No wonder that practically everywhere
in the districts of the rebellion the Indian Christians
were taken for enemies of their race. They were held
to have gone over completely to the foreigner, to have
turned against their own people. Christianity was still
exotic in India. It was the white man's religion, in
which the Indian might become a follower but never a
leader. It was alien in form of doctrine, in ritual of
worship, and in the mode of life which it enjoined.

126. Caste. — There was another respect in which
the body of Christian believers in India was sorely
divided and is more or less divided still. This was
upon the lines of Hindu castes. Difficulties which the
Jesuits met in dealing with questions of caste we have
already spoken of. It has been easier for Protestants
to find fault with the Jesuit method than to find a
method of their own. Certainly they never escaped
the difficulty. The idea that all men are alike in the
sight of God is one which seems to us near to the heart
of the gospel. It is almost the last conviction possible
to the mind of a Hindu. He had held it to be the
very evidence of the consciousness of God to wish to
keep away from the company of the large majority of
his fellow-men. In those circumstances the Christian

126 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

appeal, when true to itself, has often practically been
an appeal to the lowest of the people, with whom no
Hindu of caste would associate. It was easy to quote
Christ's precept and example. But it was difficult to
build up an indigenous church on this basis with power
of leadership and responsibility. Here was an addi-
tional reason why the management of the churches had
been so largely thrown into the hands of missionaries.
Yet it has never been difficult to secure a hearing,
interested and enthusiastic, for Christian principles
among men of high caste. The Hindu is profoundly
religious. He sees many points of comparison between
the Christian doctrine and his own. He has attempted
the reformation of his own doctrine on the basis of
principles allied to or identical with the Christian. He
may even become a Christian at heart. To join the
Christian communion, however, breaks practically every
tie in his life. He is separated from his family. He
may be driven from his business. He is ostracized
more completely than we of the West can easily con-
ceive. Conviction must be strong indeed before a man
faces this. The wonder is that so many have faced it.
Successful propaganda for Christianity within a given
caste may dimimsh the loneliness of the convert from
that caste, but divides the Christian church within
itself on the old caste lines. Mohammedanism is often
said to have been successful in keeping itself free from
the spirit of caste. It must be remembered, however,
that Mohammedans in India are almost always such
by birth and inheritance of many generations since the
Mohammedan conquests. Accessions to Mohammed-
anism by conversion are now as good as unknown.

INDIA 127

Through the long era of the Mogul Empire the leading
persons of many parts of India were Mohammedans.
To a certain extent it is an illusion to say that the
Mohammedans do not know caste. They are a caste
in the sense of being a religious group by themselves.

127. Language. — Moreover, as if in the ecclesias-
ticism of foreigners and in the caste of the Indians
there were not difficulties enough in the way of a united
and national Indian Christian constituency, there are
added difficulties which arise out of the differences in
language and dialect. These remind us of the old racial
strata, which in the history of India have lain the one
over the other and formed social conditions which have
banned unnumbered generations practically to the same
spot. India is not a nation. It is made up of at
least three major races which have amalgamated very
little. India has two chief families of languages which
present more than a hundred dialects, of which at
least thirty are spoken by more than a million persons
each. To this day the appeal of Christianity is in
large measure to the lower castes and simpler people.
This is exactly the area of the population in which the
language difficulty is at its greatest. The higher classes
may speak English and even read Sanskrit. The lower
orders know only their own dialect. Preaching must be
done in the vernacular. Rudimentary schools must fur-
nish instruction in the dialect. Industrial education
must be conducted in the dialect. A Christian literature
of edification and devotion must be created in the dialect.
This fact again makes the sense of unity and effective-
ness in the Indian Christian church very hard to attain.
All general efforts of Indian Christians are apt to be

128 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

carried on through the medium of English. All general
expressions are set forth in a foreign tongue.

128. The indigenous church. — Nevertheless, in a
degree which is amazing when one considers the diffi-
culties, there is growing up that which may fairly be
called an Indian Christendom. There is an indigenous
Christianity which by direct and indirect influence
brings Christian ideas and principles into contact with
every area of life. There has been continued and
magnanimous effort of more enlightened missionaries
to do away with the denominational obstacles. The
word " devolution" has been applied to the movement
which is now going on in the Indian church. It is the
effort to reverse the process by which that church was
evolved under the hand of missionaries and to turn
it over to the Indians themselves. All sacrifices which
missionaries and sects, even proud established churches,
must make in this regard are as nothing compared
with the sacrifices which are made by Indians of higher
station, judges in the courts, advocates at the bar,
officers high in civil service, editors, merchants, men
free to devote themselves to philanthropy and reform,
when these come out openly as members of the Chris-
tian churches and take leading place in the Christian
movement in this land. Such men increase in number
every year. Exactly at the highest levels of society
and among men most seriously minded the number
increases also of those who are less or more convinced
of certain Christian truths but who for any one of
many reasons are not likely ever to take the step of
outward and formal association with the Christian insti-
tution as such. On the other hand, it is from this

INDIA 129

same class that the largest number of recruits comes
for the ranks of those who as the result of their educa-
tion, of their tastes and occupations, have indeed lost
hold upon their ancestral faith but have no disposition
to put another in the place.

129. The Christian movement. — In India, as in Eng-
land and America, organized Christianity, the church,
is but the nucleus of the Christian movement, the
center of the radiation of an influence of the spirit of
Christ which manifests itself far beyond the boundaries
of those who are willing to be called by the Christian
name. The number of converts which the various
churches can show, the additions to this number which
each year records, have therefore no more significance
in India than in America and no less. Meantime a
phenomenon has been witnessed in South India in
comparatively recent years which seems most strange
when one reflects upon the history and principles of
Protestant missions. This is the phenomenon of mass
movements toward Christianity. Whole villages come
over en masse and are proclaimed by the village elders
as Christian villages. This movement, in so far as we
are able to imagine how it presents itself to the native
mind, is probably connected with the breaking down of
caste, a process which is going on in India from many
other causes than that of religious propaganda. The
village wishes to organize its civil and economic life
on the basis which it observes in Christian society.
How far such a state of things is from being equivalent
to the conversion of every individual in the community
no one needs to be told. How great an obligation is
thus imposed upon a neighboring mission if it accepts

130 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

the invitation to send missionaries to organize Chris-
tian life in the community is evident. How long will
it be before these people ought to be counted for the
Christian church, unless we are to lose all sense of what
the Christian church is? The Roman Catholics have
generally been in favor of such movements, so strong
is the principle of Christian nurture with them. Prot-
estants have generally resisted mass movements as long
as they could. They have, however, of late sometimes
felt they would be ashamed if they were not able to
use such an opportunity for a real Christian end. The
government census has no way of knowing anything
but the number of those who profess the Christian
faith within the religious organizations. That number
is assuredly in some cases less than the number of those
who would be judged by a devoted missionary as
entitled to bear the Christian name. In other cases
also it is greater. Premising this, the figures are
certainly interesting. In the decade from 1901 to 191 1
the population of India increased 6.4 per cent. The
Indian Christians, Roman, Anglican, and Protestant,
increased in the same decade 34.2 per cent, or five
times as fast as the population of British India. In
no decade of the last four has the increase been less
than 22 per cent. In 191 1 the total number of church
members, not counting Europeans, was 3,574,770, or
one in every eighty-six of the population.

130. Missions and the industrial situation; govern-
ment co-operation. — The missions have had at all times
a certain proportion of their adherents who had lost
their means of livelihood along with their separation
from caste. The need of developing new modes of

INDIA 131

employment and in some way providing for the sub-
division of labor within the Christian community thus
made itself felt. Attention would early have been
turned to industrial education had the theory and prac-
tice of such education been developed in Europe or
America in the first half-century of expanding mission
work in India. As a matter of fact even the name
"industrial education" is relatively a modern one.
When the minds of missionaries and of government
officials in the old days dwelt upon the need of education
in India they thought of the old-fashioned education
of the few for leadership. The schools and colleges
established by both those agencies were directed to the
end of the development of Indian leadership in state
and church. Yet when the evolution of industrial
education came the British government in India felt
even more strongly than did the missionaries that there
was a vast portion of the population of India which
needed to be helped in this way. There are few coun-
tries in the world so poor as India. One reason at
least of this dire poverty is the uniformity of employ-
ment. Nine-tenths of the population live by agricul-
ture and that an agriculture of the most primitive sort.
There are or were until very recently few large cities
in India, only innumerable villages with their tracts
of minutely subdivided cultivable land about them.
Agriculture itself needed improvement by the applica-
tion of modern scientific methods and machinery. The
resources of India would justify a high development
of industrial and commercial life. The Indian peoples
have skill and taste as artisans. Heretofore they have
almost always been exploited by outsiders in marketing

132 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

their commodities. The caste system had had effect
in preventing choice and mobility in employment.
Christianity represented the first great breach in that
system and contributed much to this freedom and mobil-
ity. Government has not been slow to seize upon those
advantages. Confronted by the necessity of the devel-
opment of industrial education and change of the mode
of life of large strata of the population, it quickly real-
ized that that task far outwent its powers. It availed
itself of the help of the beginnings which the missions
had often made. It availed itself of the devoted staff
which the missions furnished. On the other hand, the
missions were enabled thus in co-operation with the
government to do their work on a scale which they never
could have afforded. Industrial education is relatively
expensive. It leads to complications in trade which
missions do well to avoid. Government subsidizes
mission schools of this sort up to a large percentage of
their cost. The mission industrial schools on their
part gain the advantage of government inspection and
standard. Certain classes, and it may be of interest
to add certain criminal classes, have been set apart
to the sole care of missions in this regard.

131. Missions and education. — The remarks thus
made concerning industrial education lead on to that
which is to be said concerning education in general in
India. Government under the Company actually an-
ticipated missions in the establishment of institutions of
higher learning, and there was every reason why they
should, so soon as they conceived it to be their duty
to do anything for Indians at all. When they came to
look forward to participation of Indians in the govern-

INDIA 133

ment it was clear that some Indians must be trained
for that participation. The Company had abundant
means for such work. The missions, on the other hand,
had at the first not only little or no means for such
tasks, but they were then so nearly limited to the lowest
strata of society that it required the genuine faith of
educated men to look forward to the leadership of an
educated ministry in the Christian community. There
are now nineteen institutions connected with Protestant
societies which carry their students up to the Bache-
lor's degree. Eleven of them provide work in addition
for those seeking the Master's degree or professional
courses. They are all subject to government super-
vision as to the giving of degrees. They have about
five thousand students. The five great government
universities, those of Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, the
Punjab, and Allahabad, united as one examining board,
have approximately thirty thousand students. Some
of those, like Calcutta, go back to foundations made
by officers under the Company at the end of the eight-
eenth century. A new university under Hindu aus-
pices is being established at Benares. A college
founded and sustained by Mohammedans exists at
Aligarh. Both of these last receive grants in aid from
the government, coming thus under government inspec-
tion. Practically all of the Christian colleges men-
tioned above receive such grants in aid and are under
such inspection. Most of them have the rank of
affiliated colleges of one or another of the universities.
Secondary education in India was never thoroughly
taken in hand by the government until 1854. Prompted
then by the famous educational dispatch of Sir Charles

134 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Wood, the rulers sought to lay the foundations of a
government school system on a grand scale. Not until
1882 did the elementary schools feel the full impetus
of the educational movement. To this day only 32.8
per cent of the boys of school age in British India
attend school, and only 5 . 9 per cent of the girls. With-
in these areas the missions are far in advance of the
government. Their school system is a generation older.
The proportion of the children in the Christian com-
munities who attend schools of these grades is far
higher. Until quite recently the only schools for
women were mission schools. To this day, despite
the excellency of the government schools in which
strict religious neutrality prevails, and despite the
founding of private schools for both sexes and all classes
by generous donors eager for their own faiths, many
pupils from non-Christian families attend the mission
schools. They acknowledge that what they seek is the
moral life and religious atmosphere of these schools.
Particularly is this true of the girls' schools. Schools
established by missions for defectives, as for example
the blind, are still far in advance of the government
schools.

132. Philanthropy and reform. — This last phrase leads
us to consider the immense increase in India within the
last two generations of organizations and agencies for
the prosecution of every sort of charity, philanthropy,
and reform. In the order of time at which they have
come into being these institutions may be classified as
mission activities, efforts of well-disposed foreigners,
government agencies, finally and of late on a great
scale the activities of Indians themselves. Indians of

INDIA 135

every race and every faith have come to vie with one
another in the alleviation of misery and in the investi-
gation of the causes of distress rife in a land of such
dense population and of such incredible poverty. Mis-
sions have turned over no small part of the work of
this sort inaugurated by them to the government.
Reforms which missionaries once stood alone in demand-
ing are now far better advocated by representatives of
the Indian peoples themselves. How great a change
this cult of mercy in modern India constitutes one
may realize who will read the literature of India before
the Mutiny. There has been large development in
this direction during the same years in Europe and
America. No one can ever have failed to feel the con-
trast between the gentleness of the Indian mind and the
indifference to suffering which certainly characterized
Indian life until comparatively recent years. A view
fundamental to Buddhism and significant even for
Hinduism, the view of the worthlessness of life and the
meaninglessness of the world, had much to do with
this. Life itself was so great an evil that all other
evils were small by comparison. To prolong life might
only be to enhance misery. To alleviate suffering might
be only to increase it in the end. Our Western World
had certainly gone to absurd lengths in the prosperous
years before the war in its sensitiveness to suffering.
The Hindu had always seen these relations differently.
It is one of the chief titles to praise of missions in India
that they have largely changed the atmosphere of life
in India in respect of the valuation set upon man as
man and the hopeful and joyful estimate of the worth
of life.

136 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

133. Reform and revival of Hindu religions. — Such
changes of view as those which have been touched upon
in the last paragraph, changes in respect of the valua-
tion of man's life, amount to an alteration in the view
of religion itself. They assign a different function to
religion. They demand a religion which can fulfil that
function. It is certain that these changes are passing
over Hindu religion. Buddhism, which was the great-
est of all the reforms of Hinduism, has in India long
since been largely reabsorbed into Hinduism. Its
adherents are far more numerous, the faith itself is
far more vital, in Japan or even in China, than in
India. Mohammedanism, the one great religion which
had invaded India before the coming of Christianity,
is far more accessible to reform than is Mohammedan-
ism anywhere else in the world. Zoroastrianism has
never been the religion of any but an interesting group
who have always remained complete foreigners in
India. The nature-religions, like Jainism, must share
the fate of all the nature-religions when these come
into conflict with the view of nature which modern
education necessarily imparts. ■ There remains the
colossal fact of Hinduism. Loyal adherents of Hin-
duism are saying about it some one and some another
of the things which we have heard said about Christianity
at various times in our own lands. It is quite touching
to hear in the impassioned address of Hindu religious
reformers or to read in the eloquent literature of the
reforming movements that Hinduism has been verily
guilty in that, absorbed in its doctrines about God,
it has neglected duties concerning men. It has aban-
doned the problem of the world. It has not seen that

INDIA 137

God should be worshiped, not in rapt contemplation or
by asceticism or in rites and ceremonies, but in loving
service to our fellow-men. It is suggestive to hear
Hindus of quickened conscience and enthusiasm rail
at the tendency so natural to the Indian mind to give
itself up to reasoning about the transcendent, to wander
off into endless refinements of metaphysics, to turn reli-
gion into dogma and faith into pure intellectualism. It
is illuminating to hear the assault which enlightened
Hindus make upon the power and selfishness of their
priests, the degeneration of religion into magic, and
the readiness of the supposed representatives of God
to turn to their own sordid advantage the superstitions
and fears of men. These are the notes of the reforming
religious movement as a popular movement, but this
is the least characteristically Indian side of it. Far
more characteristic is that genuinely intellectual move-
ment so essentially aristocratic in its manner, eclectic
in its method, inner and spiritual in its purposes, which
has given birth to the Brahma Samaj, the Arya Samaj,
and the various doctrinal reinterpretations of Hindu-
ism. It is the attempt to make a synthesis of the best
points of many religions. This attempt has absorbed
not a little of India's best religious thought in the last
two generations. So pre-eminently are these systems
of religious thought creations of the mind, so completely
are they the religious preoccupations of that part of
the world which lives to think, that one never wonders
that not one of them has progressed far beyond the
circle of the intellectuals. Yet few religious movements
have ever been launched by one to whom we are drawn
by a more instinctive respect than that which we feel

t

138 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

for Ram Mohan Ray. After a life of quest among all
the religions which he knew and as the result of thought
and study and conference with friends, he taught that
there is only one God, who is the father of the spirits
of all men, that in all religious movements men are
blindly seeking after this one God. The goal in religion
is that all men should agree in spiritual worship and
join in the service of their fellow-men. He was the
founder of the Brahma Samaj, which dates from 1828.
After ninety years it is, however, a fair question whether
this samaj, or any or all of the others which have split
off from it, are in the way of becoming centers of the
religious life and power which reformed and reforming
Indian religion needs. Certainly, however, such move-
ments show the openness of the Indian mind to the
impression of much that has been contended for by the
teachers of Christianity.

CHAPTER VIII
JAPAN

CHAPTER VIII

JAPAN

134. Japan

135. Portuguese trade; Roman missions; Xavier

136. Nobunaga and the Jesuits

137. The flourishing period of the Roman missions

138. The persecution

139. The closing of Japan

140. The opening of Japan

141. Relation to other nations

142. Resumption of Roman missions

143. Beginnings of Protestant missions

144. Neesima

145. Japan in the new era

146. Action and reaction

147. The Christian movement

148. Attitude of government

149. Medical work

150. General philanthropy

151. The reaction: causes

152. The reaction: effects

153. The Imperial Rescript

154. The case of the Doshisha

155. Growth of the churches

156. Conference of religions in 191 2

CHAPTERVIII
JAPAN

134. Japan. — If we speak next of the spread of
Christianity in Japan it is because this movement pre-
sents in its history striking contrasts with that which we
have observed in the case of India. A warlike popula-
tion, comparatively small until recent years, homogene-
ous in race and language, has from time immemorial
resisted foreign conquest. Its people chose freely such
elements as they found useful in the Chinese civilization
yet followed the line of their own development. They
have illustrated almost to our own day the advantage
of a leadership inherited from a feudal age. Eager for
trade at the time of the opening of the Eastern World
to European commerce they later turned against the
strangers and sought to keep their commerce in their
own hands. Hospitable toward faiths other than their
native Shinto they yielded great influence to Confucian-
ism in at least two periods of their history. They
accorded to Buddhism a place in which this missionary
religion achieved a high development. They admitted
Christianity with the Jesuits and then, affronted by the
association of its representatives with political purposes,
they put the European religion under the ban. They
visited Christians, both foreign and native, with bitter
persecution and prevented all further propaganda until
1865. Yet in the brief interval since Perry's treaty in
1854 Japan has in the largest way adopted fundamental
principles of Western civilization. It has become a

141

142 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

military and naval power of the first order, a commercial
and industrial nation of the foremost rank. It maintains
Western education at the highest level. Since the Edict
of Toleration in 1872 Japan has gone farther in the direc-
tion of the naturalization and the nationalization of
Christianity within limited groups from all classes of
society than has any other nation in which the Christian
propaganda has been conducted.

135. Portuguese trade; Roman missions; Xavier. —
In the widest sweep of the Golden Horde toward the
East the Tatars failed to effect a landing upon Japanese
shores. This was in the time of Kublai Khan, when the
Tatars had stamped their impress upon China, India, the
present Ottoman Empire, and even Russia, which is not
altogether effaced to this day. To Europeans, Japan had
existed in a kind of legend since the time of Marco
Polo. A junk carrying three Portuguese sailing out of
Macao for Siam was blown from her course and made the
island of Tanegashima on the coast of the province of
Satsuma in 1542. The news thus brought to Goa in-
spired the Portuguese to follow up the new opening for
commerce. Francis Xavier was persuaded to go to
Japan. He is said to have yielded to the urgency of a
Japanese refugee whose name appears in Xavier's letters
as Angiro. This Japanese refugee spoke Portuguese
and afterward received the name of Paul of the Holy
Faith. Xavier went in a Chinese junk from Malacca
and landed at Kagoshima. Kindly received by the local
daimio he prepared, with the aid of Paul, an account of
the principal Christian doctrines. Later he went with
two Jesuit brothers to Hirado and Kyoto. In 1551 he
returned to India, having been in Japan a little more than

JAPAN 143

two years. In Goa he selected missionaries to be sent
to Japan. He himself had set his heart upon visiting
China. He reached only the island of Changchuen,
which appears in Portuguese documents as San Chian
and St. John. There Xavier died of fever in Novem-
ber, 1552, in the forty-sixth year of his age.

136. Nobunaga and the Jesuits. — For a time Funai
and Yamaguchi remained the centers of Christian work.
The governor of the latter place received baptism. Tor-
res and Fernandez, companions of Xavier, had remained
behind. Gago and Alcaceva came from India to rein-
force the station. The opposition of the Buddhist
monks, who were often warriors, was natural. The
position of converts was made difficult by their absolute
allegiance to their overlords. The country was in
almost constant civil war. The great political enemy
of the Buddhist party, Nobunaga, took the side of the
Christians. He was far from being a Christian convert,
yet he seems to have acted in a spirit of tolerance as well
as from what he took to be political expediency. In the
period of his successes Christianity flourished in an
amazing degree. The Christian cause was drawn almost
from the first into the vortex of the civil struggle through
which Japan at the time of the decadence of the power
of the mikado and the rise of that of the shogun was
passing. There was nothing in the Jesuit theory or
practice then rapidly developing in Europe to make its
representatives in the East wary of entering upon such
alliances. The society sought persons of high station.
The end of the matter was that the Christian cause in
Japan, which would in any case have been suspect in the
eyes of a people of intense anti-foreign feeling, met also

144 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

t

the obloquy of having taken sides in Japanese domestic
questions. That the movement should have had for
seventy-five years the success which it did have is even
more remarkable than the fact that at the end of that
period it was suppressed as ruthlessly as it was.

137. The flourishing period of the Roman missions. —
This is not to say that there was not true religious work
of a high order done in the Roman missions in the time
of which we speak. There were converts to Christianity
who were such out of inner conviction and in face of
great difficulties. There was no such obstacle to the
advance of Christianity as was offered by caste in India.
There was, however, the resistance of a highly organized
feudal society in which loyalty was of supreme impor-
tance. Shinto was intrenched as the background of
popular superstitions relating to nature and also as
connected with the veneration of ancestors and in the
last analysis with homage to the ruler. Buddhism had
long been associated with the aristocracy and Confucian-
ism was at least the prevailing philosophy. Yet Chris-
tianity had access to all classes of society and won its
leaders from all classes. In such circumstances it
would be strange if we did not hear of cases of mass con-
version and also of enforced conversions. It is in such a
connection that we first learn of Sumitada and the
Nagasaki Christian community, famous in later history.
Sumitada, announcing that he had been aided to his
victories by the Christian God, banished all non-
Christians from Nagasaki. Nobunaga was succeeded
in 1582 by his lieutenant, Hideyoshi, who brought sixty-
six provinces of the empire under his sway. Great was
the question whether Hideyoshi would favor the Chris-

JAPAN 145

tians. At the first he followed in Nobunaga's steps. In
1587, however, he turned against the Christians, issuing
an edict which ordered all foreign priests to quit Japan
within twenty days. Some Jesuits left Japan, but
Franciscans and Dominicans came from Manila to take
their place. The Spaniards were sharp rivals of the
Portuguese for Japanese trade. The feuds of the priests
and merchants among themselves still further angered
Hideyoshi. Twenty-six Christians were crucified at
Nagasaki, six Spanish Franciscans being of the number,
besides three Japanese Jesuits and seventeen Japanese
Christians of the laity.

138. The persecution. — In 1598 Hideyoshi died and
his authority passed into the hands of Iyeyasu, the first
Tokugawa shogun. Thirty years later, in 1637, the
Tokugawa potentates had apparently exterminated
Christianity in Japan and had committed their country
to a policy of isolation which continued unbroken until
1853, or for a period of two hundred and sixteen years.
Yet in the early years no one would have predicted this
issue. Iyeyasu favored the coming of the Dutch and
English traders, meaning probably to play them off
against the Portuguese and Spanish. An Englishman,
William Adams, came to Funai as the pilot of a Dutch
ship and was warmly received by the Shogun. He
became master-shipbuilder to the government and diplo-
matic agent with traders of all nationalities. He was
for twenty years the Shogun's trusted friend. The
Shogun's suspicions were aroused by a Spanish attempt
to survey the coast. When five native converts were
burned at the stake at Nagasaki for refusing to recant,
the crowd gathered up portions of their bones as holy

146 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

relics. An edict of 16 14 ordered that all missionaries
should be deported, all churches should be burned, and
all converts should abjure on pain of death. The edict
was not rigidly enforced. In 1623, however, under
Iyemitsu there were new edicts and consistent persecu-
tion began. Highest fortitude was shown on the part of
individuals and by masses of the Japanese Christians.
In 1637 there broke out a rebellion, commonly known as
the Christian Revolt of Shimbara. Shimbara is a prom-
ontory near Nagasaki. In 1638 the whole Christian
body of the neighborhood, some say twenty thousand
fighting men with seventeen thousand women and chil-
dren, took possession of the dilapidated fortress of Hara.
Here the insurgents successfully maintained themselves
for three months. Then those whom fire and famine had
left were put to the sword. After 1872, under the Edict
of Toleration, when French priests were allowed to search
the region about Nagasaki for those with whom the
old tradition survived, they are said to have found more
than eight thousand persons who were prepared to call
themselves Christians. Yet Christianity had been a
religion forbidden upon pain of death for more than two
hundred and fifty years.

139. The closing of Japan. — The Japanese felt that
the Portuguese had instigated the Shimbara rebellion.
An edict was issued proclaiming that thenceforth any
Portuguese ship coming to Japan would be burned,
together with her cargo, and her crew would be executed.
The Colony at Macao in 1640 sent four aged men, most
respected citizens, as duly appointed ambassadors and
bearing rich gifts to see if the decree could not be altered.
The ambassadors and fifty-seven of their following were

JAPAN 147

beheaded, thirteen being reserved to be sent back to
Macao to tell the tale. The Dutch were ordered from
Hirado to Nagasaki. There they were confined to
Deshima, an island but two hundred yards in length
and eighty in width. Their rent was exorbitant, the
presents demanded of them excessive. When even on
these conditions they had built up a profitable trade
in metals they were, after 1790, limited to one ship a
year at Deshima. No other foreign ships were allowed
to trade with Japan at all. The first sign of predilection
for an alien creed exposed the Japanese to severest
punishment. Attempt to leave the limits of the realm
was punishable with decapitation. Foreign sailors
wrecked upon the shores might be put to death. The
opening of Japan was postponed until almost the middle
of the nineteenth century. By that time the whaling
industry in Russian waters of! the coast of Alaska had
attracted large investments of American capital and was
yearly pursued by thousands of American sailors.
Shipwrecked mariners had generally been treated with
tolerable consideration, but some had had bad experi-
ences. In 1846 the United States government made
formal application for the privilege of trading and was
refused. In 1849 an American ship, the "Preble,"
under Commander Glynn, anchored in Nagasaki harbor
and threatened to bombard the town unless immediate
delivery were made of eighteen seamen who, having been
wrecked in northern waters, were held by the Japanese
preparatory to their being shipped to the Dutch colony
at Batavia. In 1853 Commodore Perry, with a squadron
of four ships of war and five hundred and sixty men,
entered Uraga Bay.

148 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

140. TJie opening of Japan. — With the secular move-
ment as inaugurated by the coming of Commodore
Perry and the signing of the treaty which he secured we
may deal briefly. The de facto rule of the chief noble
of the land, which had so long relegated the emperor to
a position in which much was made of his divine honor
and nothing was expected of him in the way of practical
influence, was coming to an end by its own inner decay.
A new issue would reveal the evil of a divided rule.
Such an issue now arose on the question of foreign trade.
The example of Great Britain in China since the opium
wars showed trade to be only the entering wedge for
other influences. It is possible that Perry's way was
made easier for him because of the fear that if Japan did
not yield to the United States she might have to yield
to Great Britain. Conjuring up the fear of Great Britain
France had sought to persuade Japan to throw herself
into the hands of France. Perry did not unduly press for
a treaty, but after lying at anchor for ten days sailed away,
saying that he would return the following year. The
Shogun, whose ancestors had been absolutely autocratic,
now summoned the feudatories for counsel. It was
patent to all that the country was unable to withstand
foreign pressure. There was a considerable party which
really wished to permit foreign trade. The sight of
Perry's steamships with powerful guns, which brought
also specimens of Western wonders of invention, sewing
machines and model railways, had had effect. In reality
the die had been already cast. The treaty granted
pledged Japan to accord proper treatment to shipwrecked
sailors, to permit foreign vessels to obtain stores and
provisions, and to allow American ships to anchor at

JAPAN 149

Shimoda and Hakodate. Russia, Holland, and England
speedily secured for themselves like privileges. The
treaty had been signed without the consent of the govern-
ment at Kyoto. Thenceforth the administrative court
at Yeddo, now Tokyo, and the imperial court at Kyoto
were in open opposition the one to the other. Humbled
by his adversaries and held responsible by foreigners
for things which he could not prevent the old Shogun
died in 1866. The new Shogun placed himself at the
head of the advanced liberal party inaugurating plans
for the training of the army through the aid of France
and of the navy through that of England. He altered
the customs of the court so as to bring them into con-
formity with the usages of foreign diplomacy. Then
he freely resigned his power into the hands of the
Emperor.

141. Relation to other nations. — From 1866 onward
the new spirit rapidly permeated the whole nation. The
Mikado took the line which his followers had once blamed
the Shogun for taking. Progress became the aim of all
classes. The country entered upon a course which in
forty years won for Japan a universally conceded place in
the ranks of the great world-powers. From the time
of the Mikado's resumption of authority relations of
Japan with foreign states grew with each year more
amicable. Treaties were observed with exemplary care.
One feature of the treaties became exceedingly irksome
to the Japanese. This was the privilege of extra-
territoriality, the fact that foreigners residing within
her borders were exempt from the operation of her
laws. The system had been a tradition of the European
powers in dealing with the nations of the East. That it

150 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

had been necessary in some cases there can be no doubt.
The Japanese had at first interposed no objection. Yet
there were often abuses and causes of irritation under the
system of consular courts. When the Japanese had
done everything to fit themselves to exercise this one of
the attributes of a sovereign state in full accord with the
law of nations they were incensed because the European
powers were dilatory about revising their treaties to this
effect. They asked for a revision of treaties in 187 1 and
again in 1 883 . It was in 1 899 that the last vestiges of the
old system disappeared.

142. Resumption of Roman missions. — When under
the treaties it became possible for foreigners to reside in
Japan, missionaries, both Roman and Protestant, lost
no time in availing themselves of the privilege. Roman
Catholics came to discover and to aid their brethren who
had been so long under the ban of their own government
and cut off from any contact with the church to which
they acknowledged allegiance. It is certain that for
many years after the edicts Roman priests had refused
to leave Japan. Others arrived from Europe, dedicating
themselves even in the face of probable martyrdom to
the serving of the persecuted Japanese church. The
Japanese martyrs who had been crucified in 1597 were by
a brief of Pope Urban VIII in 1627 permitted to be
honored in the celebration of the mass. The canoniza-
tion of which this beatification was the prelude did not
take place until 1862, under the pontificate of Pius IX,
after the restoration of the Roman work in Japan had
begun. At Urikami and other places near Nagasaki
there were found some thousands of people who possessed
prayer and service books with sacramental words of

JAPAN 151

Latin origin. Until the Act of Toleration in 1872 these
people and the converts whom the missionaries now
made were often persecuted. Since 1872 the mission
of the Roman Catholic church has been prosecuted with
great success, chiefly by French priests.

143. Beginnings of Protestant missions. — It was not
unnatural that since the gates of Japan had been opened
to the world by America the first Protestant missionaries
to enter the country should be Americans. It was
natural too that one of the first of the American churches
to be represented should be the Reformed Dutch church.
This church, interested no doubt in the history of Dutch
commerce in Japan, promptly availed itself of the open-
ing of the country to send out Guido Verbeck, who
landed at Nagasaki in 1859. Verbeck, although the
emissary of the American church of the descendants of
the Hollanders, had been born in Utrecht. The first
impression of Protestantism in Japan, long before
Perry's treaty, had been made by devout Dutch mer-
chants at Deshima. There is a romantic story of
Verbeck's early years at Nagasaki which nevertheless
appears to be true. He made the acquaintance of a
Japanese officer, Wakasa, who while in command of the
forces there in 1854 had picked up an English copy of the
New Testament floating in the harbor. He had learned
English, became interested in the life and teaching of
Jesus, and in 1866 was baptized by Verbeck. Verbeck,
who was a man of eminent attainments, was at first
allowed to reside in Japan only as a teacher. He
taught a number of young men of the samurai, some of
whom attained distinction in the new government after
the revolution of 1868. At the suggestion of these

152 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Verbeck was called to Tokyo to give counsel to the
government in framing the new educational policy of
the realm. For nine years he remained in Tokyo,
supervising the national system of education then
established. He recommended that Japanese youth
should be sent to the universities and higher technical
schools of Europe and America to prosecute their studies.
He accompanied the first deputation of Japanese officials
on a journey of inspection in various countries of Europe.
He bore a conspicuous part in the translation of the
Old Testament. He died in 1898.

In the same year with Verbeck there came to Japan
two other missionaries who achieved high distinction in
the land of their adoption and had great influence over
their respective churches in America in arousing interest
in things Japanese. James Hepburn was a graduate of
Princeton College and of the medical school of Pennsyl-
vania University. He was sent out by the Presbyterian
church in the United States and went first to Singapore.
In 1859 he was sent by his Board to Japan to open
medical mission work in that land. He made himself a
place not only in medicine but also in literary work.
He had an extraordinary knowledge of the language.
Few missionaries ever gained in higher degree the esteem
of all classes of people. On his ninetieth birthday, in
1905, long after his retirement, the Emperor conferred
upon him the order of the Rising Sun. The third in
this group was Charming Moore Williams, a Virginian,
He was the founder of the mission of the Protestant
Episcopal church in the United States to Japan. In
1866 he was made bishop of China and Japan. Only
in 1874 was another bishop appointed for China while

JAPAN 153

Williams continued in Japan. He remained until 1908.
He was a graduate of Union Theological Seminary at
Alexandria of winch Phillips Brooks was also an
alumnus, and had much to do with Brooks's interest
in missions. In those early years the situation in Japan
was such that it drew like a magnet rare spirits from
every country in the world, but especially from America,
and into every phase of useful work. It was recognized
from the first that it would be useless to send any but the
ablest men. It is doubtful if missions sent to any lands
ever contained a larger proportion of able men than did
the Japan missions in those early years. Greene and
Davis, who came to Japan when they could exercise the
function only of teachers, and Gordon, who added him-
self to their company as a physician, all became preachers
of note. They constituted a trio whom the American
Board will not easily forget. Greene developed into a
public character of rare tact and responsibility. He
would have graced a diplomatic service. He lived
through the period when everything foreign was accept-
able and again through the reaction in which everything
foreign was suspected and odious. He was the trusted
friend and adviser of Japanese officials and the inter-
mediary in many delicate and difficult relations. Davis,
who had been a soldier in the American Civil War,
remained a leader to the end. De Forest and Cary
have worthily carried on this tradition.

144. Neesima. — In some ways, however, by far the
most influential Christian in Japan in those early years
was a Japanese, Joseph Hardy Neesima, if we may use
that form of writing a name now grown familiar to the
world. He was born in Yeddo in 1843 °f samurai

154 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

descent. His father was a retainer of the daimio of
Omaka. When he was sixteen years old that which he
had heard concerning America inspired him with eager
desire to visit that country. The attempt to leave his
country was still punishable with death. Nevertheless,
in the year 1859 he managed to escape to Shanghai.
There the captain of a ship bound for Boston consented
to let him work his passage thither. He sold one of the
two swords which he was entitled to wear that he might
buy an English Bible. In Boston the owner of the
ship, Mr. Alpheus Hardy, took him into his house as a
servant. Discovering Neesima's worth he sent him
successively to Phillips Academy, Amherst College, and
Andover Seminary. Before Neesima had completed
his theological studies a Japanese embassy headed by
Prince Iwa-Kura arrived in America. They requested
Neesima to serve as their interpreter and assist them in
their investigation of educational institutions in America
and Europe. When his labors were ended, having been
ordained in the Congregational ministry, Neesima went
before the annual meeting of the American Board of
Commissioners for Foreign Missions in 1874 to plead for
the establishment of a Christian school of highest grade
in his country. On reacliing Japan he found the mis-
sion of the American Board earnestly in favor of estab-
lishing such a college. Their first impulse was to locate
it in Tokyo, side by side with the new imperial university,
where the influence of many even of the European and
American teachers was distinctly anti-Christian. In
the end the college, called Doshisha, was established at
Kyoto in the center of powerful Buddhist influences.
The opposition of the priests was hardly greater than

JAPAN 155

*

the difficulties interposed by government. It was easy
to acquit Protestantism of political intentions, yet the
old suspicion was strong. Japanese who had been in
Europe and America knew that much even of the
Protestantism of the decade of the seventies was hostile
to the great scientific movement. The scientific move-
ment was hostile to Christianity. In the end Neesima's
faith and courage triumphed over every obstacle. The
school, which has now grown into one of the universities
recognized by the state, was opened in Neesima's own
house in November, 1875, with eight pupils. These
words may suffice to indicate his place in the history of
learning in his country and in the movement for the
naturalization and nationalization of everything Chris-
tian. No man had greater part in it than Neesima, and
this in spite of his profound sense of obligation to mis-
sions and America. He died in 1890, in his forty-eighth
year.

145. Japan in the new era. — The foregoing paragraphs
serve to bring into strong relief certain characteristics
of the Christian movement in Japan. Missionaries had
been from the beginning not mere evangelists and pro-
mulgators of a new view of religion. Here they had been
the advocates of a Christian influence in the transforma-
tion of all relations of Japanese fife. That transforma-
tion was taking place with rapidity in any case. Mis-
sionaries were accorded a place in it only as they were
competent to fill that place. So strong was the impulse
of the Japanese, so zealous their participation in all
other phases of the new movement, that Japanese like
Neesima possessed themselves of a leadership in the
Christian movement almost as soon as there was a

156 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Christian movement to lead. Christianity in Japan
never passed, save for the briefest interval, through
the stage in which it was a mere propaganda in the hands
of strangers. These facts go far to explain the favor with
which the Christian movement was at first received and
the rapidity of the progress which for a time it made.
Then came a natural revulsion, a swing of the pendulum,
a resurgence of national instinct which checked the
appropriation of many other elements of Western life
in Japan at the same time. In the end the check was an
excellent thing. It stripped the Christian movement of
extraneous elements of its popularity. Before we go on
with this history, however, we must speak briefly of
certain elements in the amazing transformation which
Japan underwent in the early years of the Meiji era. It
has been said that the restoration and all that followed
it was carried out by the representatives of a class which
numbered hardly a fortieth of the population. The
feudal element renounced its own privileges in an
enthusiasm for Japan which led them to high self-
abnegation. The development of democratic parties
and ideals followed when the movement was well upon
its way. Even as late as 1875 the idea of representative
government had not gone beyond the periodical conven-
ing of an assembly of prefectural governors for the
exchange of ideas and the encouragement of progress.
In 1876 came the establishment of provincial assemblies.
Prolonged and thorough study of constitutional govern-
ment was meantime being made in every country. The
experience of the human race was put under contribution.
The Marquis Ito directed the framing of the constitution,
which was promulgated in the year 1890. To it the

JAPAN 157

Japanese peoples proudly point as the only charter of
the kind voluntarily given by a sovereign to his subjects.
There may be a measure of romance in this view. There
is also a good degree of truth.

146. Action and reaction. — The era from 1868 to 1890
was one which in respect of the general development of
Japan was viewed by the sincere friends of the country
with deep concern. The master-minds who had planned
the restoration continued to lead in the path of progress.
Many of these men had enjoyed exceptional opportuni-
ties of acquiring knowledge by sojourn in Europe and
America. The reformers seemed at times to outstrip
the nation's readiness. Yet in the end the most striking
trait of the people proved to be their power, not without
moments of confusion, to appropriate that which was
for them available and to reject the rest. Englishmen
were employed to superintend the building of railways,
the introduction of the telegraph, the coast survey, and
the organization of the navy. To Frenchmen was n-
trusted largely the work of recasting the laws, establish-
ing the courts, and training the army. Educational
affairs, the postal service, and the improvement of agri-
culture were put in the hands of Americans. The
teaching of medicine, the compilation of a commercial
code, and ultimately the training of military officers
was assigned to Germans. Italians were called as
counselors in matters of art. Yet in almost all these
matters there was a strict limitation of time for which
foreign appointees would be permitted to serve. At
the very moment when so much of the nation's life was
put under the tutelage of foreigners chosen youths were
sent abroad to fit themselves to take the place of these

158 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

foreigners. The movement was one in which the atti-
tude of mind of the people of India, for example, presents
only a feeble parallel, although India has been so much
longer in contact with things Western than has Japan.
It was one which was characterized by a leadership for
which China, for example, affords no parallel, having no
feudal tradition and being so portentously democratic
from beforehand. Yet the fact that Japan has actually
blazed the way and accomplished that which the other
nations crave may in some measure offset the disad-
vantages of other nations of which we speak.

147. The Christian movement. — It is against this
background of the transformation of Japanese civiliza-
tion that we have to think of the advance of the Chris-
tian movement in Japan. Allusion was made to the
fact that so soon as the treaties permitted foreigners to
reside in Japan language teachers were welcomed. Les-
sons in English were often exchanged by the newcomers
for lessons in Japanese. There was no concealment of
the Christian influence of many of these teachers. In
general no objection was raised to it. The first school
which seems to have been entitled to the name of a
missionary school was begun in Tokyo in 1869 by
Mr. Carrothers, of the American Presbyterian Mission.
Out of this presently grew a girls' school as well. The
American Board opened such schools in Kobe and Osaka
in 1872. The Kobe College for women is the direct
outgrowth of that endeavor. Efforts in the direction of
the education of women were as yet exclusively in the
hands of missionaries. There was thus established a
relation of mission work to education which became one
of the traditions. There was an interesting endeavor

JAPAN 159

at Sendai in 1886 under Dr. DeForest to found a school
and college distinctively Christian but supported by a
rich Japanese, long resident in America, and governed
by the public officials of Sendai, who were, of course,
non-Chrislians. It was closed only in 1891 under the
policy of the Department of Education which was then
opposed to all private schools of that grade. Of the
Doshisha and its difficulties in the time of the reaction
we shall speak later. In 1872 a joint committee of the
missions had been appointed to translate the Bible into
Japanese. They finished their work in 1880. One of
those who carried this work to its completion was
Brown of the Reformed Church who so early as 1866
had made his own translation. In was only in 1873
that permission was given to hold public services for
Christian worship and preaching. Even then the oppor-
tunity was for a long time confined to the cities and towns
on the coast. For travel in the interior passports had to
be obtained. To missionaries they were generally
refused. The first Japanese Christian church was
established at Yokohama in 1872. It grew out of the
union church which had been maintained for some years
by the English-speaking residents of the place. The
second church, that in Tokyo, was established in 1873
by the American Presbyterian Mission. Churches in
Kobe and Osaka followed in 1874. These all possessed
no denominational affiliation. By 1875 there were fifty
places in and about these cities where stated worship
was held. When later many of these churches wished to
join in some sort of federation they chose the name
Kumi-ai. They would gladly have continued to be
designated simply as Christian churches. The name

160 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

chosen does, indeed, suggest their self-government. To
have called themselves Congregational churches would,
however, have implied that they were affiliated with an
American denomination. This was not the case, although
most of them had arisen out of the work of the American
Board. Popular favor at this time was such that great
mass meetings were held in the cities in the interest of the
Christian propaganda. In 1884 there was a revival
among the students at the Doshisha quite on the lines
of student revivals in some of the American colleges
in the same period. The membership of the Kumi-ai
churches increased at this time 50 and 60 per cent a year.
148. Attitude of government. — In 1873 the govern-
ment had ordered the removal of the edict boards pro-
hibiting Christian rites or confession. In 1871, on the
occasion of the visit of the Prince Iwa-Kura to Europe,
strong representations had been made against the perse-
cution of Christians. The Japanese government had,
moreover, upon its hands other questions of religious
toleration than those which pertained to Christians.
In the restoration of imperial authority in 1868 there
had been a revival of something like actual worship of the
emperor. Shintoist and Confucian samurai, both promi-
nent agents in the political transformation, had tried to
effect the establishment of national religion. Privileges
long granted to Buddhists were revoked. The purifica-
tion of the national religion, Shinto, was to be carried
out with rigor after twelve hundred years of partial
fusion with Buddhism. After 1872 the two faiths were
put again upon equal footing. Shintoists were ordered
to organize their worshiping bodies apart from the court
ritual. The question concerning Christians must have

JAPAN 161

seemed to Japanese statesmen a small affair compared
with the domestic question with which they were then
struggling. The necessity of recognizing Buddhism
paved the way for the recognition of Christianity. The
constitution promulgated on February n, 1889, guaran-
teed full religious liberty to all the people in Japan. On
that very day Mr. Mori, the urgent advocate of such
liberty, was assassinated by a Shinto fanatic. Mr.
Mori, it was alleged, had raised, with his walking-stick,
the curtain of the shrine at Ise. Such being the situation
one learns with greater surprise that in March, 1876,
the government issued a decree that from the beginning
of the next month Sunday should be the official day of
rest. The old way of reckoning by lunar months had
been abandoned in 1873 and the months Lnd days were
brought into correspondence with those of the foreign
calendar. The years were reckoned, not from the birth
of Christ, but from the date assigned for the accession
to the throne of Jimmu Tenno, 660 B.C. There had been,
however, constant trouble about holidays. This act of
the government had no religious significance. The results
of it were, however, advantageous to the Christian cause.
149. Medical work. — In 1872 Dr. Berry, having
joined the American Board Mission, was invited by
foreign residents in Kyoto to settle there. Passports
for foreigners in Kyoto had been issued only the year
before. The foreign residents needed a physician. Dr.
Berry thought it an opportunity of opening work as a
missionary physician in behalf of Japanese as well.
There were foreign physicians in the concessions. There
were few missionary physicians as yet. Dr. Berry soon
found a more favorable field in Kobe and Osaka.

1 62 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Already in 1874 the self-support of the medical work in
Kobe was assured. Wealthier patients were more than
willing to pay fees which covered a large part of the
charitable work among the poor. In almost every
country medical work has been the first to achieve self-
support. The Japanese were sensitive about foreign
support of any work done on their behalf. From the
first, Japanese youths, Christians in due proportion
with others, studied medicine. They studied in Japan
and in Europe and America. Philanthropic enterprise
established hospitals and dispensaries. Faculties of
medicine and of all the sciences subordinate to medicine
were among the most flourishing in the national uni-
versities. National and municipal care of the sick and
wounded became a matter of pride. After 1895 there
were schools for nurses. The years when European
medicine was practiced only by foreigners in Japan were
exceedingly few. The number of missionary physicians
sent to Japan was not at any time great. It never held
comparison with the number of such physicians in
China or even in India. There are general missionary
hospitals in Osaka and Tokyo. There are Christian
institutions for the treatment of tuberculosis and of
leprosy. There is ample opportunity for the Japanese
churches to assist in this work, particularly amoDg the
poor. Two of the leper hospitals are under the care of the
Roman Catholic church. The best-known under Protes-
tant auspices is perhaps that associated with the name of
Miss Riddell at Kumamoto. There is no medical school
in Japan under missionary or other foreign auspices.

150. General philanthropy. — In 1875 Dr. Berry had
obtained permission through the American minister

JAPAN 163

to visit prisons in different parts of Japan. The results
of his inspection were embodied in a report submitted
to the government. The government printed the report
and distributed it among prison officials. The governor
of Kobe appointed a member of the Japanese Christian
church in that city as a teacher in the prison to give
instruction in reading, arithmetic, and morals. He
ultimately became superintendent of the prison. The
great reforms in the Japanese prison system, with the
study of Western scientific method of dealing with
penal questions, date from this small beginning. The
treatment of prisoners in Japan had never been so irre-
sponsible as in China, but it certainly had been hard.
The Okayama Orphanage originated in the love and
devotion of Ishii Juji. Ishii had been a medical student
at Okayama. He had become a Roman Catholic and
later joined the Kumi-ai church. In 1886 George Miiller
visited Japan. Ishii was much moved by what Miiller
told of his orphanages in London and the method adopted
for their support. He rented an old Buddhist temple and
gathered the first little group of abandoned children.
Friends gathered about him, for he had no means of his
own. Beyond question his work furnished the incentive
for the founding of orphanages in many other parts of
Japan. The wars of 1894 and of 1904 gave opportunity
for the Christian communities to show their devotion
to their country, a devotion which could never reasonably
have been impugned, and as well to develop to the full
their resources of money and of men in the performance
of every humane and philanthropic task. The Russian
war especially gave to the Young Men's Christian Associa-
tion, as well in its widespread Japanese constituency

164 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

as in the number of American and British youth who
served in the camps and at the front, the opportunity
of showing their devotion to the good of soldiers and
prisoners in respect of their physical and social and moral
welfare. The origin of many ameliorating efforts in the
life of Japan has thus been with the missions and within
the Christian circle. The continued support of them is
still with the Christian circle in a measure which is out
of all proportion to the percentage which the Christians
bear to the Japanese population as a whole or to their
relative financial position in the land. The Japan
Year Book for 1907, published in English but written
by Japanese, contains this interesting statement:
"It is a significant fact that by far the greater part of
private charity work of any large scope is conducted
by Christians both natives and aliens." In 1909, after
a thorough examination of all charities and philan-
thropies in the country not under government, gifts were
made by the Japanese imperial government to seventy-
nine institutions. A large number of these were under
Protestant or Roman Catholic auspices.

151. The reaction: causes. — In 1889 the Christian
movement in Japan had experienced a serious check.
Parallel retardation or retrogression was observable in
the educational movement, in literature, in arts and
industry, and even in certain aspects of social and domes-
tic life. Perhaps retrogression is not the word. What
was taking place was the tightening of the grip of the
racial and national spirit upon the efforts at progress
which were being made. It was as if the Japanese
people suddenly had become aware at the end of the
decade of the eighties how far the enthusiasm for things

JAPAN 165

foreign had carried them. The conviction found expres-
sion in the popular language of the day that the Japanese
people must respect its own genius and preserve its
national excellencies. This became the mood of the
period. This was the duty which was now talked of,
written about, and even embodied in song. It is not to
be denied that some of the causes of the arrest of the
Christian movement were within the Christian communi-
ties themselves. In the days of very rapid growth many
persons had joined the churches who were far from being
imbued with the Christian spirit. Those who had
come in with mixed motives now felt it to be to their
advantage to go out again. Deeper natures, not merely
self-seekers, experienced another kind of disappoint-
ment. They had dreamed that the spiritual truth and
pure morality which they had embraced would soon
work the complete transformation of their world. They
found the transformation even of the Christian body
lamentably incomplete. Japanese who had traveled
abroad now told, not as so often before merely what
wonders they had seen, but also of the misery and vice
and crimes in Christendom which they had observed.
That was the era in which the presentation of Chris-
tianity in the pulpits of Europe and America and the
teaching of it in colleges and seminaries had not yet
in all cases successfully found adjustment to the
progress of science and of historical criticism. That
failure of adjustment was often fatal to the religious
peace and power of bolder spirits even in Europe and
America.

152. The reaction: effects. — The centers of education in
Japan became to some extent centers of anti- Christian

1 66 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

influence. There was a disposition to urge the claims of
the government schools as being more completely under
official inspection and better calculated to instil patriot-
ism. It was true, moreover, that the vast sums spent on
these schools had given them an equipment with which
few of the mission schools could compete and a standard
of work which these last might well envy. Not unnatu-
rally the government reserved certain privileges, for
example that of curtailment of the term of obligatory
military service, for those who were in the government
colleges or at least in those which the government would
recognize. It could make easy or difficult the entry upon
posts in public service and professional careers on the
same basis. The churches, which had never been under
the domination of the missionaries in a measure com-
parable with that which had obtained in some other
countries, now in the excess of national feeling threatened
in some cases to turn away from the missionaries alto-
gether. It became almost a part of the capital of aspir-
ants for leadership in the newly formed organizations
to appeal to this national sentiment against the mission-
aries. It was rather a trying time exactly for those
missionaries who had deepest sympathy with the move-
ment for the naturalization of Christianity and the
nationalization of the church. The easiest course for
them would have been to consider that their work was
finished and to leave the Japanese to themselves. Some
took this course. Others felt, in the very depth of
affection for this movement which they had called into
being, that there was still a great service which in tact
and patience they might render. There was still a
possibility of their standing side by side with their

JAPAN 167

grown-up children in the faith. The leaders of the
Japanese church have themselves in later years grate-
fully shared this view. Actual integration of the mis-
sions in the Japanese church is the course proposed by
a recent deputation of the American Board to Japan.

153. The Imperial Rescript. — In October, 1890, the
Emperor put forth what has since been known as the
Imperial Rescript on Education, a document which has
had a great influence upon the religious history of Japan.
The Rescript was sent to the schools and it became the
custom for teachers and pupils to come together on
certain national holidays to listen to its formal reading.
It is brief and deals not at all with general education but
rather with duties personal and domestic and with
devotion to the state. It is a solemn injunction relat-
ing to questions of moral and social life from the point
of view of exalted patriotism. It closes with the words:
"The way here set forth is indeed the teaching be-
queathed by our imperial ancestors to be observed alike
by their descendants and subjects infallible for all ages
and true in all places. It is our wish to lay it to heart
in all reverence in common with you our subjects that
we may all thus attain to the same virtue." The
Rescript is clearly a witness to the solicitude felt at that
time as to the basis of the moral and social life of the
people. It was felt that the reverence once inculcated
in the home, the strong bonds of loyalty in every relation
which the feudal system had maintained, the homage
rendered to the emperor as almost divine, were being
jeopardized in the new development of Japan. The
new Western ideas with the discrediting of the old which
was incidental were injuriously affecting the fundamental

1 68 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

principles of society. The temper of the edict was admi-
rable, its recurrence to tradition in these deepest things
in the moral and spiritual life quite natural. The
Rescript was seized upon by reactionaries who saw in
it a direct blow against the ethics and religion of the
West. It was asserted that the West knew little of
loyalty and filial piety, an assertion for which it was not
difficult to find superficial evidence, particularly upon
the latter point. The immemorial allegation, made
already under the Roman emperors and repeated in
varied circumstances ever since, that Christianity by its
emphasis upon conscience loosens the bonds of every
earthly authority, was renewed. This allegation also
is not without a certain truth, although not quite the
truth which was here proclaimed. Difficulties arose in
the administration of the mission schools and in the
conduct of Christian teachers and pupils in the other
schools. Moreover, the loyalty of Christians was some-
times suspected. Obstacles were thrown in the way of
their advancement in political life. The parliamentary
elections of 1890 were watched with unusual interest.
In certain cases it had been impossible for Christians to
stand as candidates. Yet thirteen out of three hundred
representatives then elected were professing Christians.
This was nearly nine times the proportion which the
Christians had in the whole population.

154. The case of the Doshisha. — All three of the causes
which we have named combined to affect powerfully
the fortunes of Doshisha, the school, college, and theo-
logical seminary which had sprung from the enthusiasm
of Joseph Neesima and been fostered with zeal both by
the Kyoto mission of the American Board and by the

JAPAN 169

Kumi-ai churches. The reactionary impulse of the time,
which yet covered a real principle of progress, was mir-
rored in this episode. It may be taken as representative
of many things which were happening in Japan at that
time. Neesima had established the school in co-
operation with the missionaries. The American Board
had given money for the erection of the buildings and
other expenses. It had acted as the medium through
which much larger contributions had been made by
American friends. Its missionaries formed an important
part of the teaching staff. Foreigners could, however,
hold no real estate in the interior of Japan. The prop-
erty was held by a company composed exclusively of
Japanese and this company had charge of all business
arising between the school and the Japanese government.
So long as Neesima lived and for a time after his death
all things went well. Then the causes spoken of and
others also began to make themselves felt. Some mis-
sionaries and many Japanese felt that the institution
was losing its definite Christian character. Yet also
there were those who felt that the future of the school
lay, if not in the abolition of that character, at least in
the alteration of the manner of the manifestation of that
character. It was at that time impossible for the trus-
tees to obtain government recognition without the aboli-
tion of arrangements which the charter had certainly
contemplated. Count Okuma, then prime minister
and deeply interested in the Doshisha, offered his aid
to the representative of the American Board to bring
about an adjustment. In the end the charter and
constitution were revised, embodying, indeed, the origi-
nal intention but adapting the provisions to the new

170 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

conditions which had arisen. Missionaries whose salaries
the Board pays still teach on the staff. Funds of which
the Board in Boston is trustee are appropriated abso-
lutely at the discretion of the trustees in Kyoto. Other
subsidies aid the gifts of the Japanese Christians and
non-Christian public. The Doshisha had been for more
than a decade one of the recognized universities of the
empire. Mr. Kataoka, four times speaker of the Lower
House of Parliament, a member of the Presbyterian
church, became president of the Doshisha in 1902.
Dr. Tasuku Harada was elected to that office in 1906.
During the first decade of his adminstration the student
body increased from 568 to 1,379. In 1913 the profes-
sors and teachers numbered forty-four, of whom thirty-
two were Japanese and twelve American. There were
twenty-six additional lecturers, most of them connected
with the University of Kyoto.

155. Growth of tlie churches. — Mention has been
made of the Kumi-ai churches, essentially Congre-
gational in their polity. Fully as important is the
United Church of Japan, which was formed in 1877.
It has grown out of the missions of the Presbyterian and
Dutch and German Reformed churches. Of nearly the
same membership is the Holy Catholic church of Japan
formed in 1887, including all Christians connected
with the missions of the Anglican church. There are
at present seven dioceses presided over by British or
again by American bishops. Later than any of the
foregoing groups to be formed and as yet smaller is the
Methodist church in Japan, uniting since 1907 the work
of all Methodists working in Japan. It has a Japanese
bishop, the distinguished Bishop Honda. The total

JAPAN 171

number of Protestant communicants in these churches,
which are to a large extent independent of help received
from foreign missionary societies, is about one hundred
thousand, or about one in fifty-five of the total popula-
tion. It is said that at the time of the accession of the
late Emperor in 1868 there were but four Japanese
Christians connected with Protestant missions. At the
time of his death in 191 2 there were eighty-three thou-
sand. The rate of increase in these bodies in the decade
from 1900 to 1 9 10 has been 92 per cent. The number
of adherents of the congregations connected with the
Roman missions was, in 191 5, seventy-one thousand.
Their rate of increase in the decade from 1900 to 19 10
had been 10 per cent. They had been retarded in less
proportion than the Protestants during the decade 1890
to 1900. They have gained in much less proportion
since the change in public sentiment, which set in about
the turn of the century. Both facts are to be interpreted
in light of the general relation of the Roman church to
education, reform, and civil and social progress in the
realm. That relation has been intimate from the
beginning for the Protestant bodies. They have paid
the price of that intimate relation at times in that they
suffered all the vicissitudes of changing popular opinion.
The Roman church had had at the beginning the unique
and touching task of gathering again under its leadership
the survivors of the Japanese Christianity which had
been nearly exterminated early in the seventeenth
century. Under the guidance mainly of French mis-
sionaries it has done with admirable spirit the works of
mercy. Its educational work has been mainly elemen-
tary and mainly for its own communities. Within those

172 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

limits this work has been of a high order. The Jesuit
College in Tokyo was recognized by the government as a
university in 19 13. Pope Leo XIII re-established the
Roman Catholic hierarchy in Japan in 1891 and consti-
tuted the archdiocese of Tokyo with the suffragan sees
of Nagasaki, Osaka, and Hakodate, under the immediate
care of the Missionary Seminary at Paris.

The Mission of the Holy Orthodox church in its
Russian branch to Japan deserves to be considered one
of the romantic episodes with which in this history we
have to deal. Its story is almost identified with the
career of the Archbishop Nicolai who came to Hakodate
in 1 86 1. For some years he served as a consular chap-
lain while studying the Japanese language and awaiting
an opportunity to preach the Christian faith. The
occasion came in surprising fashion. A samurai named
Sawabe, keeper of a Shinto shrine, resolved to kill Nicolai
as the preacher of an evil morality and bent on handing
over Japan into the power of Russia. He burst into
Nicolai's room. The chaplain drew him on to listen to
Christian instruction. The two men became friends.
In the end Sawabe was baptized. When Nicolai died in
191 2 thirty thousand Japanese were adherents of the
Russian church. He kindled afresh the zeal for missions
in the Russian church and had much to do with the great
expansion of mission work in Siberia in his time. In his
last years the archbishop gave himself to the establish-
ment of a new method of training youth who are to
serve as priests in Japan. Russian boys are brought in
early youth to Japan and educated along with the Japa-
nese who look forward to the same career. They share
the life of the Japanese students in every particular. It

JAPAN 173

is hoped thus to minimize the distinction between mis-
sionaries and the indigenous church.

156. Conference of religions in IQ12. — A step which
surely marked the beginning of an era in the religious
history of Japan was taken in January, 191 2, when Mr.
Tokoname, vice-minister of education, announced to a
meeting of representatives of the press that the govern-
ment had decided to recognize Christianity as a religion
which it was prepared to encourage. Among other
things he said: "The culture of national ethics can be
perfected by education combined with religion. At
present, moral doctrines are-* inculcated by education
alone. It is impossible to inculcate fair and upright
ideas in the mind of the nation unless the people are
brought into touch with the fundamental conception
known as God, Buddha, or Heaven, as taught in reli-
gions." He ended by expressing the hope that Chris-
tianity "would step out of the narrow circle within which
it was confined and endeavor to conform to the national
polity and adapt itself to the national sentiments and
customs in order to insure greater achievements.' ' One
result of this action on the part of the government was
that a conference of certain representatives of the three
religions, Shinto, Buddhism, and Christianity, was held
on February 25, 191 2, which was attended also by several
members of the cabinet. In the distribution of honors
at the coronation of the present Emperor in 191 5 a
number of Japanese Christians of different vocations
were singled out for honor. Surely these facts give
some measure of the remarkable change which has taken
place in the attitude of the nation toward Christianity
since 1868.

CHAPTER IX
CHINA

CHAPTER IX

CHINA

157. Earliest Christian influences in China

158. The question of ancestor worship

159. Western trade and Manchu conquest

160. British trade and the opium wars

161. The Tai-ping Rebellion

162. The Tientsin Treaty and the Dowager Empress

163. Early Protestant missions; Morrison

164. Medical work and public service

165. The China Inland Mission

166. Missions until 1900; educational work

167. Trade relations; the Imperial Maritime Customs

168. Last years of the old regime

169. The Boxer uprising

170. Restoration and reform

171. Recovery of missions

172. Education

173. Modern medicine

174. Christian literature

175. Recent events

CHAPTER IX
CHINA

157. Earliest Christian influences in China. — There
has been debate as to the possibility of gnostic Christian
influence upon northern Buddhism. Certainly the
Buddhism of China and Japan, particularly the Amida
doctrine widely current in the latter country, differs
from that which prevails in Ceylon and Burma and this
in a manner rather suggestive of certain fundamental
Christian ideas. There is monumental evidence that
Nestorian Christian communities were established at
Hsianfu in the province of Shensi after 635 a.d. There
are references in Chinese documents of about the year
845 which speak of bodies of Chinese Christians using
the Syrian rite. After the council of Lyons in 1245,
Franciscans, responding to an appeal of Innocent IV for
the conversion of the Mongols, attempted to reach
China. John of Monte Corvino arrived at Peking in
1294. We hear of a bishop of this Franciscan mission
executed near Peking in 1362. A Jew from Kaifengfu
told Ricci shortly after the beginning of the seventeenth
century that Christianity had disappeared from the
northern provinces after bitter persecution not more
than sixty years before the time at which he spoke.
Francis Xavier never reached the mainland of China,
which had long been the goal of his ambition. He died
in 1552 off the coast of Kwangtung province. His
body was later removed to the Portuguese Cathedral
at Goa. He was canonized in 162 1 by Gregory XV.

177

178 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Thirty years after Xavier's death an Italian nobleman,
a Jesuit priest, Matteo Ricci, who had been born in the
year Xavier died, came to the neighborhood of Canton
accompanying an embassy from Macao. Ingratiating
himself with the provincial rulers he was allowed to
remain. Ricci's methods were long followed by mis-
sionaries to China. For seven years he dressed as a
Buddhist priest and to the end of his life as one of the
Chinese literati. He assured the Chinese that the faith
which he preached was the development of the highest
principles of Buddhism. He permitted his converts to
continue the worship of ancestors. He had knowledge
of geography, astronomy and mathematics, which
greatly interested the learned men of China. He appears
to have attained unusual facility in the writing of Chinese
and was the author of books upon various subjects.
In 1598 he was able to proceed to Nanking, and in 1601
was summoned to Peking, where he died in 16 10. He
had stood in close relation with high officials. The name
of no European of the seventeenth or eighteenth century
was so well known in China as that of Li Ma-tow, the
form which Matteo Ricci assumed in Mandarin and
which appears in Chinese records. He was succeeded
in 1622 by Adam Schall, a German Jesuit. Reports of
the success of the Jesuit mission in China reached Europe
and aroused the envy of rival orders. Dominicans
came in 1631 and the Franciscans re-entered the empire
in 1633. Almost immediately the representatives of
these orders began to protest against the methods em-
ployed by the Jesuits in their work. Both in China
and at Rome they assailed the position which the Jesuits
had taken with reference to ancestor worship. The

CHINA 1 79

controversy was long and hitter. The hostility of the
two groups of Christians, the one to the other, did much
to create prejudice against the mission cause. In 1669
there are said to have been three hundred thousand
baptized Christians in China, and in 1692 the emperor
Kang Hsi, who reigned from 1662 to 1725, and in
whose education Schall had had part, legalized the
preaching of the Christian faith throughout the empire.
The Manchus had overthrown the Ming dynasty in
1644, yet it is clear that the change of rulers had not
compromised the position of the Jesuits at the court.

158. The question of ancestor worship. — Ricci had con-
tended that the honor paid to progenitors was purely
domestic and civil in its nature. It was not worship in
the sense that it militated against the acknowledgment
of one God. The Dominicans, on the other hand,
declared that the ancestral homage was polytheistic
and idolatrous. The matter being referred to the pope,
Innocent X sustained the Dominican view. The
Jesuits dispatched a special agent to Rome and Alexander
VII reversed the previous decision. A French bishop
in China continuing the agitation, the Jesuits carried
the matter before the emperor Kang Hsi. The emperor
declared the custom to be domestic and political. The
homage to ancestors was merely a mark of filial piety and
veneration. As such the rites might be participated in
by men of many faiths. Exactly as such, however,
they were of primary interest to the state. As connected
with the family and clan system, with the patriarchal
order, which the enlightened Manchu well knew to be
the real government of China, the state must protect
them. In 1704 Clement XI recurred to the elder papal

180 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

decision that the rites were idolatrous. A papal legate
arriving in China ordered all converts to desist from
practices interdicted by the pope. Kang Hsi was not
the man to take that tamely. He banished the legate
to Macao. Missionaries were conducted to the frontier.
There was persecution of the Chinese Christians. Mis-
sionaries and foreigners were never excluded from China
with the thoroughness which was achieved in Japan.
Yet Kang Hsi's successor destroyed three hundred
churches and left the Christians without the minis-
trations of their church. Chienlung was an even
more consistent opponent of Christianity. In Tong-
king the persecutions were exceptionally severe and con-
tinued with little intermission from 1720 until the time
of the French occupation in 1883. Roman missions,
generally under the French, underwent a great revival
after the opening of certain ports to foreigners which
took place in 1842.

159. Western trade and Manchu conquest. — There
were occasional contacts of China with Europe through
traders and travelers after the time of Kublai Khan,
the Mongol invader, who reigned at Cambaluc, Peking.
They had ceased long before the arrival of the Portu-
guese in 151 7. The Portuguese traders were assigned
to the tiny peninsula of Macao in the estuary of the
Canton River. After 1628 the little settlement had a
governor, appointed by the king of Portugal. It remains
in Portuguese possession to this day. The Ming rulers
were driven from their throne in 1644 by the Manchu
Tatars from Mukden. In the very years in which
England was passing through her Civil War, China fell
again under the rule of the hated and feared invader

CHINA 181

from the north and west against whom the Great Wall
had been built two thousand years before. The Manchus
never effectively conquered the country south of the
Yangtze, which has remained the real China of the
Chinese. They were themselves in many ways trans-
formed by the superior culture of the Chinese. The
real transformation of China was to take place, not
through its conquerors, but through the civilization of
those merchants and missionaries who came over that
sea upon which neither Manchus nor Chinese had ever
really felt themselves at home. In 1689 Kang Hsi saw
himself forced to make a treaty with the Russians, the
first Chinese treaty with a European power. Warrior
that he was and indefatigable in the administration of
the state, Kang Hsi devoted much of his time to studies
of science and literature, not a little of it under the
guidance of the Jesuits. There are statues of Kang Hsi
in the garb of a Tibetan monk.

160. British trade and the opium wars. — The East
India Company had been granted a monopoly of British
trade with China. The trade was chiefly in opium, tea,
and silk. Canton was the great emporium. The
restrictions upon trade were onerous. George III sent
an embassy under Lord Macartney to secure concessions.
The embassy was a failure. Scarcely less abortive was
the effort of Lord Amherst in 18 16, although the emperor
here concerned, Chia Ching, had inherited none of the
qualities of his ancestors save their pride. The event
of this reign which was fraught with greatest conse-
quences to China was one which attracted little attention
at the time. This was the coming of the first Protestant
missionary, Robert Morrison, who reached Canton in

182 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

1807. Hitherto Europeans, traders and missionaries
alike, had been directly dependent upon the good-will,
often upon the mere caprice, of the Chinese. There were
no established diplomatic relations. The Chinese re-
garded the Europeans as barbarians. They had been
incensed when Ricci had showed them a map in which the
Middle Kingdom was not in the center of the page.
The obliging Jesuit drew them a map in which China was
the very center. Of the outside world they had little
notion. They were supremely complacent in their own
civilization, which was indeed in many ways of a high
order. In the fourth decade of the nineteenth century
when the British began to press for larger trade privileges
and treaty recognition there came a bitter struggle. In
that struggle China suffered great injustice. It was
more than a misfortune that the item of trade which
figured most largely in the struggle was opium, grown in
British India, transported to China, and introduced
through the trade concessions granted to the East
India Company at Canton. It is true that the pride
and overweening confidence of the Chinese had led to
acts of violence in which persons of various vocations
had suffered indignity or even death under circumstances
which had nothing to do with the opium trade. On the
other hand the Chinese authorities had for years made
every representation to prevent the introduction of
opium into Chinese territory from the foreign conces-
sions. In 1839 the British at Canton, being taken off
their guard, were compelled to surrender to the Chinese
authorities large quantities of opium, which were de-
stroyed by them. This success led the Chinese imperial
commissioner, Lin, to make demands, concerning the

CHINA 183

opium traffic primarily but touching practically all
trade, which were so serious that the British considered
them a cause for war. Not unnaturally, therefore, the
struggles which followed have been called the Opium
Wars. The naval power of Great Britain was vastly
superior to that of China. The contest ended in the
ceding of Hongkong to the British, in the payment by
the Chinese of large indemnities, and in the opening of
thirteen ports to foreign trade. It is only to be wondered
at that the embitterment of the Chinese was not greater
than it was.

161. The Tai-ping Rebellion. — In 1850 there broke
out in China a rebellion which continued for fourteen
years and ravaged nine provinces. It was called the
Tai-ping Rebellion and originated in a just demand for
reforms long postponed by the degenerate Manchu rulers.
It had at the first as its head a supposed descendant
of the old Ming dynasty. The real leader, however, was
a Hakka man from the neighborhood of Canton, Hung
Siu-chuan, who had at one time come into contact with
the Christian mission at Canton. He proclaimed himself
as sent of Heaven to drive out the Tatars and deliver the
oppressed. He was certainly moved by the apocalyptic
language of the Old and New Testament. His inner
relation to Christianity has been a matter of dispute.
He put forth ideals of virtue and at the first maintained
strict discipline in the vast horde of malcontents who
flocked to his standard and whom he gradually trans-
formed into a fighting army. The early success of the
revolution was amazing. In 1853 Hung was enabled
to proclaim himself heavenly king at Nanking, the old
southern capital. From Amoy to Tientsin and far into

1 84 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

the west his bands ravaged the country. They lived
off the country and fell into the gravest demoralization.
Hung himself developed all the traits of a religious and
political fanatic. Both he and his followers lost all
sense of concrete aim. In the end the Chinese govern-
ment had to call for foreign aid to put an end to the
suffering and devastation. Charles George Gordon,
henceforth known as Chinese Gordon, was placed at the
disposal of the government by Great Britain. The
movement had already largely spent its force, but Gordon
won a decisive victory, capturing Nanking in 1864.
Hung committed suicide. Gordon was convinced that
whatever may have been the merits of Hung's claims
at the beginning of his career, the movement had before
its end reached such a level of barbarity that right-
minded men were under obligation to aid the imperial
government to re-establish law and order. On the other
hand there is some color for the contention that had
Gordon and the British not aided them the Manchus
might have been overthrown fifty years before the revolu-
tion which finally forced their abdication in 191 2. In so
far as the Chinese gave credence to the claim of Hung to
be a Christian the Tai-ping Rebellion certainly did not
improve the public opinion of Christianity. The per-
sonal conduct of a man like Gordon stood out, however,
in high relief against that of even so distinguished a
Chinese statesman as Li Hung-chang, the imperial
leader in the war.

162. The Tientsin Treaty and the Dowager Empress. —
Nothing in the crisis through which the empire was
passing had prevented the English from conducting two
short wars against the imperial government, in one

CHINA 185

of which Canton was captured in 1858 and in the other
the allied armies, British and French, advanced to
Peking and burned the summer palace. The issue
of these wars, the so-called Treaty of Tientsin in i860,
guaranteed the right of foreigners to travel in the interior
and secured the freedom of preaching and confession
of Christianity. The importing of opium was legalized
in the same document. It is difficult to conceive a more
preposterous and disastrous conjunction for the Chris-
tian cause. Before the end of the Tai-ping Rebellion
there appeared as co-regent and guardian, first for her
own son and then later for Kwang Hsu, who died in 1908,
that remarkable woman, Tzu Hsi, generally known as
the Dowager Empress. During all these years she was
the real ruler of China. She was a woman of great
ability in whom for a moment the traits of the old Man-
chus were again revealed. It is small wonder if the
things which the Chinese had suffered from the British
and from the French in their seizure of Tongking in 1884
and from the Germans in their taking of Kiaochau in
1898, led to occasional outbreaks and reprisals. Mis-
sionaries were often the victims. More often than any
other class of persons they were found far in the interior.
Undoubtedly their propaganda touched the Chinese upon
a sensitive spot. Many causes combined to bring the
hatred of all the influences of Christendom and Chris-
tianity to expression in the Boxer uprising of 1900.
This event is the turning-point in the modern history
of China. Before we speak of it, however, we may seek
to describe the Christian propaganda during the century
which followed the coming of Robert Morrison to Canton
in 1807.

1 86 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

163. Early Protestant missions; Morrison. — Morrison
was the first Protestant missionary to China. He was a
Scotchman but had spent most of his youth in Newcastle.
He had been apprenticed to a maker of lasts and studied
while at work. He studied theology with his minister,
but was for a time at the Independent Theological
Academy at Hoxton. He was appointed by the London
Missionary Society in 1804. Such was the hostility of
the Chinese to the English apropos of the trade in opium
that he was obliged to sail in an American vessel from
New York. He found the way to the preaching * of the
gospel barred and set about the translation of the Bible.
He rightly felt the power of the appeal to the Chinese
through their literary class. He became a translator
in the service of the East India Company. In 18 10 he
began the publication of his New Testament. In 18 18
he had finished the translation of the whole Bible.
Meantime he had issued a Chinese grammar, the first
written by a European. In 182 1 his vast work, the
Chinese dictionary, was published at the cost of the
Company. He had been interested in the beginnings of
medical work. He, with Dr. Milne, had founded the
Anglo- Chinese College at Malacca which was afterward
removed to Hongkong. Seven years after his arrival
in Canton he baptized his first convert, one of his lan-
guage teachers. Morrison died in 1834, having seen,
so far as we know, ten Chinese baptized in the Christian
faith. His work upon the translation of the Scriptures
has been often revised. His dictionary has been largely
superseded. The difficulty of the task which was thus
essayed for the first time by a European can hardly be
overestimated. One of Morrison's staunch helpers was

CHINA 187

Karl Giitzlaff. Educated at Halle, he came to Batavia
under the Netherlands Missionary Society in 1826.
After 1828 he was in China as an independent missionary.
He was active both in literary and in medical work. He
knew Chinese so well that he fulfilled several commis-
sions for the British government disguised as a Chinese
man. He believed that the prosecution of mission work
in China would never be successful until it was done in
large part by the Chinese themselves.

164. Medical work and public service. — In the year
of Morrison's death Peter Parker was appointed by the
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions
as its first medical missionary. He opened a hospital
at Canton for diseases of the eye. He soon found him-
self obliged to admit patients suffering from other dis-
eases. He educated young Chinese in the practice of
medicine and surgery. He was temporarily driven out
of Canton at the time of the opium wars and returned
as interpreter to the United States legation in China,
resigning that post only in 1 85 5 . He was plenipotentiary
of his country for the revision of treaties in 1844. In
recognition of his scientific attainments he was elected
a regent of the Smithsonian Institute in Washington in
1868. Parker's day in China was the time of the up-
building of American trade in China and of the friend-
ship with China, which in some sense has remained unim-
paired to this day. The Americans profited by the
revulsion against the English because of the opium
question. American-Chinese trade was largely a New
England trade and China became for the time the
greatest of the fields of the American Board. The
typical figure in this era was perhaps Elijah Bridgman,

1 88 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

an Amherst College and Andover Seminary man, who
lived first at Canton and Hongkong and later at Shang-
hai. Author, editor, translator, as well as preacher, he
was secretary of the Caleb Cushing embassy to China
and adviser of the representatives of the four powers in
the making of the Treaty of Tientsin. He was perhaps
more intimately connected with the life of the foreign
communities of Canton and Shanghai than any other
missionary. Scarcely less notable for versatility and
influence was S. Wells Williams. A graduate of the
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, he was sent out by the
American Board in 1833. He established a press at
Canton and was all his life interested in the production
of Christian literature for China and Japan. He knew
Japanese and had a share in the translation of the
New Testament into that language. He was for many
years connected as interpreter with the American lega-
tion. He was the author of many books of permanent
value. His Middle Kingdom is a standard work upon
the China which has largely disappeared in the great
changes of recent years. In his last days he was pro-
fessor of Chinese in Yale College and president of the
American Bible Society. In this group of pioneers
mention should be made also of Bishop Boone, who was
sent out by the Missionary Society of the Protestant
Episcopal church in America and consecrated bishop in
1844. Boone College in Wuchang bears his name. The
London Missionary Society was represented by several
distinguished men during this early period. The best
known of them was Dr. Legge, who came to Malacca
in 1839 to take charge of the Anglo-Chinese College and
continued in its leadership after its removal to Hongkong.

CHINA 189

In later life he was professor of Chinese in the University
of Oxford and translated considerable portions of the
Chinese classics into English. Medhurst, one of the
most accomplished linguists who ever served on the
missionary staff in China, was at Shanghai until 1856
and did notable work in connection with the translation
of the Scriptures. He also was a representative of the
London Society, as was Lockhart, the founder of medical
work and more particularly of medical instruction at
Peking in 1839. When one considers the number of
men of mark whose lives were given to the cause of
Protestant missions in China in the years from 1807 to
1850, the date of the outbreak of the Tai-ping Rebellion,
it seems strange to say that it is doubtful if at the latter
date there were a hundred converts to Christianity in
China. Almost half a century had passed in the bare
laying of foundations. In 1834, when near his death,
Morrison had said that he thought that in a century
there might be perhaps a thousand Christians in China.
When a quarter of a century had passed it looked as
if that modest prophecy would hardly be fulfilled.

165. The China Inland Mission. — Certainly there
was nothing in the history of foreign relations with
China in the decade of the fifties to improve the pros-
pects of the Christian movement. The war with the
allied powers which began over the affair of a trading
ship, "The Arrow," had ended in the burning of the
summer palace at Peking and in the Treaty of Tientsin,
which represented helpless China's further concessions
in the face of overwhelming force. Life in the treaty
ports had settled into a routine. If representatives of
what was good in Europe and America were present,

I go THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

representatives of every evil in Western civilization
were in evidence as well. The very existence of treaty
ports and the conditions of extraterritoriality were
exasperating to the Chinese. There was no chance to
reach the masses of the Chinese of the interior, as yet
unprejudiced by sinister foreign contacts. Now the
opportunity was given. Moreover, the ravages of the
Tai-ping Rebellion had created conditions of such appall-
ing misery and destitution that missionaries who would
give themselves to works of mercy were assured of
welcome. There arose in the China Inland Mission
a new missionary instrumentality adapted to this situa-
tion. The founder, Hudson Taylor, an Englishman,
had been in China under the Chinese Evangelization
Society since 1853. Like many men destined to be
innovators he did not work well in the conventional
harness. In 1862 he became an independent missionary
and gathered to him such as shared his convictions.
The problems of inland China, as yet almost untouched,
drew him. Bound by no denominational tenets he
appealed for volunteers from many branches of the
Christian church. Their doctrinal bond was, however,
the staunchest evangelicalism. The workers had no
salaries but trusted that under God they should never
suffer want. The mission soon became international
as well as interdenominational. It employed single
women in its work in a proportion never known before,
sending them often into the remotest places. The
missionaries frequently found it convenient to dress in
Chinese clothes and to live more or less after the
Chinese manner. In the earlier days they concerned
themselves little with educational work, except the most

CHINA

191

rudimentary, and not at all with medical work. The
wisest of their own number would probably not have
contended that all the work which needed to be done for
the Chinese could be best done in this way. They filled
a place, however, in the opening of China to the gospel
which no other mission has filled. They manifested
often a Franciscan-like devotion in dealing with the most
difficult and disheartening aspects of the Chinese prob-
lem. Only those who know the difficulties and trials
of life in the heart of China, with the dangers and hard-
ships of long journeys, can appreciate what their mis-
sionary touring meant. In many instances these
journeys were accomplished by women for the sake of
reaching the women of Szechuan and Yunnan. The
great strength of the China Inland Mission has been in
pioneering. In this respect it has done unrivaled work.
166. Missions until igoo; educational work. — In few
countries have the pioneer missionaries waited so long
for visible results of their labors. This fact is the more
significant because the progress of Christianity in China
during very recent years seems likely to surpass the gain
in any large non-Christian country. Even in 1877 the
total number of Protestant converts was reckoned at but
thirteen thousand. Protestant missionaries had been
seventy years in the country. The Church Missionary
Society, which had come to China in 1850, worked in
Foochow for ten years without a single convert. The
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel did not
definitely begin work in China until 1874, when Rev.
C. P. Scott, afterward Bishop of North China, was sent
to Chefoo and later to Peking. In general it may be
said that the Church Missionary Society has worked in

1 92 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Middle and South China and the Society for the Propa-
gation of the Gospel in North China. The late date of
the commencement of work upon the part of either of
them in China is noteworthy when one thinks how old
and how preponderant were British trade relations in
China. The decade of the seventies brought to Shang-
hai the interesting figure of Bishop Schereschewsky, a
Russian Jew, converted in America and sent out by the
American Episcopal church. He was a linguist of
excellence and the founder of St. John's College at
Shanghai in 1877. Great numbers of new missionaries
came to China in this period. Hardly a major board in
any country was unrepresented. Progress was made in
the development of the Chinese churches. Yet as a
rule they remained in notable degree churches of the
missions, with the missionaries in their leadership.
The truth was that the leading classes among the Chinese
were not yet widely touched. Leadership in China was
everywhere in the hands of the intellectuals. The lit-
erati bred in the old classical culture were profoundly
conservative. Public office was everywhere held on the
basis of examinations in the ancient literature. The
official class was therefore bound to the existing system.
Foreign learning was feared when it was not despised.
Those who sought it were esteemed to have turned
against their country and allied themselves with the
hated foreigner. In these circumstances it is a matter
for wonder that the schools and colleges established by
the missions succeeded as well as they did. In this
period between 1865 and 1900 were founded almost all
the colleges and higher schools, like those at Foochow
and Canton and again at Shanghai, Peking, Nanking,

CHINA 193

and Hankow. These institutions, in almost every case
denominational in their origin, have since 1902 and
more particularly since 1913 entered into union move-
ments. The University of Peking originally established
by the American Methodists is such a union institution.
Canton Christian College has been interdenominational
from the beginning. These have put themselves in a
position of real leadership now that China has gone
over completely to the cultivation of Western learning
and while the government institutions are still unde-
veloped. Into this period go back also many of the
hospitals and medical schools which at first encountered
great opposition from the side of the popular supersti-
tions. These medical schools and colleges, often with
very inadequate means and almost doomed to fall
behind in the rapid progress of medicine and surgery in
Western lands, yet opened the way. To the men of
distinction in educational circles in this period belonged
Martin and Sheffield and Richard, and in medical
circles Kerr and Christie.

167. Trade relations; the Imperial Maritime Customs.
— Throughout this period relations with foreign nations
were unsatisfactory. The conditions of security left
much to be desired. The mind of the nation was hostile
and there was much suspicion. When concessions began
grudgingly to be granted to European capitalists to
build railways and set up telegraph lines and open mines
the Chinese were almost always at a disadvantage
because of their ignorance of such matters. They were
infuriated to find their credulity abused and their
country's riches exploited before their eyes all the while
that China's millions were so lamentably poor. One of

194 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

the best influences in China during this period was the
Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs, from 1863 to 1907
under the administration of Sir Robert Hart. The Tai-
ping Rebellion had destroyed the old administration of
the customs at Shanghai. The substitutes offered were
unacceptable to the foreigners. Finally a joint adminis-
tration was devised which was to be a department under
the imperial government but with an international
service bearing the responsibility. In 1863 Hart was
made the head of the customs. In fact he became the
intermediary between China and the outside world in
many relations. He was trusted by the Chinese as few
foreigners have been. On the other hand he was unoffi-
cial adviser of ambassadors. He saw things in extraor-
dinary measure from the Chinese point of view. In the
whole period of his service he returned to England for
but two short intervals. The customs service set an
example of incorruptibility which was sorely needed.
Because of its efficiency many tasks not originally
contemplated in its establishment were committed to its
charge. The postal, telegraph, and telephone service
was organized by it and the charting of the coast with
the building of lighthouses was under its charge. Hart
was one of those besieged in the legation area in 1900.
He had firmly believed that no such catastrophe could
take place. He lost invaluable records of his life-work
because of this confidence. He maintained entire faith in
the Chinese even after that crisis. He was throughout
his long career a friend of missions and believed in the
ultimate success of the Christian movement in China.

168. Last years of the old regime. — France took Tong-
king from China in 1883. Conflict with England was

CHINA 195

only narrowly escaped at the time of the Yunnan rebel-
lion. Japan was held to have fomented trouble in
Korea and in 1895 inflicted a serious defeat upon the
Chinese, who lost Formosa and the Liaotung Peninsula
with the incomparable fortress of Port Arthur and the
city and harbor of Tai-lien-wan, or Dalny as the Rus-
sians called it. To be sure Japan was in turn deprived
of a good part of the fruits of her victory by a group of
the European powers. Russia finally secured Port
Arthur and gave occasion for the Russo-Japanese War.
Germany seized Kiaochau, ostensibly as penalty for
the murder of two Bavarian Jesuits. England took
Weihaiwai to offset the acquisitions of the other two.
The Russians had built the Siberian road through Man-
churia and acted as if they already owned the province.
It looked as if China was on the way to complete dis-
memberment. The powers underestimated the resent-
ment which these things stirred in all classes of society.
There were those in China to whom the driving out of
foreigners and the return of China to the old ways
became the goal of all desire. There were others who
saw more clearly and realized that the only thing which
could save China was to enter upon the course which
Japan had already taken. She must adopt and adapt
such elements of Western civilization as would enable
her to resist her foes. Certain men in high station held
these views. Especially in the south among the real
Chinese there were men who had been in England and
America and who were pronounced radicals. In 1898
a strange thing happened. The emperor Kwang Hsu,
who had been upon the throne since 1875 Dut wholly
suppressed by the Dowager, apparently decided to

1 96 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

assert himself. He issued edicts of reform covering
many weighty matters and anticipating steps which
China was to take only after several miserable years.
The edicts showed high intelligence and a very modern
spirit. There is much mystery about the personality of
Kwang Hsii. He was surrounded by enthusiasts for
the new era which he was supposed to be inaugurating.
Yet he fell a victim to the Dowager and was kept for
the rest of his life a prisoner on an island in the garden
of the summer palace. His advisers were banished or
beheaded, save two, Kang Yu-wei and Sun Yat-sen,
who lived to take part in the revolution of 19 13. The
conservatives seemed more securely intrenched than
ever. There were warnings that the popular mind was
turning to the thought of the destruction of all for-
eigners in the country. Diplomatic and business people
as a rule disbelieved these rumors. Suddenly, in June,
1900, with almost unexampled fury the storm broke.
China had always been full of secret societies. One of
these bore a name which signified that its members
were ready to use their fists in upholding righteousness.
Somebody translated this title by the word "boxer,"
so the midsummer madness of 1900 has been known as
the Boxer uprising. It was the last flaming out of the
old passion. It was the turning-point in Chinese history,
the unintentional inauguration of the new era.

169. The Boxer uprising. — The Boxer society, what-
ever there may have been of it, was but the smallest
part of the constituency which the rising gathered to
itself. Whole provinces were found to have been for
months quivering in expectancy of some blow to be dealt
to the hated civilization which was being thrust upon

CHINA 197

an unwilling nation. Shantung, the proud province of
Confucius, upon whose shores much of the violence we
have spoken of had taken place, Chihli, the province of
the capital, where strangers were much in evidence, and
Shansi, the abode of a particularly intense conservative
sentiment, were the main centers. Yet at moments it
seemed as if all of Northern and Eastern China would be
involved. The Dowager's government was unquestion-
ably deeply compromised. Missionaries and those who
knew the language, the rural districts, and the common
people had given warning for months. On June 20 the
ambassador of Germany was shot in the streets of Peking
on his way to the Foreign Office. The chancellor of the
Japanese legation had been killed a day or two before.
The offer of the Empress to send all the legations to
Tientsin was rejected by them as a trap. By evening
of that day the legations of every greater nation in the
world were besieged within the legation area and all com-
munication with the outside world cut off. The lega-
tion guards were relatively few in number. They had
ammunition but almost no material for barricades.
They had insufficient food. Foreigners of every nation,
traders, travelers, missionaries, had fled to the legations
in the last few days before the outbreak. Protestant
Christians from among the Chinese arrived also in
considerable numbers. There were in all about three
thousand persons in the besieged area. They endured
siege for fifty-five days. Had the Chinese been united
in purpose and had they had the ultimate courage of
their undertaking the resistance could hardly have
continued forty-eight hours. Meantime, about the
Roman Catholic cathedral in Peking similar scenes were

198 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

being enacted. Here the heroic French bishop with the
priests and nuns and thousands of converts had been
trapped. They held out to the end although here the
loss of life was very great. Troops of the various allied
nations were hurried to the port of Tientsin. An
expeditionary force finally marched up the valley of the
Pei-ho and relieved Peking. The Dowager and the
passive little Emperor fled from one gate of the city as
the allies entered at another. The armies occupied
Peking until October, 1901. The court remained in
security in far Shensi. The rising was finally put down,
not so much by foreign troops as by governors and others
who began to see the bearing of the episode upon the
future of their land. Most prominent of these was Yuan
Shi-kai, who had done what he dared to prevent the
slaughter in his province. He now became the go-
between of the allies and his imperial mistress. In this
uprising one hundred and thirty-five Protestant mis-
sionaries, men and women, had been killed, and fifty-
eight children in their families. Thirty-five Roman
Catholic priests and nine sisters fell a sacrifice. The
total number of foreigners of all occupations who per-
ished is not accurately known. Surveying and prospect-
ing parties caught in remote places fared as badly as
the missionaries. The heaviest blow fell, however, on
the Chinese Christians. These were felt to have allied
themselves in inner conviction with the hated foreigner.
In many places they were offered immunity if they would
recant and were tortured when they refused. Not less
than sixteen thousand sealed their faith with their blood.
The fact is remarkable because the Christian cause was
still exotic in large degree in China. It had not achieved

CHINA 199

any great measure of naturalization in the empire. It
was not surprising that the Chinese, roused to fury
against everything foreign, should feel that the Chinese
Christians were even worse than the aliens, for they were
traitors to their own land.

170. Restoration and reform. — The restoration of the
Dowager's government was finally agreed upon by the
powers as the only solution of an international difficulty
which grew greater rather than less as time advanced.
That proud and able woman came back to her palace
under humiliating conditions. Expiations of exemplary
character were demanded. Indemnities of colossal
magnitude were exacted. More than half of the Ameri-
can indemnity was later returned with the provision
that the income be used for the education of Chinese
youth in America. Certain reforms were insisted on.
The foreign office was put upon a new basis. Many of
the things which the Emperor and his party had decreed
in 1898 were, in 1901 and 1902, set in operation by the
Empress, who had formerly resisted them. That she had
connived at the plot for the expulsion of foreigners was
not doubted. Now she set about the transformation of
China by the adoption of elements of Western civiliza-
tion which would enable China ultimately to maintain
her national integrity and take her place among modern
people as Japan had done. There came an era of build-
ing of railways and developing of industries, of the train-
ing of an army after Western fashion, and of the laying
of great plans for education of all classes in the Western
learning which had been but recently despised. The
plans were often laid with high intelligence. There
was lacking any adequate body of trained men to carry

200 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

them out. The strong democratic disposition of the
Chinese manifested itself. There was never any such
conceded leadership in China as was furnished in Japan
at the corresponding moment by the surviving spirit of
the feudal system. Reforms have had to be carried
through by parties. Yet parties and their responsible
management are one of the last achievements of a
people familiar with the principles of self-government.
171. Recovery of missions. — The recovery of the
Christian cause in China after the catastrophe of 1900
was extraordinarily rapid. Not only was the whole
religious and philanthropic world stirred to feel that for
the moment China was the land of limitless opportunity;
not only did those interested in education and medicine
now feel that they were sure of privileges which had
never been accorded them; not only did right-minded
men in Christendom feel that whatever were the errors
and crimes of China in 1900, these were in large part
provoked by the errors and crimes of Christendom in
its dealing with China in the century preceding; the
Chinese themselves now set out on their own part to
make reparations. They appreciated that missionaries
and philanthropists had been long trying to lead them
along a path which now they themselves had come to
wish to tread. They realized that in treading it they
were not necessarily untrue to their own race. Mission
schools and colleges were crowded with the sons of
Chinese families still loyal to Confucianism, whereas
before they had often had but few pupils save those
gathered from the homes of converts in the Christian
church. The number of communicants in the churches
increased in notable degree. In 1907 there was held

CHINA 201

in Shanghai an international conference concerning
missionary interests in China. It marked the lapse of a
hundred years since Morrison came to Canton. It was
still essentially a missionaries' conference. Independent
development of the indigenous churches and of Chinese
leadership has come largely in the ten years which have
passed since the Morrison Centenary. Yet some impres-
sive facts became evident. There were in that year 3 ,445
Anglican and Protestant foreign missionaries in service
in China, representing sixty-three boards or societies.
There were 9,904 Chinese preachers and teachers.
There were 178,251 communicant members connected
with churches under these missions. In many missions
and for several years the rate of increase in the com-
municant membership of the churches had been from
20 to 30 per cent per year. When one remembers that
the corresponding figure in the United States is a little
over 2 per cent he perceives the gain which has been
made. The China Mission Year Book for 19 18 gives
268,652 as the number of Protestant communicant
members, and the total Chinese constituency as 526,108.
The Roman church had, in 19 18, 1,409 foreign priests,
906 Chinese priests, 1,956,205 communicants. There
is difficulty in comparison of these figures as between
the two great branches of the church because of the
difference of the custom of the churches in reference to
communicant membership. But it may be safely said
that there is one Christian communicant for about one
hundred and twenty-five of the Chinese population.

172. Education. — The educational situation in these
early years of the transformation of China presents
marked contrast with that which we observed as to the

202 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

beginnings in the case of Japan. The reforms of the
eventful years 1902 to 1904 did indeed provide for a
system of public instruction of the most extensive sort.
There was to be a university in each province with the
appropriate secondary schools leading up to it. There
were to be technical schools of every sort. Of these
China stands in greatest need. Gradually lower schools
were to be developed. Compulsory attendance was to
be demanded, as in Japan. Foreign professors were to
have place in the faculties for a time only. Chinese
men were to be fitted as soon as possible to take over
these responsibilities. Youth of ability and under
careful selection have been in process of education in
Europe and America for every kind of public service.
In America especially the indemnity scholarships have
opened an unusual number of opportunities. Financial
and political questions have made difficult the carrying
out of the grand scheme. Part of the plan has been m
abeyance and the execution of the parts attempted has
left much to be desired. The mission schools and col-
leges and professional schools were old in China before
the opening of the new era. In Japan they were never
permitted until the national schools had been already
established and were being developed with such effi-
ciency that the Christian schools could hardly be their
competitors. The Chinese portion of the staff of the
government schools was at first taken mainly from youth
educated in the mission schools. The mission colleges
and universities were thus able to render a unique service
in respect of Western learning. They found themselves
suddenly viewed with a veneration the more striking
when compared with the obloquy which they had long

CHINA 203

endured. They will not always hold this precedence
when once national affairs permit the proper evolution
of the government plans. The best of them make good
use of this precedence now. In the Shansi province, one
of those which suffered most in the Boxer uprising, a
district magistrate asked the missions to take over tem-
porarily the whole educational project. The Oberlin-
Shansi group under the American Board has thus a
peculiar privilege, for the Shansi missionaries who fell
in the rebellion were many of them Oberlin men. In
some ways the devastation which the Boxer era brought
was a benediction in disguise. In a number of cases the
buildings of these schools and colleges were destroyed.
They Jiad been established in connection with denomina-
tional societies. When they were to be rebuilt it seemed
absurd to perpetuate such a number of institutions.
By combining they might use their resources to better
advantage and aid the growing movement for the
elimination of sectarianism in the Chinese Christendom
which is to be. In this way union colleges and universi-
ties, like those at Peking, Foochow, and Nanking,
have come into being. Union theological schools exist.
Union preparatory schools, like that at Tungchau,
make the colleges a fact and not merely a name.

173. Modern medicine. — We have spoken of the
beginnings of medical work in China. One who has not
visited China can form little idea of the need of such
work. The ancient practice was utter quackery and
often the most cruel resort to magic and witness to
superstition. For a long time foreign practitioners were
few. Some boards hardly thought medical work within
their purpose. Physicians were viewed by the Chinese

204 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

with a suspicion profounder than that which met any
other class of foreigners. There was no way of educating
Chinese for the practice of the profession save the old-
fashioned tutorial system. The translation of standard
medical works was difficult because the technical vocabu-
lary did not exist. Material for dissection was impos-
sible to obtain. The hospitals would sometimes hardly
have passed muster in the least enlightened and scrupu-
lous of occidental communities. Practitioners were
often well aware how fast their science had moved since
the day when they were students and how little chance
they had had in these far lands to keep the pace. In
these circumstances the union of medical colleges like
that which has been brought about at Peking and again
at Shanghai was a great gain. The taking over of this
work by a corporation of unlimited resources, like the
China Medical Board of the Rockefeller Foundation,
constitutes an inestimable benefit. In both of these
directions, medical and educational, something of the
direct religious purpose which existed in the old hospitals
and colleges may have been sacrificed. At all events the
spiritual aid rendered has become a personal affair. This
takes place, however, in our own countries. It is a part
of the Christianization of life. No one wishes that the
worse of two medical schools shall bear the Christian
name and the better be ostentatiously without it.

174. Christian literature. — No people ever had greater
reverence for literature than the Chinese. None ever
was more susceptible to influence through the printed
page. No land, therefore, is more open to the Christian
propaganda and indeed to the dissemination of all good
and vital principles by the production of a specific

CHINA 205

literature for these ends. The Nestor of this effort on
behalf of Christian literature is Timothy Richard, a
missionary of the English Baptist Missionary Society
long resident in Shanghai. The Shanghai Mission Press
under the responsibility of the Presbyterian Mission has
for decades poured out books, periodicals, and tracts
without number. The Literature Society guided by
Richard has gathered to its staff scores of the most dis-
tinguished writers, both foreigners and Chinese, versed
in the important dialects. The dialects, though not so
numerous as in India, are numerous enough. They
serve to separate the lower classes of society quite de-
cisively. People of any pretense to education read even
if they do not speak one or the other of the literary
languages in which the tradition of culture has been
transmitted. No aspect of missionary work or con-
tribution to the general enlightenment and morale of
the Chinese public will be more important in the future
than this endeavor to create a Christian literature.

175. Recent events. — In closing, a word should be said
concerning the extraordinary political events which have
taken place since 1907. These have greatly changed the
outlook for the Christian movement. Just as there was
in Japan after the opening of the Meiji era an attempt
at the restoration of Shinto as the state religion, so in
China after the reforms of 1902-4 there was an effort
to revive in official form the worship of Confucius. It
was declared that this did not militate against the tolera-
tion of Christianity and of all other religions which had
been exacted among the terms of the restoration of the
Dowager to the throne. Nevertheless, for a time
a monthly observance of the Confucian rite was

2o6 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

announced as necessary on the part of all who held
public office, including especially teachers in the schools.
Many refused to comply with the injunction. A few
were punished for disobedience. Before long the whole
thing fell into desuetude.

No event has served more deeply to impress the world
with the progress of the Christian movement in China
than did the official request made by the acting Chinese
government for the prayers of its Christian subjects
on Sunday, April 27, 19 13. A few days prior to that
date telegrams had been sent to the leaders of the Chris-
tian churches asking that special prayers be offered on
behalf of the Chinese nation, and to provincial governors
and other officials directing them to attend the Chris-
tian services. The suggestion apparently originated
with the Christians, of whom sixty had been elected
members of the first Chinese parliament.

The emperor Kwang Hsu died sometime in No-
vember, 1908. On the day after the official announce-
ment of his death the Dowager also died. She had,
however, taken part in the choice of a successor to the
Emperor, an infant two years of age for whom a regent
had been appointed, a favorite of the Dowager. Hardly
had the new regent, Prince Chung, assumed office when
the veteran statesman Yuan Shi-kai, who held in high
measure the confidence of the European world, was dis-
missed from his post. The regent was soon accused
by the Chinese of reactionary tendencies. After five
troubled years revolution broke out in the south. The
most influential man at the moment was Sun Yat-sen,
who, banished in 1898, had long been in England and
America. The Manchus were forced to abdicate and a

CHINA 207

republic was set up. The man who after a period of dis-
order succeeded in taking the place of president of the
republic was no other than Yuan Shi-kai. There were
continued disorders in the south and difficulties with the
parliament. Yuan was accused of ambition to restore
the monarchy in his own person. In the midst of this
new crisis Yuan died and the jeopardized republic seemed
once more assured. When one thinks of the vast num-
bers of the people in China, of the loose bond which has
always existed among the provinces, of the ignorance
of remote regions concerning national and world affairs,
of the insufficiency of the means of communication, of
the unsatisfactory state of the finances, of the doctrinaire
character of one party, at least, of the supporters of the
republic, of the tradition of absolutism at Peking, and
of China's relative helplessness as yet in the face of any
one of the great nations, we cannot hide from ourselves
the difficulties which democratic institutions in that
land must meet. Yet the progress made since 1900 is
truly amazing. The Chinese character and intelligence
is such as to warrant high hope. More than once
during the Great War, China has seemed to be imperiled
by Japan. Her entrance upon the war on the side of
the Entente in August, 191 7, seems the natural solution
of some of her difficulties. It assures in further measure
the assimilation of China among the world-states after
the war.

CHAPTER X

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND THE
MOSLEM WORLD

CHAPTER X

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND THE MOSLEM WORLD

176. The Moslem world

177. Ottoman power; lateness of missionary beginnings

178. Ancient Christian churches; Syrians and Armenians

179. The Byzantine period; the Arabs

180. Seljuks and Osmans

181. Problem of the ancient Christian churches

182. Roman and Anglican efforts

183. The American missions; the press

184. Work for Armenians

185. The Protestant Armenians; the massacres

186. Cyrus Hamlin; Robert College

187. Later years of Robert College

188. The college at Beirut

189. Constantinople College; the college at Smyrna

190. Medical work

191. The Ottoman situation

192. Internal questions; subject populations

193. The Armenians

194. The revolution in Turkey

195. The Turks and the Great War

196. The present situation

197. The Moslem world outside the Ottoman Empire; Malaysia;
India

198. Persia; Transcaucasia

199. Egypt and Arabia

200. Outlook of Islam

CHAPTER X
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND THE MOSLEM WORLD

176. The Moslem world. — The Moslem world as a
religious magnitude includes the whole of Northern
Africa, the area of former Moslem states or provinces
now mainly under European rule. It is being rapidly
extended by successful missionary propaganda among
negroes in Middle Africa, now also under the rule of
various states of Christendom. It reaches Persia and
makes itself felt in India, Burma, Siam, China, and the
Dutch and English East Indies. It includes several
populous provinces of Russia. Moslem elements in the
Balkan States are not negligible. As a political magni-
tude, on the other hand, it exists only in the Otto-
man Empire, ruled from Constantinople, but covering
Syria and Asia Minor, the valley of the Euphrates,
and Arabia until the present war. The territory under
actual sovereignty of the sultan has steadily diminished
during the nineteenth century. The influence which the
Commander of the Faithful once exerted over Moslems
whom he did not rule has also been seriously impaired.
Before the war it was estimated that hardly 20 per cent
of the population of the Ottoman Empire was of Turkish
blood and not more than 50 per cent of Moslem faith.
Out of the supposed two hundred millions of Moslems in
the world one hundred and seventy millions were ruled
by Christian states. Speaking only of events of very
recent years, the French occupation of Morocco, the
Italian conquest of Tripoli, the Anglo-Russian agreement

211

212 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

with reference to Persia, the defeat of Turkey by the
Balkan States, the dethronement of the khedive, the
successful rebellion of Arabia, carrying with it the sacred
city of Mecca, constitute a series of catastrophes unparal-
leled in the history of Islam. The end of Moslem rule in
the world may be nearly as swift and spectacular as was
its beginning. The most favorable possible issue of
the Great War from the point of view of the Turks would
still have left the Ottoman Empire in complete subjection
to Germany.

177. Ottoman power; lateness of missionary beginnings.
— For the purposes of this narrative, therefore, the Otto-
man Empire is only in some sense a center and symbol of
the Moslem world. The Moslem problem must be
met mainly under conditions which prevail, for example,
in India and Burma and Malaysia, where half of the
Moslems of the world reside under the British crown.
A hundred years ago when Protestant missions began this
was very far from being the case. The Ottoman rule
had still something of the aspect which it wore when the
armies of the sultan gathered under the walls of Vienna.
Constantinople was the center of a might which had once
been the terror of Christendom. If Christians had begun
to realize that the Crusades of the Middle Ages had
assailed that power in a mistaken and fruitless way,
none the less did they hope to approach that same
spiritual and temporal might in a new and better way.
It may be of interest to add that the Ottoman Empire is
the one great region included in this study which Roman
Catholic missions entered, not three hundred years before
the Protestants, as in the case of India, China, or Japan,
but at the same time with the Protestants. There was

THE OTTOMAN EMFIRE 213

little opening for trade in the Levant in the time of
the Renaissance like that which sent the Portuguese to
the Far East or the Spanish to America. When the
diplomacy of Europe opened the Near East after the
Napoleonic wars the opportunity was embraced by
both Protestants and Roman Catholics alike.

178. Ancient Christian churches; Syrians and Arme-
nians.— It happens that the portion of the earth covered
now or until very recently by the Ottoman Empire
was, the larger part of it until the fall of the Roman
Empire and a smaller part until the fall of the Byzan-
tine Empire, the very area which was identified with the
intensest Christian life. Syria was the region of the first
Christian propaganda. In Antioch followers of Jesus
were first called Christians. In Damascus, Paul was
converted. Asia Minor was the scene of a considerable
part of his missionary activity. Greece, which was
Turkish until 1829, and Macedonia, which is still
disputed, were the scenes of almost all the rest. Asia
Minor was then one of the richest and most densely
populated regions in the world. It had been for a
thousand years the meeting-place of civilizations and
religions. It came to be the most Christian area on
earth. The unknown seer in the Apocalypse counted
seven influential cities in which there were churches.
Paul's letters and the Book of the Acts show that there
were many more. The Ignatian letters reveal a vivid
and vigorous life. At the Council of Nicaea there
were present three hundred and eighteen bishops, only
seven of whom were from west of the Hellespont. Even
a council at Aries in 314 was largely attended from Asia
Minor and Latin Africa. The success of the Christian

214 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

i

movement in the Lower Valley of the Nile is recalled by
the very name of Alexandria. The names of Cyprian
and Augustine cause us to remember the part which
Roman Africa played. To the Pillars of Hercules the
region north of the desert was one of the gardens of the
world and was very largely Christianized. Edessa, now
Urfa, east of the Euphrates, had been a center of Chris-
tianity at all events since 175 a.d. It later received the
Nestorians when they were driven from the seats of
orthodoxy. This church of Eastern Syria exerted
great influence upon the development of the faith in
Persia. It was responsible for missionary endeavor in
both India and China. Armenia, the region extending
from the southern slopes of the Caucasus over the high
table-land to Ararat, received Christianity as early as
the time of Gregory the Illuminator, 302 a.d. Arme-
nians, now scattered over the Turkish Empire and
represented in all parts of the world, have been Christian
since that early day.

179. The Byzantine period; the Arabs. — Remnants
of the early Christian church which we have named and
the subdivisions which with lapse of time these have
undergone are to be found in Ottoman territory today.
In a general way they fall under the popular designation
of the Greek church, in contrast to the Roman church
as this developed after the great schism. They were
always more or less independent of the central body of
the Holy Orthodox church under the patriarch of
Constantinople. Many of them have been viewed by
the staunch orthodox element as heretical. They on
their part have been jealous of their autonomy. These
little outlying Christian peoples with their churches met

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 215

the full fury of the onrush of Islam. Jerusalem fell in
614, Alexandria in 618, Damascus in 634. Heraclius,
the Byzantine emperor, made desperate effort to reclaim
his lost territories. For a brief time he did again possess
Jerusalem. The large part of the remoter regions have
remained to this day under Mohammedan rule. Bagdad
became one of the most famous of the caliphates, the
center of Arab civilization. The iconoclastic struggles
disrupted the Orthodox church when it had all possible
need of unity. Yet on the whole, although Africa and
Syria and the valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris which
were once Christian had been lost, the Arab conquests
paused. Relations with the caliphates were tolerable.
The vigor of the Abassides declined.

180. Seljuks and Osmans. — A worse calamity was to
follow. The grandson of Seljuk the Mongol had become
a follower of the Prophet. This did not prevent him
from overrunning the Arab Empire and Persia. His
successor conquered Armenia, which, without help from
Constantinople, had made a good stand thus far. In
1 08 1 the sultan fixed the seat of his empire at Nicaea,
the shrine of orthodoxy. The Mongols were practically
savages from Central Asia. The Anatolian civilization
went down before them never to recover. The cry of
the emperor Comnenus to Christian Europe for help
furnished an additional motive for that great inter-
national movement already gathering headway in the
West, the Crusades. It was little that the Crusaders
ever did for the relief of Eastern Christendom. The
bitterness with which the two halves of Christendom
hated one another had something to do with that. The
provincialism of Europe, its ignorance of all matters

216 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

pertaining to the East, had more. Europe did not realize
what was at stake in the struggle of emperor and patri-
arch at Constantinople or how soon, if these went down,
the life and death struggle with the Mongol savage,
now Mohammedan, would become a European matter.
The glutted Seljuks deteriorated in the fair world which
they were reducing to a desert. There was need of a
new Mongol wave, that of the Osman Turks, to wipe out
completely the civilization that had once been Greece
and in some sense also Rome, the glory that had been
Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Constantinople, and to put
the oriental Christians under the feet of the Tatar
converts of the Great Arabian. The end came in 1453.
So strong was Constantinople, so well did its people
apprehend what was at issue, that the overthrow was
not accomplished until the Turks had seized large areas
on the European side, had penetrated far into Greece
and the Balkans and approached Constantinople from
Roman Adrianople and from St. Paul's own Thessa-
lonica. It seems the very irony of history to say that
the fall of Constantinople first brought to Europeans
the knowledge of the Near East which might have saved
the city had they possessed it one or two generations
earlier. As it was, the conquests of Islam were destined
to advance much farther into Europe. They were
checked first at the end of the seventeenth century.
They have been reversed only in the nineteenth and
at the beginning of the twentieth.

181. Problem of the ancient Christian churches. — It
will be evident that the problem of missions in the Otto-
man Empire was very different from that which has
been met in any country of which we have thus far

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 217

spoken. In the empire as a whole before the war there
were supposed to be about forty million people. Of
these, eight million were Turks and the rest were of
twenty different races. Of the subject races of ancient
Christian inheritance in accordance with the custom of
the country all must have connection with one or another
of the churches. The Porte officially dealt with the
subject populations as adherents of this or that religion.
It recognized them only under some ecclesiastical
authority. To be without religious connection in
Turkey was to be without civil rights. The course of
the history of the American missions led them early to
realize that the time had not yet come for direct approach
to the problem which the Turkish Moslems present.
In most lands the evangelistic stage, that of the presenta-
tion of the gospel and the formation of little religious
communities, has preceded educational work and medi-
cine and the work of the press. In Asia Minor the
Americans were convinced that so far as the Moslems
were concerned the order should be reversed. The
approach to a people so intensely hostile to the Christian
faith must be through works of mercy and enlighten-
ment, through contribution to the change in the civili-
zation of the empire which the missionaries were
convinced was bound to come. For this new order of
missionary procedure points of departure were every-
where given in the subject races. So far were the
Armenians and Greeks the ablest element of the popu-
lation that their bitter persecutions were due largely
to Turkish recognition of that fact. Besides there was
the recognition of the common element between them
and the missionaries which was given in the possession

218 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

of the Christian faith. These peoples could not be
approached in the ordinary way of missionary work.

0

To have ignored their Christian standing would have
been outrageous. Yet there was much that the
Christians from the West could do for them. This
possible service was exactly in the line of that which
the missionaries had judged as to the mode of approach
to the Turks and the empire as a whole. It was service
through educational institutions and the press, through
hospitals and general philanthropy. The plan was to
leave ecclesiastical and theological questions on one side.
It was to work for the inner transformation of the
ancient Christian churches and by no means to set up
bodies of mission adherents beside them or to add to the
number of warring Christian sects.

182. Roman and Anglican efforts. — No enlightened
Christian from the West could view these oriental
Christian bodies without profound sympathy because of
their glorious history and of the unspeakable things
which they had suffered. As little could he be unaware
that, in consequence of their misfortunes, of their
isolation, and of their mutual antagonisms, they had
fallen behind that development which the course of
centuries had brought to Western Christendom. To
suppose that they would not be Christian until they had
adopted the forms of faith and practice of some of our
Western denominations would be shameful bigotry.
Yet to aid them in the development of their own religious
life and in the reform of their ecclesiastical institutions,
to help them to escape a view of Christianity which
regarded it as nothing but orthodoxy and ceremonialism,
was a problem of greatest insight and tact. Latins have

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 219

been present in the empire, especially in Palestine,
in appreciable numbers since the time of the Crusades.
Yet the suspicion and hatred between the Latin and
oriental churches had been such that one could hardly
speak of a religious influence of these devout groups of
scholars or of monks and nuns upon the Christians of the
land. What the orientals heard of various attempts at
union, as, for example, that between Latins and the
orthodox of Little Russia, did not improve the matter.
The fact that the Maronites on the Lebanon had in a
body transferred their allegiance to the pope was but a
confirmation of that which the Eastern Christians
feared. To this day one can hardly speak of Roman
missionary activity in the Ottoman Empire, although
there have been illustrious scholars from Latin countries
long resident in the Levant, and although there have
been Roman ecclesiastics in Constantinople ever since
the days when under the second empire France exerted
great influence upon the Porte. The monks and nuns
have done hospital and orphanage work and some
school work. Exactly the thing which was needed,
however, aid to the oriental churches in the realization
of themselves, seemed to lie outside of the Roman
power. The scores of thousands of Russian peasant
pilgrims to the fields over whose acres walked the blessed
feet have left the country exactly as they found it.
The Anglican church in the seventeenth century in the
time of the Patriarch Cyril Lucar drew close to the
Holy Orthodox church and has since had periods of
reviving the hope of union with that church. It has
been extremely sensitive as to anything which implied
less than unqualified reverence for the tradition of the

220 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Eastern churches. It has severely criticized the course
of Protestant bodies when these seemed to be working to
the detriment of those claims. Yet in all the long years,
now nearly ninety, in which England has wielded
great influence at Constantinople, the Anglican church
has taken little responsibility for any work in the Otto-
man Empire and less for work on behalf of the Christian
churches in that empire. The establishment of the
Jerusalem bishopric in connection with the Anglican
church in 1841, although, or perhaps because, it was
achieved by joint action with the Lutheran church of
the kingdom of Prussia, was an offense to many,
especially in the High Church party. After all it
endeavored mainly to develop work among the Moslems.
The Church Missionary Society has had work in
Palestine since 185 1 centering at Jerusalem, Nazareth,
and Nablus, but this also has been chiefly for Moslems.

183. The American missions; the press. — When in
1820 the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions sent out Pliny Fiske and Levi Parsons it was
the intention that they should be located at Jerusalem
and labor for the conversion of the Jews. They were,
however, commissioned to report upon the general
conditions in the empire and the prospect of success in
appeal to adherents of other faiths. Next after the
Jews it was the Moslems who were had in mind. Par-
sons went almost at once to Jerusalem, but the outbreak
of the Greek revolution compelled him to return to
Smyrna, where he died in 1822. Jonas King took his
place. In Jerusalem for two years he and Fiske devoted
themselves to study of the languages, but a Jerusalem
station was never reopened under this Board. Beirut,

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 221

however, became the center of a work which has been
highly influential. Goodell and Bird were the first
permanent missionaries. Goodell mastered Arabic,
Turkish, and Armenian as well as modern Greek. He
set about the work of translating the Bible and estab-
lished a press. In 1827 thirteen free schools were opened
in the city and vicinity. These schools had six hundred
pupils, one hundred of them girls, a thing before unknown.
There was bitter opposition especially from the Maro-
nites of the Lebanon and from the Latin Catholics.
After the battle of Navarino the British consulate under
whose protection the Americans had labored was tem-
porarily closed and the little mission had to flee to
Malta. The sojourn in Malta marked the decision
henceforth to make greatest possible use of the press
for mission work throughout the Turkish Empire.
By 1833 conditions were such that it was possible to
return to Beirut. The Arabic press was taken to
Beirut while the Greek, Turkish, and Armenian equip-
ment was transferred to Smyrna. Names later famous
began to appear in the mission in these years, especially
those of Riggs, van Lennep, and Dwight. Goodell was
sent to open a station at Constantinople; associated
with him was William Schaufller. The mission press
at Constantinople then began its career. Perhaps
the most remarkable man in the whole circle was Elias
Riggs. He went to Athens in 1832, then in 1844 to
Smyrna, and in 1853 to Constantinople. He is said to
have had a working knowledge of twenty languages
and to have been the master of twelve. He did a large
part of the work of the Armenian translation of the
Bible, which appeared in 1852. He was the sole author

222 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

of the translation into Bulgarian, which was issued in
187 1. He was with Schauffler and Herrick the reviser
of the translation into Turkish, which was printed in
both Arabic and Armenian characters in 1878. He wrote
numbers of schoolbooks and devotional books in nine
different languages. A considerable part of the income
of the American and Foreign Bible Society was for
forty years absorbed by its subsidies to the output of the
Constantinople press. Second only to the Turkish
translation above named came the Smith-Van Dyke
translation into Arabic. The issue of the Constantinople
Protestant press until 19 13, including works of educa-
tional and religious literature of every sort, reached
the total of fifty million pages.

184. Work for Armenians. — At Constantinople was
made also the first successful approach to the Armenians,
of whom there were a hundred thousand in the city. A
learned and devout Armenian, Pesthinaljian, brought to
the attention of Goodell the movement gathering strength
within the Armenian church for reform of the life of the
clergy and for the better education of candidates. The
patriarch expressed himself as favorable to the mis-
sionaries' plans of aid. Then was made clear the policy
of the Board to work only in and through the oriental
churches and in no way to act in rivalry with them.
During this period also there was sent out an expedition
into Eastern Asia Minor and Persia which located many
of the stations later connected with the Board's best
work, Erzroom, Tiflis, and Tabriz. In 1839 the toler-
ant patriarch of the Armenians was replaced by a man
of different mold. Many of the priests had begun to
resent the insistence of their own authorities upon better

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 223

morals and education. They correctly laid the respon-
sibility at the door of the missionaries. The reactionary
party gained the upper hand. Representations were
made to the sultan which might have resulted in the
closing of the American mission at Constantinople had
not the hands of the Ruler of the Faithful been more than
full at the moment on account of the revolt in Egypt.
The Armenian patriarch Matteos (1844-48) excommuni-
cated from the church all those who appeared to be
moved by the Protestant spirit. For years it had been
difficult for the missionaries to convince their sym-
pathizers that they should not withdraw from the
ancestral churches in which they were now made to
suffer every indignity. These desired to set up com-
munities after the American Congregationalist model,
to elect their own ministers and escape the authority of
the hierarchy. The patriarch's expulsion of this
element from the church now left them no other course.
Nor indeed was there any course left for the missionaries
save to aid them. The Turkish government in 1850
recognized the Protestant body. Without such recog-
nition the participants in the movement would have lost
their civil rights. To the wisest of the missionaries
it was a great disappointment. It was the failure of an
ideal.

185. The Protestant Armenians; the massacres. —
The evangelical mission body, the Protestant church
within the Ottoman state, has made fair progress. After
the first period of antagonism there was, however, a
general return to the earlier and better attitude toward
the ancient churches. Every effort has been made in
the missions to induce those who came under the

224 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

influence of the missionaries, whether in the schools,
through the press, or in the medical work, to remain
in the communion to which their families belonged.
The fact that in the great number of educational insti-
tutions, higher and secondary and for both sexes
sustained by missions throughout the land, three-fourths
of the pupils came from non-Protestant homes is surely
evidence of good faith. The attitude of the Armenian
and Orthodox and Greek hierarchies, to mention only
the greater ones, while subject to variation, has grown
more kindly with the lapse of years. Of the attitude of
the government something similar might be said. The
so-called Hatti Humajian treaty, exacted from the
Porte by Lord Stratford de Redcliffe in 1856 under the
pressure of the Crimean War, marked the farthest limit
of reforming concessions in the matter of religious tolera-
tion. At that time both the Church Missionary
Society and the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel increased their work in Turkey, addressed
mainly to the Mohammedans, only to withdraw from
a part of that work again in the period of the sultan's
disfavor, which began in 1864. For twenty years
after that date the Protestant movement was subjected
to every inconvenience and sometimes to actual violence.
There was a change for the better after 1886. Yet the
situation left much to be desired. Persecution brought
the Armenians and Protestants closer together. At
the end of fifty years, or in 1895, the Protestant body
numbered only about twelve thousand communicants.
In the following year they suffered decimation in an
Armenian massacre which then seemed an appalling
calamity. But the events of these last years, the effort

THE OTTOMAN EMTIRE 225

to exterminate the whole Armenian race, makes all
previous sufferings of this brave people small by com-
parison.

186. Cyrus Hamlin; Robert College. — The career of
Cyrus Hamlin and the history of Robert College is so
typical for the educational aspect of the work of the
Americans in Turkey that the story may be told in some
detail. Hamlin came to Constantinople in 1838 under
the American Board, charged with the establishment of a
theological seminary for candidates for the priesthood
in the oriental churches. Beginnings were small.
The students were almost without exception Armenians.
A fourth part of them came from homes of Gregorian
and Orthodox clergy. This is the more noteworthy
because it was exactly in the circle of the clergy that
fear of the education which the missionaries were giving
began later to make itself felt. Hamlin was not willing
merely to dispense aid to needy students. He estab-
lished industrial classes and himself taught at the
anvil and at the bench of both the carpenter and the
cobbler. Such ideas were new to the oriental clergy.
In 1846 came the breach with the Armenian patriarch.
Those who would not break with the mission and its
school lost all hope of preferment in the church. They
were ostracized in the community. Just when the
theological seminary had reached its lowest ebb the
Crimean War broke out. Care of the sick and wounded
and even work for the Turkish commissariat furnished
scope for Hamlin's boundless energy. When the war
was over the Board decided to transfer the seminary to
Marsovan in the interior and to conduct all instruction
in the vernaculars. Hamlin's idea was just the opposite.

226 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

He desired to develop a college on the lines of the best
American institutions and for students fitting for every
career. For this purpose he needed to remain in Con-
stantinople, to have freedom accorded him, and greater
funds placed at his disposal. The issue of education was
then rife in many missions. The Board was passing
through a sort of revulsion in its policy. Challenged to go
forward in new ways it for the moment decided to return
as far as possible to purely evangelistic endeavor.
Hamlin rebelled. He returned to America and sought to
change the attitude of the Board. Failing in this he
resigned. He sought private aid for his scheme of a
preparatory school and college on the shores of the
Bosporus which should some day grow into a university.
So well did he plead the cause of the new era in missions
that Christopher Robert, a merchant of New York,
consented for the time at least to guarantee the venture.
A charter was sought under the laws of the state of
New York. A board of trustees was elected. It
was composed of American business men, educators,
and clergymen. Later a co-operating committee was
formed of residents of Constantinople representing the
various racial and ecclesiastical constituencies. The
college was named for Mr. Robert and Hamlin was
chosen president. The Turkish government interposed
every obstacle in the way of purchase of ground or permit
to build. Hamlin lived through years in which his
project brought him little but disappointment. It
was 1863 before the institution was acknowledged by the
Porte and placed under the diplomatic protection of the
United States. The site at Bebek was chosen, an hour
from Constantinople on the shores of the Bosporus

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 227

close to the ruins of the Rumeli fortress with the hills
of Asia before it.

187. Later years of Robert College. — Hamlin remained
but ten years at the head of the institution to which he
had given his life. He saw it grow into a preparatory-
school with a four years' course and a college with again
a four years' course in preparation for the degree of
Bachelor of Arts. Degrees are conferred under the
Board of Regents of the state of New York. He saw
the college pass under the guidance of his friend and son-
in-law, George Washburn, who presided over its desti-
nies until 1902. Hamlin lived until 1900 in unwearying
activity. Washburn, who died in 191 5, saw, through
the gifts of Mr. Kennedy and others, his college in
possession of a plant and endowment which place it
among the best-equipped institutions of the sort in any
land. Its engineering school is the first of the profes-
sional and technical departments by which it is to grow
into a university. It is a Christian college but absolutely
non-sectarian. In 191 5-16, the second year of the Great
War, when the participation of Turkey was beginning to
tell heavily upon its constituency, Robert College had
419 students, 240 of these being in the preparatory
department. These students represented 17 different
races, 182 being Greeks, 133 Armenians, and 62 Turks.
They were of 7 different faiths, 230 of them belonging to
the Orthodox church and in to the Gregorian. There
were 79 Moslems and only 34 Protestants. Dr. Charles
F. Gates, formerly of Euphrates College at Harpoot, has
been president since 1903. Of all the European subjects
of the Ottoman Empire the Bulgarians were before the
war best represented among the students. That the

228 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

college has had great part in the education of the peoples
of the empire in the desire for freedom and for representa-
tive government there can be no doubt. The personality
of Dr. Washburn, who was fifty years in Constantinople
and ten years more in closest touch with the affairs
of the Levant, was of greater significance in some
ways than even the institution over which he presided.
He was the trusted friend of the diplomats of almost
every nation and had the confidence of the Porte.
He reaped the advantage of his country's remoteness
from all the political questions which agitated the Near
East. His genuine sympathy with the moral and
religious interests of the various ecclesiastical parties
and rival faiths was as surely reckoned upon as was his
own uncompromising Christian character. He was an
educator in a sense in which Hamlin was not. No man
of his generation knew the problems of the Near East
better than Washburn or contributed more to a solution
which sometimes now seems very far off but which
may be very near.

188. The college at Beirut. — One can hardly name
Robert College and Dr. Washburn without thinking of
the Syrian Protestant College at Beirut and Dr. Daniel
Bliss, its founder and president. This institution has
done for Palestine, Syria, and Egypt much the same
work which Robert College has done for the Balkans,
Greece, and Asia Minor. Bliss went to Beirut at the
time when the Syrian and Palestinian mission was under
the American Board. This was one of the missions
which in 1869 were set off to the Presbyterians. The
college had been founded, however, in 1863 and, guided
by the experience of Hamlin and the school at Bebek,

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 229

it had been founded as a chartered and endowed insti-
tution only indirectly related to the mission. This
institution also is incorporated under the laws of the
state of New York and has a co-operating committee
in Beirut. Several members of this committee and many
members of the faculty are members of the mission.
This center of Western learning in the East has also an
incomparable situation, high on the Ras Beirut with the
sea before it and the Lebanon behind. It was founded
only shortly after the rebellion of the Druses had made
the work of the mission difficult. The partial French
protectorate, which was established after the insurrec-
tion, did not make that work easier. The college had
in 1907, 21 professors and 38 instructors. It had 878
students of whom 346 were Greek Orthodox, 147
were Protestants, 127 were Moslems, 62 were Jews,
and 20 were Druses. There were even a few Roman
Catholics. Scarcely a race or tribe in all the mixed
population of Syria was unrepresented. The insti-
tution has a preparatory school and a college after the
American pattern. It has also four professional or
technical courses. There is a medical school, a school of
pharmacy, a school of business, and an archaeological
institute. The medical school is by far the most impor-
tant. It has had the patronage of the Ottoman govern-
ment. As the college and preparatory schools have
departments for women, so also there is a school for
nurses attached to the department of medicine, with a
clinic for women and a children's hospital. The
archaeological institute has taken over the conduct of
explorations in a country which presents unrivaled
opportunity. Participation in religious instruction and

230 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

in the public services for worship, for a long time com-
pulsory, has recently been made voluntary. The college
is viewed by all the Protestant missions in the Near
East and Egypt as their university. It stands far
above any of the Turkish institutions. The Jesuit
university of St. Joseph in Beirut does it the honor of
keen rivalry. Dr. Bliss died in 191 6 in Beirut in the
midst of the Great War. His son, Howard S. Bliss,
had succeeded him in 1904 as the head of the institu-
tion.

189. Constantinople College; the college at Smyrna. —
This narrative would not be complete did we not allude
to Constantinople College for women, long in Scutari
on the Asiatic side, but of late occupying splendid build-
ings not far from Robert College. After the mission
boarding school for girls at Constantinople had been
closed in 1862 the so-called Home School was established
in 187 1 by the Woman's Board working in conjunction
with the American Board. In 1883 Miss Mary Patrick
became principal. Miss Patrick was one of the first
women to take a degree in a Swiss university. In 1890
the institution was chartered under the laws of the state
of Massachusetts as the American College for Girls.
By a new charter in 1908 the institution became entirely
independent of the Board, money for the plant and
endowment being secured in one year which more than
equaled all that the Board had put into the institution
by the labor and sacrifice of a generation. Since 191 2
it has been known officially as Constantinople College.
In that year fourteen different nationalities were enrolled
among its students. The course leading to the degree
of Bachelor of Arts is practically the same as that of the

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 231

best American colleges for women. The college declares
itself a Christian college yet adds that no student is
refused admittance to the college or denied any of its
privileges, honors, or degrees on account of her religious
opinions.

The International College at Smyrna and the Ameri-
can Collegiate Institute for Girls at Smyrna are still to
some extent under the guidance and responsibility of the
American Board, but are far on the way toward that
independence which is the goal of the development of
all these institutions. Anatolia College at Marsovan
with its theological seminary, Euphrates College at
Harpoot, also with a seminary, Central Turkey College
at Aintab, Central Turkey College for Girls at Marash,
St. Paul's Institute at Tarsus, schools like those at
Van and Bitlis just advancing to college grade, with a
whole network of secondary and primary schools and
kindergartens all over Asia Minor, are still part of the
Board's plant and show how uniformly Christian edu-
cation has been apprehended as the key to the Ottoman
problem. Practically all of these schools and colleges
in the interior have been used as relief stations and
orphanages since the war began. A considerable
portion of the Board's staff, both men and women,
has remained to carry on this relief. They have
witnessed the sufferings of the Armenians. Their aid
is accepted by the Turks. The medical work has of
course played a prominent part in this relief.

190. Medical work. — From the earliest years of the
mission physicians have had place on the staff. Dr.
Van Dyke came to Beirut in 1840. His later activities
were, however, largely in the direction of literary work.

232 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Dr. Post was pre-eminent as physician and surgeon.
He won distinction as an author in medical and scientific
subjects. For a generation there existed in Beirut
an interesting example of international and inter-
denominational co-operation in medical work. The
German hospital called after the Order of St. John was
placed at the disposal of the American physicians and
surgeons while Kaiserwerth deaconesses were responsible
for the nursing. There is a hospital of the Orthodox
Greeks in Beirut before which the authorities have set
up a statue of Van Dyke in recognition of their debt to
the pioneer missionary physician. Dr. Mary Eddy
traveled for years through the most difficult and dan-
gerous portions of the country about Beirut to do medi-
cal work on behalf of women. No doubt the tradition
of the Beirut Presbyterian Mission in this regard led
naturally to the development of the Beirut Medical
School. Constantinople was a place of such concourse of
foreigners and the cultivation of all their interests that
the place has never had need of a high development of
medical practice or teaching under specific missionary
auspices. In Middle and Eastern Asia Minor almost
every larger station has been a center for medical
work. The names of West, of Sivas, Raynolds, of Van,
Shepard, of Aintab, Dodd and Post, of Talas, Thorn,
of Mardin, Atkinson, of Harpoot, as also of Miss Cush-
man, of Konia, Miss Graffam, of Sivas, and Miss Willard,
of Marsovan, will not easily be forgotten. These are
only representatives of a great number of thoroughly
trained physicians, both men and women, who have
given themselves to the relief of suffering of both
Moslems and Christians in a land where, for one cause

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 233

and another, the misery has been as great in the last
four years as in any portion of the world. Women
physicians have attained especial prominence in Persia.
191. The Ottoman situation. — Allusion was made
above in passing to the decay of the Ottoman power in
the course of the last century. The Peace of Paris at
the end of the Crimean War had given the Porte a
standing as a European power. Two great Christian
powers, France and England, had fought upon the side
of the Turk against a third, Russia. They then
demanded of Turkey certain reforms in administration,
particularly in respect to the treatment of the Christian
subject peoples. It was ostensibly to guarantee the
defense of those Christian subject peoples, or a part of
them, that Russia also had entered the war. The
Western European powers felt that Russia had other
ends at stake. The Porte might be pardoned for
assuming that England and France also had other
ends at stake. At all events there was created or at
least confirmed a situation in which it became for two
generations the main item of the foreign policy of Turkey
to play off one set of European powers against the other.
The Ottoman debt became an investment for English
and French capital and grew to stupendous proportions
compared with any tangible assets which the country
possessed. It became an obvious means of averting the
resort on the part of any of the powers to extreme
measures. The deeper the Turk was in debt the
more certain it was that the rival powers would never
permit any one of their number to force the debtor
into bankruptcy. There can be no doubt that the
English in particular cherished sincere hopes that kind

234 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

and generous measures would aid the government to
reform itself.

192. Internal questions; subject populations. — When
Abdul Hamid II came to the throne in 1876 he granted
a constitution which was almost immediately withdrawn.
There grew up slowly at first and more decisively before
the end of his long reign a reforming movement among
the Turks themselves. This Party of Progress or
Young Turk movement desired certain changes in the
direction of representative government. They wished
to open their country to certain influences of the West.
Their movement always suffered from an inner contra-
diction. A progressive Turkey would surely become one
in which the exclusive rights and privileges which the
Turks had had ever since the conquest would be dimin-
ished. The old Sultan seems to have seen this more
clearly than did the reformers. It was surely true
that in a freer Turkey education and morals would
count for more. In a prosperous industrial Turkey
in which money had other uses than merely the paying
of taxes the Armenians would take a different place.
The Greeks would not be far behind. The old racial
animosity and religious hatred counted for something.
Yet some additional reasons such as those above sug-
gested must be imagined to explain the fact that in
most recent times, when the advanced advocates of
Turkish progress have certainly not been of the intense
religious fervor of their ancestors, the persecutions of
the Armenians have increased. Recently when the
call of the rulers to a Holy War has fallen upon deaf
ears, when nobody pretends that the prime movers
among the Turks are led by any but cynically secular

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 235

motives, the effort at the extermination of the whole
race of the Armenians has been made with unexampled
plan and pertinacity. The last twenty-five years have
witnessed the exacerbation of the lot of the subject
populations in the Ottoman Empire and particularly
of the Armenians in a measure which is almost beyond
belief. The Greeks had suffered at Chios, but part of
Greece at least had been able to win independence.
The Bulgarians had suffered horribly before 1877, but
the Bulgarians by the aid of Russia had won their
independence. There was no such hope for the Arme-
nians.

193. The Armenians. — After the defeat of Turkey by
Russia in the war of 1877-78, when the treaty of
San Stefano was revised by the Congress of Berlin,
the concert of the six major European powers demanded
comprehensive reforms especially for Armenia. The
official document of the congress reads thus: "The
Sublime Porte undertakes without delay to carry out
the ameliorations and reforms which are demanded by
the local conditions in the provinces inhabited by the
Armenians." The powers were, however, not at one
among themselves. The diplomacy of the next genera-
tion was a humiliating chapter of mistakes and uncer-
tainties. The guardianship of Europe over the subjects
of the Porte was irritating to the latter. The prosperity
of the Armenians in particular was viewed by the Turks
much as that of the Jews was viewed in the Christian
states of the Middle Ages. Armenians who had been
able to leave Turkey agitated from a safe distance, not
always realizing the consequences to their compatriots
in the land. There were allegations of preparation for

236 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

rebellion and rash steps at least by individuals. The
old method was usually adopted, not of dealing with the
individuals who were suspected or proved guilty, but of
visiting their supposed sins on their race en masse.
The confidence of the government that the powers would
not effectively interfere was justified. From September,
1895, until June, 1896, there was something like a reign
of terror, especially for the Armenians. The Moslem
populace was let loose in fury. The course of events
gave only too much color to the assumption that the
government was complacent. There perished ninety
thousand Armenians of whom ten thousand were Prot-
estants. More than half a million were absolutely im-
poverished. Two hundred and sixty-eight churches were
destroyed and half that number turned into mosques.
The missions everywhere were reduced to serving merely
as centers of relief. Great sums were raised in Europe
and America. Industrial missions as a phase of work
in the Ottoman Empire came into being at this time and
in connection largely with the orphanages. The change
of government in 1908 gave hope that this terrible
chapter was ended. These hopes have been doomed
to the bitterest disappointment.

194. The revolution in Turkey. — In 1908 Macedonian
questions almost brought about an intervention of the
powers such as Lord Salisbury had urged in 1896.
A revolution in Turkey in that year surprised the
world and raised hopes that the Turks would now
address themselves to the tasks from which the powers,
despite their protests, had manifestly shrunk. On
July 23, 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress
under the presidency of Enver Bey proclaimed the

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 237

constitution in Salonica and threatened to march on
Constantinople. The sultan yielded, proclaimed the
restitution of the constitution of 1876, and ordered
the election of a Chamber of Deputies. Although it
was made clear that the revolution was essentially a
Turkish affair, Kiamil Pasha, an advanced liberal,
became grand vizier, and a Greek, an Armenian, and
the Sheikh-ul-Islam, the spiritual head of the Moslem
world, took places in the cabinet. The sultan opened
the parliament. In 1909 a counter-revolution almost
succeeded in ridding the sultan of the reformers and
restoring to him his absolute power. The Assembly
declared itself in favor of the Committee. Shevket
Pasha after severe fighting occupied the capital. The
sultan was deposed and removed to Salonica. Rishad
Effendi, the brother of the sultan, was chosen in his
place and took the title of Mohammed V, the Sheikh-
ul-Islam taking part in these proceedings. The reorgani-
zation of the army was intrusted to the German General
von der Goltz, that of the navy to Admiral Sir Douglas
Gamble. There were wonderful expressions of hope and
fraternal feeling in the empire at this time. Also there
was an intensification of foreign intrigue. Reforms
lagged. The educational program which had been
announced was held in abeyance. The finances were
in hopeless condition. The animus of the ruling circles
showed itself in a ruthless policy of Ottomanization. For
the fervid Mohammedans of Arabia, who viewed them-
selves as somehow the soul of the empire and who were
the keepers of the sacred places, Ottomanization meant
more of Western civilization than they wished. For
the Balkan peoples Ottomanization meant less of

238 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Western civilization than they already had. The
seizure of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria seemed a
violation of the kind of tacit agreement which prevailed
to let the Turks work out their own salvation if they
could. The Italian invasion of Tripoli made the same
impression. A wise observer of Ottoman affairs had
said that if the Balkan States could only unite in a
common effort they might drive out the Turk, but
even if they should do this they would disagree again
among themselves and then the Turk would claim his
own again. Precisely this happened. At the end of
the first Balkan war the Ottoman Empire was reduced
to a little strip of territory about Constantinople. At
the end of the second (191 2-13) the Turks had regained
a good part of what they had lost, and the Balkan
powers, embittered in their fratricidal struggle, had
taken up the alignment which more or less they have
observed in the world- war which was so soon to follow.
Mohammed V died in 19 18.

195. The Turks and the Great War. — In the present
war Bulgaria took the side of the Central Powers and
was soon followed by the Porte. Enver and Talaat
Bey, the most influential persons, had long looked to
Germany to aid them in their projects. The Germans
had had much to do with development of the railroads so
essential to Asia Minor and Syria, so essential also to
the schemes of Germany. German diplomacy had for
years been gaining ascendancy at Constantinople.
English and French influence once potent had waned.
The ruling spirits in New Turkey had had experience of
that influence. They thought they saw their interest
in the alliance with the Central Powers. To an outsider

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 239

it would have seemed that they were likely at the most
to learn that what Rehoboam said of his father's
sovereignty in comparison with his own would prove
true. It was hardly to be foreseen that almost the
first consequence of the entrance of Turkey upon the
war was the letting loose once more of the spirit of
persecution on the poor Armenians. In the old days
none but Turks served in the army. Under the reforms
the subject Christians have been taken for compulsory
service as well. The men being everywhere absent
with the troops, the aged and the women and the children
have in many places been deported almost upon a
moment's notice. They have been sent forth by tens
of thousands in utter helplessness upon journeys in
which it was quite impossible that anything but the
smallest remnant should reach the goal. No one knows
as yet how many have perished. There has been such
plan and system in the deportations that it is impossible
to acquit the government. Exactly what was the end
in view is not clear. Enough is known to justify the
assertion that this is one of the most awful calamities
which have ever befallen a helpless people. The end
is not yet.

196. The present situation. — All the subject peoples
of the Ottoman Empire have suffered. The Turks
themselves are doubtless suffering. The Arabs of the
whole west side of the peninsula, the region of the sacred
cities, disapproving of the course taken at Constanti-
nople revolted and set up a state of their own which
co-operated with the Entente. The fact is not without
bearing upon the loyalty of Moslems under the British
crown. Everywhere in tins misery the missionaries

240 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

have stood to their task. They have been the main
instrument in the distribution of the charity of European
nations and America in the effort to feed the hungry,
to clothe the naked, to heal the sick and wounded, to
care for widows and orphans, and to hold all that can
be held for the national welfare in the better time which
is to be. Not a few missionaries have died at their
posts, only a very few by violence, far more by disease
or else worn out through the long strain. The saying
has verified itself which was made by an old pasha
fifty years ago : " No matter what you do to those people
you will never get them out of the country, because they
have come here for our sakes. " The measure of the
missionary catastrophe in Asia Minor may be thus
stated. In many places not merely is the work destroyed
but almost all the people for whom and by whom that
work was being done and with whom lay the future of
it have been destroyed as well. It may be that out
of the crisis through which the Turks are passing
and are yet to pass, by the spectacle of the sufferings
and by the influence of the spirit of the Christian
population, the Moslem population will be accessible
as never before.

197. The Moslem world outside the Ottoman Empire;
Malaysia; India. — Disproportionate space has been
given to the missions to the relatively small Christian
populations in the Ottoman Empire. Those who have
prosecuted these missions believed that besides the
worthiness of the work in itself it afforded an approach
to the Moslem problem as a whole. Yet, when all is
said, the hope of missions to Moslems is greater almost
anywhere else on earth than under the rule of the sultan.

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 241

It must be remembered, however, that by far the greater
number of Mohammedans are under the rule of the
nations of Christendom. Where these guarantee pro-
tection change of faith is by no means infrequent.
In India and Malaysia alone are half the Mussulmans
of the world, and in these countries notable progress
has been made. In Java the vast majority of the thirty
millions of the population are Moslems. The Estab-
lished church of Holland ministers to Javanese whose
ancestors became Christian four or five generations ago.
A Moslem university has been established at Batavia,
showing that the faith of the Prophet is represented in
the highest classes of society and avails itself of methods
introduced by the Christians in order to meet the Chris-
tian propaganda. The Jesuits have a mission in Batavia
which counts thirty thousand adherents of the Roman
church, many of whom have been drawn from among the
Moslem population. In Sumatra the Rhenish Mission-
ary Society, working in conjunction with the Dutch,
has done a wonderful work among the Bataks in the
interior of the island. In India the case is still more
striking. Here for the most part effort has not been
made to meet the Mohammedans as a separate element
in the population. Perhaps less animosity is aroused in
this way. In the Punjab and the Northwest Province
almost every congregation has a representative from the
Moslem ranks. Some of the churches have a majority
of their membership gathered from this source. No
one society or denomination has the pre-eminence in
this work. The Mohammedan races of North India
are among the most vigorous of the people, not only
famous fighters, but men of renown in the intellectual

242 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

life as well. A distinguished Indian Christian, Imad-
ud-din, of illustrious Moslem family, appended to a
paper written for the Chicago Conference of Religions
more than twenty years ago a list of the names of one
hundred and seventeen converts from Islam to Chris-
tianity who were occupying high positions in state 01
church in India.

198. Persia; Transcaucasia. — The Persians are the
only Aryan race which ever accepted Islam. Henry
Martyn, a chaplain under the East India Company,
learned Persian in India and then asked to be transferred
to Persia that he might revise his translation of the Bible
and seek to win the Moslems. The American Board
established a station among the Nestorians in 1834
which was passed over to the Presbyterians in 187 1
and has worked successfully among the Kurds. The
Presbyterian mission has been far more effective than
its predecessor in work for the Mohammedans. In
this connection it is illuminating to note the Russian
influence also upon the Moslem populations in certain
parts of the Russian Empire in Southwestern Asia.
The Mohammedan kingdom of Kazan was conquered
by Ivan the Terrible in 1552. The Russification of
these provinces included the forcible conversion of many
to the Orthodox creed. Yet at the present day fully
half of the population of these regions is Moslem and
more than half of the people of Turkestan and Russian
Tatary. In the year 1850 the Russian church had come
to a better understanding of the nature of missionary
work. Veniaminoff was the typical figure. He was
made missionary bishop in 1867 and later metropolitan
of Moscow. In 1870 he founded the Orthodox Mis-

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 243

sionary Society of the Russian church to assist in the
conversion of non-Christian peoples within the limits of
the Russian Empire. The labor of the Society has
extended widely in the Moslem provinces. Ilminsky,
long years a missionary in Siberia, became professor of
Eastern languages in the University of Kazan, translated
the Bible into Tatar, inaugurated a great scheme for
the education of those provinces, and exerted influence
both upon the Moslems and upon the tribes who turning
away from their paganism often became Moslems.
The Church Missionary Society has a mission at Quetta
which has been a center for work not alone in Baluchistan
but also over the border in Afghanistan. Pennell spent
years on the Afghan border and even went to Kabul
and Kandahar. Lord Roberts said that no more heroic
life was ever spent in the effort to make known to these
remote and warlike peoples what Christianity really
meant.

199. Egypt and Arabia. — One of the most significant
efforts on behalf of Moslems is that which has long been
conducted in Egypt and in the Valley of the Nile so far as
the Egyptian Sudan primarily by United Presbyterians
from America. The rebellion of Mohammed AH broke
the power of the Porte in Egypt. A more or less in-
dependent Moslem rule was maintained there, although
the khedive acknowledged the suzerainty of the sultan.
The deposition of the khedive in 19 15 by the British
put an end to that. In return for being supported by
the European powers AH opened Egypt to European
influence. France built the Suez Canal and for a time
was preponderant in Egyptian affairs. After 188 1
England asserted her mastery. Whatever may be said

244 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

of the method of coming by that control the development
of the country under the long and able administration
of Lord Cromer made Egypt one of the wonders of the
Eastern World. Cairo is the meeting-place of three
continents, and, though not ancient, preserves in some
ways as distinct a flavor of Moslem Egypt in the days
of its glory as can anywhere be found. Among the
wonders wrought in Lord Cromer's administration is a
system of public instruction similar to that in India,
with a state university at Cairo at its head. The
United Presbyterians had had, long before the English
occupation, a system of mission schools which from the
sea to Luxor worked for the fellahin. They also are
seeking to develop in Cairo a university, parallel, one
might say, to Robert College in Constantinople. Then
too the rich Mohammedans, not alone of Egypt but
in a measure from all over the Moslem West, are endeav-
oring to build up a real university. They desire to
differentiate their aim from the purely propagandist
purposes of Al Azhar. This last, although often called
the Mohammedan University of Cairo, aims to do
nothing but to prepare Moslem missionaries for the
great work which is going on in Africa. It is said to
have twelve thousand students. They are, however,
largely without previous education. Their sole study is
the interpretation of the Koran. It could not even be
called a theological seminary, for the Mohammedan
faith has, strictly speaking, no class of persons corre-
sponding to priests or ministers. The Church Mission-
ary Society began work for Moslems in 1882, the year
after the British occupation. The center of their work
also is at Cairo. Thornton, their ablest missionary,

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 245

did much to interpret Christianity to the Mohammedans.
Gardiner is his worthy successor and an authority on
many Moslem questions. The mission publishes a
newspaper in Arabic which is allowed to circulate even
in Al Azhar. Arabia, the first Mohammedan land,
is also the last to be entered by the Christian missionary
propaganda. When Professor Edward Palmer made his
pilgrimage to Mecca disguised as an Arab there was no
moment of the many months of his journey when his
life would not have been forfeit had he been detected.
For its vast size Arabia has a very sparse population
confined almost necessarily to the borders of the penin-
sula. The life of these earliest followers of the great
Arabian has probably changed less in the thirteen
hundred years since the Hegira than has the life of any
equal number of people on the earth. Yet the spirit
of the modern world has at last touched even them. The
commerce of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf began the
movement. The development of Syria southward from
Damascus and of the railways reaching almost to Mecca
have carried it forward. The declaration of war on the
part of the Arab chiefs against the Sultan in 191 7 may
carry them farther than anybody now imagines. So
early as 1885 Ion Keith Falconer, a Scotchman, reader
in Arabic at the University of Cambridge, under the
impulse probably of Palmer, made a preliminary visit
to Aden. In 1887 he inaugurated a work near Aden on
behalf of the Arabs and Somali negroes from the main-
land who also were devout Mohammedans. After
four months he died. The United Free Church of
Scotland has carried forward his endeavor, which is as
yet mainly medical and educational. In 1889 an

246 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

undenominational mission was established in America
to support work among Moslems in Arabia. This was
presently taken over by the Reformed Dutch church
in America. In addition to its work at Muscat and
Bahrein it has stations outside the peninsula in Bassora
and Koweyt. The best known of its missionaries is
Zwemer.

200. Outlook of Islam. — It will be evident from what
has been said that there is a significant drift of modern-
ized Moslems away from the faith of their fathers and
also away from any faith whatsoever. This last is the
parallel of much that is taking place in Christendom;
only an Arab or a Turk who despises Christianity, not
because he adheres to Islam but because he respects no
religion, is a novelty. On the other hand, there is a
great stirring of missionary zeal in other circles of
Mohammedans in many nations. A great effort is
being made especially in Africa to offset the losses which
Islam has suffered. There are said to be forty-two
million Moslems in Airica, half of them south of the
twentieth parallel of latitude and many of them recent
converts from their immemorial paganism. There is a
Pan-Islamism which relates to the faith which seems
likely to be far more successful than the Pan-Islamism
which has proved an ignis fatuus to the new leaders of
the Ottoman state. Contact with the outside world
has done much to mitigate the old prejudice of Moslems
against Christians as also those of Christians against
Moslems. The way is open as it never was before.
Mohammedanism may now very easily and very soon
become just what Judaism has long been, a faith without
a country. Whether Moslems in these circumstances

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE 247

will show the qualities which the Jews have shown in
like case is an interesting question. It is certain that
a faith which has so long met the religious needs of many
different races has large elements of vitality in it.
It is equally certain that a race which has played so
disastrous a role in the history of Islam itself as the Turk
has played for four centuries past will not exert much
power in free competition with men of superior races
professing the same faith. The fall of the Turk may
mean both the opening of the Moslem world yet wider
to Christianity and as well the recovery of Islam to
its own better self.

CHAPTER XI
AFRICA

CHAPTER XI

AFRICA

201. The Africa of the Moors

202. The real Africa

203. Beginnings of missionary work; Portuguese and Dutch

204. British effort; African colonization

205. Exploration and discovery

206. Livingstone

207. Uganda

208. Nigeria; Bishop Crowther

209. The Congo

210. South Africa

211. Industrial education; Lovedale

212. The French in South Africa and Madagascar

213. German missions

214. The partition of Africa

215. The outlook

CHAPTER XI
AFRICA

201. The Africa of the Moors. — Egypt has belonged
until within three years to the Ottoman Empire. The
north coast of Africa, once the seat of a flourishing
Christianity, has belonged for twelve hundred years to
the Moslem world. The old civilizations which lay
one over the other, Phoenician, Hellenic, Roman, were
jeopardized already by the Vandals and completely
overthrown by the Moors. From Africa the Moors
entered Spain. From Spain they entered Gaul. At
Tours they were hurled back by Charles Martel. Only
by the span between Tours and Vienna did the Mos-
lems fail at one time or another to encircle the Medi-
terranean. By their mastery of the sea they once
imperiled even the lands which lay within that span.
The Moorish civilization has vanished. Intense Mo-
hammedanism survives. Some Christian missionary
work has been done in Morocco and Algiers by the
French, none as yet in Tripoli by the Italians. Tunis
and Algiers were long ago the scene of the labors of
Raimundus Lullus, a native of Majorca, who, inspired
by the example of St. Francis, became a missionary to
Moslems. He labored to persuade the pope that the
policy of the Crusades was anti-Christian. He spent
years in prison in Africa and was twice deported.
He returned to Bugia at the age of eighty to encourage
his converts, and he was stoned to death by the mob.
This was in 13 15.

251

252 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

202. The real Africa. — With the exception of Egypt
and the northern coast we shall mean when we speak
of Africa that portion of the continent which lies south
of the Sahara. It is the Africa whose coasts have been
cursed with the slave trade. It is the Africa whose
middle basin, lower than the mountains which fringe
it, is the source of the great rivers, and whose dry table-
land at the south with its riches in minerals is now
the meeting-place of jealous nations. We shall mean
the Africa which has been called almost until our own
day the Dark Continent, the Africa of a large part of
which the geographers of the Napoleonic era were as
ignorant as Herodotus. We shall mean the Africa of
the negro races and the pagan faiths. Describing it
in these general terms we do not forget the multi-
plicity of its tribes with their different languages and
their traditional animosities. Whether in the south for
its wool and hides, its metals and precious stones, or
in the equatorial basin for its rubber and ivory, its
woods and slaves, Africa has tempted men of every
nation to resort thither to make gain or to find adven-
ture. The Africans themselves have in countless gener-
ations evolved no higher civilization of their own.
They are the almost helpless prey of those who, while
not all wholly indifferent to the welfare of the black
man, have certainly not served God or the African for
nought. They are the wards of protectorates whose
main purpose has seemed at times to be to prevent rival
European nations from enjoying the profits incidental
to the protection afforded. Nevertheless, save by the
havoc of the slave trade the Africans do not appear
to have diminished in numbers or virility. They have

AFRICA 253

not, by and large, taken high place in the white man's
civilization which is overrunning their land. The black
man's adoption of the white man's religion has not
yet carried him very far beyond the imitative stages
of a rather crude experience. Individuals may be
pointed to as exceptions to every statement here made.
Yet the statements will be found descriptive of a situa-
tion which obtains with tragic uniformity amidst all
the variety which Africa presents from Khartoum to
the Cape and from Sierra Leone to Somaliland. There
is no land of which we have to speak in which mis-
sionary work of whatever sort, medical, economic,
social, educational, philanthropic, spiritual, is limited
to such a monotonous level. At the same time it is
divided into numberless fragments by geographical and
political and lingual differences which are as yet unsur-
mountable.

203. Beginnings of missionary work; Portuguese and
Dutch. — Against so gray a background, it is to be added
that the earlier efforts at mission work almost tempt
one's sense of humor, so inadequate were some of them
and so sadly do others illustrate the spirit of their
times. It is mainly within the last two generations,
often within but one generation, that the work has
reached such a level as to command enthusiasm and
justify high hope. What we read of the coming of the
Portuguese to the Congo in 1491 reflects largely the
evil of the Europe of the time. The missionaries
baptized the king of the Congo and many of his chiefs
in great state. He commanded his subjects to abandon
their idols upon pain of being burnt alive. Images of
the saints were, however, offered to them to make

254 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

good their loss. The missionaries were Dominicans,
Franciscans, Augustinians, and Jesuits. They quarreled
among themselves so fiercely that the king sent them
all home to Portugal in irons. A marble chair used to
be shown standing against a pier of the cathedral at
St. Paul de Loanda from which the bishops used to
give their blessing to the slave ships as these sailed
away with their precious cargo for Portuguese posses-
sions in the West Indies and Brazil. Not widely dif-
ferent are the tales told of the Jesuit mission at Sofala,
not far from Inhambane. In seven weeks after the
arrival of the priests in 1560 the whole court had become
subjects of the Kingdom of Heaven. Slaves and others
were baptized, the Fathers presenting them with calico
and beads if they would submit to the rite. The Dutch
were at Cape Town in 1652. Their East India Com-
pany's charter made mention of the duty of instructing
the children of the natives. Some governors made
earnest with the injunction. The lives of many in the
settlement were but poor illustration of the spirit of
the gospel. The Company presently turned against
all missionary endeavor. The Afrikander is to this
day, even if himself devout, very harsh in his treatment
of the black. The Moravians late in the eighteenth
century came to Cape Colony to take up the work
for which the Dutch establishment had shown no
particular aptitude.

204. British effort; African colonization. — A Cam-
bridge University magnate, dean of Christ College,
Thomas Thompson, resigned his office in 1744 to under-
take missionary work in New Jersey. Five years later
he volunteered under the Society for the Propagation

AFRICA

255

to go to West Africa if the Society would support him
out of its " Negro Conversion Fund." Thompson, on
his return to England in 1772, published a pamphlet
entitled The African Trade for Negro Slaves Shown to
Be Consistent with the Principles of Humanity and with
the Laws of Revealed Religion. It is evident that some
in England were beginning even then to doubt these
high-sounding propositions. Sierra Leone was bought
by the African Company in 1790 and turned over to
the British government in 1808 in order to form a
settlement for negro soldiers who had fought on the
side of Great Britain in the war for American independ-
ence and also for African slaves in British possessions
who had been manumitted by their masters before
slavery was abolished by act of Parliament. Method-
ism had been introduced into this colony by negroes
who had been converted in Nova Scotia. Hardly less
significant are the facts concerning Liberia. The
colony originated in an effort made by the American
Colonization Society, which had been formed in 181 7
to transfer freed American negroes to West Africa.
The total number of freedmen who came from America
was about twenty thousand, all of whom were nomin-
ally Christian. Liberia was in 1847 declared an inde-
pendent state. From a political and social standpoint
little progress has been since achieved. The Liberians
have endeavored to keep alive their Christianity and
even to prosecute missionary work among the neigh-
boring tribes. In this they have been aided by admi-
rable work of the mission of the American Presbyterians,
which has tactfully furnished to Liberian religious
institutions the guidance which a longer tutelage under

256 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

the American republic might have given to their civil
life. Robert Moffat, who was sent out by the London
Missionary Society to Namaqualand in 181 8, really
inaugurated the modern era in African missions. In
182 1 he went to Bechuanaland. In 1829 his first six
converts were baptized. In 1837 he visited England
to arrange for the printing of his Bechuana version of
the New Testament. By 1857 he had completed the
translation of the whole Bible. His description of his
mission work is still a classic. It might have been
written yesterday as a program of the most enlight-
ened missionary endeavor. On the other hand, it is a
picture of extraordinary vividness and insight of the
Africa which has forever passed away. It was with
Moffat that Livingstone spent his first years in Africa.
It was Moffat's daughter whom Livingstone married.
She died early, but Moffat lived until 1883, surviving
his illustrious son-in-law by ten years and having seen
many of the changes which have made the Africa that
is to be. He was not a man of Livingstone's range of
ability but was incomparable as a pioneer missionary.

205. Exploration and discovery. — Before this pre-
liminary stage in the history of African missions was
over the era of exploration and discovery had begun.
Portuguese power on the coast of Africa waned fast
during the seventeenth century. The Dutch were at
Table Bay in 1652, while the English were content to
take Saint Helena as their halfway house on the road
to the farther East. The French used Madagascar for
the same purpose. Cape Town was hardly more than
a westerly outpost of the Dutch East Indies. The
colonists, freed from any apprehension of European

AFRICA 257

trouble and leavened by Huguenot blood, gradually
spread northward, stamping their language, law, and
religion indelibly on South Africa. There is as good
as no history of Africa during the eighteenth century,
except the sinister history of the slave trade. The
European nations were struggling for supremacy in
Asia and America, not as yet in Africa. Commerce
in gold, ivory, and spices was valuable, but the slave
trade was more valuable than all other trades together.
As the century drew to its close men's minds turned
against the slave trade and there was a notable
awakening of interest in Africa. A society, the African
Association, was formed in London in 1788 for the
exploration of the interior of the continent. This
association was in 1831 merged in the Royal Geo-
graphical Society. Bruce had in the years 1770 to
1772 passed through Abyssinia and Sennar and de-
termined the course of the Blue Nile. The Niger
was first reached in 1795 by Mungo Park, who traveled
by the way of Gambia. He failed to solve the ques-
tion as to the mouth of the river. The first recorded
crossing of Africa was accomplished between 1802 and
181 1 by two Portuguese half-caste traders, Baptista
and Jose, who passed from Angola eastward to the
Zambesi. In the Napoleonic era Europe again lost
interest in Africa or at least concentrated it upon
Egypt. Before the end of that era England, in 1807,
had declared the African slave trade illegal for British
subjects. The trade was abolished by all other Euro-
pean powers before 1836. An expedition sent in 1816
to ascend the Congo was unable to get beyond the
rapids. In 1823 Capperton reached Lake Chad from

258 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Tripoli, the first white man to reach that inland sea.
In 1 84 1 a disastrous attempt was made to plant a white
colony on the lower Niger. Nevertheless, British
traders soon after acquired rights in the delta and
annexed Lagos Island. Zanzibar, built on the island
of that name by Seyyid Said of Muscat in 1832, rapidly
gained importance. It became a new center for the
Arab slave traders who now began to penetrate to the
great lakes of East Central Africa.

The discovery by two missionaries, Rebmann and
Krapf, in 1848-49, of the mountains of Kilimanjaro
stimulated the desire of Europe for further knowledge.
In 1849 Livingstone crossed the Kalahari Desert from
the south to the north and reached Lake Ngami. Be-
tween 185 1 and 1856 he traversed the continent from
west to east, making known the great waterways of
the Zambesi. While Livingstone circumnavigated Ny-
assa, the more northerly Lake Tanganyika had been
visited by Burton and Speke and the latter had sighted
Victoria Nyanza. Returning to East Africa with Grant
in 1862, Speke reached the river which flowed from
Nyanza and followed it down to Egypt. He had the
distinction of being the first to read the riddle of the
Nile. Between 1866 and 1873 Livingstone practically
disappeared from the world. Stanley, sent out in 187 1
by James Gordon Bennett, succeeded in finding Living-
stone. Later, in the most memorable of all the exploring
expeditions, striking inland to the Lulaba and follow-
ing that river down to the Atlantic Ocean, Stanley
proved that river to be the main body of the Congo.
The Sahara and the Sudan had been traversed in many
directions, between i860 and 1875, by Rohlfs and

AFRICA

259

Schweinfurth and Nachtigal. In 1872 Selous began
his journeys over South Central Africa, which continued
more than twenty years and extended over every part
of Mashonaland and Matabeleland. Even in 1865 the
geographies marked vast areas in the interior of Africa
as " unknown." By 1875 tnat designation had dis-
appeared and the race of the powers to get possession
of the rich territories which had thus been revealed
was begun. It is difficult to realize that the Egyptians
at Dendera and Thebes, the keen and curious Halli-
carnassan who came to wonder at their greatness,
Romans who honored Hadrian within the temple area
at Luxor, Copts who built Christian churches out of
stones taken from memorials of them all, Arabs in the
frenzy of their conquering passion, from Omar to the
Mahdi, all had lived under the glowing African sun,
but the Africa which lay beyond the Cataracts was as
much unknown to them as if it had been on some far
star. Men are still living who can remember a time
when almost all the great African discoveries were
made, when year by year the magazines related their
wonders, and the names of the adventurers who had
unveiled the mystery were like household words.

206. Livingstone. — Turning to the history of mis-
sions, the characteristics of the earlier part of the
modern period may almost be summed up in the career
of David Livingstone. Livingstone was a great man.
He would have taken a place in the life of the world
no matter what career he had chosen or where his lot
had been cast. Yet many others who worked in Africa
before the turning-point in African affairs in 1875 did in
their measure the same sort of work. David Livingstone

260 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

was born in 1813 at Blantyre in Scotland, of the
stock which has so largely made the ministry of the
Scottish churches what it has been. His home gave
him his rectitude, his devoutness, and his taste for
the intellectual life. It could give him little else. At
ten years of age, with part of his first week's wages as
a "piecer boy" at a loom, he bought a Latin grammar.
He studied classics and botany and geology in the
moments that he could save from work. At nineteen
he resolved to be a medical missionary. He took
courses at Glasgow but was not matriculated. He
picked up as much of carpentry and other trades as
possible. After his acceptance by the London Mis-
sionary Society in 1838 he studied theology, medicine,
and science for two years in London. He took his
medical degree at Glasgow and sailed for Cape Town
in 1840, joining Moffat at Kuruman. He experienced
the bitterness of the Boers against anyone who made
the rights of the blacks his care. His little family
suffered unceasingly from disease. He won that alle-
giance from the natives which manifested itself through-
out his life. Driven from place to place by every mis-
fortune he built up his stations like a master among
men. His family returned to England for a period.
Then began Livingstone's career as explorer and dis-
coverer. Wherever he went his fame as friend and
healer went before him. After his first long journey,
which ended at St. Paul de Loanda on the west coast
in 1853, ne sent his scientific observations to Maclear,
astronomer at the Cape, and his account of his journey
to the Royal Geographical Society, which awarded him
its highest honors. Maclear wrote: "You could go

AFRICA 261

to any point across the entire continent along Living-
stone's track and be sure of your positions." He reached
Quilimane on the Indian Ocean in May, 1856, four
years after his departure from Cape Town, having
traveled eleven thousand miles on foot through a wil-
derness never before traversed by civilized man. Few
men have ever received greater honors than were
accorded to Livingstone on his return to Great Britain
in 1 85 7. It was on this journey that the atrocities of
the interior slave trade had so revealed themselves to
him, and the obstacle which that trade presented to
all religious or civilizing work in Central Africa had so
impressed itself upon him that the question of its sup-
pression " became the uppermost idea in his mind."
He wrote: "I view the geographical exploration as
the beginning of the missionary enterprise. I include
in the latter term everything in the way of effort for
the amelioration of our race."

He severed his connection with the London Mis-
sionary Society in 1858 and returned to Africa deter-
mined to carry on the war against the slave trade by
every means in his power. He began to write the
books which made him famous. How he found it
possible to continue authorship in the conditions of his
existence remains a mystery. When urged by Sir
Roderick Murchison to relinquish missionary work and
attend only to discovery he repeated the old reply:
"I would not consent to go simply as a geographer
but as a missionary and to do geography by the way."
He had appointment from the British consul at Zan-
zibar in 1864 to go into the basin of the great lakes,
a region of marvelous fertility but almost depopulated

262 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

by the slave raiders. Already long a victim of fever
and dysentery, he experienced here one of the few
cases of treachery on the part of the natives which he
ever met. The record of those seven years until Stanley
found him in 187 1 is a record of such suffering and
achievement as falls to the lot of few men. In 1873,
at Bangweolo, still scorning any other issue of life than
to be overtaken by death while at his work, he was found
kneeling at his bed. He had died communing with the
God who, save for his devoted negroes, had been his
only companion for the most of a long and incredibly
arduous life. His men embalmed his body as they
could and carried it with his papers and instruments
on their shoulders a year's journey to Zanzibar. Two
of these faithful negroes who never before had passed
beyond the wilderness stood by when their master was
buried in the nave of Westminster Abbey, mourned by
his nation and honored by a world. It was they who,
when someone had raised a question as to the identity
of the wasted corpse, suggested that his family identify
the scars in his arm made by the teeth of a lion thirty-
three years before.

207. Uganda. — Only typical examples can be taken
for the brief narrative attempted in this book. Cer-
tainly the history of the Church Missionary Society's
work in Uganda affords a striking illustration of the
difficulties and also of the high success which have at
times attended work in Africa. The country was first
visited by Stanley, who in 1875 sent word to England
that the king Mtesa was anxious to have missionaries
enter his domain. Stanley's letter was intrusted to a
Belgian named Bellefonds, who was subsequently mur-

AFRICA 263

dered by members of the Bari tribe. When his body
was discovered Stanley's letter was found in the leg
of his boot. It was forwarded to General Gordon at
Khartoum. It was published in England and within
a week the Church Missionary Society had taken up
the challenge. Within two years of their departure
from England two of the original party of eight had
been massacred, two had died of disease, and two had
been invalided home. Mtesa, at the time when Stanley
talked with him, had declared himself a Mussulman.
He greeted the Protestants kindly but afterward lent
an ear to French Roman Catholic missionaries. Little
progress was made in the Anglican work and in 1885
Mwanga, Mtesa's successor, began to persecute the
Christians, both Anglicans and Roman with impartial-
ity. Hannington, who had been appointed bishop of
Uganda, approaching Mwanga's country by a route
never before used, was murdered. Shortly thereafter
many native Christians were tortured and burnt.
Mackay, a Scotch engineer who was aiding in the work,
carried the little community through its time of trial.
Many lost their lives, many were mutilated, and more
still banished. Mackay died in 1890. By that time
the crisis was past. In fact, when in 1888 Mwanga
undertook to renew the persecutions he was driven
from his throne. The Mohammedans, taking advan-
tage of the anarchic situation, placed Kalema, a son of
Mtesa, on the throne and drove the Christians from the
country. Mwanga by the aid of the Christians regained
his place. He appealed to England for protection
against the Arabs and native slave traders. General
Lugard became his adviser. Ultimately there grew out

264 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

of this situation the Uganda protectorate, which was
constituted in 1894. The little kingdom had peace
and religious toleration. It began to be commercially
important. The Christians increased by thousands.
Pilkington was the main missionary figure of this era.
He was aware of the danger involved in the phenome-
nal growth of the number of Christian adherents because
of the favor of the authorities. In 1893 the foundation
of a self-supporting Ugandan church was laid. A cer-
tain amount of clarification was wrought by the fact
that in 1897 Mwanga had another of his temperamental
relapses and undertook to throw of! the protectorate.
For a time it seemed likely that he would succeed, and
the real Christians were separated from the others.
Ultimately Mwanga was deposed but Pilkington was
murdered in the disorders. When Bishop Tucker
arrived in Uganda in 1890 the number of baptized
Christians was scarcely two hundred. When he retired
in 1 9 13 the number had risen to ninety thousand and
the adherents to half a million. The total population
is reckoned at about four million. It is acknowledged
that they belong to the best representatives of the
Bantu race. In the Christian community there are as
over against ninety-four missionaries, men and women,
three thousand native workers. There is a printing
press, a hospital, and a dispensary. There are fifty
thousand boys and forty thousand girls in the mission
schools where a generation ago few men and no women
knew a letter of the alphabet or had an alphabet to
know a letter of. Bishop Tucker, closing his years as
canon of Durham Cathedral, can review almost the
whole movement. He writes: " There is something

AFRICA 265

almost pathetic in the rushing of a quick, intelligent
people through all the steps of civilization within the
lifetime of a single generation. No people and cer-
tainly no African people could stand the shock of such
an upheaval without serious loss." The Roman Catho-
lic missions have also had extraordinary success among
this impressionable people.

208. Nigeria; Bishop Crowther. — On the opposite
side of the continent in the Lower Valley of the Niger
the Church Missionary Society has sought for two
generations to carry out the experiment of a mission
as nearly as possible upon the responsibility of the
Africans themselves. The endeavor accords so fully
with the modern view that the history of the mission
arouses more than usual interest. It must be said,
however, that the reasons which led to this departure
were at first not theoretical but practical. The climate
was such that in those days, before the nature and
manner of propagation of the fevers had been discov-
ered, it had come to be a maxim that no white man
could live in the country for more than two years.
The English missions had entered the Yoruba country
in 1846. The Basel Society had had representatives
on the Gold Coast since 1824 and the English-
Wesleyans since 1835, but the sacrifice of life had been
appalling. When Dr. Schon and Samuel Crowther went
up the river in 1841 forty- two white men out of one
hundred and fifty died within two months. In 1843
the Church Missionary Society ordained Samuel Crow-
ther, who had been a slave, and commissioned him to
open a Niger mission of which the staff was to be com-
posed of Africans. In 1864 Crowther was consecrated

266 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

bishop in Canterbury Cathedral. He remained bishop
of the Niger until his death in 189 1. It cannot be
said that the experiment proved a success. Yet the
failure proves little for the general thesis, because only
under peculiar circumstances would such a church have
been thrown upon its own resources at so early a stage
of its development. Crowther, moreover, seems to have
been indeed a humble and devout man of purity of
character but not a leader and not a judge of men.
The Lower Niger people, moreover, are of far less firm-
ness of character than for example the Hausas, farther
inland, among whom at present great progress is being
made. It has been almost a maxim that the people
of the coast regions, so long the prey of demoralizing
contacts with the whites in their buying of slaves and
selling of rum, are pitiably weak and grossly immoral
as compared with the tribes of the interior. Crowther's
confidence was too easily bestowed and often betrayed.
He showed the mental arrest which has often been
observed in men struggling up out of barbarous condi-
tions. In his youth he was deemed exceptionally ca-
pable. In his maturity he made no progress. It is
hardly necessary to say that Crowther's successor was
an Englishman. The mission has gradually recovered.
Indeed its present situation is far from unsatisfactory.
Since 1890 the extension of this work among the Hausas
at the north has been most promising. The popula-
tion here was almost entirely Mohammedan. Medical
work first gained their confidence. The Hausa lan-
guage is the means of communication throughout the
western Sudan. The men travel everywhere as traders.
The adoption of Christianity by any larger number of

AFRICA 267

these people would be an event of greater significance
than the growth of the church of the Niger delta is
ever likely to be. The government schools all over
Nigeria are upon the same basis with those of the
Egyptian Sudan. There are many Moslem schools.

209. The Congo. — In the area which after Stanley's
exploration became the Congo Free State missions have
been largely those of the Roman Catholic church. The
Belgian Foreign Missionary Society and the Order of
the Sacred Heart are those most largely represented.
Under the Leopoldine terror the position of the right-
minded among the missionaries was difficult. Protes-
tant missionaries furnished evidence against King
Leopold and his company. Roman Catholics were
apparently expected to support their country. One
comes upon the trace of this corrupting relation of
missions and colonial advance from time to time in
many different places and by no means always in
Roman Catholic colonies. The German national prop-
aganda, so new and vigorous in Africa before the war,
brought forth a whole literature of this sort which is
staggering in its implications. In the Congo the case was
so bad that the indignation of the Belgian people finally
based itself upon the testimony of their own priests.
It is a record honorable to both people and priests.
On the other hand, it can hardly be surprising that the
missions found it hard, after what the tribes had ex-
perienced, to win their confidence again. Stanley's call
resulted also in the inauguration of Protestant work in
the Congo. His presentation aroused great enthusiasm.
No one dreamed of the horrible discrediting of Chris-
tendom which was coming. Small as is the Protestant

268 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

church in Belgium, it established a mission in the
Congo. Various English and American societies took
part in the movement, some of them lamentably ill-
fitted for the task. The Congo Inland Mission, so
named by Grattan Guinness, had little fitness for the
task beyond its enthusiasm. The American Baptist
Missionary Union endeavored to save the fragments.
In the French Congo again the Roman missions have
been the natural instrumentality of evangelization.
France assumed the protectorate in 1906 although
French influence had been dominant here since 1841.
The total number of Christians connected with the
missions is small. The French Protestants are not
numerous, yet the Paris Society representing the old
Huguenot church has a mission here to which the
American Presbyterians handed over in 1906 the work
which they had been doing for two generations in the
Gabun. One of the most brilliant of modern New
Testament scholars, Albert Schweitzer, author of The
Quest of the Historical Jesus, inaugurated an independ-
ent mission here in 19 14.

210. South Africa. — In South Africa we have already
touched upon the work of Moffat and Livingstone.
The expansion of British interests since the Kaffir wars
and more particularly since the Boer War made it
natural that the Anglican church should take a leading
place in missionary work in all that complex of terri-
tories which even before the Great War were amalga-
mated into one vast British Empire in Africa. The
Union of South Africa, which was constituted by act of
Parliament in 1909, alone combines the old colonies of
the Cape of Good Hope and Natal with the former

AFRICA 269

Dutch republics, the Transvaal and the Orange Free
State. To these one must add Basutoland, Bechuana-
land, Rhodesia, and Swaziland. The old colonial bishop-
rics, with the missionary bishoprics added, now number
ten. They are varied in character. Some of them
minister almost exclusively to Africans. The foreign
missionary problem is in the way of becoming to a
certain extent a domestic problem of the Empire of
South Africa, just as the now vanishing problem
of certain North American Indians became the problem
of Christians of the United States and Canada. Yet it
will be long before the connection with Britain itself
and with other parts of the world in which missionary
work for African natives began will altogether cease.
Certain phases of missions, as for example medical work,
are in the great centers of population no longer neces-
sary. On the other hand, educational work is almost
as necessary as ever because discrimination against the
negro is, despite all efforts of the government, every-
where to be reckoned with. The problem approximates
more and more to the problem of society and of the
churches in dealing with the negro in the southern
states of the American Union. All the phenomena
which we meet in this country are met in South Africa
and others besides. The freedom of the negro, not
merely his deliverance from actual slavery but the
extension to him of privileges which the Empire since
the Boer War is inclined gradually to accord, has the
same effect upon some of the negroes in South Africa
that it has had in the Black Belt. A portion of the
white population is subject to the same guilty preju-
dices and the same strange oscillations in sentiment.

270 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

It is extraordinarily difficult to say how far a negro
Christendom is being developed in what is rapidly
becoming the white man's Africa. Statistics are not
difficult to obtain, but statistics are the least part of
the question. Negroes from all over Africa come to a
great city like Johannesburg, but the number of negroes
does not make it any the less a white man's town.
The negroes have broken the connections which they
had before they left the habitat of their tribe. It is
a chance if they have formed new connections of any
sort. More and more there is demand for leadership
from among their own race if they are not always to
remain in industrial servitude. More and more, never-
theless, education and indeed the gospel must assume
the task of making the tribesmen industrially fit. It
seems as if one war against slavery in Africa had been
practically ended only to mark the beginning of another.
One problem of the missionary and of all his confreres
was to bring civilization to the native of Africa. The
next problem is to protect the native against the
civilization which has been brought.

South Africa is therefore full of missionaries. Their
life and work must present the characteristics of those
who work for the submerged tenth in any mining or
industrial region or great city in Christendom. Only
in South Africa it is a great deal more than a tenth
which is submerged and a tenth which somehow had a
right not to be submerged in a civilization in which
they have never had a moment's chance to ride on the
crest of the wave. If the problem of missions in
Uganda is difficult it is at least defined. In South
Africa almost everywhere it is more difficult because

AFRICA 271

it is indefinable. Compared with the vast and varied
need mission instrumentalities sink into insignificance,
although they are lavishly sustained by the Anglican
church and almost every ecclesiastical body in the
British Isles, with much loyal support from the outside
world. There are some senses in which it is best that
the boundaries of the negro problem should fade away
in the greater problem of South African society in gen-
eral and that the negro should not be singled out as
the only one to whom missions are sent. It may be
that Africa will never be really Christianized until it
is Christianized by Africans. Whether, then, the Afri-
can Christians who arise out of the un-Christian welter
in South Africa will be the most efficient, or whether
it will be those rather whose contacts, like those of the
Ugandans or the North Nigerians, have been as yet
relatively purer, or whether we may set hope in some
far day on Africans from the black belt in America,
from Hampton and Tuskegee, would be an interesting
question. Africans who have come up in a place like
Jamaica, in contact with the purity of the Moravian
tradition and with the best tutelage of the English and
Scottish churches, have certainly furnished the most
promising material thus far.

211. Industrial education; Lovedale. — It is evident
that industrial education must play a great part at
present in African missions. It is likely to preponder-
ate over every other aspect of education offered by
missions and indeed of that offered by the governments
as well. Industrial education is, however, one of the
newest phases of education to attain any scientific
development. Institutions like Hampton and Tuskegee

272 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

for the negroes in America have grown up mainly
within the last generation. It is the more striking,
therefore, that in one mission, that of the United Free
Church of Scotland at Lovedale, a work of this sort
has been carried on for a much longer period. It has
had in the personality and career of Dr. James Stewart
a force of primary significance. The Glasgow Mission-
ary Society sent out, in 1820, Rev. W. R. Thompson,
who joined a representative of the London Missionary
Society settled in Kaffraria. They founded the station
at Lovedale in 1824. From the first the training of
natives in crafts and trades was felt to be fundamental
in any effort for their uplifting. When the Free Church
of Scotland was formed in 1843 it took over the work
of the Glasgow Society. After 185 1 the Lovedale schools
received government grants because of the nature of
their work. Stewart became principal in 1867, the very
year of the inauguration of Armstrong's work at Hamp-
ton in Virginia. He continued for forty years at the
head of the institution. More significant even than
the government grants have been the substantial fees
which the students have been able to pay or to repay for
their instruction. Pupils come from practically every
tribe in South Africa and Rhodesia and from missions of
many different denominations. So attractive are the op-
portunities that Europeans have sought admission to the
school. This is the more remarkable because the cleft
between the whites and the African laborer is very deep.
Employers even refuse to hire white laborers because of
the difficulties which arise. Everything tends to keep
the black in his position as laborer in a measure that
constitutes one of the grave problems of the future.

AFRICA 273

212. The French in South Africa and Madagascar. —
One striking piece of work in South Africa deserves
still to be mentioned. It is that of the Paris Evangel-
ical Missionary Soceity among the Hottentots at Well-
ington and at Kuruman. The French Protestants
entered upon this work in 1829. By 1850 eleven sta-
tions had been occupied among the Basutos. In 1858
Francois Coillard joined the staff of this mission, one
of the most devoted and successful of all who have
worked in South Africa. Despite frequent interrup-
tions of the work in the course of the wars between
the Basutos and the Boers the mission made progress.
In 1884 a number of Christians from Basutoland estab-
lished a mission among the Barotsi in the neighborhood
of the Zambesi. Coillard was the leader of this move-
ment. So degraded were the Barotsi that Coillard
declared that it took twenty years of labor to bring the
Barotsi up to the level which the Basutos occupied
when the French arrived. Coillard, who died in 1904,
most solemnly bequeathed this work to the churches
of France.

Mention of this society leads us to speak in this
place of Madagascar. Protestant missionary work had
begun in the island as early as 18 18 under the London
Missionary Society. It was prosecuted after 1862 with
some success by the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel. French priests accompanied the French gov-
ernment expedition to Madagascar in 1845. After 1861
the Roman Catholic mission was established in Tama-
tave. A protectorate of France over Madagascar was
recognized by Great Britain in 1890 and the island
became a French possession in 1896. The French

274 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Protestants entered in that year. In view of that event
the two English societies asked the Paris Missionary
Society to take over their work. The government
required that all scholars in the mission schools should
be taught in French. Preaching, when not in the
vernacular, was to be in French. The Huguenot church
in France was of limited resource. Unless help were
at hand from Great Britain and America it could not
prosecute the work. The Madagascar church had en-
dured persecutions comparable with those of the Jap-
anese Christians in the seventeenth or of the Koreans
in the nineteenth century. The native government
had been fiercely hostile to Christians. The French
authority which succeeded it was more than indifferent.
213. German missions. — Allusion has been made to
various German societies which have worked in parts
of Africa. The missions of the Moravians are always
to be spoken of with reverence. The Basel mission,
Swiss indeed in origin but which has always had sup-
porters in Germany, began in 1824 a work among the
Tanti. The best known of its missionaries, Christaller,
gave himself to Bible translation. The mission now
extends from Ashanti to the river Volta. It has organ-
ized industrial work upon a considerable scale, being
aided by a special missionary trading society. In this
it has followed the Moravians, who have often bene-
fited their adherents and aided in the support of
their work by entering into commercial relations sus-
taining co-operative stores. The North German Mis-
sion, often called the Bremen Society, inaugurated work
among the Evhe people in 1847. It was, however, a
work of very limited extent until the Germans took

AFRICA 275

•

over Togoland as a colony in 1894. This was a tiny
colony between the British Gold Coast and French
Dahomey. In it, however, vigorous work has been
done by both Protestant and Roman Catholic missions.
Similarly, the Basel mission and the Gossner Mission
have had measurably successful work in the Kamerun.
The English Baptists had begun here in 1845 a work
which the Basel mission took over in 1884, when the
German Empire acquired possession of the colony. The
Germans had demanded that the work be conducted
by German-speaking missionaries, if possible by those
of German birth. This demand was general in the
German colonial possessions throughout the world. By
far the most significant territory in the west belonging
to this government before the war was German South-
west Africa. Its population is partly Bantu and partly
Hottentot. The colony was the only possession of
Germany in Africa of which the climate is suitable for
white men. It came into German possession in 1884,
but they fought a bitter war with the Hereros in 1904-7
which cost the lives of almost half the Herero people.
In German East Africa, as it was before the war, there
was a numerous population, ten million according to the
current estimate. The Anglican Universities mission
to Central Africa and the Church Missionary Society
had been in the field long before the German occu-
pation. Before the Great War their work had been
much reduced. On the other hand, since 1890 the
Bielefeld Mission, the Berlin Society, and the Evan-
gelical Lutheran Mission of Leipzig have greatly
enlarged their work. Three Roman Catholic societies
were also in the colony at the outbreak of the wai.

276 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

The future of the German missions is closely involved
with the question of the fate of the German colonies
in Africa after the war. No people have found it so
difficult to work under any flag but their own, or,
rather, have felt that it was so necessary that their flag
should come to the aid of their mission work — again
excepting the Moravians.

214. The partition of Africa. — After 1875 the conti-
nent of Africa became the theater of the expansion of
Europe. Lines of partition drawn often through track-
less wilderness marked out the possessions of Great
Britain, France, Germany, and other powers. Rail-
ways penetrated the interior. Vast areas were opened
up to civilized occupation. Until 1875 the only powers
in any way interested in African possessions were Great
Britain, Portugal, and France. Their possessions cov-
ered, however, but a small proportion of the continent,
and Great Britain at least had been positively averse
to the enlargement of her possessions. Germany,
strong and united as the result of the Franco-Prussian
War, was seeking new outlets for her energies, new
markets for her growing industries, new sources of raw
materials. Yet the idea of colonial expansion was of
slow growth in imperial Germany. When Bismarck
finally acted in the middle of the decade of the eighties,
Africa was practically the only open field. France also
after the war of 1870 felt the need of new territories
to aid her in an industrial expansion by which she was
to make good the losses suffered in the war. The
entrance of Belgium as a new competitor in the area of
colonial expansion after the revelations of Stanley con-
cerning the Congo precipitated the general rivalry which

AFRICA 277

has not yet seen its end. Portugal naturally desired
to retain as much as possible of her nominal empire
inherited from the old days of vigorous trade. She is,
however, poor in men and money. Great Britain, once
she was aroused to the reality of competition in an
area where she had been thus far without a serious
rival, was prepared to put forth vigorous effort in the
south and west. The great dream which took posses-
sion of her imagination was to establish an unbroken
line of British possessions or spheres of influence from
the Cape to Cairo. French ambitions, apart from
Madagascar, had been confined to the northern and
central portions of the continent. Now they aspired
to establish a belt of territory stretching across the
continent from Senegal to the Gulf of Aden. Great
Britain, through the campaigns by which she won and
held the Egyptian Sudan, defeated this hope of France.
German East Africa, extending as it does from the
Zanzibar Channel to the Congo, defeated, or at all
events postponed, the corresponding ambition of the
British. King Leopold's ambitions have been already
indicated. At first he sought through the establish-
ment of an International African Association, whose
center was at Brussels, to put the exploitation of Africa
upon an international footing. It was not until 1885
and after years in which the powers, particularly Bel-
gium and France, had come uncomfortably near to
conflict one with another, that the king formally
assumed the headship of the new Congo State. A
Bremen merchant purchased from a native chief a
considerable concession near Liideritzbucht in South-
west Africa. The German government assumed the

278 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

protection of its own subjects within that area. Com-
mercial companies began to be formed in Germany for
African trade. The mind of the nation changed swiftly.
The German flag was raised in 1884 on the coast oppo-
site Zanzibar and a beginning made of the colony of
German East Africa, which proved, in the Great War,
the most defensible of the German possessions in
Africa. For while the attention of the world has been
centered on the western front, on the Russian line, on
the Dardanelles, or in Siberia, Great Britain, Belgium,
Portugal, and France have fought with Germany for
the future in Africa.

215. The outlook. — It has seemed necessary to write
these few lines concerning the partitionment of Africa
in order to intimate the nature of that phase of the
development of the continent which followed upon the
period of exploration and discovery. There has been
exploration since 1875, some of it of a very avid sort.
There have been discoveries of materials and commod-
ities of incalculable value, like those in the Rand. It
has all been in the service of the colonial expansion of
competing European powers. The characteristic of the
history of these forty years has been the effort at the
establishment of overseas empires to be added, as in
the case of England, to vast territories already possessed
or, as in the case of Belgium and Germany and Italy, to
correspond to a new significance, political or industrial,
which these nations had acquired within these years.
If missions in Africa were affected by the era of dis-
covery, the fifty years prior to 1875, they have been
far more profoundly influenced by the era of European
expansion and African partitionment which followed.

AFRICA 270

In India, China, or Japan the secular movement of
conquest and trade preceded the era of philanthropy
and religious propaganda. In large parts of Africa the
reverse was the case. Africa was opened after the
humanitarian and religious revival in Europe and
America. The opening of the continent was in no
small part achieved by missionaries like Livingstone,
who, traversing its wilds, were able to say as truly as
Paul ever said, "I seek not yours but you/' General
Gordon was a knightly character, but he was a trial
to soldiers and statesmen. He was right, however, that
it was a high enterprise to rescue the Sudan from the
Mahdi and the Khalifa and establish a base from which
the war upon the slave trade could be prosecuted.
Stanley's letters and books breathed the spirit of con-
secration to the best interest of the peoples of the
Congo. They were read the world over. The life and
death of Livingstone had given to Stanley's appeal
something of the glamor which Gordon's fate achieved
for the other region spoken of. The early conferences
concerning the Congo were inspired by high idealism.
It was the African race which was to be benefited.
These things are true despite the fact that the Leo-
poldine debauch in the Congo presented, before many
years elapsed, a revolting contrast to these hopes. On
the other hand, missions have been conducted now for
many years in Africa against a background of wars of
various powers upon the natives. They have been con-
ducted against the background of intrigue and bad
relations among the European powers themselves which
could not be concealed from the natives. Missions
are now being conducted and must in the future be

280 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

conducted against the background of a war the most
pitiless which the human race has suffered, character-
ized at times by a barbarity of which the darkest of the
denizens of the Dark Continent were not civilized
enough to dream. Even before the war the industrial
warfare which peace had become was felt in all its
rigor in many parts of Africa. By none was it felt
with greater severity than by the Africans who were
everywhere the hewers of wood and drawers of water
in this new industrial crisis which had descended in
one generation upon a continent undisturbed since time
began.

Few would feel that because these things are so the
African should have been left for ages to come exactly
as he has been in ages past. Few would allege that
the best that the races of high civilization could do for
the African would be to let him alone. Few would
hold that the immeasurable riches of such a continent
as Africa, of which the Africans have made such limited
use, are not for the benefit of all mankind when the
race as a whole comes to need them. It is easy to wax
eloquent about the wrongs which have always charac-
terized the spread of the white man's civilization. There
is superabundant material at hand for those who would
speak to this theme. It is not so easy soberly to main-
tain the thesis that it would have been better if it had
never spread. With all of its monstrous evils, what
we call civilization contains goods as well. These goods
have been evolved by the sweat and blood of ages for
the benefit not of one continent alone but for the
advantage of all mankind. It is these goods for which
the healer, the educator, the missionary of religion

AFRICA 281

stands. It is these which he proposes to give to the
African along with all else that is given and in place
of all that is taken away. This is the warrant of
missions. The old paganism which has passed for reli-
gion in Africa, the horrible superstition and fear, can-
not live with the new civilization which is spreading
over Africa, trifling as any deeper achievements of that
civilization for the African himself have yet been. No
one can wonder at the appeal which Islam makes to
him. If we think that Christianity should appeal to
him still more, it is for us to bring Christianity to him.
The gospel which has been the refuge of the poor and
oppressed should have something to say to the African,
although we should be the last to lay unction to our
souls — we have had so much to do with his poverty
and his oppression. The gospel which has had so much
to do with the building up of the character of the great
races should have something to do for his race. It will
apparently be a long time before he can be a citizen
of this world on an equal footing with others even on
his own continent. There is the more reason why we
should give ourselves to make that time shorter. There
is only one way in which it can be made shorter — by
the development of the character and intelligence and
opportunity of the African.

CHAPTER XII
THE AMERICAS AND THE ISLANDS

CHAPTER XII

THE AMERICAS AND THE ISLANDS

216. The coming of the Spaniards

217. Organization of the church; Las Casas

218. Mexico

219. South America

220. Florida, New Mexico, and Arizona

221. California

222. The French in North America

223. Height of the French power and beginning of its decline

224. The Jesuit missions to the North American Indians

225. Decline of the Jesuit missions

226. British settlements in North America

227. Early missions among the Indians; John Eliot

228. Literary work; societies

229. The Moravian missions

230. Government relations; nineteenth-century missions

231. Australia

232. New Zealand

233. Melanesia

234. Polynesia; Society and Hervey Islands; Williams

235. The Sandwich Islands; Hawaii

CHAPTER XII

THE AMERICAS AND THE ISLANDS

216. The coming of the Spaniards. — The tradition
that the Christian faith reached the shores of North
America from Iceland and Greenland at the end of the
tenth century is of uncertain value. Norse missions, if
there were such, left no trace. Priests accompanied
Columbus on his second voyage and inaugurated mission
work among the natives of the islands, besides caring for
the religious interests of the adventurers. The papal
bull which assigned the West to Spain as it gave the East
to Portugal contemplated conquests for the cross and
gains for the church as well as increase of territory and
of revenue for the crowns of the nations concerned.
There is unfortunately no doubt as to the violence and
perfidy with which the conquest of the islands and later
of Mexico and Peru was carried out. On the other
hand, there is evidence of humane and devout remon-
strance on behalf of the helpless peoples as well as of the
self-sacrifice of priests and members of the orders who
sought their welfare.

217. Organization of the church; Las Casas. — The
Spanish mission work was at first under the jurisdiction
of the see of Seville. A bishopric of Hispaniola (San
Domingo) was established in 151 2. There was a bishop-
ric at Santiago de Cuba in 1522 and one at the city of
Mexico in 1530. Shrines of the Aztecs were turned into
places of Christian ceremonial in the very moment of
conquest. The palace of the Incas was given by Pizarro

28<

286 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

to the priests who accompanied him for their use as a
church while the ruins of the ancient capital were still
smoking. The figure of Bartholomew las Casas stands
out in relief against a dark background. He was born
in Seville in 1474. He underwent a great renewal in
religious experience when already embarked on his life-
work. In one of his periods of distress he took refuge
in a Dominican cloister and received the tonsure.
Charles V held him in profound respect. He lived to the
age of ninety-two and won for himself the title of Univer-
sal Protector of the Indians. He spent his long life in
pioneering and again in administrative work in his
various mission fields. He made fourteen voyages to
Europe, seeking redress for the evils of which his proteges
were made the victims and advocating legislation, both
civil and ecclesiastical, for the amelioration of their lot.
To this day it is difficult to find the balance between the
enthusiastic praises of his followers and the calumnies
and misrepresentations to which he was subjected.
Historians are, however, fairly well agreed that the
charge made later, that it was he who in his effort to
mitigate the lot of his Indians introduced African slavery
into America, is not well founded.

218. Mexico. — Hernando Cortes sailing from San-
tiago de Cuba in 15 18 founded Vera Cruz and made it
the base of his operations for the conquest of the empire
of Montezuma. The smallness of the forces at his
disposal with the swift success which he achieved shows
how slight must have been the resistance which the
Mexicans were able to offer. Romance has gathered
about the fall of the Aztec Empire. It has made of
Cortes first a hero and then a tyrant of unspeakable

THE AMERICAS AND THE ISLANDS 287

cruelty. He was a typical adventurer in whom many
of the characteristics of the men of the Renaissance came
to expression. It must be said, however, that he organ-
ized the province which Charles V committed to him
with consummate ability. The church supplemented
the labors of the conqueror. The first Franciscan
mission arrived in the city of Mexico in 1524. The
University of Mexico was founded in 1553. It is thus
nearly eighty years older than Harvard. The Jesuits
were established in Mexico in 1572, devoting themselves
to the education both of whites and of natives. The
power of the church may be judged from a petition which
was sent to Philip IV in 1644 asking him to forbid the
increase of the religious houses which already held half
the property of the country, to suspend ordinations
because there were six thousand unemployed priests, and
to suppress feast days because there were at least two
every week. One gets the impression that the Indians
were an economic factor of importance in this prosperity
of the church in Mexico.

219. South America. — The example of Cortes in the
conquest of Mexico fired the ambition of Pizarro. In
1524 he set out from Panama. Before 1535 he had
completed the conquest of Peru. From Peru the
Spaniards extended their empire into Chile before 1553.
Thence they crossed the southern Andes into the great
plains which form the interior of the Argentine Republic
and made the first settlement at the mouth of the Plata,
Buenos Aires, in 1580. Brazil, on the other hand, after
a period of exploration which began in 15 10, was finally
settled by the Portuguese. The Portuguese settlement
was more purely colonial than any Spanish settlement in

288 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

South America. There were two centers of government,
one at Rio de Janeiro and one at Bahia. There was in
Spain and notably in Portugal after the middle of the
eighteenth century a rational and liberal movement
which showed itself in the attitude of both these countries,
toward the Jesuits, whose charter was revoked by the
pope in 1773. Paraguay expelled the Jesuits as early
as 1769. When the settlements in Mexico and Central
and South America began to feel the contagion of the
spirit which was abroad in the world after 1789, the
monarchies of Spain and Portugal were disposed to make
no concessions, although neither of them had an intel-
ligible colonial policy.

It was, however, the subjection of Spain and Portugal
to Napoleon after the Peninsular War which emphasized
to the South American colonies the necessity of caring for
their own interests. The struggle for independence
lasted from 1810 to 1826. The great career was that
of Simon Bolivar, who had a share in the liberation of
Colombia and Peru, of Venezuela and Bolivia, which last
bears his name. Mexico won its independence in 1820,
Peru in 1822, Brazil in the same year. Mexico and
Brazil, however, retained monarchical forms of govern-
ment, the former until 1867, the latter until 1889. All of
these Latin- American countries have lain, however, until
very recent years, to one side of the great stream of the
economic and social life of the modern world. In still
greater measure are they retarded in their religious
development. The Congregationalists and Baptists of
the United States have missions in Mexico, the Presby-
terians and the Southern Methodists in Brazil. The
missionary society of the Protestant Episcopal Church

THE AMERICAS AND THE ISLANDS 289

of America has work in Brazil. There is not as yet
opportunity to co-operate in any closer way with the
Roman church. Governments have frequently been
favorable to the entrance of the Protestants. Indeed in
all these countries, as also in the Philippines, there are
considerable elements which have long since broken with
the Roman church besides those who never had any such
relation. Closer contacts with South America in the
immediate future will assuredly bring expansion of
religious work.

220. Florida, New Mexico, and Arizona. — Ponce de
Leon's letters to Charles V show that in his proposed
settlements in Florida he had in mind conquests for the
cross. Ayllon carried the Spanish arms as far north as
the shores of Chesapeake Bay. De Soto carried the
same banner westward to the mouth of the Mississippi.
It was not until 1565 that the Spaniards under Menendez
won the victory over the French near St. Augustine
which gave them permanent possession of the peninsula.
From this settlement went out missions mainly in the
hands of the Franciscans. They met with varying suc-
cess at many points along the coast. They seem never to
have penetrated far inland. One hears of the translation
of religious books, of the establishment of schools, and
of the effort to keep out the white settlers because their
influence was unfavorable to the work. After the
peninsula was taken away from Spain and accorded to
the British by the Peace of Utrecht the missions declined.
There were great migrations of the Indians into the
interior at this time. In 1542 Mendoza, the viceroy of
New Spain in the city of Mexico, sent out an expedition
into what is now the state of New Mexico to find the

2QO THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

great and rich cities, rumors of which had floated to the
Spaniards. Those rumors are now supposed to have
referred to the pueblos of the Zuni Indians. Fame had
described them as more glorious than the cities of the
Orient. Coronado led the expedition. Three priests
and one lay brother accompanied him. Coronado
returned to Mexico bitterly disappointed. Two of the
priests and the lay brother remained behind to preach
the gospel to the natives. One of them was significantly
named John of the Cross. Nothing more was ever heard
of him or of the lay brother. In 1581 a prosperous
beginning of missionary work was made near Albu-
querque. By 1608 there had been eight thousand
baptisms, and Santa Fe had become the center of Spanish
dominion and missionary endeavor. After 1650 the
hostility of the powerful tribes from the North made
itself felt. Many converts lapsed. In 1680 there was
a rebellion. Churches and convents were burned. The
chief medicine man who had led the rebellion forbade
the naming of Jesus and demanded that baptismal names
be dropped and the estufas be opened again for the old
ceremonies. In 1700 Spanish rule was re-established.
But the missions never recovered their former prosperity.
221. California. — Lower California seems to have
been visited from Mexico as early as 1536. In 1542
Cabrillo reached the site of Monterey. In 1602 Viz-
caino sailed from Acapulco with three vessels, seeking a
suitable port in which vessels coming from the Philip-
pines might refit. He discovered San Diego. Carmelite
friars who were with him erected a chapel on the shore.
The fleet continued its voyage to the north as far as Cape
Mendocino. Vizcaino, however, failed to find the harbor

THE AMERICAS AND THE ISLANDS 291

of San Francisco and despaired of reaching the waterway
which he was convinced would lead him back by the
way of the north to the Atlantic. In 1728 Vitus Behring
in the service of Russia had sailed through the straits
that bear his name and proved that the continent dis-
covered by Columbus was separate from Asia. In 1741
he reached Alaska and claimed for Russia a portion of
America of unknown size and wealth. Orders came
from Spain to Mexico to resume the efforts at exploration
and settlement along what is now the California coast.
The military leader was Jose de Galves. With him
co-operated Father Junipero Serra, the superior of the
missions in lower California, who presently gave up his
post in order to identify himself with the new work. The
zeal of Father Junipero, who from 1769 until his death
in 1784 was the head of the mission affairs, earned for
him a reputation for both ability and saintliness. The
missions were dependent on military protection. They
were part of the state system and often had difficulties
with the military authorities upon questions touching
their supplies. At the same time they were obliged to
separate themselves from the garrisons and civil popula-
tion to avoid demoralization. The whole discipline of
the missions tended to keep the Indians children. They
were indeed practically serfs attached to the soil. Much
good was done but little independence of character
developed. The three most northern missions, San Juan
Capistrano, Santa Clara, and San Francisco, were
opened in 1775 and 1777. Serra died in 1784 and the
period of the greatest prosperity of the California
missions seems to have ended before 1813. Most of
the friars returned to Mexico.

292 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

222. The French in North America. — It was the
French who played the great role in the opening of the
northern part of the North American continent, although
it was to the British that the burden and glory of the
development of that continent later fell. French
explorers and adventurers and fur traders opened the
way and Jesuits were almost everywhere in the early
period responsible for the missions. John Cabot, when
he touched Cape Breton Island in 1497, was in the
service of the English. Breton and Norman and Basque
fishermen resorted to these coasts continually after Denis
of Honfleur had explored the Gulf of St. Lawrence in
1506. It was Francis I, the rival in so many other ways
of the emperor Charles V, who planned to give France
her share in the exploiting of the transatlantic world.
Jacques Cartier, a native of St. Malo, in 1534 ascended
the St. Lawrence as far as Anticosti. On a second
voyage, in 1535, he sailed past Quebec and reached the
great Indian village of Hochelaga, behind which rose
the hill which ultimately gave name to Montreal. A
vigorous climate, a savage people, a soil destitute of gold
and at that time even of grain, a country rich only in
timber and fish and furs, these were the prospects first
held out to the adventurers. Yet the Sieur de Roberval
was anxious to colonize the land. Cartier was chosen
for the task. The plan failed and Cartier returned to
France in 1542. In the king patent the region had
been called "the extremity of Asia toward the West."
Sixty years passed and the wars of religion in France had
been brought to an end by Henry IV before the French
succeeded in establishing a colony in the New World.
Samuel de Champlain made his first voyage in 1603.

THE AMERICAS AND THE ISLANDS 293

His patron, Pierre du Guast, claimed the country from
Montreal to Philadelphia and named it Acadia. The
colony winch created New France in America was
destined, however, to be on the great river. It was
Champlain who laid its foundations on the rocky
eminence of Quebec in 1608. A company of merchants
held a monopoly of the fur trade and Quebec was to be
the point of departure for a business which in its nature
carried its representatives into the wide regions of the
North and West and South. In 1614 four Recollect
Fathers, Franciscans, came to New France to minister to
the settlers and to inaugurate a mission among the
Indians. In 1625 the first Jesuits came to the aid of the
Recollects. Soldiers, traders, priests, were thus the
elements of the population. In 1644 Montreal was
founded by Maisonneuve.

223. Height of the French power and beginning of its
decline. — Champlain had ascended the St. Lawrence to
Ottawa and crossed thence by portage and the French
River to Lake Huron, whence the way was easy to the
western end of Lake Superior and also to the southern
end of Lake Michigan. Not far from either of these
points again were sources of streams which flowed into
the Mississippi. It was not until after Frontenac had
beaten the Iroquois that the other route by way of Lake
Ontario, Lake Erie, and Detroit was opened and
La Salle could locate his continuous line of posts from
the Straits of Belle Isle to the Gulf of Mexico. There is
scarcely any more wonderful story of adventure than
this of the French occupation of the St. Lawrence, of
the Great Lakes, and of the Valley of the Mississippi.
The French names on the map mark what was once

294 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

a continuous route of trading posts with their missions
from Cape Race to New Orleans. Nicollet, Radisson,
Joliet, and Duluth are figures never to be forgotten.
Pere Marquette and Hennepin were not behind those
others in adventurous spirit or devotion. Greatest
of all was La Salle, who between 1676 and 1687 carried
the empire of France from the headwaters of the
Mississippi to the Gulf. The history of the decline of
the French power in America is almost as great a romance
as is the tale of its acquisition. Mistakes had been made
in the development of New France. There was far less
of atrocious cruelty on the part of the French toward the
natives than there had been on the part of the Spaniards
toward the aborigines at the South. But the hardier
tribes of the North resented more fiercely such cruelty
as there was. There never had been outside of what is
now the province of Quebec much of that kind of
permanent settlement which made the English seaboard
settlements great. Experience proved that neither upon
conquest like that of the Spaniards nor upon wandering
trade like that of the French can an empire be built.
It was only upon the transfer of families and social
traditions, upon the reproduction of essential racial and
civil institutions, within the new area that a colonial
empire could have permanence. The decay of the
Bourbon monarchy, the preoccupation of the bureau-
cracy of France with its privileges and vices in the
eighteenth century, left New France, as indeed it also
left the French empire in India, without the support
which it should have had. Montcalm, who had cried in
vain for help, was already heartbroken when he fell on the
Plains of Abraham in 1759. New France fell with him.

THE AMERICAS AND THE ISLANDS 295

224. The Jesuit missions to the North American
Indians. — The real history of the great Jesuit missions in
North America begins after the treaty of St. Germain in
1632. The most famous centers were that on Cape
Breton Island for the Miami Indians and that at
Tadousac for the tribes of the lower St. Lawrence. For
the mission among the Algonquins, Sillery was the point
of departure. The Algonquins were, however, almost
exterminated in wars with the hostile tribes. Beyond
Montreal was the mission to the Nipissings and the
great Huron mission, the scene of the most arduous and
continued labors of the Fathers among the Wyandottes
and other tribes. Then there were the Ottawa missions,
which represented effort to Christianize the Chippeways
and the Crees. Farther south were the centers for the
work among the Miamis and the Illinois. At Sillery
was made one of the most patient and characteristic
efforts to build up a settled Christian community of
Indians. The precarious mode of life, the rapid diminu-
tion of game when the whites began to kill the animals for
their furs, the diseases of the white man, and the wars of
the Iroquois threatened to wipe out the less savage tribes
unless a new order of existence was introduced. The
Indians formed a sort of government, the Fathers opened
schools, the Ursuline Sisters opened a hospital. The
welfare of the community was to be based upon agri-
culture. Some progress was made, converts like
Negabamat exerting great influence, yet the work
languished after a few years and disappeared altogether
after 1657. Chaumonot and Dab Ion and Le Mague
were the great emissaries to whom the perilous work
among the Five Nations was committed. The liquor

296 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

which was sold without check at Albany made drunken-
ness prevalent among the Indians. Degraded men thus
became tools of the medicine men who, clinging to the
old belief, rallied around them the pagan party. The
wars of the English upon the Iroquois from the south and
of the French from the north completed the work, and
the Iroquois mission was abandoned after 1708. Yet
Christian Iroquois were later found both at Montreal
and in Pennsylvania.

225. Decline of the Jesuit missions. — The great figures
in the Ottawa Mission are without doubt the fathers
Marquette and Hennepin. Allouez had preceded them,
establishing missions on the northern shore of Lake
Superior and beginning work among the Sioux.
Marquette, setting out in 1673 from Mackinac with
Louis Joliet, ascended the Fox River and reaching the
Wisconsin by portage thus entered the Mississippi.
This river they descended as far as the mouth of the
Arkansas. Returning by way of the Illinois River,
Marquette founded a mission for the Kaskaskias but died
before he could reach again his beloved chapel at Macki-
nac. Marquette was fully as much explorer and ad-
venturer as priest, yet his heart was ever in his work
for the red man. The love in which he was held was
evidenced by the fact that the year after his death, in
1675, some Ottawa Indians who had been of his flock
unearthed his bones and carried them to Mackinac,
where they buried them under the floor of his little
shrine. Canada fell to England and Louisiana to Spain
after 1763. Then came the dissolution of the Society of
Jesus in 1773. Before the restoration of the Society by
Pius VII in 1 8 14 the whole face of America had changed.

THE AMERICAS AND THE ISLANDS 297

The record of the Jesuit missionaries is a chapter of
American history full of personal devotion. None can
withhold homage from men like those whose names we
have mentioned. Men of cultivation and often of
station gave up all that civilized life can offer to share the
precarious life of wandering savages. Both the Spanish
and the French missions failed because, although in
different ways and for different reasons, they were
unable to establish stable religious communities of the
natives to whose representatives in due time the manage-
ment of affairs could be passed over. Such a system of
religious and social order, if it could have been achieved,
might have saved the Indians of the St. Lawrence
Valley and Upper Canada, where the white population is
to this day very sparse. One speaks with reserve of
failure, however, when one reflects upon an episode like
the following, which doubtless could be duplicated
many times over in the experience of any traveler who
knows the northern wilderness. In 1905 a Cree Indian
came out on the Labrador coast, having traveled on foot
all the way from Georges Bay to buy ammunition. A
traveler noticed that he wore a crucifix and presently
heard the man speak French. The Indian when
questioned declared that his ancestors had always been
Christians. There had never been a time when there
were not French priests in the villages of his tribe. It
is probable that that statement is true for at least two
hundred and fifty years.

226. British settlements in North America. — We have
seen that the English had their part in the work of the
early adventurers and discoverers. There were few
years after Cabot's memorable voyage in 1497 when

298 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

fishermen did not go to the Newfoundland shores. By
1527 the little Devonshire fishing craft proved unable to
carry home their catch and large merchant vessels were
employed. An act of 1541 classed the Newfoundland
trade among the sources of wealth of the British Isles.
In 1583 Sir Humphrey Gilbert received letters of patent
from Queen Elizabeth to plant a colony upon the New-
foundland shores. Between 1586 and 1603 Sir Walter
Raleigh made repeated efforts to establish a colony in
the wide territory named Virginia in honor of the Queen.
The Virginia Company, however, made its first perma-
nent settlement at Jamestown in 1607. In 1620 there
was made a settlement of a very different order. A
small body of religious dissidents, including some who
had previously migrated to Holland to escape the
discipline of the established church, landed at Ply-
mouth, Massachusetts. They had obtained permis-
sion from the Virginia Company to settle within the
lands which the company claimed. Later they received
a patent from the council for New England. The
compact which they signed in the cabin of their vessel is
esteemed one of the epoch-making documents in the
history of civil government. They were followed eight
years later by other settlers of the Puritan mind, yet not
so hostile to the Church of England or the government
of the king as the Pilgrims had been. These settled
at Salem and Boston. These settlements reflected
the convictions, both religious and political, of many
Englishmen of that era. Members of these communities
returned to England and influenced the course of events
under the Long Parliament and the Commonwealth.
Thus Massachusetts and Virginia became the two centers

THE AMERICAS AND THE ISLANDS 299

from which the British occupation of the Atlantic
seaboard proceeded.

The contrast in type was indeed marked. The
southern type which prevailed from Maryland south-
ward were for the most part of Cavalier sympathies.
They were landowners, often younger sons of the landed
gentry. They were planters, producing tobacco, Indian
corn, rice, indigo, and cotton, largely by the aid of the
labor of negro slaves. They had no very pronounced
religious leaning, although Maryland was founded as a
Roman Catholic refuge and in the main the planters
belonged to the Church of England. The northern
element sought to establish a theocracy, which indeed
ultimately broke down but left marks upon New England
institutions which continue to this day. Their prefer-
ence was for independency. The New Englanders were
often traders and seafaring men. Midway between New
England and Virginia religion had again much to do with
the establishment of the Quaker colony, Pennsylvania.
So also the Scotch and Scotch-Irish Presbyterians came
to the Middle States after the death of the great duke of
Argyll. The Dutch colony of the New Netherlands, with
its center at New Amsterdam, now New York, and the
Swedish settlements on the Delaware were presently
absorbed by the growing English and Scottish element.
Germans also from the Palatinate and French Huguenots
driven out by persecution were fused in the mass which
presently, by the logic of the independence which the
mother-country had always accorded them, began to feel
themselves entitled to form a nation by themselves. It
was this freedom which they already possessed and the
fact that Great Britain had not yet thought through any

300 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

satisfactory theory of her colonial possessions which far
more than any oppression and injustice brought on the
War of the Revolution. In 1787, with the formation of
the Northwest Territory under the so-called Connecticut
Company, the peaceful invasion began of the regions to
the west of the Appalachians and to the north of the
Ohio River, an area of infinite possibilities to which the
British had never made any effective claim and in which
the French occupancy had been but shadowy. From
the independence of the United States came the revolt
of Spanish and Portuguese America and the grant by
Great Britain to Canada of the amplest rights of self-
government, which in the end have cemented the bond
between northern North America and the mother-
country. There was large immigration from Ireland
after the famine in the forties and from Germany after
the Revolution of 1848. These were, however, as
nothing compared with the tide which set in at the end
of the seventies, bringing men of every European race to
our shores. The discovery of gold in California in 1849
and the building of the transcontinental railways, which
soon followed, opened the country as far as the Pacific.
The amalgamation of the races is still imperfect. The
ascendancy of the Anglo-Saxon now in hopeless minority
is one of the miracles of history. The Great War has
done much for the fusion of races. The fire is under the
melting-pot.

227. Early missions among the Indians; John Eliot. —
It is not too much to say that the Pilgrim Fathers,
devout men as they were, were not consumed with
solicitude for the salvation of the souls of the red Indians'
The Indians upon whose shores they had landed were

THE AMERICAS AND THE ISLANDS 301

warlike. The Pilgrims were few in number and they too
were good fighters. They intended to establish a
commonwealth under the law of God. That law they
found to a considerable degree in the Old Testament.
It was easy for them to apprehend themselves as the
Israel of Jehovah and the red men as the Canaanites who
were to be subdued. Yet there were times of better
relations of the settlers with the Indians and there were
those among the Puritans who took a very different view.
John Eliot, who had taken his degree at Jesus College in
Cambridge in 1622 and who came to Boston in 1631, was
the first to devote himself to the task of preaching the gos-
pel to the Indians. Minister at Roxbury after 1632, he
learned the dialects of the neighboring tribes. He first
preached successfully to the Indians at Nonantum
(Newton) in 1646. The Massachusetts General Court
voted a small sum for the prosecution of Eliot's work.
In 1649 the Long Parliament incorporated the Society
for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England, which
henceforth supported and directed the work inaugurated
by Eliot. The first appeal for aid brought contributions
of £11,000. Cromwell devised a scheme for the setting
up of a council for Protestant missions which should rival
the Roman propaganda. In 165 1 the Christian Indian
town founded by Eliot was removed from Nonantum
to Natick, where schools also were erected. Eliot's suc-
cess moved the May hews, father and son, to establish
similar missions on Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket.
In many of the parishes, especially on Cape Cod, the
ministers acted as missionaries to the Indians. By
1674 the unofficial census of the " praying Indians"
numbered four thousand. Caleb Cheeshahteanmuck,

302 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

an Indian from Martha's Vineyard, graduated from
Harvard College in 1665. He died in 1666. King
Philip's War dealt a staggering blow to the missionary
enterprise.

228. Literary work; societies. — Of wide influence was
Eliot's work as translator of the Bible and of other books
into the Massachusetts dialect of the Algonquin language.
The first book completed was the Catechism, which was
printed at Cambridge in 1653. It was the first book
printed in an Indian language. The New Testament
was issued in 166 1. On the restoration of the monarchy
in England and through the influence of Richard Baxter
with the Lord Chancellor Hyde, the charter granted by
Cromwell was renewed and its powers amplified. The
corporation was now styled "The Society for the Propa-
gation of the Gospel in New England and parts adjacent
to America." Its object was declared to be "not merely
to seek the outward welfare of these colonies but more
especially to endeavor the good of their immortal souls
and the publishing of the most glorious gospel of Christ
among them." On the list of the corporators the first
name was that of Clarendon. Robert Boyle was ap-
pointed president. It was Boyle who assisted Eliot in
the publication of his Testament. George Fox, the
Quaker, wrote "to all Friends everywhere that have
Indians or blacks, to preach the Gospel to them." To
the efforts of various high prelates in the Church of
England, including William Wade, the archbishop of
Canterbury, and to the influence of Rev. Thomas Bray,
who had worked long in Maryland, may perhaps be
ascribed the founding in 1701 of the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts.

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229. The Moravian missions. — Bishop Berkeley, who
from 1728 spent three years in Rhode Island, took deep
interest in the Indians. In 1734 John Sargent, of
Yale College, opened a school among the Housatonics.
Jonathan Edwards, after his retirement from Northamp-
ton, devoted himself in part to work among the Indians
at Stockbridge. He had been moved by personal inter-
course with David Brainerd, who in 1742 had been
appointed by the Scottish Society for the Promotion of
Christian Knowledge to work among the Indians at
Stockbridge and also at Albany. He labored also
among the tribes on the Delaware River in Pennsylvania
and New Jersey. He died in 1747 at the age of twenty-
nine. His character and experience were deemed so
remarkable that John Wesley wrote a memoir which was
published at Bristol, England, in 1768. Both Dart-
mouth College in New Hampshire and Hamilton College
in New York grew out of schools originally established
for Indian youth. But the great work of the eighteenth
century in this regard was done by the Moravians.
They began their labor at Sharon, Connecticut, in 1742,
the headquarters of the church having been established
at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, in 1740. The heroic
personality was David Zeisberger. He worked among
the Delawares at Shamokin and among the Iroquois at
Onandaga, where the "Six Nations" made him a
Sachem. He organized the effort of his denomination in
North Carolina, in the New England provinces, and in
Canada. His most successful settlements were in Ohio.
Zeisberger left in manuscript grammars and lexicons
which are almost our only source of knowledge of several
of the Indian languages, widely spread in the eighteenth

304 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

century, which are now extinct. Similar work was done
by Moravians in several of the islands of the Dutch and
Danish and British West Indies.

230. Government relations; nineteenth-century mis-
sions.— After 1 781 Congress began to provide for the
education of Indian youth in various schools, especially
for their education in agriculture and trades, and after
1783 began a system of reservation of public lands for
the Indians. But neither the government's treatment
of the tribes nor that of traders and settlers can be looked
upon with pride. It is in the main a sordid and tragic
page of history. The status of the Indian was uncertain.
For a long time the tribes were looked upon as foreign
nations with whom treaties were to be made. The
Sioux are still not citizens. Again they were looked
upon as wards of the nation to whom special protection
was theoretically accorded but who had none of the
rights and safety of citizens. The public conscience was
spasmodically aroused. Official relations have been
better within the last generation. But meantime the
Indians have almost disappeared. The career of
Marcus Whitman was one of perfect devotion to the
Kayuse Indians in what is now the state of Washington.
He with his family and ten other persons were murdered
by these Indians in 1847. The thing for which Win t man
is mainly remembered is the fact that in the winter
of 1842-43 he rode on horseback from his station
in the Columbia River country to St. Louis on his
way to Washington to prevent the government from
yielding the far northwest of what is now the United
States to the British and the Hudson Bay Fur Trading
Company.

THE AMERICAS AND THE ISLANDS 305

Stephen Riggs spent forty-five years in active and
successful work among the Dakotas and Sioux. He
reduced the Dakota language to writing and translated
into it almost the whole Bible. He lived to see ten
churches organized among the tribesmen under native
pastors. No man ever did more to bring order out of the
confusion of the government's relation to the Indians
than did Bishop Whipple of the Protestant Episcopal
church in America. He was bishop of the see of Minne-
sota and early came into contact with these problems.
The memorial which he presented to President Lincoln
in 1862 is a historic document. His suggestions are
believed to have led to the appointment by President
Grant of the Indian Commission. Something similar
should be said of Bishop Hare. William Duncan came
to Fort Simpson in British Columbia in 1857 to establish
a mission among the Tsimshian Indians. He organized
his people into a civic community, accepting none who
would not pledge themselves to the rules of the colony.
He kept them apart from both the whites and the rest
of the Indians. The trade and industries of the little
community made it the envy of the surrounding country.
Difficulties with the Canadian government led him to
transfer his settlement to the territory of Alaska, where
the United States assigned him Annette Island. The
official name of the noteworthy colony was the Com-
munity of Metlakahtla. The commissioner of education
in 1896 gave a striking account of the success of
Duncan's venture. The Moravian missions among the
Eskimos have at times achieved a situation resembling
that of Metlakahtla in Duncan's time. But the contact
with the outside world is perilous. Rarely do Indians

306 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

come up under this patriarchal regime who are able to
cope with the great life of the world when this is forced
upon them.

231. Australia. — There is little doubt that Spaniards
under de Torres sailing from Callao saw the Australian
coast in 1602. It is certain that Pelsaert, a Hollander
sailing from Batavia, reached the west coast in 1629,
and Tasman discovered and claimed Van Dieman's land
in 1642. The island now bears the name Tasmania.
Yet so little was known of this region that when in 1769
James Cook fitted out his ship the "Endeavor," pri-
marily to observe the transit of Venus, he was expressly
commissioned to ascertain "whether the unexplored
part of the southern hemisphere be only an immense
mass of water or contain another continent. " The
transit was observed from Tahiti. Cook landed in
October at Poverty Bay on the coast of New Zealand
and in April of the following year at a point which
geographers now identify with Cape Everard in Aus-
tralia. A British colony was sent to Botany Bay
in 1788. The exploration of the interior was begun in
1 8 13. It has been the task of a century, if indeed
it can be said to be even now complete. Sydney was
the first seat of government after 1788. Melbourne
was founded in 1835. Several places on the coast were
long used as criminal colonies. Gold was discovered
in 185 1 by a miner from California. The white popula-
tion is about five million, almost exclusively of British
origin. Labor legislation has here had an interesting
history. The aborigines have had almost no part as
workmen in the economic development of the country.
There has been rooted objection to the presence of

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Chinese laborers. Polynesians, however, have from
time to time been brought in under a contract system.
The number of aborigines surviving is hardly above
fifty thousand. These peoples had no civilization what-
soever of their own and have been but slightly touched
by the civilization of the whites. The London Mission-
ary Society originated work among the Australian
aborigines at Lake Macquarie in 1825, but the tribes
among whom this work was prosecuted had practi-
cally become extinct before 1861. Gossner of the Ber-
lin Society spent his life at Moreton and Keppel Bay.
The migratory habits of the tribes and the influence
of vicious whites broke up the work. The Moravians
had at one time twenty-six stations on the Australian
continent. The government aided them in maintaining
reservations and schools. The Australian churches of
various denominations have now inherited this task.
The Bushmen do not adapt themselves to the life on
the reservations and the number of those who have
been Christianized is exceedingly small.

232. New Zealand. — Christian work upon New Zea-
land has a very different history. The natives are of
Malay origin and superior both mentally and physically
to any others of the inhabitants of the Pacific islands.
Samuel Marsden, a clergyman of the Church of Eng-
land, chaplain of the penal colony at Port Jackson in
Australia in 1807, was so struck by the character and
ability of certain Maoris who had been brought to his
settlement that he persuaded the Church Missionary
Society to undertake a mission to New Zealand. The
work was inaugurated in 18 14, several Maoris who knew
English, one of them a chief, accompanying Marsden

308 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

and interpreting for him. Such progress was made
that George Selwyn, a Cambridge man, was consecrated
Bishop of New Zealand in 184 1. In 1843 ne established,
at Auckland, St. John's College for the education of a
native ministry among the islanders. He realized the
necessity of using native laborers for pioneer work.
He himself was able to supervise their training, having
early mastered several dialects. He left some interest-
ing studies in comparative grammar. From the first
he insisted that St. John's College should give instruc-
tion in medicine. Not content with the rapid growth
of the work in New Zealand, he provided a ship and
before his first return to England in 1854 he had made
several long voyages, visiting fifty of the Melanesian
Islands. From ten of these he induced youth to go
to his college to prepare for work as evangelists among
their own peoples. He took a prominent part in organ-
izing the Australian Board of Missions and secured the
adoption by the Church of Australia of the Melanesian
Mission as its peculiar field. Selwyn spent twenty-
seven years in Australasia, and when finally induced
in 1868 by the Archbishop of Canterbury to accept
the bishopric of Litchfield it was with the hope that
with his remaining years he might render his greatest
service of all by enabling the Church of England, the
British government and people, to see its opportunity
through missions for the Christianization of the world.
Not the least of those things which the world owes
him was the fact that when he preached his farewell
sermon before leaving England for the first time his
words so moved a boy of fourteen who was among
his hearers that fourteen years later, returning to his

THE AMERICAS AND THE ISLANDS 309

field after his first furlough, he took with him as a mis-
sionary that youth, an Oxford man, John Coleridge
Patteson, who later became the martyr bishop of Mela-
nesia. Selwyn had said, "I seem to see a nation born
in a day." Not long afterward war broke out in the
islands occasioned by the struggle with the settlers
concerning land. The old superstitions seemed again
to claim the Maoris. Whitely, a Wesleyan who had
given his life to the people, was shot in 1869. Labor
conditions and the influx of foreigners in more recent
years have affected the Maoris unfavorably. There
are thought to be still some forty thousand Maoris, of
whom half are Christian adherents.

233. Melanesia. — We spoke of Patteson. He was a
relative of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, educated at Eton
and Balliol, after 1852 a Fellow of Merton. For five
years he aided Selwyn in his educational work for
the native assistants. In 1861 he was made bishop of
the Melanesian Islands. He reduced to writing several
of the languages. He translated parts of the New
Testament into these languages. He made his head-
quarters at Motu in the northern New Hebrides.
Thence he made many voyages to the other islands of
his diocese in his ship, the "Southern Cross." He was
not merely a preacher and teacher. He was interested
in the economic and industrial conditions of his people,
which were fast changing since the coming of the whites.
He often navigated his own ship. He lost his life in a
manner which is worthy of record. The traders engaged
in the nefarious traffic in Kaneka labor for Fiji and
Queensland had taken to personating missionaries in
order to facilitate their kidnapping. In September,

3io THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

1 87 1, Patteson approaching Nakapu on one of his pe-
riodical tours was mistaken for one of these marauders
and killed. His murderers evidently found out their
mistake and regretted it. The bishop's body was found
far out at sea floating in a canoe covered with a palm-
fiber matting and with a palm branch in his hand.
He is thus represented in the bas-relief erected at Mer-
ton College in his memory. He was forty-four years
old. He had been a famous oarsman in his college days.
Scarcely less notable is the career of John Paton, who
also gave his life to the New Hebrides. Paton was a
Scotchman from the neighborhood of Dumfries. He
was of humble origin and overcame great difficulties
in gaining his education. He went out in 1858 to
Anietyum, where there was already a mission under
John Geddie of the Presbyterian church of Nova
Scotia. Geddie and his colleagues, after perilous begin-
nings, had transformed the island, which ten years
before had been inhabited by naked cannibals, into the
abode of a Christian community. Under the parental
oversight of the Scottish missionaries and the absolute
authority of three chiefs there had been organized a
society in which the gospel was really the law of every
relation of the life of these simple people. Paton and
his wife narrowly escaped drifting upon Tanna, where
at that time they certainly would have been killed at
once by the natives. These latter were sufficiently war-
like but now had been roused to fury by the robbery
and rape and murder to which they had been subjected
by crews of vessels who in those remote regions had
allowed themselves every excess in dealing with the
helpless savages. Later the Patons worked upon Tanna

THE AMERICAS AND THE ISLANDS 311

and again upon Aniwa the same miracle which Geddie
and his compeers had wrought at Anietyum. When
Pa ton visited the United States and England in 1892,
as he had already visited Australia, it was in the effort
to arouse sentiment in these countries against the liquor
trade, the contract labor system, and the traffic in girls,
which was fast destroying the fruit of the labor of his
devoted life. One lifetime had sufficed to see his island-
ers raised from primitive savagery to the virtues of
children in a devout home and then again demoralized
and corrupted by the contagion of all the vices and
crimes wherein civilized man so far outdoes the barba-
rian and descends below the beast.

234. Polynesia; Society and Hervey Islands; Wil-
liams.— We have followed the geographical line of the
development of this history as it led from the great
territories of Australia and New Zealand. In point of
time there were missions in the island world which
were much older than these in the New Hebrides. In
some of these cases the development of the Christian
communities was less disturbed because the islands had
lain farther from the lines of trade. It is not known
that any white man before John Williams ever reached
the Hervey Islands, while the inhabitants of the New
Hebrides had been subject to the abuse of passing trad-
ers for seventy years. Williams was born near London
in 1796. At the age of twenty he offered himself to the
London Missionary Society to be sent to the South
Seas. He was stationed first at one of the Society
Islands. Afterward at the invitation of the king he
went to Raiatea, the largest island of the group, which
henceforth became his headquarters. His success was

312 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

remarkable. He laid the foundation of the ordered life
of the community as well as of the Christian church.
In 1823 he was permitted by the king to visit the
Hervey Islands. He took with him six native teachers
and landed first on Rarotonga. Here he was even more
successful. All the islands became nominally Chris-
tian. Williams at their request helped the people to
draw up a code of laws for civil administration. In
educational as well as in religious work he made use
of native teachers whom he had trained. He trans-
lated portions of the Scripture into the language of
the islands. Rarotonga being out of the usual course
of vessels, he built a ship which he named the "Messen-
ger of Peace." In 1830 he visited the Samoan Islands
and in 1832 he established there a permanent work.
The inhabitants of these islands had borne an evil
name for their ferocity. In less than two years the
whole life of the islands had been changed. All the
interests of the people were submitted to the guidance
of the missionary, who at the end of that period was
able to leave them with measurably competent leaders
of their own race. In 1834 Williams returned to Eng-
land much impaired in health. He raised money for
the purchase and equipment of a proper ship for the
Polynesian service and laid plans for the establishment
of a college for native preachers and teachers at Tahiti.
He had written a Narrative of Missionary Enterprises
in the South Sea Islands, which remains to this day
one of the authoritative sources of information concern-
ing the languages, customs, and religion of the Poly-
nesians as they were at the time when white men first
came into contact with them. Incidentally it is the

THE AMERICAS AND THE ISLANDS 313

revelation of a most courageous, resourceful, and cheer-
ful personality. Returning to the scene of his old
labors in 1838, Williams was drawn as by a magnet
to the point of greatest difficulty, the New Hebrides.
He pushed on in 1839 with one companion to Erro-
manga. He was murdered almost immediately upon
landing on that island.

235. The Sandwich Islands; Hawaii. — Captain Cook
named these islands, discovered in 1778, in honor of
the Earl of Sandwich. There are eight islands of con-
siderable area of which Hawaii is by far the largest.
The aboriginal inhabitants belonged to the Malayo-
Polynesian race. They were of superior physique,
hardy, and industrious. Cook estimated their number
at four hundred thousand. That figure was probably
far too large. The census in 1832 showed only a hun-
dred and thirty thousand. There are now hardly
twenty-five thousand. On the other hand, there is a
considerable number of men of mixed race and there
are great numbers of foreigners — Portuguese from the
Azores and Madeira, Spaniards from the sugar islands
about Malaga, Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans, besides
the Americans. King Kamehameha in 1795 made John
Young and Isaac Davis, Americans from one of the
ships of Captain Metcalf, his advisers and encouraged
trade with foreigners. Thus began the efforts of the
native sovereigns to transform the government and civ-
ilization of the island kingdom more or less after the
pattern of European states. The imagination of Mills
and Hall had been touched by their contact with
Obookiah, a Hawaiian Island lad who, escaping after
the murder of his family, had been brought by a friendly

314 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

sea captain to New Haven and who was found weeping
upon the steps of the college. It was not until 1819
that the first mission was sent to Hawaii by the Ameri-
can Board. In this original group there were two
clergymen, Hiram Bingham and Thurston, two teach-
ers, a physician, a printer, and a farmer, besides three
young islanders who like Obookiah had been educated
at Cornwall, Connecticut. An English missionary of
the London Society, William Ellis from the Society
Islands, aided the Americans in their first attempts
to reduce the language of Hawaii to writing. In 1823
came seven more missionaries and three more Hawaiian
youth from the Cornwall school. In 1824 both the
king and the queen, visiting England, died there. The
young prince who was to succeed to the throne was
committed to the missionaries to be educated. The
regent was a woman of high character. She and her
ministers were favorable to the missionary cause.
Their educational work was so successful that scarcely
a native was left who was unable to read and write.
In 1825 the Ten Commandments were recognized by
the king as the basis of a code of laws. By agreement
of the chiefs the observance of Sunday was ordered.
Religious work was especially successful in the island
of Hilo, where Titus Coan worked after 1835. By 1888
the church on that island had become self-supporting
and sent missionaries to the Gilbert Islands and to
the Marquesas.

Here also the increase in the importation of liquor
into the islands, most of it brought by American ships,
wrought havoc among the population. The visits of
women of the island to the ships lying in the harbor

THE AMERICAS AND THE ISLANDS 315

spread every kind of evil. There grew up a body of
adventurous spirits who exploited the more or less un-
certain rule of the island potentates for their own bene-
fit. There was trouble with the French government in
1842 touching matters of trade and also concerning the
privileges of Roman Catholic missionaries. Advantage
was taken of the situation in the rashness of a British
naval officer, who sought to induce the king to cede
the islands to Great Britain. Through the tact, how-
ever, of Richards, an American missionary who had
been sent by the king to Europe to plead his cause, the
independence of the Hawaiian nation was in 1843 for-
mally acknowledged. In 1826 there were twenty-five
thousand scholars in the mission schools. In 1839 the
work of translating the whole Bible was finished by
Bingham. It is worthy of note that his son, Hiram
Bingham, Jr., completed and published in 1908 the
translation of the whole Scripture into the language of
the Gilbert Islands. The generation from 1843 till 1874
was the best period of the islands under native rule, as
it was also the period of the greatest achievement of
the Christian movement in the circle of the native
population. In 1863 the American Board transferred
its interests to the Hawaiian Evangelical Association,
a body composed in part of the descendants of for-
eigners, mainly Americans, long resident in the islands
and in part of representatives of the indigenous race
converted to Christianity. Christians of many races
resident in the islands but especially of the race which
Cook had found there as naked savages were now
joined in an organization which was able to meet the
religious needs of the islands themselves and also to

316 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

take responsibility for the furtherance of the cause of
the gospel in other islands and even in China.

With the alternation of constitutionalism and reac-
tion in the government and with the somewhat sordid
history of the rivalries of various nations for the pos-
session of the growing trade of the islands and finally
of the islands themselves this sketch has little to do.
Neither Europeans nor Americans emerge from the
struggle without stain. The dynasty declined in vigor
in a degree even more rapid than that which was observ-
able in the case of the native stock as a whole. Mean-
time the islands had come to be at the very crossroads
of the commerce of the Pacific. The ambitions of the
king, Kalakaua, brought him near to conflict with the
great powers, yet he was finally overthrown in 1887 by
a revolution of his own people. Under his successor,
Queen Liliuokalani, intervention of the United States
came about in the familiar manner under the plea
that subjects of that government must be protected.
There was a provisional government and after that a
Hawaiian republic under the presidency of Samuel B.
Dole. In 1895 the Queen renounced all claim to the
throne and took the oath of allegiance to the republic.
In 1898 sovereignty was formally transferred to the
United States. This consummation was desired by
many, chiefly Americans, in the islands. Desire on
the part of the United States had been suddenly much
enhanced by the fact that in that summer, 1898, the
United States had come into the possession of the
Philippines. The Christian communities of the native
stock had had their best days when under a kind of
patriarchal guidance and in the simpler conditions

THE AMERICAS AND THE ISLANDS 317

which at first obtained. They had found extraordi-
narily difficult the maintenance of the Christian life
in the midst of the complex conditions which make
Christian life difficult in America and England as well.
Yet neither the amazing achievement of the missions in
Hawaii in the first two generations nor the participa-
tion of Hawaiian Christians in the world's work at this
present moment can be forgotten. The lot of Hawaii
is typical of the history of almost all the islands. It
awakens sentiments alike of admiration and of poignant
regret for results which in part at least not even the
efforts of the most heroic souls have been able to pre-
vent. Time would fail to tell of the work which has
been done upon the Fiji Islands and Samoa in the ear-
lier days or again upon the Gilberts and Marshalls and
Carolines in more recent times. For some reason the
physique of the Fiji Islanders seems to have endured
the contact with the white man's civilization better
than that of any other of the islanders. Christian life
and institutions seem also to have been more permanent
here than elsewhere. There are more than a thousand
churches in the islands and five-sixths of the non-
European population are reported by the census of
1 9 10 as having some relation to the Wesleyan or Ro-
man Catholic churches.

CONCLUSION

Two broad contrasts emphasized by the war have
special bearing upon the problem discussed in this book.
They appear to be the immediately urgent aspects of
Christianization to which nations, churches, and indi-
viduals must address themselves. The first might be
described in the phrase, the altruism of nations. This
quality was displayed during the war. It will assuredly
be enjoined in the peace which is to follow. The
war began with the invasion of the territory of a small
nation by the armies of a powerful neighbor. Cities of
the former were destroyed, its lands occupied, its
resources appropriated, its people oppressed. The
indignation everywhere aroused had something to do
with the arraying, at last, of almost the whole world
against the aggressor. The sentiment thus created
spread far beyond its application to the particular case
involved. The assertion of the rights of smaller nations,
the guaranty of the privilege of free development to less
powerful peoples, the protection and assistance of
backward races — phrases like these became watchwords
in the long struggle. These ideas, along with the hope
of doing away with some, at least, of the conditions
which have occasioned wars, animated masses of men
and women in every country and sustained them in their
deeds and sufferings. The fulfilment of such ideals in
time of peace will prove far more difficult than was their
enunciation in time of war. Yet, should there be a
falling off from these high purposes, should the victors

318

CONCLUSION 319

return to the old petty and paltry basis of mere selfish
territorial and economic aggrandizement, surely this
would be a betrayal of ends for which men gladly laid
down their lives. On the other hand, aspirations have
thus been quickened in the hearts of peoples who mani-
fest few of the qualities without which representative
government cannot exist. It is easy to assume the name
of a constitutional monarchy or to declare a republic.
In these difficult times there is not much in a name. The
fine balance between self-assertion and self-restraint in
the conduct of individuals, of parties, or of classes has
been the fruit of centuries of costly experience and stern
discipline in those free governments which have attained
permanence. The illusion only too easily obtains that
it can be achieved tomorrow by peoples delivered from
virtual servitude but yesterday. Furthermore, by the
claim that oppressed peoples and backward races are
now to come by their own, ancient jealousies and historic
animosities have been revived. Peoples mutually
hostile have been in time past held together in some
kind of unity, often against their own will, by imperial
regimes which have now passed away. The ancient
hatreds flame up only the more.

Guardianships exercised, so to say, under mandate
of humanity as a whole, by the greater nations on behalf
of others suggest themselves as the best solution of the
difficulty. Such mandates, if they can really be brought
to pass, will represent a new stage in the contacts of
nations. They will create new and better conditions
under which the assimilation of peoples to a common
type of life and civilization may take place. Such
mandates are however likely at first to be looked at

320 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

askance by peoples who are to be put in ward. These
fear that under the new and high-sounding title only
the old exploitation of the helpless is to be resumed.
On the other hand, a mandatory such as is here contem-
plated will surely be onerous and difficult. It will
involve great sacrifice on the part of the nations exer-
cising it. Finally both parties ask, Will there be a
real and effective League of Nations under which such
difficult relations between nations may be in good faith
begun, continued, and in due time ended, to the honor
of all concerned ? Yet surely, unless the world advances
along some such lines as are here laid down, it will have
fought the war to some extent in vain. It will have given
men opportunity without doing anything to help them
to avail themselves of that opportunity. It will have
removed old outward restraints without having sub-
stituted mutual respect and helpfulness. The war
awakened great numbers of men in many nations to
sentiments to which they had before been largely
strangers. There was an enthusiasm for humanity as
a whole and a purpose for the bestowal upon all who need
them of the best gifts which the most fortunate nations
possess. This elevated popular feeling of the time of
war runs risk of lacking that kind of leadership in peace
without which it will fail of its best results.

This assertion, however, of national duty and cor-
porate responsibility of one people toward another, to
be exercised in political and economic ways, suggests
the other point which we had singled out for mention.
It suggests that proclivity for mass movements, that
instinctive resort to force and occasional lapse into
violence, which manifests itself, even more readily

CONCLUSION 321

among victors than among vanquished, in the sequel of
a long war. No matter how earnestly men may have
fought for an ideal, these dangerous tendencies, which
set in with the approach of peace, are strangely liable to
concern themselves mainly with wages and prices and
the utmost speed in the return of material prosperity.
There is some reason for this. No war ever destroyed
wealth and suspended productive labor as this war has
done. When any nation has been reduced to the point
at which it has to be fed and clothed by another, the
kind of effort conventionally called missionary may have
to be postponed for an interval. Yet civilization will
never be restored by the re-creation of this physical
basis alone. Moreover, not alone in stricken nations are
the physical wants the ones which are at first over-
whelmingly felt. In victorious nations, for an opposite
reason, the same material necessities are the ones which,
in alarming degree, assume the upper hand. Here the
war has impoverished some. Others it has enriched.
It has enriched some by the mere fact that they were, in
the crisis, sordid and unscrupulous enough to make gain
out of the sufferings of their fellows. Trade must
indeed be resumed with additional eagerness to cover
losses. But, far beyond this, passions are aroused by
possibilities of gain hitherto unimagined.

No war ever was to such an extent dependent upon
the industries. The morale of labor was fully as impor-
tant as was that of the troops. In the moments of
greatest stress the working classes, with all of their
devotion to their respective national causes, yet de-
manded and secured concessions for which they might
otherwise have waited long. They came out of the

322 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

war with these solid gains and also with an intense
class consciousness which tends to destroy, by cleavage in
a new direction, a unity of society which the struggle of
nations had achieved. Political questions have suddenly
become questions of class and economic adjustment.
There is something portentous in the isolation in which,
for the moment, these questions appear to stand, and
in the disregard, for the moment, of all other aims, so
only these are secured. If the situation thus described
stares us in the face even in rich America, there is no
wonder that it obtains in Great Britain and on the Conti-
nent. Japan and India and China, South Africa and
Australia, suffer these same disturbances. In Turkey
even the magnates whom the massacres enriched show
the same shocking excesses. The subject populations,
whom the war incredibly impoverished, will show them
so soon as their present question, that of being protected
in the right to be alive at all, shall have found a passable
solution. For one and all of these peoples, just as for
our ourselves, the recovery even of those sources of
happiness which life offered them before and, still more,
the advance to those which we believe the war has made
possible, demands far more than money and ease. It
requires the rebuilding of all those agencies which are
the guardians of learning and of charity and of faith.
It requires the turning of men's minds again to the
pursuit of truth, to the exercise of mercy, to the culti-
vation of religion. Nothing is so necessary in Europe
and America at the present moment as the reassertion,
in new power and majesty, of the moral values and the
spiritual ideals. How can we suppose that it is otherwise
with the nations which the war has brought within the

CONCLUSION 323

infection of our own evil, and likewise under the influence
of our good, as never before. Of the dissemination of
such good, however, only individuals who set themselves
this high task are the effective instruments. Only
ardent minds and eager souls can reach and, under God,
transform minds and souls.

REFERENCES

REFERENCES

In general definite references to chapter or page are intended to
suggest material for the support, amplification, or contradiction of
opinions expressed in the text. Many other references merely give the
titles of books relating to subjects of which the paragraphs treat.
Those books only which have not been translated are mentioned in
French or German.

PART I

CHAPTER I

SECTION

i. Edward C. Moore, " Some Aspects of the Relation of Missions
to Civilization," International Review of Missions, IV (July,

1015), 353-70.

2. Edward C. Moore, "The Naturalization of Christianity in
the Far East," Harvard Theological Review, I (July, 1908),
249-303.

3. W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire before 170
A.D. (1893), esp. chap, ix, pp. 171 ff. A. Harnack, The
Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the First Three
Centuries (1908), esp. Vol. I. L. Duchesne, The Early
History of the Christian Church (1909), esp. Vol. I, chaps,
xiv, xx, and xxi.

4. Harnack, The Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the
First Three Centuries, esp. Book III. T. R. Glover, The
Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman Empire (1909), esp.
chaps, vi and vii, pp. 167-238. Hastings' Encyclopedia of
Religion and Ethics (1908 fL), article, "Missions, Early
Christian and Mediaeval" (by C. R. Beazley), VIII, 705.
F. C. Burkitt, Early Eastern Christianity (1904). F. J. Foakes
Jackson, History of the Christian Church, 70 A.D. 461 (1914),
chap, xx, pp. 542-56.

7. G. F. Maclear, A History of Christian Missions during the
Middle Ages (1898). Cambridge Mediaeval History, Vol. I
(191 1), chap, v, pp. 87-114, chaps, xix-xx, pp. 542-92; Vol.
II (1913), chap, viii, B, pp. 236-61, chap, xvi, A-B, pp. 496-

327

328 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

SECTION

541. C. Merivale, The Conversion of the Northern Nations
(1866). A. C. Flick, The Rise of the Mediaeval Church (1909),
esp. chap, xii, pp. 229s. J. B. Lightfoot, Leaders of the
Northern Church (1890), pp. 1-102.
9. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. I, chaps, i-iii, pp. 7-103.
11. K. G. Jayne, Vasco da Gama and His Successors, 1910. O.
Cary, History of Christianity in Japan, Vol. I (1909), esp.
chaps, ii-iv, pp. 28-82. H. Venn, The Missionary Life of
Saint Francis Xavier (1862).

13. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. IV (1906), chap, xxv, pp.
728-59; Vol. V (1908), chap, xxii, pp. 673-705.

14. G. Warneck, Outline of a History of Protestant Missions
(1903), pp. 1-84. C. H. Robinson, History of Christian
Missions (191 5), chap, iii, pp. 42-60. S. Cheetham,
History of the Christian Church since the Reformation (1907),
pp. 112 fL, 121 ff., 154 ff. W. H. Hutton, The Age of the
Revolution (1908), chap, x, pp. 131-60. F. X. Funk, Manual
of Church History (ed. of 1910), Vol. II, sees. 180, 210, 217.
J. Alzog, Manual of Universal Church History (1878), Vol. Ill,
sees. 346-49. J. H. Overton, The Evangelical Revival in the
Eighteenth Century (1886), chap, viii, pp. 131-61. J. H.
Overton, The English Church in the Nineteenth Century (1894),
chap, viii, pp. 253-94. Louise Creighton, Missions, Their
Rise and Development (Home University Library of Modern
Knowledge) (191 2).

15. Ramsay Muir, The Expansion of Europe (1917), chaps, ii-v,
pp. 13-78. J. R. Seelye, The Expansion of England (1907),
Lectures I-VIII, pp. 1-162.

19. W. Cunningham, The Growth of English Industry and Com-
merce (1903), esp. Vol. II.

20. Leslie Stephen, History of English Thought in the Eighteenth
Century, Vol. II (1902), chap, x, pp. 130-279, chap, xii, pp.
329-456. E. C. Moore, History of Christian Thought since
Kant (191 2), chap, i, pp. 1-38. A. C. McGiffert, The Rise
of Modem Religious Ideas (191 5), Book I, pp. 5-60. E. C.
Moore, "The Liberal Movement and Missions," American
Journal of Theology, XVII (January, 1913), 122-36. "Mod-
ern Liberalism and That of the Eighteenth Century," ibid.

REFERENCES 329

SECTION

(January, 191 2), XVI, 1-19. J. L. Barton, Human Progress
through Missions (19 12).

chapter n

23. C. R. Bcazley, The Dawn of Modern Geography (1897), Part
III.

25. H. E. Egerton, A Short History of British Colonial Policy
(2d ed., 1908). P. P. Leroy Beaulicu, De la colonization chez
les peuples modernes (6th ed., 1908). C. P. Lucas, The
Beginnings of English Overseas Enterprise (191 7).

28. Sir Alfred Lyall, The Rise and Expansion of the British
Dominion in India (1907), pp. 82-261.

29. A. G. Bradley, The Fight with France for North America, esp.
Part I.

30. A. Benn, History of English Rationalism in the Nineteenth
Century, Vol. I (1906), chaps, ii-iii, pp. 59-161.

31. Cambridge Modem History, Vol. Ill (1905), chap, iv, pp.
104-81.

32. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. I, pp. 48 £F.

33. E. Channing, History of the United States, Vol. I (1907), chap,
vii, p. 176, chaps, x-xv, pp. 271-437.

34. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. XI (1909), chap, xxvii, pp.
754-801; Vol. XII, chap, xxv, pp. 792-815.

chapter in

36. J. R. Seelye, The Expansion of England (1907), esp. pp. 1-140
and 197-272. Sir Charles W. Dilke, Greater Britain (8th ed.,
1885). Problems of Greater Britain (1890); The British
Empire (1899).

37. Purchas his Pilgrims (ed. 1905-7), Vols. II, III, IV, and V.
Griggs (ed.), Relics of the Honorable East India Company
(1909).

38. A. T. Mahan, Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-17S3
(24th ed., 1914), Part I.

39. W. W. Hunter, The Indian Empire (3d ed., 1893). Ramsay
Muir, The Expansion of Europe, esp. chap, iii, pp. 24-53.
Imperial Gazetteer of India (ed. 1907-9), Vol. II.

330 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

SECTION

40. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. XII, chap, xx, pp. 602-71.
H. E. Adams, The New Map of Africa (1916), pp. 1-114,
189-227, and 391-480.

42. The Earl of Durham, Report on Canada (1839) (ed. of 1902).
G. Cornwall Lewis, Essay on the Government of Dependencies
(1841) (ed. of 1891), Part I.

43. Goldwin Smith, The Empire (1863). Cambridge Modern
History, Vol. XI, chap, xxvii, pp. 754-801.

44. A. Barry, England's Mission to India (1894). R. B. Smith,
The Life of Lord Lawrence (1885).

47. J. S. Dennis, Christian Missions and Social Progress, i8q?-
iqo6. Count Okuma (ed.), Fifty Years of New Japan
(1909), esp. Vol. II, chaps, v, vi, viii, xi, xv, xvii, and xxiv.
E. Pears, Turkey and Its People (191 1). G. Washburn,
Fifty Years in Constantinople (1909), esp. pp. 168-302.

49. A. Lloyd, The Creed of Half Japan (191 2). B. Lucas, Christ
for India (1910). J. N. Farquhar, The Crown of Hinduism
(1913), pp. H-77-

51. G. Warneck, History of Protestant Missions (1903), chap, v,
pp. 85-146. E. Stock, History of the Church Missionary
Society, esp. Vol. I (1899). W. E. Strong, Story of the
American Board (1910).

56. J. Monson, New Ideas in India (1907). E. Bevan, Indian
Nationalism (1913).

57. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. XII, chaps, xiv-xv, pp. 381-

456.

58. Count Okuma, Fifty Years of New Japan (1909), esp. Vol. I.
S. L. Gulick, The Evolution of the Japanese (1905).

60. E. A. Ross, The Changing Chinese (1912), pp. 216-345. The
Viceroy Chang Chi Tung, China's Only Hope (1900).

61. S. K. Hornibeck, Contemporary Politics in the Far East (1916),
pp. 195-403. P. G. Reinsch, Intellectual and Political Currents
in the Far East (191 1), Parts II and IV; World Politics (1900).

63. E. C. Moore, "Naturalization of Christianity in the Far
East," Harvard Theological Review, I (July, 1908), 249-303.
R. H. Maiden, Foreign Missions, a Study of Some Principles
and Methods in the Expansion of the Christian Church (1910).
O. C. Wilson, The Expansion of Christendom (1913)-

REFERENCES 331

m I ion CHAPTER rv

68. Cambridge Modem History, Vol VII, chaps, i-iv, pp. 1-143
and chap, xxii, pp. 687-722.

69. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. X, chaps, vii-x, pp. 205-339
James Bryce, South America (191 2), csp. chaps, xii-xvi, pp
423-585- Hiram Bingham, Across South America (191 1).

71. L. W. Bacon, History of American Christianity (1899)
H. K. Carroll, The Religious Forces of the United States (1912)
Introduction, Parts III and IV.

73. W. F. Adeney, The Greek and Eastern Churches (1908), esp
Part II.

74. Cambridge Modem History, Vol. XII, chaps, xii-xiii, pp. 294-
380. P. Vinogradov, Self -Government in Russia (191 5).
B. Pares, Russia and Reform (1907), esp. Part I. A. H.
Hore, Eighteen Centuries of the Orthodox Greek Church (1899),
esp. chaps, xvi-xviii, pp. 580-693. K. P. Pobiedonostsev,
Reflections of a Russian Statesman (trans, by R. C. Long,
1898).

75. W. R. Morfil, Russia (1891). A. Krausse, Russia in Asia
(1899), Part I and the Appendixes. F. H. Skrine, The
Expansion of Russia, 181 5-1 goo (1903).

77-0. Cary, A History of Christianity in Japan (1909), Vol. I,
Part II, pp. 375-423.

CHAPTER V

78. W. B. du Bois, Suppression of the African Slave Trade to the
United States (1896). H. H. Johnston, The Negro in the New
World (1910).

79. G. M. Theal, History and Ethnography of South Africa to 1795
(1907-10).

80. C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies, esp.
Vol. IV. J. Bryce, Impressions of South Africa (189S), pp.
99-187.

81. D. Livingstone, Missionary Travels and Researches in South
Africa (1842) (ed. of 191 2). R. Moffatt, Missionary Labours
and Scenes in South Africa (1842). J. M. Speke, Journal of
the Discovery of the Source of the Nile ( 1 864) . H. M. Stanley,
In Darkest Africa (1890). H. H. Johnston, George Grenfell
and the Congo (1908); Livingstone (1891).

332 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

SECTION

82. J. S. Keltie, Partition of Africa (1895). H. E. Gibbons, The
New Map of Africa (191 6).

84. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. XII, chap, xv, pp. 429-56.
F. R. Wingate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (1891).
A. E. Hake, The Journals of General Gordon at Kartoum,
(1885). The Earl of Cromer, Modern Egypt (1908), Vol. II,
pp. 123-244.

85. H. H. Johnston, A History of the Colonization of Africa by
Alien Races (1905), Part I.

CHAPTER VI

87. H. C. King, The Moral and Religious Challenge of Our
Time (191 1). J. S. Dennis, The Modern Call of Missions
(19 1 3). J. N. Farquhar, Modern Religious Movements in
India (1915). J. P. Jones, India's Problem (1903). J. B.
Pratt, India and Its Faiths (1915), esp. pp. 360-475.

91. E. C. Moore, "The Liberal Movement and Missions,"
American Journal of Theology (January, 1913).

94. G. A. Barton, The Religions of the World (1918). C. H. Toy,
Introduction to the History of Religions (1913). G. F. Moore,
History of Religions (1913), Vol. I. G. Galloway, The
Principles of Religious Development (1909).

96. Auguste Sabatier, Religions of Authority and the Religion of
the Spirit (1904). A. Harnack, What Is Christianity ? (1901).
A. Loisy, The Gospel and the Church (1909).

99. F. G. Peabody, Jesus Christ and the Social Question (1900);
Jesus Christ and the Christian Character (1905); The Chris-
tian Life in the Modern World (1914).

101. R. F. Littledale and E. Taunton, article, "Jesuits," in
Encyclopaedia Britannica (nth ed., 191 1), XV, 337 ff.
A. W. Ward, The Counter Reformation (1888), pp. 31 ff.
Genelli, Life of Saint Ignatius Loyola, 1872. Cambridge
Modern History, Vol. II (1911), chap, xviii, pp. 6390".
Catholic Encyclopedia (1907-14), article, "Propaganda,
Sacred Congregation of The," XII, 456 ff . ; also article,
"Society of Foreign Missions of Paris," XIV, 79 ff.

REFERENCES 333

SECTION

102. H. Coleridge, The Life and Letters of Saint Francis Xavier
(1872). K. G. Jayne, Vasco da Gama and His Successors
(19 10), chaps, xxv-xxxii.

103. E. Stock et al., article, "Missions," Encyclopaedia Britannica
(nth ed., iqii), XVIII, 590 fl. C. Streit, Atlas hierarchicus,
Descriptio Geographica et statistica s. Rom. eccl. (19 13).
Missiones Catholicae ritus latini cura S. Cong, de Prop. Fid.
descriptae (biennial review) (1886 and following). K. Streit,
Katholische Missions-Statistik (1908). Lou vet, Les Missions
Catholiques au XlXme Steele (1900).

104. C. H. Robinson, A History of Christian Missions (191 5), pp.
477 ff. G. Warneck, History of Protestant Missions, pp. 85-
144. H. P. Beach and B. St. John, World Statistics of
Christian Missions (191 6), pp. 15 ff. C. F. Pascoe, Two
Hundred Years of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
( 1 90 1 ) . Digest of the Records of the Society for the Propagation
of the Gospel, iyoi-i8g2 (1893). E. Stock, History of the
Church Missionary Society, i8gg-igi6. G. G. Findlay,
Wesley's World Parish; A Hundred Years' Work of the
Wesley an Methodist Missionary Society (1913).

105. J. B. Myers, Centenary Volume of the Baptist Missionary
Society (1892). R. Lovett, History of the London Missionary
Society (1899).

106. H. Pearson, Memoirs of the Life and Correspondence of C. F.
Schwartz (1834). G. Warneck, History of Protestant
Missions, Part I, chap, iii, pp. 53-73. J. Richter, History of
Missions in India (1908).

107. G. Holmes, Historical Sketches of the Missions of the United
Brethren (1888). A. C. Thompson, Moravian Missions
(1882). W. Schlatter, Geschichte der Baseler Mission (1916).

108. A. C. Thompson, History of the Missions of the American
Board, The Oriental Churches (1872); India (1874), etc.;
Sandwich Islands (1870). E. Judson, The Life of Adoniram
Judson (1898). E. F. Merriam, The American Baptist
Missionary Union and Its Missions (1897).

109. H. B. Montgomery, Western Women in Eastern Lands (1910).
E. C. Parsons, "History of Woman's Organized Missionary
Work as Promoted by American Women," in Woman in

334 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

SECTION

Missions (1894), p. 83. A. Van Sommer and S. M. Zwemer,
Our Moslem Sisters (1907). H. S. Dyer, Pandita Ramabai
(1900). F. L. Nichols, Lilavati Snigh (1909). M. E. Burton,
Notable Women of Modern China (191 2). Pandita Ramabai
Sarasvati, The High Caste Hindu Woman (1888). M. E.
Burton, Women Workers of the Orient (1918). S. L. Gulick.
Working Women of Japan (1915). E. P. Gordon, Alice
Gordon Gulick (191 7). John Jackson, Mary Reed, Missionary
to the Lepers (1899). W. P. Livingstone, Mary Slessor of
Calabar (1916). M. G. Cowan, The Education of Women in
India (191 2). M. E. Burton, The Education of Women in
China (191 1); The Education of Women in Japan (19 14).
D. Kikuchi, Japanese Education (1909), pp. 255-81.

1 10. J. Williams, Life of Sir George Williams (1906). R. C. Morse,
History of the North American Young Men's Christian Asso-
ciation (1913). John R. Mott, Evangelization of the World in
This Generation (1900); The Decisive Hour of Christian
Missions (1910); The Present World Situation (1914).

112. W. Canton, History of the British and Foreign Bible Society
(1904). H. O. Dwight, The Centennial History of the Ameri-
can Bible Society (1916). E. C. Moore, "Bible Societies and
Missions, Their Joint Contribution to Race Development,"
Journal of Race Development, VII (July, 1916), No. 1, p. 47.

PART II

3ECXKK CHAPTER vn

114. The Statesman's Year Book (19 16), pp. 121-70, also p. 109.
W. W. Hunter and John Sutherland Cotton, article, "India,"
section, "History," in Encyclopaedia Britannica (nth ed.,
1910) XIV, 401 ff. A. Lyall, The Rise and Expansion of the
British Dominion in India (1907), pp. 1-96. R. Muir, The
Expansion of Europe (191 7), esp. pp. 1-77. J. R. Seelye,
The Expansion of England ( 1 907) , pp. 1-2 1 6. W. W. Hunter,
The Indian Empire (1895). J. Richter, History of Missions
in India (1908), Part I. Catholic Encyclopedia (1907-14),
article, "Francis Xavier" (by A. Astrain), VI, 233; article,
"Society of Jesus" (by J. H. Pollen), XIV, 81-110.
Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics (1908 ff.),
article, "Missions," section, "Roman Catholic Missions"
(by M. Spitz), VIII, 705 ff. L. J. M. Cros, Saint Francois de
Xavier, sa vie et ses lettres (1900), Vol. I. R. P. Bron, Saint
Francois de Xavier (191 2).

116. Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics (19081?.),
article, "Missions," section, "Protestant Missions" (by H. N.
Weitbrecht), VIII, 727 ff. Cambridge Modern History,
Vol. I (1903), chap, i, pp. 7-36. The New Schaf-Herzog
Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge (1908 ff.), article,
"Missions, Protestant" (by G. Warneck), VII, 395 (for
Plutschau, Zicgenbalg, and Schwartz).

117. B. Willson, Ledger and Sword (1903), Vol. I. G. Birdwood,
Report on the Old Records of the India Office (1879). Lyall,
op. cit., pp. 138-264. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. VI,
chap, xv, pp. 506-85. C. Wilson, Clive (1890). A. C. Lyall,
Warren Hastings (1902).

118. C. F. Pascoe, Two Hundred Years of the Society for the Propa-
gation of the Gospel (1901). E. Stock, History of tlie Church
Missionary Society (1899), Vol. I. A. Heber, The Life of
Reginald Heber (1830). S. Wilberforce (ed.), Journals and
Letters of Henry Martyn (1837).

335

336 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

SECTION

119. G. Smith, The Life of William Carey (1887). J. C. Marsh-
man, The Life and Times of Carey, Mar shman and Ward (1859).

120. G. Smith, The Life of Alexander Duff (1900). J. Richter,
History of Missions in India, Part I, pp. 173-201. A. Duff,
India and India Missions (1840).

121. W. E. Strong, Story of the American Board (1910), pp. 17-34.
W. A. Clark (ed.), Centennial Report of the American Marathi
Mission (1904). R. Anderson, History of the Missions of the

American Board in India (1874).

122. A. C. Lyall, British Dominion in India (1905), pp. 300-348.
Cambridge Modem History, Vol. XI (1909), chap, xxvi, pp.
724-53. D. C. Boulger, Lord William Bentinck (1892).
W. W. Hunter, The Marquess of Dalhousie (1890).

123. T. Rice-Holmes, History of the Indian Mutiny (1904). H. B.
Edwards and H. Merivale, Sir Henry Lawrence (1872).
R. B. Smith, Life of Lord John Lawrence (1883). J. C.
Marshman, Memoirs of Sir Henry Havelock (i860).

128. B. Lucas, Christ for India (1910). J. N. Farquhar, The
Crown of Hinduism (1913), pp. 1-185. R. A. Hume,
Missimis from the Modern View (1905). J. P. Jones, India's
Problem (1905). V. S. Azariah, India and Missions (1908).
D. J. Fleming, Devolution in Mission Administration (1916).

129. The Year Book of Missions in India (1916). The Catholic
Directory for India (1914). The Church in the Mission Field,
Report of Commission II to the Edinburgh Conference (1910).
H. P. Beach and B. St. John, World Statistics of Christian
Missions (191 4), p. 65.

131. W. I. Chamberlain, Education in India (1899). Indian Edu-
cation in iqi 3-14, Government of India, Department of Educa-
tion (1915). M. G. Cowan, The Education of Women in India.
(191 2). Christian Education, Report of Commission III to the
Edinburgh Conference (1 910), pp. ioff. H. P. Beach and B. St.
John, World Statistics of Christian Missions (1916), pp. 80 ff.

132. E. Bevan, Indian Nationalism (1913). J. Monson, New
Ideas in India (1907). J. L. Barton, Human Progress through
Missions (191 2). J. S. Dennis, Christian Missions and Social
Progress, I, 77 ff.; II, 20 ff.; Ill, 104 ff. E. W. Capen,
Sociological Progress in Mission Lands (19 14).

REFERENCES 337

SECTION

I33- J- N. Farquhar, Modern Religious Movements in India (191 5) ;
article, "Brahmo Somaj," in Hastings' Encyclopedia of
Religion and Ethics, II, 813. Hem Chander Sarkar, The
Rcligio-n of the Brahmo Somaj (191 1). Syed Amur Ali, The
Spirit of Islam (1902). B. Lucas, The Empire of Christ
(1907).

CHAPTER Vm

134. Statesman's Year Book (19 16), pp. 1095-1117. Count Okuma
(ed.), Fifty Years of New Japan (1909), esp. I, 1-193. Cam-
bridge Modern History, Vol. XI (1909), chap, xxviii (2), pp.
823-65; Vol. XII, chaps, xviii and xix, pp. 537-601. F. R.
Brinckley, article, "Japan," Encyclopaedia Britannica (nth
ed., 191 1), XV, 252 ff. W. E. Griffis, The Mikado's Empire,
(nth ed., 1906). O. Cary, Japan and Its Regeneration
(1899). P. P. Leroy Beaulieu, The Awakening of the East
(1900).

135. O. Cary, The History of Christianity in Japan (1009), I,
13—257. Transactions of the Asiatic Society, Japan, Vol. VI.
J. H. Gubbins, Review of the Introduction of Christianity into
China and Japan. J. M. Cros, St. Franqois de Xavier, sa vie
et ses lettres (1900).

138. Murdoch and Yamagata, History of Japan during the Century
of Early Foreign Influence, 1 542-1641 (1903).

140. Kinse Shireaku, A History of Japan from 18 53-1869 (trans,
by E. Satow, rev. by S. Watanabe, 1906). S. Okuma, in
Fifty Years of New Japan, Vol. I, chap, ii, pp. 55-70. W. E.
Griffis, Townsend Harris, First American Envoy to Japan

(1895).

141. S. Shimada, in Fifty Years of New Japan, Vol. I, chap, iii,
pp. 71-92, and Soyeshima, chap, iv, pp. 93-121. I. Nitobe,
TJie Japanese Natian, Its Land, Its People and Its Life (1902).

142. 0. Cary, History of Christianity in Japan, I, 258 ff. Mamas,
La Religion de Jesus Ressuscitie au Japan (1896).

144. M. L. Gordon, Thirty Eventful Years in Japan (1907); An
American Missionary in Japan (1893). W. E. Griffis,
Verbeck in Japan (1900). O. Cary, History of Christianity
in Japan, Vol. II.

' 338 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

SECTION

144. A. S. Hardy, Joseph Hardy Neesima (1892). J. D. Davis,
A Maker of New Japan (19 14).

145. S. Okuma, Fifty Years of New Japan, esp. Vol. II, "Religion,"
pp. 22-112, "Education," pp. 134-306, "Literature," pp.
390-442, "Social Changes," pp. 443-512. D. Kikuchi,
Japanese Education (1909). M. Anesaki, Religious History
of Japan (1907), pp. 40-70. Okakura Kakuzo, The
Awakening of Japan (1905).

147. O. Cary, History of Christianity in Japan, II, 45-349. K.
Uchimura, The Diary of a Japanese Convert (1896). Ritter,
History of Protestant Missions in Japan, the early numbers
of The Christian Movement in Japan (an annual publication
begun in 1900). S. Okuma, Fifty Years of New Japan, Vol.
II, chap, xxiv (by I. Nitobe). C. B. De Forest, The Evolu-
tion of a Missionary, a Biography of John Hyde De Forest
(1914).

148. S. L. Gulick, "Religious Liberty during the Meiji Era,"
Japan Evangelist (September, 191 2), pp. 432-40.

149. S. Okuma, Fifty Years of New Japan, Vol. II, "Medicine,"
chaps, xv and xvi, pp. 285-306. W. E. Griffis, Hepburn of
Japan (1913).

150. S. Okuma, Fifty Years of New Japan, Vol. II, "Philan-
thropy," p. 101.

155. The Christian Movement in the Japanese Empire (191 7).
S. Okuma, Fifty Years of New Japan, Vol. II, chap, v, pp.
76-100 (by Bishop Honda). T. Harada, "The Present
Position of Christianity in Japan," International Review of
Missions (January, 191 2), pp. 75-97. The Church in Japan,
Findings of the Continuation Committee's Conferences
held at Tokio, 1913 (1913). W. Imbrie, Christian Unity
in Japan (19 14). A. Pieters, Mission Problems in Japan
(1912).

156. W. Imbrie, "The Three Religions Conference," Japan
Evangelist (April, 191 2), pp. 154-60. Also International
Review of Missions, editorial note (July, 191 2), p. 552.
Japan Year Book for IQ12. S. Okuma, "A Japanese States-
man's View of Christianity," International Review of Missions
(October, 191 2), pp. 654-58.

REFERENCES 339

CHAPTER DC

SKCTION

157. The Statesman's Year Book (1916), pp. 785-807. Cambridge
Modem History, Vol. XI (1909), chap, xxviii, A, " China and
Her Intercourse with Western Powers" (by E. M. Sal 0 w) . En-
cyclopaedia Britannica (1910), article, "China, History," VI,
188 ff. D. C. Boulger, A Short History oj 'China (1893). E. R.
Hue, The Chinese Empire (1855). S. W. Williams, The Middle
Kingdom (ed. of 1883, reprint 1913). Hastings' Encyclopedia
oj Religion and Ethics (1908 ff.), article, "Missions, Roman
Catholic Missions" (by M. Spitz), VIII, 713. Catholic En-
cyclopedia, article, "Ricci" (by J. Brucker), XIII, 34 ff.

158. De Groot, The Religion oj the Chinese (1910), pp. 62-88.

159. E. H. Parker, China, Her History, Diplomacy and Commerce
jrom the Earliest Times to the Present Day (1917). H. A.
Giles, China and the Manchus (191 2).

160. H. B. Morse, International Relations oj the Chinese Empire,
Vol. I (1910); The Trade and Administration oj the Chinese
Empire (1907). A. J. Sargent, Anglo-Chinese Commerce and
Diplomacy, Mainly in the Nineteenth Century (1907).

161. T. T. Meadows, The Chinese and Their Rebellions (1856).
R. E. Speer, Missions and Modern History, Vol. I (1904),
chap, i, pp. 1 1-70.

162. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. XII (1910), chap, xxii, pp.
500-522. A. H. Colquohoun, China in Transformation
(1898). B. L. P. Weale, The Reshaping oj the Far East
(1905). E. A. Ross, The Changing Chinese (1912). Lord
William Gascoyne Cecil, Changing China (1910).

163. E. Morrison, Robert Morrison (1839). H. E. Legge, James
Legge, Missionary and Scholar (1905). W. Lockhart, A
Medical Missionary in China (autobiographical, 1861). See
the historical sketches at the heads of the paragraphs in
A Century oj Missions in China, edited by D. McGillivray,
the Morrison Centenary Volume (1907).

164. W. Lockhart, A Medical Missionary in China.

165. The Chinese Empire: A General and Missionary Survey
(1907); M. Broomhall, The Jubilee History oj the China
Inland Mission (1904). F. Howard Taylor, These Fijiy
Years, a Memoir oj Hudson Taylor (1903).

340 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

SECTION

166. W. A. P. Martin, A Cycle of Cathay (1897). J. C. Gibson,

Mission Problems and Mission Methods in South China (1901).
J. Ross, Mission Methods in Manchuria (1903). A. H. Smith,
Village Life in China (1899). D. Fisher, C. W. Mateer (191 1).
Dugald Christie, Thirty Years at Mukden (autobiography; ed.
by his wife, 1914).

167. J. Bredon, Sir Robert Hart, The Romance of a Great Career
(1909).

169. A. H. Smith, China in Convulsion (1901). L. Miner, China's
Book of Martyrs (1903). M. Broomhall, Martyred Mission-
aries, China Inland Mission (1901).

170. L. Ngao-Siang Tchou, Le regime des capitulations et la rtforme
constitutionelle en Chine (191 5). S. K. Hornibeck, Con-
temporary Politics in the Far East (19 16). P. Reinsch,
Intellectual and Political Currents in the Far East (191 1).

171. A. E. Moule, Half a Century in China (1911). H. D. Porter,
W. S. Anient, Missionary of the American Board (191 1).
Lin Shao Yang (nom de plume; the author is a foreign
resident in China), A Chinese Appeal to Christendom (191 1).
C. E. Scott, China from within, Impressions and Experiences

(1917)-

172. Kuo Ping Wen, The Chinese System of Public Education

(191 5). T. Lee Fong, Government Education in China (19 16).
C. T. Wang and Others, "Industrial Education in China
Today," Chinese Recorder (March, 1914), p. 139. M. E.
Burton, The Education of Women in China (191 1); Notable
Women of Modern China (191 2).

173. "The Rockefeller Foundation and Medical Education in
China," Chinese Recorder (1905), pp. 663-704. "Medicine in
China," by the China Medical Commission of the Rockefeller
Foundation (1914). R. Fletcher Moorshead, The Appeal
of Medical Missions. A. J. Costain, Life of Dr. Arthur
Jackson (191 1).

174. T. Richard, Forty-five Years in China (1916).

175. China Mission Year Book (19 16). The Chinese Church,
Findings of the National Conference, Shanghai (19 13).
J. M. Planchet, Les missions de Chine et du Japon (1916).
Reports from His Majesty's Minister at Peking Respecting the

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Opium Question in China (1913). J. W. Bashford, China, an
Interpretation (1916). A Decade of Progress in China (from
the China Mission Year Book of 1917, pp. 63-283).

chapter x

176. Sir William Muir, The Life of Mohammed (abridged ed.,
1868). M. Townsend, "The Great Arabian," in Asia and
Europe (1901). Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion and
Ethics, article, "Missions, Mohammedan" (by T. W. Arnold),
VIII, 745 ff. T. W. Arnold, The Preaching of Islam (1913).
Encyclopaedia Britannica (nth ed., 1911), article, "Turks"
(by C. Eliot), XXVII, 468-73. R. Lodge, The Close of the
Middle Ages, 1273-14Q4 (1906). D. Westermann and S. M.
Zwemer, "A New Statistical Survey of the Moslem Popula-
tion of the World," Moslem World (April, 1914), pp. 145-56.

177. The Statesman's Year Book (19 14), "Turkey," pp. 1344-60.
Cambridge Modern History, Vol. I, chap, hi, pp. 67-103,
"The Ottoman Conquest" (by J. B. Bury); also Vol. Ill,
chap, iv, pp. 104-39; Vol. V, chap, xii, pp. 338-71; Vol. X,
chap, vi, pp. 169-204, chap, xvii, pp. 545-72. Encyclopaedia
Britannica, article, "Turkey, History," XXVII, 442-65.
Lane-Poole, Turkey ("Story of the Nations Series," 1888).
W. M. Ramsay, Historical Geography of Asia Minor (1890).
Cambridge Mediaeval History, Vol. I (191 1), chap, xii, pp.
323-59, "The Asiatic Background" (by T. Peisker). G. A.
Smith, The Holy Land (1918).

178. W. F. Adeney, The Greek and Eastern Churches (1908), esp.
Part II, Div. IV, pp. 459-626. A. H. Hore, Eighteen
Centuries of the Orthodox Greek Church (1899), chaps, vii-x,
pp. 242-363. T. E. Dowling, The Armenian Church (1910).

179. E. A. Freeman, History and Conquests of the Saracens (ed.
1877), PP- 64-198. M. J. de Goeje, article, "Caliphate," in
Encyclopaedia Britannica (1910), V, 23-54. W. F. Adeney,
The Greek and Eastern Churches (1908), Vol. I, chap, vii; Vol.
II, chap, vi, pp. 85-241.

180. E. S. Creasy, History of the Ottoman Turks (ed. of 1882).
E. A. Freeman, The Ottoman Power in Europe (1877). A. H.
Lybyer, The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of
Suleiman the Magnificent (19 13).

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182. A. H. Hore, Eighteen Centuries of the Orthodox Greek Church
(1899), chap, xv, pp. 532-79, and chap, xviii, pp. 659-93.

183. W. E. Strong, Story of the American Board (1910), chap, v,
pp. 56-79, chap, x, pp. 196-226, chap, xxi, pp. 385-412. R.
Anderson, History of the Missions of the American Board, The
Ottoman Empire (1872). J. Richter, A History of Protestant
Missions in the Near East (19 10), pp. 104-329. G. F.
Herrick, Christian and Mohammedan (191 2). J. K. Greene,
Leavening the Levant (1916). A. Watson, The American
Mission in Egypt.

184. F. H. B. Lynch, Armenia, Travels and Studies (1901). J.
Bryce, Transcaucasia, with a supplement on the Armenian
question (1896). E. M. Bliss, Turkey and the Armenian
Atrocities (1896).

185. H. 0. Dwight, A Moslem Sir Galahad (1913).

186. C. Hamlin, Among the Turks (1877). C. Hamlin, My Life
and Times (1893). G. Washburn, Fifty Years in Constan-
tinople (1910). H. O. Dwight, Constantinople and Its
Problems (1901). E. Pears, Turkey and Its People (1912).

188. H. H. Jessup, Fifty-three Years in Syria (1910).

190. C. D. Ussher and G. H. Knapp, An American Physician in
Turkey (19 17).

191. J. L. Barton, Daybreak in Turkey (1908).

192. W. Miller, The Balkans ("Story of the Nations Series,"
1908). M. E. Durham, The Burden of the Balkans (1905).
Vladislav R. Savic, Southeastern Europe (191 8). L.
Dominian, The Frontiers of Language and Nationality in
Europe (191 7).

193. M. C. Gabriellian, Armenia, a Martyr Nation (19 18). H. A.
Gibbons, The Blackest Page in Modern History (19 16).

194. G. F. Abbott, Turkey in Transition (1909). G. Baker,
Passing of the Turkish Empire in Europe (1912). W. M.
Ramsay, The Revolution in Constantinople and Turkey (1909).

195. V. Chirol, " Islam and the War," Quarterly Review (April,
1918), pp. 489-515-

197. A. M. Pennell, Pennell of the Afghan Frontier (1914).

198. J. Bryce, Transcaucasia, 1896. 0. M. Sykes, A History of
Persia (191 5). R. C. Schauffler, The Goodly Fellowship

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(191 2). Y. B. Mirza, Iran and the Iranians (1913). R. E.
Speer, The Haki Sahib, the Foreign Doctor; Biography of
Joseph Plumb Cochrane of Persia (191 1).

199. A. Milner, England in Egypt (1893). The Earl of Cromer,
Modern Egypt (1908). D. G. Hogarth, The Penetration of
Arabia (1904). S. M. Zwemer, Arabia, the Cradle of Islam
(1902). G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land
(ed. 1897). G. Le Strange, Palestine under the Moslems
(1890). G. A. Smith, Syria and the Holy Land (1918). R.
Tinker, Memorials of the Hon. Ion Keith Falconer (1903).

200. E. M. Wherry and S. M. Zwemer, Islam and Missions: The
Lucknow Conference (191 1). S. M. Zwemer, The Disin-
tegration of Islam (191 1). D. B. McDonald, Moslem Theol-
ogy, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory (1903); Aspects
of Islam (191 1). W. H. T. Gairdner, "Al Hazar University
at Cairo," East and West (July, 191 1), pp. 256-73. D. T.
Margouliouth, Pan-Islamism, Proceedings of the Central Asian
Society (191 2). D. B. McDonald, "Missions to Moslems,"
International Review of Missions (July, 1912), pp. 526-34.
E. Pears, "Christians and Islam in Turkey," Nineteenth
Century (February, 1913), pp. 278-91. H. S. Bliss, "The
Balkan War and Christian Work among Moslems," Inter-
national Review of Missions (October, 19 13), pp. 643-56.

CHAPTER XI

201. See previous chapters, references to sees. 1 and 25. Cam-
bridge Modern History, Vol. XII (1910), chap, xv, pp. 429-56,
chap, xx, pp. 602-71, passim. D. A. Cameron, Egypt in the
Nineteenth Century (until 1882) (1898), Part II. E. Dicey,
The Story of the Khedivate (1902). C. de Freycinet, La
question d'Egypte (1905), chaps, ii and iii. P. Legendre, La
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Gordon at Khartoum (1885).

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202. H. A. Gibbons, The New Map of Africa (1916). C. P. Lucas,
Geography of South and East Africa (being Part II of Vol. IV
of " An Historical Geography of the British Colonies," 1904).
Cambridge Modem History, Vol. XII, chap, xx, esp. pp. 635-
51 and 658-65. E. Sanderson, Great Britain in Modern
Africa (1907). A. R. Colquohoun, Afrikanderland (1906).
R. Markham, The New Era in South Africa (1904). H. von
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the Congo Free State Government (translation, 1906).
E. Vandervelde, La Belgique et le Congo (191 1).

203. F. A. Noble, The Redemption of Africa (1898). R. Moffat,
Missionary Labours and Scenes in South Africa (1842). D.
Livingstone, Missionary Travels and Researches in South
Africa, 1842 (ed. 191 2). W. D. Mackenzie, John Mackenzie
(1902). J. L. Krapf, Travels, Explorations and Missionary
Labours during Our Eighteen Years' Residence in Eastern
Africa (i860). F. Coillard, On the Threshold of Central
Africa (translation, 1903). C. H. Lyall, Twenty Years in
Khama's Country (1896). J. Tyler, Forty Years among the
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(1904). G. W. Cox, The Life of J. A. Colenso (1888). C. F.
A. Moss, A Pioneer in Madagascar: J. Pearse (1913).

204. F. D. Lugard, The Rise of Our East African Empire (1893).
H. H. Johnston, The Uganda Protectorate (1902). E. D.
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Reports, etc. (191 2).

205. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. XII (1910), chap, xxv, pp.
805-13. J. L. Krapf, Travels, Explorations and Missionary
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Africa (i860). R. Burton, Lake Regions of Central Africa
(i860). D. Livingstone, Last Journals (1874). G. Schwefh-
furth, The Heart of Africa (1873). J. M. Speke, Journal of
the Discovery of the Sources of the Nile (1 864) . H. M. Stanley,
Through the Dark Continent (1878). D. Stanley (ed.), The
Autobiography of Henry M. Stanley (1909).

206. D. Livingstone, Last Journals (1874). H. M. Stanley, How
I Found Livingstone (1872). W. G. Blaikie, The Personal
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207. A. R. Tucker, Eighteen Years in Uganda and East Africa
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(1904). A. E. Morshead, History of the Universities Mission
to Central Africa, 1859-1896. C. E. Battersby, Pilkington
of Uganda (1899). W. G. Berry, Bishop Hannington (1908).
J. W. Harrison, Mackay of Uganda (1900). G. Hawker, The
Life of George Grenfell (1909). C. W. Mackintosh, Coillard
of the Zambesi (1907). E. Favre, Franqois Coillard, mission-
aire au Zambezi (1913). J. Taylor Hamilton, Twenty Years
of Pioneer Missions in Nyassaland (191 2). A. P. Atterbury,
Islam in Africa (1899).

208. J. Page, The Black Bishop (1908). A. H. Barrow, Fifty Years
in Western Africa (1900). Jean R. Mackenzie, Black Sheep,
Adventures in West Africa (191 6). E. G. Ingham, Sierre
Leone after a Hundred Years (1894).

209. H. M. Stanley, The Congo and the Founding of Its Free State
(1885). E. D. Morel, King Leopold's Rule in Africa (1904).
W. H. Bentley, Pioneering in the Congo (1900). A. Hinderer,
Seventeen Years in the Yoruba Country (1S72). C. H.
Robinson, Ilausaland (1897). J. H. Weeks, Among Congo
Cannibals (191 2). G. Ward, Charles Allen Smythies, Bishop
of the Universities Mission to Central Africa (1898). (Mrs.)
A. B. Fisher, Twilight Tales of the Black Boganda (191 1).
Les deux Congo, trente cinq ans d'apostolat au Congo franqais,
Mgr. Augcnard, etc. (1913).

210. J. du Plessis, The History of Christian Missions in South
Africa. C. N. Gray, Robert Gray, Bishop of Cape Town
(1882). J. S. Moffat, Robert and Mary Mojffat (1896). M. S.
Benham, Henry Calloway, First Bishop of Kajfraria (1896).

346 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

SECTION

Donald Fraser, Winning a Primitive People (the Ngoni)
(1914). H. W. Barker, The Story of Chisamba (1905). J.
Lennox, Our Missions in South Africa (United Free Church
of Scotland) (191 1). J. D. Taylor, The American Board
Mission in South Africa, Seventy-Five Years (191 1). A.
Pratt, The Real South Africa (191 3).

211. J. Wells, Stewart of Lovedale (1899). R. Young, African
Wastes Reclaimed (1902). C. T. Loram, The Education of the
South African Native (1917). Negro Education, a Study of the
Private and Higher Schools for the Coloured People in the
United States (Government Printing Office, 191 7).

212. T. T. Matthews, Thirty Years in Madagascar. P. Don-
caster, Faithful unto Death, William and Lucy Johnson
(1897). E. 0. McMahon, Christian Missions in Madagascar
(1914). J. J. K. Fletcher, The Sign of the Cross on Mada-
gascar (1901). Livre d'or de la mission du Lessuto (1912).
H. Junod, The Life of a South African Tribe (1913). S. T.
Plaatje, Native Life in South Africa before and since the
European War. M. Junod, " God's Ways in the Bantu
Soul," International Review of Missions (January, 1914),
pp. 96 ff.

213. J. Richter, Das deutsche Kolonialreich und die Mission (1914).
J. Schmidlin, Die katholischen Missionen in den deutschen
Schutzgebieten (19 13). Pfitzner and Wangermann, Wilhelm
Posselt (1906). P. Groeschel, Zehn Jahre chri stitcher Kultur-
arbeit in deutsch Ostafrika (191 1). M. Schlunk, Die Nord-
deutsche Mission in Togo (191 2). R. Axenfeld, Kilste und
Inland, deutsch Ostafrika (191 2). M. Wilde, Schwartz und
Weiss (1913).

214. J. S. Keltie, The Partition of Africa (1895). N. D. Harris,
Intervention and Colonization in Africa (191 4).

215. A. J. McDonald, Trade, Politics and Christianity in Africa
and the East (191 6). C. H. Patton, The Lure of Africa
(191 7). M. S. Evans, Black and White in Southeast Africa:
a Study in Sociology (1911). J. H. Harris, Dawn in Darkest
Africa, with an Introduction by the Earl of Cromer (191 2).
J. du Plessis, Thrice through the Dark Continent (1917).

REFERENCES 347

CHAPTER XH

SECTION

216. E. G. Bourne, Spain in America (1904). Narratives of the
Career of Hernando de Soto (1904). E. P. Cheney, The
European Background of American History (1904). Cam-
bridge Modern History, Vol. I, chaps, i and ii, pp. 1-66. J.
Winsor, Narrative and Critical History of America (1889).
H. Harrisse, The Discovery of North America (1892). T.
O' Gorman, A History of the Roman Catholic Church in the
United Stales (1895). J. G. Shea, History of the Catholic
Missions among the Indian Tribes of the United States. C. R.
Markham, The Life of Christopher Columbus (1892).

217. F. A. MacNutt, Bartholomew di Las Casas (1909).

218. H. H. Bancroft, History of Mexico, Vols. X-XIV of his
Collected Works (1883). G. B. Winton, A New Era in Old
Mexico (1905).

219. C. R. Markham and A. H. Keane, South America (1899).
J. Bryce, South American Observations and Impressions
(191 2). F. G. Calderon, Latin America, Its Rise and
Progress (1913). G. Clemenceau, South America Today
(191 1). W. H. Koebel, In Jesuit Land: the Jesuit Missions
of Paraguay (191 2). W. E. Hardenberg, Putumayo, the
Devil's Paradise (191 2). J. F. Woodruffe, The Upper
Reaches of the Amazon (1914). C. R. Markham, The History
of Peru (1892). D. G. Munro, Five Republics of Central
America (19 18). R. Young, From Cape Horn to Panama
(1900). H. W. Brown, Latin America (1901). H. P. Beach,
Protestant Missions in South America (1907); Renascent
Latin America (19 16). C. R. Markham, Colonial History of
South America (in J. Winsor, Narrative and Critical History
of America (1889).

220. J. Winsor, Narrative and Critical History of America, Vol. II,
chap. xi. Catholic Encyclopedia (1907 ff.) , article, "Missions in
the United States," X, 384. H. H. Bancroft, History of New
Mexico and Arizona, Vol. XVII of his Collected Works (1889).

221. H. H. Bancroft, The Pacific States of North America, Vols.
XVIII-XX of his Collected Works (1882). F. Patau, Life
and Apostolic Labors of the Venerable Father Junipero Serra
(1787) (translation, 1913).

348 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

SECTION

222. F. Parkman, The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth
Century (ed. 1902); Pioneers of France in the New World
(1865); La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West (1879)

E. Channing, History of the United States, Vol. I, chap, iv
pp. 90-114. J. Winsor, Cartier to Frontenac (1894). I. J
Cox, The Journeys of Rene Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle
as Related by His Faithful Lieutenant, Henri de Tonty, etc
(1905). E. G. Bourne, The Northmen (1905). Catholic Ency-
clopedia (1907 fi\), article, "Missions in Canada," X, 378 ff.

223. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. V, chap, i, esp. pp. 6-13;
Vol. VII, chaps, iii and iv, pp. 70-143. A. G. Bradley,
The Fight with France for North America (3d ed., 1908).

F. Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe (1901). J. Winsor, The
Rival Claimants for North America, 1497-17 55 (1895). A. G.
Bradley, Wolfe (1889).

224. J. H. Trumbull, Origin and Early Progress of Indian Missions
(1874). The Jesuit Relations: Travels and Explorations of
the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 16 10-17 91. (Original
French, Latin, and Italian Texts with English translation.
71 volumes, 1896-1901.)

226. E. Channing, History of the United States, Vol. I, chaps, x-xv,
pp. 271-437, pp. 485-537. S. R. Gardiner, History of
England. M. Dexter, Story of the Pilgrims. C. F. Adams,
Three Episodes of Massachusetts History. T. Seccomb,
article, "Roger Williams," in the Dictionary of National
Biography. E. Channing, History of the United States,
Vol. I, chaps, xvi-xvii, pp. 438-84. Cambridge Modem
History, Vol. VII (1906), chap, i, pp. 1-52, chap, ii, pp. 53-69.

228. W. Walker, Ten New England Leaders (1901). W. O. B.
Allen and E. McClure, Two Hundred Years of the History of
the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge (1898).
Cotton Mather's Magnolia (1702) . J. H. Trumbull, Memorial
History of Boston (chapter on the "Indian Tongues," etc.)
(1882). J. M. Sherwood, Memoirs of David Brainerd (1868).

229. E. de Schweinitz, Life and Times of David Zeisbcrger (1871).
C. H. Loskiel, History of the Mission of the United Brethren
among the Indians of North America (translation, 1794)-

REFERENCES 349

SECTION

W. D. Love, Samson Occom and the Christian Indians (1900).
A. Caldicote, The Breaking of the Dawn, Moravian Missions
in Jamaica (1904). S. K. Hutton, Among the Eskimos of
Labrador (191 2).

230. T. E. Leupp, The Indian and His Problem (1910). Indian
Affairs, Laws and Treaties (United States), 1904. H. B.
Grinnell, The Indians of Today (1899). M. Eells, Ten Years
of Missionary Work among the Indians at Skokonnah (1897).
H. B. Whipple, Lights and Shadows of a Long Episcopate
(1899). M. A. de W. Howe, Life and Labors of Bishop Hare
(191 2). E. R. Young, By Canoe and Dogtrain (1898).
J. W. Arctander, The Apostle of Alaska (W. Duncan of Metla-
kahtla) (1909). S. R. Riggs, Mary and I: Forty Years among
the Sioux (1880). M. Eells, Father Eells, the Result of Fifty-five
years of Missionary Labor (1894). H. A. Cody, An Apostle of
the North: the Life of William Carpenter Bump as. K. Hughes,
Father Lacombe, the Black Robe Voyageur, Roman Catholic
Missionary for Sixty Years among the Indians of West Canada.
L. F. Jones, A Study of the Thlingets of Alaska (1914). H.
Stuck, Ten Thousand Miles with a Dog-Sled (1914).

231. J. F. Fraser, Australia, the Making of a Nation (1910). The
Statesman's Year Book (191 6), pp. 340-401. B. Spencer and
F. J. Gillen, The Native Tribes of Central Australia (1904);
Across Australia (191 2). A. Ward, The Miracle of Mapoon
(1908). G. White, Round about the Torres Straits, a Record
of Australian Church Missions (1917). H. Pitts, The Aus-
tralian Aboriginal and the Christian Church (19 14).

232. A. R. Wallace, Australasia (1883). The Statesman's Year
Book (191 6), pp. 405-21. C. M. Yonge, Life of John
Coleridge Patteson (1875). W. Williams, Christianity among
the New Zealanders (1866).

233. A. Tilby, Australasia (191 2). J. Cook, A Voyage Toward the
South Pole and Round the World (1777). E. S. Armstrong, A
History of the Melanesian Mission (1900). A. K. Chignell,
Twenty-one Years in Papua, a History of the English Church
Mission in New Guinea (1913). J. Williams, Missionary
Enterprises in the South Sea Islands (1907). R. Lovett,

350 THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

SECTION

James Chalmers (1902). J. Paton, John G. Paton, Missionary
to the New Hebrides (1889).

234. J. Colwell, A Century in the Pacific (1914). A. W. Murray,
Forty Years of Missionary Work in Polynesia and New
Guinea (1875) ; Martyrs of Polynesia (1885). D. J. Warneck,
Filnfzig Jahre Batak-Mission in Sumatra (191 1). A. K.
Chignell, An Outpost in Papua (191 1). G. Simon, The
Progress and Arrest of Islam in Sumatra (191 2).

235. W. R. Castle, Jr., Hawaii Past and Present (1913). L. H.
Hallock, Hawaii under King Kalakaua (1911). O.H. Gulick,
The Pilgrims of Hawaii (191 8). B. M. Brain, The Trans-
formation of Hawaii (1898). F. H. L. Paton, The Kingdom
of the Pacific (1913). Hiram Bingham, A Residence of
Twenty Years in the Sandwich Islands (1849). Titus Coan,
Life in Hawaii (1882). R. Anderson, The Mission of the
American Board to the Sandwich Islands (1870). H. H.
Bancroft, The New Pacific (1900). A. R. Colquohoun, The
Mastery of the Pacific (1902). E. H. Gomes, The Sea Dyaks
of Borneo (1907). D. Paul, Die Mission auf den deutschen
Siid See Inseln (1907). The Statesman's Year Book (1916),
pp. 650 ff. J. Foreman, The Philippine Islands (1906). D.
C. Worcester, The Philippines Past and Present (1914).
H. M. Wright, Handbook of the Philippines (1909). Report
of the Philippine Commission (1900). J. B. D evens, An
Observer in the Philippines (1905). C. de W. Willcox, The
Head Hunters of Northern Luzon (191 2). J. A. Robertson,
Notes from the Philippines (1913).

INDEX

INDEX

Africa 71-76, 251-81; Belgian
possessions in 74, 267, 276-77;
British possessions in 268, 276-
77; discovery and exploration
33 y 256-62; Dutch possessions
in 72, 254; early Christianiza-
tion of Northern 214; exploi-
tation of 252, 267, 275-78;
French possessions in 273, 276-
77; geography of 252; German
possessions in 275-78; indus-
trial and social conditions 75-76,
269-71, 280; missions to 71-73,
253-56, 259-76; Moors in 251;
Moslem propaganda 71, 244;
outlook of 278-81; partition
°f 73-74, 276-78; Portuguese
possessions in 71-72, 253-54,
256, 277; slave trade 71-72,
73, 75, 252-57, 261, abolition
of 257; South Africa, 268-
7i

Alaska, Russian mission to 68

Aleutian Islands, Russian mission
to 68

Algiers 251

American Bible Society 103, 104,
222

American Board, founding of
96-97; in China 187-88; in
India 118; in Japan 153-54,
158, 161-62, 167-70; in Mexico
288; in Persia 242; in Turkey
220-23, 225-26, 230-32

Ancestor worship 178-80

Arabia, missionary work in 245-
46; revolt from Ottoman
Empire 245

Arabs, conquests of 215

Arizona 289-90

Armenia, Christianization of 214

Armenians: excommunication from
Armenian church 223; mission
work for 222-24; persecution
of 224-25, 235-36, 239

Australia 306-7

Australian Board of Missions 308

Balkan States 31, 237-38

Balkan Wars 238

Baptist Mission Society (of Great
Britain), formation of 94; work
in India 115

Baptists, American, founding of
Missionary Union 97; mission
to Mexico 288, to the Congo
268

Basel Society 96; mission to
Gold Coast 265, to Kamerun,
275, to the Tanti 274

Beirut: medical work 231-32;
Presbyterian mission 232; Syr-
ian Protestant College 228-30

Belgium: missionary work in
Africa 267-68; possessions in
Africa 61, 74, 267, 276-77

Bentinck, Lord William 116-20

Berry, Dr. 161-63

Bible societies 101-4, 222

Bible, translations of 102-4; into
Armenian 221; into Bechuana
256; into Bengali 116; into
Bulgarian 221-22; into Chinese
186; into dialects of American
Indians 302; into dialects of
India 116; into Hindi 115; into
Japanese 152, 159; into lan-
guages of Pacific islands 309,
315; into Persian 115; into
Turkish 222

Bliss, Daniel 228, 230

Boxer uprising 185, 196-99

353

354

THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Brainerd, David 303
Bridgman, Elijah 187-88

British and Foreign Bible Society
102-4

British East India Company 37,
39, 42, 43, 49; chaplains in
India 111; hostility toward
missions 118; in China 181-82;
revocation of charter 119, 122

Buddhism 177; in Japan 141,
144, 160, 173

Bull of Pope Alexander VI, 26,

285
Byzantine period 214-15

California 290-91

Canton 178, 181, 182, 186, 187,
188, 192

Carey, William 94, 115-17

Carrier, Jacques 292

China 53-54, 177-207; Christian
literature 204-5; early Chris-
tian influences in 177-79; edu-
cation 191-93, 201-3; Imperial
Maritime Customs 194; last
years of old regime 194-96;
Manchu conquest 1 79-8 1 ; med-
ical work 186-89, 193, 203-4;
missions: Protestant 181, 186-
93> I97~98, 200-201, Roman
Catholic 177-80, 197-98; opium
wars 181-83; persecution of
Christians under Kang Hsi 1 79-
80; recent events 205-7; Tai-
ping Rebellion 183-84; Treaty
of Tientsin 185, 188; Western
civilization in 41, 49-50, 53-54,
199-200

China Inland Mission 189-91

China Medical Board 204

Church Missionary Society: found-
ing of 47, 93, 114; work in:
Afghanistan and Beluchistan
243, China 191-92, Egypt 244-
45, India 109, 1 14-15, New
Zealand 307-9, Nigeria 265-66,
Turkey 220, 224, Uganda 262-65

Coillard, Francois 273

Columbus, Christopher 25, 285

Confucianism: in China 205-6;
in Japan 141, 144, 160

Congo 253-54, 267-68

Congregation de Propaganda Fide
92-93

Congregational missions. See
American Board, London Mis-
sionary Society

Constantinople io-n; capture
of, by Turks 31, 216; mission
press 221-22; missionary work
for Armenians 222; Robert
College 225-28

Constantinople College 230-31

Cortes, Hernando 286-87

Crowther, Bishop Samuel 265-66

Dalhousie, Lord 120

Davis 153

De Forest 153, 159

de Propaganda Fide 92-93

Denmark, explorations, conquest,
and trade 13-14, 27

di Nobili no

Discovery: voyages of, in Pacific
33; in Western Hemisphere
25-27

Dominicans: in Africa 254; in
China 178-80; in India 109;
in Japan 145

Doshisha 154-55, 168-70

Dowager Empress 185, 195-96,
197, 199, 206

Duff 1 1 7-18

Duncan, William 305

Dutch. See Holland

Dutch East India Company 254

Eastern churches 213-14, 216-20

Edict of Toleration 142, 146, 151

Education: in Africa, industrial
271-72; in China: Christian
192-93, 202-3, government 201-
2; in Egypt 244; in India

INDEX

355

117-18; in Japan 153-55, 158-
59, 166, 168-70; in Turkey 221,
225-31
Egypt, administration of, under
Great Britain 244; missionary
work in 243-45

Eliot, John 301-2

Eskimos, Russian mission to 68

Extra-territoriality in Japan 149-

So

Fiji Islands 317

Florida 289

France: colonial empire of 26,
37, 39, 4?, 61, 72, 73, 113,
292-94; discovery, exploration,
and commerce n, 26, 29, 292-
96; Huguenot settlements 32;
missions in: China 179, the
Congo 268, Madagascar 273-
74, Morocco and Algiers 251,
North America 293-97, South
Africa 273; rivalry with Great
Britain 37, 39, 113, 294

Franciscans 11, 92; in Africa 254;
in America 64, 287, 293; in
China 177; in India 109; in
Japan 145

Francke 95, in

Geddie, John 310-11

German missions 96, 170, 241,

274-76. See also Moravians,

Pietists
Germany, colonial empire of 40,

61, 73-74, 195, 238, 275, 276,

277-78

Goa 28, 92, 109, 177

Goodell 221

Gordon, Charles George 75, 184,
263, 279

Great Britain, colonial empire of
13, 32-33, 37-43, Si, 61, 72-
74, 113-14, 119-22, 132-34,
243-44, 268-69, 276-79, 297-
300, 306; discoveries, explora-
tion, and trade 13, 25, 26, 29,
33-34, 37, 113, 256-62, 306;
rivalry with France 37, 39, 113

Great War 54-55, 238-39
Greek church 214
Greene 153
Giitzlaff, Karl 187

Hall 96-97

Hamlin, Cyrus 225-27

Hart, Sir Robert 194

Hastings, Warren 38, 42

Hawaii 313-17

Hepburn, James 152

Hervey Islands 312

Hideyoshi 144-45

Hinduism 79-80; reform and
revival of 136-38

History, place of missions in 17, 18

Holland: conquests and trade

13-14, 26^ 28-29, 72, 113, 147,

149; missionary work in Java

241

Holy Catholic church of Japan
170

Holy Orthodox church 214, 219;
missions of 68, 172

Huguenots: mission in Congo 268;
settlements in America 32, in
South Africa 257. See also
Paris Evangelical Mission
Society

Humanitarianism 19-20, 42-44
Hung Siu-chuan 183-84

Imperial Maritime Customs 193-

94
Imperial Rescript 167-68

India 51, 109-38; attitude toward
Western civilization 41, 51,
121, 125-29; British in 37-39,
51, 113-14, 119-22, 131-34;
caste 125-27; Dutch in 113;
education 131-34; French in
37, 39; industrial conditions
i3°"32; intellectual movement
1 3 7~38; language 127-28; mis-
sions 96-97, 109-12, 1 14-19,
122-25, 129-34, 241-42; Mogul
Empire 11 2-13; Moslems in

356

THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

126-27, 241-42; Mutiny 119-
22; philanthropy and reform
134-35; progress of Christianity
128-30; reform and revival
of Hindu religions 136-38;
sectarianism 124-25

Indians, American 62, 64; mis-
sions to: Protestant 300-306,
Roman Catholic 285-93, 295-
97, Russian 68

International College at Smyrna
231

Ishii Juji 163

Islam 211-47; influence of sultan
in 211-12; missionary propa-
ganda of 246; outlook of 246-
47; present extent of 211;
spread of 30-31, 214-16

Italy, colonial expansion of 40,
61, 74, 211

Iyeyasu 145

Japan 52-53, 141-73;. attitude
toward Western civilization 49-

50, 52-53, 141-42, 155-58, 164-
68; Christian churches 159-60,
170-72; Christian schools 154-
55, 158-59, 166, 168-70; closing
of 146-47; conference of reli-
gions 173; Doshisha 154-55,
168-70; Edict of Toleration
142,146,151; Imperial Rescript
167-68; medical work 152,
161-62; Meiji era 155-58; mis-
sions: Protestant 151-53, 158-
64, 170-72, Roman Catholic
142-46, 150-51, 162, 171772,
Russian 68, 172-73; Neesima
153-55; opening of, to Western
civilization 141-42, 147-49;
persecution of Christians 141,
145-46; philanthropy 163-64;
reaction vs. Western civili-
zation 164-69; revival of
ancient faiths 79-80

Jesuits 11, 47, 90-92; college at
Tokyo 172; missions to: Africa
254, America 64, 287-88, 292-
93, 295-97, Batavia 241, China
178-80, India 1 00-11, Japan

141-45; University of St. Joseph

at Beirut, 230

Judson 96-97, 1 18-19

Kang Hsi 179-81
Kumi-ai churches 159-60, 170
Kwang Hsu 185, 195-96, 206
Kyoto 161, 169-70

Las Casas, Bartholomew 285-86

Liberia 255

Li Ma-tow 178

Livingstone, David 73, 258-62

London Missionary Society,
founding of 47, 94; in Africa
256, 260-61; in Australia 307;
in China 186, 188-89; in
Madagascar 273; in South Sea
Islands 311-13

Lovedale 271-72

Loyola 91, 92

Lucar, Cyril 66, 219

Lullus, Raimundus 251

Madagascar 273-74

Malaysia 241

Manchus 179, 181, 183-85, 195-97,
199, 206; overthrow of 206

Maoris 307-9

Marquette, Pere 294, 296

Martyn, Henry 115, 242

Medical missions: to China 187;
to Japan 152, 161-62; to the
Hausas 266; to Turkey 231-33

Meiji era 155-58

Melanesia 309-11

Methodism 48

Methodist missions 97; in India
123; in Japan 170-71

Mexico 63, 285, 286-87, 289-90
Ming dynasty 179, 180, 183
Moffat, Robert 256
Mohammedan. See Islam, Mos-
lems

INDEX

357

Moravians 47, 87, 95-96; missions
to: Africa 72, 254, 274, America
303-4, Australia 307

Morocco 251

Morrison, Robert 181, 186

Moslems: in India 126-27; mis-
sions to 240-46; outside Otto-
man Empire 240-46. See also
Islam

Mtesa 262-63

Mutiny, Indian 119, 121-23

Mwanga 263-64

Nagasaki Christian community
144-46, 151

Nanking 178, 183, 192
Neesima 153-55, 169
Negroes in America 62, 64
Nestorians 109, 177, 214, 242
New Hebrides 310-11, 313
New Mexico 289-90

New Zealand, discoveries in 33;
missions to 307-9

Nicolai, Archimandrite 68, 172

Nigeria 265-67

Nobunaga 143-44

Northern Europe, early missionary
work in 9-10

Opium wars 181-83

Orient: attitude toward West
40-41, 49754, 5.8; effect of
Western civilization on 79-83;
religious unrest in 81-82; spread
of Western civilization in 49-58,
61-62; Y.M.C.A. in 100. See
also China, India, Japan, Otto-
man Empire

Osmans 216

Ottoman Empire 51-52, 211-40;
ancient Christian churches 213-
20, 222-23; attitude toward
West 49, 51-52; conquests 31;
decline of 211-12, 233, 238-39;
educational work in 225-31;
extent of 211; in the Great
War 238-39; medical work

23T~33; missions to 212-13
21 6-33; persecution of Arme-
nians 223-25,^ 235-36, 239
present situation in 239-40
problem of missions to 216-20
222-24; relations with Euro-
pean nations 233-39; revolu-
tion of 1908-9 51-52, 236-38
subject populations 234-36
Young Turk movement 234

Paris Evangelical Mission Society
96; in the Congo 26S; in Mada-
gascar 274; in South Africa 273

Parker, Peter 187

Paton, John 310-n

Patteson, John Coleridge 309-10

Peking 177, 185, 189, 191, 192,
197-98; Russian mission to 68

Periods in the Christian movement

5-iS
Perry, Commodore 147-48
Persia 222, 242

Pietists 47, 87, 94-95; in Africa
73; in India 111-12

Pizarro 285, 2S6, 287

Plymouth 298

Polynesia 311-13

Portugal: conquests and trade n,
25-28, 71-72,113,142,145-47,
180, 256, 287-88; missions in:
Africa 253-54, India 109-10

Presbyterian missions: founding
of 97; to Brazil 2S8; to India
117-18; to Japan 152, 158, 170;
to Liberia 255; to Persia 242

Propagation, Congregation of the

92-93
Protestant Episcopal church of

United States; missions of 97,

152-53, 288-89

Ram Mohan Ray 118, 138
Rationalism, age of 29-30
Reformed Dutch church, missions

of 97, 151-52, 170, 246
Ricci, Matteo 178, 182

358

THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

Riggs, Elias 221-22

Riggs, Stephen 305

Robert College 225-28

Roman Catholic missions: char-
acter of 12-13, 46-47; organi-
zations 90-93; work in: Africa
72, 251, 253-54, 265, 267, 273,
Batavia 241, China 177-80,
India 100-11, 130, Japan 142-
46, 150-51, 162, 171-72, Otto-
man Empire 212-13, 218-19,
230

Russia: expansion of 40, 65-68;
missions 68, 172-73, 242-43;
religious history of 66; revolu-
tion in 66-67

Sandwich Islands 313-17

Schall, Adam 178-79

Schwartz 112, 114

Scotland, missions 94, 11 7-18, 245,
272, 303

Seljuks 215-16

Selwyn, George 308-9

Sepoy Rebellion. See Mutiny,
Indian

Serra, Father Junipero 291

Shimbara, Christian revolt of 146

Shinto 141, 144, 160, 173

Sierra Leone 255

Sillery 295

Slave trade, African 71-72, 73,
75, 252, 254, 255, 257, 261;
abolition of 75, 257

Smyrna, International College at
231

Society for the Propagation of the

Gospel, founding of 93, 114, 302;

in^ Africa 72, 254-55, 273; in

China 191-92; in Ottoman

Empire 224

Society Islands 311

Society of Jesus. See Jesuits

Sofala 254

South America 63, 287-89

South Sea Islands 33

Spain : discoveries, explorations,
and conquests n, 25-28, 285-
87, 289-91; disruption of colo-
nial empire 288; missions 285-
86, 289-91

Spener 95

Stanley 258, 262-63, 267, 279

Sumitada 144

Syrian Protestant College 228-3C

Tai-ping Rebellion 183-84
Tatars, 65, 180, 183
Taylor, Hudson 190
Thompson, Thomas 254-55
Tientsin, Treaty of 185, 188
Tokoname 173

Tokyo 162; Jesuit college at 172
Turkey. See Ottoman Empire
Tzu Hsi 185, 195-96, 197, 199, 206

Uganda 262-65

United Church of Japan 170

United States, expansion of 40, 316

Verbeck, Guido 151-52

Washburn, George 227-28

Wesley 48

Whipple, Bishop 305

Whitman, Marcus 304

Williams, Channing Moore 152-53

Williams, John 311-12

Williams, S. Wells 188

Women, missionary work of and
for 98-99

Xavier, Francis 91-92, 109-10,
142-43, 177

Young Men's Christian Associa-
tion 99-101; in Russo-Japanese
war 164

Young Women's Christian Associ-
ation 101

Yuan Shi-kai 198, 206-7

Zeisberger, David 303
Zinzendorf 95

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