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BUILDERS OF
GREATER BRITAIN

Edited by H. F. WILSON, M.A.

Barrister -at-Lavj

Late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge

Legal Assistant at tfie Colonial Office

DEDICATED BY SPECIAL
PERMISSION TO HER
MAJESTY THE QUEEN

BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

i. SIR WALTER RALEGH ; the British Dominion of
the West. By Martin A. S. Hume.

2. SIR THOMAS MAITLAND ; the Mastery of the

Mediterranean. By Walter Frewen Lord.

3. JOHN AND SEBASTIAN CABOT; the Discovery of

North America. By C. RAYMOND Beazley, M.A.

4. EDWARD GIBBON WAKEFIELD; the Coloni-

zation of South Australia and New Zealand. By
R. Garnett, C.B., LL.D.

5. LORD CLIVE; the Foundation of British Rule in

India. By Sir A. J. Arbuthnot, K.C.S.I., CLE.

6. ADMIRAL PHILLIP ; the Founding of New South

Wales. By Louis Becke and Walter Jeffery.

7. RAJAH BROOKE ; the Englishman as Ruler of an

Eastern State. By Sir Spenser St John, G.C.M.G.

8. SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES; England in the Far

East. By Hugh E. Egerton, M.A.

Builders

Greater Britain

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES

e*&.

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES

ENGLAND IN THE FAR EAST

HUGH EDWARD EGERTON, M.A.

AUTHOR OF
'a short HISTORY OF I'.RITISH colonial policy'

LONDON
T. FISHER UN WIN
PATERNOSTER SQUARE

MCM

2)5

GiC .26

PREFACE

Towards the end of 1898 Mr H. F. Wilson,
the Editor of this Series, who had undertaken
the life of Sir Stamford Raffles, asked me, owing
to the pressure of his official work at the
Colonial Office, to assist him in this volume.
Mr Wilson was sent out in February to South
Africa to Sir Alfred Milner in a legal capacity ;
so that, unfortunately, it became clear that,
unless the book was to be indefinitely post-
poned, Mr Wilson must abandon the task. In
this state of things, the life was entrusted to
me.
' ^ . The present biography assuredly does not
\ lack from want of material. The Records in
«t the India Office relating to Sir Stamford Raffles
3 would fill by themselves many goodly volumes.

5 There is besides a fair amount of material pub-
lished by Raffles. I have examined to the best
of my ability a very great number of Papers

6 at the India Office relating to Prince of

445028

xii PREFACE

Wales's Island, Java, Bencoolen and Singapore,
including those still in the Secret Department.
In spite of past gleaners in the field, some of
the material here quoted has not, I believe,
been previously printed. I have to express
my acknowledgments to the authorities of the
India Office Library, and to Mr W. Foster, the
Honorary Secretary of the Hakluyt Society,
for assistance in this connection.

Through the kindness of the Rev. Canon
Raffles Flint, of Ladock Rectory, son of the
' little Charley ' of the burning of the Fame, I
have had access to a very interesting collection
of letters addressed to Mr W. Ramsay, Raffles's
great friend, to his sister, Mrs Flint, and to
the Duchess of Somerset. These letters were,
of course, in the possession of Lady Raffles,
but the stern view she took of the position of
a biographer caused her to make sparing use
of them except on certain occasions. To Canon
Raffles Flint I am further indebted for the en-
graving which forms the frontispiece, for the
loan of a volume of confidential letters to Lord
Minto, dating from January to March 1812,
and finally for some valuable notes on the
acquisition of Singapore by Mr W. H. Read,
C.M.G., late Dutch Consul at Singapore.

Mrs Stamford Raffles, the widow of the well-

PREFACE xiii

known Liverpool stipendiary magistrate, has
kindly allowed me to peruse the Reminiscences
drawn up by her father-in-law, Dr Raffles,
relating to his cousin, Sir Stamford. I have
also to express my gratitude to the Rev. R. B.
Raffles, a grandson of Dr Raffles, for access to
the correspondence of Sir Stamford with Dr
Raffles. These authorities will be found more
fully drawn upon in the Life of Sir Stamford
Raffles by Demetrius C. Boulger.

The Rev. R. B. Raffles, who contributed
largely to the Life by Mr Boulger, still con-
tinues his interest in his celebrated relative.
He has most kindly allowed me to inspect a
mass of information which he has collected
with regard to the scientific side of our hero's
life. The standpoint of this book has not
allowed me to make much use of this, but it
is to be hoped that at some future date Mr
Raffles will see his way to illustrate this branch
of the subject. In addition, I have to thank
Mr Raffles for some most valuable and helpful
suggestions.

The Rev. J. R. Crawford has kindly fur-
nished me with the copy of a paper relating to
the survey of Singapore harbour by his grand-
father, Captain Crawford.

Sir James Swettenham, K.C.M.G., most

xiv PREFACE

kindly forwarded to Mr Wilson the instructions,
quoted in Appendix II., and copies of several
letters, including a letter to Colonel Adden-
brooke on the acquisition of Singapore.

I have further to express our thanks to Lieu-
tenant-General the Hon. Sir Andrew Clarke,
R.E., G.C.M.G., for the use of an interesting
paper on Raffles, read before the Royal Institu-
tion on May 27, 1898.

In the chapters on Java, I have got much
help from the late Dutch historian Deventer's
Daendels — Raffles (translated by G. G. Batten).
It is a pity that this brilliant little book
appears so little known to English readers.
As the appearance of a new biography of
Raffles, after the publication of Mr Boulger's
complete Life, may need a word of apology, it
may be pointed out that the very different scale
of the present volume prevents any idea of
competition. It may be added that the present
volume was decided upon before the announce-
ment of Mr Boulger's Life. I have to recognise
my obligation to it for some statements of
facts in the first two chapters and in Chapters
VIII. and XIV. At the same time the new
material here employed, and the independent
use of the old material existing in the India
Office, may, I trust, justify this book's existence,

PREFACE xv

especially when it is remembered that no Series
of Builders of Greater Britain could be com-
plete with the omission of the name of Raffles.
In conclusion, I have to express my sincere
apologies for any shortcomings in this volume,
due to the absence of the Editor in South Africa.
The ordinary reader can hardly realise the
amount of labour and time which the exercise
of such editorial work involves. It is a cause
of some anxiety to me that the present volume
appears without the mainstay of this editorial
support. Perhaps, however, those who recognise
that in its way the work of empire-repairing is
as necessary as the work of empire-building, and
that it is in this work that Mr Wilson is
engaged, will view with some indulgence this
record of not the least amono- the Builders of
Greater Britain.

HUGH E. EGERTON.

May, 1900.

CONTENTS

PAGE

Preface, . . . . . xi

CHAPTER I

THE FIRST STEP ON THE LADDER
(1781-1805)

Parentage and Early Years — Enters India House — Char-
acter— Assistant Secretary to Prince of Wales's Island
Government — Marriage — Studies Malay Language, . 1

CHAPTER II

EMBARKS UPON 'POLITICAL RESEARCHES'
(1805-10)

Life at Penang — Leyden — Visits Malacca — Minute on
Proposed Abandonment — Its Success — Appointed Secre-
tary— Question of Increased Salary, . . .13

CHAPTER III

AGENT TO THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL WITH THE
MALAY STATES

(1810-11)

Political Situation — Capture of Moluccas — Suggested as
Governor — Visits Calcutta — Lord Minto — Head-
ouarters, Malacca — Aedulla — Reports from Malacca
— Java Expedition, ... -33

CHAPTER IV

THE CONQUEST OF JAVA
(1811)

The Voyage — Military Operations — Appointed Lieutenant-
Governor — Lord Minto's Decision as to Retention, . 50

xviii CONTENTS

CHAPTER V

THE GOVERNMENT OF JAVA

(1811-16)

PAGE

The Dutch Regime — Difficulties of Situation — Lord
Minto's Proclamation — Visits Courts of Souracarta

and djocjocarta flscal regulations amended

System in the Administration of Justice — Palembang
Expedition — Visits Samarang — Settlement with
Native Princes — Lord Minto's Approval, . . 60

CHAPTER VI

the government of java — continued
(1811-16)

System of Land Tenure — Tentative Experiments — Settle-
ment of 1813 — Final Settlement of 1814 — Position
of Regents — Difficulties of Governor's Position —
Success of Measures — Financial Situation — Lord
Minto's Advice — General Gillespie — Relations with
Governor — Sale of Public Land — Gillespie's Charges
— Final Acquittal, . . . . .83

CHAPTER VII

THE GOVERNMENT OF JAVA Concluded

(1811-16)

Policy as to Eastern Islands — Treatment by Home Govern-
ment— Japan — Measures as to Slavery — Opium — Ques-
tion of Retention of Java — Dismissal — Death of
Mrs Raffles — Journeys to the Eastward, . . 118

CHAPTER VIII

REVISITS ENGLAND AND IS ' LIONISED '
(1816-17)

Voyage Home — Interview with Napoleon — Life in London
— 'History of Java' — Friendship with Duchess of
Somerset — Second Marriage — Tour on Continent — Re-
turns to the East, . . . .131

CONTENTS xix

CHAPTER IX
BENCOOLEN

(1818-24)

PAGE

First Impressions — Measures of Reform — Emancipating
Slaves — Policy with Regard to Natives — Promotes
Agriculture — Approval of Planters — Schools for
Native Children — Treatment of Convicts, . .146

CHAPTER X

THE POLITICAL SIDE OF THE BENCOOLEN GOVERNMENT

Extent of His Jurisdiction — Dutch Predominance — General
Policy — Protest, August 18 18 — Case of Palembang —
Pulo Nias — Lord Hastings's Minute, . . .158

CHAPTER XI

THE ACQUISITION OF SINGAPORE
(1819)
Visits Calcutta — Instructions for Mission to Eastward —
Revised Instructions as to Johor — Arrives at Penang —
Colonel Bannerman — Singapore — Starts for Penang —
Surveys Carimon Islands — Lands at Singapore — Treaty
with Authorities — Appoints Major Farquhar Resident
— Indignation of Dutch — Conduct of Bannerman —
Decision of Supreme Government — Disapproval of
Home Authorities — Postponement of Decision saves
Singapore — Raffles on His Acquisition — Mission to
Acheen, . . . . . . '171

CHAPTER XII

LIFE AT BENCOOLEN

Home Life — Travels to Interior — Death of Children —

Illness — Homesick, . . . . .199

CHAPTER XIII

SINGAPORE REVISITED
(1822-23)

Colonel Farouhar — Mistakes of Resident — Measures of
Reform — Foundation of Singapore Institute — Aboli-
tion of Slavery — Final Departure, . . .215

xx CONTENTS

CHAPTER XIV

VOYAGE HOME AND LAST DAYS IN ENGLAND

(1824-26)

PAGE

Further Misfortune — Starts for England — Burning of
the 'Fame' — Voyage Home — Plans for Life in
England — Recovers His Spirits — Purchases 'High-
wood ' — Enjoys Society — Founds ' Zoo ' — Claim by East
India Company — Death, ..... 237

CHAPTER XV
The Man and his Work, ..... 263

APPENDIX

I. Genealogical Tree, ..... z-'q.

II. Instructions by Sir Stamford Raffles with Regard to

the Planning Out of Singapore, . . . 279

Index, ........ 285

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, Knt., from Bust

by Chantrey, ..... Frontispiece

Map of Java, . . . To face page 60

Map of Eastern Archipelago, . . . Tofacepage 146

Sir Stamford Raffles

CHAPTER I

THE FIRST STEP ON THE LADDER (1781-1805)

Parentage and Early Years — Enters India House — Character —
Assistant Secretary to Prince of Wales's Island Government —
Marriage — Studies Malay Language.

Thomas Stamford Raffles, to whom more than
to politicians or treaties Great Britain owes her position
in the Far East, was born on July 6, 1781. The
time was one of gloom and humiliation, but the
fault lay with statesmen and generals, and did not go
to the roots of the national character, and so, even at
the moment when the British Empire seemed approach-
ing its end, there was room for new builders of Greater
Britain to be born into the world.

Stamford's father, Benjamin Raffles, was a captain
employed in the West India trade out of London.
According to the custom of the day, Captain Raffles
was accompanied by his wife, and thus our hero was
born at sea on board the ship Ann, off the harbour of
Morant, in Jamaica. Not very much appears to be
known with regard to his father's family. For some
generations it had been settled at Beverley, in York-
shire, and the name frequently occurs in the old

2 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

registers. A Raffles was Mayor of Beverley in the
reign of Elizabeth, and Sir Stamford claimed with
pardonable pride a Sir Benjamin Raffles, created
Knight Banneret 'about the time of James I. or
James II.' It is perhaps sufficient for present pur-
poses to note that Raffles came of a good north
country stock, from a county the shrewdness of whose
sons has become a byword among men.

Raffles was baptized on board ship, his godfathers,
who appeared by proxy, being a Mr Bingley, of
London, and a Mr Stamford, ,of Jamaica. On the
return of the family to England, he was * re-baptized '
(an altogether irregular proceeding) by the Rev. T.
Lindeman, who had married his mother's sister, and
on this occasion he was registered only under the name
of Thomas. The name of Thomas was derived from
his grandfather, who occupied for forty years a post as
clerk in the Prerogative Office, Doctors' Commons.
He died in 1784, when his grandson was only three
years old. If little is known of the Raffles family, Sir
Stamford's parentage on his mother's side has re-
mained yet more obscure. Lady Raffles states in the
Memoir that ' Mr Raffles was baptized at Eaton Bishop,
in Herefordshire, whilst his mother was on a visit to
her brother^ the Rev. John Lindeman, who was at
that time the incumbent of the living.' In fact,
however, Mr Lindeman was brother-in-law to Mrs
Raffles, and the maiden name of Raffles's mother was
Lyde. More important, however, than even her
name or pedigree was the fact that between mother
and son there existed that close intimacy which is

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 3

found perhaps most often in the lives of the greatest
men. The primary motive to efforts, which placed
Raffles on the first step of the ladder which was to
lead to greatness, was the desire to help his parents in
their straitened circumstances. Of the early years
of our hero no record remains. When we first hear
of him he is at school at Hammersmith, under a Dr
Anderson. He did not, however, remain at school
more than about two years. Raffles throughout his
life never ceased to lament the loss of a regular in-
tellectual training. After his last return to England,
when his life work had been in fact completed, we
find him, more than half seriously, writing, ' Were I
not a married man, I should be half inclined to study
for a bachelor's degree, and to make up even at this
time of life for the sad omissions of my youth, which
I can never too deeply deplore. Hurried into public
life before I was fifteen years of age, my education
was sadly neglected, and in returning to the civilised
world I feel like a Hottentot.'

Before Raffles had completed his fourteenth year, in
1795, he was admitted as an extra clerk in the India
House. His pay in this position appears to have been a
guinea a week. With Raffles, however, leaving school
did not mean the abandonment of education. 'My
leisure hours,' he writes, in the very interesting autobio-
graphical letter to his cousin, Dr Raffles, first published
in full by Mr Boulger, ' still continued to be devoted
to favourite studies, and with the little aid which my
allowances afforded, and which were not completely
swallowed up by the wants of my family, I contrived

4 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

to make myself master of the French language, and
to prosecute inquiries into some of the various depart-
ments of literature and science. This was, however,
in stolen moments, either before the office hours in
the morning or after them in the evening ; and I
shall never forget the mortification I felt when the
penury of my family once induced my mother to
complain of my extravagance in burning a candle in
my room.' To make matters worse, it was not
merely the daily wants of the family which had to be
supplied. ' Long standing debts and a want of the
means to prevent still further involvement caused me
many a bitter moment.' Growing up in these sur-
roundings, Raffles of necessity never knew the
insouciance or selfish serenity of the ordinary school-
boy. From the first it was inevitably the case of an
old head on young shoulders. If the boy is father to
the man, the man, Sir Stamford, was bound to be the
same strenuous, restless being whose spirit, in its
constant demands, was to tire out the body by the
time it had reached ordinary middle-age.

Meanwhile virtue was rewarded, and in 1800 a
vacancy occurring in the establishment, Raffles 's
' peculiar qualifications for once set aside the pre-
tensions of those who were supported by the usual
patronage.' Not content, however, with his ordinary
duties and with the task of conducting his own
education, he found time to undertake extra work, for
which he received gratuities of from ^20 to £2° a
year. No wonder that under this strain the body
began to show danger signals. His constitution was

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 5

naturally delicate. As, however, he appears for the time
to have been completely restored to health, under the
drastic treatment of a walking tour in Wales, averag-
ing thirty to forty miles a day, it may be inferred that
' the seeds of consumption,' of which we read, had not
gone very far. It is pleasant to picture the eager
youth in this rare interval of holiday. He was
always singularly susceptible to the charm of natural
scenery. £A mountain scene,' his widow notes,
' would bring tears into his eyes ; a flower would call
forth a burst of favourite poetry.' As a schoolboy his
garden had been his delight. Pleasures, as a rule, are
the most intense when they are the least diffused in
time and manner, and the charm of a mountain tour
could best be felt by one, who on his last return to
England could say that he had never seen a horse
race and never fired a gun. Doubtless, moreover,
other thoughts were beginning to visit young Raffles.
The following description of himself, written to an
intimate associate of his early years, just after the
landing at Java, in a moment of expansion, throws
a welcome light on the man's real nature. 'You
always said I was a strange, wild fellow, insatiable in
ambition, though meek as a maiden ; and perhaps
there was more truth than otherwise in what you
said ; but with all, I will assure you this, that
although, from want of self-confidence and from
natural shamefacedness (for I will not call it modesty
or bashfulness), I am as unhappy at times as any poor
wretch need be, I have times in which I am as happy
as I think it possible for man to be.'

6 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

In 1802 Raffles's salary was fixed at ^70 per
annum, nor could his extra labour make it in all
more than ^100. The opportunity, however, which
is said to come to all who wait for it was close at
hand, and in 1805 came the appointment which was
to direct the course of his future life.

The island of Penang had been acquired from the
Rajah of Quedah for the East India Company in
1786 by Captain Light. In 1805 it was decided to
constitute it a regular Presidency, with a Governor and
Council, a measure which involved the expenditure of
over ^43,000 a year in salaries. The Governor selected
for the post was Mr Philip Dundas, who was to receive
over £gooo a year. Mr John Oliphant was appointed
first member of Council, and Mr Pearson Secretary.
At the same time Raffles was appointed Assistant
Secretary, at a salary of ^1500 a year, and the rank of
junior merchant in the East India Company's service.
That Raffles obtained at the early age of under twenty-
four a post which was doubtless sought by many was
due to one whose name must always be held in honour
by our hero's admirers. Mr William Ramsay had been
the Secretary of the East India Company at the time
of Raffles entering the office as an extra clerk. He
had observed and prized the boy's capacity and zeal.
He does not appear to have known the circumstances
of the Raffles's family, a natural shame causing
Stamford to keep them in the background. Apart
altogether from those circumstances, it was natural
that he should recommend the claims of one, who,
although not yet twenty-four years old, had done nearly

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 7

ten years of hard work in the office. In urging the
claims of Raffles to Sir Hugh Inglis, the Chairman of
the Company, Mr Ramsay said that c in parting with
so useful an assistant in his department, he should
suffer the greatest inconvenience,' and that * it would
be like the loss of a limb to him.' Kindness done
to Raffles was never seed cast on rocky ground, and
we find him in 1 8 12 writing of cthe admiration and
respect ' with which he looked up to one ' who to me
was more than a parent.'

Although from the first Raffles had been compelled
to take life seriously, it would be to form an altogether
wrong view of him to suppose him absorbed by his
studies or ambition. By nature he was singularly
sociable, and in after life we are again and again told
how he found time to combine with the severest work
the relaxations of society. He had already formed a
warm friendship with young Ramsay, the son of the
Secretary, and his subsequent letters to him strike a
note of genuine affection seldom found in the letters
of man to man. Hitherto society, except that of his
family and intimates, had not come into his way, but
now that his material means allowed, it was natural
that a youth of sociable nature, about to be separated
from his family and home surroundings, should take
to himself a wife. It will be found as a general rule
that men sociably inclined, but who have not the
opportunity to gratify their love of society, marry
young. To those in earnest all roads lead to Rome,
and so the dull precincts of Leadenhall Street were
able to furnish Raffles with a wife in the person of

8 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

Mrs Fancourt, the widow of an assistant surgeon on
the Madras establishment, who came in the autumn
of 1804 as an applicant for the widow's pension to
which she had become entitled. It is unnecessary
here to dwell on idle gossip, which has been
sufficiently disposed of by Mr Boulger. Doubtless
the action of Lady Raffles in relegating all mention
of her predecessor to a footnote, itself inaccurate,
suggested mystery where no mystery was. Happily
it has been clearly proved from Sir Stamford's own
mouth that he married for love, and that he was well
rewarded in so doing. It is true that his wife was
his senior by ten years, but, as we have seen, he was
in every way old for his age, so that the argument of
the Duke in Twelfth Night against such marriages
does not apply. The marriage, as Sir Stamford
wrote, ' gave me no new connections, no wealth, but,
on the contrary, a load of debt which I had to clear
off. It increased my difficulties and thus increased
my energies. It gave me domestic enjoyment and
thus contributed to my happiness, but in no way can
my advancement in life be accounted owing to that
connection. . . . When I was about to quit all
other ties and affections it was natural that I should
secure one bosom friend, one companion on my
journey who would soothe the adverse blasts of mis-
fortune and gladden the sunshine of prosperity — but
what have the public to do with this ? ' We have not,
however, to depend upon Raffles alone for an estimate
of his first wife. Her portrait as she appeared to
ordinary acquaintances has been drawn in the

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 9

fascinating Letters from India of Lord Minto. ' Mrs
Raffles is the great lady with dark eyes, lively manner,
accomplished and clever.' The words of poets are not
always to be taken literally, but perhaps Dr John
Leyden, of whom we shall hear more in the next
chapter, was more eminent for himself than for his
poetry, and it was thus that he addressed her : —

' Still may'st thou live in bliss secure,

Beneath that friend's protecting care,
And may his cherished life endure,
Long, long, thy holy love to share ! '

But most striking of all is the account given by the
Malay Abdulla, a translation of whose reminiscences,
Hakayit Abdulla ', was published in 1874.

' She was not an ordinary woman, but was in every
respect coequal with her husband's position and re-
sponsibilities ; behaving herself with propriety, polite-
ness and good grace. She was very fond of studying
the Malay language, saying, " What is this in Malay
— and what that ? " Also whatever she saw she
wrote down, and, whatever her husband intended to
undertake, or when buying anything, he always
deferred to her. Thus, if it pleased his wife, it pleased
him. Further, her alacrity in all work was apparent ;
indeed she never rested for a moment, but she was
always busy day after day. ... I never saw her
sleep at midday or even reclining for the sake of ease.
. . . Thus her habits were active ; so much so, that
in fact, she did the duty of her husband ; indeed it
was she that taught him. Thus God had matched

io BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

them as king and counsellor, or as a ring with its
jewels.'

Having thus obtained for wife a virtuous woman
whose ' price is far above rubies,' Raffles did not for-
get the claims upon him of his own family. He
arranged that his eldest sister, Mary Anne, should
accompany him to the East, and so soon as his salary
began he made his father and mother partakers of his
improved fortunes. His father, who died in 1812,
was thereby enabled to spend his last years in peace,
while his mother, who survived her husband another
twelve years, was secured in comfort and in-
dependence.

The enforced leisure of the voyage, lasting from
April to September 1805, was put to good use by
Raffles in acquiring a knowledge of the Malay
language. Captain Travers, who first met him in
1806, writes : — c At this time, which was soon after his
arrival, he had acquired a perfect knowledge of the
Malay language, which he had studied on the voyage
out, and was able to speak and write fluently.' It was
in every way most fortunate that our hero's capacity
for work included a remarkable facility in learning
languages. To teach oneself French seems a rather
hopeless undertaking, yet the story is well attested
how, when a lady was singing one of Moore's Melodies,
Raffles translated the English into French verse for
the benefit of some Frenchmen present, and yet he
had had little opportunity since his boyhood of con-
tinuing his French studies. Further light on the

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES n

extent of his early efforts after intellectual improve-
ment is thrown by the letter of 1819 already quoted.
'Before I left England in 1805, I had occasionally
assisted in some periodical publications, and a plan was
formed, of which I was to take a conspicuous part, for
continuing the Asiatic Annual Register on an enlarged
and improved principle. The plan fell to the ground
in consequence of my quitting England.' It is true
that from one point of view Raffles's words were pro-
bably right, and that the deficiency of his early
education was never fully supplied. His great merit
will remain that he was ' a lover and admirer of all
that he could reach in literature and science.' J His
contemporaries — -witness the language of W. Marsden,
who describes him at his death as c well known to the
literary and scientific world ' — thus ignoring his claim
to political greatness — persisted in exalting this side of
him at the expense, somewhat, of his claims to emin-
ence as a builder of the Empire. Wiser himself, he
recognised that his chief claim in the world of science
was to have fostered and encouraged the pursuits of
others ; to have been a scientific Maecenas at a time
when few colonial administrators cared for such
things.

Be this as it may, the study of the Malay language
by Raffles was to have consequences reaching far
beyond his reputation as a savant. It was to be the
means whereby a better understanding of, and thus a
closer sympathy with, the native mind should be
gained, and a new spirit be breathed into the relations

1 But see note on p. 255.

12 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

between English and natives. It speaks well for the
strength and sobriety of his character that a young
man emerging from penury to what must have
appeared affluence, who had just taken to himself a
charming and devoted wife, should have recognised at
once so clearly and fitted himself so laboriously for the
needs of his new position.

CHAPTER II

EMBARKS UPON 'POLITICAL RESEARCHES' (1805-IO)

Life at Penang — Leyden — Visits Malacca — Minute on Proposed
Abandonment — Its Success — Appointed Secretary- — Question
of Increased Salary.

Penang, or Prince of Wales's Island, the scene of
RafHes's new duties, is an island about fifteen miles
in length, and about nine miles in breadth, covering
an area of one hundred and eight square miles. The
new Presidency also included Province Wellesley, a
narrow strip extending for some forty-five miles along
the coast of the Malay Peninsula. For many years
Penang enjoyed a reputation as a health resort which
it scarcely deserved. In this c paradise ' it was solemnly
affirmed c the operation of the climate is almost in-
fallible.' The experience of its Government tells a
very different tale. The ' operation ' of the climate
led to the death of three governors and of a large
proportion of the new staff. Still, whatever the
disappointments Penang had in store, nothing could
deprive it of the loveliness which is attested by
all who have seen it. Lying 'in the sunlight and
the sea,' it must have forthwith appealed to
that love of natural scenery which was so leading a
feature in our hero's nature. The diary of his future

i4 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

friend and aide-de-camp, Captain Travers, gives a
vivid picture of the energy with which he threw
himself into his new life : —

cIt was in the year 1806 that I first became
acquainted with Mr Raffles at the island of Penang.
He was then Deputy-Secretary to the new Govern-
ment, which had been recently sent out to that
place. . . . The details of the Government pro-
ceedings, so far as related to local arrangements and
regulations, together with the compilation of almost
every public document, devolved on Mr Raffles, who
possessed great quickness and facility in conducting
and arranging the forms of a new government, as
well as in drawing up and keeping the records.

' The public despatches were also entrusted to him ;
and, in fact, he had the entire weight and trouble
attendant on the formation of a new government.
This, however, did not prevent his attending closely
to improve himself in the Eastern languages ; and
whilst his mornings were employed in his public
office, where at first he had but little assistance,
his evenings were devoted to Eastern literature.
Few men, but those who were immediately on the
spot at the time, can form any idea of the difficult
task he had to perform in conducting the public
business of such a government as existed on the first
establishment of Penang as a Presidency. It would
be irrelevant here to allude to, or to attempt any
description of, the different characters of whom this
Government was formed, the more particularly so as

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 15

they are all now dead, but it is due to Mr Raffles to
state that he was respected and consulted by every
member of it. In his official capacity he gave most
general satisfaction, whilst the settlers looked up to
him for advice and assistance in every difficulty ;
and when he afterwards became Chief Secretary,
the most general satisfaction was evinced through-
out the settlement.

'Being of a cheerful, lively disposition, and very
fond of society, it was surprising how he was able to
entertain so hospitably as he did, and yet labour so
much as he was known to do at the time, not only
in his official capacity, but in acquiring a general
knowledge of the history, government and local
interests of the neighbouring states ; and this he
was greatly aided in doing by conversing freely with
the natives, who were constantly visiting Penang at
this period, many of whom were often found to be
sensible, intelligent men, and greatly pleased to find a
person holding Mr Raffies's situation able and anxious
to converse with them in their own language.'

Of one thing laid to its charge it would seem that
Prince of Wales's Island must stand acquitted. From
the light thrown on the situation by Raffies's corre-
spondence with his intimate friend, young Ramsay,
we learn that the leave of absence obtained in August
1806 by Mr Pearson, the Secretary, was due as much
to ' not drawing well with the Hon. the Governor '
as to reasons of health. 'I have, in fact,' writes
RafHes in January 1807, 'done nearly the whole

16 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

duty of Secretary and Deputy since I have been on
the island, but for the last four months I have done
so to the knowledge of every person and publicly.
... I am now acting Malay Translator, but under
similar circumstances as I am acting Secretary, with
all the honour and labour but no emolument. . . .
I would almost do the duty for nothing, because it
is what I have so forcibly set my mind upon.' The
strain of work, however, was great. ' There is about
three times the business in the Secretary's office as
there is in England, and not one-twentieth of the
assistance. . . . Scarce a letter has gone out, however
trifling, that I have not drafted, and I have not one
right-hand man.'

As time passes his letters begin to strike a more
melancholy note. At first he had stood 'on the
best footing possible with the present Government.
They leave everything to me that I wish, and are
satisfied with mv conduct ' ; but soon the jealousies,
which are the curse of small communities, began to
show themselves. Raffles, although the real motive
force of the Government, had not the rank or status
which a seat in the Council could alone confer, and
he suffered much from the overbearing demeanour
of men who could thus revenge on him their
recognised inferiority. 'A Secretary,' Raffles wrote
in November 1808, 'is in general the organ, but in
some places the very soul. I am neither the one
nor the other. We have not abilities to admit of
my being the former, nor liberality to allow the
latter. You may therefore guess the situation. . . .

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 17

The arrogance that a temporary exaltation has given
to some is scarce to be borne with except by such a
patient body as me.''

More serious reasons for anxiety were not wanting.
Raffles began to recognise that he could not go on
indefinitely working at such high pressure. * My
health is not altogether what it was, and I dread
a constant fag for years' (October 1807). He
therefore longed for the promise of a seat in the
Council. c A rest in the Council Chamber, about
three or four years hence, will enable me afterwards
to get on, and the prospect of it beforehand will
serve to keep up my spirits.' In the preceding
summer he had written, ' I think five years Secretary
as much as I can stand.' Unhappily, instead of work
diminishing, it tended to increase. In 1807 a new
Charter of Justice was proclaimed in Prince of Wales's
Island, and a Recorder, Sir Edward Stanley, entered
upon his duties. On his arrival * all was confusion
here, and that Court could not have been established
had not I come forward and voluntarily acted as
Registrar Clerk of the Crown,' etc. (November
1808). 'War was brewing,' he adds, 'between
Sir E. Stanley and the Government. Stepping
between them judiciously, I am confident that I
stopped a breach which might never afterwards
have been filled up.'

Be this as it may, Raffles was very nearly bringing
his own career to a close. In 1808 he broke down
under the strain of over-exertion, and all but died of
jaundice and a diseased liver. ' This is the second

1 8 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

attack,' he writes in November 1808. 'I must
beware of the third.'

Out of evil, however, proceeded good, and the
visit of Raffles to Malacca, in the search of health,
proved to be a new starting-point in his public career.
It is true that he had been ordered by the doctors to
drop altogether his study of the native languages, but
this gave him the more inclination to appear upon
the political stage. ' Political researches,' he writes,
' are most required, and with the view of seeing how
such would be received I have thrown off" a report on
Malacca. . . . You know I am always famous for
possessing public spirit. I have not lost one spark of
it.' In order to understand why the report of an
obscure civil servant obtained so ready a hearing it is
necessary to go back a little in time.

Towards the close of 1805 there appeared at
Penang a visitor whose friendship was to have an
important influence over RafHes's fortunes. Mention
has already been made of the verses which John
Leyden addressed to Olivia Raffles, but the man, as
sometimes happens, was in himself greater than can
be recognised in his rather conventional verse. ' Few
can need to be reminded that this extraordinary man,
born in a shepherd's cottage, in one of the wildest
valleys of Roxburghshire, and of course almost entirely
self-educated, had, before he attained his nineteenth
year, confounded the doctors of Edinburgh by the
portentous mass of his acquisitions in almost every
department of learning. He had set the extremest
penury at utter defiance, or rather he had never been

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 19

conscious that it could operate as a bar ; for bread
and water and access to books and lectures comprised
all within the bound of his wishes, and thus he toiled
and battled at the gates of science after science, until
his unconquerable perseverance carried everything
before it ; and yet with this monastic abstemiousness
and iron hardness of will, perplexing those about him
by manners and habits in which it was hard to say
whether the moss trooper or the scholar of former
days most prevailed, he was at heart a poet.' The
man who could draw such language from the critical
Lockhart must have been no ordinary man. Dis-
appointed in his expectations of obtaining preferment
in the clerical profession, he had accepted an offer of
an Assistant Surgeonship under the East India Com-
pany. He landed in India in 1803, and soon found
ample scope for his great abilities. The stress of
work as surgeon and naturalist to the Commission,
which surveyed Mysore, occasioned the need of the
holiday which brought him to Penang. During this
stay he made good use of his time by a careful study
of the language, manners and religion of the Malay
race. It may easily be imagined how congenial to
Raffles was such companionship. Leyden's manners
were uncourtly. He was given to usurping the con-
versation. His voice was loud and strident, had little
or no modulation, and smacked of the provincial
dialect of his native heather. Of his own merit he
had the highest opinion, but such opinion might be
forgiven to one who deserved so much. In any case
these were not faults to frighten the eager young

20 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN
»

student, upon whose studies the doctors had not yet

pronounced their veto. It is pleasant to note that

Raffles's esteem was fully reciprocated. If it was

true that 'in his judgment of men, and his value of

their society and acquaintance ' Leyden ' was guided

solely by their moral and intellectual worth,' it is high

praise for Raffles that he was numbered at once

amongst Leyden's most intimate friends.

At the time of this visit Leyden had been a seeker
after fortune as was Raffles, but in the following year
an event occurred which made him a political person-
age. The arrival of a Governor-General, who was
an Elliot of Teviotdale, who loved scholarship and
genuineness, and knew a man when he saw one, was
the turning-point in Leyden's fortunes. In the
different posts to which he was promoted he had the
ear of Lord Minto, and was of course mindful of his
old friend. Hence when Raffles expressed his views
regarding Malacca, it was secured that they should
receive an attentive consideration from the highest
authority, and not be tossed aside in the pressure of
daily work.

Malacca, one of the earliest and the most important
emporia of eastern trade, had been captured by the
Dutch from the Portuguese in 164 1. It was taken
by the English under Major Brown in 1795. It was
part of the scheme under which Penang was raised
into a separate Presidency that Malacca should be
abandoned. The intention was gradually to transfer
to Prince of Wales's Island the trade and capital of
Malacca, together with the most valuable part of the

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 21

population. Meanwhile the fort was to be demolished,
a measure which was carried out in the course of 1807.
(* A most useless piece of gratuitous mischief, as far as
I can understand the subject.' — Lord Minto.) The
quick eye of Raffles promptly discovered how hope-
less must be any attempt to divert to Prince of Wales's
Island the trade and population of Malacca. His very
able minute on the subject marks his first appearance
upon the scene of imperial as opposed to local politics.
More than three-fourths of a population of some
twenty thousand, he points out, had been born in
Malacca, where their families had been settled for
centuries. c The Malays, a class of people not gener-
ally valued as subjects, are here industrious and useful
members of society ; attached to the place from their
birth, they are accustomed to the local regulations ;
and in the bosom of their family feel that they are at
home. Their peculiarities are attended to, their rank
respected, and their necessities easily supplied. . . .
From the antiquity and former celebrity of the place
it follows that the country is well cultivated, and
that valuable buildings, public and private, have been
erected by the inhabitants. . . . The prejudices of
the natives are too well known to require comment
here ; and it is no common advantage that will induce
them to quit the tombs of their ancestors, their
temples sacred to the Deity, their independence, and
estates on which they depend for their livelihood and
respectability. The inhabitants of Malacca are very
different from what they appear to have been con-
sidered. Three-fourths of the native population or

22 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

Prince of Wales's Island might, with little encourage-
ment, be induced to remove, having no fixed or
permanent property ; adventurers, ready to turn their
hands to any employment. But the case is very
different with the native inhabitants of Malacca. . . .
The inhabitants that remain are mostly proprietors
of property or connected with those that are ; and
those possessing independence from their gardens,
fishing, and the small traffic of the place. . . . From
every appearance it seems they have determined to
remain by Malacca, let its fate be what it will. . . .
The offer made by Government of paying the
passage of such as would embark for Penang was
not accepted by a single individual. . . . The natives
consider the British faith as pledged for their pro-
tection. When the settlement fell into the hands
of the English, they were invited to remain ; pro-
tection and even encouragement were offered them.
The latter has long ago ceased, and they are in daily
expectation of losing the former. For our protection
they are willing to make great sacrifices ; and they
pay the heavy duties imposed on them, with the
cheerfulness of faithful and obedient subjects. The
revenues of Malacca are never in arrear.' Supposing
the removal to be carried through, it would be neces-
sary to pay some 500,000 dollars as compensation to
the European inhabitants, but, admitting that this
were granted and the population actually removed,
' what check could be placed over emigration ? ' He
then entered upon an elaborate examination of the
Bugguese or Eastern trade, and demonstrated that

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 23

by its nature ' it is apparent that if the duties of
Malacca were lowered to the standard of Penang,
very few prows would proceed further up the Straits ;
and that the portion now stopping at Malacca is not
of a description to be forced further on but . . .
would either cease altogether, or attain its object at
a less advantage, at the native ports of Rhio or of
the Dutch at Java.' Upon the whole the conclusion
arrived at was that cit is now a trade almost ex-
clusively belonging to Malacca from its natural
advantages.'

More important interests even than those of trade
were, however, at stake. c Malacca, having been in
the possession of a European power for three centuries,
and even previously to that period considered as the
capital of the Malay States, has obtained so great an
importance in the eyes of the native princes, that they
are ever anxious to obtain the friendship of the nation
in whose hands it may be. Its name carries more
weight to a Malay ear than any new settlement, what-
ever its importance.' Malacca, in the hands of a native
prince, would be another, but more dangerous, Rhio.
But would it remain in the hands of a native prince ?
Its * possession will ever be a most desirable object to
a European power and to our enemy. ... It is well
known that the Dutch Government had it in con-
templation to make Malacca a free port, with the
view of destroying the English settlement at Penang.'
' The public works,' he added, ' may be demolished,
the principal buildings levelled with the earth from
which thev sprung, but Malacca, in its facilities for

24 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

trade, its extent of cultivation, its permanent style of
native buildings, must remain the same. Fortifica-
tions can in a short time be destroyed by the fiat of
man, but who shall direct the forests to reassume their
former extent, or the country of Malacca at once to
become an impenetrable forest and unhealthy swamp r
The industry of ages has been too effectually and too
successfully exerted to be effaced with common trouble.
Time and the exterminating sword alone will ever
be able to reduce it to its original state ; and, when it
is so reduced, it will always be an object of importance
to ourrEuropean enemy, as well on account of its supe-
rior advantages in trade and produce, as of its capability
of annoying and effectually destroying the English
interests at Penang.' During the continuance of the
war the present arrangements were of a temporary
character, but should it be decided, on the conclusion
of peace, to retain Malacca, and to make it a British
settlement, its real advantages would be seen. ' Ceded
to the English, its rivalship with Penang would cease.
No longer the oppressor and oppressed, they would
mutually assist each other. The revenues of Malacca
would immediately increase, while the Dutch law
might be abolished by proclamation from His Majesty,
and the jurisdiction of the Court at Prince of Wales's
Island with ease extended in its room.' Again :
' With the assistance of Malacca, the whole of the
Malay Rajahs in the Straits and to the eastward might
be rendered not only subservient, but, if necessary,
tributary.'

The most careless reader will recognise in these

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 25

extracts a ring not often found in official utterances.
Here was a subordinate official of twenty-seven years
old meddling with what did not directly concern him,
but who spoke as one having authority, however
respectful and modest the form of his language.
What might have been the fate of the Report at
another time is doubtful, but fortunately Lord Minto
was Governor-General and Leyden in a position of
influence and authority. The paper was duly sub-
mitted by the Penang authorities with a covering
letter of warm approval, but RafHes appears to have
sent another copy direct to Leyden for the perusal of
Lord Minto, and Leyden wrote (October 9, 1809) : —
' I laid before him without delay the MSS. concern-
ing Malacca, with which he was greatly pleased,
and desired me to say he should be gratified in re-
ceiving immediately from yourself any communi-
cations respecting the Eastern parts of a similar
nature.'

Already, in the previous year, Lord Minto had
said, ' The Malay language has been successfully
cultivated by Mr Raffles . . . who, much to his
honour, has long been employed in compiling a code
of . . . Malay laws from the best authorities in the
Malay and Bugguese languages.' In these circum-
stances, the Report was sure of a careful considera-
tion ; its weighty arguments convinced not only the
Governor-General, but also the Court of Directors.
* We have also,' the Court of Directors wrote in
November 1809, * perused with much attention the
Report prepared by your Secretary, Mr RafHes. . . .

26 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

This document has in so comprehensive a manner
laid open to our view the present circumstances of
the settlement of Malacca, and the dangers which
may arise by the total abandonment of it, that we
agree as a temporary measure to the continuance of
the present establishment there.'

Raffles had been wise in his generation in the manner
in which he had touched the financial side of the
question. The Court of Directors agreed ' the more
readily, as we find that the charges, including every
possible contingency, are fullv provided for by the
revenues of the place.' The paragraph concluded with
a cordial recognition of Raffles's services couched in
official phraseology — c We desire that you will com-
municate to that gentleman that we entertain a
favourable sense of the talents he has evinced upon
that occasion.'

It was the peculiar excellence of Raffles that he
succeeded in fusing, to the benefit of both, the claims
of practical politics and theoretical science. Just as
at a later date his choice of Singapore as a British
station was based on the traditions of its past history,1
so study as well as observation had assisted his con-
clusions with regard to the retention of Malacca. It
was thus natural enough that, at the same time as he
was forwarding his Report on Malacca, he should
submit to the Calcutta Asiatic Society a paper on
the Malay nation, with a translation of its maritime
institutions.

1 It does not matter in this connection that Raffles may have been
uncritical in his acceptance as fact of pure tradition.

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 27

In this he maintained that the Malay nation was
one people, speaking one language, though spread
over so wide a space, and preserving their character
and customs in all the maritime states lying between
the Sulu Seas and the Southern Ocean, and bounded
longitudinally by Sumatra and the western side of
New Guinea. ' The most natural theory on the
origin of the Malays ' was ' that they did not exist as
a separate and distinct nation until the arrival of the
Arabians in the Eastern seas.' They appeared ' to have
been gradually formed a nation and separated from
their original stock by the admixture of Arab blood
and the introduction of the Arabic language and
Moslem religion.'

While he was thus usefully employing this period of
enforced leisure, observing and mixing with the varied
population congregated from all parts of the Archi-
pelago, ' a ship arrived at Malacca from Penang,
bringing intelligence of her having left a vessel in the
harbour about to proceed to England. Mr Raffles,
knowing the necessity of sending despatches by the
first opportunity, and well aware that in his absence
the Government would find great difficulty in pre-
paring them, determined on proceeding there without
delay, although strongly urged to remain whilst his
health was so fast improving ; but it was impossible
to dissuade him from what he thought to be a public
duty.' He therefore chartered a pleasure-boat, and in
this small craft ' he reached Penang in good time to
relieve Government from a weight of care and anxiety,
which, I believe, was freely acknowledged at the time.'

28 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

That Raffles did not unduly magnify his own
importance is shown by the amazingly urgent letter
which meanwhile had been addressed to him by
Governor Macalister. ' It is distressing to me, my
dear sir, to be under the necessity of stating in this
pointed manner the unavoidable exigence of the case,
but such is the case that we shall not be able to make
up any despatches for the Court without your assist-
ance. . . . With the exception of Mr Phillips, the
rest of the Board can give but little assistance in
making out the general letter, none, however, so
little as myself.'

Considering the questions of high policy which
were at the time occupying him, and the oppor-
tunities which he was enjoying of pursuing his
favourite studies, Raffles' s hasty return to the dull
routine of his ordinary duties testifies more than pages
of panegyric what manner of man he was.

Meanwhile, in treating of the visit to Malacca, we
have broken the thread of the narrative as it concerns
Prince of Wales's Island. Mr Oliphant, the senior
member of Council, and Mr Dundas, the Governor,
had died in the months of March and April 1807.
Mr Pearson, who had returned from his leave of
absence, obtained the vacant seat in the Council, and
Raffles was appointed Secretary, in name as well
as in fact, with an increased salary. About the
same time he was appointed Agent for the Navy.
The new Governor, Macalister, wrote to the
Directors c of the unwearied zeal and assiduity with
which he has, since the formation of the establishment,

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 29

devoted his talents to the furtherance of the Com-
pany's interests, his unremitting attention to the
duties of the most laborious office under the Govern-
ment, added to those of Registrar of the Recorder's
Court.' In fact, the zeal of the Penang Government
on Raffles's behalf was to cause him considerable
trouble and inconvenience. It was decided (1807) to
re-adjust salaries so that the Secretary should receive an
additional ^600, or ^2600 in all, while the Assistant
Secretary should only receive ^900. c The allowance
granted ... to the assistants when these offices were
bestowed upon experienced persons selected from your
service in England, to whom a superior rank has been
attached, not appearing to us to apply to the case of the
young men sent out as writers on this establishment.'
The Court of Directors had no objection to the
reduction of the Assistant Secretary's salary, but
highly disapproved of the increase in the pay of the
Secretary. They could not admit that * because the
salary of one office will bear reduction, another is
therefore to be increased in a proportionate degree.'
Considering the drain which Prince of Wales's Island
involved upon the resources of the East India Com-
pany, and how little had come of the high hopes upon
which it had been started, there was nothing un-
reasonable in the decision of the Directors. What
does seem unreasonable is that the decision was con-
veyed in a letter dated April 28, 1809, more than a
year after they had received news of the alteration.
In this letter they ordered that ' Mr Raffles be called
upon to refund the amount which he may have

30 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

received over and above the sum of $8000 per
annum.'

At the time of the receipt of this order Raffles had
already been paid .£1625 additional salary, so that the
command to refund came as a bombshell. Although
the salary of £2000 may seem ample for a young
man, it must be remembered that the cost of living
at Penang was proverbially high. Mr Boulger quotes
a letter to the effect that ' a dollar does not go as far
as a rupee in the other Presidencies.' House rent was
an especially heavy item, and Raffles paid ^300 per
annum for his house ' Runnymede.' Moreover, in
considering Raffles's means, it must be remembered
how heavy were the claims on him of his own family.
As early as January 1807 we find him sending home
^400 to meet the outstanding liabilities. His eldest
sister, Mary Anne, who had accompanied him to
Penang, married shortly after her arrival a Mr
Quintin Dick, the holder of a good appointment.
Mr Dick, however, died suddenly in 1809, so that
the widow and three children were dependent upon
Raffles until she married again in 1811. In 1810
the family circle had been enlarged by the arrival of
his younger sisters Harriet and Leonora. It was the
number of these claims which doubtless led Raffles
to remark that he was poorer now than three months
before he left England.

Be this as it may, few in Raffles's position could
have immediately repaid the ^1600 thus abruptly
demanded of him. In a dignified and convincing
letter (February 1810) he pointed out, 'Had the

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 31

arrangement been expressed or understood to have been
in anyway provisional or conditional, or had it been made
in consequence of any representation or effected by any
act of my own, I should, of course, have held myself
liable to refund what the Honourable Court might
disapprove of, but in receiving what was voluntarily
authorised by your Hon. Board, I felt that I might
justly avail myself of its advantages in discharging
the heavy incumbrances which necessarily devolved
on me in my first establishment in this country,
and in aiding such parts of my family as stood in need
of my support and assistance ; and at this moment
most solemnly do I assure your Honourable Board of
my total inability to comply with the unexpected and
heavy demands now made nearly three years subse-
quent to my appointment. The circumstance of the
office devolving on me at the time, without the aid of
an experienced assistant, of which my predecessors
had the advantage, added to the serious illnesses under
which I have laboured, brought on chiefly from close
attention to duty and a constant anxiety to benefit the
public service as far as lay in my power, will, I hope,
meet with your favourable consideration.'

The Prince of Wales's Island Government zealously
espoused Raffles's cause. In the special circumstances
of the case, they decided to postpone the carrying out
of the Directors' order until they had again written
home. In a covering letter they warmly supported
RafHes's appeal. At the time no decision was arrived
at by the Court of Directors, and it was not till
181 7, on our hero's return to England after his

32 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

government or Java, that the Court of Directors
finally waived their claim to this ^1625.

Meanwhile, even before this anxiety was added,
Raffles had been seriously perturbed by the fear lest
he should break down under the strain of his present
work. In a letter already quoted (November 1808),
he says, ' I am convinced my health will never permit
of my holding this Office many years. If, therefore, I
am not to look for a seat in Council, or some quiet
place in the Government, I must either fall a sacrifice
or apply for the first vacancy in the collectorship or
other subordinate office. My constitution was always
delicate ; with care I have no doubt it could last as
long here as in England, without it it will soon break
up. The fatigue,' he adds, ' of merely writing this
letter gives me excruciating pain. ... I am afraid
they will work the willing horse to death ; all I
ask is to see the end of it.'

CHAPTER III

AGENT TO THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL WITH THE
MALAY STATES (l8lO-Il)

Political Situation- — Capture of Moluccas — Suggested as Governor
— Visits Calcutta — Lord Minto- — Headquarters, Malacca —
Abdulla — Reports from Malacca — Java Expedition.

Valuable as were the services of Raffles in Prince of
Wales's Island, they did not differ in kind from such as
are daily being performed by many Indian Civil ser-
vants unknown to fame. Physical reasons prevented
Penang from ever taking the leading position intended
for it under the scheme of the East India Company.
It was therefore desirable that Raffles should obtain
a more commanding stage on which to play his part.
The annexation by the French Republic of the
Dutch colonies threatened seriously to alter the
situation in the East. The Dutch had been rigid
monopolists, and Englishmen, in the East especially,
had no cause to love the nation which had been guilty
of the massacre at Amboyna. Nevertheless the
political weakness of Holland forbade that its colonies
should be a menace to the British possessions. But
when Holland became an annexe of France, the
situation was completely altered. The battle of the

34 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

Nile scotched but did not kill Napoleon's aspirations
for Asiatic dominion. The part that might be played
by Java in opposing British interests had been recog-
nised as early as 1797 by General Daendels, but the
naval strength of England in European waters had
prevented the Dutch from active operations. After
the resumption of hostilities which followed the
Treaty of Amiens, Marshal Daendels was sent out
in 1807 to Java to reorganise the Dutch colonial
forces, and to strengthen the defences of the island.
Meanwhile the Isle of France and Bourbon had been
fortified with additional troops, so that it became
necessary for the English to take the initiative unless
they were to be forestalled. The Whig Ministry of
1806 had been favourable to such undertakings, but
the financial situation of the Company barred the
way, and, on the return of Lord Castlereagh to
power, Lord Minto considered himself bound by
a positive prohibition of any expedition to Java or
other place eastward of India made by that Minister
when previously in office.

The British fleet did not, however, remain idle,
and the destruction of four Dutch men-of-war at the
close of 1807 was followed by the unpremeditated
capture of the Moluccas.

* The Governor-General,' Raffles states, * refused
to take charge of these islands on account of the
Company, and the naval commander hardly felt
himself warranted in establishing a King's Govern-
ment, but, as the decision was left with him, he
proposed to the Governor-General, who was then

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 35

at Madras, that I should be nominated to the charge,
and a provisional administration established pending
a reference to Europe. Lord Minto immediately
replied that I was not unknown to him, that he
was perfectly satisfied of my fitness and claims, and
that he would immediately appoint me if the Admiral
would undertake that I should accept the office ;
for it occurred to Lord Minto that, being a family
man, and of high pretensions, I might be unwilling
to sacrifice a certainty for an uncertainty. My
advancement at Prince of Wales's Island was secure,
but the Moluccas were only a war dependency,
and it was not known what measures regarding
them might be taken by the Government at home.
The Admiral did not like to take the responsibility,
and the arrangement dropped on an understanding
that my assent was alone wanting ; but as the
Governor-General was about to return to Bengal,
he would, of course, feel himself at perfect liberty
to bestow the office on another, should an im-
mediate arrangement or the claims of others require
an early attention.'

As soon as Raffles received from the Admiral
news of the possible opening which lay for him
in the Moluccas, he formed the determination to
visit Calcutta. * My attention had long been directed
to the state of the Dutch possessions to the eastward ;
and as rumours were afloat of a projected armament
going against the Isle of France, it occurred to me
that the information I possessed respecting Java
might be useful, and possibly turn the attention of

36 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

our Government in that direction. I accordingly
left my family, and proceeded to Calcutta in a small
and frail vessel — the only one which offered, but in
which my future prospects had well-nigh perished.
This was in the month of June 1810.1 On my
arrival in Bengal I met with the kindest reception
from Lord Minto. I found that though the appoint-
ment to the Moluccas had not actually taken place,
it was promised to another. I, in consequence,
relinquished all idea of it, and at once drew his
Lordship's attention to Java by observing that there
were other islands worthy of his Lordship's con-
sideration besides the Moluccas — Java, for instance.
On the mention of Java his Lordship cast a look
of such scrutiny, anticipation and kindness upon me
that I shall never forget. " Yes," said he, "Java is an
interesting island. I shall be happy to receive any
information you can give me concerning it." This
was enough to encourage me, and from this moment
all my views, all my plans and all my mind were
devoted to create such an interest regarding Java
as should lead to its annexation to our Eastern
Empire ; although I confess that I never had the
vanity to expect that, when this object was accom-
plished, so important an administration would have
been entrusted to my individual charge ; that I
should be entrusted with what Mr Marsden em-
phatically observes was as great a charge as a
nation could entrust to an individual.'

It must be frankly admitted that in thus writing

1 The original states 1811 — an obvious error.

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 37

Raffles was misled as to his own share in the
undertaking of the conquest of Java. The idea of
such a conquest was of course no new thing. The
fact that it had been previously expressly forbidden
proves that it was already the subject of discussion.
There is a very lucid despatch by Lord Minto,
dated October n, 181 1, wherein he shows that
the military proceedings against Bourbon, the Isle
of France, and Java were each part of a connected
whole. Among the India Office records are
elaborate reports on the subject of an attack upon
Java, drawn up by the British Resident at Fort
Marlborough long before Raffles's visit to Calcutta.
But if Raffles did not initiate the expedition, at
least he secured its prompt and ready success by
means of the zeal and ability with which he
obtained the necessary information. Moreover, the
success of his administration of the island has given
a tenfold importance to the story of its conquest.

Lord Minto was a good judge of men, and he
was able to provide Raffles with an employment
in which his best qualities had ample display. He
was appointed Agent to the Governor-General with
the Malay States 'as an avant courier, and to
prepare the way for the expedition.' The date of
his commission was October 19, 18 10, and in the
following December he arrived at Malacca, which
he had himself selected as his headquarters. It is
to this period that the description of him refers
which was afterwards written by his Malay
secretary, Abdulla.

445028

38 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

' When I first saw Mr Raffles, he struck me as
being of middle stature, neither too short nor too tall.
His brow was broad, the sign of large-heartedness ;
his head betokened his good understanding ; his hair,
being fair, betokened courage ; his ears, being large,
betokened quick hearing ; his eyebrows were thick,
and his left eye squinted a little ; his nose was
high ; his cheeks a little hollow ; his lips narrow, the
sign of oratory and persuasiveness ; his mouth was
wide ; his neck was long ; and the colour of his body
was not purely white ; his breast was well-formed,
his waist slender, his legs to proportion, and he walked
with a slight stoop.'

More interesting is the account of his mode of life.
' Now I observed his habit was to be always in deep
thought. He was most courteous in his intercourse
with all men. He always had a sweet expression
towards European as well as native gentlemen. He
was extremely affable and liberal, always commanding
one's best attention. He spoke in smiles. He also
was an earnest inquirer into past history, and he gave
up nothing till he had probed it to the bottom. He
loved most to sit in quietude, when he did nothing
else but write or read ; and it was his usage, when he
was either studying or speaking, that he would see
no one till he had finished. He had a time set apart
for each duty, nor would he mingle one with another.
Further, in the evenings, after tea, he would take ink,
pen and paper, after the candles had been lighted,
reclining with closed eyes in a manner that I often
took to be sleep ; but in an instant he would be

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 39

up and write for a while till he went to recline again.
Thus he would pass the night, till twelve or one,
before he retired to sleep. This was his daily prac-
tice. On the next morning he would go to what he
had written, and read it while walking backwards and
forwards, when, out of ten sheets, probably he would
give only three or four to his copying-clerk to enter
into the books, and the others he would tear up.
Such was his daily habit.'

Abdulla gives a striking picture of the many-
sidedness of our hero's intellectual interests. Men
were employed in collecting plants, insects, shells,
birds and nests for him. ' Many people profited from
going to search for the living creatures that exist in
the sky and the earth, sea or land.' He * took great
interest in looking into the origin of nations and
their manners and customs of olden times, examining
what would elucidate the same. ... At that time the
histories stored up in Malacca were nearly exhausted,
being sold by the people; and what were only to be
borrowed, these he had copied.' Abdulla notes the
fondness for animals of which we hear so much in
later years. The Rajah of Sambas had sent a present
of a Mawas or ourang-outang, * so he put trousers on
the Mawas, with coat and hat complete, which made
it as like a little man as possible, and he let it go,
when it soon became apparent that its habits were those
of mankind, the only fault being that it could not speak.'

In reading the account of the way in which Raffles
spent his money it ceases to be a matter for wonder
that he never felt well off. Few have realised better,

4o BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

though on a small scale, the quality of ^eyccXoTpsvuay
as described by Aristotle, but the 'magnificent' do
not lay up stores for their posterity.

One more salient feature Abdulla notes. c I also
perceived that he hated the habit of the Dutch ... of
running down the Malays, and they detested him in
return ; so much so that they would not sit down be-
side him. But Mr Raffles loved always to be on good
terms with the Malays — the poorest could speak to
him.' What was the object of Raffles's visit no one
exactly knew, but ' it was plain to me that in all his
sayings and doings there was the intelligence of a
rising man, together with acuteness. And if my
experience be not at fault, there was not his superior
in this world in skill or largeness of heart.'

Meanwhile the political objects of the mission were
being well fulfilled. In exhaustive reports to Lord
Minto, Raffles sketched the main features of a policy
to be applied to the islands. In ancient times the
Malay chiefs, though in full authority within their
own territories, had all held of a suzerain who was
King of the ancient and powerful state of Majohapk
in Java, and had the title of Bitora. Raffles proposed
that the Malay chiefs should be persuaded to invest
the Governor-General with the ancient title of Bitora.
A general right of superintendence and interference
would thus be given, which might be limited by treaty,
so as to remove any occasion of suspicion from the
native powers. In the districts directly occupied by
the English a line of policy should be adopted directly
contrary to the policy of the Dutch. That policv

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 41

had been to depress the native Malay inhabitants,
and to favour the Chinese. Raffles considered that
the Chinese were draining and exhausting the country
for the benefit of China. But if danger arose from
the industrious Chinese, the lazy Arab traders were
a yet greater evil. They were concerned very fre-
quently in acts of piracy, and were great promoters
of the slave trade. The remedy was to encourage
the native Malays and to regulate on equal terms
the duties of the Malay and other Eastern ports.
The commercial policy advocated by Raffles was
suggested by the facts of the situation. Under the
Dutch orders all persons had been prohibited under
pain of death from trading in the four fine kinds of
spices, unless such spices had been first bought from
the Company. The Dutch genius had never been
able to discover that in the long run it must be
more profitable to make smaller profits on a larger
capital than larger profits on a smaller capital. Their
policy had been to put out one eye in order to
strengthen the sight of the other. An artificial
monopolv had been kept up by the prohibition of
natural products and bv the wanton destruction of
crops. But while protesting against such iniquities,
Raffles recognised that some features of the Dutch
policy should be retained. One feature of that policy
had been to exclude all foreigners, whether native or
European, from all trade, except at certain specified
ports. This policy was as much connected with the
political government of the country as with the com-
mercial profits of the Company. ' Against the policy

42 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

of establishing certain determinate and regular ports
as emporiums of trade, it does not appear to me that
there is any valid objection to be stated ; and I there-
fore submit this measure to your Lordship's considera-
tion as the most effectual method of preventing the
Eastern Islands from being overrun by a multitude of
unprincipled adventurers — chiefly Chinese, Arabian
and American— whose presence in these countries will
neither tend to strengthen the interest of the British
nation nor to ameliorate the condition of the natives.'
With regard to the natives, the policy of the Dutch
had been to encourage dissensions between the various
chiefs. The policy of the English should be to sup-
port legitimate authority by their influence, and gradu-
ally to subject the private quarrels of headmen to a
general system of established law. The rudiments of
such a system were to be found in the Undang
Undang^ or the traditional codes current in the
various states. It was proposed that every Malay
chief should be requested to furnish a copy of such
Undang Undang) and to send one or two learned men
to a congress which might be appointed for the pur-
pose of revising the general system of Malay law.
No measures of improvement, however, could do
much unless the evils of piracy and domestic slavery
were first removed. Piracy had been the natural
growth of the physical circumstances and national
habits of the Malay people, and it could now only be
extirpated by an adequate naval force. Kidnapping
by pirates was a main source of slavery, together with
the penalties enacted in the Malay law respecting

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES +3

debts and sundry misdemeanours. Slavery, Raffles
asserted, had been abolished in 1805 through British
India by Lord Wellesley, and Lord Minto, by his
order of June 4, 181 1, emancipating the Government
slaves at Malacca, had given the Malay natives an
earnest of his views on the subject. With regard
to the more remote political future, Raffles faced
the possibility that Java might not be permanently
retained. In any case sound policy dictated the
forming of the most intimate connections, by treaty,
with such of the native peoples as had indisputable
pretensions to independence. c By fixing ourselves
in Banca, Bali, Celebes and Jelolo, we shall have a
chain of posts which would prevent the enemy
entirely from attaining very formidable power, or
deriving his former advantage from the possession
of Java and the Moluccas ; and by forming a settle-
ment in Borneo, connected with the interior of
that country, so fertile and so rich in the precious
metals, we shall soon be in a position to compete
with them on equal terms.' Not without reason,
in closing his report, he congratulated Lord Minto
* on the most splendid prospect which any administra-
tion has beheld since the first acquisition of India ;
the pacification of India completed, the tranquillity
and prosperity of our Eastern possessions secured,
the total expulsion of the European enemy from
the Eastern seas, and the justice, humanity and
moderation of the British Government, as much
exemplified in fostering and leading on new races
of subjects and allies in the career of improvement,

4+ BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

as the undaunted courage and resolution of British
soldiers in rescuing them from oppression.' While
occupied, however, with large schemes of general
policy, Raffles was none the less mindful of the
immediate business in hand. Communications were
at once entered into with several of the principal
chieftains in Java in the Malay and Javanese lan-
guages. l Further letters in these languages were
forwarded to the eastward by every opportunity
that offered.' Friendlv relations were established
with the Rajahs of Bali and Lombok, whence ample
provisions could be obtained for an army invading
Java. Attempts were made to enlist on the British
side the Bantam chiefs, who were nominally subject
to the Dutch ; while at the same time a proclamation
was issued in the Dutch language endeavouring to
induce the Dutch colonists to side with the English
against their French masters.

In one instance, according to Abdulla, Raffles was
deceived by his native agents. A Malay had been
despatched, along with a Javanese nobleman, with
letters to the Sultan of Mataram. They returned
with an answer, in which the Sultan agreed to assist
from the landward on the arrival of the English.
The terms of the letter excited Raffles's suspicions.
He kept taking it in his hands only to lay it down
again. At last he recognised that the paper was of
exactly the same sample as that in his own press.
He sent at once for the unhappy Javanese, and
extorted from him a reluctant confession. The
envoys had been prevented by the monsoon, and

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 45

had never, in fact, landed in Java. 'When Mr
Raffles heard all this he scratched his ears and stamped
his feet with rage, and with a blank face told him
to go below to wait there, and to look at Mr Raffles
you would take him as one under great trouble,
without ceasing, for on that day it was intended to
get his effects on board ship, it being the day for
sailing.' Raffles had placed great hopes on the
results of this mission, and to be thus fooled, in the
presence of Lord Minto, was indeed hard. Accord-
ing to Abdulla, Raffles threatened to blow the Malay
from a cannon's mouth at sea. Abdulla shrewdly
suspects that the threat was made with the intention
of the wretched man making his escape, as he did,
by which means an unpleasant subject need not be
recalled. From the manner in which the story is
told it is clear that such a failure on the part of
Raffles's diplomacy was altogether exceptional. The
information supplied by him with regard to the
number and position of the enemy's forces proved
singularly accurate. He recommended the stationing
of ships of war on the south coast of Java, to pre-
vent supplies of either men or arms being introduced
by the French from that quarter. Raffles also urged
the importance of the British troops being cautioned
as to their behaviour while in the island. 'As the
connection of the British with the Malay States has
been always the subject of the greatest anxiety and
jealousy to the Dutch, it may be suspected that they
have not given to the Malays and Javanese a more
favourable idea of the English than they have given

46 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

of the Malays. It must be admitted that we are
going to commence our operations in Java with the
majority of our troops, whether European or native,
entertaining the most unfavourable ideas of the Malay
character. These sentiments in the minds of our
soldiers will not naturally tend to induce a line of
conduct, on their part, calculated to convey to the
natives of Java any strong impressions either of our
justice or humanity.' In a similar spirit he had
warned Lord Minto of the bad impression caused
by the presence off Batavia of British ships. A
universal alarm had been excited in the minds of
I the natives. l As few of the Eastern nations are at
all acquainted with the English language, and almost
as few of the officers of H.M.'s navy are able to
communicate directly with the natives in the Malay
language, the danger of not being able to make
themselves understood always appears very formidable
to the natives, and there is reason to suppose that
in various instances it has led to consequences of
the most fatal kind.'

Raffles was one of the first Englishmen to form a
just estimate of the Japanese character. Although
under the mismanagement of the Dutch, the trade
with Japan, of which they possessed the monopoly,
had sunk well nigh to zero, being limited to ten
ships a year from Batavia, it was of the utmost
importance that Great Britain should inherit the
Dutch privileges to serve as a foundation on which
to build. Upon the whole it may be safely affirmed
that had Raffles died at the age of thirty, his reports

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 47

from Malacca alone would have secured him a place
among the most foreseeing of British public servants.
Meanwhile Lord Minto had determined himself to
accompany the Java Expedition. The flutter caused
by this decision in the official dovecots is amusingly
described in a letter of Leyden. c All are utterly
confounded by his Lordship's resolution, of which
nobody had the slightest suspicion ; and so com-
pletely were they all taken aback that nobody
volunteered for service till the whole arrangements
were settled. Indeed more than the half are as
yet thunderstruck, and are very far from believing
that he has any real intention of visiting Java. " No,"
say they, "to go and take such a little paltry place
would not be decorous ; no, no, there must be an
insurrection breaking out again at Madras." The
selection of your humble servant is another very
ominous circumstance, and I daresay has deterred
a great many smart bucks from coming forward.
The civilians of the Joint Committee have already
discovered me to be a very devil incarnate, and the
greatest mischief maker in the land. They will
be very glad to see the back seams of my hose at
all events. I volunteered, of course, as soon as his
Lordship signified his desire of having me with him,
to come off directly to join you ; but he told me
that he should prefer to have me directly at his elbow.
You may be sure no possible delay but will be avoided
when I am of the party. We go first to Madras
to see the whole force off from that quarter. The
Bengal force will be shipped directly. In the Modeste

48 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

go with his Lordship from Madras to Malacca, Mr
Seton, the present Resident of Delhi, who goes to be
Governor of Penang — he is an excellent character ;
Mr Elliot ; Captain Taylor ; Mr Gordon, surgeon to
the Body Guard ; Mr Hope, whom you saw when
he came from the Mauritius when you were here,
and your humble servant. Pray be most particular
in your military enquiries against the time of our
arrival, and be able to tell where the disposable
force is stationed, for that will be of main utility.
I have secured Greigh to be under your command,
and that is giving you a fine fellow in every sense
of the word, active and alert, and brother-in-law of
Lord Rollo besides, and you owe not me but a good
many for the circumstance.'

In February 1811, Lord Minto had written to
Raffles acquainting him with his intention to pro-
ceed in person 'at least to Malacca, and eventually,
I may say probably, to Java.' His main motive
for accompanying the expedition was that he might
personally confer with Raffles. Lord Minto added :
'I must tell you in confidence that I have received
the sanction of Government at home for this ex-
pedition, but that the views of the Directors do not
go beyond the expulsion or reduction of the Dutch
power, the destruction of the fortifications, the dis-
tribution of their arms and stores to the natives,
and the evacuation of the island by our own troops.
I conclude, however, that the destructive and calami-
tous consequences of this plan to so ancient and
populous a European colony, the property and lives

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 49

of which must fall a sacrifice to the vindictive sway
of the Malay chiefs, if transferred suddenly and
defenceless to their dominion, have not been fully
contemplated ; and I have already stated my reasons
for considering a modification of their orders as
indispensable.' Dr Leyden wrote that Lord Minto
was 'still fluctuating between the two old plans of
keeping the country or rendering it independent';
but probably Lord Minto, like other strong men,
did not always let others know what was passing
within him. He was careful, however, to let Raffles
know the opinion he held of him. 'It is proposed,'
he writes, ' to style you Secretary to the Governor-
General when we come together ; for then your
character of Agent will naturally merge. Secretary
is the highest office below the Council, and was lately-
held by Mr Edmonstone at Madras. I hope you
do not doubt the prospective interest I have always
taken, and do not cease to take, in your personal
views and welfare. I have not spoken distinctly
on that subject, only because it has been from
circumstances impossible for me to pledge myself
to the fulfilment of my own wishes, and, I may
add, intentions, if practicable. The best is, in truth,
still subject to one contingency, the origin of which
is earlier than my acquaintance with you ; but I am
happy to say that I do not expect an obstacle to
my very strong desire upon this point ; and if it
should occur, the utmost will be done to make the
best attainable situation worthy of your services and
of the high esteem I profess with the greatest
sincerity for your person.'

CHAPTER IV

THE CONQUEST OF JAVA (l8l i)

The Voyage — Military Operations — Appointee) Lieutenant-
Governor — Lord Minto's Decision as to Retention.

Lord Minto arrived at Penang, April 18, 1811, and
at Malacca on May 9, following. We have a pleasant
picture of the good Governor-General burning the
implements of torture and causing the old dungeons
to be razed to the ground. The need for haste was
pressing, as the south-east monsoon was every day
increasing in violence and rendering the passage to
Java more and more uncertain. The alternative
of two routes presented itself- — first, the" direct route
along the south-west coast of Borneo ; secondly, the
passage round the north and east coast of Borneo,
through the Straits of Macassar. By means of the
services of Mr Greigh, ' peculiarly suited,' in Lord
Minto's words, 'as well as his ship, to many useful
purposes,' and by inquiries among the best-informed
of the Eastern traders, Raffles established the feasi-
bility of the South- West Passage. He c did not
hesitate to stake his reputation on the success which
would attend the expedition if the route he pointed
out should be followed.' Lord Minto gave practical
5°

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 51

proof of his trust in Raffles, by choosing the route
he advised against the unanimous opinion of the
naval authorities. He embarked on H.M.S. Modestc,
commanded by his son, Captain George Elliot,
on June 18, 181 1, and in less than six weeks
after leaving Malacca the fleet, consisting of up-
wards of ninety sail, was in sight of Batavia without
accident to a single vessel. Lord Minto humorously
describes the way in which the cautious Commodore
Broughton took care that the Modeste should lead
the way, and have the post of danger. In Lord
Minto's words, ' The expectations which had been
formed were verified in every part of the passage,
and everything turned out precisely as had been fore-
told and proposed with the exception of finding
less difficulty than had been looked for, and the
voyage proving shorter than could have been hoped.
... I have been the more particular in detailing
these circumstances, because this expedition must
have been abandoned for the present year (an earlier
departure than actually took place from India having
been totally impracticable) if I had yielded to the
predicted difficulties of the passage.' It was at
the moment of the first landing upon Java, when
the weight of anxiety which had for weeks oppressed
him was removed, and his star seemed clearly in the
ascendant, that Raffles wrote the letter to Mr Ramsay
already quoted, in which he described himself as
sometimes ' as happy as I think it possible for man
to be.' ' It is one of these life-inspiring moments,'
he continues, c that I now purpose passing with you

52 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

a la distance ... of the importance of this conquest,
the views that naturally present themselves on such
an occasion, and the share I have had in bringing
the important point so near a conclusion, I need
not speak. You have the opportunity of seeing
the government proceedings which will be sufficiently
satisfactory. ... I wish very much to hear what is
said of my political ideas respecting the government
of the Eastward. ... I will write you more fully
after we are settled. Conquer we must.'

The troops, consisting of about 9000 men, landed
on August 4 at Chillinching, in Batavia Bay. The
General in command was Sir Samuel Auchmuty, of
whose ' talents, judgment, and, above all, character,'
Lord Minto had formed the highest opinion when
known to him only through his correspondence.
Happily the prediction was in every way fulfilled,
that * it is impossible that anything can disturb the
harmony of this important service so far as he and I
are concerned.' Proclamations were at once issued
addressed to the Dutch and native inhabitants. The
Dutch were reminded that ' the extinction of their
metropolis has left the colonies of Holland to their
own free judgment.' They were therefore urged to
side with ' the champion and defender of Europe '
against c the common enemy of all nations.' The
natives were informed that the English came as
friends, but ' as they have not entered the Eastern
seas for purposes of ruin and destruction, but solely
with the desire of securing to the Eastern nations the
enjoyment of their ancient laws and institutions, and

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 53

of protecting everyone from violence, oppression and
injustice, the inhabitants themselves must be aware
that they cannot recommend themselves to such a
government by means of massacres and commotions.
The English Government accordingly require that
the native inhabitants remain for the present the
peaceable spectators of what is about to take place,
and that they on no account act oppressively, or take
up arms against the French or Dutch, except when
expressly called upon to do so by an English officer.
All supplies will be paid for at full value, but you are
not to supply the enemy, and you are also to impede
the progress of the enemy's army from one part of the
country to the other. The port of Batavia is open to
all native traders. All prows and vessels bringing
provisions and merchandise will be kindly received
and protected by the English ships of war.'

Advancing with part of his army, General
Auchmuty found that the road to Batavia was not
disputed by the enemy, and that the only obstacle
to his progress was the destruction of the bridge over
the River Aujal. On the 8th the troops occupied
the suburbs of the city, and a temporary bridge was
constructed capable of supporting light artillery. On
the same day ' the burghers of Batavia applied for
protection, and surrendered the city without opposi-
tion, the garrison having retreated to Weltevreeden.'
The General's report continues : * The possession of
Batavia was of the utmost importance. Though
large storehouses of public property were burnt by
the enemy previous to their retreat, and every effort

54 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

made to destroy the remainder, we were fortunate
in preserving some valuable granaries and other stores.
The city, although abandoned by the principal
inhabitants, was filled with an industrious race of
people, who will be particularly useful to the army.
Provisions were in abundance, and an easy com-
munication preserved with the fleet.' The leading
inhabitants had been compelled to accompany the
French General, and the Dutch left in the town
were glad of protection against expected riots on
the part of the Malays. Very early on the ioth
Colonel Gillespie advanced towards the enemy's
cantonment at Weltevreeden. ' The cantonment
was abandoned, but the enemy were in force a little
beyond it, and about two miles in advance of their
works at Cornelis. Their position was strong, and
defended by an abbatis, occupied by 3000 of their
best troops and four guns of horse artillery. Colonel
Gillespie attacked it with spirit and judgment, and,
after an obstinate resistance, carried it at the point
of the bayonet, completely routed their force, and
took their guns. A strong column from these troops
advanced to their support, but our line being arrived
they were instantly pursued, and driven under shelter
of their batteries. In this affair, so creditable to
Colonel Gillespie . . . our loss was trifling compared
with the enemy's, which may be estimated at about
500 men. . . . Though we had hitherto been suc-
cessful beyond my most sanguine expectations, our
further progress became extremely difficult and some-
what doubtful. The enemy, greatly superior in

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 55

numbers, was strongly entrenched . . . seven re-
doubts and many batteries, mounted with heavy
cannon, occupied the most commanding grounds
within the lines. The fort of Cornelis was in the
centre, and the whole of the works were defended
by a numerous and well-organised artillery. The
season was too far advanced, the heat too violent,
and our numbers insufficient to admit of reg-ular
approaches. To carry the works by assault was the
alternative, and on that I decided. In aid of this
measure I directed some batteries to disable the
principal redoubts, and for two days kept up
a heavy fire from twenty eighteens, and eight
mortars and howitzers. Their execution was great,
and I had the pleasure to find that though answered
at the commencement of each day by a far more
numerous artillery, we daily silenced their nearest
batteries, considerably disturbed every part of their
position, and were evidently superior in our fire.

' At dawn of day on the 26th the assault was
made. The principal attack was entrusted to that
gallant and experienced officer Colonel Gillespie. . . .
The enemy was under arms and prepared for the
combat, and General Janssens, the Commander-in-
Chief, was in the redoubt when it commenced.
Colonel Gillespie, after a long action through a
close and intricate country, came on their advance,
routed it in an instant, and, with a rapidity never
surpassed, and under a heavy fire of grape and

musketry, possessed himself of the advanced redoubt.

He passed the bridge with the fugitives under a

56 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

tremendous fire, and assaulted and carried with the
bayonet the redoubt, after a most obstinate resist-
ance. Here the two divisions of this column
separated. Colonel Gibbs turned to the right, and
with the 59th and part of the 78th, who had now
forced their way in front, carried the redoubt. A
tremendous explosion of the magazine of this work
took place at the instant of its capture, and destroyed
a number of gallant officers and men, who at the
moment were crowded on its ramparts, which the
enemy had abandoned. The redoubt, against which
Lieutenant-Colonel M'Cleod's attack was directed,
was carried in as gallant a style ; and I lament to
state that most valiant and experienced officer fell
at the moment of victory. The front of the position
was now open, and the troops rushed in from every
quarter.

' During the operations of the night, Colonel
Gillespie pursued his advantage to the left, carrying
the enemy's redoubts towards the rear. ... A
sharp fire of musketry was now kept up by a strong
body of the enemy, who had taken post in the lines
in front of Fort Cornelis, but were soon driven from
thence, the fort taken, and the enemv completely
dispersed. They were pursued by Colonel Gillespie
with the 14th Regiment, a party of sepoys, and the
seamen from the batteries under Captain Sayer of
the Royal Navy ; by this time the cavalry and horse
artillery had effected a passage through the lines,
the former commanded by Major Travers, and the
latter by Captain Noble ; and, with the gallant

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 57

Colonel at their head, the pursuit was continued till
the whole of the enemy's army was killed, taken
or dispersed. ... I have the honour to enclose a
return of the loss sustained . . . sincerely I lament
its extent ; and the many valuable and able officers
that have unfortunately fallen ; but when the pre-
pared state of the enemy, their numbers, and the
strength of their positions are considered, I trust it
will not be deemed heavier than might be expected.
Theirs has greatly exceeded it ; in the action of
the 26th the numbers killed were immense, but it
has been impossible to form any accurate statements
of the amount. About 1000 have been buried in
the works, multitudes were cut down in the retreat,
the rivers are choked up with the dead, and the huts
and woods were filled with wounded, who have since
expired. We have taken nearly 5000 prisoners,
among whom are 3 general officers, 34 field officers,
90 captains, and 150 subaltern officers. General
Janssens made his escape with difficulty during the
action, and reached Buitenzorg with a few cavalry,
the sole remains of an army of 10,000 men. This
place he has since evacuated, and fled to the eastward.
A detachment of our troops is in possession of it.
The superior discipline and invincible courage which
has so highly distinguished the British army was
never more fully displayed ; and I have the heartfelt
pleasure to add that they have not been clouded by
any acts of insubordination.' >

Not daring to remain at Buitenzorg, the Dutch
Governor had fled with a fragment of his forces to

58 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

Samarang. Although Janssens had been present at
the battle of Cornells, the command of the troops
had been held by the French General Jumelle.
Janssens, at most, could only postpone the evil day,
and, Samarang being captured by the English, he
signed on September 18 the formal capitulation.
The general rejoicing was damped by the death of
Leyden. The tradition goes that he had been the first
to leap upon the shore of Java. c He pushed his
exertions of every kind far beyond his strength, and
was totally regardless of the precautions against the
sun.' He went heated from a public library into a
room which had not been opened for a long time, and
was struck by a mortal chill. He had been ailing for
some time, and fell an easy victim to the first attack.
In him Raffles lost a most loyal friend and fellow-
worker, whose place was very partially filled by the
somewhat pompous and self-centred Mr Marsden.

At the date of the capitulation Raffles had already
been for one week Lieutenant-Governor of Java.
His commission was issued on September n, the
same day on which was published the Proclamation
which was to direct the course of the new govern-
ment. It has been already seen that Lord Minto
hinted of prior claims which might stand in the way
of our hero's appointment. Happily, the obstacle,
whatever it was, was removed, and Lord Minto was
able to appoint Raffles l as an acknowledgment of
the services he had rendered, and in consideration of
his peculiar fitness for the office.'

Lord Minto justified himself against a possible

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 59

charge of disobedience to the orders of the Com-
pany by emphasising the consequences which blind
obedience would have entailed. ' It would have been
an abuse of the word obedience, and offensive, above
all, to the authority from which the order had been
issued under a defect of local information to have
carried into effect a command, of which the conse-
quences described were manifest on the spot to those
who were charged with the execution.' To with-
draw the whole European population, and to make
a provision for their support, 'would have required
pecuniary sacrifices and arrangements which could
have been hazarded by no subordinate authority
abroad.' For the time Lord Minto's arguments
convinced. Nevertheless, he would seem to have
gauged better than did the sanguine Raffles the
real temper of their London masters. There is a
note of disquiet in the words which Lord Minto
used on the eve of his departure from Java — words
which Raffles liked to recall, and which bore good
fruit in his measures — ' While we are here, let us
do as much good as we can.'

CHAPTER V

THE GOVERNMENT OF JAVA (l8ll-l6)

The Dutch Regime — Difficulties of Situation — Lord Minto's Pro-
clamation— Visits Courts of Souracarta and Djocjocarta —
Fiscal Regulations — Amended System in the Administration
of Justice— Palembang Expedition — Visits Samarang — Settle-
ment with Native Princes — Lord Minto's Approval.

Thus, at the early age of thirty, Raffles found
himself the ruler of the * other India.' Of the
great beauty and of the great potential wealth of
the country there could be no question. But
there were considerations which might have given
a less sanguine man food for thought. Whatever
were its real resources, the financial position of
Java at the time of the conquest was bad in the
extreme. Perhaps as a nation we are somewhat
inclined to pharisaical thanksgivings on our superi-
ority to our neighbours. But from any point of
view, the contrast between the histories of the
English and of the Dutch East India Companies
is striking. Both were trading companies com-
pelled by the irresistible trend of events to assume
territorial sovereignty. But while the English
Company, in spite of mistakes and failures, must
60

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AFTER THE MAP IN

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SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 61

upon the whole be said to have risen to the
height of the occasion, and in its last days obtained
the regrets of a man so enlightened as J. Stuart
Mill, the Dutch Company on the other hand
continued consistently to evade responsibility, and
to regard all its territorial rights as subservient to
its mercantile system. Thus the cession, in 1749,
of the whole of the northern and eastern coasts
to the Company did not lead to any attempt to
improve the condition of the country or its in-
habitants. The final judgment upon the Dutch
East India Company must be pronounced from
Dutch mouths. The Commission, appointed in
1790, reported upon the management of affairs
that c they could not conceal the deep impression
which the same had made upon their minds, and
that they could not fix their thoughts upon it
without being affected by sentiments of horror and
detestation.' { When,' said they, l we take a view
of our chief possessions and establishments, and
when we attend to the real situation of the internal
trade of India, the still increasing and exorbitant
rate of the expenses, the incessant want of cash,
the mass of paper money in circulation, the un-
restrained peculations and faithlessness of many of
the Company's servants, the consequent clandestine
trade of foreign nations, the perfidy of the native
princes, the weakness and connivance of the Indian
Government, the excessive expenses in the military
department and for public defence : in a word,
when we take a view of all this collectively, we

62 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

should almost despair of being able to fulfil our
task, if some persons of great talent and ability
among the Directors had not stepped forward to
devise means, if not to eradicate, at least to stop
the further progress of corruption and to prevent
the total ruin of our Company.'

Whatever chances there may have been of im-
provement, they were lost by the breaking out of
war, and in the general conflagration caused by
the French Revolution, the Dutch East India
Company came to its inglorious end. The revenue
of the Company had mainly depended upon the
monopoly of the Eastern trade, and, with the
breaking up of that monopoly by the superior
power of the British fleet, the deficit in the Java
accounts grew by leaps and bounds. Daendels,
who arrived in Java in January 1808 to restore the
situation, was an able man, but he was above all a
Jacobin, a disciple of that terrible school to whom
facts were as nothing in the iron grasp of pre-
conceived theory. His claims to have initiated
reforms in the lot of the Javanese will . be dealt
with below ; the financial legacy which he left his
successor is best told from that successor's own
mouth. ' Le ci-devant Gouverneur-General,' wrote
Janssens, 'a epuise toutes ressources ; je ne saurais
repondre des evenements.' Again, writing after
the final disaster, he said, ' Sauver la colonie, je le
declare devant le Dieu tout puissant, cela etait
impossible pour qui ce fut. Telle etait meme
l'horreur de la situation, que s'il eut ete possible

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 63

de vaincre une armee reguliere comme celle de
l'ennemi, je n'avais pas des moyens pour continuer
Tad ministration de la colonic Toutes ces ressources
etaient epuisees ou aneanties ! '

Considering the experiences of the past, and
how seldom it is that a vicious circle of deficits
can be at once escaped, it will be seen that there
was too great an element of hopefulness in the
estimate formed by Raffles and endorsed by Lord
Minto of a surplus of 700,000 Spanish dollars for
the year 18 12-13. On the other hand, the estimate
was founded on elaborate figures, and was sub-
stantially approved by the Bengal Accountant-
General. Be this as it may, undoubtedlv the
disappointment caused by the failure of these
expectations, guiltless as Raffles was of the cause
of this failure, strengthened the hands of the party
opposed to him in the councils of the East India
Company, and led to the contemptuous view of
his financial measures which for years prevailed.
Moreover, this financial disappointment gave tenfold
force to the arguments of those who had always
regarded the Java Expedition as a hazardous adven-
ture, outside the proper business of the East India
Company. It has been seen how reluctantly, and
only under the pressure of Lord Minto's influence
and logic, the Company had agreed to do more
than break the enemy's power, and then leave the
Dutch colonists at the mercy of the natives. It
was obvious what an argument a succession of
deficits would put into the hands of the more

64 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

timid party. The ship might be slowly righting
itself, so that by the time the colony was restored
to the Dutch, it was recognised that the financial
equilibrium had been restored, and RafHes's policy,
on mere financial grounds, abundantly justified.
What the wiseacres of Leadenhall Street demanded
was immediate gains, and when these immediate
gains were not forthcoming, it is doubtful which
was more unpopular, Java or its sanguine Governor.
Meanwhile the strain of the work in hand forbade
vague anticipations as to the future. It was a
matter of comment both by friends and critics
how completely, from the necessity of the case,
all the threads of government had to pass through
the hands of Raffles. The absence of an experi-
enced and trained civil service rendered his position
unique. One great mainstay he did possess. The
lines of the policy to be worked out in detail had
been once and for all sketched by Lord Minto in
the memorable Proclamation of September n,
18 1 1. Under this His Majesty's subjects in Java
were declared to be entitled generally to the same
privileges as were enjoyed by the natural - born
subjects of Great Britain in India. They will also
have the same privilege and freedom of trade to,
and with, all countries to the east of the Cape of
Good Hope, and also with His Majesty's European
dominions, as are possessed by natural-born subjects
of Great Britain.' ' Dutch gentlemen will be
eligible to all offices of trust.' ' The vexatious
system of monopoly . . . will be revised.' ' The

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 65

Dutch laws will remain provisionally in force.'
The following modifications among others were
however made. Torture and mutilation were
abolished. British-born subjects were to be amen-
able to the jurisdiction of the Dutch tribunals,
and to the Dutch laws in all cases of civil complaint
or demands. All British-born subjects were to be
subject to the regulations .of police, and to the
jurisdiction of the magistrates charged with the
execution thereof. Power was given to the
Lieutenant-Governor to enact legislative regulations
which should have the full force of law. Such
regulations were to be immediately reported to the
Governor-General in Council in Bengal, together
with the Lieutenant-Governor's reasons for passing
them and any representations that might have
been submitted to him against the same ; and the
regulations so passed were to be confirmed or
disallowed by the Governor-General in Council
with the shortest possible delay.

Raffles at once set himself to conciliate the Dutch
inhabitants. ' They,' he writes confidentially to Lord
Minto in January 1812, 'are perfectly content and
happy. . . . There is not among the Dutch the
least symptom of dissension, and all classes of people
have come most quietly under the British rule. The
Colonel (Gillespie) is occasionally full of suspicions
with regard to conspiracies and plots, and, I believe,
if he had his own way, would send every Dutchman
off the island. He really has no consideration what-
ever for them, but it is all without reason. We

66 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

have not had any unpleasant occurrence. As soon
as it was known that the oaths might be taken,
the public offices were crowded from morning till
night with the inhabitants. No order had been ever
issued respecting the oaths, and yet every man on
the island has taken them ; they may really be
termed voluntary oaths. The late members of
Council came forward in a body, and, after taking
the oaths before me, I am sorry to add, got most
jovially tipsy at my house in company with the
new Councillors.' From another letter we learn
that Raffles found the policy of promoting British
interests by keeping open house very expensive to
his own private pocket.

Although the whole island had been nominally a
Dutch possession, they had, in fact, shirked, as we
have seen, the responsibilities of sovereignty, and
over the greater part of the island the native princes
wielded effective authority. The two most important
native princes were the Sosohunan or Emperor, who
represented the ancient Javanese monarchy, and re-
sided at Solo, and the Sultan of Mataram, whose
capital was Djocjocarta. As the Dutch power was
seen to wane, vague aspirations after independence
began to penetrate the minds of the native rulers.
The swiftness, however, and the completeness of
the British success prevented any show of overt
resistance, and the first months of Raffles's govern-
ment were spent in peacefully introducing the new
system. From the first, in Muntinghe's words,
' his actions aimed at strengthening the European

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 67

rule and extending it, setting aside all dangerous
influences of the Mahomedan governors.' The
power of the European residents was greatly in-
creased by the bringing into operation of a new
system of taxation and by the change in the
administration of the law. Mr Hope was appointed
Civil Commissioner for the eastern districts, an
office which Deventer calls 'materially a continua-
tion of former governors of Java.' It is note-
worthy that the Netherlands Commissioners-General
in 1816 considered Raffles's Instructions to Resi-
dents so complete and accurate that they continued
them almost entirely without alterations.

The power and authority of the Sultan was of
modern date, arising out of the settlement made
at the general peace of 1755. The conquests of
the Sultan's father had been confirmed by the Dutch,
according to Raffles, ' more as a matter of necessity
than inclination.' The Sultan had been, on paper,
deposed by Marshal Daendels, but had taken advan-
tage of the troubled times to assume the sovereignty,
and to remove, try and execute the Prime Minister.
The English resident, Mr Crawfurd, took a strong
line against the Sultan, but Raffles was very doubtful
both of the justice and of the policy of such a line of
action. In this state of things he determined to
visit in person the Courts of the Emperor and
Sultan. Raffles embarked on November 28, and
landed at Samarang on December 4, making a public
entry into Souracarta on the 21st. The task of
coming to terms with the Sosohunan presented little

68 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

difficulty. A treaty was signed, under which, in
return for a fixed money payment, the Emperor
gave up the proceeds of the birds' nests and the
teak forests. An important provision, guaranteeing
to the Emperor protection, was intended to pave the
way for the disbandment of the numerous armed
bodies retained in his service. The Emperor pro-
fessed great satisfaction at the treaty. Producing
a letter which Raffles had written from Malacca,
he remarked that he was now satisfied that the
English promised nothing which they did not per-
form. At the same time he presented Raffles with
a kriss, ' invaluable on account of its having descended
from his ancestors.'

Very different was the task to be performed at
Djocjocarta. Raffles was still hampered by the
strong views of the British Agent, Mr Crawfurd.
Influential natives banished by Daendels had been
sent home by Raffles to report confidentially.
Crawfurd, however, by setting them up as rivals
to the Sultan, rendered the mission useless. Mean-
while Raffles was still determined to acknowledge
the Sultan's authority. He started from Souracarta
on December 26, and on the next day proceeded
direct to Djocjocarta. ' On my arrival,' Raffles
writes to Lord Minto, ' in the neighbourhood of
Djocjocarta, every arrangement was made for my
reception with the honours shown to Marshal
Daendels. ... I was first met by the Regent,
and then by the Sultan, with whom I proceeded in
the same carriage to the Residency House, the roads

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 69

and streets being lined and crowded by about 10,000
armed men of various descriptions, mostly cavalry.
. . . Everything, however, was perfectly peaceable
on my approach, and by a quick movement of the
troops from Klatten in one morning, and before
the Sultan was aware of their number, I found
myself in Djocjocarta with nearly the whole dis-
posable force that could have been brought against
the place.' Raffles recognised that 'the proceedings
with the Sultan and Regent could not be considered
otherwise than in the light of an armed negotiation.'
In this state of things he deemed it sufficient to
bind the Sultan to all his engagements with the
former Government, and to reinstate him on the
throne during the time he might 'conduct himself
to the satisfaction of the British Government.' A
deed to this effect was thereupon signed, upon
which, ' instead of the appearance of caution and
fear,' the Sultan 'evinced a perfect confidence in
the sincerity and intentions of the English. There
were no troops whatever in the palace, and it seemed
to be his desire in every measure to show his grati-
tude and attachment to me.' The question of a
treaty upon the lines of the treaty with the Emperor
was postponed to a later date.

The mode of collecting the revenue was altered.
As early as March 1812, Raffles was able to write
that ' in the collection of the revenue the obnoxious
system of farming has been abandoned as much as
possible, and regular custom-houses have been estab-
lished at Batavia, Samarang and Sourabaya. A

70 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

system of duties has been established, founded in
some measure on the extent of the duties hitherto
collected, and with reference to the support of the
dependent situations of Penang, Malacca, Bencoolen
and the Moluccas, which sooner or later must fall
upon the immediate Government of this place if
Java continues a British settlement.' These duties
were fixed at the rate of 10 per cent. The com-
mercial policy of Raffles has been severely criticised
by Deventer, who quotes the Napoleonic description
of his rule given by Crawfurd — that of ' a warehouse
keeper.' Upon the other hand, Raffles strenuously
maintained that, in the economic and moral con-
ditions of the Eastern Archipelago, Free Trade would
have led to untold evils, and that his measures were
the best attainable in the peculiar circumstances of
the case.

A yet more important business than commercial
policy at once occupied Raffles's attention. In the
administration of justice, ' the system found existing
. . . was at once complicated and confused. In the
principal towns there were established courts, but
these were constituted in all the troublesome for-
malities of the Roman law ; and in the different Pre-
sidencies were Provincial Courts, styled Landraadsy
where the native form and law was left to take
its course, with all its barbarities and atrocities '
(Minute of February n, 1814). Torture and mutila-
tion had been abolished by Lord Minto's proclamation,
and an attempt was at once made to simplify the
clumsy and unwieldy structure of the former courts.

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 71

The separate courts for the trial of cases affecting
European Government employes were abolished, and
three separate courts established at Batavia, Samarang
and Sourabaya, dealing with all cases between Euro-
peans, the facts being in every case decided upon by
a jury. In civil cases the Dutch law prevailed, but
in criminal the English, as far as possible, was
followed. Minor courts were set on foot for the
recovery of small debts, and police magistrates ap-
pointed in the towns. At the same time courts
were established in the different districts, in which
the chief civil authorities presided, aided by the
Regents and other native officers, for the trial of
cases in which natives only were concerned —
criminal cases of a capital nature being reserved for
judges of circuit, who were to attend twice a
year.

At a later date (18 14), after a careful inquiry
into the native customs, a system was established
under which the original constitution of the villages
was utilised, and the superintendence and responsi-
bility continued in the hands of the village chiefs.
The duties of the Resident as judge and magistrate
were considerably extended. The Residencies were
divided into districts, and chiefs of districts (Bopatis)
appointed. The districts were again sub-divided into
divisions, to be generally not less than ten nor more
than twenty miles in extent, and each of these
divisions contained a police station. Within the
divisions were the villages, each with its headman,
to be elected by the villagers themselves from among

72 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

the resident landholders. These headmen were held
responsible for the good behaviour of their villages,
and directed to keep the necessary registries. 'Their
reward will be a certain portion of land in each
village, and the favouring eye and protection of
Government.' Small civil cases might be tried in
native divisional and district courts, but, with certain
trifling exceptions, all cognisance of criminal cases
was vested solely in the Resident's Courts. The chief
priests and native fiscals attended these to expound
the law. If the opinions of these officers appeared
to the Resident to be consonant with substantial
justice, the sentence was immediately carried into
effect. In case of a difference of opinion, the de-
cision was referred to the Lieutenant - Governor.
The circuit judges were in future to attend quarterly,
and a native jury, consisting of five members, was
constituted for the trial of the facts. Following the
spirit of Locke's Constitution, Raffles forbade the
employment of native lawyers. c It is trusted that
litigation will be considerably reduced and discouraged
by this measure.'

Raffles strongly deprecated the introduction of ' a
judicial establishment from England, of all things
the most to be dreaded for the general prosperity
and happiness of the population. The British Courts
of Justice fit with difficulty our permanent English
establishments in India ; but here their introduction
would only lead to anarchy, vexation and trouble
without end.' The Dutch colonial law, when
modified, Raffles believed to be ' peculiarly adapted

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 73

to the place, . . . and perhaps the best that could
he devised.' *

We learn from Captain Travers that, 'soon after
the capture of the island, Mr Raffles removed from
Batavia to Buitenzorg, the country residence of the
former Governor, distant forty miles from Batavia,
and here he kept a most hospitable table. He went
to Ryswick every week to attend the Council,
consisting of Major-General, then Colonel, Gillespie,
. . . with Mr Muntinghe and Mr Cransen, Dutch
gentlemen, who had held high situations under the
former government. At Ryswick he remained a
day or two, according to circumstances, and occa-
sionally saw company there ; but the climate at
Buitenzorg being so far superior, he was always
anxious to return, and seldom lost much time on
the road, performing the journey in four hours.
He was most attentive to the members of the former
government, who were constant guests at his table.
(Captain Travers's Journal.)

It was not, however, allowed to Raffles to work
out in peace the salvation of the island. Java itself,
for the time, remained trajnquil, but the behaviour of
the Sultan of Palembang, which, though situated in
Sumatra, had been a tributary of the Dutch Batavian
Government, necessitated military measures. He had
been invited to acknowledge the British suzerainty
in the stead of the Dutch. At first, however, he
adopted a haughty tone, and seemed inclined to resist.
At last, impressed by the British power, he altered his

74 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

tactics and professed to have been from the first a
cordial ally, so as to have become entitled to generous
treatment. In fact, he had caused the Dutch in-
habitants to be foully murdered, so that they might
not be witnesses to his false statements, and had done
this after the news had reached him of the conquest of
Java. In these circumstances it became necessary to
depose the Sultan, and an expedition for this purpose
was at once set on foot. The story of this expedition,
which started in March and had achieved complete
success by May, hardly belongs to the life of Raffles.
It reflected great credit on all concerned, especially on
Colonel Gillespie who was in command. To Raffles
the importance of the business lay in the fact that
under the treaty by which the Sultan was deposed and
his brother raised to the throne in his stead, Banca
and Billiton became British possessions. The value
of Banca, because of its productive tin mines, had
been long recognised by Raffles, and for the present
it certainly seemed that fortune was favouring his
policy. ' I am aware,' he wrote to Lord Minto, ' that
I have taken much responsibility upon myself in
the adoption of hostile measures against Palembang
without previous reference to Bengal ; but so many
favourable circumstances concurred to induce the
measure, and so many obstacles in the way of its
final success appeared to present themselves in the
event of delay, that I should not have felt myself
justified to have lost the opportunity of so much larger
a force than could ever have been subsequently left
at our command. In fact, the expedition must either

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 75

have taken place now or been delayed for another
year ; and this consideration of itself was enough to
outweigh every objection. ... I have provisionally
appointed a Resident for Banca, and I trust my next
letter will communicate favourable intelligence on
this point. There is one thing I have never noticed
regarding Banca, and that is the harbour of Klabbat,
stated to be the most secure in India, and capable of
every defence. ... It is directly in the route for our
trade through the China seas, and the situation of
Minta, on which it is projected to form the first
settlement in Banca, is perhaps the most commanding
that could be chosen for the Eastern seas.'

Palembang was not the only point from which
danger threatened. We have already described the
visit of the Governor to the Courts of Souracarta and
Djocjocarta and the measures then taken. Although
Raffles considered that the interests of the Emperor
bound him to the British connection, he, at the same
time, recognised the danger that a weak and irresolute
character might fall a victim to the intrigues of
stronger men. With regard to Djocjocarta, Raffles
had at the time recognised the Sultan as the less of
two evils, but he never pretended that the arrange-
ment, to which he had come, had in it even the
promise of finality. After the expedition to Palem-
bang had started, Raffles took up his headquarters at
Samarang with his family, so as to be on the spot
in case of need. Demands had been made by the
native princes with which it was impossible to
comply. They claimed to receive, as in the old

76 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

times, the coast duties. Raffles 'immediately saw
with his quick and unerring glance that the pay-
ment of the coast dues could not be allowed. They
were a last memento of the manner in which the
old Company had put themselves in possession of the
countries on the coast, which had been erased by
Daendels, at least on paper' (Deventer).

Another demand of the native rulers occasioned
less difficulty. The princes deposed during the
former regime were sent' home, and a British party
thus established at the native courts. ' The British
Lieutenant-Governor,' writes Deventer, 'availed him-
self in a masterly way of the errors committed by—
Daendels to attach the native nobles to himself.' In
a short sketch it is impossible to explain the subtle
machinations of Raffles's diplomacy, which have won
the emphatic approval of the Dutch historian. The
long and short of it was that the Courts of the
Sosahunan and the Sultan never really came to terms,
and that when things were ripe for action at
Djocjocarta the native authorities were by no means
at one in their opposition, and the work of re-
pression thereby greatly facilitated.

During his stay at Samarang, Captain Travers
writes: — 'Mr Raffles was availing himself of every
opportunity of gaining local knowledge. The native
chiefs were constant guests at his table, and there
was not a moment of his time which he did not
contrive to devote to some useful purpose. The
only recreation he ever indulged in, and that was
absolutely necessary for the preservation of his health,

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 77

was an evening drive and occasionally a ride in the
morning. He was not, however, at this time an
early riser, owing to his often writing till a very late
hour at night. He was moderate at table, but so
full of life and spirits that on public occasions he
would often sit much longer than agreed with him.
In general the hour for dinner was four o'clock,
which enabled the party to take a drive in the evening ;
but on all public days, and when the party was large,
dinner was at seven o'clock. At Samarang the
society, of course, was small compared with Batavia,
but on public occasions sixty and eighty were often
assembled at the Government House, and at balls from
a hundred and fifty to a hundred and eighty. Mr
Raffles never retired early, always remaining till after
supper, was affable, animated, agreeable and attentive
to all, and never seemed fatigued, although perhaps
at his desk all the morning, and on the following day-
would be at business at ten o'clock. In conducting
the details of government and giving his orders to those
immediately connected with his own office, his
manner was most pleasing, mild yet firm ; he quickly
formed his decision, and gave his orders with a clear-
ness and perspicuity which was most satisfactory to
everyone connected with him ; he was ever courteous
and kind, easy of access at all times, exacting but
little from his staff, who were most devotedly attached
to him. The generosity of his disposition and the
liberality of his sentiments were most conspicuous
and universally acknowledged. As a public servant
no man could apply himself with more zeal and

78 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

attention to the arduous duties of his office. He
never allowed himself the least relaxation, and was
ever alert in the discharge of the important trust
committed to him ; and it is astonishing how long
his health continued good under such great exertions
both of mind and body.'

In October 1812 Raffles wrote to his friend
Ramsay : — ' I can hardly say what change has taken
place in me since we parted. I feel that I am some-
what older, and, in many points of a worldly nature,
I am apt to view men and things in a somewhat
different light, but I may fairly say that it is my
belief that I am intrinsically the same. How far
good, how far bad, those who know me must decide.
... I am here alone, without any advice, in a new
country, with a large native population of not less
than six or seven millions of people, a great propor-
tion of foreign Europeans, and a standing army of
not less than seven thousand men.' It is pleasant
to hear from the same letter that he was ' now able
to clear off all pecuniary incumbrances.'

The result of the Governor's diplomacy was seen
in the fact that in spite of the absence of the greater
portion of the British troops on the expedition to
Palembang overt acts of hostility were still delayed.
Raffles recognised, however, that it would be danger-
ous to delay longer, and on the return of Colonel
Gillespie (June I, 1812), it was decided not to wait
for the main body of the troops, but to act with the
force which had been previously concentrated at
Samarang. The Sultan having refused to comply

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 79

with the Governor's summons, a heavy cannonade
was begun against the royal palace. The invading
force consisted of about 1200 men. The palace was
a regular fortified position about three miles in cir-
cumference, surrounded by a wide and deep ditch,
with a wall forty-five feet high, well defended. The
garrison consisted of 11,000 men, but, nevertheless,
the position was taken by assault. The person of
the Sultan and that of the hereditary Prince were
secured, and the country placed at the disposal of the
British. The importance of this action could hardly
be overrated. The European power was now for the
first time paramount in Java. Hitherto their posses-
sions on the sea coast had remained precarious, and
there would have been grave risk of disasters if any
attempt had been made to reduce the military force.
It had not been possible till now for the British
Government to dictate to the native princes the
terms of the future connection. Now for the first
time the taxes imposed on the population were
brought under European control. 'It was not the
amount of the duties which rendered them an object
of importance, but it was of great weight in the
political scale that these collections should be kept in the
hands of the Government. Starting on that principle,
the exclusive management of all commercial duties
in both kingdoms was required by Raffles for the
European power, and he immediately put an end to
the old land system by abolishing the forced deliveries
of produce. The Princes had to bind themselves to
maintain an able police force, and the Sultan especially

8o BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

was compelled to disband his bodyguard, and to
accept the replacement of it by British troops.'
(Deventer). The native rulers all through acted in
precisely the manner which suited Raffles's policy.
But for their treachery, or— in the case of the
Emperor — contemplated treachery, it would have
been practically impossible for a long time to introduce
European rule and the blessings of the new system
into the Eastern districts. Our hero's principle was
in no case to demand more than he could enforce in
case of refusal, and this combination of moderation
and strength was the secret of the remarkable success
which attended his proceedings. c A population,' he
wrote, 'of not less than a million has been wrested
from the tyranny and oppression of an independent,
ignorant and cruel Prince, and a country yielding to
none on earth in fertility and cultivation, affording
a revenue of not less than a million of Spanish dollars
in the year, placed at our disposal. The result
at Djocjocarta is decisive at Souracarta, and that
court must necessarily fall under the same arrange-
ment.' The proceedings of Raffles met with the
cordial approval of Lord Minto. On December 15,
1 8 12, he wrote :— ' I shall be impatient for the
materials which are called for, because I am anxious
to deliver, without reserve or qualification, the very
high and favourable view I now have of that whole
series of measures, beginning with the expedition to
Palembang, and ending with the arrangement of the
two courts of Solo and Djocjocarta, connected and
combined with each other as these measures were.

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 81

I consider the result of the latter proceeding as very-
glorious to your administration, during the short
period of which more will have been accomplished
for the security of the European power, the tranquillity
of the island, and the solid improvement of general
prosperity and happiness, than several centuries have
been able to perform, when the superiority of European
power was exerted, unencumbered by the scruples of
justice and good faith. Nothing can be more ex-
cellent than all your arrangements in the eastern
districts of Java. With regard to Palembang and
Banca, your latest reports have enabled us to approve,
without reservation, the arrangement formed at
Palembang, and the annexation of Banca to the terri-
tories of the East India Company, our minds being
satisfied upon the two points of justice and expediency.
The sovereignty of the Sultan of Palembang in Banca
is placed beyond question, and leaves that dependence
of Palembang indisputably subject both to the laws
of conquest in so just a war and to the effect of
cession from the authority under which it is now held.'
It is probable that the first years of his government
of Java were the happiest of Raffles's public life. He
delighted to put himself and the Government in
immediate contact with the natives, and maintained
an active correspondence on scientific matters with
the Emperor, the Regent of Madura and other natives,
to the astonishment of the Dutch ex-officials. The
Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences was revived and
placed on a new footing ; Raffles himself becoming
its active President. In every direction the powers of

82 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

which our hero had been conscious had now a fair
field for their display, and he was able at once to
uphold the interests of Great Britain and to improve
the condition of the native population, in whose
welfare he took so lively an interest. Meanwhile, he
was adding to the stores of his knowledge, so that as
statesman, philanthropist and savant, he found himself
fully employed. True it was that he was working at
high pressure, but for the time his health seems to
have stood the strain well. It was when worry was
added to work that the mischief was revealed.

CHAPTER VI

THE GOVERNMENT OF JAVA (l8ll-l6) continued

System of Land Tenure — Tentative Experiments — Settlement of
18 1 3 — Final Settlement of 18 14 — Position of (Regents —
Difficulties of Governor's Position — Success of Measures —
Financial Situation — Lord Minto's Advice — General Gillespie
— Relations with Governor — Sale of Public Land — Gillespie's
Charges — Final Acquittal.

Among the measures adopted by Raffles the one
which he had most at heart, and the one which
most affected the lives of the people, was his reform
of the system of land tenure. Lord Minto's instruc-
tions had called attention to the system of contingents
or forced payments in kind, under which the Govern-
ment derived a revenue from forced deliveries of crops,
and kept the whole body of the people dependent on
its pleasure for subsistence. The wretched cultivator
was obliged to buy back, at an enhanced price, the
produce of which he had already been mulcted. The
Dutch expected a certain contribution from each
Regent, but did not care to inquire by what means
the contribution was obtained. 'The Residents living
at the principal towns of the district,' Raffles wrote,
'conveyed the orders of the Government to the
Regents, to whom the execution of them was en-
trusted. The revenue being received from the Regent

84 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

only, the mode of collection remained in his hands,
leaving the cultivators no security beyond the claims
of established usage and custom.' There was good
reason to suppose that the whole system was com-
paratively modern, and due to the pressure of the
Dutch in extorting a revenue. Daendels had altered
the form of the abuses, but left most of them in
existence. CI have thought it meet,' he writes,
1 to secure for the State the advantages that were
formerly enjoyed by the Residents and other officials,'
and that l idea,' says Deventer, ' indicated the scale
of the imperfections of his policy. The officials were
now salaried instead of any longer being allowed the
public or the secret profits, on which they had
existed before ; but the sources from which these
salaries emanated remained the same impure one as
before. . . . The abuses that included an actual ex-
tortion from the "poor Javanese," not only by the
forced deliveries, but also by the contingents even
of rice, thus obtained open sanction. Daendels him-
self set the example of obliging the natives to deliver
their rice to Government at 17 rix-dollars the coyan,
after which they were allowed to buy it back at
30 rix-dollars.' It thus appears that the whole busi-
ness of Daendels had been to substitute the foreign
government for the foreign officials as the general
taskmaster. In these circumstances Lord Minto re-
commended 'a radical reform in this branch to the
serious and early attention of Government. The
principle of encouraging industry in the cultivation
and improvement of land, by creating an interest in

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 85

the effort and fruits of that industry, can be expected
in Java only by a fundamental change of the whole
system of landed property and tenure. A wider field,
but a somewhat distant one, is open to this great and
interesting improvement. . . . On this branch noth-
ing must be done that is not mature, because the
exchange is too extensive to be suddenly or ignorantly
attempted. But fixed and immutable principles of
the human character and of human association assures
me of ultimate, and, I hope, not remote success, in
views that are consonant with every motive of action
that operates on man, and are justified by the practice
and experience of every flourishing country of the
world.' 'In obtaining the necessary information to
enable him to frame such a system as, whilst it
abolished the vicious practice hitherto pursued in the
island, would strengthen the resources of the island
. . . the greatest exertion was required on Mr Raffles's
part, and he devoted himself with his accustomed
enthusiasm to the task ; night and day he worked
at it. To satisfy himself upon all local points, to
obtain personal intercourse and become acquainted
with the character of the native chiefs connected
with, or in any way affected by, the new system,
Mr Raffles deemed it advisable to proceed to the
eastern parts of the island, where he remained a con-
siderable time, and visited every place, often under-
going the greatest personal exertions and fatigue,
which few accompanying him were able to encounter ;
indeed, several were sufferers from the very long
journeys he made, riding sometimes sixty and seventy

86 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

miles in one day, a fatigue which few constitutions
are equal to in an Eastern climate' (Travers).
A Commission had been appointed, consisting of
Dutch members, presided over by Colonel Mackenzie.
This elaborate and exhaustive inquiry sufficiently
established certain conclusions. Although the state
of things prevailing was not the same in all the
different districts, still it was, on the whole, clear
that there was no proprietary right in the soil vested
in any of the intermediaries between the actual culti-
vator and the sovereign. Such intermediate officers —
it is unnecessary to trouble the reader with their
names and degrees — though enjoying the revenues of
districts or villages, had never been considered other
than the executive officers of Government. They
had received those revenues only from the gift of
the overlord, and had depended upon his will alone
for their tenure. It was possible, and the analogy
of Bali, where Hindu customs continued unalloyed,
suggested that, in a remote past, before the
Mahometan invasion, there had been some property
in the soil residing in the cultivator. Raffles was
fond of recalling that, according to the institutions
of the ancient kingdom of Majopahit, it was ordained
that * next to the sovereign shall be considered and
respected the cultivator of the soil ; they shall be
the first class in the State below the sovereign.'
For practical purposes, however, the actual proprietary
rights in the soil lay wholly with the sovereign,
although it was also found that the first clearers of the
land were considered to be, in a measure, its creators,

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 87

so as to become entitled to undisturbed possession for
themselves and their heirs, provided that a due tribute
in kind was paid in return for protection.

The aims of the new policy were best stated in
RafHes's History of J 'ava. 'The peasant was subject
to gross oppression and undefined exaction ; our object
was to remove his oppressor, and to limit demand to
a fixed and reasonable rate of contribution. He was
liable to restraint on the freedom of inland trade, to
personal services and forced contingents : our object
was to commute them all for a fixed and well-known
contribution. The exertions of his industry were re-
luctant and languid, because he had little or no interest
in its fruits: our object was to encourage that industry
by connecting his exertions with the promotion of
his own individual welfare and prosperity. Capital
could not be immediately created, nor agricultural
skill acquired ; but by giving the cultivator a security
that whatever he accumulated would be for his own
benefit, and whatever improvements he made, he or
his own family might enjoy it, a motive was held out
to him to exert himself on the road to attain both.
Leases or contracts for fixed rents for terms of years,
in the commencement, and eventually in perpetuity,
seemed to be the only mode of satisfying the cultivator
that he would not be liable as formerly to yearly un-
defined demands ; while freedom from all taxes but an
assessment on his crop, or rather a fixed sum in com-
mutation thereof, would leave him at full liberty to
devote the whole of his attention and labour to render
his land as productive as possible.'

88 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

The foundations of the amended system were,
according to Raffles : — ' ist. The entire abolition of
forced deliveries at inadequate rates and of all feudal
services, with the establishment of a perfect freedom
in cultivation and trade : 2nd. The assumption on
the part of Government of the immediate super-
intendence of the lands, with the collection of the
rents and resources thereof : 3rd. The renting out
of the lands so assessed to the actual occupants in
large or small estates, according to local circumstances,
on leases for a moderate term.'

Although the final conclusion reached was that it
was unnecessary to preserve any intermediate agency
between the actual cultivator and the supreme sove-
reign, it was not till 1814 that it was finally laid down
that ' the Tiang pallt or ryotwar settlement is con-
sidered as that which will prove most satisfactory to
the people and most beneficial to government.' In
the settlement of the preceding year the land had been
let out to the heads of villages, who were held respon-
sible for the proper management of the country placed
under their superintendence and authority. They
were to relet to the cultivators at c such a rate as shall
not be found oppressive.'

With regard to the amount of rent to be paid,
Raffles, £ on mature consideration,' conceived that a
fair equivalent for the burdens from which the people
were released ' might be found, one district with
another, in establishing the Government share at
about two-fifths of the rice crop, leaving the second
crop, and the fruit trees and gardens attached to the

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 89

villages, free from assessment, the cultivators free from
personal taxes, and the inland trade unrestricted and
untaxed.'

It may well be that Raffles remained for some time
in uncertainty with regard to the best method of land
leases. He availed himself of the acquisition of new
districts to undertake experiments on the subject.
The * resumption ' by purchase of districts which had
been alienated to Chinamen afforded convenient
ground for such experiments. Ulujami, in the pro-
vince of Pakalongan, was the first district in which the
new revenue system was introduced. Here, and in
parts of Cadoe, the land was let to the lower classes
individually. In Batang, which was also in Paka-
longan, the land was let to the village chiefs. At the
time of the conquest, the greater portion of the fertile
province of Bantam was in the hands of a rebel, and
insurrection and anarchy had prevailed for years.
All idea of raising a revenue had been abandoned by
the Dutch. Raffles came to an arrangement with
the Sultan under which the immediate management
of the country was undertaken by the British Govern-
ment ; by which means a land rental was introduced
and a revenue settlement effected. In Bantam, the
land appears to have been, for the most part, leased to
the Sultan's relatives and to the principal nobles.
The country of Cheribon was also found in a state
of tumult and confusion. The rebellion was stamped
out, and the Sultans ' were relieved from future con-
tingents and forced services, and consented that the
internal administration of the country should be exer-

90 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

cised by the Government, in consideration of their
being secured in the possession of certain tracts of
land, with a continuation of the annual pension in
money which they had previously enjoyed.' Each
individual was secured in the possession of the lands
which had descended from his ancestors, provided that
he was willing to pay a moderate and fair rent, equi-
valent to what was before paid in produce or services.
The way being thus prepared, a new system, under
which the land was let to the village headmen, was
made general in June 1813. Considering that this
half-way settlement only lasted a year, Deventer is
unnecessarily severe in his judgment on Raffles.
The Dutch historian finds 'a lack of sincerity.'
c Nowhere,' he asserts, ' did the natural efforts of
the first lessee (who had bound himself for a fixed
sum to the Government) to exact a higher rent
from his tenants experience any restriction.' Under
the revenue instructions, however, of February 18 14,
European collectors were appointed to the various
districts, whose office consisted ' in the sole and entire
superintendence of the land revenue.' By this means
the revenue and the judicial branches of the ad-
ministration were, so far as possible, completely
separated. It is true that the village headmen and
officers of divisions were immediately responsible for
the collection of the land rent, but they acted under
the eye and control of British supervision. ' It is
not enough,' wrote Raffles, ' that the Government
lay down the principles of a benevolent system . . .
it is with the collectors that the application of these

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 91

principles is entrusted, and to their temper, assiduity,
judgment and integrity that the people have to look
for the enjoyment of the blessings which it is in-
tended to bestow on them.'

To the criticism of Deventer that the land rent
exacted was too high, it is enough to point to
RafHes's own words, wherein, after giving as a stan-
dard the scale which Deventer questions, he adds :
' It must be expected that less than this will be
levied for some time to come. Various reasons
will induce a low rental being established at first,
as the energies of many impoverished and long
oppressed districts are to be brought forth by
every encouragement Government can give ; but
when cultivation has reached what may be con-
sidered its state of perfection, and the settlement is
completely matured, the above must form the
general rates of assessment.'

Deventer further suggests that the abolition of
feudal services was merely on paper, but on this it is
well to note the evidence of Dr Horsfield. ' On my
passage (in 18 13) through the Province of Cheribon
I already found the new system in complete opera-
tion. The feudal services had been abolished.
Instead of applying, as was formerly the custom,
to the native governor for an allowance of carriers
to convey my baggage on public account, I sent to
the bazaar, where the carriers were ready to afford
their services for a regular payment.'

The real crux of the matter, from a practical point
of view, lay in the position of the Regents. We

92 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

have seen that under the old system they had farmed
the entire land revenue. The Dutch had shrunk
from coming in contact with the Javanese people.
Now, by a stroke of the pen, all their profits, licit
and illicit, were abolished. What would be their
attitude towards the new system ? On the answer
to this question depended perhaps the tranquillity
of the whole island. That the change would
immensely benefit the downtrodden people could
be doubted by no sane man. But then, were they
so downtrodden as to have reached the stage of
not caring for a remedy ? The respect which in-
fluenced the cautious Muntinghe in giving ex-
pression to a note of doubt, the respect which gave
some reason to the querulous criticisms of both the
Bengal and the home authorities, was that the new
system might produce a hotbed of discontent
amongst the most influential class of the Javanese.
Happily none of these forebodings were justified.
Most fortunately, Mahometan ideas had obtained
full sway in Java, and there was thus no aristocracy
in the island. The favourite Regent of to-day might
be discarded to-morrow, and his children would very
probably sink to a lower class. In this state of
things the new position offered by Raffles, with its fixed
and assured emoluments, was not to be lightly
rejected. Those who have most right to speak are
agreed in saying that no European really knows
what is passing through an Oriental's mind, and
perhaps it is not in their nature to find that delight
in order and system which the enthusiasm of Raffles

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 93

recognised around him. Nevertheless, no overt sign
of discontent was given, and the leading classes were
assuredly not estranged from the British influence.
The Regents were compensated by extensive land
grants, which were to be free from the payment
of rent. They were also paid a fixed salary, in return
for which they undertook police duties. c In lieu,'
wrote Raffles, c of their precarious, confined and
frequently taxed emoluments under the Dutch
administration, has been substituted certain clear
and equitable allowance, which I can confidently
assert has been found agreeable to everyone of
them. The principle which I adopted in settling
the amount to be paid to each was as follows :
I visited each district in person, explaining myself
to the Regent the nature and object of the system
to be introduced, and desired him to state the
amount of his then emoluments in every shape. I
then fixed what he* should in future receive always
at a sum exceeding what he stated.'

We have seen how tentative and cautious were, in
fact, Raffles's proceedings, and the criticisms to which
they have been thereby exposed. It is somewhat
hard that he should be generally exposed to the
opposite charge of undue precipitancy. Started by
Crawfurd, who, for various reasons, bore Raffles no
great good will, it has been repeated by works of
authority. The charge was anticipated and met by
Raffles. He declared that, fully aware of the great
importance of these measures, he had determined to
postpone their adoption until the sentiments of the

94 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

Supreme Government could be received. As early as
May 1 8 12 he had mooted the question. His despatch
on the subject, however, remained without reply.
Hence he concluded that silence gave consent
(Letter to Lord Minto, January 1814). In his
minute of June 1813, he wrote : — 'I am fully aware
of the objections which may be raised against the
introduction of so new and extensive an arrange-
ment, at a period when the future administration
of the colony is perhaps undetermined and of the
apprehensions which may be entertained of our pro-
ceedings fettering- the future government of the
settlement, and undoubtedly it is due from us to
give these considerations every weight ; but, on
the other hand, we are also to consider that the
proposed arrangement has been in contemplation
from the day of the fall of Djocjocarta, that it
has already been proceeded on to a considerable
extent, and that the minds of the inhabitants are
at this moment fully prepared for the change. Its
general adoption throughout the island has been
delayed for the last six months, in the expectation
of information from Europe, and the period seems
now to have arrived when it must be either gener-
ally introduced, or dropped, perhaps, for ever.' In
a letter to Sir R. Inglis, dated February 13, 18 14,
he wrote : — ' In every reference which has latterly
been made to the Supreme Government, a hesita-
tion in forming an opinion for the guidance of this
Government has been evinced, arising from the pro-
visional and uncertain tenure of the Government

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 95

as it now stands ; and it is possible that the same
hesitation may still exist with regard to the two
great questions now submitted, and it is on this
account particularly that I am induced to seek
early instructions from Europe. I have been forced
to act, in every measure of importance, on my own
responsibility, not from the superior authorities being
ignorant of the real interests of the colony, but
from a hesitation on their part to involve them-
selves with the Government which might be finally
fixed. I have invariably invited and courted the
command of the superior authorities on questions
which I considered of moment, and necessity alone,
and the conviction that the favourable moment for
action might otherwise be lost, have induced me
to act expressly from my own judgment. Those
only who have been in similar cases can feel the
weight of responsibility which attaches.'

Final judgment on the new system was, in fact,
never pronounced by the Bengal or the home
authorities. All that our hero's friends could sug-
gest was that time was necessary to pronounce
upon its ultimate effect. It inevitably became
enveloped in the mist of suspicion, which, for the
time, prejudiced Lord Moira against everything
connected in any way with Raffles. In the angry
letter of dismissal with which the Company re-
warded the labours of their officer, the failure of
the new system is assumed rather than maintained.
Short, however, as was the time allowed for the
vindication of these measures, and unpropitious as

96 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

were the circumstances in which the experiment was
made, the inherent advantages of the new system did
not fail at once to show themselves from a financial
point of view. Within the period of two years after
the introduction of the new system of land tenure, the
revenue had been increased to the amount of over one
and a half million rupees. The land rental amounted
to nearly one half of the whole revenues of the island,
so that Raffles might reasonably claim ' that the im-
provement thus effected is rendered permanent, and
that a very short time only has been required to
repay, in a pecuniary point of view, those temporary
and partial sacrifices which, in the introduction of
a radical change that had equally in view the
amelioration of the condition of the people and the
interests of the Government, could not be avoided.'
(Letter to E. I. Directors, March u, 1816).

It is needless to labour argument, because the
final vindication of this policy was given by the
Dutch themselves, who, on their restoration to the
colony, with all their dislike and fear of Raffles
personally, were content to tread along the path
he had already marked out. To the strange
criticism of Colonel Yule, who declared that
Raffles had left no permanent traces of his work
in Java, may be opposed the testimony of the
Dutch official, Mr Muntinghe, than whom none
was more competent to speak, who had the candour
to assert that 'the first, the most difficult, and
certainly the most hazardous step towards the in-
troduction of a system of political government and

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 97

regulated taxation had therefore been taken when
the Commissioner-General took over the govern-
ment of Java in 181 6.'

That the work of reform was in some ways
incomplete, that the burden of the heavy toll dues
on inland transit still persisted in spite of the
Governor's expressed disapproval, is quite true, but
when it is remembered how short was the term of
his government and how difficult it was to effect
improvement when the political future of the island
remained constantly in doubt, the wonder is not
that there were shortcomings, but that the amount
of reform achieved was of so far-reaching and of
so permanent a character.

The greatest stumbling-block to a regular ad-
ministration had lain in the native regencies being
scattered in different parts. The country was mapped
out in regular districts, which were subdivided into
divisions. The Netherlands Commissioners in 18 16,
while they considered RafHes's instructions to the
district Residents cso complete and accurate' that they
continued them almost entirely without alteration, at
the same time continued for the most part the divisions
as they had been marked out by him.

While, however, the main measures of land reform
dealt with the length and breadth of the island, and
with the tenure of the natives, unkind fate decided
that an altogether subsidiary measure should have
a most calamitous influence on RafHes's fortunes.
Attention has been already called to the financial
position of the island at the date of the conquest.

98 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

The discontinuance of remittances of silver from
Europe after the revolution in Holland had inevitably-
led to the enforced use of a paper currency. The
paper dollar, as was natural in the circumstances,
tended rapidly to depreciate. Lord Minto had
accepted responsibility for a sum of eight and a
half millions rix-dollars at the value of six and a
half rix (paper) dollars to one Spanish dollar. In
spite, however, of this, the paper dollar continued
to depreciate, and in the autumn of 1812 it fell
to twelve or thirteen rix for a Spanish dollar.
Meanwhile the Government in all its payments was
suffering a loss of one hundred per cent. This was
a state of things which could not be endured, and
the only question was how the paper money could
be withdrawn. Against the most obvious way of
meeting the difficulty, viz., the drawing of bills
upon Bengal, there was the express veto of the
Supreme Government. Moreover, Raffles felt
strongly that a colonial obligation of this kind
should in fairness fall on the resources of the
colony. In this state of things, the only course
open appeared to be a partial sale of the public
lands. By this means about one-fourth of the
public debt could be at once wiped out. It may
frankly be allowed that in the special circumstances
of the case the course adopted by Raffles can only
be defended as a measure of necessity ; but it was
for his critics to point out an alternative measure.
Lord Minto at least (November 18 12) assented ' to the
absolute and exigent necessity which was the motive

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 99

and is the justification of the proceedings. . . .
The only plan for the redemption of the paper
which could be found appears very clearly to have
been precisely that to which you had recourse. . . .
I consider, therefore, your measure to have been
an able expedient in a case of great emergency? But
already there is a foretaste of what might be ex-
pected from less friendly critics. ' At the same
time I conceive the necessity of a prompt remedy
to form the essential, and indeed the indispensable,
ground of the resolution that was taken, for I
should not, I confess, have thought an extensive
alienation of the public domains advisable in itself,
under the particular circumstances of the colony
at the time. First, it was too important a measure
to be adopted during a provisional government,
the duration of which is more than precarious.
Secondly, it ought (and naturally would, without
the pressure of immediate necessity) to have re-
ceived the previous sanction of the Supreme Govern-
ment. Thirdly, although my views, as you know,
lead to the transfer of public territory to the
management of individual -industry, and the crea-
tion of a genuine landed interest . . . yet I have
felt that this change could not be brought about
suddenly. ... I touch upon these points the
more willingly, for the purpose of conveying to
you a caution on the subject founded on my know-
ledge of the sentiments which appear to be most
prevalent at home, but which you may not be
apprised of. There is a great division of opinion

ioo BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

on the question of permanent settlements and the
extension of that system to the newly- acquired
provinces under the Presidency of Bengal, which
has in a great degree been carried into effect during
my administration. The introduction of that system
has been gradual in these provinces, but yet more
sudden than is approved of at home. But Java is in
a state infinitely less favourable to perpetual aliena-
tions, and you may depend upon such measures, un-
supported by particular exigency, being disapproved,
and indeed disavowed and annulled, in England.'

There would seem to be in this passage some
confusion between Raffles's general land measures
and the particular sale which for the most part
only affected Europeans. Be this as it may, the
bolt when it fell was charged not by motives of
general policy, but by personal hostility. Exi-
gencies of space have forbidden to treat as it
deserved the gallantry displayed by Colonel Gillespie
in the conquest of Java. That gallantry had
been rightly rewarded by the command of the
troops in the island. At first ' there was the most
perfect understanding between the civil and military
authorities and Colonel Gillespie and myself.'
Gillespie had indeed already (Raffles is writing in
January 1812) threatened to i set us all by the ears '
in supporting a soldier ' against the police magis-
trate and the whole of the Dutch inhabitants,'
but ' the conclusion proved satisfactory to every-
one.' ' It is quite unnecessary that I should inform
your Lordship that I have rather a strange character

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 101

to deal with ; he prides himself on his quixotism,
but with all his irregularities is a man of so high
a stamp and caste that I must esteem him. We
shall never break without great concern on my
part . . . but your Lordship knows his character
too well to suppose it is practicable that we should
both travel at the same pace. He does and will
take some of the strangest starts and wildest freaks
into his head that ever entered into the mind of
man.' Unfortunately differences tended to widen
between the civil and the military authorities.
Raffles, anxious to relieve the strain upon the
finances, and acting on the express command of
Lord Minto, desired to diminish the number of
the troops in the island. Gillespie, believing that
Java would soon be handed over to the Crown,
and taking into consideration the probability of
an attack by the French, insisted that any reduc-
tion was impossible. The embarkation of a portion
of the 89th regiment in August 18 12 was deeply
resented by the General. When men are once at
issue, fresh causes of difference do not fail to arise.
Raffles believed that the financial situation was
aggravated by the action of Gillespie in refusing
to allow the troops to be paid in paper money.
Later, charges against Gillespie's private conduct
were dealt with by Raffles in such a way as to
rouse the wrath of the vindictive General. Matters
went to such extremities that for some time
Gillespie ceased to attend the meetings of Council.
The relations between the Lieutenant - Governor

102 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

and the General had received the thoughtful con-
sideration of Lord Minto. A solution was found
by the proposal of Sir G. Nugent, the Commander-
in-Chief in Bengal, to place Gillespie on his staff,
and send General Nightingall to Java. By this
means Lord Minto wrote, 'a good retreat or rather
an honourable advantageous station is prepared for
Gillespie, whose militarv character and services I
shall always admire and venerate. Another desirable
consequence of this exchange, I hope, may be the
superseding the necessity of investigating and pro-
nouncing upon his political conduct in Java.'
General Nightingall, who appears to have been a
natural son of Lord Cornwallis, Lord Minto described
as c a man of honour, and a general in the highest
degree, his manner in all respects as amiable as
I really believe his conduct to be.' In fact, he
proved a most loyal and staunch friend to Raffles.

While relations were thus strained between General
Gillespie and Raffles, there occurred the sale of
public lands, which took place on January 26,
1 813. This sale had been resolved upon in the
previous November. In the Minute of the Board
on the subject, it was freely admitted that ' it would
undoubtedly have been more desirable to have delayed
any decisive measures until the Board could have
had the honour of receiving the sentiments of the
Supreme Government on the several financial state-
ments and despatches forwarded since the commence-
ment of the present official year, and the existing
uncertainty with regard to the future administration

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 103

of the colony is also a strong argument for delay,
but the difficulties which arise from the depreciation
of the paper currency are such as must be expected
to increase if not immediately checked ; and what-
ever may tend to restore its value must under any
circumstances be beneficial.' If Java was not to
be ' rendered a burden on the established British
possessions,' the only course was gradually to with-
draw the whole mass of the old paper from circulation,
by the sale of part of the domains of the island.
Gillespie was not present at the meeting of the
Council on November 4, 1812, but in the beginning
of December he forwarded a Minute objecting to
the execution of the measure in consequence of
the probability that an approaching change in the
government of Java was to be expected. The
decision of the matter was further postponed in
deference to Gillespie. In a subsequent Minute
of the 23rd December, he gave a qualified assent
to the proposals of the Council, if the Board, ' in
its mature deliberation,' had determined that no
other expedient of less magnitude could be adopted
to meet the exigency. From the confused and
blundering manner in which, at a later date,
Gillespie supported his contention, it is clear that
no light or leading was to be obtained from him.
His only practical suggestion was to draw bills on
Bengal, a course which had been expressly for-
bidden by the Supreme Government. In these
circumstances the sale of land, although Raffles
would have preferred to wait till the Commission

io4 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

dealing with the whole subject of land tenure had
issued their report, was a measure of absolute necessity.
The sale was therefore finally fixed for the 26th
January 1813. The advertisement announcing it
stated that the sale would take place by public
auction, unless the lands were previously disposed
of by private contract. It had been the practice
under the Dutch for members of Council to become
proprietors of land under the colonial regulations,
and so Mr Muntinghe, a Dutch gentleman, who
in the Council warmly supported the measure, did
not deem it wrong to become himself a purchaser.
He, however, informed >the other members of his
intention ; and no word of disapproval was ex-
pressed by General Gillespie. The circumstances
in which the Governor became an owner, under
the public sale, are clear enough. Rumours re-
garding the possibility and even the legality of
the sale had been industriously circulated. There
was a serious risk lest the result should be a
fiasco. In this state of things a Mr Engelhard,
a former Governor of Java, and a person of con-
siderable influence, approached Raffles with the
view of inducing him to go shares with him in
the purchase of some lands adjoining Engelhard's
estate. That our hero's conduct was in his own
interests foolish cannot be questioned. It is quite
plain that he acted more on public than on private
grounds ; indeed, his actions were directly opposed
to his own private interests. He caused the
biddings to be run up ; by which means the

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 105

price was increased thirty or forty per cent. No
wonder that c surprise and mortification ' reigned
on Mr Engelhard's countenance. Anvone who
cares to go through the evidence can convince
himself that the whole superstructure of calumny
and misrepresentation which Gillespie erected over
the original indiscretion of the Governor falls to
the ground. But that Raffles's conduct was in-
discreet can be proved out of his own mouth,
'Everything,' he declared, 'was open, candid and
avowed, except in so far that when I acceded to
Mr Engelhard's proposal, I did not allow it to
be known, until the lots had been sold, that I
had any participation in them, because such a
knowledge might have influenced the bidders,
and the sale might have been affected by it.'
Now, it is pretty obvious that conduct which
requires elaborate explanation had best be avoided
by men in the position of Raffles. Be this as it
may, it gave — or might be feigned to give —
Gillespie the opportunity he wanted. In the
February following, just at the time when his
own conduct was in question with regard to his
interference with native rights, he fired off a
letter to Sir G. Nugent, wherein he stated that
the Lieutenant - Governor and other officials had
become ' the joint owners of the rich coffee
plantations.' 'The real value of these lands,
alienated in perpetuity for an inadequate sum of
Spanish dollars,' he alleged to be ' incalculable.'
This letter, in effect, ' accused Raffles of ptoss

106 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

dishonesty, and yet what was Gillespie's subsequent
conduct ? He did not breathe a syllable of accusa-
tion against the Governor in any public manner.
On the contrary, he allowed himself to become
reconciled to him through the intervention of
Captain G. Elliot, a son of Lord Minto. He
openly 'cancelled the differences that formerly
subsisted between the Lieutenant-Governor and
himself, he was much concerned those differences
had ever taken place, he had a sincere friendship
for Mr Raffles, and would defend the measures of
his administration wherever he went.' It was in
such terms that he spoke, according to the sworn
testimony of men of honour, of the man whom he
had already secretly attacked, and against whom he
was shortly to bring the most serious accusations.

What may have been Gillespie's intentions when
leaving Java it is impossible to say. On arriving,
however, at Calcutta he found congenial soil
wherein to sow the seeds of mischief. Lord Moira
was a soldier, strongly imbued with class and
professional prejudices. It was easy to represent
Raffles to him as an incompetent civilian who
had owed his promotion to private influence. The
manner in which Gillespie's charges were dealt
with certainly does not reflect credit on the
Supreme Government. In the seventeen heads of
inquiry, into which they reduced Gillespie's ram-
bling charges, questions of policy and of conduct
are jumbled up together. Surely, quite apart from
the question of the expediency of the sale of the

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 107

Government lands, or the question whether the
sale was made in the mode most conducive to the
interests of Government, there was the question —
whether or not Raffles was a dishonest man who
used his public opportunities to feather his own
private nest. It might be necessary at some time
to sit in judgment on the general question of the
Governor's administration, but it was surely proper
to keep wholly distinct the specific offences with
which he was charged. As Raffles wrote in a
private letter : — e Errors in judgment may be found
in the complicated administration with which I am
entrusted, measures of policy depend in a consider-
able degree on opinion, and there may be some
differences of opinion, perhaps, with regard to those
which have been adopted by this government ; but
the accusations against my moral character must
be determined by facts, and on this ground I will
challenge my accusers to produce any one act of
my government in which I have been actuated by
corrupt motives, or guided by views of sinister
advantage to mvself.' So carelessly and even
ineptly was the case drawn up that among the
measures that appeared" to the Supreme Govern-
ment especially to need explanation was the im-
position of an annual duty of five per cent, upon the
paper currency, a measure which was directly
enacted by Lord Minto, a fact which should of
course have been within the knowledge of the
Bengal authorities. The inevitable result of the
course of proceeding instituted by the Supreme

io8 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

Government was enforced delay, than which
nothing can be more unfortunate when questions
of character are concerned. In the particular case
of Raffles it did not so much matter, because no
one in Java seriously believed that he had acted
dishonestly. Still the delay was most unfair to
Raffles himself. In March 1814 he wrote to Mr
Ramsay: — 'While you are quietly gliding on in
the smooth and sunny stream of private life, it is
my lot to be tossed on boisterous billows, and to
be annoyed with all the clouds and winds which
ensue from party spirit. Without family pretensions,
fortune or powerful friends, it has been my lot to
obtain the high station which I now fill ; and I
have not been without my due proportion of envy
in consequence. After this you will not be surprised
at what follows. You are aware of the differences
which occurred between me and Major-General
Gillespie, and that he in consequence applied to
be relieved from the military command. Arriving
in Bengal after Lord Minto had left it, he found
the new Governor-General unacquainted with all
that had previously passed, and succeeded to a
certain extent in impressing him favourably in his
behalf. He was committed, in the course of some
of our differences, by assertions which he had
made, and finding that he had succeeded in directing
the current of public opinion a good deal against
me, he has brought regular charges against both
my administration and character. The whole are, 1
thank God, easy to be repelled ; and the closer the

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 109

investigation the purer my conduct will appear. . . .
My enemies have said much and written much ; but
in the end truth and honesty must prevail.'

A striking account of the manner in which
Raffles received the charges is given by Captain
Travers : — c Despatches were received from Bengal
communicating to Mr Raffles the unlooked - for
and very unexpected intelligence of Major-General
Gillespie having presented to the Supreme Govern-
ment a list of charges against his administration in
Java. These charges were of a most grave and
serious nature, but Mr Raffles met them like an
innocent man. On the first perusal of them his
plan of reply was formed ; and he answered every
charge in the most full, clear, satisfactory manner
. . . but it is well worthy of remark that when
Mr Raffles had finished his answer to the charges,
he handed the whole to General Nightingall to
peruse, who, having got through them, declared
that although (as he declared on his first assuming
the command of the forces in the island) it was
his fixed intention to have avoided all interference
with past occurrences and to have kept clear of
any differences which had taken place previous to
his arrival, yet after a careful perusal of the docu-
ments which had been laid before him, and with
a full and firm conviction in his mind of the entire
innocence of Mr Raffles of all and every charge
brought forward by Major-General Gillespie, he
could no longer remain a quiet spectator, and
therefore in the handsomest, because unsolicited,

no BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

manner he came forward to offer Mr Raffles all
the support and assistance in his power to give.
At the time when these charges were received, and
their reception was a surprise to every person, the
Government House at Buitenzorg was quite filled
with strangers. A large party, composed of both
Dutch and English, had been invited to witness
the performance of a plav which was got up chiefly
by the members of the Governor's staff. During
this anxious time, when Mr Raffles had so much
on his mind, not a visitor could perceive the
slightest alteration in his manner. He was the
same cheerful, amiable person they had always
found him. At dinner and in the evening he
appeared perfectly disengaged, and only seemed
anxious how best to promote and encourage the
amusement, and contribute to the happiness and
enjoyment of all around him.

' When the clear and satisfactory reply was drawn
out ... a proposition was made in Council, and
was recommended by General Nightingall, that
confidential friends should be sent in charge of
copies of these despatches to Bengal, and to Eng-
land, to meet the ex parte statements which were
known to be in circulation in both places. Mr
Assey, the Secretary to Council, was selected to
proceed to Bengal, and as a vessel was then under
despatch for England, it was deemed advisable to
send me in charge of these despatches, together
with a copy of the charges, and the Reply sent
to the Supreme Government. Before the vessel

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES m

reached England the fate of Java had been decided.
Consequently Java and its dependencies ceased to
be of any interest to Great Britain.'

Whether, however, Java did or did not remain
British, it was none the less necessary that public
men accused of grave misconduct should be either
condemned or acquitted, yet it was not till the
autumn of 1815 that the Supreme Government
pronounced judgment on a case the main features
of which presented little difficulty. Raffles was
deeply hurt that no acknowledgment was received by
him of his elaborate defence. A further misfortune
happened to him in the untimely death of General
Gillespie, who died on October 31, 18 14, fighting
gallantly at the unsuccessful assault on Kalunga.

When the final decision was adopted it amounted
to an acquittal so far as moral guilt was concerned,
but no acquittal could have been expressed in a more
grudging or graceless fashion. In the preceding May,
Lord Moira had expressed himself in a letter to
Council in terms of much stronger condemnation.
He then in effect pronounced a verdict of * not
proven.' ' As far, therefore,' he wrote, ' as the docu-
ments now before Government afford the means of
forming a decision, I cannot but concur with your
honourable Board in acquitting Mr Raffles in so far
as his integrity and moral character may be impli-
cated. At the same time, however, I am of opinion
that Major- General Gillespie is entitled to equal
consideration, and that Government cannot decide
from the papers now before them that the informa-

ii2 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

tion he afforded has been found to be incorrect. . . .
The points at issue . . . cannot be said to have been
brought to that fair degree of investigation on both
sides which alone would acquire or warrant a decision
of Government implying the heavy condemnation of
either party.' The purchase of land had been * an
act of the highest indiscretion, evincing a perfect
ignorance of the principles of government as applic-
able to our situation in this country, and it would
be wrong were I to disguise that it has operated
greatly to shake the confidence which I should
naturally wish to feel towards a person in his high
situation. ... I must confess that were there not
every reason to suppose the colony to be on the eve
of passing from our hands, I should have been dis-
posed to have visited the transaction with a public
proof of disapprobation, combining this serious error
with the frequent instances of mismanagement ex-
hibited in the conduct of the affairs of that govern-
ment, and more especially in its financial concerns,
I should have conceived it essential to the well-being
of that colony, as well as to our security in a time
of great financial embarrassment, to have proposed
the removal of Mr RafHes. . . . With much con-
cern I say that the management of affairs by Mr
RafRcs in Java appears consecutively injudicious in
the extreme.'

In the interval between the despatch of this letter
and the final decision of October 17, 18 15, the order
had arrived from England removing RafHes from the
government of Java. Whether the change in tone

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 113

is to be ascribed to this, or whether pressure had
been applied by the other members of Council, Mr
Edmonstone and Mr Seton, the difference in tone
between the two documents is very striking. Mr
Edmonstone, in his Minute of June 18, declared: —
' Of the integrity of his conduct, of the purity of
the motives which regulated his proceedings, of his
zealous and laborious exertions in the prosecution of
measures which, whatever may be our judgment of
them, appeared to him conducive to the interests of
the public service, I acknowledge my entire convic-
tion.' Mr Seton expressed himself in similar lan-
guage. At the same time both were very careful
to avoid any approval of Raffles's public measures.
' I am well aware,' said Mr Edmonstone, ' that the
possession of Java, so far from yielding the advan-
tages expected to arise from it, has proved a heavy
burden on the finances of the parent State. How
far this is to be ascribed to the effects of an im-
provident administration it is not the purpose of this
Minute to inquire. The evils of financial embarrass-
ment arising from the internal circumstances of the
island at the period of the conquest, the deficiency
of specie, the absence of former sources of supply
and the defect of an export trade speedily succeeded
our occupation of the island. Whether or not they
were susceptible of remedy, whether or not, by a
more economical system of government and by skil-
ful financial management, the burdens of those evils
could have been removed or alleviated, it is not the
object of the present discussion to decide.' Mr Seton

H4 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

wrote ' that Mr Raffles has not succeeded in his
endeavours may, I think, be attributed to the ex-
hausted state in which he found the island, to the
annihilation of its export trade, to a want of specie,
and, under the great disadvantage of these difficulties,
to the fatal necessity of engaging in early and
expensive wars with the Sultans of Palembang and
Djocjocarta.'

Although these gentlemen were obviously more
inclined to favour Raffles than was Lord Moira,
they concurred in the Minute by which his final
judgment was expressed. The letter from home
had left it to the Supreme Court to decide whether
or not Raffles should be allowed to take up the
appointment of Resident at Bencoolen, provisionally
conferred on him by Lord Minto, in case Java
should be restored to the Dutch. On this point
the decision was in his favour, but for us who
approach Raffles as a builder of Greater Britain, it
is annoying as well as melancholy to note the lan-
guage in which Lord Moira couched his decision.
' With reference to that part of the Honourable
Court's instructions, which relates to the appoint-
ment of Mr Raffles to the Residency of Fort
Marlborough, the Governor - General in Council
observes that nothing has occurred in the course of
the deliberations respecting Mr Raffles's conduct to
authorise an opinion affecting his moral character,
and although he has not succeeded in administering
the extensive and important duties of the government
of Java with that degree of efficiency which is indis-

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 115

pensable to secure the advantages held out by Mr
Raffles himself from the possession of the colony, yet
there does not appear to be reason to apprehend that
Mr Raffles is not competent to acquit himself with
due benefit to his employers in the less complicated
duties of the Residency at Bencoolen.'

What wonder that when his merits were thus
valued Raffles decided to appeal to Caesar, and to
have from the Court of Directors a final judgment
pronounced upon his case ? It is true that the
decision of the Supreme Government had been ac-
companied by able and exhaustive minutes, by Mr
Edmonstone and Mr Seton, of a far more sympa-
thetic character. Still it was the language of the
supreme authority to which men would naturally
turn. * Conscious in his own mind that his constant
study had been to promote, to the best of his
abilities, the interests and honour of his country,
and to render the establishment of a British admin-
istration in these colonies a memorable era among
them in the amelioration and improvement of their
population,' he was naturally shocked at the grudg-
ing and captious tone of Lord Moira's comments.
The final decision of the Court of -Directors, which
was dated February 13, 181 7, was fortunately couched
in a wholly different strain. 'After a scrupulous
examination of all the documents . . . and an atten-
tive perusal of the Minutes of the Governor-General
and of the other members composing the Council,
when it was under consideration, we think it due to
Mr Raffles, to the interests of our service, and to the

u6 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

cause of truth, explicitly to declare our decided con-
viction that the charges, in so far as they went to im-
plicate the moral character of that gentleman, have not
only not been made good, but that they have been
disproved to an extent which is seldom practicable
in a case of defence. It is not now our intention to
discuss the expediency of the leading measures of the
administration of Java while Mr Raffles presided over
the government of the island. The policy of those
measures is not only separable from the motives
which dictated them, but there are cogent reasons
why they should be kept altogether distinct and
separate on the present occasion. Before pronouncing
upon the financial operations of that Government, we
are desirous of fuller information and further time to
deliberate on their tendency and effects, as well as
on the circumstances under which they were adopted.
Were their unreasonableness, improvidence and in-
efficacy clearly established, this would only indicate
error or defect of judgment, or, at most, incompet-
ence in Mr Raffles for the high, and, in many
respects, exceedingly difficult situation which he
filled. But the purity as well as the propriety of
many of his acts as Lieutenant-Governor having
been arraigned, accusations having been lodged against
him, which, if substantiated, must have proved fatal
to his character and highly injurious, if not ruinous,
to his prospects in life, his conduct having been
subjected to a regular and solemn investigation, and
this investigation having demonstrated to our minds
the utter groundlessness of the charges exhibited

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 117

against him, in so far as they affected his honour, we
think that he is entitled to all the advantage of
this opinion, and of an early and public expression
of it.

* Mr Edmonstone, in his elaborate and able Minute,
has taken so comprehensive and just a view of all
the acts which constituted the grounds of imputation
against the personal character of Mr Raffles, that it
is quite unnecessary for us to enter into a detailed
scrutiny of the matters, either of charge or refuta-
tion. On most, if not all the points at issue, we
concur with Mr Edmonstone both in his reasonings
and conclusions, and whatever judgment may be
ultimately passed on the various measures of the late
Government of Java, which underwent review in the
course of the investigation into the conduct of its
head, we are satisfied, not merely that they stand
exempt from any sordid or selfish taint, but that they
sprung from motives perfectlv correct and laudable.
If we notice the circumstance of Mr Raffles having
been a purchaser of lands at the public sales on the
island, it is for the purpose not so much of animad-
verting, after all that has passed, on the indiscretion
of the act (for it was unquestionablv indiscreet) as of
expressing our firm persuasion that he has stated,
without equivocation or reserve, the reasons which
induced him to engage in these transactions, and
that they do not at all derogate from those principles
of integrity by which we believe his public conduct
to have been uniformly governed.'

CHAPTER VII

THE GOVERNMENT OF JAVA (l8ll-l6) concluded

Policy as to Eastern Islands — Treatment by Home Government —
Japan — Measures as to Slavery — Opium — Question of Reten-
tion of Java — Dismissal — Death of Mrs Raffles — Journeys to
the Eastward.

It has already been noted that Raffles had recognised
from an early date that the interests of the various
islands of the Eastern Archipelago were closely con-
nected with each other. In his letter to Lord
Buckinghamshire, of August 5, 1 8 15, Raffles states : —
4 It will be found that on the first establishment of
the British dominion in these seas, it was con-
templated to place the Moluccas and the general
control of the Eastern Archipelago in the hands of
the Java Government. Acting under this impression,
our attention was directed to the re-establishment
of the out-stations, the general suppression of piracy,
and the introduction of that system of wholesome
control which had of late been wrested from the
hands of our predecessors. Military expeditions
became necessary ; and expenses for the benefit of
trade and the British interests in general, and
altogether foreign from what would have been

118

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 119

demanded for the internal management of Java,
also were of necessity incurred.' In fact, however,
the Moluccas had become a Crown colony in 18 10,
and it was impossible to find within the four
corners of our hero's commission the extensive
powers which he claimed. Raffles considered [see
Minute on Piracy of September 8, 18 14) himself
as 'continuing to act' in the cases of islands not
directly connected with Java * in my capacity as
political agent for the Governor-General with the
Malay States.' He put in practice, though probably
he did not know, the good old legal maxim, boni
judicis est ampliare jurisdictionem. It must be ad-
mitted that in dry law his contention could not be
sustained. Be this as it may, there was no question
as to the wisdom of his advice. ' I cannot hesitate
to record my opinion that it is more consistent with
the honour, character and interest of the British
nation and of the East India Company in particular,
and at the same time most conducive to an improve-
ment in the condition and happiness of the natives
of these islands, and to the interests of commerce
and prosperity, that these States shall continue to
be separated from the political life of Java. . . .
Shall we not avail ourselves of the present oppor-
tunity afforded by the possession of Java to establish
a permanent and preponderating influence in these
seas, an influence that may not be affected by the
political fate of Java, and will at all times insure
to British trade the commerce and advantages of
the eastern islands ? ' Raffles was preaching to deaf

izo BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

ears. The East India Company had got quite
enough trouble and responsibility with the care of
India itself, and was in no mood to consider far-
reaching views with regard to the Far East. The
active interest of Raffles's despatches lay in the
opportunity they gave to snub the over-zealous
Governor for exceeding his authority. Much corre-
spondence took place over an expedition against
Sambas in Borneo. In this particular case, how-
ever, Raffles was able to show that he had only
acted at the request of the Imperial naval authorities.
Nevertheless, Raffles had interfered with the internal
concerns of Borneo, and so in the letter to the
Supreme Government, May 5, 181 5, announcing
his dismissal, so often referred to, we read that the
Court are ' especially pleased to find that you have
annulled the engagements entered into by the Colonial
Government with the native chiefs of Borneo.' In
another matter with which the Java Records in the
India Office are much concerned, Raffles was act-
ing strictly within his legal rights. The Batavian
Government had possessed a monopoly of the European
trade with Japan. It was true that of late years
this trade had sunk to very small proportions, and,
in fact, had been discontinued for four years, but
Raffles insisted that ' the trade heretofore carried
on with Batavia forms no criterion by which the
extent and value of the trade is to be judged, when
a more liberal and upright policy is pursued. It
was just as extensive as it suited the personal interest
of the Resident to make it : but on a different

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 121

system it may be contemplated that its importance
will not fall short of that which is now attached
to China. A British factory once established, that
of the Dutch would be superseded for ever. The
demand for woollens and hardware, the staple manu-
factures of Great Britain, would be unlimited. No
prejudices are to be surmounted ; the climate and
habits of the people create a want which it would
be our interest to supply.'

The mission which was sent in June 181 3, consist-
ing of Mr Wardemaar and Dr Ainslie, was partially
successful. The trade was to be continued, but
was at first to be carried on under the Dutch
name. The action of the Supreme Government,
however, in refusing its approval to these arrange-
ments, nipped the scheme in its bud. On this
subject, which appealed especially to men of busi-
ness, the Court of Directors were inclined to agree
with Raffles and not with Lord Moira. Though
their expectations of benefit from this trade were
not great, thev would have been * disposed to regard
with approbation any fair attempt ' towards its
establishment.

An attempt has been made to deal — though in
summary fashion — -with the leading measures of
Raffles with regard to the administration of justice
and the tenure of the land. Some other measures
of his government must be noticed. Although it
was manifestly impossible consistently with recog-
nised rights of property to emancipate the slaves
found in Java at the time of the conquest, regula-

122 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

tions were at once instituted which greatly mitigated
the evils of the system. The duty on the importa-
tion of slaves was doubled, and no child could be
imported under the age of fourteen. An annual
registry of slaves was taken, and slaves not registered
within a certain time were declared free. Raffles
tells how a native chief who had inherited fifty
domestic slaves proudly said, ' Then I will not register
my slaves ; they shall be free ; hitherto they have
been kept such, because it was the custom, and the
Dutch liked to be attended by slaves when they
visited the palace ; but as that is not the case with
the British, they shall cease to be slaves ; for long
have I felt shame, and my blood has run cold when
I reflected on what I once saw at Batavia and
Samarang, where human beings were exposed for
public sale, placed on a table, and examined like
sheep and oxen.'

On the proclamation of the British Statute de-
claring the further traffic in slaves to be felony, that
Act with all its provisions was made a colonial law.
In other respects Raffles sought to ameliorate the
position of the slaves. They were no longer to
be considered as objects of real property, but as
the possessors of personal rights, bound only to
unlimited service. The powers of masters were
strictly limited, and wrongs done to slaves treated
as other wrongs. Slaves were given the right of
acquiring separate property, and enabled to purchase
therewith their liberty after seven years' service.
These alterations in the law were submitted to

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 123

the Supreme Government, but they had not received
its approval at the time of the restoration of the
colony to the Dutch.

On another subject we find Raffles anticipating
the trend of subsequent philanthropic thought. He
was the first public man to recognise the evils
inflicted on the population by the abuse of opium,
and in August 18 15 we find him proposing police
regulations for prohibiting its introduction and
retail in any districts of Java except the towns of
Batavia, Samarang and Sourabaya.

To do justice to our hero's labours, it is
necessary to emphasise at the risk of repetition
the precarious nature of the British occupation.
We have already noted the ' hesitation ' which
led the superior authorities to shirk any kind of
responsibility. From the draft of a letter in the
India Office from Lord Bathurst, dated October
26, 18 13, it would seem that it had been at last
definitely decided to convert Java into a Crown
colony. The Supreme Government appeared as
ignorant of the intentions of the Home Govern-
ment as were their subordinates. Indeed, this was
inevitable when confusion and doubt everywhere
prevailed. Raffles himself did not always use the
same language. Thus, in February 1814, he writes
of the island being given up at a peace to a foreign
power, * which God forbid,' while, in the following
July, he says, c If I were to believe that the
Javanese were ever again to be ruled on the
former principles of government, I should indeed

124 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

quit Java with a heavy heart ; but a brighter
prospect is, I hope, before them. Holland is not
only re-established, but, I hope, re-united. ... I
will hope that the people of Java will be as happy,
if not happier, under the Dutch than under the
English. I say happier, because Java will, in
importance, be more to Holland than she could
ever be to England ; and the attention bestowed
by the one country must naturally be greater than
that likely to be afforded by the other.' After
Napoleon's return from Elba, Raffles was for a
moment filled with the hope that after all Java
might remain British. Unhappily personal consider-
ation soon forbade that Raffles should be an unbiassed
judge when the East India Company was concerned.
His old friend and patron Mr Ramsay retired on a
pension in 1813, and his successor, rightly or
wrongly, was believed by Raffles to ' possess neither
heart nor soul' and to be 'self-interested in every
act.' As the clouds arising from Gillespie's charges
gathered round him, Raffles was assailed by a
fresh misfortune. Lord Minto died, whom Raffles
regarded as his only 'shield and support.' 'It
is a thousand to one now,' he bitterly adds, ' that
Lord Moira's party carries the day for a time.'
Lord Moira is described in the same letter as
' disappointed of the patronage of Java, opposed to
all Lord Minto's arrangements, and possessing strong
prejudices.' In May 1815 the Court of Directors
launched the final thunderbolt which pronounced a
curt dismissal. Altogether, apart from the Gillespie

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 125

accusations, 'we cannot but lament that the just
and accurate views of political and commercial
economy which have served to detect the numerous
errors that have been committed by the Lieutenant-
Governor were not directed to the prevention of
acts which have rendered the occupation of Java
a source of financial embarrassment to the British
Government.' Smarting under unmerited censure,
Raffles somewhat naively announced himself (August
1815) 'so disgusted with the proceedings of the
Supreme Government that I have at once invited
the King's Government to assume the administration
of Java. ... I have previously stated my wish to
be appointed political agent on the part of the
British Government for the Eastern Seas. ... I
think I would manage in long that my Empire
— taking roots in Sumatra — shall soon extend its
branches through the Eastern Islands, and though
secondary in the commencement, should in the
end become supreme.'

As the tone of the above may sound somewhat
boastful, it is but fair to set beside it the words
written on the same day to Lord Buckinghamshire.
Urging the benefits to be derived from the retention
of Java, he adds : — ' I shall stand excused from the
narrow views of personal interest when I declare
that I shall have no inclination to accept, were it
offered, the charge of such an adminstration as I
shall venture to propose. It will require a person of
high rank, either noble or military, and I have had
too much experience already of the injuries which

i26 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

accrue from the want of that high rank. These
injuries, as far as they might affect private comfort
or what may be termed the state of domestic mind,
are little heeded, for I feel myself superior to
them ; but the public interests suffer when exalted
rank does not accompany exalted station.' Be this
as it may, the tone adopted by Raffles was not such
as to win the sympathies of a Secretary of State. It
showed little knowledge of the official mind to declare
(letter to Lord Buckinghamshire, October u, 1815)
that it was 'scarcely possible to conceive a greater
degree of injustice than what I have received at the
hands of the Earl of Moira.' The truth was, as
Raffles himself had already written (letter to Ramsay,
September 18 15) : 'She' (Java) 'cannot longer be
kicked about from one place and authority to another
like a shuttlecock. The Court of Directors will
not interfere, the Ministers will not interfere, the
Government of Bengal will not now interfere, but
all hands will no doubt unite if chere is anything
with which to find fault.'

Apart from his private grievances, concern for the
public weel was troubling him sore. ' I cannot get
this abominable treaty out of my head. All our
interests in this part of the world are sacrificed, and
it is not the first time our honourable masters have
sacrificed the national interests to support their own
jobbing system.' The restoration of Java to the
Dutch may be justified on grounds of policy, but the
manner in which no attempt was made to safeguard
the interests of the native rulers who had trusted to

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 127

British protection reflected disgrace upon England,
and led to much subsequent trouble.

While Raffles was thus being harassed by public
cares, a more intimate grief had assailed him. In
November 18 14 Mrs Raffles was seized with a sudden
illness and died within a very short time. What the
widower felt is best seen by the pathetic words written
more than a year later in replying to the address pre-
sented, on his leaving Java, by the members of his
staff. ' You have been with me in the days of
happiness and joy, in the hours that were beguiled
away under the enchanting spell of one, of whom the
recollection awakens feelings which I cannot suppress.
You have supported and comforted me under the
affliction of her loss.' Great as was his grief, there
was in him a power of rebound which prevented his
dwelling exclusively upon the past. He well de-
scribed himself (October 18, 1815) as ca widowed
wretch and yet not cast down . . . my spirits are
uneven, and I am either the enthusiast or the despon-
dent.' In the preceding March he ascended the
mountain Gunung Gidi, ' which I accomplished with
some difficulty. . . . We had a most extensive
prospect from the summit. ... I think we may say
that we had nearly within our range all that part of
the island which by the former Government was
not called 'Java.'' A little later Raffles undertook
a tour to the eastward through the interior and
mountainous parts of the island. On a single day he
travelled fifty miles through unknown forest. ' The
path was frequently undistinguishable. In some

128 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

places it lay over steep mountains, and in others
followed the courses of rivers, or wound through the
mazes of deep ravines.' One of the attendants was
nearly torn to pieces by a tiger. The scenery was
lovely, and the journey gave Raffles ' the opportunity
of examining in person those stupendous monumental
remains of a hierarchy, long since obsolete, which are
promiscuously scattered through all parts of the island.
They consist of ruins of Hindu temples and of
images, sculptures and inscriptions. . . . Many of
these had been previously surveyed and delineated,
under his orders, by proper officers ; but his personal
examination was required to enable him to determine
the accuracy of their plans and delineations, and to add
those practical details which will give full authenticity
to the descriptions. . . . On his further route to the
Eastward he also inspected the remains of Majapahit.'
'Various details,' Dr Horsfield adds, 'on particular
ruins were likewise communicated to the Lieutenant-
Governor by his friends, from which collectively he
has been enabled to give in the 9th chapter of the
History ofjava those copious details, accompanied by
beautiful illustrations, which add a peculiar interest to
his work, enhanced by the consideration that during
the short period of the British possession ofjava these
stupendous remains of antiquity . . . were either
discovered or rescued from the obscurity in which
they had been buried for many centuries.' At the
close of 181 5 Raffles was again summoned to the
Eastward by the discovery of a conspiracy among the
Sepoys serving at the Emperor's Court. The rapidity

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 129

and vigour of Raffles's action rendered the movement
abortive, while, in the special circumstances of the
case, the mildness with which he treated the offenders
was doubtless justified.

Meanwhile our hero's health was seriously affected.
'Anxiety,' Raffles wrote towards the end of 1815,
' soon pulls a man down in a hot climate.' According
to Lady Raffles, ' Mr Raffles was occupied constantly
from four in the morning until eleven or twelve at
night.' Not only did he work for long hours, but
he worked with extraordinary rapidity. He frequently
dictated to two persons whilst engaged in writing
letters himself, and he required three clerks to copy
and keep up with what he wrote. Considering the
original delicacy of his constitution and the strain to
which it was subjected ; considering, moreover, the
debilitating character of the climate, and the grief and
worry which came on the top of work, the wonder is
not that Raffles broke down but that he showed such
rallying powers. It does not speak well for the
generosity of his enemies in Leadenhall Street that
among the charges carefully treasured against him
was that he took home with him without leave the
Government medical officer, Sir Thomas Sevestre.
The state of the Governor's health made it out of the
question that he should proceed, on the arrival of his
successor, Mr Fendall, direct to Bencoolen, and so he
decided to visit the Cape of Good Hope, and, if
necessary, England, before entering upon his new
duties.

Unjust as may have been our hero's curt dismissal,
1

130 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

it involved no bad consequences to British interests.
The restoration of Java had been decided and was
irrevocable. In these circumstances it was well that
the business of formally handing over the Dutch
possessions should be entrusted to one less hostile to
Dutch pretensions than was Raffles. If British
interests were for the time sacrificed in the Eastern
Archipelago the fault lay with the treaty of 1814 and
the British statesmen who had signed it ; Mr Fendall,
in a very difficult position, appears to have done all
that could be done on behalf of the natives' interests,
and endeavoured ably and loyally to carry through
the policy of Raffles.

CHAPTER VIII

REVISITS ENGLAND AND IS ' LIONISED ' (1816-I7)

Voyage Home — Interview with Napoleon — Life in London —
History of Java — Friendship with Duchess of Somerset —
Second Marriage — Tour on Continent — Returns to the East.

At the time of his return to England in 1816,
Raffles had hardly reached to middle age. And yet
in many respects he was already an old man. He
had tried a delicate constitution to an extraordinary
degree, and already laid the seeds of premature
death. Successful as had been his general adminis-
tration, he had freely drunk of that cup of disap-
pointment and disillusion which too often in the
past was wont to attend the officer whose business
was to bear 'the insolence of office, and the spurns
that patient,' or impatient, c merit of the unworthy
takes.' Raffles embarked on March 25, 18 16, and
reached Falmouth on the nth of July. Rest and
change of climate soon restored him to partial health.
' Although I am considerably recovered,' he writes
to Ramsay, c I yet remain wretchedly thin and
sallow, with a jaundiced eye and a shapeless leg.
Yet, I thank God, my spirit is high and untamed,
and the meeting of friends will, I hope, soon restore
131

132 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

me to my usual health.' * I return to you, how-
ever,' he adds, 'a poor solitary wretch.'

The only interesting event in the voyage home
had been the landing at St Helena, and an inter-
view with Napoleon. Leave to see the ex-Emperor
was with difficulty obtained, and Captain Travers
gives a vivid description of the feelings of the party
whilst still in uncertainty on the question. At our
hero's suggestion, the time was employed in each
committing to paper his feelings at the moment.
The verses composed by Raffles were preserved by
Captain Travers, but as even the piety of Lady
Raffles does not give them a place in the memoir,
it may be conjectured that the gods had not added
the gift of poetry to the numerous gifts of our hero.
More interesting is Captain Travers's description of
the interview. c On our approaching, Napoleon turned
quickly round to receive us, and taking off his hat
put it under his arm. His reception was not only
not dignified nor graceful, but absolutely vulgar and
authoritative. He put a series of questions to Mr
Raffles in such quick succession as to render it
impossible to reply to one before another was put.
His first request was to have Mr Raffles's name pro-
nounced distinctly. He then asked him in what
country he was born ? How long he had been in
India ? Whether he had accompanied the expedi-
tion against the island of Java ? Who commanded ?
And, on being told Sir Samuel Auchmuty, he seemed
to recollect his name, and made some observations
to Las Casas respecting him. He was particular

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 133

in asking the extent of force, and the regiments
employed, and then inquired if Raffles delivered up
the island to the Dutch, or was relieved by another
Governor. He appeared to be acquainted with the
value and importance of the island, but put some
strange questions to Mr Raffles, such as how the
King of Java conducted himself. On Mr Raffles
explaining, he seemed most attentive, and then
asked whether the spice plantations at Amboyna
were doing well, and whether the Spice Islands
were to be also restored to the Dutch. He then
asked the name of the ship on which we were
going home, with what cargo laden, and which was
best, Bourbon or Java coffee. All these questions
were put with great rapidity, and before replied to
he turned round to Captain Garnham and myself,
asked our names, and what service we had seen ;
whether we were ever wounded or ever taken
prisoners ; how long we had been in India, and
several other similar questions. He then again
addressed himself to Mr Raffles, and seemed
interested with his remarks on Java. He conversed
with Sir Thomas Sevestre, and put similar ques-
tions to him with those he had put to Garnham
and myself. On his making a slight inclination
of the head, we prepared to take our leave, and on
our making our bow, we parted . . . Napoleon
continued his walk, and we returning to the house.
During the whole time of our interview, as Napoleon
remained uncovered, common politeness obliged us
to keep our hats in our hands ; and at no time was

134 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

it found necessary to give him any title, either of
General or Emperor.' No account of this inter-
view has been left by Raffles himself, but the
manner in which in later letters we find him speak-
ing of Bencoolen as his Elba, shows how largely
the personality of the great Frenchman bulked in
his thoughts. What Napoleon thought of Raffles
it would have been interesting to know, had not
the canker of egotism eaten so deeply into the great
Corsican's nature that nothing which did not relate
in some way to his own personal fortunes seems in
later years to have had any interest for him.

When England at last was reached, ' the day was
beautiful, the sun shining bright, the sea smooth ' ;
but what most delighted the travellers was the
greenness of the fields. A brief stay at Truro
enabled Raffles to go down a copper mine, an occa-
sion on which he foretold the eclipse of Cornish
prosperity by the competition of Oriental tin and
copper. He reached London on the 16th of Julv
1816, 'and the next morning he announced his
arrival at the East India House. He looked with
the greatest confidence to the Court of Directors
for ample justice when they were in possession of
the facts of his case. The serenity of his temper,
the buoyancy of his spirit, and the joyous feeling
of returning health, absorbed the recollection of
past misery and disappointment in bright anticipa-
tions of future reward and happiness.' (Captain
Travers).

In spite of anxiety with regard to his treatment

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 135

by the Directors, and the private troubles under
which he still suffered, there can be no question
but that Raffles keenly enjoyed the life to which
he was now introduced. We have seen how a
nature, singularly susceptible to the delights of life,
had been from earliest boyhood rigorously confined
to the cares and drudgery of business. Raffles threw
himself upon the society which opened its arms to
him with the innocent delight of a hard-worked
schoolboy who has at last obtained a whole holiday.
Only the very sophisticated or the very naive can
enjoy the position of a lion ; and Raffles, in spite
of his experience, was naivete itself. It is suggestive,
however, of the temper of the time that society
did not welcome primarily in Raffles the Governor
of Java, the intrepid vindicator of a new India in
the Far East. It was as savant that he seems to
have been mainly considered, and it was through
his friends, Sir Joseph Banks and Mr Marsden, that
the doors of the Royal Society were thrown open
to him, by which he obtained the valued friend-
ship of the Duchess and Duke of Somerset, and
became the welcome guest of Princess Charlotte
and her consort, Prince Leopold. The best account
of this time is to be obtained from the reminiscences
of Sir Stamford's cousin, the Reverend Dr Raffles,
from which Mr Boulger gives some very interest-
ing- extracts. c One of his first visits was to his
aunt, for they were very fond of each other. He
left his equipage, which was a splendid one — and
private carriages with rich liveries were not so

136 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

common then as they are now, and were indeed a
great rarity in the quiet corner of London in
which my father lived — and walking the length
of Princes Street, knocked at old No. 14, and on the
opening of the door, went at once into the sort of
parlour-kitchen where my mother was, busied, as
usual, about her household affairs. " I knew well,"
he said, "where at this time of the day I should
find you," and taking his accustomed seat in an old
armed chair by the fireside, where he had often sat,
made her, at once, by his affectionate and playful
manner, quite unconscious of the elevation to which
he had attained since he had last sat there. " Aunt,"
he said, " you know I used to tell you, when I was a
boy, that I should be a duke before I die." " Ah,"
she replied, "and I used to say that it would be Duke
of Puddle Dock" which was a proverb in London
at that day referring to a wretched locality in Wap-
ping, and with which aspiring lads, who had great
notions of the greatness they should hereafter attain,
were twitted. But he had actually attained to far
more than a dukedom, having had Oriental kings
and regents under him.' In May 181 7 appeared
the History of Java, ' which,' Lady Raffles tells us,
i he completed with his usual quickness. A few
sheets were rapidly written off every morning for
the printer, and corrected at night on his return
from his dinner engagements. It was commenced
in the month of October 18 16, and published in
May 18 1 7.' Gest magnifique, the critic cannot but
whisper, mais ce nest pas la guerre. The History of

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 137

Java is interesting as containing first-hand informa-
tion from a master on the subject and on scientific
grounds, but from a mere literary standpoint the
less said of the book the better. However, it satisfied
the judgment of that great authority, the Prince
Regent. On Raffles attending the next levee, we
are told that the Regent, while cordially recognising
the value of Raffles's services in Java, took the oppor-
tunity of thanking him ' for the entertainment and
information he had derived from the perusal of the
greater part of the volumes.' It was on this occasion
that Raffles received the honour of knighthood.

Space forbids to follow the good Dr Raffles in
his account of the manner in which Oueen
Charlotte fished for a present of Javanese furniture,
and was gratified ; of the jealousy of the Regent
of the friendship shown to his daughter. ' Hence
the mere knighthood, when all expected, as ... it was
richly deserved, a baronetage* ; of the adroit manner
in which Sir Stamford avoided a command of the
Regent by putting forward a prior command of
the Princess Charlotte. There is one statement,
however, of Dr Raffles, which calls for some
comment. ' There was no doubt entertained at
the time that, if he had survived, he would have
been Governor-General of India ; while she (Princess
Charlotte) would have been but too much delighted
to have raised him to the peerage in that capacity.'
Now, that Sir Stamford Raffles was, in intrinsic
worth and ability, head and shoulders above many
a governor-general may be freely admitted, but

138 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

that under the complicated system of government,
which then prevailed, he would have been a possible
man for the post appears more than doubtful.
The East India Company was primarily a com-
mercial company, with directors owing primarily
commercial obligations to their shareholders. To
assist and guide them in the Imperial responsi-
bilities, which had little by little grown upon
them, there was the Board of Control, a depart-
ment of the British Ministry, the President of
which spoke in the name of the Secret Committee,
which consisted of representatives of the Company.1
Lastly, there was the Governor-General, who,
although termed the supreme government, was of
course responsible to both the Company and to
the Board of Control. In this state of things
the position of the Governor-General was at best
a very difficult one. It was absolutely necessary
that he should be a man of commanding social
and political position, if he was to hold his own
with his masters in Leadenhall Street ; and even
the prestige and distinction of a Wellesley were
not strong enough in the long run to resist. But
Raffles was possessed of neither political nor social
influence. He had already excited jealousy and
prejudice in some of his short-sighted employers.
Among his great gifts the gift of managing men,
at least when they were placed above him, was

1 See Sir Robert Peel, Vol. III. p. 3. Lord Fitzgerald writes
(January 12, 1843) : — 'Lord Ellenborough has been three times at the
India Board. He knows that every line, sent by the Secret Committee
is written by the President of the Board of Control.'

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 139

not always apparent. His political aspirations were
as profoundly distasteful to the statesmen of the
day as they were troublesome to lookers for im-
mediate gains. The favour of the Sovereign would
have been a weak reed indeed on which to rest
in the face of the storm of opposition which such
an appointment must have aroused. After a study
of the records, in which the old rancour seems
to give new life to the mouldering pages, the
conclusion seems so inevitable that, were it not
that Mr Boulger, whose great knowledge of Indian
matters must be allowed by all, appears to regard
the idea with approval, it would have seemed
superfluous to labour the conclusions here put
forward.

Among the friendships gained by Raffles during
this period of comparative leisure, the most interest-
ing in its results was that with the Duchess of
Somerset. The very interesting correspondence
between Sir Stamford and the Duchess throws a
flood of light, if one may use an expression borrowed
from the French, on his most intimate self. A
mere man of the world might easily mistake the
purport of these letters and detect a kind of platonic
philandering, where in truth nothing of the sort
was really meant. To silence such cavils it may
be enough to say that many of these letters were
written soon after Raffles had taken to himself a
second wife to whom he was genuinely attached ;
that Lady Raffles sincerely partook of her husband's
feelings towards the Duchess ; and that the Duke

1 4-0 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

of Somerset was no less sincerely attached both to
Sir Stamford and to his wife. In fact, there was a
sentimental and romantic side to Raffles which is
not a little captivating in the case of this world-
battered man of action. 'I am absolutely afraid,'
we find him writing to the Duchess of Somerset,
c to enter upon the romantic, as I could easily prove
to your Grace that you were not mistaken in sup-
posing me a little given to such indulgences. I
have great difficulty in keeping myself steady, and,
if I were once to trust myself afloat in such a
bewitching world, I fear that I should never again
be fitted for this everyday scene.'

Sir Stamford's second wife, to whom he was
married in February 1817, was a Miss Hull, who
appears to have been a friend of his favourite sister,
Mary Anne. c You will, I doubt not,' Raffles writes
to his cousin on February 23rd, 'approve of the
change I have made in my condition in again
taking to myself a wife ; and, when I apprise you
that neither rank, fortune nor beauty have had
weight on the occasion, I think I may fairly
anticipate your approval of my selection. The
lady, whose name is Sophia, is turned of thirty ;
she is devotedly attached to me, and possesses every
qualification of the heart and mind calculated to
render me happy. More I need not say.' The
announcement is not too happily expressed, a little
recalling Touchstone's introduction of Audrey ;
but in fact no married life could have been happier
than that of Sir Stamford and Lady Raffles, and

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 141

most loyally did he return the love and devotion
with which he was enshrined. In the spring of
the same year Sir Stamford travelled for six weeks
upon the Continent, visiting France, Belgium,
Switzerland, Savoy and the Rhine. In France he
noted that the Bourbons did 'not appear to me
to have advanced a single step beyond that of a
footing. They are in office, and that is all.' In
his admiration for the system of peasant proprietors
he anticipated the verdict of later economists. ' For
the greatness of a country it may be an object
that the greatest possible quantity of produce should
be brought to market ; and those who are for
raising a nation maintain that this can only be
effected by large farms and the outlay of capital.
The philanthropist, however, and even the philo-
sopher, will hesitate before he sacrifices everything
to the greatness of the nation ; unless its happiness
goes hand in hand with its greatness, he will think
the latter but of little value. Now, when I see
every man cultivating his own field, I cannot but
think him happier far than when he is cultivating
the field of another. Even if he labours more,
that labour is still lighter which is his pride and
pleasure, than that which is his burden and
sorrow. ... I like to see fruit trees growing
among the corn, because it not only affords a
refreshing and beautiful scenery, but because it
reminds me of those patriarchal times, those days
of simplicity when the son and grandson, and even
the great-grandson, honoured the trees that their

142 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

forefathers had planted. Upon the whole I cannot
but think that, notwithstanding agriculture as a
science may be almost unknown in France, and
that France as a nation has been greatly im-
poverished both in men and money, there is a
foundation in the present state of her land and
peasantry to support a much greater nation than
France ever yet was ; all now depends upon the
wisdom of their Government and the fortunes of
her politics.'

The tour fitly concluded with a visit to the King
of the Netherlands, with whom Sir Stamford dined.
£ They were very communicative regarding their
Eastern Colonies ; but I regret to say that notwith-
standing the King himself and his leading ministers
seem to mean well, they have too great a hankering
after profit, and immediate profit, for any liberal system
to thrive under them. They seem to be miserably
poor, and the new Government in Java have com-
menced by the issue of a paper currency from every
bureau throughout the island ; formerly you will re-
collect that paper money was confined to Batavia,
it is now made general, and will, I fear, soon cause
all the remaining silver to disappear. The King
complained of the coffee culture having been
neglected, and expressed anxiety that he should soon
have consignments ; and while he admitted all the
advantages likely to arise from cultivation, and
assured me that the system introduced under my
administration should be continued, maintained that
it was essential to confine the trade, and to make

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 143

such regulations as would secure it and its profits
exclusively to the mother country. I had an oppor-
tunity of expressing my sentiments to him very
freely, and, as he took them in good part, I am in
hopes that they may have had some weight.'

It has been already seen that even Lord Hastings,
in his hostile Minute of October 17, 18 15, considered
himself 'bound in justice to leave unshaken the re-
served appointment of Mr Raffles to the situation of
Resident at Fort Marlborough.' The subsequent
decision of the Court of Directors finally and fully
absolving Raffles from any stain upon his moral
character rendered it no longer necessary to delay
taking up the duties of his new position. The
Court of Directors, ' in consideration of the zeal
and talents displayed during the period he filled the
office of Lieutenant-Governor of Java, conferred upon
him the title of Lieutenant-Governor of Bencoolen
as a peculiar mark of the favourable sentiments which
the Court entertained of his merits and services.' At
this time Raffles had several private conferences with
some of the most influential of the Directors, and
appears to have gathered from them that his policy
in the Far East would be allowed to prevail. He
was instructed to communicate directly with the
Directors with regard to the actions of the Dutch,
so that he might well suppose that his position was
something more than that of a mere Resident at
a commercial station.

* The delightful misery of saying good-bye ' cost
Raffles many a pang ; especially was the parting

144 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

felt from his kind friend the Duchess of Somerset.
To her care were entrusted a Javanese cow and calf,
for whose well-being he felt the keenest solicitude.
Starting from Portsmouth in October 1817, the
Lady Raffles was driven back to Falmouth by
contrary winds. Falmouth they found 'almost at
the Land's End, and so far removed from the source
of general information that we are quite in the dark
as to what is going on in London. The newspapers
are two and even three days old.' Sir Stamford spent
his time in making a study of Cornish tin mines.
At Falmouth Sir Stamford received the sad news
of the lamented death of Princess Charlotte. At
last, on November 19, they were fairly off. 'And
now I must say good-bye in earnest, for the wind
is decidedly fair and promises to continue so.' Sir
Stamford adds, ' The large dog is in high health
and spirits, my plants and particularly the Berry
strawberries quite thriving, and also my little birds
singing round me. . . . To-morrow I mean to exert
my handy work at butter-making after the know-
ledge I obtained at Berry.' Brave words, but as Sir
Stamford was 'never well on shipboard, and would
cheerfully exchange my present berth for an upper
apartment in the King's Bench,' the butter-making
probably did not come to much. Lady Raffles,
however, is careful to note that ' Sir Stamford never
relaxed his occupations ; he regularly devoted his
mornings to study ; and only allowed a small portion
of the day to be occupied in the idle exercise of
walking on the deck.' ' A beautiful young lady,'

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 145

Raffles writes to his sister, Mrs Flint, ' made her
appearance while we were in the southern latitudes,
but, although we were afterwards six weeks at sea,
neither child or mother suffered inconvenience. Never
was such a pair of darlings.' Considering this event,
it is amusing to note the more than Roman dignity
with which Lady Raffles severely ignores this gener-
ally important incident of family life, and writes : —
'The passage was long and tedious — five months
without any object to vary the scene, relieve the
eye, or divert the mind from the contemplation of
what has been called the one great monstrous idea.''
It was not that she was less the mother, but that
she was more the wife — a wife, moreover, whose
unhappy idea of writing a biography was to insert
masses of political information, which could easily
be obtained elsewhere, and severely to ignore all those
human touches which alone enable the dry bones of
the past to live again.

The new arrival, at the suggestion of a Javanese
chief who had accompanied Raffles to England, re-
ceived the name of the Lily of the Sea (Tunjong
Segara) in addition to the names Charlotte Sophia.

CHAPTER IX

BENCOOLEN (1818-24)

First Impressions — Measures of Reform — Emancipating Slaves —
Policy with Regard to Natives — Promotes Agriculture — Ap-
proval of Planters — Schools for Native Children — Treatment
of Convicts.

Sir Stamford arrived at Bencoolen on March 22,
1 8 18. The place had been just devastated by an
earthquake, and the first impressions were far from
favourable. c This is, without exception,' he wrote
to Mr Marsden, ' the most wretched place I ever
beheld. I cannot convey to you an adequate idea
of the state of ruin and dilapidation which surrounds
me. What with natural impediments, bad govern-
ment, and the awful visitations of Providence which
we have recently experienced in repeated earth-
quakes, we have scarcely a dwelling in which to
lay our heads, or wherewithal to satisfy the cravings
of Nature. The roads are impassable, the highways
in the town overrun with rank grass, the Government
House a den of ravenous dogs and polecats. The
natives say that Bencoolen is now a tana mati (dead
land). In truth, I never could have conceived any-
thing half so bad. We will try and make it better,
146

] A~-.Tl.kN ARCHIPELAGO TO ILLUSTRATE RAITLESS U "MINISTkATION.

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 147

and if I am well supported from home the west coast
may yet be turned to account. You must, however,
be prepared for the abolition of slavery, the emancipa-
tion of the country people from the forced cultivation
of pepper, the discontinuance of the gaming and
cock-fighting farms, and a thousand other practices
equally distasteful and repugnant to the British char-
acter and government. A complete and thorough
reform is indispensable, and reductions must be made
throughout.'

In sober truth, the state of things Raffles found
about him was such as might cause an honest
Englishman to blush. The condition of the Govern-
ment slaves was most deplorable. ' The women
living in promiscuous intercourse with the public
convicts for the purpose (as I was informed by the
superintendent) of "keeping up the breed," and the
children living in a state of nature, vice and
wretchedness.' Most meet and right was it that
our hero's first public act should have been the
emancipation of these unfortunate creatures. Look
where he might the picture was dark enough. The
revenue, such as it was, was the outcome of vice
or of tyranny. In his first despatch from Sumatra
(April 10, 181 8), Raffles points out 'the withering
effect of the system of forced deliveries.' Perhaps
nowhere in the history of dependencies had the
precept ' how not to do it ' been more carefully
followed than in the management of Bencoolen.
Started as a commercial factory, and only continued
for commercial purposes, this precious station had

148 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

entailed upon the Company an annual deficit of
nearly ^100,000. On the first establishment of
settlements in Sumatra the East India Company
bound down the native chiefs to compel their
subjects each to cultivate a certain number of
pepper vines, the produce to be delivered to the
Company's agents at a price below the cost of the
labour employed in the cultivation. With the
appearance, however, of English officials, the influence
of the chiefs naturally waned, and the agents of the
Company became themselves obliged to exact the
enforced labour. In 1801 a new departure had been
made. Wearied with the continual drains on their
resources, the Court of Directors ordered a large
reduction of the staff, and the abandonment of the
out-stations. Unfortunately, the old system of
enforced labour was not at the same time abolished,
the out-residences being, in fact, farmed out to such
as undertook to furnish from them the largest amount
of pepper at a given rate. The result was to be seen
1 in the ruinous effects which have resulted from a
disinclination to exercise supremacy for the moral
improvement of the people, while at the same time
its attributes were abundantly assumed for the attain-
ment of a pecuniary profit.' The economies, more-
over, of 1 80 1 had been apparent rather than real.
In order that the Resident might have an interest
in forcing the people to cultivate pepper, he was
allowed one dollar per cent, on the quantity he
delivered to Government. Insufficient allowances
tended to produce an inefficient and dishonest class of

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 149

civil servants. Raffles found the resources of the
place greatly diminished, while the establishments
' were actually in a progressive state of increase.'
There was a deficiency of over $160,000 in the
Treasury, which the sub-treasurer did not attempt to
explain till he was safely out of the place. That
Raffles should have evolved order out of this chaos is
in some ways more to his credit than were his more
brilliant claims to general recognition. Writing on
June 29, 18 18, he was able to announce that c all
forced services and forced deliveries of every denomi-
nation have been abolished, the cultivation of pepper
has been declared free, and the people are now at
liberty to cultivate that article or not at their pleasure.
All transit duties have been abolished.' The revenue
derived from the cock-fighting farms was employed
locally, so that their continuance being ' destructive
of every principle of good government, of social order,
and the morals of the people,' they were promptly put
down. The gaming farms presented a greater diffi-
culty, as they were connected with the revenues of
Bengal, but these also were suppressed. The emanci-
pation of the Company's slaves took place before an
assembly of the native chiefs, to whom Sir Stamford
explained the views of the British Government with
regard to the abolition generally. The children of
the slaves were at the same time assembled at the
Government House, and ' as a considerable degree of
prejudice existed against them, Lady Raffles at the
moment selected one of them, a little bright-eyed girl
about eight years, whom she put under the charge of

150 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

her European nurse. She proved a most docile,
affectionate little attendant,' and Lady Raffles 'on
leaving Sumatra had the pleasure of giving her a dower
on her marriage.' Care was at the same time taken
to consult the native chiefs with regard to the future
of the country. All former treaties were by consent
annulled, and a free hand thus secured for the intro-
duction of reforms. For very shame the Court of
Directors could not refuse their sanction to the
measures of the emancipation of the slaves and the
abolition of the gaming farms. They expressed their
regret, however, at the haste with which Raffles had
acted.

As time passed, Raffles became more and more
reconciled to his new position. ' We are, upon the
whole,' he writes in July 1820, 'as happy a family as
you can well conceive ... so comfortable indeed
have we managed to make ourselves that we shall feel
regret whenever the day comes that we are to turn
our backs on Bencoolen, whether for better or worse.'
'I have fortunately become very popular among them ;
all classes seem persuaded that I want to make the
country, and there is nothing which I wish or suggest
which they are not anxious to do.' His active brain
had evolved a plan whereby to reconcile the well-being
of the people with the withdrawal of European estab-
lishments from the several out-stations. In order to
insure to the cultivator the direct fruits of his industry,
inquiry was made into the nature of the tenure of
land, and the conclusion reached that a permanent
interest in the soil was not inconsistent with the

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 151

native institutions of the country. The Sumatrans,
however, were a very different people from the Javanese.
They were perhaps a thousand years behind them in
civilisation, and, consequently, required a very different
form of government. c In Java I advocated the
doctrine of the liberty of the subject, and the indi-
vidual rights of man — here I am advocating despotism.
At present the people are as wandering in their habits
as the birds of the air, and until they are congregated
and organised under something like authority, nothing
can be done with them.' The real remedy, according
to Raffles, would have been to establish a benevolent
despotism. c I would assume supremacy without
interfering with the just independence ; I would be
the protector of the native states ; I would, in fact,
re-establish the ancient authority of Menang Cabau,
and be the great Mogul of the island. I would with-
out expense afford employment to twenty or thirty
thousand English colonists. In short, what would I
not do, and, indeed, what could I not do were I free
to act, and encouraged rather than abused ? ' All
this he recognised to be ' visionary.' ' The time has
gone by when I had the spirit for it. I have met with
so much injustice and ill-usage on the part of the
authorities at home that the charm is gone — my con-
fidence is lost. I only think of these changes as what
might have been had circumstances been more favour-
able.' Meanwhile, as a second best measure, Raffles
endeavoured to strengthen the positions of the native
chiefs, and to throw upon them increased responsibili-
ties. The Government, abandoning the advantage of

152 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

the labour of the villagers, also abandoned any obliga-
tion of police protection. The land being vested in
the chiefs, they were held responsible for public order.
Native Courts were to be held by these chiefs, com-
munications with the Government being carried on
through the channel of the principal men among them.
As Raffles expressed it, ' I have assumed a new char-
acter— that of Lord Paramount. The chiefs are my
barons bold, and the people their vassals.'

If, however, permanent improvement was to be
obtained, it could be only by the encouragement
of agriculture. Forests were cleared, morasses drained,
and the soil cultivated. Every man was obliged to
grow sufficient grain for his own subsistence, and
the produce increased by leaps and bounds. ' By
establishing a right of property in the soil and
giving the preference to the actual cultivator, an
extraordinary competition has been excited, and my
time is now engaged for many hours in the day
in settling boundaries and claims to land, which
a year ago may be said to have been without owner
or claimant.' Raffles himself had turned farmer.
' My life is at present rather monotonous, not, how-
ever, unpleasantly so, for I have all the regular
and substantial enjoyment of domestic comfort in
the bosom of a happy and thriving family ; and
in the daily pursuits of agricultural and magisterial
duty I find abundance to interest and amuse — but
I am no longer striding from one side of India to
another, overleaping mountains or forming new
countries — I am trying to do the best I can with

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 153

a very old and nearly worn-out one, in which I
hope, by infusing a new spirit, and encouraging
habits of industry and motives of enterprise, much
may be done. I am busily engaged in taking a
census of the population, and inquiring into the
processes of husbandry and the village institutions,
and I think you would be amused to see me amid
my rude and untutored mountaineers, collecting the
details and entering into all the particulars, as if
they were the peasants of my own estate ' (June
2, 1820). In spite of difficulties, Bencoolen was
at last ' thriving, the remedy applied has been efficient,
a turn has been taken and a few years' perseverance
will make this a new and prosperous country —
great it can never be.' At the same time much
remained to be done. Raffles was confident that
a great opening lay in Sumatra for the cultivation
and manufacture of sugar. CI find that a sugar
work may be established here at less than one-sixth
of the expense which must be incurred at Jamaica ;
that our soil is superior, our climate is better, and
as we are neither troubled with hurricanes or yellow
fever, that our advantages are almost beyond com-
parison greater. A gentleman has come over from
Jamaica, and is establishing a very extensive planta-
tion. He is now engaged in planting the cane,
and in about a year hence he will commence his
sugar. Watermills have been applied for from
Liverpool, and, if the undertaking should turn out
favourably — as I have no doubt it will — I trust it
will not be long before his example is generally

154 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

followed. Coffee and other tropical productions
may of course be cultivated here with equal advan-
tages ; and considering the present state of capital
and labour in England, I cannot help regretting
that the public attention is not turned to the
advantages which might result from colonising this
part of Sumatra. ... It is here by colonisation,
by European talents and Chinese labour alone, that
the resources of the country can be brought forward.
... I much fear the expectations of advantageous
colonisation at the Cape will be disappointed. It is
sending poverty to feed on poverty, and the most
that can be expected by the settlers, after a life
of toil and misery, is bare subsistence. The climate,
it is true, is more congenial to a European constitution,
but this is all. The climate is certainly warm and
unfavourable to Europeans, but I believe that I may
safely affirm that it is the most pleasant if not the
most healthy within the tropics. The principle,
however, on which colonists settle here must be very
different to what it appears to be at the Cape.
Here nothing can be done without capital, everything
with it. Capitalists in England must either send
out their relatives, or lend their money on mortgage
to some active or intelligent partner. Any young
man of steady habits and common sense, whose father
cannot obtain employment for him at home, but who
can advance him from four to five thousand pounds,
may thus establish himself and create an estate of
three or four thousand pounds a year for his descend-
ants. These principals in the concern would require

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 155

under-surveyors, coopers, distillers, writers, etc., and
each estate would give employment to several Europeans.
The Chinese and natives would be the manual
labourers, as the negroes are in the West Indies.'
On the wisdom of these suggestions the experienced
must decide ; but it is quite plain that such colonisa-
tion would have done nothing to meet the evil with
which the state-aided emigration to Port Elizabeth
endeavoured, however feebly, to cope. It is probable
that the next sentence of the letter affords the key
to Sir Stamford's main interest in the subject.
c Politically, the colonisation of that part of Sumatra
which belongs to the British Government would be
very important, as it would enable us to make a
stand against the Dutch encroachments. They are
colonising Java very fast ; and, notwithstanding our
power on the continent of India, they might easily
overrun and occupy to our exclusion every possession
between the Strait of Sunda and China.' To return
to the more material subject of sugar, the Company
showed little interest in RafHes's scheme for further
development. When he proposed to add, to the
annual consignment of pepper, sugar and spices, they
replied, c You make no distinction between goods
bought for commercial principles of profit and loss,
and speculations undertaken for the eventual benefit
of the settlement on territorial and public con-
siderations' (January 22, 1822). In excuse for the
Directors, it may reasonably be supposed that the
probable abandonment of the settlement may have
been already in their thoughts.

156 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

Sir Stamford endeavoured in every way to promote
the cultivation of spices. He warmly supported the
petition of the planters who urged the removal of
the duties in the British market which operated in
favour of the Dutch, and entreated that the bar
might be removed which prevented the introduction
of British capital and immigrants. ' The manifest
and declared efforts of the Netherland authorities in
this country to injure and destroy by every means
in their power the rival produces of Bencoolen are
felt in so many shapes and directions that our planters
feel themselves under the necessity of applying for the
protection of their own government.' They might
as well have applied to a rock. The East India Com-
pany were not to be persuaded. Mens immota manet
lacrimce volvuntur inanes. The planters at least were
not ungrateful. A committee of them placed on
record that 'the great variety of beneficial changes
that has taken place since the commencement of your
important administration, and the extraordinary facility
with which these changes have been effected has
excited the wonder and admiration of everyone, and
had circumstances permitted them to have been re-
ceived with due appreciation by the higher powers,
there is no doubt they would have led to results in the
commercial world as great as they would have been
unexpected.'

The great truth that man cannot live by bread alone
was ever in the Governor's thoughts. He strongly
urged the building of a new church, pointing out
the inconvenience and inadequacy of size of the old

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 157

chapel. Schools on the Lancastrian plan were opened
for the children of the natives. A Bible Society was
started and missionaries encouraged. ' We have
already,' Sir Stamford writes to his cousin, ' one young
man and a small printing press ; but we require active
zeal, and I shall find enough to do for all you can send
out ; but let them make haste — years roll on very fast.
. . . There is no political objection whatever to
missionaries in this part of the East, and so far from
obstructing, they may be expected to hasten and assist
the plans which are already in operation.' The
natural bent of Sir Stamford's mind was never more
clearly seen than in his treatment of the convict
question. Bencoolen had been since 1797 a penal
settlement to which convicts were transported from
Bengal. In one of his first letters from Sumatra, Raffles
proposed to offer inducements to good conduct by
arranging the prisoners in three several grades. He
suggested that the first class should be allowed to give
evidence in Court and to settle on land secured to
them and their children. The second class should be
employed on ordinary labour, while the harder kind of
labour was reserved for the third class of incorrigible
character. Raffles was able to bring his amended
regulations into force in January 1824, but, unfortun-
ately, on the handing over of Bencoolen to the Dutch
in the following year, and the transference of the
convicts to Penang, the vis inertia of the Prince of
Wales's Island Government reverted to the old system
which Raffles had superseded.

CHAPTER X

THE POLITICAL SIDE OF THE BENCOOLEN GOVERNMENT

Extent of his Jurisdiction — Dutch Predominance — General Policy
— Protest, August 1818 — Case of Palembang — Pulo Nias —
Lord Hastings's Minute.

Enough has been said to show with what zeal Raffles
threw himself into the cause of the internal well-
being of Bencoolen. At the same time he clearly
recognised that Bencoolen by itself could never count
for much. Whatever general trade or convenience
it had recently enjoyed had been due to the tem-
porary possession of Padang, and Raffles was deter-
mined in some way to make good this loss. At
first he recommended the taking possession of two
small islands off the coast of Acheen, ' the British
not having one inch of ground to stand upon be-
tween the Cape of Good Hope and China, nor a
single friendly port at which they can water, refresh
or obtain information' (April 12, 1818). He recog-
nised the importance of Simanka Bay, and instructed
Captain Travers to visit and report on the proposed
boundary between the British and the Dutch posses-
sions. Whatever may have been the rights of the
case, the British authorities were not prepared to
quarrel with the Dutch about Simanka Bay, and the
Supreme Government were of opinion that ' the pro-
158

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 159

posed establishment at Simanka Bay did not present
advantages to compensate for the inconvenience of
collision with the Netherland authorities.'

Another measure considered essential by Raffles
led to more unpleasant consequences. When he left
England he had been 'given to understand that at
least all the British interests in Sumatra were com-
mitted to his charge, subject to the general control
of the Supreme Government.' He therefore entered
into treaties of alliance and friendship with the native
rulers. After an interesting visit to Menangkabu,
the ancient capital of the Malay race, which will be
described later, finding that the Dutch influence had
never extended inland beyond the mountains, Raffles
' did not hesitate to enter into a conditional treaty
of friendship and alliance with the Sultan of Menang-
kabu, as the Lord Paramount of all the Malay
countries, subject, of course, to the approval of Lord
Hastings.' In so acting, Raffles undoubtedly broke
the letter of the law. A statute of George III.1
had expressly forbidden the making of treaties by
authorities subordinate to the Bengal Government.
Moreover, Sir Stamford offended the atnour propre of
Lord Hastings, and thus alienated the only possible
ally against the pusillanimous policy of the Home
Government. There can be little doubt but that
his sanguine nature attached too serious a meaning
to encouraging words spoken in private conversation.
Because he had been invited to send home reports
with regard to the doings of the Dutch, and because

1 33 Geo. III., c. 52, sec. 43.

160 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

he had received the title of Lieutenant-Governor,
he considered himself, and, indeed, described himself,
as ' representative of the British Government in the
Eastern Seas.' By this absence of the wisdom of the
serpent, Raffles too often delivered himself into the
hands of his enemies. In an account in the India
Office Records of his protests against the Dutch pro-
ceedings there is added in pencil, ' add by what
authority, if by any, Sir S. Raffles assumes the
title ; if by none, as I apprehend, let that be stated.'
Apart, however, from errors of form, the evil
against which Raffles was struggling was real
enough. 'The Dutch are worse,' he writes in
April 1818, 'than I even expected. . . . They do
all they can to lower and degrade the British by
arresting their persons, firing into their ships.' ' My
arrival here,' he adds, ' I understand, created the
utmost alarm. . . . They say I am a Spirit that
will never allow the East to be quiet, and that this
second Elba in which I am placed is not half secure
enough. If the Government is not right down mad,
ministers and the East India Company must inter-
fere. It will not be long, I think, before we come
to close quarters. I am now endeavouring to estab-
lish a position in the Straits of Sunda. If I succeed in
this I shall soon set up a rival port to Batavia and
make them come down to my own terms.' ' Not
satisfied,' Raffles wrote about the same time, 'with
shutting the Eastern ports against our shipping and
prohibiting the natives from commercial intercourse
with the English, they have despatched commissioners

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 161

to every port in the Archipelago, where it is prob-
able we might attempt to form settlements, or where
the independence of the native chiefs afford anything
like a free port to our shipping. Thus not only
the Lampong Country has been resumed, but also
Pontiana and the minor ports of Borneo, and even
Bali, where the European flag was never before
hoisted, are now considered by them subject to their
authority, and measures taken for their subjugation.
A commission also long since sailed from Batavia to
Palembang to organise, as it is said, all that part of
Sumatra ; and every native prow and vessel is now
required to hoist a Dutch flag, and to take out a
Dutch pass from Batavia for one of the ports thus
placed under their influence ; so that whatever trade
may still be carried on by the English with the
native ports of the Archipelago must already be in
violation of the Dutch regulations, and at the risk
of seizure by their cruisers, who have not hesitated
to fire into English ships. The commanders of the
country ships look to me to protect their interests,
and even to support the dignity of the British flag ;
and it is to be hoped some immediate notice will be
taken by our Government of these proceedings. . . .
The native chiefs of the independent ports have
looked in vain for the protection of the English.
They feel themselves deserted by us, know not how
to act, and from necessity are gradually falling under
the influence of our rivals. The question is not now
whether we are to give back to the Dutch the pos-
sessions they actually possessed in 1803, according

162 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

to the late Convention, but whether the British
Government and British merchants will be contented
to be excluded from the trade altogether in the same
manner as they were before the last century. No-
thing less will satisfy the Dutch authorities, who are
now at Batavia. They make no secret of it, and
openly avow the exclusion of the English, except in
Batavia, as the first principle of their policy.'

Our hero's method of meeting this state of things
would have been to insist upon a strict interpreta-
tion of the terms of the late Treaty ; to restore
matters to what they were in 1803 ; but not to
yield an inch beyond. A regular and accredited
authority was necessary to declare and maintain
the British rights, whatever they were ; to receive
appeals, and to exercise such wholesome control
as might be conducive to the preservation of the
British honour and character. * To effect the
object contemplated, some convenient station within
the Archipelago is necessary . . . and unless I
succeed in obtaining a position in the Straits of
Sunda, we have no alternative but to fix it in the
most advantageous situation we can find within
the Archipelago ; this would be somewhere in the
neighbourhood of Bintang. ... At the present
moment, when the most rigid economy is demanded
in every department of the British service, I should
perhaps hesitate to propose this measure of extend-
ing our positions were I not satisfied that it was
absolutely necessary ... it may be confined to a
single commercial station, at which a controlling

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 163

authority and two or three assistants would perform
all the duties, with a military guard just sufficient
to protect the flag and the property of individuals
from predatory attacks. The line of stations which
I contemplate, should the view I have taken be
adopted, would commence from Acheen, and, with
the single break of Padang, extend down the west
coast of Sumatra to the Straits of Sunda, influenc-
ing the whole coast. Another station at Rhio or
its vicinity would thus form the connecting link
between the establishments on the West Coast
and Prince of Wales's Island, and check the Dutch
influence in extending uninterruptedly in a chain
from Batavia to Banca, as certainly it will soon do
without such an establishment on our part. . . .
In establishing these stations it will be advisable
to proceed with great caution, and gradually. The
footing, however, once obtained in the Straits of
Sunda, I apprehend all the rest will follow without
difficulty. In the defence of our positions, as well
as for the maintenance of our respectability and
influence, I am of opinion we should look more
to a naval than a military force. One or two of
the Company's cruisers regularly relieved, and the
occasional visit of His Majesty's ships, will answer
every purpose, and be far more consistent with
our commercial and political character, as well as
afford more real security than battalions of soldiers.'
Meanwhile Raffles by himself was powerless to
act, but what was possible he did. Upon August
15, 1 81 8, he issued a solemn protest against

164 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

the whole proceedings of the Dutch. The par-
ticular case of Palembang was chosen as the text
upon which to base an indignant attack upon the
Batavian Government. Upon the wisdom of this
step there may be different opinions. Some will
think that unless Raffles was sure of his own
Government backing him up, there was some want
of dignity in indulging in scolding words when
deeds might not promptly follow. In any case
the protest would have been more effective had
it not been so inordinately long. Raffles's mean-
ing by this action is clearly explained in his private
correspondence. He wished to force the hands of
the home authorities 4 to bring the different
questions at issue to a point' and to 'oblige our
ministers to come to some immediate understand-
ing with the Dutch authorities in Holland.' ' I
was perfectly aware,' Raffles wrote, in the following
year to the Duchess of Somerset, ' that they (the
ministry) would not like the agitation of the
question, but they ought to have been aware that
it could not be avoided, and that, however easy
it may be in the Cabinet to sacrifice the best
interests of the nation, there are spirits and voices
engendered by the principles of our Constitution
that will not remain quiet under it.' The disgust
of the home authorities at the bold move of
Raffles can easily be imagined. Never, perhaps,
was the spirit of the little Englander more power-
ful than in the counsels of the Tory ministry,
which, with an exhausted Treasury and a discon-

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 165

tented people, saw itself confronted with the
mauvais quart cPheure of Rabelais. Raffles found
a loyal parliamentary friend in Lord Lansdowne,
but even natural soreness cannot excuse the singu-
larly ungenerous manner in which Lord Bathurst
alluded to the past charges against Sir Stamford
when asserting that he possessed no political authority
whatever.1 As Raffles bitterly wrote, * Ministers
must be very hard pushed or made of strange
materials when they can screen themselves under
misrepresentation and falsehood.'

' In fact, as has not seldom been the case in
" England's island story," the cause of British interests
was closely connected with the cause of humanity at
large. The considerations which urged Raffles on in
the case of Palembang were moral considerations.
It was the blot on the British escutcheon, inflicted by
the violence done to the Sultan, who had trusted to
the continuance of British protection, which made
Raffles to blush. The facts were these : the Dutch
had possessed a factory at Palembang, and the Sultan
was so far their subject that the proceeds of the port
duties went to them. They had, however, exercised
no control over the islands of Banca or Billiton. The
English had made a treaty with the Sultan, under
which he had ceded the possession of Banca and

1 February I, 1819, Lord Bathurst stated that at Sir Stamford's own
request he had been allowed to have the title of Lieutenant-Governor
that he might not 'be placed in a disagreeable situation, as it might
appear to many that the charges against him had been thought well-
founded . . . but he was expressly instructed to consider himself in fact
as merely the commercial Resident, and having no political authority
whatever.'

166 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

Billiton in return for the recognition of his independ-
ency at Palembang, and of the restoration of the port
duties. By the Treaty of 1814 between Great
Britain and the Netherlands, the Dutch received
back all the possessions which they held on 1st
January 1803; while, under a separate clause, Banca
was ceded to them, in return for Cochin and its
dependencies on the Malabar Coast. In this state
of things it was maintained that Palembang could
only be restored to the Dutch subject to the British
Treaty with the Sultan. Mr Fendall, the new
Governor of Java, when handing over the Dutch
possessions, at first refused to recognise Palembang
as Dutch, but finally consented under protest, the
subject at issue being forwarded to the European
authorities for final decision. At the same time there
appears to have been a half promise, on the part of
the Dutch, that they would not seek to enforce what
they claimed as their full legal rights. However this
may have been, the action of the Dutch was, in fact,
far from conciliatory. On the strict letter of the law
there seems little doubt of the correctness of the Dutch
contention. The fault lay with the British pleni-
potentiaries in Europe. It could hardly be expected
that the exalted personages, who, whenever the oppor-
tunity arose, sacrificed cheerfully the future interests
of their own colonies, should be mindful of the moral
claims of a mere native. At the same time, these
moral claims were very strong. At Great Britain's
desire the Sultan of Palembang had deprived himself
of the rich tin mines of Banca, and now he was

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 167

bidden once again to lose the port duties, while the
means by which it had been possible to find the
money for the purposes of government were not
restored to him. In his distress, the Sultan appealed
to his old friend and ally, Sir Stamford Raffles.
Raffles did not hesitate to interfere. He at once
despatched Captain Salmond with full authority to
defend in every way possible the Sultan's interests.
Unfortunately, beati possidentes^ the Dutch were
already in possession with a strong force, and their
only answer was to clap in prison the British emissary,
and finally to embark him on board ship. The wrath
of Sir Stamford may be imagined. To make matters
worse, the Dutch Commissioner was the same Mr
Muntinghe whom in Java he had found so obliging
and deferential a subordinate.

So, too, in the case of Pulo Nias, it was moral
considerations which dictated the action promptly
repudiated by Raffles's superiors. The English
Resident at Tapanuli and Natal had always main-
tained a small establishment in Pulo Nias, and so
Raffles had no hesitation in accepting the sovereignty
of the island, when the chiefs of their own accord
proffered it. The population appeared to be at least
230,000 souls. ' The whole island is a sheet of the
richest cultivation that can be imagined, and the in-
terior surpasses in beauty and fertility the richest parts
of continental India, if not of Java. The people, and
in particular the chiefs, are active and intelligent, rich
and powerful. . . . They have cheerfully entered into
our views for abolishing the slave trade, and the people,

168 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

and the country in general, promise much.' Pulo
Nias had been the headquarters of an active slave
trade. ' The unhappy victims, torn by violence from
their friends and country, are delivered, pinioned hand
and foot, to the dealers in human flesh, and kept
bound during the whole course of the voyage. In-
stances have occurred when the captives have seized
a moment of liberty to snatch up the first weapon
within their reach, stab all whom they encountered,
and conclude the scene by leaping overboard and
seeking deliverance from their persecutors in a watery
grave ! ' The population were pagans, and might be
converted to Christianity before they had come under
the influence of Mahommedanism. In these circum-
stances, when it is further remembered that Pulo Nias
had been the principal resort of French cruisers during
the late war, and that its acquisition was necessary to
complete the command of the coast from Acheen to
Natal, Sir Stamford's course of action was plain
enough. The policy he advocated would have en-
tailed little additional expense, and would undoubtedly
have been a gain to humanity. The Court of Direc-
tors, however, c had no hesitation in declaring that his
proceedings in regard to Pulo Nias were deserving of
their decided reprehension . . . they were inclined to
visit him with some severe mark of their displeasure
for the steps he had taken,' and threatened to remove
him from his government.

Although, during the first months of his stay at
Bencoolen, Raffles may well have felt in the lonelv
position of an Athanasius contra mundum, the evidence

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 169

of his senses soon carried conviction to the one person-
age with whom, to a great extent, lay the decision
of events. It has been seen that Lord Hastings's class
and professional prejudices had been at first aroused
against Raffles, and that he had not treated him, at
the time of Gillespie's charges, with much magna-
nimity. At the same time, further knowledge no
doubt generated increased esteem, and Lord Hastings
at least was not influenced by the pecuniary considera-
tions which coloured the views of Leadenhall Street.
In a Minute, dated October 25, 18 18, written after
personal communication with Sir Stamford, Lord
Hastings deliberately placed on record that the object
of the Dutch was to extinguish our political influence
and to exclude our commerce in the Eastern Islands.
The Dutch authorities, by possessing the two great
passes of communication with China, viz., the Straits
of Sunda and the Straits of Malacca, held at their
mercy not only British trade with the Eastern Islands,
but also British commerce with China. These
authorities were no longer the agents of a bankrupt
company, but the representatives of a nation rising
rapidly into importance.

In this state of things, Lord Hastings recommended
the establishment of British influence at Acheen, the
occupation of Rhio, the exchange of Bencoolen for
Malacca, and, lastly, the purchase of Banca from the
Dutch.

So far as Raffles was concerned, Lord Hastings
made the amende honorable in a letter wherein he
wrote : — ' It was painful to me that I had, in the course

170 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

of my public duty, to express an opinion unfavourable
to certain of your measures in Java. The disapproba-
tion, as you will perceive, affected their prudence
alone ; on the other hand, no person can have felt
more strongly than I did your anxious and unwearied
exertions for ameliorating the condition of the native
inhabitants under your sway. This proceeding was
no less recommended by wisdom than by benevolence ;
and the results have been highly creditable to the
British Government.' Lord Hastings continued : c I
request you to consider yourself at liberty to carry
into execution your wish to visit Bengal, whensoever
your convenience and the state of affairs in the Island
may offer an eligible opportunity. The means of
rendering the settlement at Bencoolen more advan-
tageous to the Honourable Company than it now
appears to be are certainly more likely to be struck
out in oral discussion.' The opportunity had at last
arrived, and the result of this visit was the foundation
of the settlement whereby the road to the Far East
was preserved for British enterprise, and an effective
blow struck at the Dutch predominance.

CHAPTER XI

THE ACQUISITION OF SINGAPORE (1819)

Visits Calcutta — Instructions for Mission to Eastward — Revised
Instructions as to Johor — Arrives at Penang — Colonel Banner-
man — Singapore — Starts for Penang — Surveys Carimon Islands
— Lands at Singapore — Treaty with Authorities — Appoints
Major Farquhar Resident — Indignation of Dutch — Conduct of
Bannerman — Decision of Supreme Government — Disapproval
of Home Authorities — Postponement of Decision saves Singa-
pore— Raffles on His Acquisition — Mission to Acheen.

Sir Stamford arrived at Calcutta early in October
1 818. He had every reason to be satisfied with his
reception by Lord Hastings. CI have just returned
from spending a week with Lord Hastings,' he
writes on November 15, 'and am in high favour.'
At the same time the pomp and ceremony of the
viceregal court did not please him, and he adds that
his opinion of Lord Hastings ' is not the least altered
by communion.' So far as his general views with
regard to the Eastern Islands were concerned,
Raffles was unable to carry the Supreme Government
with him. Lord Hastings doubtless knew that,
apart from provoking the Dutch, such a policy
would never obtain the support of the home authori-
ties. It was, however, determined to keep the com-
mand of the Straits of Malacca, by forming establish-
ments at Acheen and Rhio, and Raffles was appointed
Agent to the Governor-General for the fulfilment of
171

ij2 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

these undertakings. ' The protection of our com-
merce,' and not ' territorial influence,' was the object
of the mission. Raffles was enjoined first to proceed
to Acheen, and then, after the conclusion of the
negotiations there, to carry out the second object
of his mission. The first instructions, dated
November 28, laid great store upon the value of
Rhio. The object of the mission being to secure
the free passage of the Straits of Malacca, the port
of Rhio was considered most suitable as securing the
' command of the southern entrance of these seas.'
(In fact Rhio lies twenty-five miles distant from the
track of shipping passing in and out of the Straits, and
its harbour, if capacious, is mostly shallow.) By these
instructions the authority of Raffles was limited to the
establishment of a port at Rhio, and, if necessary, at
Lingen in connection with the former. It was pre-
sumed that the Dutch had not already formed any
settlement at Rhio. cIn the event of their having
done so at the period of your arrival you will of course
abstain from all negotiation and collision.'

The probability of the Dutch forestalling him had
been much in our hero's mind. He writes to Mr
Marsden : — c The Dutch may be beforehand with us
at Rhio. They took possession of Pontiana and
Malacca in July "and August last ; and have been
bad politicians if they have so long left Rhio open
to us.' It was fortunate that Raffles was thus per-
sistent, as, by a curious irony, on the very day on
which his instructions were signed, a treaty was
secured by the Dutch from the helpless ruler of Rhio,

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 173

under which they obtained political predominance.
In the face of this, the commercial treaty obtained
by Major Farquhar at an earlier date became so
much waste paper. Meanwhile, doubtless at the
suggestion of Raffles, his powers had been enlarged,
and the additional instructions of December 5 gave
him the same discretion in establishing a connection
with the Sultan of Johor as had been already given
with regard to Rhio and Lingen. Johor, however,
was for the most part an unknown quantity, so that
great caution and circumspection were necessary on
the part of Raffles. Preliminary inquiry would be
necessary both with regard to the local capacities
of Johor for a British port, and also with regard to
c the actual political conditions and relations of the
state, the degree of independent authority exercised
by the chief, his power of maintaining any engage-
ments which he may contract, his relations with
other states, especially the Dutch settlements at
Malacca and the Government of Siam.' ' There
is some reason to think,' the instructions continue,
' that the Dutch will claim authority over the State
of Johor by virtue of some old engagements, and,
though it is possible the pretension might be success-
fully combated, it will not be consistent with the
policy or present views of the Governor-General in
Council to raise a question of this sort with the
Netherlandish authorities. You are aware also of
the considerations which make the Governor-General
in Council reluctant to engage in any measures that
will bring us in collision with the Government of

174 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

Siam.' The general effect of these instructions was
to render possible the foundation of Singapore, though
the injunction may be criticised which enjoined the
mission to Acheen to be first carried through. In
attempting to counteract the policy of an aggressive
and truculent power, such as was the Dutch
Batavian Government, it was above all things neces-
sary that, whatever was done, should be done quickly,
and any delay would have permitted a repetition at
Johor of what was found to have taken place at Rhio.
Raffles proposed to get rid of the difficulty by send-
ing forward Major Farquhar beforehand, but happily
the strongly-expressed desire of the Prince of Wales's
Island Government that the whole question of the
Acheen Mission should be postponed, pending the
reference to Calcutta of important letters, afforded
Raffles an excuse for pressing forward in person the
other object of his mission. His conduct did not
pass unnoticed, and in the letter of August 14, 18 19,
in which the Secret Committee dealt with the ques-
tion of Singapore, it is asserted that Sir Stamford's
instructions had been unquestionably contravened
in the letter by his proceeding to Singapore before
he visited Acheen. The wisdom, however, of his
action was so obvious that no further attempt was
made to censure him for this.

Sir Stamford arrived at Penang on December 31,
where he found that a letter had been received from
Major Farquhar, announcing that the Dutch had
taken possession of Rhio with a naval and military
force. Colonel Bannerman, the Governor of Prince

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 175

of Wales's Island, regarded with extreme jealousy the
mission entrusted to Raffles. He could not forgive
the clause in the Instructions which placed the general
management of British interests beyond the Straits
of Malacca under the Bencoolen Government. He
felt for Raffles the personal dislike which transcendent
ability generally inspires in those who, in spite of
their pretensions, are conscious at bottom of their
own incapacity. He had himself failed in his attempt
to counteract Dutch influence, and did not desire
that another should succeed where he had been im-
potent. Moreover, he had been seriously impressed
by the threats launched in the preceding October
by the Dutch Commissioner. It was therefore natural
that he should now maintain that it was no longer
practicable to execute any advantageous political
arrangements with the Malay States to the east-
ward. Lingen and Johor he was convinced were
involved in the fortunes of Rhio. In this state of
things he implored Raffles to abandon his under-
taking. The reply is striking. ' I am equally con-
vinced with you,' wrote Raffles, ' that it is no longer
in the power of the British Government in India
to execute among the Malay States generally any
political arrangements as a due counterpoise to the
influence of the Dutch. These arrangements can
only be made in Europe ; but it is rather to preserve
an opening for the operation of such arrangements,
when made in Europe, that I would argue.'

It was not probable that Bannerman would be
convinced, and so Sir Stamford was obliged to make

176 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

the formal demand for men and material authorised
by his instructions. At first Bannerman seemed
inclined to refuse on the ground that the object of
the mission was now incapable of fulfilment. He
was not, in fact, prepared to go to the extreme
length of a refusal, though the full number of men
demanded was never sent. Sir Stamford took the
precaution of writing to the officer commanding the
troops in Bencoolen with the request that the
companies to be relieved should be brought round
by the Straits of Sunda. By this means he was able
to prevent serious inconvenience. At the same
time, in these proceedings, he appears to have exceeded
his authority, and thus laid himself open to the
censure of his enemies in the Secret Committee.

Considering the importance of Singapore to the
Empire, everything relating to its foundation is of
extreme interest. Lady Raffies states that 'even
before he left England, Sir Stamford contemplated
this, to him, classical spot as a place favourably situ-
ated to have a British station.' However apocryphal
may have been the history of the past greatness of
Singapore, in which Raffles delighted, it abundantly
justified itself, if it was the indirect cause of British
Singapore. At any rate, as early as December 12,
1 81 8, Sir Stamford had written to Mr Marsden : —
' My attention is principally turned to Johor, and you
must not be surprised if my next letter to you is
dated from the site of the ancient city of Singapore.' x

1 Captain Ross of the Disco-very and Captain Crawford of the In-vesti-
gator were sent in 18 18 to survey the Straits of Malacca. Captain

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 177

In writing to Colonel Bannerman, January 1, 18 19, he
said : — ' The island of Singapore, or the districts of
old Johor, appear to me to possess peculiar and great
advantages.' On January 16, Raffles wrote to the
Supreme Government : — ' The island of Singapore,
independently of the Straits and harbour of Johor,
which it both forms and commands, has, on its
southern shores, and by means of the several smaller
islands which lie off it, excellent anchorages and
smaller harbours, and seems in every respect most
peculiarly adapted for our object. Its position in the
Straits of Singapore is far more convenient and com-
manding than even Rhio for our China trade passing
down the Straits of Malacca, and every native vessel
that sails through the Straits of Rhio must pass in
sight of it. The town of Johor is in the main, at
some distance up the river, the banks of which are
said to be low ; but on the score of salubrity there
does not seem to be any objection to a station at
Singapore, or on the opposite shore towards Point
Romanea, or on any of the smaller islands which lie
off this part of the coast. The larger harbour of
Johor is declared »by professional men, to whom I
have been able to refer, to be capacious and easily
defensible, and the British flag once hoisted, there
would be no want of supplies to meet the immediate
necessities of our establishment.'

Raffles embarked on January 19, overtaking Major

Crawford described 'the Singapore islands' as 'of moderate height,
but not hilly ; these islands, with the Malay coast, make the old
straits.'

i78 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

Farquhar, whom he had sent on before. The first
business was to survey the Carimon Islands, as, although
Raffles had already decided that Singapore possessed
upon the whole more advantages than any other site,
the Carimon Islands had been strongly recommended
by Major Farquhar. They found them objectionable
as being uninhabited and covered with impervious
forests, * although well situated to give to a strong
naval power the command of the straits during war.'
The little fleet, which had been strengthened by the
addition of two surveying vessels of the Indian Navy,
anchored off St John's Island on the evening of
January 28. The next morning, in an interview
with theTumung'gung or Resident Governor, Raffles
received the welcome news that no claim had been
made to Singapore by the Dutch authorities. Johor
had been long deserted, and the chief authority over
it and all the adjacent islands (excepting Rhio and
Lingen) resided at the ancient capital of Singapore.
The Sultan of Johor had died in 18 10, leaving two
sons, the elder of whom should in the ordinary course
of things have succeeded to the throne. At the
time, however, of his father's death he was away,
and the law required that the Sultan's body should
be burned tby his successor. In this dilemma the
Viceroy of Rhio set up the younger brother as Sultan
against his will. On the return of the elder, the
younger brother sought to retire, but the masterful
Viceroy maintained him as a dummy in his own
hands. Meanwhile the two hereditary chiefs, whose
consent was necessary to a valid election, the Banda-

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 179

hara of Pahang and the Tumung'gung of Singapore,
remained faithful to the lawful heir, though the
opportunity was wanting to press his claims. Raffles
at once recognised the advantages offered by this
situation. A messenger was promptly despatched to
Rhio to summon back the lawful Sultan, while a pre-
liminary treaty was entered into on January 30 with
the Tumung'gung, under which leave was obtained
to erect a British factory. Major Farquhar was also
sent to Rhio to find out whether serious objection
would be raised by the Viceroy to a British establish-
ment at Singapore. He returned on February 2,
and reported that, although the Viceroy was unable to
show overt marks of friendship, the provisions of the
Dutch treaty were expressly confined to the post at
Rhio. The Sultan arrived at Singapore on February
1, and paid Raffles a visit the next day, on which
occasion Sir Stamford explained to him the object of
his mission. On February 6 a treaty was executed
* in triplicate by their Highnesses, and by me in the
capacity of Agent to the Governor-General.' Under
the provisions of this treaty the Sultan agreed to
allow the British to erect factories in any part of
his dominions. In return, the East India Company
undertook to pay the Sultan and Tumung'gung the
yearly sums of 5000 and 3000 Spanish dollars respec-
tively. Personal protection was promised to the
Sultan so long as he continued to reside in the im-
mediate neighbourhood of any place belonging to the
East India Company. The native authorities further
agreed neither to alienate any territory to, nor to

180 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

enter into any treaty with, any foreign power. All
persons belonging to the factory, after registration,
were to be considered British subjects. With regard
to duties, it was agreed that the Tumung'gung should
receive the full moiety of all the amounts collected
from foreign vessels.

At the signing of the treaty 'the British flag was
hoisted, with a royal salute from our garrison, from
all the shipping, and from the Tumung'gung's
battery.' r

A formal proclamation was issued on the same day
appointing Major Farquhar as Resident, and notifv-
ing that the Residency had been placed under
the government of Fort Marlborough. Farquhar's
appointment had been directed by the Supreme
Government, but at the time he stood high in Sir
Stamford's confidence. In a despatch of over forty
pages to the Supreme Government, Raffles explained
and justified the acquisition of Singapore. It had

1 Considerable confusion has taken place as to the exact date of the
acquisition of Singapore. Lady Raffles gives the date as February 29.
although the letters she quotes prove that date impossible. The authority
for this wrong date was really the memorial drawn up by Sir Stamford
Raffles himself on his return voyage to England with respect to his
services. Unhappily a complete account of the whole transaction
perished with the burning of the Fame. The Rev. R. B. Raffles was
the first to demolish the first date. He himself considers the right
date to be January 29. It is true that in writing to Mr Marsden, on
January 31, Raffles speaks of the British flag as already waving, but, on
the other hand, a private letter, written on the 29th by a member of the
expedition, shows ignorance still of its exact object, while Captain
Butler of the Hope, who passed Singapore on the 31st, 'saw tents
pitched on shore, and several vessels at anchor with the Company's colours
flying,' but makes no mention of any flag upon the land. As, more-
over, Singapore was not res nullius, and it was the interest of Raffles to
recognise the authority of the Sultan, who did not arrive till February 1,
it is not very clear by what right the British flag could have been hoisted
so early as the 29th.

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES i8r

been necessary * to obtain a post which should have
a commanding geographical position off the southern
entrance of the Straits of Malacca ; which should be
in the track of our China and country trade ; which
should be capable of affording them protection and of
supplying their wants ; which should possess capabili-
ties of defence by a moderate force ; which might
give us the means of supporting and extending our
commercial intercourse with the Malay States, and
which by its contiguity to the seat of the Dutch
power might enable us to watch the march of its
policy, and, if necessary, to counteract its influence.'
' Whether,' he added, ' we may have the power here-
aftei of extending our stations, or be compelled to
confine ourselves to this factory, the spell is broken,
and one independent post under our flag may be
sufficient to prevent the recurrence of the system of
exclusive monopoly which the Dutch once exercised
in these seas and would willingly re-establish.'

It was not likely that the Dutch would tamely
acquiesce in these doings. In their opinion the Far
East was their particular preserve, and Raffles a
discreditable poacher. Moreover, they had this
further argument. Both the commercial treaty of
Major Farquhar and the political treaty of the Dutch
had been made with the £ King of Johor, Pahang and
dependencies,' and the king named had been the
younger brother, whom now Raffles repudiated.
Granted that the real principal had been the Rhio
Viceroy, still the appearance of a new pretender, just
when he was wanted, looked a trifle suspicious. It

1 8z BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

was easy for the Tumung'gung to suggest that 'as
the Dutch had treated with an incompetent authority,
it was still left for us to establish ourselves in this
division of the Empire, under the sanction of the
legitimate sovereign.' The same astute individual
was, however, discovered to have been writing, along
with the Sultan, to the Dutch, excusing their conduct
on the plea that they had acted under compulsion
from the British. Meanwhile they showed no desire
to restore the advantages secured by themselves under
the treaty. When their intrigues were discovered
they signed with equal cheerfulness a fresh docu-
ment, wherein they stated that their motive in thus
excusing themselves had been the fear of the Dutch
vengeance. 'But I here call God and his holv
Prophet to witness that the English established them-
selves at Singapore with my free will and consent ;
and that from the arrival of the Honourable Sir
Thomas Stamford Raffles, no troops or effects were
landed, or anything executed but with the free accord
of the Sultan of Johor and of myself.' Meanwhile the
Dutch were seriously considering what should be the
next move to checkmate Raffles. At first there were
rumours that they would resort to force. The
Governor of Malacca was reported to have given
out publicly that if he could command a force of
600 men he would instantly proceed against Singa-
pore. In fact, however, he contented himself with a
formal protest (March 10). On reflection, the Dutch
may well have considered that they had nothing to
gain by precipitate action. Hitherto they had always

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 183

obtained what they wanted, and it was likely that the
obsequious Bannerman better represented the views of
his London masters than the unruly Raffles. The
decision may have been influenced by the diplomacy
of Hastings. c Sir T. Raffles,' he wrote, ' has not
sufficiently explained to us why he proceeded to Singa-
pore after learning the extent of the pretensions
advanced by your agent at Malacca. A strict
attention to our instructions would have induced him
to avoid the possibility of collision with the Nether-
land authorities on any point, and so sincere is our
desire to bar the way to any altercations with your
Government that the occupation of Singapore has
been to us a matter of unfeigned regret. In fact,
after being acquainted with the extent of the pre-
tensions advanced on the part of your nation, and
before we knew of the existence of a factory at Singa-
pore, we had issued instructions to Sir T. S. Raffles,
directing him, if our orders should arrive in time, to
desist from every attempt to form a British establish-
ment in the Eastern Archipelago.' But now that
Singapore was an accomplished fact it was ' impossible
to relinquish our possession on your demand without
subscribing to the rights which you claim, and of
which we are not satisfied, thereby awkwardly fore-
stalling the judgment which was to have taken place
at home.'

In thus expressing himself Lord Hastings was
perfectly consistent. Before Raffles started for Prince
of Wales's Island a letter had been despatched to him
which fortunately he did not receive till too late. In

184 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

this the Supreme Government directed him c to re-
linquish the prosecution of the measures confided to
his management.' The fact that Raffles had clearly
annoyed his own superiors rendered the Dutch less
inclined to active interference. It is easy for us now
to come to this conclusion ; at the time the danger of
collision seemed great. In this connection it is necessary
to dwell upon the attitude of Colonel Bannerman.
His untiring efforts to thwart British interests were
worthy of a better cause. When the Dutch protest
was issued, he forwarded it to Calcutta with a cover-
ing letter of approval. When a rumour arrived that
the Dutch were preparing to seize Singapore by a
coup de fnain, he wrote an abject letter to the Governor
of Malacca, wherein he entreated that no measures
might be taken pending the reference which had been
made to the Supreme Government. ' I am the more
induced,' he added, ' to make this appeal to you, as Sir
Stamford Raffles is not under the control of this
Government, and I am really unacquainted with the
nature of the reply he may have returned to your
communication of the treaty existing between your
Government and the kingdom of Rhio.'

When Major Farquhar, on the receipt of the in-
telligence that a sudden attack upon Singapore might
be expected, applied to Colonel Bannerman for assist-
ance the reply ran as follows : — ' The intelligence
vou have thought it your duty to communicate to me,
although very important, you must have been well
aware could excite no surprise in my mind, inasmuch
as you were personally and distinctly apprised by me,

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 185

before you quitted the island, that you were proceeding
in an undertaking which was in violation of the orders
of the Supreme Government, and which would expose
you to a hostile attack from the Netherlanders. . . .
Although it is not the province of this Government
to furnish you with any instructions, yet a perusal of
the enclosed documents may serve to guide your
judgment how far you will be justified in shedding
blood in the maintenance of your post, and particu-
larly after the communication made to the Nether-
landers by the Chiefs of Johor and Singapore, which
will certainly induce them to consider every resistance
on your part as adding violence to injustice.

'The Honourable Company's cruiser Nearchus
and hired brig Ganges will afford you ample means
for removing your party from Singapore, in the
event of such a measure becoming, in your judg-
ment, proper and necessary ; but I have distinctly
to inform you that you must not expect any re-
inforcements from this Government, until a reply
is received from the Governor-General in Council,
as it is the decided conviction of this Government
that any force from this island could not oppose
the overpowering armament at the disposal of the
Batavian Government, and could only widen the
breach which the late proceedings at Singapore
have made between the British and Netherlandish
authorities. ... In conclusion, I must beg
particularly to apprise you that, after the receipt
of the present information respecting the views
of the Governor-General and the sentiments of

186 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

this Government, you will not be justified in the
measure of shedding blood by pleading hereafter
that your honour as a soldier compelled you to
make resistance. As a soldier, I must unequivocally
declare to you that your personal honour is in
no degree implicated in the present occasion to
render the shedding of blood necessary' (March
16, 1819). Colonel Bannerman was under the
impression that he would be supported in his
refusal by the Supreme Government. On the 1st
of January he had written that the idea of opposing
the Dutch, by founding a rival settlement, was
'another of Sir Stamford Raffles's aberrations,' and
had received a reply in which Lord Hastings
stated 'that Sir Thomas Raffles was not justified
in sending Major Farquhar eastward after the
Dutch protested ; and if the post has not yet
been obtained he is to desist from any further
attempt to establish one' (February 20, 1819).
On March 16, Colonel Bannerman wrote to
Lord Hastings : — 'It must be notorious that anv
force we are able to detach to Singapore could
not resist the overpowering armament at the dis-
posal of the Batavian Government, although its
presence would certainly compel Major Farquhar
to resist the Netherlanders even to the shedding
of blood, and its ultimate and forced submission
would tarnish the national honour infinitely more
seriously than the degradation which would ensue
from the retreat of the small party now at Singa-
pore.'

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 187

* Neither Major Farquhar's honour as a soldier,
nor the honour of the British Government, can
require him to attempt the defence of Singapore
by force of arms against the Netherlanders, as he
knows that Sir Stamford Raffles has occupied that
island in violation of the orders of the Supreme
Government, and as he knows that any opposition
from his present small party would be a useless
and reprehensible sacrifice of men when made
against the overwhelming naval and military force
that the Dutch will employ. . . . The question
is, shall the Governor reinforce Major Farquhar,
and invite him to a violent opposition against the
Netherlanders ? or shall it recommend him rather to
evacuate the post Sir S. Raffles has so injudiciously
chosen than shed a drop of human blood in its
defence ? After the knowledge we possess of the
views and present policy of the Governor-General ;
after the information we have obtained of the
means used by Sir Stamford Raffles to obtain
the island of Singapore ; and after the intelligence
we have received of the Dutch right to that
territory, admitted as it is by the secret corre-
spondence of the chiefs there, I am decidedly of
opinion that this Government will not be justified
in reinforcing Major Farquhar and inciting him
to resist the Hollanders by force of arms. I had
fully stated the possibility of a hostile attack from
the Dutch to the worthy Major, when he first
lost sight of his usual prudence, and allowed him-
self to be seduced and made a party in Sir Stamford

188 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

Raffles's proceedings . . . and although my advice
was then little attended to, yet my duty, as well
as a considerable portion of personal regard, will
not now permit me to withhold from offering it
to him again, accompanied as it may be with
much responsibility to myself.' Colonel Bannerman
stood amazed at his own daring in risking the
displeasure of the Dutch by furnishing means to
Major Farquhar 'to withdraw the establishment
from Singapore, which he otherwise would not
and could not have done.' Still he must venture.
' I confess the mortification to me would be infinitely
aggravated if I saw Major Farquhar and his detach-
ment brought into this port under a Dutch flag.'
The sting of the despatch lay in its tail. The
jealousy of Penang against a possible rival, the
jealousy of a feeble and mean-spirited official against
a builder of Greater Britain inspired his pen. ' How-
ever invidious the task, I cannot close this minute
without pointing out to the notice of our superior
the very extraordinary conduct of the Lieutenant-
Governor of Bencoolen. He posts a detachment at
Singapore, under very equivocal circumstances, with-
out even the means of coming away, and with such
defective instructions and slender resources that before
it has been there a month its commander is obliged to
apply for money to this Government, whose duty it
becomes to offer that officer advice and means against
an event which Sir Stamford Raffles ought to have
expected, and for which he ought to have made an
express provision in his instructions to that officer.

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 189

. . . He set off for Acheen, and left Major Farquhar
to shift for himself. In fact, he acted (as a friend of
mine emphatically observed) like a man who sets a
house on fire and then runs away.'

It is unnecessary to defend Raffles against the
spiteful insinuation thus conveyed, because in leaving
the new post after its foundation he was simply carry-
ing out the express order of the Governor-General.
Lord Hastings was by no means a blind partisan of
Raffles, and he was most anxious to comply with the
repeated injunctions of the Home Government that
any collision with the Dutch should be scrupulously
avoided. At the same time he was the representative
of an imperial authority, whose position had not been
won by methods such as Bannerman suggested, and
he knew that nothing was so likely to endanger peace
as any show of the white feather. ' With regard to
Singapore,' the Supreme Government wrote on
April 8, 1 8 19, 'we say that we think your Govern-
ment entirely wrong in determining so broadly
against the propriety of the step taken by Sir
Stamford Raffles. The opposition of the Dutch
was not of the nature which we had directed to
be shunned under the description of collision. The
ground on which Sir Thomas Raffles stood was this :
that Singapore was never mentioned in the treaty
between the Sultan of Johor and the Dutch. The
supposition that it was included in the general term
of dependencies is one of these gratuitous assumptions
which merit no consideration. We fear you will
have difficulty in excusing yourselves should the

1 9o BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

Dutch be tempted to violence against that post.
The jealousy of it, should misfortune occur and
be traceable to neglect originating in such a feeling,
will find no tolerance with the Government, who
must be satisfied (which is not now the case) that
perseverance in maintaining the post would be an
infraction of equity, before they can consent to
abandon it.' On the receipt of this rebuke Colonel
Bannerman, of course, promptly despatched two
hundred men, but had the Dutch threats been
followed by action, they would have been too late
to have been of any use to Major Farquhar.

The final verdict of the Supreme Government on
RafHes's conduct in founding Singapore was thus
expressed : — ' The selection of Singapore for a port
is considered, as to locality, to have been highlv
judicious, and your proceedings in establishing a
factory in that place do honour to your approved
skill and ability, though the measure itself, as wilfully
incurring a collision with the Dutch authorities,
which might have been avoided, is much regretted.'

It by no means followed, even now, that the cause
of Singapore was gained. Above the petty jealousies
of the Prince of Wales's Island and its spiteful
Governor, above and beyond the blusterings of
Dutch officials, outraged at being hoist with
their own petard, even above and beyond the judg-
ment of the Governor-General, there was the final
Court of Appeal of the British Government, which
assuredly approached the case with no bias in favour
of one whom Lord Bathurst had so recently

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 191

repudiated in the House of Lords. ' Tanta molis
erat ' to preserve the open door to the Far East,
can truly be said by those who have read the
despatches in the India Office. About a week
before the acquisition of Singapore, a letter had
been sent to Bengal, directing that positive instruc-
tions should be issued to Raffles, forbidding him from
contracting any engagements with the native states
in the Eastern seas without first obtaining the
approbation of the superior authorities. When the
news was received of his mission, the Secret Com-
mittee wrote expressing disapproval both of the
employment of Raffles and of the measures contem-
plated. It is, however, to the despatch of August 14,
1 8 19, that we must look to learn the reception given
to the news of the acquisition of Singapore. 'A
definitive judgment,' wrote the Secret Committee,
c upon the conduct of Sir T. Stamford Raffles in
respect to Singapore must be delayed until the
receipt of the Governor-General's opinion as to the
manner in which his Lordship's instructions have
been executed, more especially as the objections
founded by the Governor-General on the written
instructions in question were answered by Sir
Thomas's assertion that he was wholly entrusted
with discretionary powers ; an assertion which
brings to mind one of a similar sort as to the
tenor of the communications made to him in con-
versation before he left England. With respect
to the written instructions furnished to Sir Thomas
by the Governor-General in Council, they have un-

192 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

questionably been contravened both in letter and in
spirit ; in the letter, by his proceeding to the eastward
before he visited Acheen, and by communicating
privately with the King of Acheen before he went to
the seat of the Acheenese Government ; and, in spirit,
by risking a collision with the Dutch in the Straits of
Malacca. The false steps taken by Sir Thomas in
concluding treaties with the chiefs of Sumatra, in
instigating a spirit of resistance to the Dutch, and in
assuming the title of Agent to Great Britain in the
Eastern seas, rendered doubtful the expediency of
employing him at all in any negotiation or under-
taking in the Eastern seas. No time is to be lost in
disavowing the treaties concluded by him with the
chiefs of Sumatra ; and if Sir Thomas Stamford
Raffles should evade an order to this effect, the duty
of disabusing the said chiefs must be confided to the
Government of Prince of Wales's Island. His Majesty's
Government were about to propose an amicable dis-
cussion with the Netherland Government . . . when
intelligence of the acquisition of Singapore arrived.
If the discussion is to be interrupted by the intelli-
gence of fresh feuds and violence in the Eastern seas,
it seems quite hopeless to begin the work of amicable
adjustment ... if the Dutch should forcibly expel
our garrison at Singapore, we must either submit in
silence, or demand reparation at the hazard of a war
which may involve all Europe. . . . The doubt
stated by the Government of Prince of Wales's Island,
as to the competency of the East India Company
under the new charter to make conquests to the

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 193

southward of the Line is considered as being well
founded.1 Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles cannot pre-
sume to suppose that he has been empowered by His
Majesty's Government to make such acquisitions on
behalf of the Crown. He has by no means made out
the title of the chief from whom he has obtained the
cession of Singapore ; and as the Dutch had asserted
a previous claim to Singapore, founded upon grants
from the Sultan of Rhio, he was bound by his instruc-
tions so far to respect such claim as to make its
validity a matter of discussion, and to refer that
discussion to Bengal. He has thought proper to act
in direct contradiction to those instructions, and has
chosen to presume that the discussion will go on more
favourably to this country if, instead of the tedious
process of investigating the title of the Dutch Govern-
ment to all that they claim, His Majesty's Ministers
shall have only to maintain Sir Thomas Stamford
Raffles in possessions which he has thought proper
to occupy.' In spite of this display of their feelings
on the subject, the Committee decided to await the
explanations of Lord Hastings * before retaining or
relinquishing Sir Thomas Raffles's acquisition at
Singapore.'

Unpromising as may have sounded this opinion, it
really admitted everything which Raffles needed to
ask. All that was required was time, wherein Singa-
pore might show the inherent advantages attaching
to it. Most fortunately the settlement involved no
large initial outlay. The expense of administration

1 Singapore was of course north of the Equator.

i94 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

for a whole year was not greater than the expense
for a single month at Bencoolen. The remarkable
advantages of the natural situation of Singapore caused
trade from the first to advance by leaps and bounds.
By August 1820 the population was estimated at about
10,000 or 12,000. For some time the letters of
Raffles manifest the hesitation and doubt under which
he laboured as to the final decision of Government.
If he were to fail now, he would throw up the sponge
and turn philosopher. In fact, however, the cause of
Singapore had already virtually succeeded. As early
as July 1 8 19 a level-headed Director of the East
India Company, Mr Charles Grant, could write : —
' The acquisition of Singapore grows in importance.
The stir made here lately for the further enlargement
of the Eastern trade fortified that impression. It is
now accredited in the India House. Of late, in an
examination before a Committee of the House of
Lords, I gave my opinion of the value, in a moral,
political and commercial view, of a British establish-
ment in the locality of Singapore, under the auspices
of the Company. From all these circumstances and
others, I augur well as to the retention and encourage-
ment of the station your rapidity has preoccupied.'
A further consideration, which doubtless greatly in-
fluenced the home authorities, was the conviction
which was soon brought home to them that, however
indignant the Dutch might be, they would acquiesce
in accomplished facts. In truth, the acquisition of
Singapore paved the way for the friendly arrangement
under which, a few years later, Bencoolen was ex-

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 195

changed for Malacca. Nevertheless, the more long-
sighted among the Dutch recognised that a blow had
been struck against their predominance in the Eastern
seas, from which it was never destined to recover ;
and so it is not without cause, from a patriotic stand-
point, that the Dutch historian, while giving an im-
partial estimate of the general character and services
of Sir Stamford Raffles, can neither forget nor forgive
' that outrageous injustice which bears the name of
Singapore.'

Our hero's own feelings with regard to his new
acquisition must be sought in the pages of his private
correspondence. He wrote to Mr Marsden on
January 31 : — ' Here I am at Singapore, true to my
word, and in the enjoyment of all the pleasures which
a footing on such classic ground must inspire. The
lines of the old city and of its defences are still to be
traced, and within its ramparts the Union Jack floats
unmolested. . . . The place possesses an excellent
harbour and everything that can be desired for a
British port in the island of St John's, which forms
the south-western point of the harbour. We have
commanded an intercourse with all the ships passing
through the Straits of Singapore. . . . This, there-
fore, will probably be my last attempt. If I am
deserted now I must fain return to Bencoolen and
become philosopher.' To another correspondent he
wrote on February 19: — 'In short, Singapore is
everything we could desire, and I may consider
myself most fortunate in the selection ; it will soon
rise into importance ; and with this single station

196 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

alone I will undertake to counteract the plans of
Mynheer ; it breaks the spell, and they are no longer
the exclusive sovereigns of the Eastern seas.' Again
he told the Duchess of Somerset (February 22), cIt
has been my good fortune to establish this station in
a position containing every possible advantage, geo-
graphical and local ; and if I only meet with ordinary
support from the higher powers, I shall effectually
check the plans of the Dutch. ... If this last effort
for securing our interests also fails, I must be content
to quit politics and turn philosopher.' In a similar
strain he addresses Colonel Addenbrooke (in the
following June): — 'I shall say nothing of the im-
portance which I attach to the permanence of the
position I have taken up at Singapore ; it is a child of
my own. But for my Malay studies I should hardly
have known that such a place existed ; not only the
European but the Indian world was also ignorant of
it. . . . It is within a week's sail of China ; still
closer to Siam, Cochin China, etc. ; in the very
heart of the Archipelago, or, as the Malays call it,
it is the navel of the Malay countries. Already a
population of above 5000 souls has collected under
our flag. ... I am sure you will wish me success
... if my plans are confirmed at home, it is my
intention to make this my principal residence, and to
devote the remaining years of my stay in the East to
the advancement of a colony which, in every way it
can be viewed, bids fair to be one of the most im-
portant, and at the same time one of the least
expensive and troublesome, which we possess. Our

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 197

object is not territory but trade ; a great commercial
emporium and fulcrum, whence we may extend our
influence politically as circumstances may hereafter
require. By taking immediate possession we put a
negative to the Dutch claim of exclusion, and at the
same time revive the drooping confidence of our
allies and friends. One free port in these seas must
eventually destroy the spell of Dutch monopoly ; and
what Malta is in the West, that may Singapore
become in the East.'

A very few words must suffice for the mission to
Acheen. Raffles and his colleague arrived there
on March 14, having started on the 8th. The
desire of the Supreme Government was to establish
friendly relations with the ruler of Acheen, so as to
exclude Dutch influence. Unfortunately it was not
clear who was the ruler. There were two claimants
to the throne, neither of whom possessed commanding
authority. The original monarch had been dispos-
sessed in 1 8 15 by a rival who had at once abdicated
in favour of his second son. It was admitted that the
conduct of the dethroned King had been imprudent
and inconsiderate, and that he had fallen into the
hands of bad European advisers. On these grounds
the Prince of Wales's Island Government supported the
new King. Raffles, on the other hand, maintained
that the late King had learnt wisdom in the school of
adversity, that he was supported by the majority of
the people, and that the sole strength of the usurping
King lay in the possession of a navy. He therefore
treated with the former, carrying with him the

198 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

reluctant consent of the other Commissioner, Captain
Coombs. It mav be admitted that, when once
Raffles had arrived at a conclusion, he did not much
cultivate appearances in maintaining a judicial attitude.
At anyrate, his conduct of this mission gave loopholes
to an enemy's attack. He had despatched a private
messenger to the claimant whom he favoured, a step
which received the censure of the Supreme Govern-
ment. His conduct in forwarding despatches without
communication with his colleague was characterised
as c extremely uncourteous,' and c wholly devoid of any
sufficient motive with reference to the public service.'
The refusal to interview the Sagis or chiefs, c after
they had assembled at a distance at your invitation,'
was severely censured. The treaty would be ratified
as the ' best course now to be pursued.' At the same
time no further measures of interference were to be
prosecuted. With regard to the treaty itself its
advantages appeared precarious. ' The only part
certain is the expense which is at once incurred.'
In fact, the complete success of Raffles at Singapore
rendered the question of Acheen of less importance.
When we remember that our Dutch friends have
only recently secured predominance at Acheen, after
a war which lasted over twenty years, we may rejoice
that British interests did not thrust us into this
hornet's nest.

CHAPTER XII

LIFE AT BENCOOLEN

Home Life — Travels to Interior — Death of Children — Illness —
Homesick.

Although Raffles was the only begetter and author
of British Singapore, the actual time he spent there
was very short. After its first acquisition he did
not return thither till October 1822, when he re-
mained till the following June. We have seen
something of the public occupations which em-
ployed him while Lieutenant-Governor of Bencoolen ;
there remains to give some description of his private
life during this period. Material is not wanting,
as the Memoir written by his widow naturally
deals at greater length with the portion of
Sir Stamford's life of which she had first-hand
knowledge. Lady Raffles writes of the time im-
mediately following the return from Singapore :—
* Perhaps this was one of the most happy periods
in Sir Stamford's life. Politically he had attained
the object which he felt so necessary for the good
of his country (the establishment of Singapore).
He was beloved by all those under his immediate
control, who united in showing him every mark

199

zoo BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

of respect and attachment, and many were bound
to him by ties of gratitude for offices of kindness,
for private acts of benevolence and assistance which
he delighted to exercise towards them. The settle-
ment, like many other small societies, was divided
into about as many parties as there were families
on his first arrival ; but these differences were soon
healed and quieted, and a general interchange of
good offices had succeeded. The natives and chiefs
appreciated the interest which he took in their
improvement, and placed implicit reliance upon his
opinion and counsel. The consciousness of being
beloved is a delightful, happy feeling, and Sir Stamford
acknowledged with thankfulness at the time that
every wish of his heart was gratified. Uninterrupted
health had prevailed in his family, his children were
his pride and delight, and they had already imbibed
from him those tastes it was his pleasure to cultivate ;
this will not be wondered at, even at their early
age, when it is added that two young tigers and a
bear were for some time in the children's apartments,
under the charge of their attendant, without being
confined in cages, and it was rather a curious scene
to see the children, the bear, the tigers, a blue
mountain bird and a favourite cat all playing
together, the parrot's beak being the only object
of awe to all the party.' ' The lower part of our
house at this moment,' Sir Stamford writes to the
Duchess of Somerset from Penang (Februarv 22,
1819), 'is more like the menagerie at Exeter 'Change
than the residence of a gentleman. Fish, flesh and

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 201

fowl alike contribute to the collection, and, above,
the rooms are variously ornamented with bunches
of flowers, rendering them so many arbours. There
are no less than five draughtsmen constantly employed,
and with all our diligence we can hardly keep pace
with the new acquisitions which are daily made.
In another letter written in 1820 from Bencoolen,
he speaks of a young pet elephant four feet high.
He continues : ' I have one of the most beautiful men
of the woods that can be conceived. He is not much
above three feet high, wears a beautiful surtout of
fine white woollen, and in his disposition and habits
the kindest and most correct creature imaginable. . . .
He has not the slightest rudiment of a tail, always
walks erect, and will, I am quite sure, soon become
a great favourite in Park Lane.'

Throughout the letters the fondness for children
as well as for animals is very noticeable. Sir Stam-
ford went among the children of the Duke of
Somerset by the name of 'the dear Governor,' and
the messages to Seymour and Anna Maria are con-
tinually recurring. Meanwhile, c perhaps few people
in a public station led so simple a life. While he
was in Bencoolen, he rose early and delighted in
driving into the villages, inspecting the plantations,
and encouraging the industry of the people ; at
nine a party assembled at breakfast, which separated
immediately afterwards ; and he wrote, read, studied
natural history, chemistry and geology, superintended
the draughtsmen, of whom he had constantly five or
six employed in a verandah, and always had his

202 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

children with him as he went from one pursuit to
another, visiting his beautiful and extensive aviary,
as well as the extraordinary collection of animals
which were always domesticating in the house.
At four he dined, and seldom alone, as he considered
the settlement but as a family of which he was the
head ; immediately after dinner all the party drove
out, and the evening was spent in reading, music and
conversation. He never had any game of amusement
in his house. After the party had dispersed, he was
fond of walking out with the editor,1 and enjoying
the delicious coolness of the night land-wind, and a
moon whose beauty those only who have been in
tropical climates can judge of, so clear and pene-
trating are its rays that many fear them as much as
the glare of the sun. Though scarcely a day passed
without reptiles of all kinds being brought in, and
the Cobra de Capello in numbers, the editor never
remembers these pleasures being interrupted by
any alarm.'

Perhaps the most interesting portion of Lady
Raffles's Memoir are the chapters which deal with the
expeditions made by Sir Stamford in her company into
the interior of the country. At the time women
travellers were not in evidence as they are to-day,
and Lady Raffles does not appear to have been by
nature fond of adventure ; but she was a devoted
wife, and believed, as her correspondence shows, that
Sir Stamford might at any moment be struck down
by sudden illness, and that it was therefore necessary

1 Lady Raffles always speaks of herself as ' the editor.'

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 203

that she should be by his side. Raffles would gladly
have spared her the hardships of this travelling, but
she insisted. In a description of the journey in 18 18
to the interior from Manna, wherein they discovered
the gigantic Rafflesia Arnoldi flower, Sir Stamford
writes : —

'There is nothing more striking in the Malayan
forests than the grandeur of the vegetation ; the
magnitude of the flowers, creepers and trees contrasts
strikingly with the stunted, and, I had almost said,
pigmy, vegetation of England. Compared with our
forest trees, your largest oak is a mere dwarf. . . .
The day's journey being most fatiguing, and not less
than thirty miles entirely through a thick forest and
over stupendous mountains. . . . We got on, how-
ever, very well ; and though we were all occasionallv
much fatigued, we did not complain. Lady Raffles
was a perfect heroine. The only misfortune at this
step was a heavy fall of rain during the night, which
penetrated our leafy dwelling in every direction, and
soaked every one of the party to the skin. We were
now two days' march beyond the reach of supplies ;
many of our coolies had dropped off ; some were fairly
exhausted, and we began to wish our journey at an
end. We, however, contrived to make a good dinner
on the remaining fowl, and having plenty of rice and
claret, did not complain of our fare.' It was on this
journey that Sir Stamford made one of the treaties
with the native chiefs so severely criticised at home.
He was much struck by the moral and physical well-
being of the people, and the wealth of the country.

20+ BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

' We now thought of returning to the coast, and
on the 24th set off from Manna by a different route
to that by which we had arrived. Our first day's
journey was to Camumuan, which we reached a little
before six in the evening, after the hardest day's walk
I ever experienced. We calculated that we had
walked more than thirty miles, and over the worst
of roads. Hitherto we had been fortunate in our
weather, but, before we reached this place, a heavy
rain came on and soaked us completely. The baggage
only came up in part, and we were content to sleep
in our wet clothes, under the best shade we could
find. No wood would burn ; there was no moon ;
it was already dark, and we had no shelter erected.
By perseverance, however, I made a tolerable place
for Lady RafHes, and, after selecting the smoothest
stone I could find in the bed of a river for a pillow,
we managed to pass a tolerably comfortable night. . . .
The next day we reached Merambung, where we got
upon a raft, and were wafted down to the vicinity of
Manna in about seven hours. The passage down the
river was extremely romantic and grand ; it is one
of the most rapid rivers on the coast ; we descended
a rapid almost every hundred yards.'

The journey down the coast from Manna was
performed on horseback, principally on the sea beach,
and in the middle of the day, on account of tigers.
The heat of the tropical sun proved fatal to one of
the party, the botanist, Dr Arnold, whose loss both
on private and scientific grounds was a severe blow to
Raffles.

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 205

A yet more interesting expedition was made in the
July of 18 1 8 from Padang to Menang Kabu, the
cradle of the Malay civilisation. The vessel on which
Raffles embarked contained the collections which Dr
Horsfield had brought for inspection. Sir Stamford
seized the opportunity to 4 inspect so many of the
quadrupeds, birds and insects, as well as of the botani-
cal and geological specimens, as enabled him to form
an adequate estimate of the extent of the collection
in these departments, and of the state of its preserva-
tion. He likewise examined the drawings, maps and
manuscripts with patient attention, and was therefore
enabled subsequently to describe the whole from
personal inspection.' 'In natural history,' Horsfield
notes, ' he had resolved not to rest satisfied in patronis-
ing the labours of others, but likewise to afford his
personal co-operation.' Of the subsequent journey
Raffles wrote : — ' For the first part of the road we
proceeded on horseback, but were soon obliged to
dismount. We had scarcely passed the bazaar of
Padang, when we had to swim our horses across a
rapid stream, and, in the course of three hours, we
had successively to cross at least twenty streams of
the kind. Over some we were carried in small
canoes, over others we were borne on men's backs,
and through some we boldly waded, for it was im-
possible to think of remaining free from wet. At
length we struck across the country to the northward,
over a fine plain of rice fields, which, fortunately for
us, were not in a state of cultivation. . . . Although
we had been four hours on the road, we did not

206 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

estimate our distance from Padang in a direct line as
more than six miles. The country through which
we had passed was populous, and generally well culti-
vated ; many herds of cattle and buffaloes near the
road ; an appearance of plenty and content through-
out ; the village appearing to occupy a very consider-
able extent, and to include orchards and plantations of
various kinds.' In spite of a warning from Dr Hors-
field, who doubted 'whether in favourable weather
she could come on, as, in many places, a lady cannot be
carried] the party persevered, and, ' the violence of
the current having abated, found the route passable.
The ascent was very moderate, but many passages
along the sides of slippery rocks very unsafe. We
had frequently to wade across the stream, and con-
tinually to leap, like a flock of goats, from rock to
rock.' 'Sat., July 1 8. — Having accomplished our
journey thus far with less difficulty than we were at
first prepared for, we set out this morning at half-
past seven in high spirits, but before we came to our
resting-place for the night they were pretty well
exhausted; for, in consequence of some misapprehension
in the party which had gone before us, we had to
walk nearly twice the distance we had calculated
upon, and this over the most fatiguing road, with
little or nothing to eat or to drink. From the place
where we had slept, our course continued up the bed
of the river, but the ascent was much steeper, and the
road far more difficult than on the preceding day.
Rocks piled on rocks, in sublime confusion, roaring
cataracts and slippery precipices were now to be

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 207

surmounted. . . . The night was extremely dark ;
we were in the centre of a deep forest, through which
the twinkling of a star could not^be seen. On either
side of us were steep precipices of several hundred
feet ; we had no one with us who knew the road. . . .
Our abode for the night was on a detached hill at
the verge of the forest, the toll-post, where people or
all ranks were indiscriminately accommodated, but in
which we found as substantial comfort and repose as
we could have desired in a palace.'

The further progress of the party was somewhat
impeded by the attentions of the native chiefs, the
exuberance of whose verbosity, with regard to the
proposal to continue the journey, could only be
quenched by a timely douceur. 'In our course, our
party had been strengthened until it amounted to
several thousands — the people of the country being
collected at the different eminences near where we
passed ; they welcomed us as they joined the throng
by the most discordant howls and cheers, which can
be well conceived. Arrived at the market, they
formed an extensive circle several rows deep, the
front row squatting ; nearly the whole were armed
with spears, and among them were some women. . . .
Finding ourselves among a set of people who exhibited
in their manners so much of the savage, we deter-
mined to keep our party close together, and whenever
any general movement was made*, to call in the aid of
the drum and fife, which fortunately we had brought
with us ; this imperfect music, most wretchedly per-
formed, seemed to have a great effect upon the people.'

208 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

Hitherto the journey had been through the country
occupied by the Tigasblas Cotas or Thirteen Confederate
Towns. But the next destination was the Menangkabu
country in which Raffles had for a long time felt great
interest. Here were found inscriptions in the real Kawi
character, bearing record to a period of Hindu dominion.
cThe whole country, from Pageruyong, as far as
the eye could distinctly trace, was one continuous
scene of cultivation, interspersed with innumerable
towns and villages, shaded by the cocoa-nut and other
fruit trees. I may safely say that this view equalled
anything I ever saw in Java ; the scenery is more
majestic and grand, population equally dense, cultiva-
tion equally rich. In a comparison with the plain of
Matarem, the richest part of Java, I think it would
rise. Here then, for the first time, was I able to
trace the source of that power, the origin of that
nation so extensively scattered over the Eastern
Archipelago.' ... ' What may be the eventual result
of this journey it is impossible to say. In natural
history, it has afforded me a very interesting insight
into the mineral kingdom. We have traced the junc-
tion of the volcanic with the primitive series ; and, by
the evidence afforded in our collections, are enabled to
estimate the mineral resources of the country. In the
vegetable kingdom we discovered no less than forty-
one plants, which appeared to Dr Horsfield entirely
new, and certainly not contained in the Flora of Java.
The different elevations above the sea were ascer-
tained, some by barometrical, others by trigonometri-
cal observations. The latitudes and longitudes fixed,

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 209

partly by observation and partly by dead reckoning.
By crossing the range of mountains at different passes
we clearly ascertained that there are three ridges,
the central being the highest. The discovery of an
extensively populous and highly agricultural country
cannot fail to be interesting. On a moderate calcu-
lation, the population within a range of fifty miles
round Pageruyong cannot be estimated at less than a
million ; by the returns I received on the spot, the
number appears more considerable. . . . Politically the
greatest results may accrue. At no very distant date
the sovereignty of Menangkabu was acknowledged
over the whole of Sumatra, and its influence extended
to many of the neighbouring islands ; the respect still
paid to its princes by all ranks amounts almost to
veneration. By upholding their authority, a central
government may easily be established ; and the
numerous petty states, now disunited and barbarous,
may be connected into one general system of govern-
ment. The rivers, which fall into the Eastern Archi-
pelago, may again become the high roads to and from
the central capital ; and Sumatra, under British influ-
ence, again rise into great political importance.'

It must be remembered that all this took place
before the foundation of Singapore. Alas ! these
political aspirations were not more delusive than
were the hopes of domestic happiness held out by
the first years at Bencoolen. A son and heir had
been born at Penang, while Raffles himself was
occupied with the birth-throes of Singapore, but, in
spite of the inconvenience and risk of such an accouche-

210 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

ment, mother and son had thrived satisfactorily. The
eldest born girl had been well enough, but Leopold,
when about two years old, is ' the handsomest and the
most princely little fellow that ever lived.' Another
son, who went by the name of Cooksey, was born in
1820, but he, when less than a year old, though
* good-natured as any creature can be,' had ' not
half expression enough.' A second girl, Ella, was
born in June 1821. But then the blow fell. 'Our
house of joy,' Raffles wrote on June 28, 1821, 'has
been changed into a house of mourning, and on the
very day we fixed for the christening of our last little
one,' Leopold died, after an illness of less than twenty
hours. 'My whole soul was wrapped up in him.
The other children were nothing in the scale com-
pared to him.' The mortality among those near to
him was so great that Raffles almost dreaded ' to open
a letter, or to look round me.' The series of sorrows
had begun with the death of a brother of Lady Raffles,
in October 1820, and continued throughout the next
year. In October 1821 Raffles writes of another
death. ' I hope this is the last of our misfortunes.'
But there was more in store. ' The last and remain-
ing boy' died on January 3, 1822, and Charlotte did
not survive him another fortnight. 'I can say no
more,' Raffles writes to his sister. ' God's will be
done.' One child only was now left, who was
despatched to England as soon as possible. Her
health was never good, and she died under the age of
twenty.

No wonder that being thus sated with death,

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 211

overwhelmed as they were with grief, Sir Stamford
Raffles and his wife hardly survived the strain put
upon them. * I have been desperately ill,' Raffles
wrote in February 1822, 'and confined to a dark
room the last ten days, but, thank God, I am better.
I dare not write much.' He had been confined to
his room ' by a severe fever, which fell on the brain
and drove me almost to madness.' c Lady Raffles has
in point of health showed better than myself, but she
is miserably reduced and lowered.' In these circum-
stances, Bencoolen and its surroundings wore a very
different appearance from the one which they had
assumed in the full flush of health and happiness.
' How different are these communications to those I
was so happy as to make during our first three years'
residence ! We were then perhaps too happy, and
prided ourselves too highly on future prospects. It
has pleased God to blight our hopes, and we must
now lower our expectations more to the standard of
the ordinary lot of human nature. God's will be
done.

* All our thoughts and all our wishes are now
turned homewards. Sometimes the prospect is
bright, and the heart expands in the contempla-
tion ; at others, dark clouds intervene, and the
dread of meeting old friends with new faces and
colder hearts chills every feeling of pleasure. For
ourselves, I can only say that with every remove
we have dragged a lengthened chain ; and that
our attachments and affections have only warmed
and increased in the ratio of the distance to which

212 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

we have been driven and the time we have been
banished. . . . Lady Raffles prays you to excuse
her ; since the loss of my dear Leopold, she has
never dared to take pen in her hand. In a day
or two we shall be left without a single child !
What a change ! we who had recently had a round
and happy circle. All our fears were once that
we should have too many ; all our cares are now
to preserve one, our only one : I cannot say any
more ; my heart is sick and nigh broken.'

Our hero's nature, however, was not one to
yield to misfortune. 1 1 am not one of that " Satanic
School " who look upon this world as the hell of
some former and past creation, but am content to
take it as I find it, firmly believing from all I have
known and seen that whatever is, is for our good
and happiness, and that there is actually more of
both even in this world than in our consciences
we can think we have deserved . . . deaths are of
daily occurrence in our small circle ; but, notwith-
standing this, we still look up ; therefore, with the
blessing of God, don't despair of seeing us in 1824'
(July 25, 1822).

A remarkable feature in Sir Stamford's character
was the way in which both in weal and in woe he
did not allow himself to become absorbed in his
own immediate concerns, but was always ready
to show sympathy for the interests of others. No
father could be more careful on behalf of a son
than was Raffles on behalf of his brother-in-law,
Captain Flint. He had obtained for him an ap-

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 213

pointment as head of the customs at Singapore.
Flint, a downright and honest sailor, found it often
difficult to accommodate himself to the humours
of his Chief, Major Farquhar. Again and again
Sir Stamford counsels prudence. ' Tell Flint,'
he writes (P'ebruary 11, 1822), 'that if he keeps his
temper he may be right, but if he loses it he must
be wrong.' ' My wish is,' Raffles wrote to his
sister on the eve of his return to England, ' that
you should consider yourselves as still under my
protection. I have not deserted Singapore, and
never will, and perhaps some day, when you least
expect it, better luck may happen to the place than
any of you dream of.' In this spirit Sir Stamford
and Lady Raffles took home the Flint's only son,
who was considered by them as their own child,
and found, on the death of his own parents, in Lady
Raffles a second mother.

It is necessary to lay emphasis upon this side of
Raffles's nature because it accounts for what other-
wise would jar upon the impartial student of his
life and proceedings, viz., the persistent manner
in which he was always pressing money claims
upon the East India Company. We have had
enough of this already, but it may be noticed that
Raffles took advantage of the temper of the Directors
appearing more favourable to claim the difference
between the actual value of the currency received
for salary at Java and the amount it would have
been in Spanish dollars, and again to urge the
demand that his salary as Resident at Bencoolen

214 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

should begin from the date of his being relieved of
the government of Java, instead of from the date
when he actually assumed the government. In
neither of these claims was he successful. The first
the Company held to be res judicata. To the second
the literal text of his appointment barred the way.
Whatever our opinion of all this, at least it must
be remembered that in this case the workman was
worthy of his hire, and that the hire was intended
for no ignoble use.

CHAPTER XIII

SINGAPORE REVISITED ( 1 822-23)

Colonel Farquhar — Mistakes of Resident — Measures of Reform —
Foundation of Singapore Institute — Abolition of Slavery —
Final Departure.

Sir Stamford Raffles returned to Singapore in
October 1822 with mixed feelings of pleasure and
disappointment. Upon the one hand his ' child ' had
thrived more even than he himself anticipated. As
early as the end of March 1820, Colonel Farquhar
had been able to write : — ' Nothing can possibly ex-
ceed the rising trade and general prosperity of this
infant colony ; indeed, to look at our harbour just
now ... a person would naturally exclaim, surely
this cannot be an establishment of only twelve
months' standing ! . . . In short, the settlement
bids fair to become the emporium of Eastern trade,
and in time may surpass even Batavia itself ; and,
assuredly, in the last two years' progress had been
no less rapid. Upon the other hand, the behaviour
of the Resident himself gave grave cause for dissatis-
faction. 'We landed yesterday,' Raffles wrote on
October 11, 'and I have once more established my
headquarters in the centre of my Malayan friends.
The coldest and most disinterested could not quit

Bencoolen and land at Singapore without sur-

215

216 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

prise and emotion. What, then, must have been
my feelings, after the loss of almost everything that
was dear to me on that ill-fated coast, after all the
risks and dangers to which this my almost only
child had been exposed, to find it grown and
advanced beyond all measure, and even my warmest
anticipations and expectations, in importance, wealth
and interest — in everything that can give it value
and permanence ? Rob me not of this, my political
child, and you may yet see me at home in all my
wonted spirits, and with an elasticity about me which
will bear me up against all that party spirit can do
to depress me.'

But while the progress of the new settlement was
in every way most satisfactory, such progress had
been by no means due to the Resident. The cir-
cumstances in which Colonel Farquhar was first
appointed have been already stated. At first it was
generally understood that the appointment was a
temporary one ; Colonel Farquhar being anxious to
return to England. As Singapore grew in import-
ance, the views of its Resident altered, and, at the
end of 1820, he wrote that, 'as the same urgent call
no longer exists for my proceeding to Europe on
furlough, I desire to postpone departure till season of
1821-22.' Meanwhile Raffles had been drawing up
a new scheme of administration, under which Singa-
pore should be made directly dependent on the
Government of India, and the salary of the Resident
reduced. Mr John Crawfurd was to succeed Colonel
Farquhar in the government. Colonel Farquhar,

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 217

however, refused to state the time of his departure,
and finally, when notified that, as Mr Crawfurd was
about to leave Bengal, ' his temporary and dependent
appointment must now cease,' set Raffles at defiance,
and refused to recognise his authority. In this state
of things Raffles had no alternative but to supersede
Farquhar, and take upon himself provisionally the
administration of the settlement. It is true that
Raffles was censured by the Supreme Government
for taking this step, * which nothing but a real and
positive necessity could justify,' without their previous
sanction, but when can a real and positive necessity
exist if not when the authority of a superior officer has
been openly set at defiance ? In their judgment upon
the conduct of Farquhar, the Supreme Government
wrote in agreement with the views of Raffles. They
considered that Farquhar's ' measures had been un-
fortunate when they had departed from your instruc-
tions.' These measures had indeed been such as to
justify the indignation of Raffles. If there was one
cause Sir Stamford had at heart, it was the suppression
of the slave trade, and, so far as possible, of slavery.
In his efforts on behalf of this cause he had more than
once risked the criticisms and censures of his superiors.
He had given no special instructions with regard to
the slave trade to Farquhar, because he c never could
have supposed that a British officer could have
tolerated such a practice in a settlement circumstanced
like Singapore, and formed after the promulgation of
the Act of Parliament declaring it felony.' 'I need
therefore say,' he continues, in his reply (dated January

218 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

25, 1825) to Colonel Farquhar's memorial, 'how-
much I was shocked in hearing the cries of a female,
shortly after my landing in Singapore in 1822, proceed
from a vessel in the river, whose principal cargo was
female slaves for the market of Singapore.'

We have seen the relentless war waged by Raffles
in Bencoolen against the gaming and cockfighting
establishments, he now found that such had been
established at Singapore 'contrary to the most express
and positive orders which ' Farquhar had received.
Raffles had further to complain of ' irregularity in
the construction of public buildings and appropriation
of the ground expressly reserved for public purposes,
for the benefit of a few favoured individuals, . . .
whereby the whole plan and order of things directed
on the first establishment of the settlement was so
far deranged as to render it indispensable that his pro-
ceedings should be disavowed, that the town should
be removed, and that the whole of the land should
be resumed at great expense to Government, and no
less loss to individuals.' I Sir Stamford's disappoint-
ment was great. ' I had anticipated,' he wrote in a
despatch dated January 15, 1823, ' the satisfaction of
constructing all necessary public buildings free of
expense to Government, and of delivering over charge
of the settlement at the end of the present year with
an available revenue nearly equal to its expenses, and
it is extremely mortifying that the irregularities
admitted by the last Resident oblige me to forego
this arrangement.'

1 See Appendix, p. 279.

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 219

But if there was this reverse side to the shield, upon
the whole Raffles had good reason for satisfaction.
For the first time he had a free hand for the accom-
plishment of some, at least, of his ideals. In his
local laws and regulations, and especially in the report
on the Administration of Justice, addressed to the
Supreme Government, Sir Stamford anticipated in
a remarkable degree the views of later times. ' I
am satisfied,' he wrote, ' that nothing has tended more
to the discomfort and constant jarrings, which have
hitherto occurred in our remote settlements, than the
policy which has dictated the exclusion of the European
merchants from all share, much less credit, in the
domestic regulation of the settlement, of which they
are frequently its most important members. Some
degree of legislative power must necessarily exist in
every distant dependency. The laws of the mother
country cannot be commensurate with the wants of
the dependency ; she has wants of which a remote
legislature can very imperfectly judge, and which are
sometimes too urgent to admit the delay of reference.
Circumstanced as Singapore is, even the Governor-
General in Council, with whom the legislative power
will probably rest, is hardly competent to legislate for
such a state without the assistance of local advice.
The administration of the settlement is necessarily
limited to one individual, who, having no Council,
could not be entrusted with the enactment of laws
which require deliberation and advice, and the mode
which I have provided seems at once the most con-
genial to our national institutions, the most simple in

220 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

its adoption and application, and the most promising
in its advantages ; at the same time that neither the
Supreme Government, as the higher legislative author-
ity, nor the local Resident, as the Governor and
Executive Officer of the state, loses any of the powers
or attributes properly vested in him. The nomination
of magistrate is vested in him ; and as the appoint-
ment is a mark of respect to the individual, inasmuch
as the exclusion is a disgrace, it may be considered as
rather extending his patronage and authority than
otherwise' (Despatch, June 6, 1823).

As amended, the system of government involved
the annual selection of twelve magistrates from among
the British community. Local laws and regulations
were to be enacted by and with the advice of the
magistracy. Proposed regulations might originate
with the magistrates, and in such cases, ' in the event
of a difference of opinion and the Resident declining to
enact the proposed regulation within three months,
the magistrates may request that their recommenda-
tion be transmitted for the consideration of the
Governor-General in Council. Subordinate to the
magistrates there shall further be appointed one native
captain or headman, with one or more lieutenants
or assistants, over each principal class of the native
inhabitants, who will be invested with especial
authority over such class, and held responsible for the
general conduct of the same.'

Upon the question of the laws to be administered,
R.affles's remarks are of especial value. c The popula-
tion of Singapore will probably consist of a mixture

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 221

in various proportions of strangers, from all parts of
the world, having commercial concerns at the port,
though chiefly of Malays and Chinese ; and it would
be impracticable for any judicial authority to become
perfectly acquainted with the laws and customs having
the force of laws acknowledged in their own countries
respectively by the varied classes of so mixed a popula-
tion ; and it would be still more so to attempt to
administer these in such a manner as to preserve them
inviolate, even in the mutual intercourse of those
classes severally amongst themselves, much less when
justice is to be administered between two persons of
different classes. It is, I believe, generally admitted
that, in colonies formed entirely by Englishmen, they
naturally carry the laws of their country with them,
subject only to such local modifications as the con-
stitution of the colony may require ; but nine-tenths
of the population of Singapore will most probably
consist of Chinese and Malays, and the restrictions of
the legislature may for many years operate against any
considerable extension in the number of Englishmen.'
Raffles proceeds to give by actual instances the strange
results that would ensue were the criminal law to be
administered according to native notions. His general
conclusion was * to apply the general principles of
British law to all, equally and alike, without distinction
of tribe or nation, under such modifications only as
local circumstances and peculiarities, and a due con-
sideration for the weaknesses and prejudices of the
native part of the population, may from time to time
suggest.' In the language of the Proclamation of

-,22

BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

June 26, 1823, 'nothing seems to be left but to have
recourse to first principles ; to use every precaution
against the existence of temptation to crime that is
found consistent with the perfect liberty of those who
have no evil intention ; and, when these precautions
fail, to secure redress to the injured party, if possible,
and such punishment as will be most likely to prevent
a repetition of the crime, either by the party himself
offending, or by those who may be inclined to follow
his example. Nothing should be endured in the
settlement, however sanctioned by the local usage
of particular tribes who resort to it, that has either
a direct effect, or notoriously strong tendency to
endanger the safety or liberty of persons, or the
security of property ; and in the same manner, no
want of what are considered legal formalities in
any country should debar a person from having sub-
stantial justice rendered to him, so that legal and moral
obligation may never be sundered? In the same Procla-
mation it was stated : — ' The imprisonment of an
unfortunate debtor at the pleasure of the creditor . . .
seems objectionable in this settlement . . . the debtor
should only be liable to imprisonment in case of fraud,
and as far as may be necessary for the security of his
person in the event of his not being able to find bail
during the process of the Court, and for the performance
of the decree after judgment may be passed. It is
well known that the Malay race are sensibly alive to
shame, and that in many instances they would prefer
death to ignominy. This is a high and honourable
feeling, and ought to be cherished. Let great care

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 223

be taken to avoid all punishments which are un-
necessarily degrading. . . . Let no man be punished
without a reason assigned. . . . Let native institutions
so far as regards religious observances, marriage, and
inheritance be respected, when the same may not be
inconsistent with justice and humanity, or injurious
to the peace and morals of society. Let all men be
considered equal in the eye of the law. Let no man
be banished the country without a trial by his peers
or by due course of law. Let no man be deprived of
his liberty without a cause, and no man be detained
in confinement beyond forty-eight hours without a
right to demand a hearing and trial according to due
course of law. Let the public have a voice through
the magistracy, by which their sentiments may at all
times be freely expressed.' When it is remembered
that these rules were drawn up for an Oriental de-
pendency nine years before the first Reform Bill, it
will be recognised that Raffles was far in advance of
the time in which he lived.

In one respect Singapore did not offer a very suit-
able field for the working out of Raffles's ideas. He
believed that the only principle upon which the future
administration of a country could be rendered simple
and advantageous, both to the interests of the people
and of the East India Company, was that of gradually
raising into importance such of the native chiefs as
from rank and character might be entrusted with
authority, but no native could ever superintend the
multifarious needs of a polyglot commercial station
such as Singapore. What Raffles could do by

224 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

associating the Sultan and the Tumung'gung with
the Resident in the administration of the criminal
law he did ; but beyond this it was impossible to go.
The methods which had been suitable enough in Java
and Sumatra were wholly inapplicable to the case of
a single city like Singapore. Here again, however,
time has justified the wisdom of RafHes's general
principles, and the government of the Malay
Federated States, as it exists to-day, represents
exactly the ideal to which Raffles was pointing.

In one important respect Raffles was able to
realise his hopes, and the port of Singapore became
* a free port, the trade thereof open to ships and
vessels of every nation free of duty, equally and
alike to all.'

Another scheme of RafHes's could now be carried
out. Our friend Abdulla tells us how, when the pre-
parations were being made for the Java Expedition,
he had accompanied Raffles on a visit to a school
for Malay boys. Raffles 'asked why the school-
master did not teach Malay. To this the school-
master replied, " It is the boys' own fathers that have
ordered me to teach the Koran first ; and, when
they have completed this, they can then commence
Malay. This is our custom. Further, it is not the
custom of this place to maintain a school for the
Malay language." Then said Mr Raffles, "Very
good, O master ! I want to know only. Don't
be angry with me." So he said good-bye, and went
out. And as he was going he said to me, "Is this
truly the custom of the Malays ? " To this I replied,

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 225

"True, sir." He then smiled, and said, "If I live
I shall have a school set agoing for teaching Malay.
I am most anxious about this, as it is a beautiful
language; further, it is of great utility."'

The time had now come for this promise to be
made good. According to Abdulla, the immediate
cause of the Singapore Institute lay in the refusal
of the Sultan and the Tumung'gung to accept
RafHes's offer that their sons should be sent for
education to Calcutta, but, in fact, the whole plan
of the college had been sketched out in the
memorable Minute of 18 19 dealt with below. The
starting of the Institute is best told in Abdulla's
words : — £ About one month after this the Sultan,
Tumung'gung and all the leading men of the
Europeans were invited to the house of Colonel
Farquhar, where they assembled at ten in the
morning, none knowing the object of their coming
together. After all had assembled, Mr Raffles
entered, first paying his respects to the Sultan and
Tumung'gung, seating them on either side of him-
self. Then addressing the Sultan, he said, "Oh !
Sultan, Tumung'gung, and all ye gentlemen here
gathered together, I have a desire to give effect to,
to wit, an undertaking of the greatest utility to this
and to future generations ; for to-day we live that
we may die and then pass away. Now, if we can
show good deeds, we -are named as good hereafter,
and if bad, so accordingly. Now, while we have the
opportunity, let us make a good name for future
generations. Now, what I desire to do is to erect

226 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

an edifice in which all races can be taught, each in
their own language and by their own schoolmasters,
in all knowledge which pertains to true intelligence,
such as may be imparted to each and every one,
saving and excepting such as affects faith ; confining
the institution to languages, writing, arithmetic,
astronomy, geography, etc. But my greatest
anxiety is to advance the Malays, by easy degrees,
in their own language ; otherwise let each race
have its assigned place, and all this without expense,
but let the teaching be gratuitous. The country
will increase in population in time, so if there be
such an institute, its fame will spread to all races.
What do you, gentlemen, think of my proposition,
is it good or not ? " The Sultan and Tumung'gung
replied that the proposition was excellent, as their
children would thus be enabled to obtain instruction.
All the European gentlemen also expressed them-
selves as approving of the scheme. Then said Mr
Raffles, " Let us settle the matter by subscribing to
the erection of the edifice." To this all replied
assenting. On this Mr Raffles took pen and paper
and, by way of precedence to the East India Com-
pany, he wrote down two thousand dollars, himself
adding from his private purse the same sum. Then
he asked, with a smile, what the Sultan would give.
" Shall it be two thousand also ? " But he replied with
a loud exclamation, and a laugh, that he was a poor
man, so where would he get two thousand dollars ?
To this Mr Raffles argued that he should give more
than he (Raffles) gave, as the undertaking was of

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 227

immediate utility to the Malays, and greatly more
so than to the English, but let it be one
thousand dollars. Then he asked the Tumung'-
gung to give one thousand dollars, Colonel
Farquhar the same, Dr Martin two hundred, and
Lady Raffles two hundred. After this the various
English gentlemen gave their quota, the whole
amounting to seventeen thousand five hundred
Spanish dollars.'

In the powerful Minute by Raffles on the
establishment of a Malay college at Singapore,
perhaps the most eloquent of all his writings, he
wrote :— c The acquisitions of Great Britain in the
East have not been made in the spirit of conquest ;
a concurrence of circumstances not to be controlled,
and the energies of her sons, have carried her
forward on the tide whose impulse has been
irresistible. Other nations may have pursued the
same course of conquest and success, but they
have not, like her, paused in their career and, by
moderation and justice, consolidated what they had
gained. This is the rock on which her Indian
Empire is placed ; and it is on a perseverance in
the principles which have already guided her that
she must depend for maintaining her commanding
station, and for saving her from adding one more
to the list of those who have contended for
empire and have sunk beneath the weight of their
own ambition. Conquest has led to conquest, and
our influence must continue to extend : the tide has
received its impetus and it will be in vain to attempt

228 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

to stem its current, but let the same principles be
kept in view, let our minds and policies expand with
our Empire, and it will not only be the greatest
but the firmest and most enduring that has yet been
held forth to the views and admiration of the world.
While we raise those in a scale of civilisation over
whom our influence or empire is extended, we
shall lay the foundations of our dominion on the
firm basis of justice and mutual advantage, instead
of the uncertain and unsubstantial tenure of force
and intrigue. . . . Recent events have directed our
attention to . . . the Malayan Archipelago, where
a vast field of commercial speculation has been
opened, the limits of which it is difficult to foresee.
A variety of circumstances have concurred to extend
our connections in this quarter, and later arrange-
ments, by giving them a consistency and consolidation
and uniting them more closely with our best interests
both in India and Europe, have added much to their
importance and consideration. Our connection with
them, however, stands on a very different footing
from that with the people of India. However in-
viting and extensive their resources, it is considered
that they can be best drawn forth by the native
energies of the people themselves, uninfluenced by
foreign rule, and unfettered by foreign regulations,
and that it is by the reciprocal advantage of
commerce, and commerce alone, that we may best
promote our own interests and their advancement.
A few stations are occupied for the security and
protection of our trade, and the independence of all

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 229

the surrounding states is not only acknowledged, but
maintained and supported by us.

4 Commerce being, therefore, the principle on which
our connection with the Eastern States is formed, it
behoves us to consider the effects which it is cal-
culated to produce. . . . Education must keep pace
with commerce in order that its benefits may be
ensured and its evils avoided ; and in our connection
with these countries it shall be our care that, while
with one hand we carry to their shores the capital of
our merchants, the other shall be stretched forth to
offer them the means of intellectual improvement.'

After an exhaustive analysis of the Malay char-
acter, Raffles proceeds to dwell upon the probability
of a great Chinese immigration. ' Borneo and the
Eastern Islands may become to China what America
is already to the nations of Europe.' For the
purposes of the study of the various races, Singapore
offered unrivalled advantages. ' Placed as we shall
be in the very centre of the Archipelago, the life and
soul of its extensive commerce, and maintaining with
its most distant parts and with the adjacent continent
a constant and rapidly-increasing intercourse, the
means are afforded to us, above all other nations, of
prosecuting these studies with facility and advantage.
. . . The object of our stations being confined to
the protection and encouragement of a free and un-
restricted commerce with the whole of these countries,
and our establishments being on this footing and
principle, no jealousy can exist where we make our
inquiries. . . . There is nothing, perhaps, which

230 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

distinguishes the character of these islanders from the
people of India more than the absence of inveterate
prejudice and the little influence Mohammedanism
has had over their conduct and mode of thinking. . . .
The inducements and facilities which are thus
afforded suggest the advantage and necessity of
forming, under the immediate control and superin-
tendence of Government, an institution of the nature
of a native college, which shall embrace not only the
object of educating the higher classes of the native
population, but at the same time that of affording
instruction to the officers of the Company in the
native languages, and of facilitating our more general
researches into the history, condition and resources
of these countries.

' An institution of this kind, formed on a simple but
respectable plan, would be hailed with satisfaction by
the native chiefs, who, as far as their immediate
means admit, may be expected to contribute to its
support, and a class of intelligent natives, who would
be employed as teachers, would always be at the
command and disposal of Government. The want of
such a class of men has long been felt, and is perhaps
in a considerable degree owing to the absence of any
centre or seat of learning to which they could resort.
The position and circumstance of Singapore point it
out as the most eligible situation for such an establish-
ment. Its central situation among the Malay States,
and the commanding influence of its commerce,
render it a place of general and convenient resort,
while in the minds of the natives it will always be

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 231

associated with their fondest recollections as the seat
of their ancient government before the influence of a
foreign faith had shaken those institutions for which
they still preserve so high an attachment and rever-
ence. The advantage of selecting a place thus
hallowed by the ideas of a remote antiquity, and the
veneration attached to its ancient line of kings must
be obvious.'

The object of the proposed college would be three-
fold. Educationally it would minister to the wants
both of the native youth and of the English civil
servants ; while, on the side of research, it would serve
as a centre for all studies connected with the Malay
race.

The conclusion of the Minute ran as follows : —
4 The object at present has been with the least pre-
tension to commence an institution which shall con-
tinue to grow and extend itself in proportion to the
benefit it affords. A situation has been chosen, the
most advantageous for this purpose, from whence, as a
centre, its influence may be diffused, and its* sphere
generally extended, until it, at length, embraces even
the whole of that wide field whose nature has already
been shown. That it will spread may be considered
almost beyond a doubt. We know the readiness and
aptness of the people to receive instruction, we know
that they have had similar institutions of their own in
happier and more prosperous times, and that they now
lament the want of them as not the smallest of the
evils that have attended the fall of this power. It is
to Britain alone that they can look for the restoration

232 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

of these advantages ; she is now called upon to lay
the foundation-stone, and there is little doubt that,
this once done, the people will largely themselves
contribute to rearing and completing the edifice.

c But it is not to remote and speculative advantages
that the effect of such an institution will be confined.
While the enlightened philanthropist will dwell with
pleasure on that part of the prospect, the immediate
advantages will be found fully proportionate. To
afford the means of instruction in the native languages
to those who are to administer our affairs and to watch
over our interests in such extensive regions is surely no
trifling or unimportant object. In promoting the in-
terests of literature and science, not less will be its effect.
In Bengal, where inquiries into the literature, history
and customs of Oriental nations have been prosecuted
with such success and attended with such important
results, such an institution will prove a powerful
auxiliary in extending these inquiries among the
people of the Further East. Many of the researches
already begun can only be perfected and completed on
this soil, and they will be forwarded on the present
plan by collecting the scattered remains of the literature
of their countries, by calling forth the literary spirit of
the people and awaking its dormant energies. The
range of intellect now divided and lost will be con-
centrated into a focus, from whence they will be again
radiated with added lustre, enlightened and strengthened
by our superior lights. Thus will our stations become
not only the centres of commerce and its luxuries,
but of refinement and the liberal arts. If com-

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 233

merce brings wealth to our shores, it is the spirit
of literature and philanthropy that teaches us how
to employ it for the noblest purposes. It is this
that has made Britain go forth among the nations,
strong in her native might, to dispense blessings
to all around her. If the time shall come when
her Empire shall have passed away, these monu-
ments of her virtue will endure when her triumphs
have become an empty name. Let it still be the
boast of Britain to write her name in characters
of light ; let her not be remembered as the tempest
whose course was desolation, but as the gale of spring,
reviving the slumbering seeds of mind, and calling
them to life from the winter of oppression. Let
the sun of Britain arise on these islands not to
wither and scorch them in its fierceness, but like
that of her own genial skies, whose mild and be-
nignant influence is hailed and blessed by all who feel
its rays.'

Sir Stamford Raffles left Singapore on June 9, 1823.
1 1 have not, as you may suppose,' he wrote, ' remained
at Singapore eight months for nothing ; two-thirds
of the time have no doubt been spent in pain and
annoyance from the dreadful headaches I am doomed
to suffer in this country, but the remaining third has
been actively employed. I have had everything to
new mould from first to last — to introduce a system
of energy, purity and encouragement ; to remove
nearly all the inhabitants and to resettle them ; to
line out towns, streets and roads ; to level the high
and fill up the low lands j to give property in the

234 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

soil and rights to the people ; to lay down principles
and sketch institutions for the domestic order and
comfort of the place as well as its future character
and importance ; to look for a century or two before-
hand, and provide for what Singapore may one day
become by the adoption of all such measures of
forecast as reason and experience can suggest.'

We have seen the indignation aroused in Raffles
by Colonel Farquhar's toleration of the slave trade ;
he now, though with some hesitation, proceeded a
step further, and exacted the abolition of slavery
itself.1 Somewhat arrogant as may sound the tone
of our hero's statement of his own services, there can
be no question as to its literal accuracy. 'To look
for a century or two beforehand.' In the scramble of
opportunist statesmanship how seldom is such an
attempt possible ; how rare, when the opportunity
does offer, is the prescience which can read the
purport of the knocking of the coming generations
at the gate ! We are indebted to our friend Abdulla
for a graphic description of the final departure from
Singapore. 'Then on a certain day Mr Raffles said
to me, " I intend to sail in three days hence, so collect
all my Malay books." And when I heard this my

1 With regard to slavery generally the following regulation was
enacteil : — 'As the condition of slavery, under any denomination what-
ever, cannot be recognised within the jurisdiction of the British
authority, all persons who may have been so imported, transferred or
sold as slaves or slave debtors, since the 26th day of February 18 19, are
entitled to claim their freedom on application to the magistrates as
hereafter provided, and it is here declared that no individual can here-
after be imported for sale, transferred or sold as a slave or slave debtor,
or, having his or her fixed residence under the protection of the British
authority, can be hereafter considered or treated as a slave, under any
denomination, condition, colour or pretence whatever.'

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 235

heart palpitated and my spirit was gone, so I asked
him where he was going, when he told me that he
was going to Europe. And when I heard this I
could bear it no longer. I felt as if I had lost father
and mother ; such was my condition that my eyes
were bathed in tears. When he perceived this his
face became flushed, and, wiping his tears with his
handkerchief, he told me not to be disheartened, for,
if he lived, he intended to return to Singapore. . . .
He then called me into the room and told me that
there were three presses filled with Malay books, and
to wrap them up well in waxcloth and pack them in
hair trunks, four in number. There were also
Javanese instruments and various other articles ; and
when he had shown me all these he went out ; so
with my own hands I packed up all the books,
histories and poems. Of these there were three
hundred bound books, not counting the unbound
ones, and scrolls and pamphlets. . . . Then there were
two trunks filled with letters, Javanese, Bali and
Bujis books, and various images, paintings with
their frames, musical instruments, inscriptions and
lontar leaves. Of these there were three or four
boxes. Besides this, the Javanese instruments, with
their equipments, were in one great box, and
there were many thousands of specimens of animals,
whose carcases had been taken out but stuffed like
life. There were also two or three trunks full of
birds in thousands and of various species, and all
stuffed. There were also several hundred bottles of
different sizes. . . . There were also two boxes filled

236 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

with coral of a thousand kinds, also shells, mussels and
bivalves of different species. On all these articles
stated above he placed a value greater than gold ; and
he was constantly coming in to see that nothing was
hurt or broken. . . . Such was my separation from
Mr Raffles. I was not distressed about my liveli-
hood or because of my losing him, but because of
his noble bearing, his justness, modesty and respect
to his fellowmen. All these I remember to this day.
There are many great men besides him — clever, rich
and handsome — but in good disposition, amiability and
gracefulness, Mr Raffles had not his equal. . . . When
they had ascended the ship's side and the crew were
raising the anchor, Mr Raffles called me to him, and
I went into his cabin, where I observed that his face
was flushed as if he had been wiping his tears.'

It is right and fitting that the description of Sir
Stamford's last moments at Singapore should be from
the pen of a member of the nation whose cause he
had consistently espoused throughout his public life.

CHAPTER XIV

VOYAGE HOME, AND LAST DAYS IN ENGLAND
(1824-26)

Further Misfortune — Starts for England — Burning of the Fame —
Voyage Home — Plans for Life in England — Recovers His
Spirits — Purchases ' Highwood ' — Enjoys Society — Founds
'Zoo' — Claim by East India Company — Death.

Our hero's public life may be said to have closed
with his departure from Singapore. He returned
indeed to Bencoolen for a few months, but only in
order that he might wind up affairs. On the voyage
an amusing proof was given of the feelings enter-
tained by the Dutch authorities with regard to him.
The ship had occasion to touch at Batavia, and Sir
Stamford sent a civil note requesting that Lady
Raffles, on account of her health, might be allowed to
land. The panic-stricken reply of the Dutch Gover-
nor is exceedingly funny. He wonders that after
what has happened since 181 8 Raffles should show his
face at Batavia. In the circumstances, he cannot
allow of any personal interview or communication,
a favour which Raffles had assuredly never requested.
c Had Bonaparte returned to life and anchored in the
Downs, it would not have excited greater agitation in
England than my arrival has done here.' It is but
237

238 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

fair to add that the permission with regard to Lady
Raffles was duly granted. The return to Bencoolen
was not under very cheerful auspices. Another little
girl was born to Lady Raffles in the autumn of 1823,
who, however, did not live long, and Lady Raffles
herself, after recovering from confinement, was attacked
by a very severe fever. Her husband's own health
became very bad. { I am scarcely able to hold up my
head for two days together,' he writes on November
14, 1823. 'In returning to Bencoolen,' Lady Raffles
states, * Sir Stamford had once more to encounter a
scene of trial, sickness and death. His few remaining
friends fell a sacrifice to the climate ; his family it
pleased God to afflict with illness ; and it seemed as
if his life was to end with his labours. It is not easy
to describe the state of anxiety in which the last two
months were spent ; ready and anxious to leave a
place in which so many earthly ties of happiness had
been broken, and yet seeing hour after hour pass away,
without the means of escape, and with scarcely a hope
that life would be prolonged from one day to another.'
' Either I must go to England,' Sir Stamford writes on
December 20, ' or, by remaining in India, die.1

At last, after it had been arranged to go home on
another vessel, the Fame arrived ; and on February
2, 1824, Sir Stamford and Lady Raffles embarked,
and sailed at daybreak for England, ' with a fair wind
and every prospect of a quick and comfortable passage.'
Dis aliter visum ! A fresh misfortune was to subject
Raffles's philosophy to a strain more trying in its way
than the misfortunes of the past few years. ' Sophia,'

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 239

Raffles writes on the 4th, ' had just gone to bed, and
I had thrown off half my clothes, when a cry of
Fire ! Fire ! roused us from our calm content, and in
five minutes the whole ship was in flames ! I ran to
examine whence the flames principally issued, and
found that the fire had its origin immediately under
our cabin. Down with the boats ! Where is Sophia ?
Here. The children ? Here. A rope to the side,
lower Lady Raffles, give her to me, says one ; I'll
take her, says the Captain. Throw the gunpowder
overboard ! It cannot be got at. It is in the
magazine close to the fire. Stand clear of the powder.
Scuttle the water casks. Water ! water ! Where's
Sir Stamford ? Come into the boat ! Nilson !
Nilson, come into the boat. Push off, push off !
Stand clear of the after part of the ship. All this
passed much quicker than I can write it ; we pushed
off, and, as we did so, the flames burst out of our
cabin window, and the whole of the after part of the
ship was in flames. The masts and sails now taking
fire, we moved to a distance sufficient to avoid the
immediate explosion ; but the flames were now
coming out of the main hatchway ; and seeing the
rest of the crew with the captain still on board, we
pulled back to her under the bows, so as to be more
distant from the powder. As we approached we per-
ceived that the people on board were getting into
another boat on the opposite side. She pushed off.
We hailed her. Have you all on board ? Yes, all
save one. Who is he ? Johnson, sick in his cot.
Can we save him ? No, impossible. The flames

240 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

were issuing from the hatchway. At this moment the
poor fellow, scorched, I imagine, by the flames, roared
out most lustily, having run upon the deck. I will
go for him, says the Captain. The two boats then
came together, and we took out some of the persons
from the Captain's boat, which was overladen. We
then pulled under the bowsprit of the ship and picked
the poor fellow up. Are you all safe ? Yes, we have
got the man. All lives safe, thank God ! Pull off
from the ship. Keep your eye on a star, Sir Stam-
ford. There's one scarcely visible. We then hauled
close to each other, and found the Captain fortunately
had a compass, but we had no light except from the
ship. Our distance from Bencoolen we estimated to
be about fifty miles in a south-west direction. There
being no landing-place to the southward of Bencoolen,
our only chance was to regain that port. The
captain then undertook to lead, and we to follow in
a N.N.E. course as well as we could ; no chance, no
possibility being left that we could again approach the
ship, for she was now one splendid flame, fore and
aft and aloft, her masts and sails in a blaze, and
rocking to and fro, threatening to fall in an instant.
There goes her mizzen-mast. Pull away, my boys.
There goes the gunpowder. Thank God ! Thank
God ! You may judge of our situation without further
particulars. The alarm was given at about twenty
minutes past eight, and in less than ten minutes she
was in flames. There was not a soul on board at half-
past eight, and in less than ten minutes afterwards she
was one grand mass of fire.

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 241

' My only apprehension was the want of boats to
hold the people, as there was not time to have got
out the long boat or to make a raft. All we had to
rely upon were two small quarter boats, which for-
tunately were lowered without accident ; and in these
two small open boats, without a drop of water or
grain of food, or a rag of covering, except what we
happened at the moment to have on our backs, we
embarked on the ocean, thankful to God for His
mercies. Poor Sophia, having been taken out of her
bed, had nothing on but a wrapper, neither shoes nor
stockings. The children were just as taken out of
bed, whence one had been snatched after the flames
had attacked it. In short, there was not time for
anyone to think of more than two things : Can the
ship be saved ? No ; let us save ourselves, then.
All else was swallowed up in one grand ruin.

cTo make the best of our misfortune, we availed
ourselves of the light from the ship to steer a toler-
ably clear course towards the shore. She continued
to burn till about midnight, when the saltpetre which
she had on board took fire and sent up one of the
most splendid and brilliant flames that ever was seen,
illumining the horizon in every direction to an extent
of not less than fifty miles, and casting that kind of
blue light over us which is of all others most horrible.
She burnt and continued to flame in this style for
about an hour or two, when we lost sight of the
object in a cloud of smoke. Neither Nilson nor Mr
Bell, our medical friend, who had accompanied us,
had saved their coats ; but the tail of mine, with a

24.2 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

pocket - handkerchief, served to keep Sophia's feet
warm, and we made breeches for the children with
our neck-cloths. Rain now came on, but fortun-
ately it was of not long continuance, and we got dry
again. The night became serene and starlight. We
were now certain of our course, and the men behaved
manfully. They rowed incessantly, and with good
heart and spirit, and never did poor mortals look out
more for daylight and for land than we did. Not
that our sufferings or grounds of complaint were any-
thing to what has often befallen others, but from
Sophia's delicate health, as well as my own, and the
stormy nature of our coast, I felt perfectly convinced
we were unable to undergo starvation and exposure
to sun and weather many days, and, aware of the
rapidity of the currents, I feared that we might fall
to the southward of the port.

* At daylight we recognised the coast and Rat
Island, which gave us great spirits ; and though we
found ourselves much to the southward of the port,
we considered ourselves almost at home. Sophia had
gone through the night better than could have been
expected, and v/e continued to pull on with all our
strength. About eight or nine we saw a ship stand-
ing to us from the Roads. They had seen the flames
on shore, and sent out vessels to our relief. And
here certainly came a minister of Providence in the
character of a minister of the Gospel, for the first
person I recognised was one of our missionaries.
They gave us a bucket of water, and we took the
Captain on board as a pilot. The wind, however,

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 243

was adverse, and we could not reach the shore, and
took to the ship, where we got some refreshment and
shelter from the sun. By this time Sophia was quite
exhausted, fainting continually. About two o'clock
we landed safe and sound, and no words of mine can
do justice to the expressions of feeling, sympathy and
kindness with which we were hailed by everyone. If
any proof had been wanting that my administration
had been satisfactory here, we had it unequivocally
from all. There was not a dry eye, and as we drove
back to our former home, loud was the cry of " God
be praised ! " But enough ; and I will only add that
we are now greatly recovered, in good spirits, and
busy at work getting ready-made clothes for present
use. We went to bed at three in the afternoon, and
I didn't wake till six in the morning. Sophia had
nearly as sound a sleep, and with the exception of a
bruise or two, and a little pain in the bones from
fatigue, we have nothing to complain of.

' The loss I have to regret, beyond all, is my papers
and drawings — all my notes and observations, with
memoirs and collections, sufficient for a full and ample
history, not only of Sumatra, but of Borneo and
almost every other island of note in these seas, my
intended account of the establishment of Singapore,
the history of my own administration, Eastern
grammars, dictionaries and vocabularies, and last, not
least, a grand map of Sumatra, on which I had been
employed since my arrival here, and on which, for
the last six months, I had employed almost my whole
undivided attention. This, however, was not all.

24+ BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

All my collections in natural history, all my splendid
collection of drawings, upwards of three thousand in
number, with all the valuable papers and notes of my
friends, Arnold and Jack ; and, to conclude, I will
merely notice that there was scarce an unknown
animal, bird, beast or fish, or an interesting plant,
which we had not on board : a living tapir, a new
species of tiger, splendid pheasants, etc., domesticated
for the voyage. We were, in short, in this respect,
a perfect Noah's Ark. All, all has perished ; but,
thank God, our lives have been spared, and we do
not repine.'

In another letter to his sister, he writes : — £ Our
losses have been dreadful. All our plate, that from
Java, all Sophia's jewels, without exception ; all our
gold work ; my valuable collections of all kinds,
one hundred and fifty packages ; all my papers,
memoirs, all my beautiful drawings, in short, the
cream and best of everything I had collected,
learned and attained during my residence in India,
all, all has gone in this sad ruin, and there is not in
truth a " wreck left behind," save ourselves.' It speaks
well for our hero's nature that in the same letter he
is able to joke about his sister's boy. 'Instead of
laced jackets, etc., poor Charley must now be content
with huckaback. Where's your trousers, Charley ?
My breeches are burnt. My hat burnt, all burnt.'
' The morning,' Lady Raffles tells us, c after the loss
of all that he had been collecting for many years with
such unwearied zeal, interest and labour, he recom-
menced sketching the map of Sumatra, set all his

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 245

draughtsmen to work in making new drawings of some
of the most interesting specimens in natural history,
despatched a number of people into the forest to
collect more animals, and neither murmur nor lamen-
tation ever escaped his lips ; on the contrary, upon the
ensuing Sabbath, he publicly returned thanks to
Almighty God.'

In his despatch to the Court of Directors on the
subject, Raffles wrote : — c The fire had its origin in
the storeroom, immediately under the apartments
occupied by myself and family, and was occasioned
by the shameful carelessness of the steward going
with a naked light to draw off brandy from a cask
which took fire. . . . After a service of nearly thirty
years and the exercise of supreme authority as a
Governor for nearly twelve years of that period
over the finest and most interesting, but perhaps
the least known countries in creation, I had, as I
vainly thought, closed my Indian life with benefit
to my country and satisfaction to myself; carrying
with me such testimonials and information as I trusted
would have proved that I had not been an unprofit-
able or a dilatory labourer in this fruitful and extensive
vineyard. ... In the course of those measures
numerous and weighty responsibilities became neces-
sary ; the European world, the Indian world (the
continental part of it at least) were wholly un-
informed of the nature of those countries, their
character and resources. I did not hesitate to take
these responsibilities, as the occasion required them,
and, though from imperfect information many of my

246 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

measures in Java were at first condemned, I had the
satisfaction to find them in the end not only approved
but applauded far beyond my humble pretensions, and
even by those who had been at first opposed to me. I
need refer to no stronger case than that of the Marquis
of Hastings. . . . During the last six years of my
administration . . . the responsibilities which I have
been compelled to take in support of the interests
of my country and of my employers have been, if
possible, still greater than during my former career ;
I allude to the struggle which I have felt it my duty
to make against Dutch rapacity and power, and to the
difficulties which I had to contend with in the estab-
lishment of Singapore, and the reforms which have
been effected on this coast. . . .

4 It was at the close of such an administration that I
embarked with my family on the Fame, carrying with
me endless volumes and papers of information on the
civil and natural history of nearly every island within
the Malay Archipelago. ... I am left single and
unaided without the help of one voucher to tell my
story and uphold my proceedings when I appear
before your Honourable Court. It has always
appeared to me that the value of these countries
was to be traced rather through the means of their
natural history than in the dark recesses of Dutch
diplomacy and intrigue ; and I accordingly at all
times felt disposed to give encouragement to those
deserving men who devote themselves to the pursuits
of science. Latterly, when political interests seemed
to require that I should for a time retire from the

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 247

field, and there was little more to be done for this
small settlement, I have myself devoted a considerable
portion of my time to these pursuits, and in forming
extensive collections in natural history ; my attention
has also been directed in a particular manner to the
geography of the island of Sumatra.'

After an elaborate statement of the papers and
collections thus lost, Sir Stamford continues : — { In
a pecuniary point of view my loss has been not
less extensive, as may be perceived by the annexed
statement, in which I have assumed the actual cost
of the principal articles which have been sacrificed.'
(The sum total amounted to over ^30,000.) * Most
of them are what no money can replace ; such as
the service of plate presented to me by the in-
habitants of Java ; the diamonds presented to my
family by the captors of Djocjocarta ; the diamond
presented to me by the Princess Charlotte, on my
embarkation for India, a week before her death.
These and many other tokens of regard, friendship
and respect, during an active and varied life, cannot
ever be replaced. Money may compensate perhaps
for other losses, but no insurance may or could be
effected from home. It rests solely and exclusively
with the Court to consider in how far my claims
on account of services may be strengthened by the
severity of misfortune which has latterly attached
itself to my case.'

Apart from more serious consequences, the burning
of the Fame entailed the misfortune of yet another
squabble with the Company with respect to money

248 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

matters. We may dismiss the subject with one more
quotation from the worthy Abdulla. c When I heard
this news I was breathless, remembering all the Malay
books of ancient date collected from various countries
. . . the books could not be recovered, for none of
them were printed but in manuscript. They were so
rare that one country might have only two of them —
that is what distressed me. I further remembered his
intention of composing a work on these countries, and
his promise to put my name in it. All this was gone.'
The return to Bencoolen afforded to the inhabit-
ants, both European and native, an opportunity of
showing the warmth of their attachment to Sir Stam-
ford Raffles. l Having been thrown back on this shore
most unexpectedly, we were naked and they clothed
us ; hungry and athirst, and they fed us ; weary and
exhausted, and they comforted and consoled us.'

At last, on the 8th of April, the party again
embarked for Europe, and on the 10th they set sail.
Lady Raffles publishes some extracts from a diary
kept by Sir Stamford on the passage home. ' 20th
April. — I this day commenced to apply to study, and
devoted the early part of the morning to Euclid, and
the remainder to the arrangement of my papers, etc.
As far as circumstances admit, I propose to divide my
time and application as follows during the voyage :
Appropriating eight hours in each day to study, read-
ing or writing, and with an intention of making up
one day for any loss of time on another. . . . Before
breakfast, one hour mathematics or logic, one hour
Latin, Greek or Hebrew. ... In the evening, for

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 249

one hour, reading a play of Shakespeare, or other
entertaining productions. ... As the servants are
always behindhand in furnishing the meals, I may
freely trust to their affording me time for dressing by
such delays, which will only eventually break in on
the proposed three hours' relaxation for the evening, a
portion of which may well be spared, or half-an-hour
may be added to the day by going to bed at half-past
nine or ten, instead of nine as proposed. My object
in making this memorandum is that I may hold the
rule as inviolable as I can, and, by frequently recurring
to it, revive my sleeping energies should I at any time
be inclined to indolence. I should not, however, omit
to add that all reading and study on a Sunday is to be
confined to the Bible and religious subjects. The
Greek and Hebrew, however, as connected, may
nevertheless form a part of the study of that day.'
They arrived at St Helena on June 25, after a
passage of eleven weeks, and ' encountering constant
and severe gales off the Cape of Good Hope during
three weeks of that period. The gale was so severe
that during this period we were unable to leave our
cots ; the sea poured through the decks into our cabin,
and the roar of the wind was such that we could not
hear each other speak. Lady Raffles, though boarded
up in her couch, was obliged to have ropes to hold by
to prevent her knocking from one side of it to the
other ; the ship lay like a wreck upon the ocean at
the mercy of the winds and waves, and we resigned
ourselves to the feeling that our pilgrimage in this
world was soon to close.'

250 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

At St Helena the news reached Raffles of the death
of his mother. In the last letter addressed by him to
her we note the loving forethought which caused him
to erase a sentence he had written alluding to his
altered appearance and his white hair for fear of caus-
ing her alarm. If ever there had been a good son, he
had been one, and doubtless her death just at the
moment when they seemed about to be united for the
short remaining period of her life was a severe blow.
The portion of the diary published contains no
allusion to the event, but the following entry shows
that serious things were at the time occupying
Raffles's mind. * There are some souls bright and
precious, which, like gold and silver, may be subdued by
the fiery trial, and yield to a new mould ; but there
are others, firm and solid as the diamond, which may
be shivered to pieces, yet in every fragment retain
their indelible character.'

On June 26 Raffles wrote to the Duchess of
Somerset : — * I have neither time nor spirits to say more
than that we are alive and tolerably well, and hope to
reach England in August. My health and strength
are entirely gone, but I trust I have got enough spirit
to bear up for the voyage. . . . Pray excuse this
hasty scrawl ; my eyes are quite blinded with tears,
and my hand is so nervous that I can scarcely hold my
pen.' They arrived at Plymouth on August 22,
1 in better health than could have been expected.'
However ' broken-hearted and broken down in every
way when he landed,' the natural buoyancy of his
nature soon asserted itself. Already on the 24th

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 251

August we find him writing with regard to his future
plans, £ I confess that I have a great desire to turn
farmer, and have the vanity to think I could manage
about two hundred acres as well as my neighbours.
With this I suppose I shall in time become a country
magistrate, an office which, of all others, I shall
delight in ; and if I could eventually get a seat in
Parliament, without sacrifice in principle, I shall be
content to pass through my life without aiming at
anything further, beyond the occupation of my spare
time in promoting, as far as my humble means and
talents admitted, the pursuits of knowledge and
science, advancement of philanthropic and religious
principles.'

Meanwhile dreams as to the future did not banish
care from the present. In October he drew out a
brief review of his public administration during the
last twelve years. c After the loss of all my documents
and records, a paper of this kind becomes the more
interesting. I hope I shall not be found to have said
too much in favour of my own services and pretensions,
and yet the countries in which I have been placed
have been so new, untrodden, and interesting, and
the situations in which I have been thrown have been
so peculiar and trying, that, unless I state them my-
self, few will either know or understand anything
about them. I feel confident that my course has been
so straightforward, that the more light that may be
thrown upon it the more obvious it will appear and
the more creditable it will be to my character.'

In October 1824 Sir Stamford was seriously unwell

252 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

from an attack in the head and bad cold. ' Thank
God,' he writes on the 23rd, 'I am better, though I
am hardly able to hold my pen, and which I dare not
trust except within very close limitation ; for I believe
it was in consequence of using it too much upon the
paper I was drawing up that I have to attribute this
unfortunate relapse, which has thrown me back in
point of health at least two months, and as winter is
fast approaching, time is precious.' ' Time was,' he
adds in November, c when I wanted not strength to
second my will ; but I am now almost shattered,
and altogether unequal to one-thousandth part of all
I would wish or desire to do.' Still, on the whole,
things were mending. ' I have been following your
kind advice,' he tells the Duchess of Somerset in
December, ' idling and playing the fool with my
time as much as possible. We are beginning to get
a little more to rights than when you left us, but I
have been only able to unpack two cases out of one
hundred and seventy then in course of transport to
the house.' In the preceding month he had estab-
lished himself in Piccadilly. 'The house, though
well situated, was by no means equal to their demands,'
and they soon moved thence to a house in Lower
Grosvenor Street,1 which Sir Stamford bought from
Sir Humphry Davy. In June 1825 he purchased,
as a country place, Highwood, near Hendon, where
his next-door neighbour was William Wilberforce.
We owe to Dr Raffles an interesting account of
the relations between the two men. ' Sir Stamford

1 No. 23.

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 253

and Wilberforce were most intimate friends, and at
length came to be next-door neighbours, dividing
Highwood Hill, near Barnet, between them. The
village at the top of the hill was also pretty equally
divided between them ; Sir Stamford owning one
half and Wilberforce the other. Each portion had
a public-house in it, and he used to laugh and say,
" Wilberforce has the Crown, and I the Rising
Sun." Each had an excellent house, unpretending
but very convenient. My cousin's amount of land
was about one hundred and twenty statute acres,
yielding enough for all his purposes with a considerable
amount for sale. . . . Before he (Wilberforce) came to
reside at Highwood, he left the laying out of the
grounds contiguous to the house to the taste of Sir
Stamford. He took me in with him on one occasion
to shew me what he was doing ; I well remember
the glee with which he said, taking me to a long
mound which he had raised and planted with shrubs
and flowers, "There, I have raised this mound that
the little man may enjoy his daily walk, sheltered by
it from the north winds, which would otherwise be
too severe for him." Alas ! how brief was the period
allowed for the happy intercourse he thus anticipated !
Wilberforce had scarcely got settled when Sir Stam-
ford died. Wilberforce did not long survive him ;
and as they were, when death parted them, living
beside each other, so their statues are now and will
long remain side by side in close juxtaposition among
the illustrious dead in Westminster Abbey.'

Sir Stamford thoroughly enjoyed the otium cum

25+ BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

dlgnitate of a country life. At the end of 1825 we
find him applying to be placed on the Commission
of the Peace. ' From the improvement in my health,
and from a desire to be useful to the extent of my
ability, added to the consideration that it may afford
me the means of becoming practically acquainted with
the real state of our society, and of much regarding
our laws and usages which it is impossible for me
to know otherwise than theoretically, I no longer
hesitate.'

Meanwhile society had lost none of its attractions.
Sir Stamford writes to his cousin in May 1825 : — ' My
health, thank God, is upon the whole improved ; and I
am happy to say both Sophia and my little one are
quite well. Necessity has compelled me to go much
into society ; and I am almost surprised that at this gay
season of festivity I have been able to carry on the
war. Seldom a day passes without an engagement
for dinner, and for many weeks I have not been able
to command an hour's leisure. It is true I have not
attended very closely to anything, but all is so new,
varied, and important in the metropolis of this great
Empire, after so long an absence in the woods and
wilds of the East, that, like the bee, I wander from
flower to flower, and drink in delicious nutriment
from the numerous intellectual and moral sources
which surround me.'

Raffles was at this time much occupied in starting
the Zoological Society. * I am much interested,' he
writes in March 1825, ' in establishing a grand
zoological collection in the metropolis, with a society

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 255

for the introduction of living animals having the same
relation to zoology as a science that the Horticultural
Society does to botany. The prospectus is drawn out,
and when a few copies are printed I will send some to
you. We hope to have 2000 subscribers at ^2 each ;
and it is further expected we may go beyond the
Jardin des Plantes at Paris. Sir Humphry Davy
and myself are the projectors ; and while he looks
more to the practical and immediate utility to the
country gentlemen, my attention is more directed to
the scientific department.' In fact, Davy's share in
the work appears to have been of the slightest char-
acter, and to Raffles belongs the whole credit of
establishing the Society, of which he became first
President.1

It might have been expected that, released from
the cares of office, Sir Stamford Raffles should

1 A large amount of information with regard to the scientific side of
Sir Stamford Raffles has been collected by the zeal and industry of the
Rev. R. B. Raffles. Here it must suffice to say that Sir Stamford
became a Fellow of the Royal Society and of the Society of Antiquaries
in March 1817, and of the Linnean Society in February 1825. His
most important written contribution to science was A Descriptive Cata-
logue of a Zoological Collection, . . . made in the Island of Sumatra and
it s •vicinity ; ' drawn up . . . from actual examination of the subjects,
combined with the result of extensive personal inquiries among the best
informed natives of the country.' This was published in Vol. XIII. of
the Transactions of the Linnean Society. The Zoological Journal, Vol. III.,
in a description of a new animal, contains the following tribute to
Raffles : ' Viri illustrissimi, in omni scientia praestantis, in vita nobis
amicissimi, in morte heu ! nunquam satis deflendi, haec species me-
moriae sit sacra.' Raffles's reputation in the European scientific world is
attested by the fact that the great French naturalist, M. GeofFroy St.
Hilaire, described a new variety of animal under the specific name of
' Rajflesii.' A broad distinction should be drawn between Sir Stamford's
scientific work at Java and at Sumatra. In the former he was mainly
the patron and Maecenas, in the latter he had more leisure and oppor-
tunity for scientific research on his own account. Sir Stamford Raffles
was made LL.D. by the University of Edinburgh, June 1825.

256 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

have passed his remaining years in peace. Un-
happily, however, although he had retired from the
service of the East India Company, there had not been
a final settlement of accounts, and on April 12, 1826,
a bolt was discharged from the Leadenhall Street
Olympus, which probably shortened our hero's life.1
He had been under the impression that his case would
receive favourable treatment from the Company. He
had written in February 1826: — 'The East India
Company are now talking of taking up my case and
granting me an annuity ; but I fear it will be very
moderate, and ^500 a year is the largest amount I
hear of. This, had I the means of living independent
of them, I should not be inclined to accept ; but neces-
sity and consideration for my family must predominate,
and I must e'en be content with .what I can get. I
have unfortunately been a considerable loser by the
cession of Bencoolen— some thousands. My bankers
have failed here, and altogether my prospects are not
as comfortable as they were ; but the pressure is, I
hope, only temporary, and I trust it will be right
again, and that I shall not be obliged to seek a tropical
-clime again in search of filthy lucre ; for nothing else
would, I think, tempt me to venture.'

Such being the state of things, it may be imagined
with what feelings Raffles received a communication
from the Company, wherein they formally demanded
the reimbursement of over ^22,200. This sum was
mainly made up of four separate items. There was

1 It is right to note that a previous letter from the Directors, dated
February 22, had prepared the way for what followed.

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 257

first the salary for the years 18 16-18, which Raffles
had drawn as Resident, and afterwards as Lieutenant-
Governor of Bencoolen, from his leaving Java, but
which the Company only allowed from his actual arrival
in Sumatra. This head accounted for over 66,000 rupees.
A further 31,000 rupees was the difference between
the amount due for salary at the time of leaving Java
in paper money and in Spanish dollars. With regard
to these two items, Raffles wrote: — 'For these amounts,
calculated with interest, and converted into sterling
money by the auditor, I have requested payment may
be received in Calcutta, where the funds are deposited
for the purpose. However serious the repayment of
so large an amount may be, I have no right to com-
plain, as the express condition on which the sums
were provisionally drawn was their being subject to
the confirmation of the Honourable Court, which has
been denied. It will, however, appear that, with
regard to the first and most important item, viz., the
arrears of salary, it could not have constituted a
claim but from the circumstance of my removal from
Java, and the tenor of my appointment to Bencoolen
by the Earl of Minto ; and as my appeal to the
Honourable Court on that question, viz., my removal
from Java, is still before the Honourable Court, and it
remains to be decided upon how far my unfortunate
recall was merited by my conduct, I trust that if it
shall appear, on the general review of my administra-
tion, that such recall occurred under partial or defec-
tive information, which has been since supplied, and
that subsequent inquiry has proved that such adminis-

258 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

tration was, upon the whole, sound and creditable to
myself and my employers, I may still look to the
Honourable Court's liberal consideration of the heavy
pecuniary loss to which I was subjected on the occa-
sion, and of which this item forms a part. . . .
The other item, viz., the loss by discount on paper,
being an actual abstraction from the amount of my salary
as Lieutenant-Governor, will, I hope, also be considered
with reference to the small amount of that salary, and
to the loss being occasioned by my sudden recall at a
moment no less injurious to my character than pecuni-
ary interests, for had I remained till the transfer, I
should have derived the advantage from the notes
being all at par and paid off.'

Whatever claim Raffles may have had with
regard to his Bencoolen salary upon the equities
of the case, it will seem that upon the literal mean-
ing of his commission the intention of the Company
was justified. The words were, 'The allowances
receivable by you as Resident at Fort Marlborough
are to commence from the date on which you
may proceed to that settlement from Java.' What
is open to criticism is the system under which
accounts remained open for so long a period of
years.

A third item of nearly 74,000 rupees represented
commissions paid to Raffles on exports to Europe from
Bencoolen. The claim to such commissions had
been allowed by the Bengal Government, subject
to the approval of the home authorities, and the
silence of the East India Company on the subject

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 259

led Raffles to suppose that the sums drawn had
been approved by the Home Government. The
delay in the Court's decision, he pointed out, had
subjected him to a total loss of the amount by the
present failure of his agents ; for had the Court's
definitive reply reached him at Bencoolen, the funds
were then at hand awaiting their orders. Just when
the order of the East India Company was received,
Raffles had suffered the loss of over ^16,000 from
the failure of the East Indian House, which had
been intrusted with the remittance of his property
to England. In this state of things Raffles was
obliged to ask ' the indulgence of time to enable
me to raise the sum necessary. At present I have
no other means of doing so but by disposing of my
East India Stock, and the sale of the little property
I had set apart as a provision for my family after my
death.' The further sum of about 50,000 rupees
claimed bv the Company as extra charges at Acheen
and Singapore raised considerations of a different
character. ' This disbursement,' Raffles pointed
out, * was incurred and charged under the authority
and consistently with the orders of the Supreme
Government, and independent of the general allow-
ances of the Resident of Bencoolen. It occurred
under the following circumstances : Inconvenience
had arisen from the mode in which former Residents
had drawn their personal expenses, and it was, on
my suggestion, directed that in future I should be
allowed to draw monthly the average of the former
charges on this account, reference being at the

260 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

same time had by the Supreme Government
to the increased expenses, which must necessarily
be incurred by me as Agent to the Governor-
General, and otherwise, in moving from place to
place. It was proposed by the Civil Auditors that
I should be authorised to draw at the rate of Rs.5000
per month on account ; but it was finally deter-
mined that the amount to be in the first instance
drawn should be limited to the average expenses
of Bencoolen, viz., about Rs.3700, and that any
excess incurred beyond that sum should be separ-
ately drawn, and accounted for as Durbar charges.
The disbursement in question, and the charge
now referred to, was for such expenses incurred
during the mission to Acheen and Singapore, and
for the period from my quitting Calcutta till my
leaving Singapore to return to Bencoolen. . . .

'On the principle adopted by former Residents
I might have drawn the actual expenses on honour,
without limitation as to the amount, and it was
only at my request and to simplify the accounts
that any change in form was made.' Among the
items questioned was 'house rent at Singapore.'
As Raffles pointed out, ' This charge was as neces-
sarily incurred as every other public charge at
Singapore, and I am at a loss to know on what
principle it can be charged against me personally or
why it is now disputed. That it should be an
extraordinary charge accounts for itself, and that
it was actually incurred cannot be questioned ; and
I know not how it was to be avoided, unless I had

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 261

paid the money out of my own pocket, which
could not be expected.'

To all who care for the honour of their country —
and, where the Home Government has established a
Chartered Company, the legal maxim qui facit per
alium facit per se assuredly applies — the spiteful
pettiness which sought to punish the founder of
Singapore for his own greatness cannot but be a
cause of sorrow and shame. Compare the manner
in which far less important services by military
commanders, entailing heavy expense to the country,
have been generously rewarded, with the grudging
manner in which the out-of-pocket expenses were
scanned of the statesman who, without the loss of a
single life, gave to the Empire a new great centre of
commerce and called a Further British India into
existence in the Far East to vie with the greatness
of the first.

In excuse for the East India Company it may be
said that their finances at the time were by no means
in a flourishing condition, that the establishments not
in India proper had been always kept outside the
inner ring of chartered prodigality, that the greatness
of Singapore lay in the future and required a states-
man's eye to recognise. Be this as it may, there is
good ground for believing that this action on their
part shortened Sir Stamford's life. His health had, on
the whole, improved. In the spring of 1825 he had a
sudden attack, and was ' inanimate for about an hour,'
but he appeared to recover from this. Although it
had shaken ' his confidence and nerves,' we find him

262 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

writing a year later in a more cheerful tone. At the
same time he was no longer able to bear the strain
of any excitement. The recent attack had been of
an apoplectic nature, though at the time this had not
been understood. His strength had been further
reduced by whooping cough, caught from the
children. At the best, worry had always made him
ill. In this state of things a second attack of apoplexy
found him an easy victim.

He had passed the 4th of July with his family,
'and excepting a bilious attack, under which he had
laboured for some days, there was nothing in his
appearance to create the least apprehension that the
fatal hour was so near. Sir Stamford had retired to rest
. . . between 10 and 11 o'clock ... on the following
morning at five o'clock, it being discovered that he
had left his room before the time at which he
generally rose, six o'clock, Lady Raffles immediately
rose, and found him lying at the bottom of a flight of
stairs in a state of complete insensibility. Medical
aid was promptly procured, and every means resorted
to to restore animation, but the vital spark had fled.
The body was opened, under the direction of Sir
Everard Home, the same day, who pronounced his
death to have been caused by an apoplectic attack,
beyond the controul of all human power. It was
likewise apparent that the sufferings of the deceased
must, for some time past, have been most intense.' l
Sir Stamford Raffles thus died on July 5, 1826, on
the eve of his forty-sixth birthday.

1 Gentleman s Maga%ir.e, July 1S26.

CHAPTER X V

THE MAN AND HIS WORK

Whatever the shortcomings of a biography, it
cannot fail, if it follows faithfully the events of his
life, to give some idea of our hero's political greatness.
The proof of his services to Java is found in the
testimony of the Dutch themselves. When he
realised that Java would not be retained, he at once
set himself to devise a plan by which the equili-
brium of British interests in the Far East might
be maintained. When the action of the home
authorities rendered his scheme impossible, he did
not sit down to sulk or to despair, but from
headquarters so unpromising as was Bencoolen,
still busied himself in devising means by which to
extricate British interests in the Far East from the
choking grip of the Treaty of August 1814. The
outcome of these plans was the foundation of Singa-
pore. Nor was it by any favour of fortune that
Raffles produced great results. His elaborate
State papers prove him to have been as prescient
in theory as he was prompt in deed. The makers
of history have for the most part wrought uncon-
263

264 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

sciously, and the English in their greatest achieve-
ments have been generally content to work for the
immediate present. It is to the honour of Raffles
that he was distinguished both in the fields of
thought and of action, that he bridged the chasm
which divides the Wakefields from the Clives of
this series.

Of the purely political side of Raffles's work we of
the present generation can hardly judge. We can
notice in some measure the material and moral results
which have sprung from the seed sown by him.
' The crowd of splendid shipping ' ; ' the churches,
public buildings and offices ' ; c the influence of the
British name ' in the native states — these, in the strik-
ing words of the late Governor, Sir Frederic Weld,
when unveiling our hero's statue in 1887, bear living
testimony to his greatness. But though such results
would have gladdened the heart of one who fought so
strenuous a battle on behalf both of British commerce
and of native rights, the cause for which Raffles
laboured had another side. We are so accustomed to
a state of things under which world power is con-
centrated in a few great states that we find it difficult
to realise that eighty years ago little Holland claimed
the monopoly of the Far East. The Dutch were,
according to Raffles, ' almost the most powerful nation
in India,' having 15,000 European troops and a large
fleet. It is not necessary to echo every opinion of our
hero with regard to the Home Government to obtain
a right grasp of the situation. The British contention
had been that the true Netherlands had remained

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 265

loyal to the British connection, and that the absorp-
tion by France had been a revolutionary interruption
of normal relations. But if this contention was to
be made out, it was necessary that the Netherlands
should be propitiated in every way, and that the
restored monarchy should be strong and friendly, as
well as independent. Hence the colonial policy
which seemed to Raffles mere moonshine and mad-
ness. In truth, the urgency of these considerations
serves but to enhance the merits of our hero's
work.

La haute Politique had brought about that British
interests in the East were for the moment at the
mercy of Holland. Nor let it be supposed that the
danger was slight or imaginary. Sir Henry Maine
somewhere remarks that Bentham's reputation has
suffered from the very completeness of some of his
reforms. To some extent Raffles has met with the
same fate. We cannot notice the urgency of the
situation because of the completeness of the revolution
due to him. At that time the power of the Nether-
lands stood like a lion in the path of the open road to
the Far East. Without the shedding of a single
drop of blood ; unsupported by ministers at home ;
criticised, snubbed and censured, Raffles removed the
impediment, and secured to Great Britain her fair
share of the Eastern trade. If ever a man had the
right to say c alone I did it,' it was he. It is not
necessary to indulge in patriotic dithyrambs, but if, as
cannot be denied, Dutch dominion meant monopoly,
and the goal of Sir Stamford was free trade — if

266 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

Dutch dominion meant the oppression or neglect of
the natives, and the goal of Sir Stamford was their
improvement and gradual enfranchisement — then un-
doubtedly his victory was a triumph of the nine-
teenth century over the seventeenth, of light over
darkness.

To those who, on the strength of the special cir-
cumstances of Java, would deny to Raffles the title of
Free Trader, it may be enough to quote the words
written in 1819 at the close of his Minute on the
Administration of the Eastern Islands : — ■

' Of monopoly it may be said, as of slavery, that it
is twice cursed ; that its effects are not less ruinous to
those who enforce it than to those who are subjected
to it. . . . Commerce, like liberty, is a jealous
power, and refuses her blessings to all who restrain
her course.

' It can no longer be the interest or the duty of
the East India Company to carry into her Indian
administration that union of monopoly and coercive
exaction which has so long been exploded as impolitic
and unjust. . . . The time is past when the Com-
pany looked for her profits from the sale of a yard
of broadcloth or a pound of nails. She now acts
in a more extended sphere, and her principles have
expanded with the growth of her Empire. She now
looks to the wealth and enterprise of those she
governs as the sure and only source of her own
financial prosperity.'

The paper above quoted should be carefully con-
sidered by all who would realise how complete was

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 267

the grasp which Raffles showed of Eastern affairs.
French predominance in Cochin China, the import-
ance of Siam, the bringing influence to bear upon the
Malay States by means of Residents — throughout — the
paper teems with suggestions of what the future had
in store.

Critics who believe that the one object of the
Builders of Greater Britain has been to paint the
map of the world red may note the following
passage : —

4 The nature of our connection is and ought to
be purely commercial, and our interference politically
no further extended than to secure the general
interests of that commerce. . . . The extent and
high value of our possessions in India renders the
acquisition of further territory, particularly in new
and less civilised countries, comparatively unimportant
and perhaps objectionable.' Such a doctrine has been
found impossible to carry out in fact, none the less
it has been honestly held by many under whom
the boundaries of the Empire have been steadilv
extended.

However great the value of Singapore in the
present and in promise, Sir Stamford Raffles was far
from claiming ' finality ' for his work. His prescient
eye saw in the future the need which created Hong-
Kong. Among the advantages he claimed for Singa-
pore was that it 'afforded facilities for hereafter
establishing another factory still further East when-
ever it may be decreed expedient to do so.' Could
Raffles return to the haunts of men he would

z68 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

find the justification and the fulfilment of his life
work.

A few words must be added with regard to the
man. In the course of the narrative we have met
the devoted son, brother, uncle, friend and philan-
thropist. He was the kindest of masters, the most
delightful of companions. Faults, of course, he had,
but they were mainly the outcome of circumstances.
Compelled from his earliest years to trust to his own
exertions, he occasionally betrays in his despatches a
note of fretful self-sufficiency, which at first sight
somewhat jars. It must be admitted that the fatal
facility with which Raffles poured out voluminous
despatches at the shortest notice sometimes deprives
his argument of its full force. Supporters of a classical
education may cherish the belief that he suffered from
the loss of that training in early years, which teaches
that the half is greater than the whole.

Like many other great men, he was perhaps a
better master than servant, though, when once his
affections were touched, as in his friendship for Lord
Minto, he could be docility itself. Even as superior,
he required perhaps subordinates who would yield to
his commanding character, and in his relations with
Mr Crawfurd the whole fault may not have been on
one side. The manner in which Colonel Farquhar
belied the expectations formed of him and other
instances, which we meet in the course of his history,
suggest the doubt whether Raffles, with his sanguine
nature, was always a discerning judge of men. The
modern reader will wish that, however inevitable in

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES 269

the circumstances, the constant complaint about money
matters could have been omitted.

Nevertheless, when all deductions have been made,
the character of Raffles stands out as great morally
and intellectually as it was politically. No man was
ever tried more terribly by fortune and circumstances.
Another Job, he might lament the loss of possessions,
children and health. Scurvily treated by his superiors
and subjected to snubs from lesser men, he never for an
instant became soured, or lost the charming urbanity
of his natural disposition. It is true that the final
judgment of the East India Company (April 12,
1826) on Sir Stamford Raffles admits the value of his
services. * To him the country is chiefly indebted for
the advantages which the settlement of Singapore has
secured to it. The Court consider this a very strong
point in Sir Stamford Raffles's favour, and are willing
to give him to the full extent the benefit of their testi-
mony respecting it.' Nevertheless, their patronising
and not too cordial praise could not atone for what
had gone before. Lady Raffles writes : — ' It was his
often expressed hope that he had experienced sufficient
trial to purify his soul.' In his last days, indeed, * his
sense of enjoyment was as keen as ever, his spirit as
gay, his heart as warm, his imagination still brighter,
though his hopes in the world were less. He was
contented with the happiness of the present moment,
and only asked for its continuance,' but 'the death-
blow had been struck, the silver chord was broken at
the wheel.'

We have already noted our hero's love of children

270 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

and of animals. Throughout the correspondence with
the Duchess of Somerset the ' dear Governor ' is always
sending messages to the children. The nurse who
took the sole surviving child home had also in charge
' two monkeys and a bear for Seymour, and two very
pretty squirrels for Anna Maria.' On his last return
he mentions regretfully that of living animals he has
only brought home a tiger and two tiger cats. It is
pleasant to think how much innocent pleasure this
distinguished child-lover has given to countless
thousands of children by the foundation of 'the
Zoo.' The value of his services to science was
attested by contemporaries of the highest authority.
More interesting to us nowadays is the light those
services incidentally throw upon his general character.
Dr Horsfield, his friend and assistant, described how,
after the burning of the Fame, on his return to
Bencoolen, he 'at once resumed his labours with
unabated energy and ardour, and during the short
period of a few weeks he succeeded in accumulating
such a number of materials of an interesting nature
as alone entitle him to the rank of an eminent bene-
factor of science.' In an eloquent address to the Zoo-
logical Club of the Linnean Society, Mr Vigers spoke
of ' that comprehensiveness of mind, which embraced,
as if by intuition, the entire of every subject to which
it applied itself; that promptness of spirit, which
executed as soon as it conceived ; that total prostra-
tion of all selfish feelings, which acknowledged no
interests but those of the great cause he espoused.
Transcendent as were his other qualities, it is that

SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES

271

last perhaps to which we may refer with the deepest
satisfaction.' Again, he remarks upon the * entire
devotedness with which, listening not to such timid
suggestions, but making ' one great offering ' of his
time, his talents and energetic exertions, he laid them,
with all confiding homage, before the shrine of the
science he worshipped.' J In truth a tireless energy was
the keynote of his character.

' Nature that framed us of four elements,
Warring within our breast for regiment,
Doth teach us all to have aspiring minds :
Our souls, whose faculties can comprehend
The wondrous architecture of the world,
And measure every wandering planet's course,
Still climbing after knowledge infinite,
And always moving as the restless spheres,
Wills us to wear ourselves, and never rest
Until we reach the ripest fruit of all.'

But such natures are of necessity short-lived.
Young as he was in years and young in buoyancy
of spirit, Raffles described himself in 1822 as 'a little
old man, all yellow and shrivelled,' and his ' hair pretty
well blanched.' The spirit, indeed, continued ready,

1 In the same address Mr Vigers spoke of Raffles as 'the founder and
first President ' of the Zoological Society. ' With what delight have we
dwelt upon the words of that great man, when, with an intelligence that
in a less enlightened age might have passed for a spirit of prophecy, he
portrayed, even to the minutest details, the plans and the hopes which we
have since seen realised. . . . Nor was the confidence misplaced, or
the sacrifice abortive. He is gone, but his spirit and energy survived :
and the results appear in the great work before you.'

272 BUILDERS OF GREATER BRITAIN

but the flesh was weak. And so we cannot wonder
that the end came so soon. But if men live not by
the length of their days, but by the work which they
have accomplished, the memory of Raffles will survive
so long as the Empire does honour to its builders. Of
him, as of the great Roman Governor, it may be said,
that he lives ' in animis hominum, in aeternitate tem-
porum, fama rerum.'

APPENDIX I

APPE1SDIX I

GENEALOGICAL TREE OF SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES'S FAMILY.

THOMAS RA7LES.

Benjamin = Anne Lyde, d. 1S24.

(■)

A NNI,

Thomas

A- 1779 3

Stamford,

d. 1780.

A. July 6,

1781 ;

•t- J»iy 5.

(i.)

Charlo

SoPHIA,A.

15, 1818

J:m. ,4),

= («) OLIVIA

Marianne,
(a* Deve-
nish, widow
of J. C.
Fancourt),
A. 1771 j
is. March
H. 1805 ;
d. Nov. 1814.

: (4) Sophia
Hull,
A. 1786 ;

</. 18

(3)

6.1783;
«.i8i6.

(ii.)
Leopold Stam-
ford, b. Mai .
23. 1819; 4-
July 4, ,82,.

(iii.)

Stamford Ella Sophia,

Marsden, b. b. May 27,

May25,i82o; 1821 ;d. May

4- Jan. 4, 5, 1840.
1822.

Leonora = (j) Mr Loftif.,:(J) Dr
A. 17853 m. 1816.

rf.1855.

(5)

(6) (7)

-LIZABETH,

Benjamin, M a r y-

= W Mr a

A. 1787,

A. and </. Anne,

TIN Dl

A 1791.

1788. A. 1789;
</. 1837.

Thompso
«. 180

Oct. 12, 1823,

d. Nov. 28,

= (A) Wil-
liam Flint.
Capt. R.N.,

1.) (ii.) (iii-) Pv0 (»■)

Ouint.n Charlotte Stamford William Mary

Acheson. Raffles Raffles Charles Sophia

LW. Charles. Raffl , ASK*

d. 1884. d. 1S48.

APPENDIX II

INSTRUCTIONS BY SIR STAMFORD RAFFLES
WITH REGARD TO THE PLANNING OUT
OF SINGAPORE

Considering the present importance of Singapore, the
following extracts from the instructions given by Raffles
to a committee appointed on November 4, 1822, to deal
with the question of the laying out of the town, are of
great interest. The instructions, which have never been
published, have been kindly furnished by Sir James
Swettenham, K.C.M.G.

* In considering the extent of the ground necessary to be
appropriated for the town generally, reference must be had
not only to the numbers of the present inhabitants and the
probability of their future increase, but to the nature and
occupations of the several classes of which it is composed,
and the demands they may respectively have to preference
in regard to advantageous sites for trades, etc., and it will
be a primary object to secure to the mercantile community
all the facilities which the natural advantages of the port
afford. At present a considerable portion of the sea and
river face, which may hereafter become important for
mercantile purposes, is occupied by the lower classes of
Chinese, and, as might be expected, many of the early
settlers have occupied positions and extent of ground which
are now urgently demanded by a higher and more respect-
able class. A line must be drawn between the classes
279

28o APPENDIX II

engaged in mercantile speculations and those gaining their
livelihood by handicraft and personal labour, the former,
and particularly the principal merchants, will require the
first attention, and there does not appear any reason why
the latter should in any instance be allowed to occupy these
situations which are likely at any time to be required by
the commercial community. The cultivators form a third
and interesting class, particularly of the Chinese population,
but as no part of the ground intended to be occupied as
the town can be spared for agricultural purposes, they will
not fall under your consideration, except in as far as it may
be necessary to exclude them.

' The town may already be considered to occupy an
extent of the sea face from Telloh Ayer to the large inlet
formed by Sandy Point of nearly three miles, and it may
be presumed that if a space is reserved from thence inland
in every direction of from half a mile to a mile, as the
ground may admit, it will be sufficient for all the purposes
required in a principal town ; a second town is gradually
rising near the Salat or Malay Straits, and as soon as
the road of communication is opened it may be expected
that a very considerable population will collect in that
quarter. . . . Along this line of sea face it will be ex-
pedient to preserve for the public all the space between
the road which runs parallel to the beach and the sea, and
generally it is deemed advisable, in the neighbourhood of
the settlement, to reserve an open space along the beach,
excepting where it may be required by individuals for
special purposes. With this view the Chinese artificers
who have settled on the beach near Telloh Ayer and Cam-
pong Glam will be required to remove from thence
without delay. In the distribution of the ground
intended to form the site of the town, you will most
particularly observe that the whole of the space included

APPENDIX II 281

between the Singapore river and the old lines inland from
the sea face to the back of the hill, including a space
of 200 yards east of the old lines, is reserved for the
immediate purposes of Government.' Commanding posts
which might be useful for defence, as well as space for a
marine yard, were also reserved. ' With these exceptions
the whole of the space above pointed out may be allotted to
individuals. . . . With the view of affording every possible
accommodation to the trade of the port, it is proposed that
in addition to the sea face to the eastward of the Canton-
ments, the whole of the south-west bank of the Singapore
river, with the circular road round the hill between the
Point and Telloh Ayer, shall be appropriated for the use of
European and other merchants. . . . The necessity of
draining the ground on the south-west side of the river is
no less indispensable for the health of the settlement than
for securing the foundations of whatever permanent
buildings may be erected thereon, and it is intended to pro-
ceed on the operation with the least delay practicable. . . .
To the eastward of the Cantonment, as far generally as
the Sultan's, and inland to the bank of the Rochar River
and the foot of the hills, including the whole of the great
Rochar plain, is to be considered as set apart exclusively
for European and other principal settlers.

' From the number of Chinese already settled, and the
peculiar attraction of the place for that industrious race,
it may be presumed that they will always form by far the
largest portion of the community. The whole, therefore,
of that part of the town to the south-west of the Singapore
river (not excepted as above) is intended to be appropriated
for their accommodation. They will be permitted to
occupy the south-west bank of the river, above the in-
tended bridge, on certain conditions ; and the high road
leading from the bridge to the present Chinese Campong,

282 APPENDIX II

as well as the banks of the small inlet to the southward
of it, will offer many advantageous situations as yet
unoccupied.

'. . . In establishing the Chinese Campong on a proper
footing, it will be necessary to advert to the provincial and
other distinctions among this peculiar people. ... It
will also be necessary to distinguish between the fixed
residents and itinerants, between the resident merchants
and the traders who only resort to the port for a time. . . .
The object of Government being to afford the utmost
accommodation to every description of traders, but more
particularly to the respectable classes, you will always
keep this in view. . . . Few places offer greater natural
facilities for commerce than Singapore, and it is only
desired that the advantage of these facilities be afforded to
all who are competent to avail themselves of them.' . . .

'It being intended to place the Chinese population in
a great measure under the immediate control of their own
chiefs,' central and commanding sites were to be provided
for their residences. The streets were to run at right
angles to each other, and to be at least forty feet wide.
They were to be arranged in three classes, each with its
allotted number of houses. A small ground was to be
placed on each site. Police stations were to be set apart
in each street or division.

* The concentration of the different descriptions of
artificers, such as blacksmiths, carpenters, etc., in par-
ticular quarters should also be attended to.'

Verandahs were to be attached to the houses 'of a cer-
tain depth, open at all times as a continued and covered
passage on each side of the street.' Alas for the vanity of
human effort ! A marginal note informs us that these
passages are now filled with merchandise.

' Next to the Chinese your attention will be directed to

APPENDIX II 283

the Bugis settlers ... it will be equally necessary to
attend to economy in the distribution of ground by laying
out regular streets inland towards the river, and obliging
the inhabitants to conform thereto. At present the houses
are scattered without any attention to order or conveni-
ence. . . . The Arab population will require every con-
sideration, and their expected numbers should be at not less
than 1000 to 2000. No situation will be more appropri-
ate to them than the vicinity of the Sultan's residence. . . .
It being intended to appropriate the space between Sandy
and Deep Water as a marine yard, permission will be
given to Chinese artificers to settle in the vicinity of the
public works on certain conditions. . . .

'The beach from the extremity of the European town
will still continue open for the repairs and building of
native vessels as at present, and it is proposed that hereafter
a public pier should be thrown out in this quarter in the
most convenient spot for trade. . . .

' The Malay population being principally attached to
the Toomongong, or engaged in fishing, may not require
any very extensive allotments. It is probable the larger
portion of the former will settle near Panglima Prangs and
the upper banks of the river, and that the latter will find
accommodation for themselves in the smaller bays and
inlets beyond the immediate line of beach reserved for the
town. . . .

'As a measure of police it is proposed to remove the
fish market to Telloh Ayer without delay, and it will be
the duty of the committee to consider how far the general
concentration of the fish, pork, poultry and vegetable
markets in the vicinity of each other may not be ad-
vantageous for the general convenience and cleanliness
of the place.

'The importance of early provision for Mahommedan

284 APPENDIX II

and Chinese burial grounds, particularly the latter, at a
suitable distance from town, will necessarily fall under your
consideration.'

The committee were to explain to the leading native
the object of their appointment, 'and the desire of
Government in associating them with you that the
interests of all shall be duly considered in the arrange-
ments adopted.'

INDEX

Abduxla, Malay Secretary, de-
scribes Mrs Raffles, 9 5 de-
scribes Raffles, 38 - 40 ;
anecdote by, 44, 45 5 descrip-
tion of foundation of Singa-
pore Institute by, 224-227 ;
description of departure from
Singapore by, 234, 236 ; on
burning of Fame, 248.

Acheen, mission to, 197, 198.

Addenbrooke, Colonel, letter to on
Singapore, 196, 197.

Anderson, Dr, headmaster of school
attended by Raffles, 3.

Assey, Mr, Secretary to Council
in Java, proceeds to Bengal,
no.

Auchmuty, Sir Samuel, commands
expedition to Java, 52 ; his
report on military operations,
53-57-

Banca, becomes British,
ceded to Dutch, 166.

Bannerman, Colonel, Governor of
Prince of Wales's Island, 175,
176 ; on acquisition of Singa-
pore, 184-189.

Bathurst, Earl, disavows Raffles,
165.

Bingley, Mr (godfather to Raffles),
2.

Boulger, Mr, author of Life of Sir

Stamford Raffles, 4, 8, 135,

139.
Broughton, Commodore, 51.
Buckinghamshire, Earl of, letter

to, 118, 125, 126.

Cransen, Dutch Member of

Council, 73.
Crawford, Captain, reports on

Singapore, 176.
Crawfurd, Mr, Resident at Djoc-

jocarta, 67, 68 ; appointed

Resident at Singapore, 216.

Daendels, General, recognises

military importance of Java,

34 ; becomes Governor, 34 ;

legacy left by, 62 ; on system

of land tenure, 84.
Deventer, Dutch historian, quoted,

76, 79, 80, 84,90, 195.
Dundas, Mr P., Governor of

Prince of Wales's Island, 5 ;

death of, 28.
Dutch East India Company,

position of, 60-62.

East India Company, final de-
cision of as to Gillespie's
charges, 115-117; dismiss

285

286

INDEX

Raffles from government of
Java, 112, 124; disapprove
Raffles's measures at Ben-
coolen, 155 ; forbid establish-
ment at Simanka Bay, 159;
attitude of with respect to
acquisition of Singapore, 192,
193 ; claims over £22,000
from Raffles, 256-261 ; final
judgment of on Raffles, 269.

Edmonstone, Mr, member of
Governor-General's Council,
minute of on Gillespie's
charges, 113.

Elliot, Captain G., son of Lord
Minto, 515 on reconcilia-
tion between Gillespie and
Governor, 106.

Engelhard, former Governor of
Java, purchases public lands
jointly with Raffles, 104.

Farquhar, Major, appointed Resi-
dent at Singapore, 180 ;
postpones departure, 216 ;
superseded by Raffles, 217 ;
unsatisfactory conduct of,
217, 218.

Fendall, Mr, appointed Lieutenant-
Governor of Java, 129-130.

Gillespie, Colonel, attacks
Dutch, 54-57 ; commands
Palembang expedition, 74 ;
attacks Djocjocarta, 78, 79 ;
relations of with Raffles, 100,
101 ; on sale of public lands,
103 ; brings charges against
Raffles, 105, 106; death of,
in.

Grant, Mr C. (Director of East
India Company), on acquisi-
tion of Singapore, 194.

Greigh, Captain, mentioned by

Leyden, 48 ; establishes feasi-
bility of S. W. passage to
Java, 50.

Hastings, Marquis of (see Moira,
Lord), minute of with regard
to Dutch, 169 5 on acquisition
of Singapore, 183, 184, 189,
190 ; on mission to Acheen,
198.

Hope, Mr, Civil Commissioner for
the Eastern districts, 67.

Horsfield, Dr, evidence of as to
abolition of feudal services,
91 ; on Governor's Eastern
tour in Java, 128 ; on Raffles's
scientific attainments, 205 ;
testimony of as to Raffles,
270.

Inglis, Sir R., letter to, 94, 95.

Janssens, General, Governor of
Java, 55, 57, 5S ; on Daendel's
government, 62.

Jumelle, General, 58.

Lansdowne, Marquis of, defends
Raffles, 165.

Leyden, John, description of by
Lockhart, 18, 19 ; visits Pen-
ang, 18 ; influence of with
Lord Minto, 20 ; letter of
with regard to Malacca Re-
port, 25 ; letter of with
regard to Java expedition, 47,
48 5 death of, 58.

Light, Captain, acquires Penang, 6.

Lindeman, Rev. J. (uncle of
Raffles), 2.

INDEX

287

Macalister, Mr, Governor of
Prince of Wales's Island, 28 ;
approval of Raffles, 28, 29.

Mackenzie, Colonel, President of
Commission as to Javanese
land system, 86.

Marsden, Mr, appreciation of
Raffles, 1 1 ; letter to on
Bencoolen, 146, 147 5 letter
to on Singapore, 195.

Mataram, Sultan of, 66, 67, 75,
76.

Minto, Earl of, Governor-General
of India, Letters from India
of, 9 ; befriends Leyden, 20 5
praises Raffles, 25 ; position
with regard to Java, 34 ;
conversation with Raffles, 36 5
despatch by, 37 ; appoints
Raffles his agent with the
Malay States, 37 ; determines
to accompany Java expedi-
tion, 47 5 on the views of the
East India Company with
regard to Java, 48, 49, 59 ;
letter to Raffles, 49 ; arrives
at Penang and Malacca, 50 ;
arrives at Java, 51 5 procla-
mations of on landing in
Java, 52, 53 ; justifies the
retention of Java, 59 ; pro-
clamation of September 11,
181 1, 64, 65 5 approves
measures with regard to
Palembang, Emperor and
Sultan, 80, 81 ; recommends
reform in land tenure, 84,
85 ; on sale of public land,
98-100 ; death of, 124.

Moira, Lord {see Hastings, Marquis
of), Governor-General, is pre-
judiced against Raffles, 106 ;
letter of May 18 14 on
Gillespie's charges, 1 11, 112 ;
minute of with regard to
Gillespie's charges, 114, 115.

Moluccas, capture of, 34.

Muntinghe, Mr, Dutch member

of Council, on Raffles's policy,
66, 67 ; doubts as to new
land measures, 02 ; bears
witness to Raffles's services,
96 ; purchases public lands,
104 5 Dutch Commissioner
at Palembang, 167.

Nightingall, General, appointed
to command in Java, 102 ;
supports Raffles, no.

Oliphant, Mr J., first member of
Council at Prince of Wales's
Island, 6 5 death of, 2S.

Palembang, Sultan of, behaviour
of, 73 ; expedition against,
74, 75 ; new Sultan appeals
to Raffles, 167.

Pearson, Mr, appointed Secretary
at Prince of Wales's Island,
6 5 obtains sick leave, 155
member of council, 28.

Public lands, sale of, 98-105.

Raffles, Benjamin (father of

Raffles), 1.
Raffles, Charlotte (eldest child of

Raffles), 145.
Raffles, Lady (second wife of

Raffles), 140 ; describes home

life at Bencoolen, 199, 200,

201.
Raffles, Leopold (eldest son of

Raffles), 209 ; death of, 210.
Raffles, Mary Ann (sister to

Raffles), accompanies him to

INDEX

the East, 10 ; marries Mr
Quintin Dick, 30 ; second
marriage to Captain Flint,
30 ; letter to, 145.

Raffles, Mrs (mother of Raffles),
2,4, 12 ; death of, 250.

Raffles, Olivia M. (first wife of
Raffles), description of by
Lord Minto, 9 ; poem to by
Leyden, 9 ; description of by
Abdulla, 9 ; death of, 127.

Raffles, Thomas (grandfather of
Raffles), clerk in Doctor's
Commons, 2.

Raffles, Thomas, D.D. (cousin to
Raffles), 3 ; reminiscences of,

i3S-*37, 253-

Raffles, Thomas Stamford, birth
and early education, 1-3 ; ap-
pointed extra clerk in the India
House, 3 ; clerk, 4 ; char-
acter of, 5 ; appointed assist-
ant secretary at Prince of
Wales's Island, 6 ; marriage
of, 7, 8 ; voyage to East, 10 5
studies -the Malay language,
10 ; description of by Captain
Travers, 14, 15 ; describes
his new position, 16, 17 ;
breaks down, 17 5 visits
Malacca, 18; minute on
Malacca, 21-24 ; paper on
the Malay nation, 27 ; returns
to Penang, 28 ; appointment as
secretary, 28 ; question of in-
crease of salary of, 29-32 ;
proposed as Governor of
Moluccas, 35 ; visits Calcutta,
35 ; points out to Lord Minto
importance of Java, 36 ; ap-
pointed agent to the Governor-
General with the Malay States,
37 ; description of by Ab-
dulla, 38-40 ; reports as
Agent with Malay States, 40-
44, 45-47 ; anecdote by
Abdulla, 44 - 45 ; Lord
Minto's prospective interest
in, 49 ; feelings of on first
landing in Java, 51, 52 ; ap-

pointed Lieutenant-Governor
of Java, 58 ; sanguine esti-
mate as to financial situation,
63 ; difficulties of, 64 ; atti-
tude of towards Dutch, 65-

66 5 instructions to residents,

67 ; visits Emperor and
Sultan, 67-69 5 collection of
revenue by, 69 ; commercial
policy of, 70 ; introduces
new administration of justice,
70-72 ; justifies to Lord
Minto measures against Pal-
embang, 74 ; letter to Mr
Ramsay, 78 5 importance of
conquest of Djocjocarta, 79,

80 ; correspondence with
natives, 81 ; revives Batavian
Society of Arts and Sciences,

81 ; reforms system of land
tenure, 83-93 ; describes aims
of new land policy, 87 ; de-
scribes duties of European
collectors, 90, 91 ; on
amounts of rent, 91 ; justi-
fies his action as to land
measures, 94, 95 ; points out
effects of new system of land
tenure, 96 ; testimony of
Dutch as to wisdom of, 96 ;
recognises necessity of sale of
public land, 98 ; letter of
with regard to Gillespie's
charges, 108 ; removed from
government of Java, 1 12, 120,
124, 125 ; appointment of a,s
Resident at Bencoolen con-
firmed, 114; appeals to East
India Company, 115; general
policy of with regard to
Far East, 11 8-1 20; sends
mission to Japan, 121 ;
measures of with regard to
slavery, 121, 122 ; with
regard to opium, 123 ;
attitude of with regard to
retention of Java, 123-126 ;
complains of Lord Moira,
126 ; on 1 8 14 Treaty, 126 ;
travels, 127, 128 ; puts down

INDEX

289

Sepoy conspiracy, 12S 5 ill
health of, 211, 238, 251,
252, 261, 262 ; returns to
England, 131, 134 ; interviews
Napoleon, 132, 133 5 reaches
London, 134 ; enjoys society,
135; becomes F.R.S., 135;
publishes History of Ja<va,

136 ; is knighted by Regent,

137 5 marries second wife,
140 ; visits Continent, 141,
142 ; interview of with King
of the Netherlands, 142, 143 ;
is given title of Lieutenant-
Governor of Bencoolen, 143 ;
private instructions to, 143 ;
leaves England, 144 ; de-
scribes situation at Bencoolen,
1 46- 1 49 ; emancipates govern-
ment slaves, 147 ; abolishes
forced deliveries of pepper,
and cockfighting, and gaming
farms, 149; becomes recon-
ciled to Bencoolen, 150;
views on Sumatra, 151, 209 ;
strengthens the native chiefs,

151 ; encourages agriculture,

152 ; reports general im-
provement, 153 ; advocates
cultivation of sugar, 153;
and European colonisation,
154, 155 ; reports activity of
Dutch, 156, 160, 162;
gratitude of planters to, 156 ;
founds schools and Bible
Society, and encourages mis-
sionaries, 156, 157; treat-
ment of convicts by, 157 ;
advocates acquisition of Sim-
anka Bay, 15S ; makes
treaties with native rulers in
Sumatra, 159 ; policy of with
regard to Dutch, 162, 163 ;
protest of against Dutch
proceedings, 164 ; discovered
by ministers, 164, 165 5 action
with regard to Palembang,
167 5 action with regard to
Pulo Nias, 167, 168 5 re-
ceives invitation from Lord

Hastings, 170 ; visits Cal-
cutta, 171 ; appointed agent
to the Governor - General,
171 ; first instructions to, 172 ;
foresees Dutch occupation of
Rhio, 172 ; second instruc-
tions to, 173, 174 ; arrives
at Penang, 174 ; reception of
by Colonel Bannerman, 175,

176 5 contemplates acquisition
of Singapore, 176, 177 ; de-
scribes Island of Singapore,

177 ; embarks, 177 ; surveys
Carimon Islands, 178 ; ar-
rives at Singapore, 178 5
treaty with Sultan, 179 5 ex-
plains and justifies acquisi-
tion of Singapore, 181 5
private letters of, on acquisi-
tion of Singapore, 195-197 ;
arrives at Acheen, 197 ; signs
treaty, 198 5 travels to the
interior of Sumatra, 203-209 ;
domestic troubles of, 210,
238 ; kindness to brother-
in-law, Captain Flint, 212,
213 ; money claims of, 213,
214, 247 ; revisits Singapore,
215 ; supersedes Colonel
Farquhar, 217 ; complains of
Farquhar's conduct, 217, 218 ;
local laws and regulations of,
and report on tije administra-
tions of justice, 219, 223 ; as-
sociates Sultan and Tumung'-
gung in the Government, 224 ;
declares Singapore a free port,
224 5 founds Singapore Insti-
tute, 224-227 ; minute by
on establishment of Malay
College, 227 - 233 ; leaves
Singapore, 233 ; describes im-
pressions of, 233 ; abolishes
slavery, 234 ; returns to
Bencoolen, 237 ; starts home,
238 ; description by of burn-
ing of Fame, 23S-245 ; state-
ment to East India Company,
245-247 ; final departure of,
248 ; diary of, 248, 249 5 re-

290

INDEX

views his public administra-
tion, 251 ; purchases High-
wood, 252 ; relations with
Wilberforce, 253 ; founds
Zoological Society, 255 ;
scientific services of, 255 ; re-
ceives money claim from East
India Company, 256-261;
death of, 262 ; public char-
acter of, 263-268 5 private
character of, 268-272.

Ramsay, Mr W., Secretary to East
India Company, befriends
Raffles, 7 ; resignation of,
124.

Ramsay, Mr W., Junior, corre-
spondence with Raffles, 5,

^5^7, 32> 51* 52> Io8-
Rhio, 172-175, 179.

Sambas, expedition against, 120.
Seton, Mr, accompanies Lord

Minto to Malacca, 48 ;

minute of on Gillespie's

charges, 113, 114.
Singapore (see under Raffles, Sir

S. T.), attitude of Dutch with

regard to, 181 - 183, 195 ;

advantage of natural situa-
tion, 194.

Somerset, Duchess of, correspond-
ence with, 139, 140, 144,
196, 200, 201, 211,212, 250,
251, 252, 270.

Sosohunan or Emperor, 66, 75,
76.

Stamford, Mr (godfather to
Raffles), 2.

Travers, Captain, friend and aide-
de-camp to Raffles, extracts
from Journal, 10, 14, 27, 73,
76, 77, 85, 109, no, 132-
134.

Tumung'gung of Singapore makes
treaty with Raffles, 179 ;
intrigue with Dutch, 182 ;
supports Singapore Institute,
227.

Vigers, Mr, Secretary to Zoo-
logical Club of Linnean
Society, appreciation of
Raffles, 270, 271.

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Full text of "Sir Stamford Raffles; England in the Far East"

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