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Full text of "A standard Bible dictionary, designed as a comprehensive guide to the Scriptures, embracing their languages, literature, history, biography, manners and customs, and their theology;"




prcsentcfc to 

She Xibrai^ 

of tbe 

of Toronto 



The Department of Oriental 

Languages 
for use in the 
Oriental Seminar. 






A STANDARD 
BIBLE DICTIONARY 



STANDARD 

BIBLE DICTIONARY 



DESIGNED AS A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE TO THE SCRIPTURES, 

EMBRACING THEIR LANGUAGES, LITERATURE, 

HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, MANNERS AND 

CUSTOMS, AND THEIR THEOLOGY 



EDITED 

MELANCTHON W.^JACOBUS, D.D. 

(CHAIRMAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD) 

DEAN, AND HOSMER PROFESSOR OF NEW TESTAMENT EXEGESIS AND CRITICISM, IN HARTFORD 

THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY 

EDWARD E/NOURSE, D.D. 

PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY, AND INSTRUCTOR IN NEW TESTAMENT CANONICITY AND 
TEXTUAL CRITICISM, IN HARTFORD THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY 

AND AV r^ 

ANDREW Cs^ENOS, D.D. 

PROFESSOR OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY, IN McCORMICK THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, CHICAGO 



IN ASSOCIATION WITH AMERICAN, BRITISH 
AND GERMAN SCHOLARS 



Embellished With New and Original Illustrations and Maps 







FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY 

NEW YORK AND LONDON 
1909 



1 
+ * 
t 



COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY 
FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY 

Att rights of translation reserved 



Registered at Stationers' Hall, London, England 

[Printed in the United States of America] 

Published January, 1909 




KEY TO INITIALS OF CONTRIBUTORS 



A. C. Z Andrew C. Zenos, M.A., D.D., 

Professor of Ecclesiastical History in 
McCormick Theological Seminary, 
Chicago. 

A. S. C Augustus Stiles Carrier, D.D., 

Professor of Hebrew and Cognate 
Languages, McCormick Theological 
Seminary, Chicago. 

A. T Albert Thumb, Ph.D., 

Professor in the Philosophical Facul- 
ty, University of Marburg. 

C. S. T Charles Snow Thayer, Ph.D., 

Librarian of Hartford Theological 
Seminary. 

D. B. M. . . .Duncan B. Macdonald, M.A., B.D., 

Professor of Semitic Languages, Hart- 
ford Theological Seminary. 

E. E. N Edward E. Nourse, S.T.B., D.D., 

Professor of Biblical Theology in 
Hartford Theological Seminary. 

E. K Eduard Konig, Ph.D., LL.D., 

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis 
in the Protestant Theological Faculty, 
University of Bonn. 

E. K. M. . . Edwin Knox Mitchell, D.D., 

Professor of Grseco-Roman and East- 
em Church History, Hartford Theo- 
logical Seminary. 

E. von D. . .Ernst von Dobschutz, D.D., 

Professor of Theology, University of 
Strasburg. 

G. B. G George B. Gray, M.A., Hon. D.D., 

Professor of Hebrew and Old Testa- 
ment Exegesis, Mansfield College, Ox- 
ford. 

G. E. P George E. Post, M.D., F.L.S., 

Professor in the Syrian Protestant 
College, Beinlt. 

G. L. R George L. Robinson, Ph.D., D.D., 

Professor of Old Testament Literature 
and Exegesis, McCormick Theological 
Seminary, Chicago. 



G. M George Milligan, D.D., 

Minister of the Established Church of 
Scotland. 

H. G Hermann Guthe, D.D., 

Professor of Theology, University of 
Leipsic. 

I. M. P Ira Maurice Price, Ph.D., LL.D., 

Professor of Semitic Languages and 
Literature, University of Chicago. 

J. A. K James A. Kelso, Ph.D., D.D., 

Professor of Hebrew and Old Testa- 
ment Literature, Western Theological 
Seminary, Allegheny, Pa. 

J. D James Denney, D.D., 

Professor of New Testament Lan- 
guage, Literature, and Theology, 
United Free Church College, Glasgow. 

J. F. McC.. James F. McCurdy, Ph.D., LL.D., 

Professor of Oriental Literature, Uni- 
versity College, Toronto, Canada. 

J. H. R James Hardy Ropes, A.B., D.D., 

Bussey Professor of New Testament 
Criticism and Interpretation, and 
Dexter Lecturer on Biblical Litera- 
ture, Harvard University. 

J. M. T John Moore Trout, Ph.D., 

Dobbs Ferry, N. Y. 

J. R. S. S.. . John R. S. Sterrett, Ph.D., LL.D., 

Professor of Greek, Cornell Univer- 
sity, Ithaca, N. Y. 

J. S. R James Stevenson Riggs, D.D., 

Taylor, Seymour, and Ivison Pro- 
fessor of Biblical Criticism, Auburn 
Theological Seminary. 

J. V. B J. Vernon Bartlet, M.A., D.D., 

Professor of Church History, Mans- 
field College, Oxford. 

K. L Kirsopp Lake, M.A., 

Professor of Early Christian Litera- 
ture and New Testament Exegesis, 
University of Leyden. 



KEY TO INITIALS OF CONTRIBUTORS 



L. B. P Lewis Bayles Paton, Ph.D., D.D., 

NYt ili-inn I'rnfi-s-a.r of Old Testament 
Exegesis and Criticism. Instructor in 
Assyrian :tml Cognate Languages, 
Hurt ford Theological Seminary. 

L. G. L Lewis Gaston Leary, Ph.D., 

l':i-tor of Huguenot Memorial Church, 
1'clham Manor, New York. 

M. D Marcus Dods, D.D., 

Professor of New Testament Theol- 
ogy, United Free Church College, 
Edinburgh. 

M. W. J Melancthon W. Jacobus, D.D., 

Dean, and Professor of New Testa- 
ment Literature and Criticism, Hart- 
ford Theological Seminary. 

R. A. F Robert A. Falconer, D.D., 

Principal of Toronto University, To- 
ronto, Canada. 

S. D Samuel Dickey, M.A., 

Professor of New Testament Litera- 
ture and Exegesis, McCormick Theo- 
logical Seminary, Chicago. 



S. M Shailer Mathews, D.D., 

Professor of Systematic Theology, 
and Dean of the Divinity School, 
University of Chicago. 

S. R. D Samuel R. Driver, D.D., Hon. D.Lit., 

Regius Professor of Hebrew, and Can- 
on of Christ Church, Oxford. 

W. D. M. . .Wm. D. Mackenzie, D.D., LL.D., 

President and Riley Professor of 
Christian Theology, Hartford Theo- 
logical Seminary. 

W. N Wilhelm Howack, Ph.D., 

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis 
in the Theological Faculty, University 
of Strasburg. 

W. S Wm. Sanday, D.D., LL.D., D.Sc., 

Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity, 
and Canon of Christ Church, Oxford. 

W. S. P Waldo S. Pratt, Mus.D., 

Professor of Ecclesiastical Music and 
Hymnology, Hartford Theological 
Seminary. 



PREFACE 



I. THE ORIGIN OF THE DICTIONARY. 

THIS Dictionary owes its origin to two facts, not altogether unrelated: In the first 
place, the existence of a general need, frequently expressed in many quarters, as not 
beincr supplied by the two comparatively recent Biblical dictionaries of Hastings and 
Cheyne These dictionaries have been found to be too discursive to answer the purpose 
of handy and ready-reference books. In addition to this fundamental objection, their 
high price has made it impossible for many to purchase them who are desirous of having 
in their possession an accurate, modern Bible Dictionary. 

The second fact was the appearance in Germany of the one-volume Bibelworterbuch, 
edited by Professor Hermann Guthe. This work attracted the attention of the Funk 
& Wagnalls Company, who planned at first to have it translated and thus put before the 
English reading public. It was found, however, on investigation that Guthe's work would 
involve so much editorial revision in order to adapt it to an American or a British public 
that the idea of translating it was abandoned, and it was determined to construct an ab- 
solutely new Dictionary, altogether independent of any existing one, which it was hoped 
would meet the demands of the situation. Of this effort the present work is the result. 

II. THE PROBLEM OP THE DICTIONARY. 

The construction of a modern single-volume English Bible Dictionary, accurate and 
abreast of modern scholarship, presents a complicated problem. For the production of 
such a book there must be an understanding of the material with which it has to deal; 
there must be an appreciation of the constituency to which it is to minister; and there must 
be an intelligent consciousness of the critical position to which its purpose commits it. 

(1) The material with which an English Bible Dictionary has to deal is the contents 
of the English Bible. The English Bible, however, is simply a version, and behind its 
English terminology are the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek originals. As a consequence, 
the Dictionary, while it reproduces the words and phrases of the English Bible in its titles, 
must treat them primarily with reference to the Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek terms which 
underlie them. In other words, its task must be the explication of a terminology drawn 
in the first place from the English Bible, but not from the point of view of English philology 
or etymology, but from the point of view of the underlying terminology of the originals. 

(2) The constituency had in view in such a Dictionary is determined largely by the 
facts which have called the book into existence. It is a constituency which is much wider 
than the class of distinctive scholars, continually engaged in Bible study, familiar wit' 
Hebrew and Greek, and having a first-hand acquaintance with the field of modern E 
research. It is made up of the educated ministry, who, while possessed of technici 
scholarship, have not always the leisure to enter into a discursive presentation of crit: 
research; besides this, it includes the Sunday-school teachers and workers, who in most 
cases have not had the benefit of a technical education in Bible study and yet 

and appreciate all that Biblical scholarship can give them of its results; and, finally, u 
includes the intelligent laymen interested in Bible study, but not acquainted with Hebrew, 



PREFACE 



or in many cases with Greek. For this widely extended circle of interested Bible students 
the Dictionary, to be of service, must avoid being too scholastic in its general character. 
It should be accurate in its presentation of facts, but not so technical as not to be easily 
understood; it should be up to the day in its information, but not so discursive as to burden 
its pages with the pedantry of undigested facts. What it gives should be given in such a 
way as not to repel the busy man and woman of to-day, but to help them in their under- 
standing of the Bible, which they wish' to read intelligently and to study with a view to 
the best results for themselves and others. 

(3) The critical position to which such a Dictionary is necessarily committed must 
be one of acceptance of the proved facts of modern scholarship, of open-mindedness toward 
its still-debated problems, and of conservation of the fundamental truths of the Christianity 
proclaimed and established in the message and mission of Jesus Christ. The constituency 
to which the Dictionary appeals is not to be helped by an apologetic method that ignores 
what a reverent critical scholarship has brought to light regarding the Book of the Christian 
religion; nor is it to be served by a radical spirit so enamored of novelty and opposed to 
tradition that it would seek to establish a new religion on the ruins of the historical facts of 
Christianity. It can be ministered to only by a clear, charitable, uncontroversial presenta- 
tion of the results which a century and a half of earnest, conscientious, painstaking, self- 
denying study of the Bible has secured, to the end that all students and readers of the Book 
may be led into* its more intelligent understanding and its more spiritual use. 

III. THE PRINCIPLES GUIDING THE EDITORS. 

Such being the character of the problem, the principles guiding the editors in the 
constructing of the Dictionary have been the following: 

(1) The text of the American Standard Edition of the Revised Bible (copyright, 
1901, by Messrs. Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York) has been made the standard English 
text 'of the Biblical citations and references. At the same time, it is evident that, the 
Dictionary being intended for English readers in general, this text could not be adhered 
to exclusive of any reference to that of the English Revision of 1881 (copyright by the Ox- 
ford University Press, Oxford, England) which occupies in British- countries relatively the 
same position as that held by the American Revision in this country; much less could there 
be an ignoring of the Authorized Version of 1611, which in all English-speaking countries 
still maintains, and is certain to continue to maintain for some time to come, a position of 
great respect and considerable use. In fact, in so far as the Dictionary concerns the Eng- 
lish Bible as a version of its original languages, it must, while adopting a standard English 
text, have constant reference to such varieties of interpretation as the English versions 
actually in use present. 

(2) The Concordance to the English Bible has been made the basis of the list of titles. 
At this point the editors were confronted with a peculiar difficulty; for there is as yet no 
complete concordance of the American Revised text. The nearest approach to any such 
work that was at their disposal is the elaborate Concordance of James Strong, S.T.D., 
LL.D., which indicates the passages in the Authorized Version where changes were made 
in the Revision of 1881, and which shows these changes in a comparative table, but contains 
no concordance of them. While every effort has been made to supply this fundamental 
lack, it is more than likely that some terms in the American Revision have been inad- 
vertently omitted. Apart from this, however, it is obvious that this basal relation of the 
concordance to the list of titles does not mean that all the words in the concordance have 
been given a place in the list of titles. The purpose of the Dictionary is not to record 
the contents of the Bible, but to give information and instruction regarding such parts 



PREFACE U 



of the Bible contents as may be of service to Bible readers and students. Furthermore, 
it is clear that not all the contents of the Bible which call for such treatment belong legitimately 
to a Bible Dictionary; for, again, the purpose of such a Dictionary is not to do the work 
of an English lexicon or grammar. There are not a few obsolete English words and phrases 
especially in the Authorized Version which are subjects of interesting study in our own 
language, but are without significance in the underlying original languages of the Bible. 
These can safely be omitted, and both the space and the dignity of the Dictionary be 
conserved. Still further, there are words and phrases which so obviously belong to the 
field of ordinary Bible comment, having little or no significance in the study of the Bible, 
that there would be no real service rendered the student or the reader in considering them. 
The Dictionary is not intended to do the work of the general English commentary any more 
than of the general English lexicon. With these exceptions, however, the effort has been 
made to include in the list of titles every term in the American Revision. 

(a) This being the working list, it will be found as a matter of fact that its larger part 
consists of names of persons and places. These resolve themselves into two classes, the 
more important and the less important. As to the latter class, it has been impossible in 
many cases to do more than record the Bible statements, there being nothing known 
beyond them. But even in doing this the endeavor has been to place these statements in 
the critical connections to which they belong, the purpose of the Dictionary being not 
simply to gather Bible references, but to present results of scholarship wherever they 
have been secured. As to the former class, the endeavor has been to treat them not only 
in regard to the facts of the Bible record, but also and more especially in regard to the 
relation which they sustain to the progress of the history and the development of the 
religion contained within and connected with the Bible. This, the editors believe, will 
be conspicuously evident in the most important articles in this class such as those on 
Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt, Asia Minor, and Palestine on the one hand, and those on 
Moses, David, Elijah, Jeremiah, John the Baptist, James, Peter, John, and Paul on the 
other. It will be found at its best in what has been written of the One Supreme Person- 
ality in all religion. 

(6) Closely connected with these person and place articles and necessitated by the 
historical method employed in their treatment will be found a class of articles presenting 
in larger compass the general subjects of the History of Israel, Semitic Religion, Greek 
and Roman Religions, Ethnography and Ethnology, with a specific discussion of the 
politico-religious parties of the New Testament times, and the Religious Thought and Life 
and Institutions of the Jewish People. 

(c) Conversely, in the direction of the details of the people's civic and domestic life, 
the reader of the Dictionary will find articles on such subjects as Crimes and Punishments, 
Law and Legal Practise, Family and Family Law, Marriage and Divorce, Money, Trade 
and Commerce, Agriculture, Artisan Life, Disease and Medicine, Dress and Ornaments, 
Burial and Mourning Customs. 

(d) It is impossible, however, in any study of the Bible to dissociate the history 
and life of the people from the literature in which the history has been recorded and the 
life has found expression. Necessarily, therefore, the plan of the Dictionary has included 
a discussion of the origin, composition, and characteristics of the Bible writings, together 
with those of the Apocrypha and of the more important writings in the apocalyptic litera- 
ture. In the treatment of these writings the editors have been influenced by a considera- 
tion of the readers for whom the Dictionary is intended, and have sought, consequently, 
not so much to enter into the details of the critical problems involved as rather, along 
with a plain statement of the critical facts which scholarly investigation has brought to 



PREFACE 



light, to unfold the significance of the writings in their connection with the history which 
they record and the teachings which they present. This will account for the space de- 
voted to the analysis of the contents of the respective books and for the treatment in 
many of them of their theological position. With a treatment of the Biblical books nat- 
urally is connected a treatment of the languages in which they were written, of the text 
in which they have been preserved, and of their collection into the canons of the Old and 
New Testaments. 

(e) From such a treatment of the Biblical literature it follows that there must be 
some specific presentation of the theological teachings of the Bible, as a whole. The plan 
of the Dictionary confessedly did not permit it to enter the field of systematic theology; 
but equally, it did not admit of its ignoring the Biblical basis on which this science is 
founded the point in fact at which the Bible is perhaps most profoundly searched and 
studied. The editors consequently determined upon including among the articles the 
fundamental doctrines on which the Scriptures themselves give utterance, such as Faith, 
Repentance, Atonement, Sin, Forgiveness, Grace, together with such presupposed doc- 
trinal facts as God, such doctrinal inferences as Predestination, and such general fields of 
doctrinal thought as Eschatology. 

In all these varied directions it has been the endeavor of the editors to maintain the 
purpose of the Dictionary to present to the readers and students of the Bible the results of 
a reverent scholarship, committed to the accepted facts of criticism, open-minded to its un- 
settled problems, and thoroughly loyal to the basal truths of an evangelical Christianity. 

It is difficult to measure the help to the editorial work which has come from the sym- 
pathetic interest of the contributors to the undertaking. The editors desire that their 
appreciation of the assistance which has thus been rendered them shall not be underesti- 
mated. In addition, they would acknowledge the courtesy of the authorities of the BRITISH 
MUSEUM in permitting the use of illustrations taken from their magnificent collection of 
antiquities as well as the generous use which the PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND and the 
EGYPTIAN EXPLORATION FUND have permitted of the cuts which their records contain of 
the valuable finds made at Gezer and elsewhere. 

Thanks are due also to Professor JOHN R.'S. STERRETT, of Cornell University, for the 
map of the Pauline world; to Professor SAMUEL DICKEY, of McCormick Seminary, for the 
excellent photographs of Oriental scenes and places gathered by him while in Palestine and 
the East; to Dr. LEWIS GASTON LEARY, of Pelham Manor, N. Y., for photographs tak^n 
by himself of the tombs of the Cave of Machpelah; to Professor LEWIS BAYLES PATON, of 
Hartford Seminary for his map of Jerusalem, and to him in conjunction with Professor 
ELIHU GRANT, of Smith College, for the admirable photographs of objects included in the 
complete collection of articles of dress and utensils of domestic and agricultural life gathered 
by him and his devoted wife during their year in Jerusalem and Palestine. 

The editors would not forget the constant kindness of Professor CHARLES SNOW 
THAYER, the librarian of the Case Memorial Library of Hartford Seminary, and of his as- 
sistants, Mr. ANANIKIAN and Doctor CHAPMAN, in the bibliographical details of the Dic- 
tionary; and also the painstaking care of Mr. EDWARD F. DONOVAN, of the publishers' 
editorial staff, in correcting the proofs for the press, particularly in the care of the Hebrew 
text and its transliteration. To Miss ETHEL L. DICKINSON special thanks are due for her 
efficient service in preparing the manuscript for the printers. 

M. W. JACOBUS. 
E. E. NOURSE. 

A. C. ZENOS. 
HARTFORD, January, 1909 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



N. B. In the following list subjects likely to be sought for under various headings are repeated under 
each heading. Cross-references in this list are to other items in the list, not to articles in the 
Dictionary. 

v PA"E 

'Agalah, Threshing with an 17 

Agricultural Implements facing 16 

Alexander the Great, Tetradrachmse (Silver Coins) of 556 

Alexandria, Map of 23 

Alphabets, Specimens of Early Hebrew and Aramaic 27 

Altar of Burnt Offerings 29 

Altars, Primitive (Dolmens), in Eastern Palestine 29 

Amon, Temple of, at Thebes, Ground-Plan of the 850 

Amulets Collected in Cyprus 191 

Ancient Lamps (Simplest and Improved Forms) 474 

Palestinian Lamps 475 

- Seals on Pottery (Jar Handles) 777-778 

Semitic World, Map of the facing 780 

Anklet and Toe Rings, Foot with 192 

Anointing of a Sacred Stone Pillar 37 

Aramaic Alphabet Specimens of 

Archers in Battle 

Articles Used in Travel facing 760 

Ashkelon, Capture by Rameses II of the Castle of 59 

Ass, Pack-Saddle for: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760 

Asshur, Military Standard with the Image of the God 84 

Asshurnasirpal's Palace, Archers in Battle seen from 895 

Assyrian, Head of an 68 

Slave-Labor Transporting Colossal Bull 818 

Astarte, Clay Figure of 783 

, Coin from Byblus Showing Symbol of "83 

with a Dove, Clay Figure of "83 

Baal Hamman of Carthage 784 

Babel, Tower of 

Babylon, Plan of the Ruins of 

Babylonia, Procession of the Gods in 790 

Babylonian Map of the World, Early 

Representation of the Cosmos, Primitive 

Bagpipe: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing y 

Baker's Oven Showing the Dough Against the Oven Wall 2 

Showing the Loaves on Hot Ashes 263 

Showing the Loaves on Red-Hot Stones 2 

Bar Kochba, Coin of Simon ; 

Base with Laver 

Basket for Carrying Earth: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II 

for Fruit or Vegetables: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II /<<"</ - 

- with Handle: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II 

- Large, with Handle: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II ! acil >3 2 06 



xli LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Basket, Small, for Flour: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I faci 264 

Bellows see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II.. 

Bells, Woman's Girdle with [\ 

Bethel, Stone Circle (Supposed) at ' \'_ . ' . 

Bin, Grain: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I 

Bird-Hunting with Boomerangs in a Swamp. . . 

Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser, The. . ' 'o 70 , 

Boot, Modern .......'.'.'.'.'.".'.'' IOQ 

Booth in a Vineyard 

Bowl, Dough: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I 'lacing '>64 

Breastplate of the High Priest, Diagram Showing Arrangement of Stones. .... . . . 830 

Bridle: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL "foci ' ' 760 

Brook Cherith, An Eastern Jordan Wady facing 620 

Broom: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II 

Bull, Assyrian Slave-Labor Transporting a Colossal .... 

Burnt Offerings, Altar of 9 o 

Byblus, Coin from, with a Temple and Symbol of Astarte 

Caesarea, Plan of 

Camel's Pack-Saddle: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL 'facing 760 

Saddle Bag: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL 

Capture of the Castle of Ashkelon by Rameses II 

Cart, Ox, as seen in Palestine To-day ' ,< 

Carthage, Baal Hamman of ' _. 

Castle of Ashkelon, Capture by Rameses II of the 

Cedars of Lebanon, One of the Few Remaining Groves of the. . . ' facina 118 

Central Palestine, Map (III) of "'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '. lacing 622 

Ceremony, Sacrificial 

Chariot, Hittite War- '.'. '.'. ... ' ' '.',[ _.[ .......... ... ' " 

Cherith, Brook ' V ac j- " 690 

Chest for Clothes: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II. . 

Clay Figure of Astarte \..\.\\\\\\\ '. * . 783 

with a Dove ' _' 

Coffee-Mill: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II ' y ac j-" 266 

Coin from Byblus, with the Temple and Symbol (Cone) of Astarte 

of Eleazar ' .._ 

of Herod I, Copper 

of John Hyrcanus 

of Simon Bar Kochba ' ,-_ 

Coins of Darius Hystaspes, Gold 

Colossal Bull, Transported by Assyrian Slave-Labor 81 S 

Conduit from the Virgin's Fountain to the Pool of Siloam, Course of Underground. . 397 

Copper Coin of Herod I - 

Denarius of Emperor Tiberias, Roman 

- Kettle: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 26& 

Cosmos, Primitive Babylonian Representations of the 

Course of Underground Conduit from the Virgin's Fountain to the Pool of Siloam. . 

Court of the Tabernacle ' 

Cover, Wicker, for Dough-Bowl: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I '.facing 264 

Crooks, Types of Shepherds' g 02 

Cross-Section of the Site of Jerusalem, Showing Elevations 

Showing Comparative Heights of Different Parts of Jerusalem 

Cyprus, Amulets Collected in ' jgj 

- Model of a Phoenician Temple at Idalion o to 

Pillars from - 

Damascus, Plan of Modern City of , 6 _ 

Dance Around a Sacred Tree 

Darics (Gold Coins of Darius Hystaspes) . . 





LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS mi 



PAI.K 

Darius Hystaspes, Gold Coins of ^-j 

Denarius (Copper) of the Emperor Tiberius, Roman 

Dervish's Tambourine: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 504 

Dibon of Moab, Plan of \^i 

Dolmens (Primitive Altars) in Eastern Palestine 29 

Dough-Bowl: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 'Jti 1 

Drum, Hand: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564 

Kettle: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing ."><; 1 

Dung-Catcher: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS Joeing 1ft 

Early Babylonian Map of the World 287 

Eastern Jordan Wady Joeing 620 

Egypt, Map of facing 200 

Semitic Traders Bringing Their Wares into 370 

Eleazar, Coin of 557 

Elevation, Cross-Section of the Site of Jerusalem Showing 397 

Ephesus, Ruins of Theater in Foreground facing 216 

Excavation of Gezer 29O 

Exodus, Probable Route of the 371 

Ezekiel's Ideal of the Holy Land and People 841 

Vision, Ground-Plan of the Temple of 854 

Feed-Bag: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760 

Female Head with Nose-Ring 191 

Fetter for Horse: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760 

Fiddle: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing ">(>4 

Fight with Tiamat, Marduk's 153 

Fishing Scene on the Sea of Galilee 777 

Floor, Threshing- 16 

Flour-Sieve: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264 

Flute: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing .564 

Foot with Anklet and Toe-Rings 102 

Fork, Two-Pronged: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16 

Winnowing, Five-Pronged: see AGRICULTURAL, IMPLEMENTS facing 16 

Forks and Shovel Used in Winnowing 1& 

Fountain, Virgin's, Course of Underground Conduit from the, to the Pool of Siloam 397 

Front Elevation of the House of the Forest of Lebanon 482 

Front View of Solomon's Temple, after Stade 851 

Galilee, Fishing Scene on the Sea of 777 

Sea of 275 

Genealogy of Hebrew Tribes 877 

Gentiles, Tablet Forbidding Them from Entering the Court of Israel 856 

Geography, Map of Hebrew -facing 288 

Gezer, Excavation of 290 

Girdle with Bells, Woman's 191 

Girth: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760 

Goad: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16 

God, Sun-, Shamash, Representation of the "8' 1 

Goddess Emerging from, or Growing Out of, a Sacred Tree 782 

Gold Coins of Darius Hystaspes 

Golden Necklace 1^1 

Goshen, Land of, Showing Probable Route of the Exodus 371 

Grain-Bin: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264 

Grain, Reaping facing 

Grain-Sieve: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 

Grinding Meal with a Mill, Women ' ' ' 

Ground-Plan of the House of the Forest of Lebanon 



liv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGE 

Ground-Plan of Solomon's Temple 850 

of the Temple of Amon at Thebes 850 

Groves of the Cedars of Lebanon, One of the Few Remaining facing 118 

Growth of the City of Jerusalem, Map Showing the facing 402 

Half-Shekel (Copper) of Simon Maccabjeus 26 

Hamman of Carthage, Baal 784 

Hananiah, Seal of 26 

Hand-Drum: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564 

Hand-Mill for Grinding Flour: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264 

Head of an Assyrian 68 

with Nose-Ring, Female 191 

Hebrew, Early, and Aramaic Alphabets, Specimens of 27 

Geography, Map of facing 288 

Tribes, Genealogy of 877 

Hebron, Interior of the Mosque at, The Monuments to the Patriarchs 504 

Heights of Different Parts of Jerusalem, Cross-Section Showing Comparative 395 

Herod I, Copper Coin of 26 

High Priest, Diagram Showing Arrangement of Stones on Breastplate of 830 

Hittite War Chariot 53 

Holy Land, Ezekiel's Ideal of the Distribution of the People of the 841 

Horn: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564 

Horse, Breast Ornament for: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760 

Fetter for: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760 

Head Ornament for: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760 

House in the Forest of Lebanon Front Elevation 482 

Ground-Plan of the 482 

Household Utensils, I facing 264 

- II facing 266 

Hyrcanus. Coin of John 26 

Hystaspes, Gold Coins of Darius 557 

Image of the God Asshur, Military Standard with the 84 

Implements, Agricultural facing 16 

Inscription, Mesha (Lines 24 and 25) 25 

The Siloam 25 

Instruments, Musical facing 564 

Interior of the Mosque at Hebron, The Monuments to the Patriarchs 504 

Jacob's Well (Sectional View) 380 

Mouth of 379 

Jar Handles Found in Palestine, Seals on i 777-778 

Jerusalem, Cross-Section Showing Comparative Heights of Different Parts of 395 

Cross-Section Showing Elevation of the Site of 397 

Map Showing the Growth of the City facing 402 

Outline Map Showing Topography of, and Vicinity facing 396 

from Scopus facing 400 

Jewish Ram's Horn: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564 

John Hyrcanus, Coin of 26 

Jordan, Wady, Eastern facing 620 

Judah, Wilderness of 61.") 

Kefr Bir'im, Galilee, Front Elevation of the Synagogue at 834 

Ruins of a Galilean Synagogue at 834 

Synagogue at, Ground- Plan of 833 

Kettle, Copper, see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266 

Kettle-Drum: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564 

Key and Lock: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv 



FAOE 

Key of a Palestinian Peasant House, with Lock 

Kochba, Coin of Simon Bar 

Lachish, Siege of, by Sennacherib 94 

Lamps, Ancient 474-475 

Land of Goshen, Showing the Probable Route of the Exodus 371 

Laver, Base with 853 

Lebanon, House of the Forest of, Front Elevation 482 

House of the Forest of, Ground-Plan 482 

One of the Few Remaining Groves of the Cedars of facing 118 

Lilybaeum, Sicily, Stele from 784 

Lock and Key: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266 

of a Palestinian Peasant's House .'!."><> 

with Key 356 

Locust 488 

(with Extended Wings) 488 

Lodge in a Vineyard 108 

Lute: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564 

Lyre: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564 

Maccabaeus, Simon, Half-Shekel (Copper) of 26 

Silver Shekel of 26 

Mallet: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266 

Mandolin: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564 

Mandrake 628 

Map of Alexandria 23 

of Ancient Semitic World facing 780 

- of Central Palestine (III) facing 622 

- of Egypt facing 200 

of Hebrew Geography facing 288 

- of Jerusalem, Showing the Growth of the City facing 402 

of Nineveh and its Environs 58.~> 

- of Northern Portion of Palestine (IV) facing 638 

- of Palestine (I) between 610-611 

- of Pauline World lacing 648 

- of Southern Portion of Palestine (II) facing 614 

- of the World, Early Babylonian 

Showing Topography of Jerusalem and Vicinity, Outline -facing 396 

Marduk's Fight with Tiamat 

Meal, Women Grinding, with a Mill 547 

Mesha Inscription (Lines 24 and 25) 25 

Metal, Mirror of Polished 293 

- Plate for Baking Bread: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing Ji I 

Military Standard with the Image of the God Asshur 

Mill, Coffee-: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266 

Hand-, for Grinding Flour: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264 

Women Grinding Meal with a *"' 

Mirror of Polished Metal 2 

Model of Phoenician Temple at Idalion, Cyprus 

Modern Boot 

Pool of Siloam, Showing the Mouth of the Underground Conduit from the Virgin's Fountain . . . 

Shoe ^ 

Monuments to the Patriarchs, Interior of the Mosque at Hebron 

Morag or Sledge for Threshing 

Mortar for Grinding Coffee: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II 

Mosque at Hebron, Interior, The Monuments to the Patriarchs 

Mouth of Jacob's Well 

Musical Instruments / aci " 



ivl LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGE 

Necklace, Golden 191 

Nethaniah, Seal of 778 

Nile God 584 

Nineveh and its Environs, Map of 585 

Northern Palestine, Map (IV) of facing 638 

Nose-Ring, Female Head with 191 

Obelisk of Shalmaneser, The Black 372-373 

Offerings, Altar of Burnt 29 

Oil-Press 595 

Outline Map, Showing Topography of Jerusalem and Vicinity _. facing 396 

Oven (Tabun) Used in Baking. Under View 265 

Baker's, Showing the Dough Against the Oven Wall 264 

Showing the Loaves on Hot Ashes 265 

Showing the Loaves on Red-Hot Stones 264 

Large: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264 

Small: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264 

Oi-Cart, as Seen in Palestine To-day 119 

Pack-Saddle for Asses and Camels: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760 

Palestine, Map (I) of between 610-611 

Map (III) of Central Portion facing 622 

Map (IV) of Northern Portion facing 638 

Map (II) of Southern Portion facing 614 

Seals on Jar Handles Found in 777-778 

Palestinian Lamps, Ancient 475 

Pannier for Water-Bottles: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760 

Papyrus Plant 628 

- Skiff Made of 808 

Patriarchs, The Monuments to the, Interior of the Mosque at Hebron 504 

Pauline World, Map of facing 648 

Peasant Plowing, Syrian 15 

People of the Holy Land, Ezekiel's Ideal of the Distribution of the 841 

Person Worshiping Before the Sacred Tree 782 

Pharaoh with the Crown of Upper and Lower Egypt 666 

Phoenician Temple at Idalion, Cyprus 852 

Pillar, Anointing of a Sacred Stone 37 

Pillars from Cyprus 788 

Pithom, Store City of, and Its Vicinity 679 

Plan of Caesarea 114 

of Dibon of Moab , 181 

of Modem City of Damascus 165 

of Royal Buildings 849 

of the Ruins of Babylon 77 

of the Ruins of Samaria 766 

Plate, Metal, for Baking Bread: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264 

Plow and Ox-goad, Syrian 681 

see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 10 

Plowing, Syrian Peasant 15 

Polished Metal, Mirror of 293 

Pool of Siloam, Course of Underground Conduit from the Virgin's Fountain to the 397 

Pot for Hot Water: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266 

for Making Coffee: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266 

Potter at Work 56- 

Pottery facing 56 

Ancient Seals on Jar Handles 777-778 

Pounder, Washing: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266 

Pre-Exilic Seals on Jar Handles Found in Palestine. . . 777-778 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvil 



Press, Oil- 95 

Primitive Babylonian Representations of the Cosmos (The Signs of the Zodiac) 155 

Procession of the Gods in Babylonia 790 

Ram's Horn, Jewish: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564 

Reaping Grain lacing 18 

Representation of a Procession of the Gods in Babylonia 790 

of a Sacred Tree 782 

of the Sun-God Shamash 789 

Ring, Signet- 191 

Road, Sectional View of Roman 898 

Roman Denarius (Copper) of Emperor Tiberius 556 

Route of the Exodus, Probable 371 

Royal Buildings, Plan of 849 

Ruins of Babylon, Plan of the 77 

of Ephesus Theater in the Foreground facing 216 

Sacred Stone Pillar, Anointing of 37 

Tree, Goddess Emerging from 782 

Person Worshiping Before 782 

Representation of 782 

Sacrificial Ceremony 166 

Saddle: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760 

Saddle-Bag: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760 

Samaria, Plan of the Ruins of 766 

Street of Columns 766 

Samaritan Script 28 

Sandals, Various Forms of 190 

Scopus, Jerusalem from facing 400 

Script, Samaritan 28 

Sea of Galilee 275 

Seal of Hananiah, Son of Azariah 26 

of Nethaniah, Son of Obadiah 778 

of Shemaiah, Son of Azariah 26 

Seals on Jar Handles Found in Palestine, Pre-Exilic 777-778 

Section of the Underground Conduit at the Virgin's Fountain 399 

Seed-Sowing, Tube for: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16 

Semitic Traders Bringing Their Wares into Egypt 

- World, Map of Ancient facing 780 

Sennacherib, Siege of Lachish by 94 

Shalmaneser, The Black Obelisk of . 372-373 

Shamash, Sun-God, Entering Through the Eastern Gate of Heaven 

Representation of the Sun-God 

Shechem and Its Environs 

Shekel of Simon Maccabteus, Silver 

Half (Copper) of Simon Maccabsus 

Shemaiah, Seal of 26 

Shepherds' Crooks, Types of 802 

Shoe, Modern 190 

Shovel Used in Winnowing, Forks and 

Winnowing: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS ./'"'"'? 16 

Sickle: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS .facing 16 

Siege of Lachish by Sennacherib 

Sieve, Flour: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264 

Grain: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16 

Signet-Ring 

Siloam Inscription 

Pool of, Course of Underground Conduit from the Virgin's Fountain to the 



xvill LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PAGE 

Silver Shekel of Simon Maccabseus 26 

Simon Bar Kochba, Coin of 557 

Maccabteus, Half-Shekel (Copper) of 26 

Silver Shekel of 1>6 

Site of Jerusalem, Cross-Section Showing Elevation of the 397 

Skiff Made of Papyrus 808 

Skin Utensils facing 108 

Sledge, Threshing with a 17 

Threshing: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16 

- Used for Threshing (Under Side) 18 

Solomon, Plan of the Royal Buildings of 849 

Solomon's Temple (After Stade), Front View of 851 

Front Elevation, Showing Probable Construction of the Side Chambers 851 

Ground-Plan of 850 

Southern Palestine, Map (II) of 614 

Specimens of Early Hebrew and Aramaic Alphabets 27 

Stand and Tray: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760 

Standard with the Image of the God Asshur, Military 84 

Stele from Lilybjcum, Sicily 784 

Stone Circle (Supposed) at Bethel 292 

Pillar, Anointing of a Sacred 37 

Stool: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266 

Store City of Pithom and Its Vicinity 679 

Street of Columns. Samaria 766 

Sun-God Shamash Entering Through the Eastern Gate of Heaven . 789 

Shamash, Representation of the 789 

Synagogue at Kefr Bir' im, Galilee, Front Elevation, Partially Destroyed 834 

- in Galilee (Ground-Plan) 833 

Ruins of a Galilean, at Kefr Bir'im 834 

Syrian Peasant Plowing 15 

- Plow and Ox-goad 681 

Tabernacle, Court of the 838 

Tablet, Warning Gentiles Not to Enter the Court of Israel 856 

Tabun, or Small Oven, Used in Baking (Under View) 265 

Tamarisk-Tree 627 

Tambourine, Dervish's: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564 

Temple and Symbol of Astarte, Coin from Byblus Showing 783 

at Idalion, Cyprus, Model of a Phoenician 852 

of Amon at Thebes, Ground-Plan of 850 

of Ezekiel's Vision, Ground-Plan of 854 

of Solomon (After Stade), Front View of 851 

Ground-Plan of the 850 

Showing Probable Construction of the Side Chambers, Front Elevation of 851 

Terebinth-Tree 626 

Tetradrachmse (Silver Coins) of Alexander the Great 556 

Thebes, Ground-Plan of the Temple of Amon at 850 

Threshing with a Sledge, or Morag 17 

Threshing-Floor 16 

Threshing-Sledge: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16 

- (Under Side) ^ 18 

Threshing with a Wagon, or 'Agalah 17 

Tiamat, Marduk's Fight with 153 

Tiberius, Denarius (Copper) of Emperor 556 

Toe-Rings, Foot with Anklet and 192 

Tower of Babel 872 

Traders, Semitic, Bringing Their Wares into Egypt 370 

Transportation of a Colossal Bull by Assyrian Slave-Labor 818 

Travel, Articles Used in facing 760 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xlx 



FAOB 

Tray and Stand: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760 

Tree, Dance Around a Sacred 168 

Tube for Sowing Seed: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16 

Types of Shepherds' Crooks 802 

Underground Conduit from the Virgin's Fountain to the Pool of Siloarn, Course of 

Utensils, Household, I facing 264 

II facing 26C 

Skin facing 108 

Vineyard, Booth or Lodge in 108 

Virgin's Fountain, Course of Underground Conduit from the, to the Pool of Siloam 397 

Wagon, Threshing with a 17 

War Chariot, Hittite 53 

Warning Tablet Forbidding Gentiles to Enter the Court of Israel 856 

Washing-Pounder: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266 

Water-Bottle: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760 

Well, Jacob's (Sectional View) 380 

- Mouth of Jacob's 379 

Wicker Cover for Dough-Bowl: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264 

Wilderness of Judah 615 

Winnowing-Fork, Five-Pronged: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16 

Winnowing, Forks and Shovel Used in 18 

Winnowing-Shovel: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 19 

Woman's Girdle with Bells 191 

Women Grinding Meal with a Mill 547 

World, Early Babylonian Map of the 287 

Map of Ancient Semitic facing 780 

Yoke for Threshing Animals: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16 

Zither: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564 



LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 



[Self-evident abbreviations, particularly those used in the bibliographies, are not included here.] 



X, *, b - , B, DEHLP, etc. Symbols by which the 
various N T Gr. MSS. of the uncial type are designated. The 
* signifies the first hand or writer of the MS. ; the superior 
letters (* b - c , etc.) indicate later revisers or correctors. 
See NEW TESTAMENT TEXT. 

AJSL . . . American Journal of Semitic Literature. 
AJT . . . American Journal of Theology. 
Am.PEFSt. . . American Palestine Exploration Fund, 

Statement. 

Ant. . . . Josephus, Antiquities. 
AOF . . . Hugo Winckler, Altorientalische For- 

schungen. 

ARV . . . American Standard Revised Version. 
ARVmg. . . American Revised Version, margin. 
Asc. Mos. . . Ascension of Moses. 
AV . . . Authorized Version (i.e.. King James's 

Version of 1611). 
AVmg.,RVmg. . Authorized Version, margin. Revised 

Version, margin. 

Bell. Jud. or BJ . Josephus, Jewish War (with Rome). 

Bib. Sacr. . . Bibliotheca Sacra. 

Bib. Theol. Lex. . Cremer. Biblico-theological Lexicon of the 

New Testament. 

BJ . . . Josephus, Jewish War (with Rome). 

BRP . . . Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palatine. 

bZ . . . Byzantinische Zeitung. 

CH . . . Code of Hammurabi. 

Ch. Quar. Rev. . Church Quarterly Review. 

Chron. Pasch. . Chronicon Paschale. 

CIG or CIGr. . Corpus Inscriptionum Gracarum. 

C1L . . . Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. 

CIS or CISem. . Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum. 

Cod. Ham. . . Code of Hammurabi. 

Cod. V.T. . . Codex or Codices Veteris Testamenti. 

Cont. Ap. . . Josephus, Against Apion. 

COT . . . Schrader, Cuneiform Inscriptions and 
the O T, Eng. transl. by Whitehouse. 

D . Deuteronomy (in its original form). 

DB . . . Smith's or Hastings' Dictionary of the 

Bible. 

DCB . . . Wace, Dictionary of Christian Biography. 
DCG . . . Hastings, Dictionary of Christ and the 

Gospels. 

E . . . . The Elohist Document; see HEXATECCH. 
EB . . . Encyclopaedia Biblica. 



EBrit. . . . Encyclopedia Britannica, 9th ed. 

EM. . . . Einleitung. 

Ep., Epp. . . Epistle, Epistles. 

ERV . . . English (or British) Revised Version of 

1881. 
ERVmg. . . English (or British) Revised Version of 

1881, margin. 

ET . . . Expository Times. 
Eth. En. . . Ethiopic Enoch. 
EV or EW . English Versions of the Bible ( AV, ERV . 

and ARV). 
Expos. . . . Expositor. 

GAP . . . F. Buhl, Geographic del alien Palastina. 
GJV . . . E. SchUrer, Qeschichle des Judischen 

Volkes, 3d ed. 
Gr. ... Greek. 
GVI . . . B. Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel. 

HC . . . Holiness Code: see art. HEXATEUCH. 
23. 

HDB . . . Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible. 

HE . . . Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica. 

Heb. . . . Hebrew. 

Hebr. Arch. . . Hebraische Archaologie. 

HGHL . . . G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the 
Holy Land. 

HOP . . . SameasHGffi. 

Hist. Nat. or 

UN . . . Pliny, Historia Naturalis (Natural His- 
tory). 

HJP . . . Schurer, History of the Jewish People in 
the Time of Jesus Christ, Eng. transl. 
of GJV, 2d ed. 

Hor. Heb. . . J. Lightfoot, Horce Hebraicce. 

H. P. & M. or 

HPM . . McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the 
Monuments. 

IGSicil. . . Inscriptions Grirca; Sicilians. 
Int. Crit. Com. . International Critical Commentary. 

J . The Jahvistic Document; see HEXA- 

TEUCH. 

J" . Jehovah. 

JBL or JBLE . Journal of Biblical Literature and Ext- 

getis. 

JE . . . Jewish Encyclopedia. 
JEDP . . . See art. HEXATEUCH, 29. 
JHS . . . Journal of Hellenistic Studies. 



LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 



xzl 



Jos. . . . Josephus. 

Ant. . . Antiquities. 

BJ . . Jewiih War. 

Cont. Ap. . Against Apion. 

Vit. . . Life. 

JQR . . . Jewish Quarterly Review. 

KAT* . . . Schroder, Die Keilinschriften und dat 

Alte Testament, 3d ed. 
K'thibh . . The ordinary Hebrew text of the O T 

as written. 

LOT . , . Driver, Introduction to the Literature of 
the OT, 6th or later edd. 

LTM or LTJM . Edereheim, Life and Times of Jesus the 
Messiah. 

LXX. . . . The Septuagint Version of the OT. 

NKZ . . . Neue Kirchliche Zeitung. 

NT. . . New Testament. 

NTGr. . . . Novum Testamentum Gracum. 

Onom. or Onom. 

Sacr. . . Eusebius, Onomasticon (also Jerome's 

ed. of the same). 

O T . . .Old Testament. 
Oif. Heb. Lex. . Oxford H ebrew Lexicon, by Briggs, Brown 

& Driver. 

P . ... Priest's Code; see art. HEXATEUCH, 
55 21 ff. 

Pal. . . . Robinson, Biblical Researches in Pales- 
tine. 

PC . . . . Same as P. 

PEF . . . Palestine Exploration Fund. 

PEFQ, PEFQS. 

or PEFSt. . Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly 
Statement. 

PRE 3 . . . Realencyklopadie fur prolestantische The- 
oloffie und Kirche, 3d ed. 

Proleg. . . . Prolegomena. 



Q'ri or Q'r6 . . The Hebrew text of the O T as it should 
be read according to the Massoretio 
scholars. 

RE . . . Realencyklopadie. (Same as PRE'.) 
RV . . . Revised Version. (Generally, the Ameri- 
can Revised Version is intended by 
this abbreviation.) 
RVmg. . . Revised Version, margin. 

SBOT . . . Sacred Books of the OT (.The Polychrome 

Bible). 

Sib. Or. . . Sibylline Oracles. 
Slav. En. . . Slavonic Enoch. 
SWP . . . Survey of Western Palestine. 
Syr. . . . Syriac Version. 

Targ. . . . Targum. 

TLZ . . . Theoloffische Literatuneitung. 

TR . . . Textus Receptus (of the N T). 

TU . . . Texte und Untersuchungen. 

ver. . . . verse. 
Vit. . . . Josephus, Life. 
vs. . . . verses. 
vs. ... versus. 

Vulg. . . . Vulgate (Jerome's ed. of the Latin 
Bible, 390-405 A.D.). 

WH. . . . Westcott and Hort's ed. of the N T in 

Greek. 
WZKM . . Wiener Zeiischrift fur die Kunde des 

Morgenlandes. 

ZATW . . Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wis- 

senschaft. 
ZDMO . . . Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenland- 

ischen Gesellachaft. 
ZDPV . . . Zeiischrift des Deutschen Palastina- 

Vereins. 
ZNTW . . Zeitschrift fiir neutestamentliche Wissen- 

schaft. 
ZWT . . . Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Theologie. 



HELPFUL HINTS FOR THE GUIDANCE OF 

THE READER 




ho 

any i 

found instantly, .(? : 

When the box-head section to which reference is made is a long one and the term referred to it is treated 
Tnly there, U,l term is printed in heavy-faced type. In this way it is believed the value of the D.cUonary 
as a ready-reference book will be greatly enhanced. 




lation does not agree 

ings given to the Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek originals. 



r Han 'ase of proper names, the meanings have been given wherever they are known or can be 

JS wTa fair d" probably. In a great many case, this is not possible, and conseauently no meanings 



have been assigned. 




for the sake of greater simplicity. 



are short The indistinct shwas are indicaied by small superior letters, nearly always or .. 
The following table indicates how the vowels are to be pronounced: 

_ & long, as in father. _ a short, as in fat, _ a very short 
_orVS ...... prey, _ e " " met. _ e 

, _ or _ i ..... ' ravine, i " P m > 

{or ^-6 ..... 'tone, -or__o ...... not, o 

I or __ u ...... lute. " " " put| 

1. , ', >, merely a breathing not a full vowel sound. 

In pronouncing a transliterated Hebrew word the following general rules will be of service: 
There are as many syllables as there are vowels, and every syllable must besin with a consonant (X- ' 
consonants). 

As a rule, a consonant with the vowel following forms a syllable. 

i ,w ncriir between two vowels, the first consonant unites with the preceding vowel 



" tirwiraTe^uirlnted on the last syl.able, but if both vowe.s of the last two syUables are S hor t the 
accent will generally be placed on the syllable next before the last. 



HELPFUL HINTS FOR THE GUIDANCE OF THE READER 



xxill 



d and dh, k and kh, p and ph, t and Ih. But as gh does not well represent the sound of undagheshed 3, it seemed best not 
to attempt to make any distinction in regard to this letter, but to allow the one letter g answer for both the hard and soft J}. 

Hebrew and Arabic words are transliterated according to the following tables: 



HEBREW 


X- ' 


73 1 E m 


:=b, 2- bh ...) 


1 ] -n 


i - g, gh 


D "= s (emphat- 


n - d, 1 - dh (i.e., th 


ic ) 


as in /// . i 


J!-(a gut- 


n-h 


tural, gasp- 


T w 


ing sound) 


T = z 


B - P, C, f] - ph 


n h (i.e., a 


X. V - t 


guttural A) 


1 


tS-t (palatal <) 


p-q 

T- r 


11 - y 


C " s 


2 - k, 2, Tj = kh (like a 




Scotch cA) 


'iff - sh 


b - 1 


n - 1, n - th 



ARABIC 


> \ 


d j 


d O^ 


k ^ 


b t ' 


dh ^> 


t is 


i J 


t O 


' } 


a 1=> 


m ( 







* C 




th O 




c 


n 0^ 


j ( 


8 ^ 


gh ,P 


h jifc 


h e 


sh t^^ 


f 


u.w ) 


^ j. 


s C_^ 


k ui 


i, y C_ 



ABBREVIATIONS OF NAMES OF THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE 
AND OF THE OT APOCRYPHA 



Gn Genesis 

Ex Exodus 

Lv Leviticus 

Nu Numbers 

Dt Deuteronomy 

Jos Joshua 

Jg Judges 

Ru Ruth 

IS I Samuel 

II S II Samuel 

IK I Kings 

UK II Kings 

ICh... .. I Chronicles 



I. BOOKS OF THE OT 

II Ch II Chronicles 

Ezr Ezra 

Neh Nehemiah 

Est Esther 

Job Job 

Ps Psalms 

Pr Proverbs 

EC Ecclesiastes 

Song Song of Solomon 

Is Isaiah 

Jer Jeremiah 

La Lamentations 

Ezk... ..Ezekiel 



Dn Daniel 

Hos Hosea 

Jl Joel 

Am Amos 

Ob Obadiah 

Jon Jonah 

Mic Micah 

Nah Nahum 

Hab Habakkuk 

Zeph Zephaniah 

Hag Haggai 

Zee Zechariah 

Mai... ..Malachi 



Mt Matthew 

Mk Mark 

Lk Luke 

Jn John 

Ac The Acts 

Ro To the Romans 

I Co I Corinthians 

II Co II Corinthians 

Gal... ...Galatians 



2. BOOKS OF THE N T 

Eph Ephesians 

Ph Philippians 

Col Colossians 

I Th I Thessalonians 

II Th II Thessalonians 

I Ti I Timothy 

II Ti II Timothy 

Tit Titus 

Phm Philemon 



He To the Hebrews 

Ja Epistle to James 

IP I Peter 

IIP II Peter 

I Jn I John 

II Jn II John 

III Jn Ill John 

Jude Jude 

Rev Revelation 



I Es I Esdras 

II Es II Esdras 

Sir Sirach.orEcclesiasticus 

Bar Baruch 

To Tobit 



3. THE OT APOCRYPHA 

Jth Judith 

Three Song of the Three 

Children 

Sus Susanna 

Bel Bel and the Dragon 



Ad. Est Additions to Esther 

Wis Wisdom 

Pr. Man Prayer of Manasses 

I Mac I Maccabees 

II Mac II Maccabees 



KEY TO PRONUNCIATION 



Throughout this book the Scientific Alphabet, prepared and promulgated by The American Philo- 
logical Association, and adopted by the Standard Dictionary of the English Language, has been used to 
indicate pronunciations. Where two or more pronunciations are given, the first is the one preferred by 
this work. Respellings of simple words have been omitted as unnecessary. 

Two pronunciations are intended by the diacritics -. and ~ below a vowel: (1) a formal pronunciation ; 
(2) an approved colloquial weakening. The mark -* indicates that the colloquial weakening is toward u in 
but. The mark indicates that the colloquial weakening is toward i in pity. 



a 


as in sofa. 


a 


as in arm. 





as in ask. 


a 


as in at. 


a 


as in fare. 


* 


as in alloy. 


e 



e 


as in pen. 
as in epistle. 
as in moment. 


gr 


as in ever. 


g 


as in they. 





as in usage. 


i 


as in tin. 


1 


as in machine. 






as in obey. 


6 


as in no. 


e 


as in not. 


5 


as in nor. 


e 


as in actor. 


u 


as in full. 


u 


as in rule. 


U 


as in injure. 


u 


as in but. 





as in burn. 


ai 


as in pine. 


au 


as in out. 


ei 


as in oil. 


iu 


as in lew. 



iu 


as in duration. 


iu 


as in future. 


c=k 


as in cat. 


ch 


as in c/iip. 


cw = qu 

dh (th) 
f 
g (hard) 
hw (wh) 


as in queen. 
as in the. 
as in fancy. 
as in go. 
as in why. 


j 


as in jaw. 


ng 


as in sing. 


3 


as in sin. 


sh 


as in she. 


th 


as in thin. 


z 


as in zone. 


zh 


as in azure. 



The pronunciation given immediately after the titles, when these are Hebrew proper names, is that 
preferred by the Standard Dictionary. A comparison of this pronunciation with the transliteration of 
these names will show the difference between the modern English pronunciation of such names and the 
Hebrew pronunciation. 



A STANDARD BIBLE 
DICTIONARY 



AARON, aiAm CP~$, 'ah&run}: Son of Amram 
and Jochebed, descendunt of Levi through Koliath, 
and three vears older than his brother Moses (Ex 



What was done to and for Aaron was what should 

be done with any high priest. The ceremonial en- 

duement prescribed in Ex chs. 28. 29 



ADDENDA ET COEEIGENDA 



Page 98, col. 2, second paragraph, line 2, read "Lat." for 

"LXX." 

Page 119, col. 2, article CEDAR, line 1, read "TTN, "era." 
Page 522, col. 2, line 2, read "one" instead of "two." 
Page 522, col. 2, line 28 from end, read "b'rdkhah." 
Page 611, col. 1, last line, read "hayyarden." 
Page 612, col. 1, line 22, read "en^Nakura," and "'el- 

Abyad." 

Page 612, col. 1, line 23, read " 'el-Umthakkah." 

Page 612, col. 2, line 18, read '"el-Akaba." 

Page 613, col. 1, third paragraph, line 10, read "Mu- 

tetellim." 

Page 614, col. 2, second paragraph, line 11, read "Sarar." 
Page 616, col. 2, last paragraph, line 11, read "Enin" for 

" Dschenin." 

Page 617, col. 1, first paragraph, lines 11 and 12, read 

"Ras." 

Page 617, col. 1, last line, read " Mukatta'." 



Page 618, 
Page 618, 

"Ketheph." 
Page 619, 
Page 621, 
Page 621, 
Page 622, 
Page 622, 
Page 622, 

"Rdjib." 
Page 622, 
Page 623, 
Page 626, 
Page 626, 

ond "Ac." 
Page 629, 
Page 630, 
" 'aqqo." 



col. 2, first paragraph, line 13, read "Rubin." 
col. 2, first paragraph, line 9 from end, read 

col. 2, line 8 from end, read "Afejdmi 1 ." 

col. 2, second paragraph, line 15, read "High." 

col. 2, line 2 from end, read "Zedi." 

col. 1, line 15, read "gabhnunnim." 

col. 1, line 19 from end, read "Hamad." 

col. 2, first paragraph, line 3 from end, read 

col. 2, line 6 from end, read "Osha 1 ." 
col. 1, line 18, read " Hammam ez-Zerkd." 
col. 2, line 5, read "n'koth." 
col. 2, second paragraph, line 4, omit the sec- 
col. 1, line 2, for "few" read "none." 
col. 1, line 11 from end, read "and" after 



dactional passages connecting the l^aw ot Holiness 
with its present context. In Ezk 40-48 Zadok, not 
A., is the cponym of the priestly line (44 15, etc.). 

(d) View of P. In P Aaron is regularly subor- 
dinated to Moses. The first three simpler plagues 
Aaron brings on at Moses' command; thereafter 
Moses himself is the actor. In the narratives (Nu 
16, 17) it is Moses in each case who vindicates him. 
A. dies at Mt. Hor in the 40th year of the Exodus 
(\u. 2022 ft., 33 38), because of rebellion at Meribah 
(cf. Dt as above). 

In Ex 2")-3() and 35-40, and in Lv and Nu Aaron's 
name occurs frequently, but evidently as a con- 
venient priestly symbol demonstrating the priestly 
function to the people (cf. the usage in Ezk). 



Lebanon. Breaking out into the plain a few miles 
W. of Damascus, its waters irrigate the plain and 
supply the city. It loses itself in the swampy Mead- 
ow Lakes 20 m. E. of Damascus on the edge of the 
desert. Its right name was probably Arnana (RV 
mg. ). The modern name is Barada. See also DA- 
MASCUS. E. E. N. 

ABARIM, ab'a-rim (="!?2 , 'abharlm), ' those- 
on-the-other-side': The name of the mountain range 
in NW. part of Moab. (The term, however, ac- 
cording to G. A. Smith (HGHL. p. 548; EB. 1 4) is ap- 
plicable to the whole E. Jordan range.) Mt. Nebo 
is the best-known summit, and Abarim is used by 
metonymy for Nebo (Nu 27 12; Dt 32 49). In Jer 



Abba 
Abimelech 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



J. -() (" passages " AV) Abarim is a more exact 
synonym of Bashan. The Hob. text of K/.k 39 11 
also contains I lie word Abarim, but it is more 
literally translated "they that pass by." A. C. Z. 

ABBA, ab'a ('A&3u - K?8): Aramaic for 'Fa- 
ther,' transliterated into Greek and thence into 
English. It occurs three times in the N T (Mk 14 36; 
Ro 8 15; Gal 4 6). From the fact that it is invari- 
ably followed by the explanatory addition "father" 
it has been argued that it had come to be regarded 
as one of the proper names of God. For this there 
is no direct evidence. More probably it was used as 
a familiar liturgical expression, which Jesus and 
Paul adopted with particular emphasis on its essen- 
tial content, developing into rich suggestiveness. 

A. C Z. 

ABDA, ab'da (N'-?i', 'abhda'), 'servant of J'": 
1. The father of Adoniram, Solomon's tribute-master 
( I K 4 6). 2. The son of Shamrnua (Neh 1117, called 
Obadiah in I Ch 9 16). E. E. N. 

ABDEEL, ab'de-el ("-;?, 'abhd>'el), 'servant of 
God': The father of Shelemiah (Jer3626). 

E. E. N. 

ABDI, ab'dai ("Si', 'abhdi), 'servant (of J")': 
1. The father of Kishi or Kish (I Ch 6 44; II Ch 
2'.i 12, or Kushaiah in I Ch 1517). 2. One of the 
" sons of Elam " (Ezr 10 26). E. E. N. 

ABDIEL, ab'di-el (^--,52?, 'abhdi'el), 'servant of 
God': A Gadite (I Ch 5 15)! E. E. N. 

ABDON, ab'den (]'~*i\ 'abhdon), 'servant' : 
I. 1. One of the minor judges of Israel, son of Hillel 
(Jg 12 13, 15). See also BEDAN. 2. A son of Sha- 
shak (I Ch 8 23) . 3. A son of Jeiel, father of Gibeon 
(I Ch 8 30, 9 36). 4. A son of Micah (II Ch 34 20, 
called Achbor in II K 22 12). 

II. A Levitical city in Asher (Jos 21 30) called 
Ebron (Hebron AV) in 19 28. Map IV, E 6. 

A. C. Z. 

ABEDNEGO, a-bed'ne-go (wj "CX, 'abhedh n-go), 
from Abcd-.Vebo, 'servant of Nebo': The Babylonian 
name of Azariah, one of Daniel's three companions 
(Dan 17, 249, etc.). E. E. N. 

ABEL, e'bel (^~, hebhel, etymology doubtful, 
formerly translated 'breath,' but with more proba- 
bility derived from the Assyrian ablu, 'son'): Adam's 
second son, murdered by Cain (Gn 4 2 ft.). In the 
NT (Mt 23 35; I,k 11 51; He 11 4; I Jn 3 12) A. is pic- 
tured as a martyr for a high, religious conception. 
In He 1224 the blood of Jesus, which declared for- 
giveness, is contrasted with Abel's, which called for 
vengeance. A. S. C. 

ABEL, e'bel fatt, 'abhel), 'meadow' (IIS 20 
14-18): 1. See A.-BKTH-MAACAH. 2. According to 
tin' Heb. text of I SO 18, followed by AV, the name 
of a locality near Heth-slu-mesh. The I.XX. reads 
instead "stone," which is followed by RV. 

E. E. N. 



ABEL - BETH - MAACAH, 6"bel-beth-me'a-ca 
(~V*!3'j n*3 "(!, 'abhfl bcth hamma'ikhoK): A 
northern frontier fortress, the stronghold of Sin- 1 
insurrection (II S 20 14 ff.); connected in the LXX. 
with Dan (IK 15 20; UK 15 29). The site is 
probably Abil cl-Kamh, about 3 hours' ride W. of 
Tell el-Kadi (Dan). It was besieged by Ben-hadad 
(I K 15 20) and Tiglath-pileser III (II K 15 29). Map 
IV, E 4. A. S. C. 

ABELCHERAMIM, e"bel-ker'a-mim (=^",5 "X, 
'abhel k'ramim, A.-Keramim AV), 'vineyard- 
meadow': A locality in Ammon (Jg 1133). Site 
unknown. A. S. C. 

ABEL-MAIM, e"bel-me'im (C:i "K, abhel ma- 
y~tm), 'meadow of waters': A variant, or text-cor- 
ruption, for Abel-beth-maacah (II Ch 1C 4). 

A. S. C. 

ABEL - MEHOLAH, e"bel-me-h6'la (~rT; "X, 
'abhel m'holdh), 'dance meadow': Elisha's birth- 
place, near Beth-shean (Jg 7 22; I K 4 12, 19 10). 

A. S. C. 

ABEL-MIZRAIM, e"bcl-miz'ra-im (="V^ "K, 
'abhel mitsrayim), 'meadow of Egypt': The stop- 
ping-place of Jacob's funeral cortege (GnSOn). 
On location, see ATAD. A. S. C. 

ABEL - SHITTIM, e"bel-shit'im (u"J'i ; .j "N, 
'abhfl ha-shittlm), 'acacia-meadow': A locality in 
the lowlands of Moab (Nu 33 49; cf. Mic 6 5). Map 
III, H5. A. S. C. 

ABEZ, e'bez. See EBEZ. 

ABI, a'bi ('3$, 'abhl), 'father': Compound per- 
sonal names in which "Abi" forms the first element 
are of two general classes: (a) In which the second 
part is a noun, generally the name of a deity; 
(6) in which it is an adjective or a verb. In cases 
under (a) Abi is generally the predicate, as Abi-jah, 
i.e., "Jan ( = Jehovah) is father." In cases under 
(6) it is the subject, as Abinadab, i.e., "the father 
( = God) gives." The "i" of Abi is probably not the 
pronominal suffix "my," but an old ending serving 
merely as a connective. See G. B. Gray, Heb. Prop. 
Names, pp. 75-86). E. E. N. 

ABI, e'bai (in II K 18 2). See ABIJAH, 7. 
ABIA, a-bai'a, ABIAH, a-bai'a. See ABIJAH. 

ABIALBON, e"bi-al'ben G'2^y-;8, 'ibhl 'albon): 
One of David's heroes (II S 23 3l'. Abie'l in I Ch 11 32). 

E. E. N. 

ABIASAPH, a-bai'a-saf. See EBIASAPH. 

ABIATHAR, a-bai'a-thar C^T?, 'ebhyathar), 
'father of abundance': A son of Ahimelech, priest 
at Nob. When Saul massacred Ahimelech ami 
his household for harboring the fugitive David 
(I S 22 11-19), A. escaped and joined David :it Kcilah, 
reporting to him what S.ml had done. As he also 
brought the ephod with him, David appointed him 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Abba 
Abimelech 



to be the priest of his company, and consulted .1" 
through him (I S 30 7). Thenceforward Abiathar 
remained with David, and, when the latter became 
king, was associated in the priesthood with Zadok 
(II S 15 '24, 29 35). He survived David, and was de- 
posed and banished to Anathoth by Solomon for 
abetting and assisting in Adonijah's plot to wrest 
the kingdom from him (I K 1 7, 19, 25, 2 22, 26, 27). 

A. C. Z. 

ABIB, e'bib: The 'earing' month of the old He- 
brew year. See TIME, 3. 

ABIDA, a-bai'du (1T38, 'dbhldha', Abidah AV), 
'the father knows': The ancestral head of a clan 
of Midian (Gn 25 4; I Ch 1 33). E. E. N. 

ABIDAN, ab'i-dan OT28, 'dbhldhan), 'the fa- 
ther is judge': A prince of Benjamin in the Mosaic 
age (Nu 1 11, 2 22, 7 00, 05, 10 24). E. E. N. 

ABIEL, e'bi-el ^(T^!, 'Abhl'fl), 'father is God': 

1. Grandfather of Saul and Abner (I S 9 l, 14 51). 

2. One of David's heroes (I Ch 11 32, Abialbon in 
II S 23 31). E. E. N. 

ABIEZER, e"bi-i'zer CirlS, 'dbhl'ezer), 'the 
father is help': 1. The clan of Abiezrites of Ma- 
nasseh, to which Gideon belonged (JgG 11 ff., 8 2, 32). 
Reckoned genealogically to Machir through Gilead 
(Jos 17 2; I Ch 7 18; Nu 26 30, where the form is lezer, 
lezerite [Jeezer, Jeezerite AV]). 2. An Anathoth- 
ite, one of David's heroes (IIS 23 27; I Chi 128, 
27 12). E. E. N. 

ABIEZRITE, e"bi-ez'rait. See ABIEZER, 1. 

ABIGAIL, ab'i-get (^J'58, 'dbhigayil): 1. The 
wife of Nabal, later of David (I S 25 3, 42), mother 
of Chileab (or Daniel, I Ch 3 1), David's second 
son (II S 3 3). 2. The mother of Amasa, daughter of 
Nahash (II S 17 25; Abigal RV), or of Jesse (I Ch 
2 16), which is preferable. A. S. C. 

ABIHAIL, ab"i-he'il (b:o*2, 'dbhihayil), 'the 
father is strength': 1. The father of Zuriel(Nu3 35). 
2. The wife of Abishur (ICh229). 3. A Gadite 
(I Ch 5 14). 4. Niece of David, and mother-in-law 
of Rehoboam (II Ch 11 18). 6. The father of 
Esther (Est 2 15, 9 29). E. E. N. 

ABIHU, a-bni'hu (Kl.1'58, 'Abhihu'), 'my father is 
lie': Second son of Aaron (Ex 6 23; Nu 3 2, etc.). 
He and his brother Nadab were with Moses on the 
Mount (Ex 24 1-2, 9 ff.). Together they became 
priests (Kx 28 1) and were slain for offering strange 
fire (Lev 10 l ff.; Nu 3 4, 2661; ICh.242). E. E. N. 

ABIHUD, a-bai'lwd (-.Vv;s, 'dbhihwlh), 'my 
father is glory' : A son of Bela (I Ch 8 3) . 

E. E. N. 

ABIJAH, a-bai'ja (HJ3K, '";3iS, 'dbhiyah, 'dbhi- 
yfiku),'J" is my father': 1. Kingof Judah, the son of 
Rehoboam, and Maacah, the daughter of Absalom. 
In I K I I HI. 15 1 ff., the name is spelled Abijam (an 
error). During his reign of three years he waged 



continual war with Jeroboam. The story in I K 
produces the impression of a prolonged campaign, 
while the Chronicler (II Ch 13) records only a single 
decisive battle. With 400,000 troops he met Jero- 
boam with 800,000 at Mt. /emaraim. He upbraided 
Jeroboam and Israel for rebellion against the Davidic 
dynasty, for apostasy, and t lie expulsion of the priesta 
and Levites. Caught at a disadvantage, the men of 
Judah prayed to Jehovah, who granted them a signal 
victory. His character was not exemplary, for he 
walked in the sins of his father, and his heart was not 
perfect with Jehovah. 2. A son of Jeroboam I. 
He died in fulfilment of Ahijah's prediction (I K 14 
Iff.). 3. A son of Samuel (I 882, Abiah AV). 4. The 
ancestral head of the eighth course of priests, to 
which Zacharias, the father of John the Baptist, 
belonged (Lk 1 5 [Abia AV]; I Ch 24 10; Neh 10 7, 
124). 5. A son of Becher(ICh78,AbiahAV). 6. 
The wife of Hezron (I Ch 2 24, Abiah AV). 7. The 
wife of Ahaz and mother of Hezekiah (II Ch 29 l). 

J. A. K. 

ABIJAM, a-bai'jam. See ABIJAH, 1. 



ABILENE, ab"i-li'nt ('A/SiXi^, 'A.pei\rjvq, WH.): 
The tetrarchy of Lysanias (Lk 3 1) in the Anti-Leb- 
anon. Abila, 18 Roman m. NE. of Damascus on 
the Abanah River, was its chief city, and has been 
identified with the ruins at Siik Wady Barada. Jo- 
sephus (Ant. XX, 7 1) speaks of a tetrarchy of Lysa- 
nias, and in XIX, 5 l of "Abila of Lysanias." See 
LYSANIAS. C. S. T. 

ABIMAEL, a-bim'a-el ("?8?}38, 'dbhlma'el) : One 
of the descendants of Joktan (Gn 10 28). See ETH- 
NOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY, 11. E. E. N. 

ABIMELECH, a-bim'e-lec ($!?'?S, 'dbhlmelekh), 
'my father is Melech (Molech)': 1. A Philistine king 
of Gerar, a locality near Gaza. Struck by the beauty 
of Sarah, and being deceived by Abraham as to her 
true relationship, he took her to wife. Obedient to 
a warning from God in a dream, he returned Sarah to 
her husband with costly gifts, at the same time 
pleading his integrity and upbraiding Abraham for 
his deception (Gn 201-18, E). Later, their quar- 
rel over the possession of a well was finally settled by 
the making of a covenant at Beer-Sheba (Gn 21 
22-34, E). A similar story combining both incidents 
is related of Abimelech and Isaac (Gn 26 7-11, 26-33, 
J ) . Critical scholarship looks upon the two accounts 
as doublets. 

2. A son of Gideon by a woman of Shechem. He 
made the first attempt to found a monarchy in Is- 
rael. The Shechemites made him king after he had 
murdered all of Gideon's sons but Jotham. His 
reign of three years ended in a revolt. Abimelech 
took Shechem, and burned it with its citadel and 
temple. Later, at the siege of the citadel at Thebez, 
his skull was fractured by a millstone thrown from 
the wall by a woman. His armor-bearer thrust him 
through at his own request (Jg 8 31, ch. 9). 

3. A son of Abiathar, David's priest (I Ch 18 16, 
but see AHIMELECH). 4. A Philistine king (Ps 34: 
title probably an error for Achish, cf. I S 21 10). 

J. A. K. 



Abinadab 
Absalom 



A STAXI>A1!I> BIBLE DICTIOXAKV 



ABOTADAB, u-l,m'u-dab (-"}?!$ 
'my father is generous': 1. A man of Kiriath- 
Jearim, to whose liouse the Ark was brought from 
Beth-Shemesh (IS7l), where it remained until 
David carried it to Jerusalem (II S 6 3 f. ; I Ch 13 7). 
2. The second son of Jesse (I S 16 S), who followed 
Saul against the Philistines (I S 17 13; I Ch 2 13). 3. 
A son of Saul, perhaps also railed Islivi (IS 14 49), 
slain by the Philistines in the great battle of Mt. 
Gilboa (I S 31 2; I Ch 8 33, 9 39, 10 2). 4. See BEN- 
ABINADAB. C. S. T. 

ABINOAM,a-bin'o-<nn (=?:*;, 'ibliino'am), 'the 
father is pleasantness ': Father of Barak (Jg4 6, 12, 
5 1, 12). E. E. N. 

ABIRAM, a-bai'rom (ST38, '(Utlnram), 'the 
father is the High One': 1. A Reubenite (Nu 16 

I ff.). See KOHAII. 2. Eldest sou of Hiel of Bethel 
(I K 16 34). E. E. N. 

ABISHAG, ab'i-shag (J^K, 'dbhisttag) : A young 
Shunammite woman, nurse of David in his old 
age (I K 1 3, 15). Adonijah's request for her after 
David's death led to his execution (I K 2 17 ff.). 

E. E. N. 

ABISHAI, a-bi'shai (^38, 'ibhlshay): One of 
the ruthless sons of Zeruiah. He was Joab's elder 
brother, chief of staff during David's outlaw period 
and the leader of the Thirty (IS 26 off.; IIS 23 
18 ff.). His great exploits were the slaughter of 300 
Philistines, the rescue of David from Ishbi-benob 
(IIS 21 17), and the subjugation of Edom (I Ch 
18 12, but cf. II S 8 13). Without the calculating 
ferocity of Joab, he is consistently portrayed as the 
ineiter of David to acts of fierce reprisal (I S 26 8; 

II S 16 9). He disappears from history shortly after 
Absalom's rebellion. A. S. C. 

ABISHALOM, a-bish'a-lem. See ABSALOM. 

ABISHUA, a-bish'u-a (yitf^K, 'ibhlshua'), 'the 
father is wealth': 1. A priest, son of Phinehas (I Ch 
4 f., 50; Ezr 7 5). 2. The ancestor of a Benjamite 
clan (I Ch 8 4). E. E. N. 

ABISHUR, a-bish'Or (Ttf^S, 'dbhishur), 'the 
father is a wall': A son of Shammai (I Ch 2 28 f.). 

E. E. N. 

ABITAL, ab'i-tal (Vs'JK, 'dbhifal), 'the father is 
dew': A wife of David (II S 3 4; I Ch 3 3). 

E. E. N. 

ABITUB, ab'i-tub p-^H, 'Mihltubli), 'the 
father is good': A son of Shaharaim by Hushim 
(I Ch 8 11). E. E. N. 

ABIUD, a-bai'ud ('A/3.ov8): A son of Zerubbabel 
(only in Mt 1 13). E. E. N. 

ABJECTS (=;:, PsSolS): The RV margin 
"smiters" gives better sense, but is incorrect. Per- 
hap.s 'strangers' (impious Israelites) are meant. The 
Hebrew term occurs only here and is of uncertain 
meaning. E. E. N. 



ABNER, ab'ner C^K, 'nbhiiir), 'my father is 
a light': The cousin, or uncle, of Saul (I S 14 50; 

I ( h S 39 ff.) and his chief of staff. After the defeat 
and death of Saul at Mt. Gilboa (I S 31) Abner came 
forward as the champion of Ishbosheth, Saul's son 
(II S 2 8). He was defeated at the tournament and 
subsequent battle of Gibeon (II S 2 12 ff.), an old 
ancestral possession (I Ch 829). It was there that 
he slew Asahel (IIS 2 18 IT.), and thus started the 
blood-feud with the sons of Zeruiah. He was loyal 
to the house of Saul until Ishbosheth took him to 
task for his alleged conduct concerning Rizpah 
(II S 3 7 ff.); then he plotted to turn over all Israel 
to David, but Joab treacherously murdered him 
before this could be accomplished, whereupon David, 
not to lose his hold upon Israel, assumed the duty 
of blood-revenge which was carried out by Solomon 
(IK2Sf.). A. S. C. 

ABOMINATION rentiers Heb. terms as follows: 
(1) tofbhah, broadly that which gives offense either 
to God or to men, possibly because of inherent re- 
pulsiveness (e.g., Gn 46 34; Lv 18 22), or a violation 
of established customs (e.g., Pr 6 16, 11 1). (2) 
sli iqqiits, that which is hated as a religious offense. 
The term is frequently applied in contempt of the 
idols of the heathen (I K 11 5; Jer 13 27, etc.). (3) 
sheqets, i.e., 'taboo,' used only in Lv 11 10-42. (4) 
piggiil, sacrificial flesh which has become stale and 
hence loathsome and unfit for food (Lv 7 18, etc.). 
(The Greek term [used in LXX.] fidiXvypa is ge- 
neric, and means approximately the same as the 
English "abomination.") A. C. Z. 

ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION (Ti /38- 
Xuy/ia T/jr eprjp.a><rftas) only in Dn (9 27, 11 31, 
12 ll; "that maketh desolate," AV; "astonisheth," 
AVmg.) and in the 'Apocalypse of Jesus' (Mt 25 15; 
Mk 13 14). The latter, however, is a direct reference 
to the former. The original in Dn is susceptible of 
more than one rendering. It may be 'the abomi- 
nation that desolates' or 'the abomination that 
appals' (cf. Ox/. Heb. Lex. s.v. C"'y ). The term, 
moreover, which is translated "abomination" (shiq- 
quts) strictly means 'image of a false god' (cf. I K 

II 5; II K 23 13). What the author of Dn had in 
mind was the setting up in the Temple of a heathen 
idol, the presence of which there should strike the 
devout Israelite dumb with amazement and at the 
same time profane the sacred precincts, and be the 
signal of a terrible distress. This distress is con- 
ceived of as laying waste the country ((prifiaxris, 
'desolation,' Dn 9 26; Lk 21 20). The conception 
of Dn seems to have created an apocalyptic figure 
about which is centered all enmity against ttie true 
God and His will. The figure is used under different 
names in subsequent apocalyptic compositions. It is 
probable that the "Man of Sin" in the 'Little Apoca- 
lypse' (II Th 2 1-12) is one of these. The fact that 
Jesus points to the appearance of this figure as a sign 
by which His followers should recognize the definite 
beginning of the final stage of the Messianic era 
has led many persons to identify the abomination 
of desolation with some historic person, event, or 
thing, e.g., the Roman army (B. Weiss), desecration 
by zealots (Bleek and Alford), a statue of Caligula, 



A STANDARD BIBl,i; DICTIONARY 



Abinadab 
Absalom 






1 he Roman standard with the figure of the eagle, 
etc. But such identifications are futile, inasmuch as 
apocalyptic figures are embodiments of ideas whose 
concrete appearance in the form of historical facts or 
personages is not necessarily bound to individuals, 
but occurs with every realization of the idea. The 
abomination of desolation is actualized whenever 
its conception as above defined becomes an objective 
fact. A. C. Z. 

ABRAHAM, e'bra-ham (Err;;K, 'abhrShSm): The 
meaning and derivation of the word are uncertain. 
For Abram (E'58, i.e., Abiram [?]), cf. analogies 
in Abimelech, etc. Abc-ramu occurs on contract- 
tablets prior to Hammurabi (2250 B.C.). 'The 
Exalted One is (my) father' (or 'exalted father') is a 
probable translation. Abraham is perhaps an am- 
plified form, and Eu^ an otherwise unused variant 
of Cll (Ox/. Heb. Lex.). "Father of a multitude" 
(Gn 1 7 5) is a word-play between EH and ]"?2 Jl. 

A. holds a prominent place in the thought of both 
the O T and the N T. His name occurs repeatedly in 
the formulas of inheritance (Dt 18; II K 13 23), and in 
the assertion of the continuity of the religion (Ex 
3 15; I K 18 36). By the prophets he is seldom men- 
tioned, perhaps never in a pre-exilic passage, but 
this is hardly significant, considering the clear na- 
tional consciousness. The prophets assume his 
personality; he is God's "friend" (Is 41 8; cf. II Ch 
20 7); he was "one" (Is 51 2; Ezk 33 24; perhaps Mai 

2 15) ; Abraham and Sarah are progenitors (Is 51 2; cf. 
also Is 2922, 6316; Jer 3326; Mic 720). The NT 
recognizes A. as a race-father (Mt 39; Jn 8 33, 37, 39), 
but it is more deeply conscious of his profound sig- 
nificance as a hero of faith (He 1 1 8-1 1), his intimacy 
with God (Jn 8 56), and his spiritual fatherhood (Lk 
16 22; Ro4ll ff.). 

The present form of the narrative is due to the 
writer's desire to picture an ideal figure, embody- 
ing supreme religious conceptions. The following is 
the analysis: (1) Gn 12-14, A.'s character and great- 
ness. (2) Gn 15-22 19, the trials through which 
character was achieved. (3) Gn 23-25 8, the final 
acts of a well-rounded life. The thought of the cove- 
nant is ever dominant, but first is shown how exalted 
the hero was. He marches across the ancient world 
from the Euphrates to the Nile, his possessions in- 
crease in Canaan, he is able to overthrow the army 
of a world-conqueror. How did A. become so pow- 
erful? The answer is not through heaping to- 
gether wealth, -not through flocks and herds, not 
through conquest, bin by silent communion with 
God beneath the stars of heaven, by trials that 
tested his patience and wrung his heart, and by a 
life which found its goal not in earthly grandeur but 
in God. And he leaves the scene, not as one who 
has passed his prime, but as a king, who before he 
lays down the scepter prepares for his own depar- 
ture, and, with dignity and far-sightedness, for his 
heir, and for the children who have a claim upon his 
love but no share in the great promise of his line. 

The offering of Isaac, the crowning test of his 
faith, taught positively the need of a consummate 
sacrifice for the final ratification of the covenant, 
and negatively, that J" did not desire human sacri- 



fice. The site could hardly have been the Temple- 
mount, because (1) Jerusalem seems to have been 
already occupied (Gn 14 18) and (2) is much less than 
three days' journey (Gn 22 4) from Beer-sheba. 

While some maintain the absolute historicity of 
the entire Abrahamic narrative, others treat it as a 
myth, personalized tribal history, or the outgrowth 
of religious reflection. For A.'s actual existence, 
the persistent national tradition is a witness. The 
name is stamped too deeply upon the records to 
be but a fanciful creation. On the other hand, the 
narrative is so artistic as to indicate idealization. 
The minute particularizations (e.g., Gn 18) seem 
hardly consistent with literal history, and we should 
distinguish between the present form and the orig- 
inal substratum. Probably under the name of A. 
are preserved traditions of great tribal movements 
which began in Arabia, followed the Euphrates, 
crossed to Haran, and ended for the time in Canaan. 
The leader may well have been named Abraham, but 
the clan was originally the concrete reality. While 
his name nowhere occurs as a clan title, on an in- 
scription of Shishak the "field of Abram" is men- 
tioned (PEFQ, Jan., 1905, p. 7);cf. "field of Moab" 
(Nu 21 20). For a theory of the two names Abram 
and Abraham, see Paton, Early History oj Syria and 
Palestine, pp. 25-46. 

It is now the general consensus that the names of 
the four kings (Gn 14) are historical, though not, all 
have, with certainty, been identified. Gunkel ar- 
gues for the historicity of Melchizedek also. The 
forms, however, of the Elamite and Babylonian 
names have suffered much in transmission. The 
synchronism with Hammurabi (Amraphel) postu- 
lates a date earlier than was formerly assigned to A. 
The chapter forms the fitting conclusion to the pic- 
ture of Abraham's greatness. 

LITERATURE: Comm. on Genesis, by Delitzsch, Dillmann, 
Green, Gunkel. Driver; Hommel. Anc. Heb. Trad.; Kit- 
tel, Hist, of the Hebrews; Kent, Beginnings of Heb. His- 
tory; Orr, Problem of the O T. A. S. C. 

ABRAHAM'S BOSOM. See ESCHATOLOGY, 
38. 

ABRAM. See ABRAHAM. 

ABRECH, e'brec $}$,'abhrekh): The Hebrew 
original of "bow the knee" in Gn 41 43. The trans- 
lation thus given is probably not correct. Abrech 
does not correspond to any Hebrew word-form. 
The most probable view is that the true reading 
is abarak, a Babylonian term for a royal minister. 
On account of the political predominance of Baby- 
lonia, official terms in use in that country were in 
vogue also in Palestine and Egypt in the days of 
Joseph. J- F. McC. 

ABRONAH, a-bro'nu ( n ^?2, 'abhronfih, Ebro- 
nah AV): A station on the wilderness journey 
(Nu 33 34 f. ). Site unknown. E. E. N. 

ABSALOM, ab'sa-lem (C$$38, 'abhlshalom, 
Abishalom in I K 15 2, 10), 'father of peace,' per- 
haps so named as a good omen of David's growing 
power: David's third son, born at Hebron of 
Maacah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur (II S 



Abyss 

Acts of the Apostles 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



3 3). His character is delineated consistently 
throughout as fierce, revengeful, and treacherous. 
Evidently he inherited his traits from his mother's 
wild mountain ancestry. His first outbreak follows 
Amnon's outrage of Tamar (II S 13), and self- 
exiled, he appears to wait in (Jeshur a vindication of 
his act. Joab's ruse to bring him back (II S 14) 
seems to embody an attempt to secure the abroga- 
tion of the right of private blood-revenge. Absa- 
lom's recall was, therefore, equivalent to a legal 
enactment on the subject (II S 14 11). But his 
confinement thereafter to his own quarters was an 
affront which his untamed spirit could not brook, 
and which precipitated the insurrection wherein he 
perished (II S 18 14). The narrative (II S 13-19) 
is intended to show how the folly of each of the pre- 
sumptive heirs to the throne wrought their ruin 
and thus cleared the path for the youthful Solomon. 
Abijam (I K 15 2) and Asa (I K 15 10) were Absa- 
lom's descendants through Maacah. A. S. C. 

ABYSS (afivvo-ot), 'a place of great depth': 
As far as known the word is found only in the Greek 
of the Bible. It occurs frequently in the LXX. as the 
translation of the Hebrew t'how. deep. In the N T 
it is the name of Hades, the place of the dead (Ro 107; 
Lk 8 3i; Rev 9 1, 2, ll, 17 8, 20 l, 3. In AV of Rev, 
it is always rendered "the bottomless pit"). See 
also ESCHATOLOGY, 48. A. C. Z. 

ACACIA. See PALESTINE, 21. 

ACCAD, ac'ad ("S, 'akkadh): One of the four 
cities which, according to Gn 10 10, were the starting- 
point of the dominion of Nimrod in Babylonia. In 
the inscriptions the same word-form usually desig- 
nates not a city but the division of the country lying 
N. of the district about Babylon. The form Agade, 
however, is written as the name of a very ancient 
city, also in N. Babylonia, and supreme over the 
whole country about 3800 B.C. This is doubtless 
the same name as Accad, the g of the so-called 
Accadian language being regularly represented in 
proper names by k (c) in Semitic Babylonian. 

'Accadian' is the name given by Sir Henry Raw- 
linson to a supposed non-Semitic language, spoken 
and written in many inscriptions in Babylonia, and 
to the people employing it. These are, however, now 
generally named "Sumerian," since the inscriptions 
in question are found not in N. but in S. Babylonia, 
and Simmer is supposed to be a designation of the 
latter region. This is doubtful (see BABYLONIA, 
9). In any case 'Accadian' is a misnomer and 
should be discarded. J. F. McC. 

ACCO, ac'o C':V. 'kk,->, Accho AV; in Acts 21 7 
called Ptolemais; Arabic, 'akk(i): A Canaanite 
city in the territory of the tribe of Ashcr, whose in- 
habitants were not driven out by Israel. Fortified 
and situated on the seacoast at the N. end of the 
Bay of Acre, and on the mvin road along the coast, 
it was important for controlling the roads inland to 
the fertile plain of Esdraelon and to lower Galilee. 
From the earliest times down to the Crusades its 
-^ion was considered of great strategic value, 
although politically it was inferior to Tyre and Sidon. 



(See PALESTINE, 4.) At the close of the 3d cent. 
B.C. its name was changed to Ptolemais. Map IV, 
B 6. C. S. T. 

ACCURSED: The RV translation of ~V^ (Dt 
2123) and ^j (Is 65 20), from the root 'qiilul, 
meaning 'to esteem lightly.' The AV has "ac- 
cursed" in most OT passages, where the RV has 
"devoted" or "devoted thing." In the place of the 
AV "accursed" the RV in N T reads "anathema," 
the transliteration of the Greek word. See ANATH- 
EMA, DEVOTED, also Cunsrc. C. S. T. 

ACCUSATION. See SUPERSCRIPTION. 
ACELDAMA. See AKELDAMA. 



ACHAIA, a-ke'ya ('A^aia): The northernmost 
country of the Peloponnesus, but in Homer the 
country inhabited by the Aelueans, that is, all 
Greece. The Romans (after 27 n.c.) adopted the 
Homeric usage, and their Provincia Admin (capital, 
Corinth) included all Greece along with Thessaly, 
Aearnania, JStolia, Eubcea, and the Cyclades. This 
is N T usage, " Gallio, Proconsul of Achaia " (Ac 18 
12; cf. also 18 27; Ro 15 26, etc.). J. R. S. S. 



ACHAICUS, Q-ke'i-cus ('A^micof): Mentioned in 

1 Co 16 17 with Stephanas (q.v.) and Fortunatus. 
From the exhortation (ver. 1C; cf. I Th 5 12) we infer 
that A. and the others occupied some important po- 
sition in the Corinthian Church. Their attitude of 
friendliness relieved Paul's anxiety (ver. 18), partic- 
ularly in view of what was lacking in the Church's 
moral condition at the time (TO vpiTipov ia-ripr/fia, 
ver. 17b; cf. 5 l t.). J. M. T. 

ACHAN, e'can fiJJ', Tikhan, called Achar, I Ch 

2 7): A member of the tribe of Judah, who appro- 
priated treasure from the spoils of Jericho, thus 
violating the law of the ban (her em) (see CURSE, 
2), according to which spoils of war were sacred 
to Jehovah. This sin brought defeat on Israel at 
Ai. By lot Joshua discovered Achan to be the 
offender. In the valley of Achor he and his family 
were stoned to death, while all his property was 
burned (Jos 7 1-26). J. A. K. 

ACHAZ . See A H A z . 

ACHBOR, ac'bor ("*'??, 'akhbor), 'mouse': 1. 
The father of Baal-hanan, a king of Edom (Gn 36 
38 f.; I Ch 1 49). 2. A courtier under Josiali and 
Jehoiakim (II K 22 12-14 [but cf. II Ch 34 20]; Jer 26 
22, 36 12). I!. E. N. 



ACHIM, e/kim 
(Mt 1 14). 



An ancestor of Joseph 
E. E. N. 



ACHISH, e'kish (-"$, 'akhlsh): The Philistine 
king of Gath who befriended David (I S 21 10 ff.) 
and later gave him Ziklag. He demanded David's 
aid against Saul, but yielded to the objections of 
the Philistine princes (I S 27-29). He was still king 
at Solomon's accession, according to I K 2 30, but 
this seems improbable in view of David's conquest 
of Gath and of the chronological difficulty. 

' K. K. N, 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Abyss 

Acts of the Apostles 



ACHMETHA, ac'me-tha (N^SHS, 'ahm'tha'): 
A royal city in Media where the roll was found 
containing a copy of Cyrus" decree permitting the 
return of the Jews (Ezr 6 2). The word is the 
Aramaic equivalent of the Pers. Hagmatama or Ec- 
bat ana, as the Greeks spelled it. The site of the city 
mentioned in Ezra is somewhat uncertain. The old 
Median Ecbatana can not easily be identified with 
the beautifully situated Ecbatana, used by the Per- 
sian kings as a summer residence, now called Hama- 
dan; but it is probable that the latter is the city 
referred to both in Ezra and in To 6 5. E. E. N. 

ACHOR, e'kor, VALLEY OF (T:2 py, 'erneq 
'dkhor), 'valley of trouble': The valley near Jericho 
where Achan was stoned (Jos 7 24-26). Its identifi- 
cation with the Wady-el-Kelt is unsatisfactory. 
Jos 15 7 implies a more southern, Is 65 10 a more 
spacious valley. Hos 2 15 plays on the meaning of 
the term. E. E. N. 

ACHSAH,ac'sa (~y?*, 'akhsah, Achsa AV), 'an- 
klet': A daughter of Caleb (perhaps in reality a clan) 
given to Othniel for conquering Kiriath-sepher. 
The springs mentioned lay a few miles north of Debir 
(Jos 15 16 ff. ; Jg 1 12 ff. ; I Ch 2 49). E. E. N. 

ACHSHAPH, ac'saf (-"|$';8, 'akhshaph), 'sorcery': 
A town on the border of Asher (Jos 19 25) whose 
king was confederate with Jabin of Hazor against 
Joshua (Jos 1 1 1, 12 20). Site unknown. E. E. N. 

ACHZIB, ac'zib (2VJS, 'akhzlbh), 'winter tor- 
rent' (?): 1. One of the 22 towns of the tribe of 
Asher (Jos 19 29) on the seacoast S. of Tyre; the in- 
habitants were not driven out by Israel (Jg 1 31). 
Map IV, B 5. 2. A town in the Shephelah of Judah, 
mentioned with Keilah and Mareshah (Jos 1544), 
with Mareshah and A-lullam (Mic 1 14); the same as 
Cozeba (ICh422) and Chezib (Gn385). Map II, 
Dl. C. S. T. 

ACRE. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 2. 

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, THE: The book 
of Acts is unique. Without it any consecutive 
knowledge of the Apostolic Age could 
i. Intro- not be attained, even with the aid of 
ductory. the Pauline letters. With it as back- 
ground, all other data fall into order 
and unity in a way which speaks loudly for its his- 
toric worth. As, then, our hopes of constructing 
a sure picture of primitive Christianity depend 
largely on Acts, it is essential to form a correct 
idra as to its historicity. How far does it satisfy 
modern requirements? One thing must be borne 
in mind: Its author, alone of N T writers, claims 
to write history (xadf^s ypa-^rai.), and to have sat- 
isfied the conditions of accurate inquiry (nacnv 
igpifKt) necessary to give the reader a sense of se- 
curity (Iva f7Ti"/vws . . . rfjv a(T(j)a\fiav) touching 
tin 1 matters of Christian faith (TOIV Tr(ir\r]po<popri- 
fifviav fv rjfiiv irpayiiartav). Such is the cltiirn of the 
preface to his work in two parts, of which Acts is the 
second. It was meant as serious history, occa- 
sioned too by the consciousness that existing narra- 



tives dealing with the same class of facts were not 
satisfactory in this very respect, as a basis of ra- 
tional historic assurance. 

But, it will be said, there is history and history. 
We need to know how far Acts is an objective 
record of objective facts. As to the objectivity of 
its author's attitude, Ramsay is probably right in 
claiming for Acts a place among histories of the first 
rank, in which nothing is allowed consciously to 
deflect the historian from stating things as (hey 
really occurred. Only this does not mean the dead, 
superficial fidelity of a photograph, giving no guid- 
ance to the beholder by light and relief. Our author 
gives an interpretation of the story, particularly of 
its religious meaning, in order to aid one seeking for 
religious truth, so far as this can find expression in 
history. But this need not make him inaccurate, 
or ready to suppress facts material to the line of ex- 
position selected in keeping with the total effect of all 
known to the writer, though much can not be brought 
in for reasons of space and perspective. Whether 
all that reached him as 'facts,' or even all that he 
had verified for himself as such, were really objective 
facts at least as we should interpret them to-day 
is another question. This can not here be discussed, 
save as regards the probability that our author was 
himself an eye-witness of a large number of them 
and these often, as Harnack points out, of the same 
'supernatural' order as those which he records on 
the evidence of others and in so far as we can infer 
that those others were themselves eye-witnesses or 
drew their impressions directly from such. Ap- 
proach, however, to all such problems lies through 
a consideration of the general drift of Acts, and of 
its verisimilitude or otherwise. The question of its 
Scope will lead on to those of its Aims, Occasion and 
Provenance, Authorship, and Date. The final test 
of all these will be their mutual coherence as the 
simplest theory for unifying an immense complex of 
phenomena, literary and historical. 

Acts sets forth in orderly sequence (KaSfgqs) 

how the Divine Society constituted by the Gospel 

spread, in ever-widening circles, from 

2. Scope its native home in Jerusalem even unto 
and Plan. Rome, the distant capital of the world. 
This appears from the commission (1 8) 
given at the final interview between Jesus and those 
who as "witnesses" were to continue His ministry, 
and who, as so commissioned, were "apostles" in the 
wider sense, as distinct from the Twelve (see 1 6, 14 f ., 
21 ; Lk 24 33 ff., and I Co 157, rots cnrotrr6\ois iratrtv). 
We gather that their horizon was still conflned to a 
Messianic Kingdom for Israel (1 6); and, in fact, 
down to ch. xv we find, traced with a care implying 
a very primitive standpoint (for A.D. 70 effaced 
such shades of distinction), the gradual steps by 
which they accepted the logic of Divine facts, even 
when running counter to preconceived theory, in the 
annulling of Jewish restrictions upon membership in 
God's Kingdom. The one secret of this triumph 
of the Divine over human limitations as of all 
those triumphs which constitute the moral of the 
book and its high argument lay in the power of the 
Holy Spirit upon and through the Lord's witnesses. 
This is surely true to life. Here, too, lay the conti- 
nuity between our author's two books: the same 



Acts of the Apostles 



A STAMiAKP BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Spirit qualified (lir Master and His disciples (Lk 4 14, 
24 49; Ac 1 1 f., 8, 2 33, cf. 16 7, "the spirit of Jesus") 
both to do and endure; for (lie pathway of 'glory 
through suffering' was God's counsel for both (Lk 
24 26, 4 ; Ac 14 22, cf. 5 41). The traditional Jewish 
forms of thought touching the mode of the King- 
dom's consummation within the generation then 
living (Lk 21 32, cf. 932; Ac 1 11, 320f.), and the 
natural assumption thai .leu ish forms of worship and 
ritual still held good, did not suddenly fall away. 
The Gospel did not destroy save through being seen 
to fulfil. These things simply faded away in the 
growing light which spread from the new luminary of 
the spiritual world; and the subjective power to ap- 
propriate all in Him turned on the Messianic gift, the 
''Spirit of the Lord'' in new form and fulness, which 
constituted the New Israel out of the Old in spite of 
ils wonted stiff-necked resistance to the Holy Spirit 
(751). Israel was even then a " crooked generation," 
from which '"salvation" was needful (2 40, 4 12, cf. 
14 26). 

Accordingly the Messianic outpouring of the 
Spirit at Pentecost holds the same determinative 
place in Acts as in the Gospel the coming of the 
Messianic consciousness to Jesus Himself unfolded 
in the discourse in the synagogue at Nazareth 
(3 2lb, 4 14-30). The parallel is all the closer in 
that, in both cases, rejection by Judaism follows, be- 
cause the conditions of the Kingdom are presented 
as purely spiritual, so that birth confers nothing but 
prior opportunity. Thus Acts depicts, first, the 
Divine power and spirituality of life manifest in the 
nucleus of the coming Kingdom, the new Ecclesia; 
while Judaism passes self-judgment upon itself, step 
by step, by hardness of heart to the Spirit's appeal 
(chs. 3-5). Anon we are shown a certain differentia- 
tion within the new Ecclesia itself, between the less 
and the more progressive types those strictly "He- 
brews, " and those in fuller sympathy with Israel's- 
wider heritage owing to experience of the Greek 
world, the "Hellenists." The spokesman of the 
latter is Stephen, whose speech before the official 
representatives of strict Judaism indicates the prin- 
ciples at issue, and foreshadows the line of develop- 
ment for the Ecclesia. Then the shaking of perse- 
cution (chs. 6, 7) providentially spreads this true 
seed beyond Jerusalem, in various soils more and 
more remote from those heretofore held fit for the 
reception of God's word. Thus the Samaritans re- 
spond to Philip the Evangelist and are solemnly 
adjudged of God by the Messianic gift, through the 
agency of Peter and John most authoritative of 
" apostles" worthy of life: an imperfect proselyte (a 
eunuch) is by special Divine action admitted, less 
publicly, through Philip: there follow proofs of 
God's hand with His new Ecclesia, in the conversion 
and parly ministry of Saul, the leader of the recent 
persecution, and next in typical incidents taken from 
Peter's missionary work in Judaea; and then the latter 
is led to sanction the admission of a group of prose- 
lytes to the spirit merely of Judaism, and not to the 
letter of its requirements (through circumcision) in 
sheer deference to God's manifest will in the gift of 
the Spirit. This case is made the more significant by 
being challenged at Jerusalem and successfully vin- 
dicated by Peter, on the ground that God had acted 



and could not be gainsaid. Thus "to the Gentiles 
had God given repentance unto life" (11 18). 

This occurred at Cscsarea, just beyond the borders 
of the Holy Land of Judaea proper (from which Peter 
had passed in coming from Joppa, 43, 11 5, 11; cf. 
Knowling, on 8 40), and might hardly have been 
tolerated nearer to Jerusalem. Further it affected 
but few in the first instance, and was probably not 
expected to extend very far either numerically or 
locally. But in both respects God was already on 
the way to transcend Jewish-Christian thought even 
more signally. Yet here too progress was gradual, 
and no sharp breach was actually caused with the 
Palestinian Ecclesia. This, so far, had conceived of 
itself as "the Ecclesia" (eVcicXi/crta, 'called sect,' usu- 
ally rendered "church"), made up of "the saints" 
proper (9 32, 41; cf. 9 13, 26 10; also I Co 16 1; Ro 
15 25), while non-Jewish adherents were Messianic 
proselytes on the skirts of Israel (as with orthodox 
Judaism ). Such a conception would be helped by t he 
sense that all was still provisional. "The Lord was 
at hand," and He would perfect all in His Ecclesia. 
But the conception was menaced as soon as mem- 
bership in the Ecclesia extended far beyond Pales- 
tine, and included by special Divine bounty large 
masses of persons hitherto assumed to be exceptions 
by special Divine bounty. This is what happened 
at Antioch, which therefore is treated as the second 
home of the Gospel, and then as the starting-point 
of the Gentile Mission proper. But the actual ex- 
tent of the fresh departure, in its beginnings, is 
doubtful. According to the best MSS reading in 
11 20 the "great number" who there hastened to be- 
lieve were "Hellenists," and therefore Jews of a 
kind, yet not of the kind which had hitherto consti- 
tuted the great mass of "the Ecclesia" in the Holy 
Land. So great a change in relative proportions 
would in itself warrant the sending of some one to 
examine matters and report; and we notice that 
Barnabas, himself a Hellenist, was chosen, and not 
Peter and John (as for Samaria), which would surely 
have been the case if anything so revolutionary as a 
preponderance of uncircumcised "Greeks" (the other 
reading) had appeared at this stage even outside 
Palestine. 

Hort (Judaistic Christianity [1894], p. 59 f.) seems right in 
insisting on the more difficult reading of BD 2 EHLP, sup- 
ported by X* eua-yY<Ai<TT; see also 13 , cf. 14 ". The au- 
thor's meaning seems to have been missed by the other MS 
authorities, through tuking the 6 in fivav 5e Ttpes { aurwv- 
KTA, as adversative to the foregoing oi per ovy tiaffiraptv* 
to the undue prejudice of ^Tjfievi . . . ei ^ ft-oi'ov 'loufiaiots', 
whereas it really appends a special instance as in 8 4 f -, and 
elsewhere in Acts. So it is to be rendered: "Now there 
were certain of them, men of Cyprus and Cyrene, such as 
(oi'Tir, cf. 9 35 ) on reaching Antioch began to address the 
Hellenists." It seems best, therefore, to follow X" DEHLP 
al. pier. sah. cop. syr. lr . arm. oeth. col. gig. vg codd Chry. 
in omitting Kai, since its presence in X* AB may well be due 
to the feeling that it is needful to the antithetic relation of 
ver. " to ver. M which they agree with the authorities for 
*EAA>)i/as in reading into the passage. 

In any case the extension to Antioch, standing 
midway between the Jewish and Greek spheres, was 
a momentous step; and there, we read signifi- 
cantly, the disciples of Jesus first obtained the name 
distinguishing them from Jews proper, "Christians." 
There too begins the association of Saul with Bar- 



A STAXDAlil) HII!I,I<; DICTIONARY 



Acts of the Apostles 



nabas, which marks the next stage of advance still 
wit hout loss of touch with the old center, Judcea (11 
27-30). But before leaving the fortunes of the Gos- 
pel in its first home, we are shown how attempts to 
harm it ever turned, by God's grace, to the confu- 
sion of its foes (eh. 12): then, with a verse reestab- 
lishing sequence with ch. 11, we pass on to the be- 
ginnings of the real Gentile mission, with its base at 
Antioch. 

And now Saul who at the psychological moment 
(13 9) is given his Gentile name, Paul comes out in 
his true role as the main agent of *he Divine counsel 
in the wider destiny of the Gospel, as surely as Peter 
had been the pioneer of its more restricted scope. 
The 'turning to the Gentiles' is narrated very em- 
phatically in 13 46-48, while the moral of the whole 
mission is pointed in 1427, "all things that God 
had done with them," so showing "that he had 
opened a door of faith unto the Gentiles." It was 
seemingly the news of this great extension of Gentile 
Christianity on principle that drove the more re- 
actionary wing of the Jerusalem church (now in- 
cluding Pharisees, 15 5) to action in Antioch (as also 
in Galatia), where it was felt that the issue had to be 
fought out (see GALATIANS, 3). With the Jeru- 
salem Concordat, which settled it for the time, i.e. 
as it arose in Syria and Cilicia (and Galatia), where 
the Jewish element, side by side with the Gentile, 
was large, the story, as so far told, reaches its natural 
conclusion (15 35). Hitherto it has been treated 
from the Hellenistic standpoint, from which the con- 
ditions of intercourse in the Ecclesia between Jew 
and Gentile, set forth in 15 20, 29, seemed to be min- 
imum concessions (ravra ra evavayKts) to unity 
on the part of godly Gentiles. Hereafter, however, 
the horizon widens enormously; new interests and 
conditions arise: the old platform becomes too nar- 
row in practise, where Gentiles more and more out- 
number Jewish converts in typically Gentile regions. 
Antioch and its associations are largely left behind; 
and the history gathers round the career of the 
Apostle of the Gentiles, whose personal commission 
determines his conduct in regions to which, in his 
judgment, the Jerusalem compact was inapplicable. 

Here space forbids any full discussion. As regards chy. 
1-12 the present writer feels that neither the hypothesis of 

merely oral traditions nor the usual theories 

3. Sources O f written sources Aramaic (so now Har- 

Ol nack) or Greek can fully meet the case. 

Acts. The use of a Hellenistic or Antiochene source 

would account for the bulk of these chap- 
ters, but there is need also of the view broached in the com- 
mentary on Acts in the Century Bible (1901), viz.. that Luke 
wrote some of Acts 1-12 (or even 15 3;I ) on the basis of notes 
taken down by himself from the lips of excellent infornuin Is. 
and largely in their own words (which explains the distinc- 
tive language and thoughts shining through the present 
Lucan narrative). Probably Philip, Hellenist and Evan- 
gelist, was his main oral source for such notes as to the Je- 
rusalem and Judji-an church, taken during Paul's detention 
in Cirsarea (cf. 21 8 '). Mark or his mother may be the 
channel through whom most of ch. 12 (with its intimate 
reference to Mark's home and the maid servant and the 
abrupt naming of James, the Lord's brother) reached 
Luke. Stephen's speech may or may not have come 
through Philip; at all events it came through a Hellenist 
of the same circle or type as the author of the Epistle to 
the Hebrews (the affinities with which are well pointed out 
by Dr. B. W. Bacon, Stephen's Speech, in Yale Biblirnl 
Studiet, 1901). For Saul's history during that period, Paul 
himself and Luke's own notes of Paul's defenses at Jcru- 



sulfiTi and ('irsaroa (not always quite at first hnnd) would 
contribute something. Other and more purely traditional 
elements, e.g. the idea of Pentecost as involving foreign 
tongues in contrast to Peter's speech on that occasion 
may be due to Hellenists in Antioch. The Kirst Mission- 
ary Journey (13-14) probably reflects the account given 
by an eye-witness (Titus?) on returning to Antioch. I <.r 
the latter part of Acts all is due to Luke's memory or notes, 
as the case may be; nor is the absence of "we" any sure 
Hisproof of his presence, as it may have merely a psycho- 
logical or emotional significance. 



Henceforth the moti/s underlying the narrative, 
and causing selection from a larger mass of mate- 
rials, become more varied. The central 
4. Aims, one so far, the universal spirit of the 
old religion, as of Divine origin in 
spite of Jewish blindness and hardness of heart, now 
as in former days (cf. Stephen's Speech) persists to 
the end, with its climax at Rome (28 17-28). But 
with it blends more and more another idea, its coun- 
terpart, viz., the witness borne by the attitude of 
typical representatives of the Gentile world, the 
Roman Empire in the widest sense, that the hostility 
of actual Judaism was vexatious and groundless. 
Further, as far as Judaism might try to crush its 
rival by suggesting that it was an element of disorder 
and even of disloyalty in the Empire itself, the early 
history of the Christian Church and its relations to 
the Roman State, its law and order, refuted the 
charges. Such troubles as had arisen were in fact 
due to Jewish jealousy and misrepresentation. All 
these lines of thought meet in Paul himself, both in 
his outer lot and in his attitude, whether to his na- 
tional religion or to Roman citizenship. To both 
he was essentially loyal. This explains the long and 
at first sight unduly prolix story of Paul's last visit 
to Jerusalem and its issues, particularly the repeated 
speeches of defense. Paul, in fact, was the em- 
bodied apologia of the Church in the Roman Empire, 
over against all its traducers (cf. Von Soden, Early 
Christian Literature [1906], pp. 230 ff.). 

The occasion of Acts, then, like that of all NT 
writings, is practical. It is determined by pressing 
religious needs, not by abstract or scientific interests. 
It is an apology for the religion of Jesus, addressed 
primarily to men of faith, yet a faith distressed both 
by bitter opposition and by some perplexities of 
thought, not as yet quite at home with the deeper 
ideas of the new religion as one of power shown 
through suffering, not through prosperity (the notion 
of ancient religion generally). But while primarily 
meant for actual faith, Luke's writings, perhaps 
alone in the N T, look also to potential faith outside, 
in 'men of good-will' who need only to know the 
facts, in all the improssiveness of their true order 
so that their real meaning jumps to the eye in order 
to believe in the "Kingdom of God" among men. 

Where, then, was such a work likely to arise? 
Internal evidence suggests that the region in which 
its first readers were most interested 
5. Pro- was the Roman province of Asia (note 
venance. references to Paul's abortive wish to 
visit it and Bithynia in 16 6 f.), where 
the concrete narrative becomes most detailed and the 
topography most minute (18 24-21 1; contrast the 
verses given to the last visit to Greece, 20 2-5). Dif- 
ferences, even, and abuses among believers emerge 



Acts of the Apostles 
Adam 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



10 



at Ephesus (18 24-19 7, John's baptism, and 20 26-36, 
forecast of that church's future dangers), as nowhere 
else. Observe too the calm allusiveness of the ref- 
erence to "the school of Tyrannus" (TWOS was soon 
added to soften it) in 10 9, as though self-explana- 
tory to "Theophilus" and his circle (cf. the abrupt 
reference to Alexander in 19 33); also the triviality 
of the itinerary in 20 13-15, save for those familiar' 
with the coast between Troas and Ephesus. 

Here reference may be made to some of the most striking 
of the readings in Codex Bezae, etc. A whole series of them 
betray special acquaintance with Asia Minor (Ramsay) ; and 
these are among the oldest of the so-called 'Western' or 
ft text. But they are never more than intelligent glosses, 
showing that Acts was read with more than special interest 
in the region. The change in 15 20 ' 20 , where the abstinences 
lose their ceremonial or Jewish reference, may also have 
arisen in Asia, especially as it is already found in Irenseus. 

Finally consider the correspondence between this 
environment and the inottfs of Acts, as already de- 
scribed: the numbers and influence of the Jews in 
Asia (referred to in 21 27, 24 19 as prime causes of 
Paul's arrest); the bitterness of their hostility to the 
Christians both in the later Apostolic age (Rev 
29f.) and in Polycarp's day; the interest for this 
region of the modus Vivendi of Acts 15 20, 29, in the 
light especially of Rev 2 6, 14 f., 20; and the problem 
of the internal relations of Judaism and Christianity 
there as late as Ignatius' day. Surely these things 
constitute strong cumulative evidence for Asia, and 
Ephesus in particular, as the original home of Acts. 

If this be granted, it will nUl also to our evidence 

for date, in so far as the tone of Acts is optimistic 

touching Rome's attitude to Christians, apart from 

Jewish envy and slander. It assumes 

6. Date, that Rome may continue its old policy 
of treating Christianity as a form, the 
most legitimate form, of Israel's religion, and as 
sharing its status as a religio licita, exclusive of the 
forms of the Imperial cult, as of every other 'idol- 
atrous' worship, yet not therefore disloyal to Rome 
and Csesar. When exactly the course of events in 
Asia, the center of fanatical Caesar-worship, ren- 
dered such hopes untenable, it is hard to say. But 
relatively early, we may be sure, apart even from 
the evidence of Rev, the date of which is itself an 
open question. Harnack thinks a date about 80 
A.D. most probable: the present writer inclines to a 
date earlier in the Vespasian era, as better suiting 
the words of the Gospel (21 32, cf. 926f.) touching 
the fulfilment of "all things" before the passing of 
the original generation of Christ's hearers. The ex- 
periences of the era of the siege and fall of Jerusalem 
seem clearly implied in the wording of Luke 21; but 
the "times of the Gentiles" seem only just begin- 
ning to be fulfilled (21 24, 28). Still "redemption 
draweth nigh," and some of Christ's generation 
will see it. 

The argument for a date about 100 A.D. derived from par- 
allels with Josephus' Antiquities is quite "in the air" (Har- 
nack, op. cit., p. 18). It does not account for the diver- 
gences in the case either of Theudas (5 3a , e.g., the number 
400) whatever be made of the account in Acts or of 
Herod (12 20 ") On the other hand, it is unsafe to argue 
from the point at which Acts ends (01-62 A.D.) ; for the nar- 
rative has reached its natural climax when the Gospel is 
preached by Paul in Rome. Paulus Ifomte apex evanffelii. 
Nothing of equal significance could be added. The heroic 



age, in which the Divine power working in Christ's wit- 
nesses was most manifest, was already well-nigh over. 

Finally a date between 70 and 80 A.D. best suits 
the most probable theory as to authorship, viz., that 

the whole work, as distinct from a sup- 

7. Author- posed Travel-diary cropping out here 

ship. and there between chs. 16 and 28 

comes from Luke, "the beloved physi- 
cian," companion and helper in the Gospel to Paul, 
who is the hero of the book's most moving sections 
fromch. 9 onward. Harnack has recently accepted 
and restated in Lukas dcr Arzt the arguments used 
by scientific defenders of the traditional authorship, 1 
such as Hobart in The Medical Language oj St. Luke 
(1882), and Sir J. C. Hawkins in florae Synoptics 
(1899), as regards the stylistic unity of Acts gener- 
ally. At present, then, as far as linguistic evidence 
goes, this view may be said to hold the field. The 
weakness of the counterview, which assigns Acts to 
about 100 A.D., is seen in the paradox to which it is 
driven, in order to account for certain Hellenistic 
features in the warp and woof of the book, that its 
final author was a 'Hellenistic Jew' (so Wendt and 
B. W. Bacon). The form of the preface to both 
works, and their whole feeling when dealing with 
GrsDCO-Roman matters (cf. Ramsay), make this 
most unlikely. Luke, however, though born a Gen- 
tile (whether Syrian or Greek in race), would natu- 
rally have much of the Hellenist in his training he 
may have been a Jewish proselyte to begin with 
and suits the complex conditions of the problem, 
both of style and thought, completely. Early tra- 
dition touching him is well summed up in the Mon- 
archian Prologue to Luke's Gospel: "Luke, a Syrian 
by race, an Antiochene, 2 by profession a physician, 
. . . departed this life at the age of seventy-four in 
Bithynia." The latter statements, in no way sus- 
picious in themselves, agree well with the foregoing 
theory in all respects. 

One confirmation of Luke's authorship lies in the appar- 
ent non-use of the Pauline letters, which any one save a 
. companion of Paul's would eagerly study 
o. Relation for data. Particularly striking is the case as 
to the regards the Epistle to the Galatians, which 
Pauline runs parallel to much in Acts, and the ab- 
Letters. sence of exact harmony with which is by 
some made a prime reason for denying 
Lucan authorship. As this case is crucial for the histo- 
ricity of Acts, we must deal with it somewhat fully, instead 
of trying to discuss minor problems of like order. 

Some still regard Acts 15 and Gal 2 >- 10 as both histor- 
ically trustworthy versions of the same incident, in spite 
of their marked differences. Such differences are, e.g. . (1) 
their ostensible occasion; (2) the privacy implied in Gal 

1 This is supported by very early and wide-spread evi- 
dence, going back as far as Marcion (c. 140 A.D.) , for Luke's 
Gospel. This is natural, if Harnack be right in saying 
that a work with a Prologue must from the first have had its 
author's name in the title. Evidence of the use of Acts is 
probable (so HOLTZMANN) in Ignatius of Antioch and Poly- 
carp of Smyrna, c. 115 A.D., and perhaps even in Clement of 
Rome (xviii. 1, cf. Acts 13 22 ), c. 96 A.D. 

2 Knowledge of this fact (and nothing else) is perhaps im- 
plied in the early reading of D also Aug. after 11 - 7 , "and 
when we were gathered together," etc. -unless we have 
here secondary use of an Antiochene source underlying Acts. 
Note also the intimate knowledge of the Antiochene Church 
shown in Acts 1 1 28 , 13 , cf . 6 6 fin. 

3 At best, Paul's account could apply only to a private con- 
ference at the time of Acts 15, but not there recorded, while 
yet Paul lays all the stress on it (but see GAI.ATIANS. 3). 



11 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Acts of the Apostles 
Adam 



(where it was important for the purpose of Paul's argument 
to emphasize the public vindication of his own Gospel, if 
it had then occurred) ; (3) the practical conditions laid down 
for keeping the two separate missions in sufficient touch 
with each other ns to which Paul's language in Gal 2 10 , 
"only," etc., formally excludes any other terms than those 
he specifies; (4) the clear implication both of Paul's logic 
(which does not leave him free to pass over any visit be- 
tween Gal 1 18 and 2 ' without explanation) and of the state- 
ment that lie remained still unknown by face to the churches 
of Judxa (1 22 ' ), to the effect that no visit to Jerusalem fell 
between those in Gal 1 18 and 2 ', whereas Acts II 27 If - re- 
cords a relief visit to Judaea after Gal I 18 ; (5) the contrast 
between the attitude of Peter and yet more of Barnabas 
(after his Gentile experiences in Acts 13-14) in Gal 2 " ", 
with what we should gather of them in Acts 15 (esp. s - 36 ). 
Those who see their way around these differences must be 
allowed to take their own course ; but they can not fairly cite 
Lightfoot's authority, since the 'South-Galatian' theory, 
which makes Paul in Galatians address a totally different 
body of readers from that contemplated by him, has become 
so widely accepted, even by defenders of Acts IJ^Ga^ 1 - 10 . 
This changes the whole perspective. In particular it makes 
the natural assumption that Paul is defending the inde- 
pendent authority of his Gospel as proved prior to his " be- 
getting" his readers by its agency an assumption involved 
by Lightfoot's 'North-Galatian' theory tell heavily against 
Acts 15 = Gal 2 1 -' on the current theory. 

Turning, then, to those who agree in regarding the forego- 
ing historical equation impossible, we have two types of the- 
ory. The one frankly denies any real historicity to Acts 15, 
and in most cases performs a critical operation on its organic 
unity, separating the conditions contemplated in 15 2 . 2 , 
cf. 21 25 , from the narrative as a whole, and relegating them 
to some later occasion, real or supposed. This leaves Acts 
thoroughly discredited and its Lucan authorship out of the 
question. Here Harnack's present position is untenable, as 
Schurer presses home in the TLZ (1906, cols. 406 f.). He 
must unify his literature and historical results somehow. 
The other simply challenges the traditional dogma that 
Acts 15 must be meant to refer to the same visit as Gal 2 
'- 10 , and sets about finding an earlier stage in the story of the 
Gospel's extension in Acts with which it may be correlated. 
Thus there is no reason why a private conference should not 
have taken place between the Antiochene and Jerusalem 
leaders touching their respective 'missions' with a view to 
anticipate public difficulties such as a Paul would readily 
foresee (cf. Gal 2 ! ) prior to the emergence of public occa- 
sion 1 for deputation of Acts 15 2 ("and certain others"). 
Distinguiie tempara. As yet the problem was not one pres- 
ent to the rank and file at all, only to Paul himself in the 
first instance leading him up "by revelation" to make sure 
of the "pillar" apostles. On this occasion these devout fol- 
lowers of the finger of God (cf. Acts 1 1 ", and later 1.5 12 ->*) 
felt the unity of the Divine working visible in both types of 
mission, and simply requested that Paul should see to it that 
he and his converts "should remember the poor" in keeping 
with the best traditions of Jewish piety (cf. Acts 2 3< ") a 
principle for which Paul was himself already zealous. It is 
just here that the second theory divides into alternative 
forms. Ramsay, followed by V. Weber and others, sees in 
the wording of Gal 2 10 a reference to Paul's being in Jerusa- 
lem for the very purpose of showing the Antiochene mind- 
fulness of the poor saints in Jud.-r-a (Acts 11 ). But the 
present writer considers this identification exegetically 
forced and views that relief visit rather as an early proof 2 of 
Paul's zeal for the principle expressed in Gal 2 10 . That is, it 
is simplest and best to assume, as we are free to do since 
the account in Acts is so far from professing to be a com- 
plete narrative that the visit of Gal 2 '-' is an otherwise 
unrecorded visit, preparing the way privately for that other 
and public concordat which was occasioned by overt con- 

1 I see no such occasion in Gal 2 < ' There is no sugges- 
tion such as Paul's readers could be expected to follow, that 
the "false brethren" were "brought in" at Antioch, rather 
than at the private conference in Jerusalem mentioned just 
before. 

2 See Erpimitnr (Oct., 1899), p. 268: cf. O. Iloltzmann 
inZNTW Mill I.',), pp. 102 fT. : "Hut then the journey to the 
Apostolic conference and the first Collection-journey fall in 
the period immediately after Acts II 2 '; one must assume 
that both journeys followed one another quickly, as Gal 2 "> 
lets one suppose." 



troversy in Antioch some years later (but see GAI.ATIANS, 
3). Thus there is no necessary clash between Acts 15 and 
Gal. 2 '">; and with similar allowance for different per- 
spective, we may say the same for Acts 9 and Gal 1 ', 
touching Paul's movements in the first years after his con- 
version. 

LITERATURE: A full discussion of the literature on Acts will 
be found in the last edition of Meyer's Kommenter (1899), 
by Wemlt, and in Knowling's Comm. in thr Expo 
Greek Test. (1900), supplemented by his Testimony nf ,S7. 
Paul to Christ (1905); see also Moffatt's liislaricnl 
Testament (1901), and C. Clemen, Paulus (1904), i. 162- 
330. Add Harnack, Lukas der Arzt tier Verjasser des 
dritten Ew.ngeliu.rn u. der Apostelgeschichte (1906) Enu 
tr. (1907). J V . B. 

AD AD AH, ad'a-da (~~yV, 'adh'adhah): A town 
on the S. border of Judah (Jos 15 22). Probably 
the Aroer (q.v.) of I S 30 28. E. E. N. 

ADAH, e'dfl (rn$, 'adhah), 'beauty': 1. A wife 
of Lamech (Gn4i9ff.). 2. The Hittite wife of 
Esau (Gn 362 ff.). g. E. N. 

ADAIAH, a-d6'ya (IT-,?., 'ddhayah), 'J" has 
adorned': 1. The maternal grandfather of King 
Josiah, of Bozketh in the Shephelah of Judah (II K 
22 l). 2. A Levite of the sons of the Kohathites 
(I Oh 6 41). 3. A Benjamite of the family of Shimei 
(Shemaver.13), (ICh82l)of Jerusalem. 4. Apriest 
dwelling in Jerusalem (I Ch 9 12). 6. The father of 
Maaseiah (II Ch 23 l, here spelled VTJS). 6. A 
man of the family of Bani of the post-exilic Jewish 
community who had married a foreign wife (Ezr 
10 29). 7. Another of same family and guilty of 
same offense (Ezr 10 39). 8. A descendant of Perez, 
son of Judah (Neh 11 5). 9. A priest, son of Jeroham, 
in the post-exilic list of the inhabitants of Jerusalem; 
probably the same as 4 (Neh 11 12). C. S. T. 



ADALIA, ad"a-lai'a (N; 
Hainan's ten sons (Est 9 8). 



'tdhalya'): One of 
E. E. N. 



ADAM, ad'am (E~N, 'adham, from root C~iN, 'to 
build,' 'produce'?): I. According to the crea- 
tion story of Genesis the name of the first man of the 
race. The Hebrew word used without the article is 
the name of the first man (On 4 25, 5 1, 3-5; I Ch 1 1; 
also Gn 2 20, 3 17, 21?); with the article, it should be 
translated 'the man,' as it is in most instances in 
RV, where AV has " Adam." It is used as the name 
of the first man where it is necessary to distinguish 
him from his descendants. In the N T the Greek 
transliteration 'Afidfi is used as the name of the first 
man (Jude ver. 14), who is looked upon as the father 
of the whole human race, so closely connected with 
all men that he involved all in his acts (Ro 5 14a; I 
Co 15 45a; I Ti 2 13 f.). In Ro 5 14b (5 12 f.), I Co 
15 22 Paul brings out the historical connection of 
Adam with humanity, in representing him as being 
the author of sin and death for all by his one act of 
disobedience; in this he is a type though by con- 
trast in result of Christ, who by His one act of obe- 
dience is the conqueror of sin and death. In I Co 
1545 Paul seems to go from the influence exerted 
historically to nature, i.e., to the relation in which 
they stand to humanity; Adam the first sensuous, 



Adam 
Adullam 



A STANDARD HI BMC DICTIONARY 



earthly man, Christ the second ami last, the spiritual 
and heavenly man. 

II. The name of a city in the Jordan valley, near 
the mouth of the Jabbok, where the waters were 
dammed up when Joshua led Israel into Canaan 
(Jos 3 16). Map III, II 4. C. S. T. 

ADAM, THE BOOKS OF: This general title is 
given to a number of apocryphal and apocalyptic 
productions (by Christian hands working on Jewish 
originals), embodying semireligious romances in 
which Adam and Eve figured as the chief characters 
and the story of Gn 3 is supplemented and embel- 
lished by legendary or mythical accretions. The 
books are: 1. The Narrative and Citizenship of 
Adam and Eve (ed. Tischendorf, 1867; also in a 
Latin form, Vita Ad<e et Krcr); 2. The Mandaite 
Sacred Book of Adam; 3. The Ethiopic Book of 
Adam ; 4. The Syriac Treasure Care oj Adam (basei 1 
upon the preceding); 6. The Syrian Testamentum 
Adami (cf. Hort, in DCB). A. C. Z. 

AD AMAH, ad'a-mci (<~^-,X., 'adhamah): A city 
of Naphtali (Jos 19 36). The identification, Map 
IV, G 7, is uncertain. E. E. N. 

ADAMANT. See STONES, PRECIOUS, 3. 

ADAMI-NEKEB, ad"n-mni-nek'eb Pi?|n "Xn^ 

'atlhanu ha-neqebh): A town on the NW. border of 
Xaphtali (Jos 19 33). Its site is uncertain. 

E. E. N. 

ADAR. See TIME, 3, and ADDAR II. 

ADBEEL, ad'l>e-el (Vsp-tf, 'adhb-'fl): A 'son' of 
Ishmael (Gn 25 13; I Ch 1 29). An Arabian tribe 
Idiba'U near Egypt is mentioned in the Assyrian 
inscriptions. E. E. N. 

ADDAN, ad'dan Q~N, 'addan): The Babylonian 
home of cert ain exiles who were unable to prove their 
genealogy (Ezr 2 59). Called Addon in Neh 7 61 ff. 
Site unknown. E. E. N. 

ADDAR, ad'dar (1~8, 'nddar): I. Ancestor of a 
Benjamiteelan (ICh83). Cf. Ard in Gn 46 21; Nu 
26 40. II. A town on- the S. border of Judah, site 
unknown (Jos 15 3). In Nu 34 4 it is combined with 
He/ron into Hazar-Addar. E. E. N. 

ADDER. See PALESTINE, 26. 

ADDI, ad'dui ('AfiSfi') : An ancestor of Christ (Lk 
3 28). E. E. N. 

ADDON. See ADDAN. 
ADER. Sec EDKH. 

ADIEL, e'di-el (V ,}.;, 'ddhi 'cl): 1. A Simeonite 
chieftain (I Ch 4 36-40). 2. A priest (I Ch 9 12). 
3. Father of Azmaveth (I Ch 27 25). E. E. N. 

ADIN, i"'din (]"? , 'iiilliln ): The ancestral head 
of a large post-exilic family (Ezr 2 15, 8 6; Neh 7 20, 

10 16). K. K. N. 



ADINA, a-dni'nn (K;'-};, &lhi,m). 'delightful': 
A Reubenite chief tain in David's army (I Ch 11 42). 

E. E. N. 

ADINO, Q-dai'no ('J"'?., 'adhinii): IIS 23 8 reads 
"Adino the Eznite" as a second name of David's 
mightiest hero. I Ch 11 11 more correctly omits the 
name altogether. E. E. N. 

ADITHAIM, ad"i-the'im (C:?"i? : , 'wlhithuyim): 
A city of Judah in the Shephelah (Jos 1536). 
Site unknown. E. E. N. 

ADJURE. Sec OATH. 

ADLAI, ad'le-di ("H?, 'adhlay): Father of Sha- 
phat (I Ch 27 29). E. E. N. 

ADMAH, ad'mu (~'i~8, 'ndhmdh): One of the 
cities near the Dead Sea that rebelled against 
Chedorlaomer (Gn 1019, 142,8). It was destroyed 
with Zeboim, Sodom and Gomorrah (Dt 29 22; Ifos 
11 8). E. E. N. 

ADMATHA. See PHINCES, THE SEVEN. 

ADNA, ad'na (SJ~?, 'adhna'), 'pleasure': 1. 
( )ne of the " sons of Pahath-moab " (Ezr 10 30). 
2. A priest (Neh 12 15). E. E. N. 

ADNAH, ad'na (HJ-;?, 'adhnah): 1. A Manas- 
site who deserted Saul for David (I Ch 12 20). 
2. A captain under Jehoshaphat (II Ch 17 14). 

E. E. N. 

ADONIBEZEK, a-do"nai-bi'zek (pJ?JT4|, 'adhd- 
nlbezeq), 'lord of Bezek': A Canaanite king de- 
feated by Judah and Simeon at Bezek. He escaped, 
but was pursued, captured, and mutilated. He 
died afterward in Jerusalem (Jg 1 5-7). 

A. C. Z. 

ADONIJAH, ad"o-nai'ja (JV^S, 'Mhomyah), 
'my Lord is J"': 1. The fourth son of David. His 
mot her was Haggith. Near the close of David's reign 
he assumed royal state, hoping to become his father's 
successor. Joab and Abiathar were his active sup- 
porters. He made a feast at the Stone of Zoheleth, 
near Jerusalem, and invited all the king's sons and 
nobility, except Solomon and his partizans, Be- 
naiah, Zadok, and Nathan. Here he disclosed his 
plot for seizing the throne. At this crit ical juncture 
Nathan advised Bath-sheba to remind David of his 
promise to appoint Solomon as his successor. David 
acted with characteristic energy, commanding Solo- 
mon to ride on his own mule to Gihon, there to be 
anointed by Zadok and proclaimed king under the 
protection of the body-guard. A. and his guests 
heard the acclamations of the populace, and Jona- 
than, the son of Abiathar, informed them of 
the coronation. A. took refuge at the altar, but 
Solomon graciously pardoned him. Later, he 
preferred a request to Solomon through Bath-sheba 
for Abishag, David's concubine. As the harem of a 
king belonged to his successor, Solomon rightly con- 



13 



A STANDARD H1BI.K DK"I '!< i.\ AKY 



Adam 

Adullum 



sidered this an act of (reason, and hail him put to 
death (I K 1 ami 2). 2. A Levite(IICh 17 8). 3. 
Ancestral head of a family of Levites (Neh 10 16) 
called Adonikam (q.v.) in Ezr 2 13, etc. 

J. A. K. 



ADONIKAM, ad"o-nui'kam (C^'S, 
qam), 'the Lord is risen up': Ancestor of a large 
post^exilic family (Ezr 2 13, 8 13; Neh 7 is). Called 
Adonijah in Neh 10 10. E. E. N. 

ADONIRAM, ad"o-nai'ram (2 V J1 J?, 'idhonlram ), 
'the Lord is high' (called also Adoram and 
Hadoram) : Overseer of the men forced to work on 
public works under David and Solomon (II S 20 24; 
I K 4 i), 5 H). He was stoned to death in N. Israel 
(1 K 12 is; II Ch 10 18). E. E. N. 

ADONIZEDEK, a-do"nai - zi'dek (pjV^i?, 
'idhOnl tsedheq), 'lord of righteousness': King 
of Jerusalem when Joshua conquered Ai; he 
entered into a league with four other Canaanite 
kings to fight against the inhabitants of Gibeon, 
which had made peace with Israel. He was de- 
feated and put to death by hanging (Jos 10 1, 3). 
Perhaps the same as Adoni-bezek (Jg 1 5). 

C. S. T. 

ADOPTION (vlodfa-ia): A legal term appropri- 
ated by theology. Its Biblical usage is limited to the 
Pauline epistles (Ro 8 15, 23, 9 4; Gal 4 5; Eph 1 5). 
Here it signifies the act by which the privileges of a 
child of God are conferred upon the believer in Jesus 
Christ. In the Roman judicial system a place was 
made for a formal act of adoption. In Israelite his- 
tory cases of adoption also occur. Esther was adopt- 
ed by Mordecai (Est 2 7, cf. also the cases of Moses, 
Ex 2 9, and of Genubath, I K 1 1 20). But no formal 
act is mentioned. According to the Roman law, on 
the other hand, the person to be adopted was pub- 
licly sold to the prospective parent before wit- 
nesses, and thenceforth became a member of the 
latter's family, exactly as if he had been born into it. 

The Apostle's use of the Roman legal term raises 
the question whether he meant to ascribe real sig- 
nificance to the act of adoption and assert that in 
the dispensation of redemption there is something 
corresponding to it. If not, he had in mind the 
great change for the better in one who has entered 
the Christian life, with a special regard to the privi- 
leges thus secured him. If the act is the important 
thing in the Apostle's mind, adoption is a separate 
and distinct stage of redemption. If the privileges 
it brings are the emphatic element, then adoption 
is merely another name for regeneration, and tin- 
Roman legal formula is chosen to express it because 
it does vividly bring before the mind these privileges. 
Of these alternatives, the latter is much more prob- 
able. A. C. Z. 

ADORAIM, ad"o-re'im (C^'lN', 'folhorayim): 
A city of Judah fortified by Rehoboam, about 6 m. 
W. of Hebron (II Ch 119). Map II, E 2. 

E. E. N. 

ADORAM. See ADONIRAM. 



ADRAMMELECH, -dram'el-.-<: ('*--$, 'n>lh- 
rammelekh): 1. One of the gods of Sepharvaiiu 
(II K 17 31), or Sippar in Assyria, possibly Adar 
(Adrammelech-Adar-King) ; but a god Adar is un- 
known in the Assyrian pantheon. 2. One of the 
two sons of Sennacherib, who murdered their father 
on his return from the unsuccessful campaign 
against Jerusalem (Is 3738; II K 1927; in the 
latter passage, however, the word "son" does not 
occur). A. C. Z. 

ADRAMYTTIUM, ad"ra-mit'ti-um ('A>8papvr- 
TIOV): A city of Mysia formerly situated on the sea, 
but now six miles inland from the Adramyttian gulf, 
surrounded by olive groves and vineyards, which, 
with timber from Mt. Ida, make it prosperous. It 
was founded by Adramys, son of Alyattes and 
brother of Crcesus. Later, it was colonized by 
Athens and under the Romans was a metropolis and 
the seat of a conventus iuridicus (see ASIA MINOR, 
10). It was in " a ship of Adramyttium " that 
Paul sailed from Caesarea to Myra on his voyage 
to Rome (Ac 27 2-5). J. R. S. S. 

ADRIA, a'dri-u (Ac 2727), Gr. 'A.8pias, Lat. 
Hadria, Hadriaticum mare: The name may have 
been derived from the town of Adria, or Atria, near 
the mouth of the Po, and was ordinarily applied to 
the gulf between Italy and Illyria. But geogra- 
phers contemporary with the N T extended it to in- 
clude not only the Ionian Gulf but the sea bounded 
by Epirus, Achaia, and Crete on the E., and Sicily 
with the southern coast of Italy on the W. and NW. 
Strabo, e.g. ( 123), says that the older name was 
used for "part of what is now called Adrias," under 
which he includes the Ionian Gulf and the Sicilian 
Sea. Ptolemy distinguishes the Adriatic Sea from 
the Adriatic Gulf, and Pausanias applies the name 
to the sea between Sicily, Malta, and Crete. Luke 
conforms to this later usage possibly, as Ramsay 
suggests, following the sailor's nomenclature in 
using the term "the Adria" for the sea in which 
Paul's company drifted about for fourteen days, 
generally in a southerly and southeasterly direction, 
from Crete until they reached Melita. An opinion 
that Paul was wrecked on a little island Afeleda in 
the Adriatic on the Dalmatian coast is baseless. 

R. A. F. 

ADRIEL, e'dri-el (^"H?, 'adhri'el): A Meho- 
lathite who married Saul's daughter Merab, already 
promised to David (I S 18 19). His five sons were 
given up to the Gibeonites (II S 21 8 [Michal here 
by mistake for Merab]). E. E. N. 

ADULLAM, a-dul'am (2H?., 'ddhullam): The 
earliest notice concerning Adullam (Gn 38) is to the 
effect that in early times clans or families of Judah 
consolidated with Canaanitish clans (Adullamites) 
near Adullam. The statement in Jos 12 15 that the 
city and its king were conquered by Joshua is late 
and conflicts with the earlier accounts of the con- 
quest. From the notices in Jos 15 35; Mic 1 15; Neh 
11 30, its general location is made certain (Map II, E 
2). David frequently used its stronghold or citadel 
as his headquarters (I S 22 l; II S 23 13, where the 






Adultery 
Agriculture 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTION A I; V 



true reading is ' stronghold/ not " cave "; cf. ver. 14 
and 517). Rehoboam strengthened its fortifica- 
tions (II Ch 11 7) It was reoccupied by Jews 
e:irly in post exilic times (Neh 1130). (See Ci. A. 
Smith, HGIIL, p. 229.) E. E. N. 

ADULTERY. See MARRIAOB AND DIVORCE, 
10. 

ADUMMIM, a-dum'im, THE ASCENT OF 

(2"?~!. ~"i]", ma'aleh 'faihummim, thus named, 
perhaps, on account of the red-colored stone in the 
pass): It lay on the road most traveled between 
Jerusalem and Jericho, and on the boundary-line be- 
tween Judah and Benjamin (Jos 157, 18 17). On a 
height NE. of the pass was the Chastel Rouge of the 
Crusaders. Map II, G 1. C. S. T. 

ADVERSARY: In the OT the term most 
often used to designate opponent in general (tsar); 
but in I S 1 6 this signifies the rival wife. In Nu 22 
22; I S 29 4; II S 19 22; I K 5 4, 11 14, 23, 25, it is the 
translation of the noun, and in Ps 71 13, 109 20, 29, of 
the verb from the root ^JC ('satan'), meaning to 
'accuse' or 'oppose.' In Job 335 it means an op- 
ponent in a case at law. In the N T it often desig- 
nates the general idea of opponent, but in Mt 5 25; 
Lk 12 58, 18 3; I P 5 8, that of legal opponent. 

C. S. T. 

ADVOCATE (rrapaic\T)Tos), i.e., 'pleader' or ' in- 
tercessor,' applied to Jesus only in I Jn 2 l. See 
HOLY SPIRIT. E. E. N. 

jENEAS, i-ne'as (AiVe'ay, Eneas AV): A para- 
lytic healed by Peter (Ac 9 33-34). E. E. N. 



, i'nen (AiVow, ' springs ' ) : A place near 
Salim (Jn 3 23). Neither site is certainly identified. 
According to Eusebius and Jerome (Onom. 245, 91; 
134, 25) JEnon. was eight Roman miles S. of Beth- 
shean (Scythopolis). But Conder's identification 
(Tent Work*, p. 57 f.) of the " much water" (Jn 
3 23) with the springs between Salim (Map III, F 3) 
and 'Ainun (Map III, G 3) is more probable. 

J. M. T. 

AGABUS, agVbus ("Ayo,3os) : A Christian prophet 
(Ac 11 27 f.) who came down to Antioch and pre- 
dicted "a great famine over all the world" (proba- 
bly the famine in the reign of Claudius c. 46-48 A.D. ). 
In the diary source Ac 21 10 f. A. appears in Cffisarea 
and predicts Paul's arrest and deliverance to the 
Gentiles (see CHURCH LIFE AND ORGANIZATION, 
5). J. M. T. 

AGAG, e'gag (JJR, 'dgag): King of an Amalekite 
tribe. Samuel commissioned Saul utterly to ex- 
terminate the tribe with their king, because of past 
hostility to Israel, thus put ting Agag under the ban 
(herein). See CUKSE, 2. But Saul saved the 
king and also much booty. Samuel, highly dis- 
pleased at this disobedience, carried out the Divine 
commission by hewing Agag to pieces (I S 15). 
In Nu 24 7 read Og or Gog for Agag. J. A. K. 



AGAR. Sec HAOAU. 

AGATE. SceSTuNKs, I'KKCIOUS, 2. 

AGE, AGES. See ESCHATOLOGY, 27, 45, and 
APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE, 1 (6). 



AGEE, e'gi (X;$, 'age'): A Hararite, father of 
Shammah (II S 23 ll). E. E. N. 

AGRICULTURE: There can be no doubt that 
the Israelites first learned agriculture in Palestine. 

According to the patriarchal legends 

I. Israelites their ancestors were essentially no- 

Originally madic, and became agriculturists 

not Agri- only incidentally, as in the course of 

culturists. their wanderings they came upon land 

adapted to farming purposes (Gn 26 
12, 37 7; cf. 30 14). Gn 4 20, with its peculiar appre- 
ciation of the nomadic life, is not the only thing 
which reminds us of the fact that the Israelites were 
once nomads; the Rechabites also, who tried to re- 
tain artificially the old conditions which had long 
since disappeared, bear witness to the fact that the 
nomadic life was for them the genuine Israelitre life 
(Jer 35 7). 

The nomadic situation, however, changed after 
Israel had settled in the W. Jordan country. Here 

the conditions demanded that they 

2, Transi- take up a settled life the chief employ- 

tion to ment of which was farming an art 

Agriculture they learned from the Canaanites ; for 

After the Canaan had been a well-cultivated 

Conquest, country long before Israel settled there. 

The lowlands especially had from very 
ancient times been tilled, though the cultivation of 
the hillsides was also old, in spite of the fact that 
the house of Joseph are bidden to clear the hill- 
tops of their forests (Jos 17 15-18). The importance 
which agriculture had for Israel from the very be- 
ginning of its settlement in Canaan is seen not only 
in the close connection in which agriculture and re- 
ligion stood in the earliest times, but also in the fact 
that it is the background for all the legislation of 
Israel even the oldest. After the tribe had by 
conquest secured a place of habitation for itself, 
every family probably received a certain piece of 
land, which was marked off definitely, generally by 
stones, the removal of which was subjected to curse 
(Hos 5 10; Dt 19 14, 27 17; Pr 22 28). The land was 
measured according to "acres," literally 'yokes,' 
tsemer: i.e., the unit of measurement was as much 
ground as one yoke of oxen could plow in a day 
(I S 14 14; Is 5 10), as it is to-day with the feUtiliiii, 
whose measure is the jcddan (i.e., literally, 'yoke of 
oxen'). According to Lev 27 16, land was also ap- 
praised at times by the quantity of seed used in 
sowing (cf. I K 18 32). 

In Dt 1 1 10 f., as an especial advantage over against 
Egypt, the point is emphasized that Israel is not com- 

pelled to irrigate the land, but that 
3. The Soil. Jehovah pours out upon it rain and 

dew; as in other ways the brooks, 
springs, and lakes Were esteemed for their importance 
with reference to fertility (Dt 8 7). There must 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Adultery 
Agriculture 



have been, therefore, in early times, as to-day, very 
little irrigated land. 

Thorough manuring of the soil was unknown. In 
II K 9 37; Jer 9 22, 16 4, reference is made merely to 
the excrement of animals, especially of the oxen 
and asses used in plowing, which lay upon the fields; 
and such passages as Dt 23 13 f.; I K 14 10; cf. Ex 29 



the earlier days except with the greatest hardship 
to the people but each field had its own definite 
fallowing year, as was formerly the custom in Ger- 
many. 

In the tilling of the soil it was necessary to wait 
till autumn, when the early rains, mdreh termed 
early because the old civil year began in autumn 



i*?-" '*.-, Vi : -"^ nll u*'jt^. . ''"*""' ^W.rA^^Ir.'.UVi.Or-VV*'^'-*"*^ 

f/& %&.- ' ft* < ",^ '": '-? f'^* ~f ..fm..~S i!nv-/A*lh.'iW ; 'lt 1 WfeS 




A SYRIAN PEASANT PLOWING. 



14, show the practise of thorough fertilization to have 
been most unlikely. Moreover, manure was dried 
and often used as fuel (Ezk 4 15). This custom is 
still prevalent among the Jellahln of Palestine (cf. 
ZDPV, IX, 29). Instead of manure the people 
employed for fertilization straw and stubble, which 
like thorns and thistles were burned (cf. Ex 15 7; Is 
5 24, 47 14). Of significance for the fertility of the 
land is the regulation in Ex 23 10 f. that farms, vine- 
yards, and olive orchards were to lie fallow in the 
seventh year. This hardly indicates that there was 
a fixed fallowing year for the whole country a re- 
quirement which could not have been carried out in 



softened the ground which had grown dry and hard 
as stone in the summer sun. As the soil to-day 
in certain localities is worked with the mattock 

(q.v.), so it was perhaps, here and 
4. Tillage, there, in early times (I S 13 20; Is 7 25) ; 

but the ordinary way was to use the 
plow (q.v.); and very likely the practise then, as 
now in Judfea, was not to plow till after the sowing. 
The sower scatters the seed rather thinly over the 
fields, and it is then through the plowing turned 
under and covered to a depth of about three to four 
inches. Furrows (Job 39 10; Ps 65 10; I S 14 14) 
can not be understood of a deep trench as in Western 



Agriculture 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



1C 



agriculture. Tin- plow does not do much more than 
break up the surface of the ground; so that it is not 
sufficiently freed of weeds. For example, in the 
fertile plain of Philistia there are weed-roots as thick 
as one's finger, spreading out a yard or more in all 
directions, and at a depth that can not be reached by 
the plow. The ox was generally used to draw the 
plow, the ass also being probably used on lighter 



i Is US j.l) a l>\ with open front is used to-day in 

Palestine (ZDl'V, IX, 38). 

It is likely that the difference between winter and 

Hummer seeds was recognized, as it is to-day. The 
former consist of wheat and barley, the 

5. Seeding, latter of millet, sesame, melons, cu- 
cumbers, etc. Seeding could not be 

begun until the early rains had set in, which come 






^^~ -__r, .. *V^*^T V -' -"Vs^C- 




THRESHING-FLOOR. 



soil. The prohibition in Dt 22 10 leads to the con- 
clusion that at one time both were yoked together. 
A single plowing did not suffice for fallow land. Upon 
the first plowing in winter there followed a second 
in the spring, and a third in summer: indeed, the 
careful farmer plowed in the late summer a fourth 
time; cf. \Vetzstein in Delitzsch's Isaiah 2 , 389 f. 
Whether harrowing was known in early times is a 
question. Perhaps the word which is generally so 
translated ("-') means rather a sort of plowing 
(cf. IIos 10 11; Is 28 24). For leveling off the fields 



toward the end of October, at first intermittently 
and generally at night. Barley was sown first, fol- 
lowed by the wheat. Seed was usually sown with 
the hand (Mt 13 3-8); the more valuable varieties, 
such as barley, wheat, and spelt, were at times laid 
in the furrow by a sower who followed behind the 
plowman, as is still done to-day, and then plowed 
in, to protect them from the large ants of which 
there are great numbers in Syria and Palestine, 
and which are fond of carrying off the grain into 
their holes (ZDPV, IX, 30, note). It was per- 



17 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Agriculture 



Imps also clone to keep the seed from drying up, 
since a period of from four to five weeks of dry- 
ness sometimes elapses after the sowing (ZDPV, 
IX, 29 f.)- 
The summer grain was sown at the end of January 



Jl 1 4), and at times by hail (Ps 7847; Hag 2 17). 
If the harvest-time were near, those crops which were 
especially valuable were protected by watchmen (Jer 
4 17); but it was permitted one who was hungry to 
pick ears in passing by (cf. Dt 23 25; Mt 12 1). [On 




THRESHING WITH A SLEDGE, OR Morag. 



and in February. The later rain, malqiish, which 
falls in March and at the beginning of April, was of 
great importance for the ripening of the grain. If it 
failed, or if it came too late, or if it was too scanty, the 
grain did not mature properly. Another enemy of 



the subject of this general paragraph see PALES- 
TINE, 16-23.] 

The harvest, qatsir, began in April with the cutting 
of the barley, at which time lentils and fitches were 
also ripe. Two or three weeks later followed the 




THRESHING WITH A WAGON, OR Agalsh. 



agriculture was the hot east or southeast wind (qad- 
hlm , Arab, chamsin), which scorched, shiddaphon, the 
ears (Gn 41 6; Dt 28 22), so that they turned yellow, 
yf-raqon (Am 4 9; IKS 37). The crops were fre- 
quently destroyed by grasshoppers also (Am 7 2; 



harvest of wheat and spelt; but of course the har- 
vest-time varied according to the climatic condi- 
tions of each region. In the hot lowlands about 
Jericho the barley harvest began near the first of 
April; on the coast it was eight and in the moun- 



Agriculture 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



18 



tains fourteen days later. The grain harvest gen- 
rrally lasted about seven weeks, from Passover to 
Pentecost. The grain was reaped 
6. Har- with the sickle, hcrmesh, mugyiil, as is 
vesting, still done (Dt 16 9). The reaper, qotaer, 
grasped a number of stalks with one 
hand (Is 17 5; Ps 129 7) and with the other cut them 
off some distance from the ground. The grain that 
had been cut remained lying in swaths, 'Amir, behind 
the reaper, and was bound by the sheave-binder, 
mt'offfph (Jer 9 22) into sheaves, 'tilummoh (Gn 37 7), 
'Smer (Lv 23 10, etc.; Gn 37 7), which were gathered 
into shocks, gadhlsh (Ex 22 6). In Lv 19 9, 23 22, 
every one is forbidden, in the interests of the poor, 
to harvest his field to its limits. The laborers re- 
fresh themselves, while harvesting, with roasted ker- 
nels of grain, qoli, and bread dipped in a sour drink, 
hornets (Ru 2 14). 

The grain was generally threshed, dush (I Ch 21 20) , 
or habhat (Jg6 11), in the open air, however, which 
was possible inasmuch as the harvest- 
7. Thresh- time is free from rain (IS12ieff.). 
ing and During threshing-time the harvest men 
Storing, spent the night, as is still the custom, 
upon the threshing-floor, in order to 
guard it (Ru 3 6; Robinson, Pal. II, p. 720). The 
threshing-floors, goren, were either permanent loca- 
tions on mountains or hills or else placed, if possible, 
upon a somewhat elevated spot. There were differ- 
ent modes of threshing: cattle were driven over the 
sheaves, which were piled knee-deep in layers upon 
the floor, until they had trodden out the kernels of 
grain with their hoofs and reduced the straw to 
chaff, in which operation the ox was not to be muz- 
zled (Dt 25 4; cf. I Co 9 9; I Ti 5 18); or the thresh- 
ing-sledge, morag, morag hariits, or haruts (rpifio\ov, 
tribulum of the ancients), was used (Am 1 3; Is 28 27; 
II S 24 22). This 
sledge was made 
very likely, as to- 
day, of wooden 
planks joined to- 
gether, in the un- 
der side of which 
were set stones 
or knives (now 
called naurag, cf. 
ZDPV, IX, 41). 
In addition there 
was the thresh- 
ing-wagon, 'aga- 
lah, "cart wheel" 
(Is 28271.), which 
consisted of sev- 
eral rollers run- 
ning parallel, each 
of which was pro- 
vided with three or four iron disks, so arranged that 
the disks of one roller extended into the spaces left 
by the others (cf. ZDPV, IX, 44). After threshing, 
the chaff, mdts, was separated from the kernels of 
grain, bar, by winnowing, zarah, i.e., by throwing 
the chaff and grain into the air, with a fork, mizreh 
(Is 30 24), sometimes furnished with two but gen- 
erally with several curved prongs. This was done 
toward evening and at night (Ru 3 2) ; for the sea 



wind blows from four o'clock in the afternoon till 
half an hour before sunset, and carries away the 
light chaff. The kernels were then sifted (Am 
9 8), and thrown together into larger heaps by 
means of the winnowing-shovel, rahath (Is 30 24). 
In the earlier period there were no barns, strictly 
speaking; the stores of grain were stowed away 
in pits resembling cisterns, which were carefully 



A M 





A Threshing-Sledge, Showing Under Side. 



Forks and Shovel Used in Winnowing. 

covered up, as is still done at the present time in 
Palestine (Jer 41 8). In later times storehouses 
seem to have been in use (II Ch 32 28; 
8. Variety Pr 3 10; Jer 50 26; Jl 1 17). 
of Yield. The yield varies greatly. On soil 
which has been fertilized, and which 
is advantageously located, under favorable con- 
ditions wheat may yield thirtyfold and barley a 
hundredfold (cf. Mt 13 8). On unfertilized land, in 

the plain of Es- 
draelon, wheat 
does not yield at 
the most more 
than tenfold and, 
on the average, 
seven to eight- 
fold ; barley at 
most not more 
than tenfold 
and, on the aver- 
age, sixfold. In 
the mountains 
of Judah wheat 
yields twofold, 
barley threefold. 
See further FOOD 
and VINES AND 
VINTAGE. 
LITERATURE : Cf. 

Anderlind, Ackerbau und Viehsucht in Syrien und 
besonders in PalHstina, in ZDPV, IX. 1 ft. : Hermann 
VoKelstein, Die Landwirtschajt in Palastina zur Zeit 
der Mishnah, I Getreidebau C1894). -yy_ jf . 

AGRIPPA, a-grip'a. See HEROD, 8. 

AGUR, e'gar ("'.'Is', 'ai/ur): The reputed author of 
the whole or part of Pr 30. Nothing is known of his 
personality, but the similarity of Pr 30 1-6 to parts of 



19 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Agriculture 



Job favors the conjecture that ham-mas-sa' ("the 
oracle," ver. 1) is the name of a region S. of Judah. 
Its unique literary character makes it reasonable to 
attribute the entire chapter to Agur. A. S. C. 

AH, Q, AHI, d'hai (njj, *0, 'dh, '&hi), 'brother' 
or 'my brother': In compound personal names Ah 
or Ahi may refer (1 ) to the deity as 'brother,' or (2) 
to the common human relationship. Names of class 
(1) are very common, e.g., Ahijah, 'Jah (Jehovah) is 
brother.' Examples of (2) are much more rare and 
of more obscure meaning, e.g., Ahab ( = 'father's 
brother'?). See ABI. E. E. N. 

AHAB, e'hab (2808, 'ah'abh), 'father's brother': 
1. The second king of the Omri dynasty and early 
Israel's most conspicuous and potent ruler. Two 
alliances give special interest to his reign: his own 
marriage to the Phrenician princess Jezebel, and 
that of their daughter Athaliah to Jehoram of Ju- 
dah. Through the former he gained the support 
of the richest trading people of antiquity, and by the 
latter the old schism of the Hebrew people seemed 
in the way of being healed. Though this hope was 
doomed to disappointment, Israel and Judah were 
joined by close bonds for over a century. 

But the Phoenician alliance brought with it the 
cult of the Tyrian Baal, an importation distasteful 
to people and prophets. The local Baalim had been 
regarded as legitimate, and doubtless even identified 
with Jehovah, hence the people resented the intru- 
sion of the strange god, whose centralized worship 
threatened the existence of the local shrines. The 
names of Ahab's children Ahaziah, Jehoram, Atha- 
liah indicate indeed the strength of the J" religion, 
but the growing syncretism aroused the prophets to 
outline a purer and loftier idea of J", which domi- 
nated prophetic thought from that time forth. 

The gross disregard of personal rights shown in the 
seizure of Naboth's vineyard (I K 21) was undoubt- 
edly a potent element in the downfall of the dynasty, 
while it enabled the prophets to grasp and present 
the great principles of ethical monotheism. 

Two important synchronisms meet us in this 
period: (1) The Moabite Stone, lines 6 and 7, re- 
fers to Ahab, and suggests that even in his reign 
Moab began struggles for independence, which 
culminated under Jehoram (see MESHA). (2) 
Ahal) ascended the throne as the vassal of Da- 
mascus (I K 20 4), but at the battle of Aphek he 
threw off the yoke and a three years' peace fol- 
lowed (I K 22 1). In this period we should prob- 
ably place the invasion of Shalmaneser II., who 
records that A-ha-ab-ba of Sir- a-la-ai (Israel) ap- 
peared with 2,000 chariots and 10,000 soldiers at 
Karkar, 854 B.C., and together with the allied Syr- 
ian kings suffered a crushing defeat. The battle 
must have been indecisive, however, for it was not 
followed up, and Ahab's military establishment 
gave him confidence to seek to wrest Ramoth-gilead 
from Damascus, in which enterprise he perished (I K 
22). Assuming that the battle of Karkar took place 
during the Peace of Aphek, Ahab's death occurred 
probably in 853 B.C. 

2. A prophet, denounced by Jeremiah (Jer 29 21 f .). 

A. S. C. 



AHARAH. See AHIHAM. 

AHARHEL, a-hQr'hel (^rpriS., 'dhdrhel): The 
ancestor of certain families of Judah (I Ch 4 8). 

E. E. N. 
AHASAI. See AHZAI. 

AHASBAI, Q-has'bai C2COS, 'd/w?6ay): The 
father of Eliphalet (II S 23 34; cf. I Ch 11 35). 

E. E. N. 

AHASUERUS, a-haz"yu-i'rus. See ESTHEU, 
11. 

AHAVA, Q-he'va (SiqK, 'dhawa'): A town or 
district in Babylonia used to designate a river (or 
canal); also the name of the river, on the banks of 
which Ezra gathered the Jews preparatory to their 
return to Jerusalem (Ezr 8 15, 21, 31). C. S. T. 

AHAZ, e'haz (TnX, 'ahaz), 'He (i.e., J") has 
seized': 1. Son of Jotham and king of Judah, c. 
735-721 B.C. (or later). See CHRONOLOGY OP 
OT. 

Tiglath-pileserlll. (745-727) received tribute from 
Ahaz (called Ja-u-ha-zi, i.e., Joahaz) in 734 B.C. (cf. 
II K 16 7). In the same year he de- 
i. The As- posed and slew Pekah and thus broke 
Syrian up the Syro-Ephraimitic alliance (cf. 
Record. II K 15 37, 16 5). In 732 B.C. Damas- 
cus fell, Rezin was slain, and Tig- 
lath-pileser held a great levee as "King of kings" in 
the captured city, at which Ahaz was present (ac- 
cording to II K 16 10). 

At Damascus Ahaz saw a great altar and ordered 

Urijah to construct one like it. W. R. Smith (Rel. 

Sem.* p. 487) considers this a great 

2. The permanent altar-hearth, whose ritual, 
Record described at length in II K 16 13 ff., was 

in II Kings thereafter dominant. Possibly Is 29 

1 6. echoes the struggle about the new altar 

ritual, for Ariel ('altar-hearth,' or 

'hearth of God') was probably the technical name 

for the old brazen pillar-altar such as was displaced 

by Ahaz. The dark period of invasion led to human 

sacrifice and much oppression and cruelty (cf. II Ch 

283). 

Some of the most striking sections of Isaiah be- 
long to this period. Children and babes are their 
rulers, he declares, in a fierce invective 

3. The against the turbulence of the state (Is 
Prophetic 3 4). The Syro-Ephraimitic invasion 

Record, called forth the Immanuel prophecy (Is 
7 1-9 7), a declaration that God's pur- 
pose to be with His people was invincible, though 
princes might falter and people be recalcitrant (see 
IMMANUEL). Inch. 28, dating near the fall of Sama- 
ria, the drunken, scoffing, faithless politicians are 
probably those who favored the Assyrian alliance 
when Pekah and Rezin were threatening Jerusalem 
with dynastic overthrow (cf. also Is 7 6). Ahaz's 
weak, short-sighted policy can be largely ac- 
counted for by his youth and inability to cope 
with the deep-seated corruptions of his predecessors' 
regimes. 

2. A descendant of Saul (I Ch 8 35 f., 9 42). 

A. S. C. 



Ahaziah 
Akeldama 



A STAND \l!l> BIBLE DICTION All V 



20 



AHAZIAH, c"hu-/m'(i (~"-?, 'ah 
hath grasped': 1. King of Israel (855-854), son 
of Ahab and Jezebel. His character was on a 
level with that of his parents. He was a devotee 
of Baul ami also followed in the sin of Jerol>oani. 
During his reign Mo:\b rebelled, and probably be- 
came independent. Mesha says: "But I saw my 
pleasure u|x>n him, and on his house, and Israel 
ix-rished with an everlasting destruction" (Mesha 
inscription, 1. 7. See MKSIIA). Seriously injured 
by falling through :i latticework, lie sent to Kk- 
ron to inquire of Baal-y.ebub. Elijah met his mes- 
sengers and bade them return with the predic- 
tion of the king's death (cf. ELIJAH). He made 
a commercial alliance with Jehoshaphat for the 
purpose of sending ships to Tarshish. The vessels 
were destroyed, and the enterprise c.ime to naught 
(I K '2-2 51-53; II K 1 l-is; II Ch 20 35-37). 

2. King of Judah (84:5-842), son of Jehoram of 
Judah, and grandson of Ahab through his mother, 
Athaliah. The Chronicler speaks of him as the 
youngest son, :is the Arabians hat! slain all the oth- 
ers (II Ch 22 l, called Azariah in ver. 6). As an 
ally, he went to war with Jehoram against the 
Syrians at Ramoth-gilead. At Jehoram's assassi- 
nation by Jehu, he was severely wounded, but 
made his escape toMegiddo, where he died (II K 8 
25-29). J. A. K. 

AHBAN, Q'ban (iJOtf, '<iW><7): A son of Abishur 
by Abihail (I Ch 2 29). K. E. N. 

AHER, e'her (-!j8, 'ahfr): A Benjamite (I Ch 
7 12; text obscure). E. E. N. 

AHI, e'hai CHS., 'dhl), contraction for Ahijah: 

1. A Gadite (I Ch 5 15). 2. An Asherite (I Ch 7 34). 

E. E. N. 
AHIAH. See AHIJAH. 

AHIAM, n-lmi'um (=^n, 'Shi' am), 'mother's 
brother' (?): One of David's heroes (II S 23 33; I 
Ch 1 1 35). E. E. N. 

AHIAN, n-hni'an ()*n8, 'ahynn), 'cousin': A 
Mamissite, son of Shemida (I Ch 7 19). Possibly 
the name of a town. E. E. N. 

AHIEZER,e"hai-i'zerCi.i"nS,'dW'ezer),' brother 
is help': 1. A prince of Dan (Nu 1 12, 225, etc.). 

2. A Benjamite, chieftain of a body of archers who 
deserted Saul for David (I Ch 12 3). E. E. N. 



AHIHUD, Q-hai'hnd pvrnx. an d in'OK, 'dhl- 
htidh), 'the brother is praise': 1. A prince of 
Asher (Nu34 27). 2. A name occurring in the gene- 
alogy of Benjamin; text obscure (I Ch 8 7). 

E. E. N. 

AHIJAH, a-hai'ja (n;nS : , Wi7i/(-(/0, 'J" is 
brother': 1. A prophet of Shiloh, who incited Jero- 
boam to head the revolt of N. Israel against the 
house of David (I K 11 26 ff.), but afterward con- 
demned him for his disloyalty to J* and foretold 
the ruin of his house (I K 14). The story of Ahi- 
jah's dealings with Jeroboam in the LXX. varies 
considerably from that of the Massoretic Hebrew 



text reproduced in our Eng. version. 2. Sec A Hi ME- 
I.KCII, i. 3. Father of King Baasha (I K 15 27). 
4. A son of Shisha (I K 4 3, Ahiah AV). 6. A son of 
Jerahineel (I Ch 2 25). 6. One who helped Gera to 
carry away captives (IChS7, Ahiah AV). 7. A 
IVlonite; one of David's valiant men (IChll36). 
8. According to the Heb. text a Levite, caretaker 
of the sanctuary treasures under David (I Ch 26 
20), but, according to LXX., instead of "Ahijah," 
we should read "their brethren." 9. One of the 
signers of the covenant (Neh 10 2(i). V.. E. N. 

AHIKAM, a-lmi'kam (=^"8, 'alilqam), 'the 
brother riseth up': One of the trusted courtiers of 
Josiah delegated to consult Huldah (II K22l4ff.). 
He was a friend and protector of Jeremiah (Jer 26 24 
ff.). His son Gedaliah was governor after the fall 
of Jerusalem (Jer 3!) 14). K. 10. N. 

AHILUD, a-hai'lud C^'OK, '&lilludh),'a. brother 
is born': 1. The father of David's recorder, Jehosha- 
phat (II S 8 16, 20 24; I K 4 3; I Ch 18 15). 2. The 
father of Baana, one of the victualers of Solomon's 
household (I K 4 12). E. E. N. 

AHIMAAZ, a-him'a-az (Y^'nS., 'dhlma'ats), 
'my brother is wrath': 1. A son of Zadok, David's 
priest. In David's flight from Jerusalem, A. and 
Jonathan were sent back to act as spies and cou- 
riers. A., with his companion, was despatched by 
Hushai to warn David. Eluding their pursuers, 
they reached David and delivered the message 
which enabled the king to escape. After the battle 
with Absalom, A. desired to bear the tidings to 
David. At first Joab refused, and sent a Cushite. 
A. finally secured permission, outran the Cushite, 
and delivered his message first (II S 15, 17, 18). 

2. The father of Saul's wife, Ahinoam (I S 14 50). 

3. A prefect and son-in-law of Solomon (I K 4 is). 

J. A. K. 

AHIMAN, Q-hai'man (J2*~8, 'dhinuin), 'my 
brother is a gift': 1. One of the three sons of Anak 
at Hebron, offspring of the Nephilim, and of such 
gigantic stature that they terrified the spies (Nu I, 1 ! 
22 f.). They were conquered by Caleb (Jg 1 10, 20; 
Jos 15 13 ff.). Ahiman, Sheshai. and Talmai were 
most probably clan names. There may be a myth- 
ological touch in the reference to the Nephilim. 2. 
A Levite porter "at the king's gate eastward," who 
returned from Babylon (I Ch 9 17). J. A. K. 

AHIMELECH, a-him'e-lec CS"~K., 'dhimelekh), 
'the king is brother': 1. The head of the priesthood 
at Nob slain by Saul for assisting David (I S 21, 22). 
Descended from Eli through Ahitub (I S 22 9, cf. 
14 3; I Ch 24 3). His son Abiathar was priest under 
David (I S 22 20, etc.). In II S 8 17, I Ch 24 6 read 
"Abiathar son of Ahimelech." In I Ch 18 16 read 
" Ahimelech " for " Abimelech," in 24 3, 31, "Abi- 
athar" for " Ahimelech." Ahijah in IS 14 3 is 
probably to be identified with Ahimelech. 2. A 
Hittite in David's service (I S 26 6). E. E. N. 

AHIMOTH, a-hni'meth (.Tto'ntf, 'ihimoth): A son 
of Elkanah, a Levite (I Ch 6 25). (In ver. 35 and 
II Ch 29 12 called Mahath.) E. E. N. 



21 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Ahaziah 
Akeldama 



AHINADAB, a-hin'a-clab (2~J*ns, 'AhlnOdhabh), 
'brother is generous': A prefect under Solomon 
(I K 4 14). E. E. N. 



AHINOAM, a"hin'o-am (=?i'n, 'dhind'am), 
'brother is pleasantness': 1. The wife of Saul (I S 14 
50). 2. A woman of Jezreel (in Jiulah, of. Jos 15 
5(i), wife of David and mother of Amnon, his eldest 
son (I S 25 43, 27 3, 30 5; II S 2 2, 3 2). E. E. N. 

AHIO, a-hm'o (">08, 'ahyo): 1. A son of Abinadab 
(II S 63f.). 2. The head of a Benjamite family 
(I ChS 14). 3. A Benjamite of Gibeon (ICh.831, 
!I37). E. E. N. 

AHIRA, a-hai'ra (i'V'S, 'ihlra')-- A prince of 
Xaphtali (Nu 1 15, 2 29, etc.). E. E. N. 

AHIRAM, a-hai'ram (O^nR, 'Ahlram), 'the 
brother is liigh': Ancestral head of the Ahiramites, a 
clan of Benjamin (Nu 26 38; Ehi in Gn 46 21 ; Aharah 
in I Ch 8 l; also cf. Aher, I Ch 7 12). E. E. N. 

AHISAMACH, a-his'a-mac ("^'OS, 'd/i7w- 
tnflkh), 'brother sustains': A Danite, father of Oho- 
liab (Ex 31 6, 35 34, 38 23). E. E. N. 

AHISHAHAR, a-hish'u-har ("n^'HR, 'thisha- 
linr), 'brother is dawn': The head of a Benjamite 
family (I Ch 7 10). E. E. N. 

AHISHAR, a-hcii'shar C^'nR, 'ihlshUr): The 
overseer of Solomon's household (I K 4 6). 

E. E. N. 

AHITHOPHEL, a-hith'o-fel (Vs'n'nR, 'dhltho- 
phri), 'brother of foolishness': Accounted the wisest 
man in Israel (II S 16 23), a counselor of David, pos- 
sibly the grandfather of Bath-sheba (II S 23 34, cf. 11 
3). He was a co-conspirator with Absalom (II S 15 12, 
etc.). but his advice being rejected he committed 
suicide, for which his name has perhaps been 
.stamped with the opprobrious epithet b'n, thophel. 

A. S. C. 

AHITUB, a-hai'tub P'JVIK, 'dhlfSbh), 'brother 
is goodness' : 1. A priest, descended from Eli, and the 
father of Ahimclech (I S 14 3, 22 9). 2. The father 
of David's priest Zadok (II S 8 17; I Ch 6 8, 18 16; 
K*r 7 2). 3. A priest descended from Zadok (I Ch 
6llf.). 4. A priest, ruler of the Temple in post- 
exilic days (I Ch 9 1 1 ; Neh 1 1 1 1 ). E. E. N. 

AHLAB, u'lab (:;?8. 'rthiabh): A Canaanite 
town in Asher. Site unknown (Jg 1 31). 

E. E. N. 

AHLAI, 5'lai rS-lg, '(May): 1. A child of She- 
shan; perhaps a son (I Ch 2 31), or, possibly, a daugh- 
ter (ver. 34). 2. The father of Zabad (I Ch 11 41). 

E. E. N. 

AHOAH, a-ho'a (n % ;n, 'dhoah): The head of 
the Ahohites, a Benjamite family (I Ch 8 4) to which 
Zalmon (II S 23 28, Ilai in I Ch 11 29) and Dodo (I Ch 
11 12, 27 4) belonged. E. E. N. 

AHOLAH, AHOLIAB, AHOLIBAH, AHOLI- 

BAMAH. See OHOLAH, etc. 



AHUMAI, u-hu'mai ("Sing, 'dhamay): The 
head of a family of Judah (I Ch4 2). E. E. N. 

AHUZZAM, a-hu'zam (w;H8, 'dhuzzSm, Ahuzam 
AV), 'possession' (?): A son of Ashur (I Ch4e). 

E. E. N. 

AHUZZATH, a-huz'ath (H-Tl^, 'dhuzzath), 'pos- 
session ' : The "friend" (i.e., 'adviser') of Abimelcch, 
king of Gerar (Gn 26 26). E. E. N. 

AHZAI, a'zui ("W, 'ahzny, Ahasai AV): A 
priest (Neh 1113); possibly = JAHZERAH (ICh9 12). 

E. E. N. 

AI, ai (*?, 'ay, in Hebrew always with the article; 
Jos 7 2 f.; Ezr 2 28; [LXX., Tat]): An ancient royal 
city of the Canaanites. situated "beside Bethaven 
on the E. side of Bethel'* (Jos 7 2; Gn 12 8), destroyed 
by Joshua (Jos 8 28) ; best identified with certain ob- 
scure ruins just S. of the modern Der Dlwan (Map 
III.F5). Hai(Gnl28, 133,AV),Aija (Neh 11 31), 
and Aiath (Is 10 28) are but variant forms of the 
same name. The Ai of Jer 49 3 was probably an 
unknown city E. of the Jordan. G. L. R. 

AIAH, e'yfl O^S, 'ayyah), 'falcon': 1. An Edom- 
ite tribe (Gn 36 24, Ajah AV). 2. The father of 
Rizpah (II S3 7, 218, ll). E. E. N. 

AIATH, e'yath, AIJA, e-ai'ja. See Ai. 

AIJALON, ai'ja-len fl^S, 'ayyalon, Ajalon AV), 
'hart': 1. A broad valley NW. of Jerusalem leading 
down to the seacoast plain (Jos 10 12). Map III, 
E 5. 2. A town in this valley (Jos 19 42, 21 24; Jg 1 
35; I S 14 31; I Ch 669,8 13; II Ch 11 10, 28 18), men- 
tioned in the Amarna letters as Ailuna. Now called 
Yalo. Map III, E 5. 3. A town in Zebulun, site 
unknown (Jg 12 12). E. E. N. 

AIJELETH HASH-SHAHAR, ai-je'leth hash- 
she'har. See Music, 6. 

AIN, e'in (")>', 'ayiri), 'spring': 1. A place on 
NE. border of Canaan, near Riblah (Nu 34 1 1). Rob- 
inson identifies it with the sources of the Orontes 
River. 2. A place in the Negeb of Judah (Jos 15 
32), assigned to Simeon (Jos 19 7) and apparently the 
same as the Levitical city (Jos 21 16). Should per- 
haps be read with Rimmon (Jos 15 32) as one word. 
See EN-RIMMON. C. S. T. 

AKAN, e'kan. See JAAKAN. 

AKELDAMA, a-kel'da-mfl (' A.K(\&ap.ax, Acel- 
dama AV): The Greek transliterates an Aramaic 
word meaning 'field of sleep' (cf. Kot/ii/r^piov, ceme- 
tery), and is given as the name of a piece of land 
which Judas purchased with the blood-money paid 
him for the betrayal of Jesus and upon which he 
committed suicide (Ac 1 19). In Mt 27 7 f., it is said 
that the high priests and elders purchased the field 
with the money returned by the remorse-stricken 
Judas, and that the field was used for the burial of 
strangers, and called "the field of blood." The 
place is identified with the modern Hakk-ed-Dumm, 
S. of the Pool of Siloam, on a level spot, half-way up 
the hill. The RV reading is based upon the assump- 



Akkub 
Alexandria Troas 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



22 



tion that tho Akclduinarh of the Greek text is a mis- 
take for 'A<tfX8n/io, the transliteration of Xt-~ ".":, 
' field of blood.' A. C. Z. 

AKKUB, nk'kub Pi??, 'aqqubh) : 1. A de- 
srriKlant of David (I Ch 3 24). 2. The head of a 
post-exilic family (I Ch9 17 -Ezr2 42; perhaps - 
Neh 7 4S, 11 19, 12 25). 3. The head of a post-exilic 
family of Nethinim (Ezr 2 4i). 4. One of the Le- 
vitos who helped to expound the law read by Ezra 
to the people (Neh 8 7). C. S. T. 

AKRABBIM, ak-rab'im (="V"K*. 'aqrabbim), 
'scorpions': The 'Ascent of the Scorpions' which led 
up from the region about the S. end of the Dead 
Sea to the highland of S. Judah (Nu 34 4; Jos 15 3, 
Maaleh-acrabbim AV). Map II, F 5. 

E. E. N. 

ALABASTER (origin of word unknown): Min- 
eral carbonate of lime. A white stone much used in 
antiquity to ornament buildings and for vases and 
small bottles for holding precious ointment (Lk 7 37; 
Mkl43-Mt267). E. E. N. 

ALAMETH, al'a-meth. See ALEMETH, I, 2. 
ALAMMELECH, a-lam'e-lec- See ALLAMELECH. 
ALAMOTH, al'a-moth. See PSALMS, | 2. 
ALARM. See WARFABE, 4. 

ALCIMUS, al'si-mus ("AXm/ior, probably the 
Greek form of Eliakim): A leader of the Hellenistic 
party, and opponent of Judas Maccabeus, c. 162 
B.C. (I Mac 7 5). He was appointed high priest by 
Demetrius I. , and a Syrian army under Bacchides was 
sent to Juda;a to put him in power and take venge- 
ance on Judas. Because Alcimus was of the "seed 
of Aaron" (I Mac 7 14) he was accepted largely by 
the ASSIDEANS (q.v.), but a treacherous murder of 
sixty of them in one day caused a deep revulsion of 
feeling, and after Bacchides returned to Syria, Alci- 
mus was unable to maintain himself as high priest 
(I Mac 7 21) and appealed to Demetrius for aid. 
Judas defeated the first army sent under Nicanor, 
and Alcimus fled. But a second large Syrian force 
(I Mac 9 l) vanquished Judas at Eleasa (161 B.C.). 
Alcimus now came to full power and a determined 
policy of Hellenizing the land was carried out. 
While taking down the dividing wall in the Temple, 
in order to blot out the distinction between Jew and 
Gentile, he was stricken with paralysis and died, 
B.C. 160. J. S. R. 



ALEMETH, al'e-meth (n^p, 'aZemetft): I. 1. A 
descendant of Jonathan (I Ch 836, 942). 2. A de- 
scendant of Becher, the Benjamite (I Ch 7 8). II. 
A town in Benjamin. See ALLEMETH. 

E. E. N. 

ALEXANDER, al"egz-an'dgr (Gr., 'defender of 
men'): 1. Alexander the Great. Alexander III., 
called 'the Great,' was born at Pella (Macedonia) 
in 356 B.C., and died in Babylon in 323 B.C. Brief 
as was his career, it was one of the most brilliant of 
ancient history, not simply because of the irresistible 



power of his military genius, but also because of the 
policy which he followed in reference to his con- 
quests, of bringing to them the riches and stimulus 
of Greek culture. With him Hellenism virtually 
began. Our interest in him in this brief article is 
concerned entirely with his contact with the Jews. 

The battle of Issus (333 B.C. ), in which he defeated 
Darius, made him master of Asia. Soon thereafter 
he went to Syria. Damascus, Sidon, Tyre, and 
Gaza fell, one after another, before his victorious 
forces. According to Josephus (Ant. XI 8 3), it 
was while besieging Tyre that he sent to the high 
priest at Jerusalem demanding auxiliaries, supplies 
of provisions, and allegiance. The high priest re- 
fused, and Alexander determined, after capturing 
Gaza, to go to Jerusalem. The city was, of course, 
in terror, and the high priest urged the people to 
prayer and sacrifice for their protection. A dream 
from God assured him that the city would be pro- 
tected and directed him how to meet the conqueror. 
In solemn procession the priests and the people met 
Alexander at Scopus, and the story goes that Alexan- 
der adored the name of God on the breastplate of 
the high priest. When asked why he did this, he an- 
owered that in a dream at Dion in Macedonia he had 
seen a figure corresponding to the high priest, who 
promised him success, hence none other than the 
God of the Jews had been with him. Entering Jeru- 
salem, he offered sacrifice, and gave the Jews the 
favors which they asked. The prophecy in Daniel 
shown to him by the Jews (8 21, 11 3) he interpreted 
as applying to himself. The probable fact under- 
lying this highly embellished story is that Alexan- 
der visited Jerusalem. Alexander made Palestine 
a province of Coele-syria. The Samaritans, en- 
couraged by the privileges granted by Alexander to 
the Jews (viz., " that they enjoy the laws of their 
forefathers, and pay no tribute on the seventh year " 
Ant. XI 8 5), asked also for favors, professing that 
they too were Jews. Alexander promised to let 
them know his decision on his return from Egypt. 
While he was away they revolted against the gov- 
ernor whom he had placed over them in Samaria, and 
were severely punished on his return (Curtius IV. 
5, 8). Shechem later became the religious capital 
of the Samaritans. Alexander was favorably dis- 
posed toward the Jews, giving them large privileges 
in Alexandria (q.v.) and many enrolled themselves in 
his army. He is expressly mentioned in I Mac 1 7, 
62. 

2. Alexander Balas (be'las) figures in Jewish his- 
tory in the time of Jonathan Maccabeus. He was 
a man of obscure origin who palmed himself off as 
the son of Antiochus Epiphanes and laid claim to the 
Syrian throne occupied by Demetrius Soter. His 
remarkable likeness to Antiochus V., son of Antio- 
chus Epiphanes, led many to believe in him, and he 
was supported in his pretensions by Ptolemy Philo- 
pator of Egypt, Attalus II. of Pergamum, and Aria- 
rathes V. of Cappadocia; also by the Romans (Polyb. 
XXXIII. 14, 16). He secured the support of Jona- 
than (153 B.C.), and gave him in return high honor, 
conferring upon him the title of "the high priest of 
thy nation, and friend of the king" (I Mac 10 20). 
Balas proved, however, totally unfit for the high posi- 
tion which he had gained and after varying for- 



23 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Akkub 
Alexandria Troas 



tunes during five years (150-145 B.C.) fled to Arabia, 
where he was slain (I Mac 11 17). The general atti- 
tude of the Jews toward him is given in I Mac 10 47. 

3. Alexander, the son of Simon of Cyrene and 
brother of Rufus (Mk 15 21). 

4. Alexander, one of the kindred of the high 
priest (Ac 4 6). Nothing further regarding him is 
known. 

6. Alexander of Ephesus, who was " brought out 
of the multitude " by the Jews, to make a defense 
for them (Ac 19 33). The purpose of this was most 
likely to save the Jews from being mixed up with the 
Christians in the vengeance of the people. He may 
or may not have been the same as Alexander the 
coppersmith. 

6. Alexander the coppersmith (^aXvt), of 



the northeastern quarter, and were granted large 
privileges. Indeed, in this Hellenistic center Juda- 
ism and Greek culture came into very close contact. 
Owing to lack of information it is impossible to trace 
the development of the city, but under the early 
Ptolemies it became a noted center of commerce, 
learning, and civic splendor. Its famous museum 
and library were promotive of research, and made 
Alexandria foremost in science. It was here that 
the first endeavors were made to adjust the OT 
to Greek conceptions; it was here that the Septua- 
gint translation of the OT was made; it was here 
that the allegorical interpretation of the Scriptures 
was developed all of these being due to the close 
touch of Judaism and Hellenism. In the Roman 
period Alexandria was second only to Rome in im- 



ALEXANDRIA 

from IOOB C.tolOO A.D. 



i a n Sea 



Great Harbor 

Anti 



, .. Eunostos 
_ } H aTb o r 

livens Stfa 



SSonnc^aCBIi 



a X e Mareoti 




whom it is said in II Ti 4 14 that he did Paul "much 
evil." 

7. Alexander, an early Christian, "who made 
shipwreck concerning the faith," and whom Paul 
"delivered unto Satan " (I Ti 1 19 f.). Attempts have 
been made to identify 6, 6, and 7, but identification 
is simply a matter of conjecture. J. S. R. 

ALEXANDRIA, al"egz-an'dri-a: An ancient city, 
situated 14 m. W. of the Canopic mouth of the Nile, 
founded by Alexander the Great 332 B.C. It lay 
on a strip of land 2 m. wide, with Lake Mareotis on 
its southern side, and the sea on the northern. Run- 
ning out from the mainland to an island 1 m. dis- 
tant (Pharos Island) was what was called the Hep- 
tastadium, an artificial mole. On either side of this 
were two spacious harbors. A canal joined Lake 
Mareotis with the Canopic branch of the Nile. The 
city, which was regularly and beautifully built, 
was divided into five districts. The Jews occupied 



portance. Alexandria is not mentioned in the N T. 
Tradition tells us that Mark went to Egypt and es- 
tablished churches in the famous capital. 

J. S. R. 

ALEXANDRIA TROAS, or simply TROAS, 
tro'as (Tpo>ds), originally Sigia, on the W. coast of 
the Troad. Antigonus enlarged Sigia, colonized it 
with people from Scepsis and elsewhere, and re- 
named it Antigonia Troas. It was further embel- 
lished by Lysimachus (300 B.C.), who renamed it 
Alexandria Troas. A. sided with Rome against 
Antiochus, and was made a Roman colony (Colo- 
nia Augusta Alexandria Troas). It became one 
of the most important towns in Asia. Caesar 
planned to make it the seat of government, as did 
Constantino at first. It was further embellished by 
Augustus, Hadrian, and Herodes Atticus, who built 
an aqueduct and baths, the ruins of which are still 
extant, as are those of a temple, gymnasium, and 



Algum-Tree 
Alphabet 



\ SI \\D.\HI) BIBLE DICTIONARY 



24 



theater, wliile the outlines of the port with quay 
ami colonnade of granite columns are still ilistinot. 
Many marble columns from A. now adorn the Yeni 
Validd mosque in Constantinople (built 1649-87). 
A. was a Christian bishopric in Byzantine times. 
For Paul's connection with this city see Acts 18 
8-11, 20S-12; II Co 1! in; II Ti 4 13. J. R. S. S. 

ALGUM-TREE: The almug-tree. See PAI.K.S- 
TIXK, 21. 

ALIAH, n-loi'fl (-','"". -'il'/'-'h): A 'duke." proln 
ablyaclan.of Kdom (tChlil). Alvah in (Jn.Sii 4n. 

E. E. X. 

ALIAN, al'i-mi (^".y.'ulyan): A S<-iritecl:m (I Ch 

I 40). Alvan in Gn 36 23. !'.. 10. N. 
ALIEN. See STUANGER AND SOJOUKNEH. 

ALLAMMELECH, al-lam'e-lee or nl"lnni-me'- 
lec (T^rtf, '<ill,inielrkh, Alaminelech A\ ): A place 
in Asher (Jos 19 26). See Map IV, B 7. E. E. N. 

ALLEGORY: The description of one thing un- 
der the forms of another. Essentially, an allegory 
is an extended metaphor. In the original text of the 
Bible the word does not occur as a subst ant i ve. The 
verb derived from it is \ised in (!al 4 J4 and may mean 
that the affair allegorized was intended as such, or 
that the interpreter is at liberty to see in it a meaning 
different from that on the surface. As the object of 
the Apostle in the passage in question is practical and 
homiletical rather than doctrinal and pedagogical, 
it is probable that he used the word to designate the 
process of appropriating to a specific use by allego- 
rizing what was originally intended in a different 
sense. The allegorical method of interpretation was 
common in Alexandria among the followers of 1'hilo, 
and without committing himself to its underlying 
principles the Apostle could use it in illustrating 
and enforcing Gospel truth by O T utterances. 
Other instances of similar allegorizing by Paul are 
the use of Dt 25 4 in I Co 1 9 referring to the muzzling 
of the ox employed in threshing; of Nu 14 16, 23, 30 
in I Co 10 4 referring to the rock, and of Ex 34 33, 35 in 

II Co 3 13. More akin to the typological use are the 
references in the Epistle to the Hebrews to O T pas- 
sages regarding Melchizcdek and other matters. As a 
class these may be called allegories read into the O T. 

Allegories designed to be such at the start are kin- 
dred to parables (q.v.) and metaphors. It is im- 
possible to draw the line sharply between these 
similar and allied figures of speech (cf. Trench on 
Parables). Nathan's story to David (II S 12 1-14) 
may be construed either as a parable or as an alle- 
gory. The figures of the Vine (.In 1.5 1-8). of the 
l'iread of Life (Jn 6 32-42), and other kindred nar- 
ratives are more clearly allegories. A. C. Z. 

ALLELUIA, .d'Vlu'ya. See HALLELUJAH. 

ALLEMETH, al'e-meth (.~;h', 'nllcmelh, Ale- 
meth AVI: A Ix'vitieal city in Benjamin (ICh660). 
Called Almon in Jos 21 18. Map II, F 1. E. E. N. 

ALLON, al'nn (pS, '//,-,), ' oi ,k': I. A prince 
of the tribe of Simeon (ICh4:t7). II. A city in 
Kadesh Naphtali (Jos 19 33 AV), translated 'oak' 
in RV. C. S. T. 



ALLON BACUTH, al"on bac'uth, 'alldn bakhuth, 
'oak of weeping': A place near Beth-el where 
Deborah, Rebekuh's nurse, was buried (Gn 35 8). 

E. E. N. 

ALMIGHTY. See Goo. 

ALMODAD, al-mo'dad: See ETHNOGRAPHY AND 
ETHNOLOGY. 

ALMON, al'men: See ALLEMETH. 

ALMON-DIBLATHAIM, al"men-dib"la-the'im 
(""""^r" r^t*' ''"' 6 " dibhliithaycmahy. One of 
Israel's encampments in Moab, between Dibon and 
the mountains of Abarim (Nu 33 46). Beth-dibla- 
thaim (Jer 48 22, and Mesha-stone, line 30) may be 
the same place. 

ALMOND, am'und ("!]?, shaqldh [from iptf, 'to 
keep watch,' or 'to be alert'], so called from its 
early blossoming, as though watching for the spring; 
cf. the play on the name in Jer 111): The almond, a 
native of \V. Asia, was well known in Palestine and 
was a delicacy much esteemed in other countries, 
such as Egypt, to which it was exported from S. 
Palestine (Gn43ll). The almond blossom was 
imitated in the making of the golden candlestick 
(Ex 25 33 ff., 37 19 ff.), each of the bowls being shaped 
like its calyx (so Dillmann). In EC 12 6 the words 
"the almond-tree shall blossom" seem to be, on the 
whole, the correct rendering. The white (really 
pink-white) blossoms are made the symbol of the 
white hair of the aged man. See also PALESTINE, 
21; FOOD AND FOOD UTENSILS, 5. E. E. N. 

ALMS, ALMSGIVING. In the EVV this is an 
exclusively N T word, being found only in Mt, Lk, 
and Ac. As an English word, the term is derived 
from the Greek through the Latin (fhtTjiuxrvyi), de- 
emosyne, Old Eng. aelmese, alines), and is a singular 
noun with a plural appearance. The essential ele- 
ment of its meaning is that of gratuity bestowed as 
an expression of compassion as in the presence of 
God. The feeling at the root of the conception is 
one which finds much encouragement in the laws and 
institutions of the O T (cf. the law on gleaning, Dt 24 
19-22). There is, however, a twofold development of 
the thought in the O T. While on the one side the 
Mosaic legislation looks upon compassion toward the 
needy as a feeling to be cherished by the Israelite 
in his ideal conduct, the prophets on the other side 
present the case in the light of a rendering to the 
needy of rights which they might justly claim. Out 
of the interaction of these two sides of the develop- 
ment, there arose in the intertestamental age the 
idea of righteousness secured through almsgiving. 
Especially were charitable deeds thought to be effi- 
cacious in annulling the guilt of sin (Sir 3 14-30, 16 14) 
and securing divine favor in time of danger or dis- 
tress (To 14 10, ll; Sir 29 12, 40 24). The treatment 
of the subject by Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount 
(Mt 6 1-4) is characteristic. He does not denounce 
almsgiving as futile in the search for right standing 
with God, but attempts to plant it upon the right 
motive of love to the heavenly Father. A. C. Z. 

ALMUG-TREE. See PALESTINE, 21. 



25 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Alburn-Tree 
Alphabet 



ALOES, al'oz, LIGN ALOES: The rendering 
of two Heb. words ni^nX., 'dhuluth (Ps 45 8; Song 
414) and D'^nX., 'dhalim (Nu 24 6; Pr7l7) and of 
the Gr. dXoj; (Jos 19 3'J). In all but one (Nu 24 6) 
of these reff. a perfume (or fragrant wood) is meant, 
and in none is the common bitter aloes intended. 
The two Heb. words probably refer to the same thing, 
viz., the 'eaglewood' of commerce, an aromatic 



Clem. Alex.) it denotes Christ as the fountain and 
consummation of all things, and is common in Chris- 
tian art as a monogram for the eternal Divine Son. 

R. A. F. 

ALPHABET: The hieroglyphic signs of Egypt 
and the cuneiform characters of Babylonia had been 
used in writing for centuries before the alphabet was 
invented. It is first found in use among North Sera- 




ipn 



nmp3 . ipn . 3ip3 . IK . 
icx3 . -mpV . nm:sn . TTD . ?pxi I nrr33 . 13 . ex 

LINES 24 AND 25 OF THE MESHA INSCRIPTION. (For translation see MESHA.) 



wood native to SE. Asia and well known to ancient 
traders. When burned it yields a fragrant odor. 
Most scholars consider that the text of Nu 24 6 is 
corrupt, for it does not seem likely that a tree 
native to far-off India could be spoken of by Balaam 
so familiarly (though Post, in HDB, contends that it 
may once have flourished in the tropical Jordan 
valley and thinks that Song 4 14 supports this view). 
Dillmann would emend to 'palms,' Cheyne and 
others to 'poplars.' E. E. N. 

ALOTH, e'loth. See BEALOTH. 

ALPHA AND OMEGA, al'fa, o-mi'ga (ro'AA^a 
nai TO *Q) : The self-designation of Jehovah (Rev 1 8, 
216) and of Christ (22 13, cf . 1 17), and evidently based 
on such passages as Is 41 4, 44 6, 48 12; Ps 90 2. The 



itic peoples, and although it may not have originated 
with them, it was developed by a Semitic people, and 
became the source from which almost all systems of 
alphabets can be derived. From the Tel-d-Amarna 
letters, discovered in 1887-88 and dating from about 
1400 B.C., it is evident that the Babylonian charac- 
ters and language were then in use in Canaan. By 
1000 B.C., however, they had been displaced by Sem- 
itic alphabets and languages, which had developed 
with the growth of the more or less independent' 
national life of the various Semitic peoples. In each 
people both alphabet and language, although having 
an origin in common with that of all the others, be- 
came changed and thus adapted to its individual 
needs. 
The material for the study of the development of 



x. *?'*?' * 



if. * < 



~a~-x3 41 



** v 



. 



In square Hebrew characters the inscription reads: 



. ex . bv . y 



- 



by . 



. ropn . 121 rrn . nn . rop^n . . . 
x . vbv . tu'3i . m . ^x . ex ^nan 
. 1X3 . mr . rrn '3 in . ^>x . xi 
. ex . 



o3xnn . exn . by ixn . n33 . n*n . nx . n 

THE SILOAM INSCRIPTION. See JERUSALEM, J 34. 



term, or its equivalent, was not uncommon in Rab- 
binical and contemporary Greek writers. It means 
' the Eternal One,' being in O T an attribute of Jeho- 
vah, the source and end of existence, with whom the 
writer of Revelation associates Christ in divine life- 
giving power. In early Christian literature (Tert. 



the Semitic alphabet is found in a few inscriptions, 

principally on stones, seals, and coins. 

I. Date of Perhaps the earliest inscription is that 

Alphabet, on a bronze bowl of Phoenician origin. 

It is dedicated to Baal-Lebanon by a 

servant of Hiram, King of the Sidonians, and may 



Alphabet 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



date from about 1000 B.C. From the middle of the 
SUh cent, ((unoa the inscription of Mesha, King of 
Mn:ili, railed tho Mrslci Stone (see illustration). 
The earliest Hebrew inscription w:i.s found in the 
Siloam tunnel, probably built by He/ekbh, and 
therefore dating from the end of the 8th cent, (see 




Seal of Hananiah, Son of Azariah. 
The Hebrew inscription reads: 
WlTi' p 1,V::r6 - to Hanany&hu ben 'AiaryahQ. 

illustration), to which may be added inscriptions on 
seals from the 4th to the 1st cent, (see illustrations), 
and on coins from the Maccabean era and later (see 
illustrations). The important Aramaic inscriptions 
are from Zinjirli in N. Syria (8th cent.), Nerab, SE. 
of Aleppo (7th cent.), and others (8th to 3d cent. 
B.C.) (see cols. 6, 7, 8 of Plate). Comparison re- 




Seal of Shemaiah, Sou of Azariah. 
The Hebrew inscription reads: 
'-; ; -""::- - to Sh'ma'yaha ben 'AzaryahO. 

veals a common origin, and also a period of develop- 
ment in the individual alphabets covering several 
centuries, which were, however, slight. The earliest 
forms of the Greek alphabet, especially where the 
writing is from right to left as is the case with the 
Semitic alphabet, show that these also were derived 
from the same source. It is therefore evident that 
the original alphabet must have come into use some 




A. B. 

Silver Shekel of Simon Maccabams. 
The Hebrew inscription reads: 

A. bXir" bpr - Shekel of Israel. 

B. ,1T~J? ~?rW - Jerusalem the Holy. 

Above the cup is the letter f (X), i. e., the numeral one 
probably indicating the first year of Simon's reign. 

centuries earlier than the dates of the inscriptions 
cited, certainly by 1200 B.C. 

Attempts have repeatedly been made to find the 

source of the Semitic letters in the Egyptian or 

Babylonian characters. J. HaleVy (Re- 

2. Origin vue semUique, 1896, pp. 47-6.5: 1901, 

of pp. 356-370) derives the forms directly 

Alphabet, from the monumental hieroglyphs: 

whereas E. de Roug6 (Memoir r si/r 

I'origine fgyplienne de I'alphabet phenicien, 1874) 



obtains them from the early hieratic characters, 
a cursive development of the hieroglyphs. Isaac 
Taylor (The Alphabet, Vol. I) accepts this view. On 
the other hand, W. Deecke (ZDMO, xxxi. 102 ff.) 




A. B. 

Half-Shekel (Copper) of Simon Maccabeus. 
The Hebrew inscription reads: 

A. Sn 1O1K HOC - Fourth year : One-half (shekel). 

B. ITS rbXtb - Ot the freedom (independence) of Zion. 

and Hommel (Gesch. Babyloniens u. Assyriens, p. 
50 ff.) contend that the forms of the Semitic alphabet 
were derived from certain cuneiform characters. Fr. 
Delitzsch (Die Entstehung des altesten Schrift-Sys- 
tems, p. 221 ff.), however, contents himself with 
the attempt to prove only a free dependence of the 
Semitic letters on the Babylonian writing. Neither 




Coin of John Hyrcanus. 

The inscription reads: John the High Priest and the 
Council of the Jews. 

system can as yet be proved to be the direct source 
of all the letters of the Semitic alphabet. The aero- 
phonetic element of the later Egyptian characters, 
however, may have suggested the alphabet to its in- 
ventor, for a letter is represented in its earliest form 
by the picture of the object, the name of which be- 
gins with the letter represented. 




Copper Coin of Herod I. 
The Greek inscription: Sao-iAtajs 'HpciJou (of King Herod). 

At present it is impossible to give the etymological 
explanation of all signs used in the Semitic alphabet, 
but several are certain: among them 
3. Names are the following (consult Plate): N 
and (a) 'ox -head,' Heb 'eleph; 3 (b) 
Origin of 'house,' Heb.bayUh; *> (1) 'ox-goad,' 
Indi- malmadh (Lidzbarski, EphemcHs, Vol. 
vidual I, p. 263, gives, as the name of $>, a 
Letters. Hebrew word beginning with D, pre- 
fixed to a stem which begins with 7; 
in use this initial D was dropped); D (m) 'water,' 
mayim; y (i) 'eye,' 'ayin; B (p) 'mouth,' peh; 
-\ (r) 'head,' r'osh; y (s, sh) 'row of teeth,' shen; 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Alphabet 



n (t) 'sign,' taw. Noldeke 
(Beitriige zur sent. Sprach- 
wissenschaft, 1904, pp. 124- 
136) and Lidzbarski (Ephe- 
meris, Vol. II, Heft 2, 1906) 
havp recently published in- 
teresting contributions on 
this point. A study of the 
Greek names, which evi- 
dently were derived from 
the original Semitic forms, 
may assist in this investi- 
gation. The Aramaic form 
of the names of the Hebrew 
alphabet may point to an 
Aramaic origin of the alpha- 
bet. It is almost certain 
that a few names were 
given after the original sig- 
nificance of the character 
had been forgotten and 
without the use of the 
principle of acrophony, 
further than that the 
name should begin witli the 
letter designated. Perhaps 
certain letters were de- 
veloped out of other let- 
ters, as e.g., n from D, D 
from T, D from n, the last- 
named by enclosing the orig- 
inal form, a cross, in a cir- 
cle. There is, however, no 
evidence to prove that the 
North Semitic alphabet ever 
had less than the 22 char- 
acters used in the inscrip- 
tions. All the letters were 
originally consonants, but 
', il, 1, and X came to rep- 
resent vowels in Hebrew. 
The Greek alphabet used 
some of its forms for vowels 
and added three new signs. 
The phonetic demands of 
the South Semitic peoples 
led to the production of 
many additional forms, 
some at least derived from 
older characters. 

The names of the letters 

show that the characters 

were derived from parts 

of the human body, from 

animals, and 

4. Order things with 
of which they had 

Letters, most to do. 
The arrange- 
ment of these letters in the 
alphabet may have been 
due in part to the tendency 
to place together things re- 
lated, e.g., = hand, 3 = 
bent hand, J? = eye, Q = 
mouth, and to other mne- 



SPECIMKNS or EAHLT HKIIFIKW AND ARAMAIC ALPHABKTB. 



ANCIENT HEBREW ALPHABETS. 



Modern 
Hebrew 



a 

-T 

n 
i 

T 

n 
ID 



j 
D 

3 
P 

17 
Jl 



Mc'shn 
Stoue, 
875 B.C 



1=1 



7 
^ 



l-v- 

4 

w 

X 



Seals, 
8tb-5tli cent. 

B.C. 



$ 



n 



rni 



o 

1 

T. I 

t 



W 



Klloam, 
700 B.C 



J 



J 
J 



J 

2*- 

t 

1 



X 

4 



Haccabean 

Coins, 
2a cent B.C. 



C\ 



BB 



V V 



a o 



W Wfc/ 



ARAMAIC .INSCRIPTIONS. 



STRIA AND MESOPOTAMIA. 



X.injirli. 
8th cent. 



zz 

HB 



ff 
o 

7 

?f 

A 

w 



Nerab, 
7tbcent. 

B.C. 



/v 

WH 



ff 
O 

7 

r 

9 

w 



.... 

8th :)d cent. 
B.C. 



/> A 



<\ 11 

1 K 

X 2 V 



(^ 

2 * 

1777 



O D V 



Alphabet 
Altar 



A .-TANDAHD HIIU.K DICTIONARY 



5. Alpha- 

bet Used 

by the 

Hebrews. 



~ 

m 



Xr 



motile motives. We know the onlrrnf the Hebrew 
alphal>et fnitu I hut of the Creek, from tlir nutner- 
ical value of each letter, and also from the initial 
letters of the verses in (lie alphabetic Psalms (111, 
11-', ll'.i; 1'r lil 10 ff., and La 1). 

Apart from the origin of the Semitic alphabet, the 
changes in the alphabet use.l by the Hebrews are of 
especial interest. The letters of the 
Siioam alphabet (I'late, col. () show 
a tendency to a more cursive character 
than is found in the Mcsha Stone (col. 
:_'); but the letters on the seals (col. 3) 
ami coins (col. o) retain es.-entially the 
forms of the Siioam inscription. The older Hebrew 
forms were used 
on the Maccabeati 
coins, perhaps to 
emphasize the 
feeling of national 
independence. 

The Samaritans 
continued to use 
a form of the old 
Hebrew alphabet 
which shows its 
close relation to 
the original, and 
proves that until 
the separation of 
the Jews and Sa- 
maritans (about 
40() B.C.) the older 
form had main- 
tained itself. The 

accompanying illustration reproduces a few lines of 
a Samaritan MS. (Dt 1 44-46) of the 
Pentateuch, written in 1219 A.D., but 
retaining essentially the forms used 
by the earlier Samaritans. In certain 
respects the Samaritan writing is more 
cursive, while at the same time the characters are 
more ornamental, as in a codex. 

The Aramaic alphabet was undergoing a de- 

velopment to the north and east of Palestine 

(see Plate, cols. 6, 7, 8), and out of 

7. Hebrew it developed the square letters char- 

Square acteristicof the Hebrew alphabet, best 

Characters, known to us from its use in the MSS. 

of the O T. It was not a develop- 

ment within the Hebrew alphabet; but was used by 

that people, as they had adopted the earlier Aramaic 

forms, familiar to them from their residence in Bab- 

ylon. The Aramaic writing did not at once dis- 

plai-e the' old Hebrew alphabet , but both were in use, 

the Aramaic characters finally securing the prefer- 

in copies of the books of the O T. Struck 

(PRE^, Vol. 17) gives as explanation for this that 

the Aramaic characters were considered holy, the 

He-brew profane. At the time of Christ we have 

evidence (Mf ."> is) that this square alphabet was in 

use, for ' is the smallest letter. The changes in the 

forms of the letters were largely due to the attempt 

to obtain cursive forms, which were as simple as 

Me and could be made without removing the 

pen, and also to the .similar effort to join the letters 

of words. This form of writing gave two forms for 



6. 



Samar- 
itan 
Writing, 



live letters: final forms, f, t\, ], D, ); and forms 
for use before other letters of a word, D; and by 
beiidiiigthe perpendicular lines to the left, y, B, 3, 
3. In other letters, and in a similar way, horizontal 
bars have arisen out of the vertical lines of the prim- 
itive forms, cf. 3, D, as well as 3, 3, D, X, of 
column 1. By the opening of the upper portion of 
closed loops, and the straightening of zigzags of 
earlier forms, the upper bars of 3, 1, 3, D, 3, D, "I 
are obtained. In order to avoid the confusion of 
characters in other letters the vertical lines were 
left, cf. 3 and 1. The form y results from the 
opening of the upper part of the original circle, 
and extending the right-hand line toward a follow- 
ing letter. The 
square Hebrew 
characters wen; 
obtained by iso- 
lating each letter 
from all others in 
a word, and re- 
taining the form 
thus resulting. 
This alphabet, 
with slight modi- 
fications, IMS 
been used in all 
OT manuscripts, 
the oldest of 
which datee from 
the end of the 

9th cent. A.D. 
The Samaritan Script. 

L I T K R A T I I : ! : : 

Books cited in 

text, also Lidzbarski, Handbuch der nordsemitischen 
Epigraphik, 2 vols., 1896-98; JK, Vol. I; I. Taylor, in 
HDB; A. A. Bevan, article Writing, in EB, and the 
bibliographies in the foregoing. Q_ g T. 



A. 



ALPH^US, al'fe-us or al-fi'os ('AX^aior, WH 
'AXi^aios) : 1. The father of the second James in the 
apostolic lists (Mk 3 18; Mt 10 3; Lk 6 15; Ac 1 13), 
probably the same as Clopas, husband of Mary 
(Jn 19 25). For (a) both names are possible trans- 
literations of the Aram, chalfphni, but cf. Zahn, 
Forsch. VI, p. 343; and (6) in Mk 15 40; Mt 27 56, 
the woman who corresponds to Mary, the wife of 
Clopas in Jn 19 25, is called the mother of James 
(Mk adds "the Less") and Joses. There is no rea- 
son for the further assumption (Euscbius, HE, III, 
11, 2; IV, 22, 4) that A. was a brother of Joseph, 
thus making James son of A. the cousin of Jesus (see 
BRETHREN OF THE LORD). 

2. The father of Levi (Matthew) (Mk 2 14), but 
cf. D, which reads 'idicetf^loi' (James) in place of Aevelv 
(Levi). J. M. T. 

ALTAR: The origin of the term altar is very 

obscure. The current theory, that the altar is but a 

development from the sacred stone, of 

I. Semitic which the 'pillar,' the matatsfbhah. was 

Altars in the later and more direct represent a- 

General. tive (so e.g. Benzinger, p. 379, Nowack, 

II. p. 18), is not beyond all doubt. 

The ancient legislation (Ex 20 24) requiring that 

altars should be of earth, or, if not. of unhewn stone 

only, seems to indicate that the primitive altar often 



A STA.VI)Al(l) BIHI.i; DKrriONARY 



Alphabet 
Altar 



consisted simply of a heap of earth. In any case, 
there can be no doubt that the earliest altars were 
of the most simple type. The sacred stone, also, 
was essentially an altar, in the sense of being a place 
where some recognition of the presence of deity could 



Western Side 



of deity or indicated the near-by presence of 
deity (cf. Gn 28 18-18). The main idea regarding an 
altar was that it was the place of sacrifice (i.e., 
slaughter, since originally every slaughter was a 
sacrifice) as its Heb. name mizbeah indicates. These 



And Southern Longstde 

T=^ En 




DOLMENS (PRIMITIVE ALTARS) IN EASTERN PALESTINE. 



be made (by smearing with oil, cf. Gn 28 18, or blood, 
cf. IS 14 31-35). The ancient narrative in IS 14 
31 ff. is instructive as to the intimate relation between 
the sacred stone and the altar. Saul, horrified by 
the news that the people were slaying the captured 
animals and eating them "with the blood" i.e., 
without a proper sacrificial disposal of the blood 



two ideas are brought together in the most an- 
cient OT legislation regarding altars (E>x2024f.). 
Wherever J" "recorded" His name was a legitimate 
place for an altar; that is, wherever J" manifested 
His presence, as by a theophany, by a dream, by 
giving victory to His people, etc. Such conceptions 
betray themselves in all that is said of altars in the 




ALTAR op BURNT OFFERINGS (AS PORTRAYED BY EZEKIEL). 



had a large stone placed before him to which the 
people were ordered to bring their animals for 
slaughter. This stone was both a sacred stone, set 
up in commemoration of Jehovah's deliverance of 
His people, and an altar a mizbeah, 'sacrifice- 
(i.e., slaughter-) place.' The main idea regarding 
tho sacred stone was that it either was actually the 



patriarchal stories in Gn and in the stories in Jg 
and I S. In all these a comparatively simple state 
of society (seminomadic or undeveloped agricul- 
tural) is presupposed, and all usages are correspond- 
ingly simple. 

Every Canaanite high place had its altar, and as 
the main function of the altar was to furnish a place 



Altar 

Ambush 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



30 



for the proper disposition of the blood (afterward, 
of necessity, of the whole or parts of the body, by 
burning of the sacrificial victim), remains of such 
high-place altars generally show a number of cup- 
like depressions on the top with one or more drains 
to collect and carry off the blood (see the reports of 
excavations at Gezer in PEFQ, 1902-06). For 
illustrations of ancient Hebrew rock-altars see H. B. 
('. nvne in Bib. World, May, 1897, and see also G. L. 
Robinson's account of the Edomite high place of 
Petra, ibid., Jan., 1901. 

The Kingdom period with its development of city 
life and the establishment of royal sanctuaries (e.g., 
at Jerusalem, Beth-el, and Samaria), with their 
temples and more elaborate cultus, brought about a 
corresponding development of the altar probably 
with more or less extensive adoption of foreign types 
(Phoenician, Assyrian, etc.). In some Canaanite 
cities altars of elaborate form were in use before the 
Conquest. One such was found at Taanach by 
Professor Sellin (July, 1902), with ornamented cor- 
ners and faces, with horns, a cup for sacrifices, etc. 
(see PEFQ, Oct., 1902). 

The detailed information regarding altars in the 

O T concerns mainly those of the Tabernacle and the 

temples of Solomon and of Ezekiel's 

2. The vision. For his Temple Solomon dis- 

Altars of carded David's altar and had a new 
the Temple brazen altar constructed. It is prob- 
and Taber- able that this altar was erected on the 
nacle. site of David's sacrifice on the occasion 
mentioned in II S 24 16-25 (cf. I Ch 22 1 ; 
II Ch 3 l), the place now supposed to be covered by 
the famous Dome of the Rock (see JERUSALEM, 
4, 25). The description of this altar has been omit- 
ted in I K 7 (though reminiscences occur in 8 64 and 
9 25), but it can be supplied from II Ch 4 1. It was 
20 cubits in length and breadth with a height of 10 
cubits. Its general shape was probably like that of 
the altar of Ezekiel's vision (Ezk 43 13-17). It "rose 
in terraces, contracting by means of two inlets 
[ledges] toward the top." It was 20 cubits square 
at the base, but the altar hearth was probably not 
more than 12 cubits square. By some Ezekiel's 
altar is taken as an exact reproduction of Solomon's, 
but the figures given in Ezk seem to make a struc- 
ture 18 cubits square by 12 cubits high, instead of 
20 cubits and 10 cubits (see Davidson's Com. on Ezk 
in Camb. Bible). The altar was ascended by a flight 
of steps on its east side. Its faces were probably 
ornamented with figures of various kinds. Little 
is said of its structure in detail. The material is 
said to have been brass (bronze). Whether this 
refers to the whole or only to its covering or plating 
is not known. It had horns, apparently because 
it was customary for more elaborate altars to have 
such. The original significance of these is not 
known. W. R. Smith (Rel. Sem., p. 436) thinks 
that they were a survival of the practise of actually 
placing the head (with the horns) of the sacrificial 
victim on the altar and leaving them there to hang 
votive offerings on, etc. The horns appear to have 
been thought the most sacred part of an altar (cf. 
Ex 29 12 ; Lev 16 18 ; I K 1 50). The altar was doubt- 
less provided with drains, etc., but of these noth- 
ing is said. Its location was "before Jehovah" 



(II K 16 H), i.e., directly E. of the porch of the 
Temple. 

Solomon's altar was in general use for all burnt 
offerings until it was displaced by the altar Aliaz 
had made after a model he had seen at Damascus (II 
K 16 10-lC). Both of these altars were doubtless des- 
troyed at the capture of Jerusalem (586 B.C.). 

In Solomon's Temple there w;is another " altar," 
that of the showbread (I K 6 20) made of cedar, over- 
laid with gold. This is called a "table" in Ezk 
(41 22). Something similar to this has been found 
portrayed on the Assyr. monuments. (See the cut 
in Benzinger, p. 387.) In K, Ch, and Ezk there is 
no specific mention of an altar of incense. 

When the exiles returned, one of their first acts 
was to build an altar (Ezr 3 3) probably of unhewn 
stones (cf. I Mac 4 47) in stricter accord with the old 
law of Ex 20 25 than the altars of Solomon, Ahaz, or 
Ezekiel had been. This altar was in use as the altar 
of the Second Temple until it was desecrated by the 
command of Antiochus Epiphanes (I Mac 1 54). 
When the Jews regained possession of Jerusalem 
they carefully pulled down the desecrated altar, laid 
away its stone and built a new one, also of unhewn 
stone (I Mac 4 44-47). It is thus seen that Ezekiel's 
plan of a magnificent bronze altar was not realized. 

The description of the Tabernacle in Ex 25-31 and 
35-40, largely of post-exilic date, states ideals rather 
than facts. It combines the conceptions of Ezekiel 
with the actual practises of the post-exilic Temple in 
one ideal presentation. According to this descrip- 
tion the Tabernacle had three altars: (1) "The al- 
tar," i.e., the altar of burnt offerings, a small port- 
able structure, hollow, of wood overlaid with bronze, 
5 cubits square and 3 cubits high. It was furnished 
with horns and -with a bronze grating or network, 
perhaps intended for carrying away the blood, 
rather than for the ashes (Ex' 27 1-8). (2) The table 
for the showbread (Ex 25 23-30). (3) The altar of 
incense (Ex 30 1 ff.). The account of this last seems 
to belong to a secondary stratum of the narrative in 
Ex 25-31 and, since even Ezekiel says nothing about 
such an altar, was probably added at a later time in 
the post-exilic period after the altar of incense had 
been added to the furniture of the Second Temple. 
When that was no one can say, except that it took 
place before the Maccabean period (cf. I Mac 4 49). 
Of the altars of Herod's reconstructed temple little 
is definitely known. See also TEMPLE, TABER- 
NACLE, and SACRIFICE. 

LITERATTJRK: Benzinger, Heb. Arch&ologie (1894), pp. 
378 ff.; Nowack, Heb. Arcltaologie (1894), II, pp. 75-85; 
Addis in EB. j? jf . 

AL-TASHHETH, al-tash'heth (Al-taschith, al- 
tas'kith, AV). See Music, AND MUSICAL INSTRU- 
MENTS, 6. 



ALUSH, e'lush (tf&& 'Slush'): An encampment 
of Israel (Nu 33 13 f.). Site unknown. E. E. N. 

ALVAH, al'va; ALVAN, al'van: See ALIAH, 
ALIAN. 

AMAD, e'mad p?SP, 'am'adh): A town of Asher 
(Jos 19 26). Site uncertain. E E. N. 

AMAL, e'mal (b^y, 'amal): A son of Helem, an 
Asherite (I Ch 7 35). E. E. N. 



31 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Altar 
Ambush 



AMALEK, um'a-lek (^Z, 'dmaleq): The grand- 
son of Esau (Gn 36 12), whose descendants are 
described in Nu24 20 as "the first of the nations," 
i.e., the most powerful. The reference in Gn 14 7 to 
"all the country of the Amalekites " as smitten by 
Chedorlaomer and his allies does not necessarily 
carry them back in history to the days of Abraham, 
but rather defines their locality in the time of the 
author. They are not alluded to in the ' Table of 
Nations ' (Gn 10). Geographically, they occupied 
the desert region S. of Canaan, extending from 
Beersheba beyond Kadesh-barnea far into the pen- 
insula of Sinai and probably also into northern 
Arabia. They withstood the Israelites, when the 
latter under Moses migrated from Goshen to the 
Promised Land, attacking them in the rear (Dt 25 
17-19). At Rephidim, which is best identified with 
Wady Feir&n, they were defeated by Joshua (Ex 
178-16). When the spies returned they reported 
that the Amalekites dwelt "in the land of the 
South" (Nu 13 29). Not long after this they are 
spoken of as occupying "the valley," presumably 
the valley S. of the Dead Sea (Nu 14 25). Though 
powerful at the time of Israel's exodus, they must 
have become somewhat reduced through the seces- 
sion of the Kenites and Kenizzites (cf. I S 15 6). In 
the time of the Judges, however, they seem to have 
possessed a foothold in Ephraim (Jg5 14, according 
to the present text) and to have continued their 
marauding expeditions (Jg 6 3). 

Saul was commissioned to exterminate them 
utterly, but he spared Agag, their king (I S 15). In 
David's day Amalekite robbers made a raid upon 
Ziklag and took it, but they were overtaken by 
David and so completely decimated that they seem 
never to have recovered (I S 30). In Hezekiah's 
reign, "the remnant of the Amalekites that escaped" 
were smitten by the Simeonites, who dispossessed 
them of Mount Seir (I Ch 4 43). No trustworthy 
data concerning them are to be found outside the 
O T. Neither Assyrian nor Egyptian records allude 
to them. G. L. R. 

AMAM, e'mam (ES, 'dmam): A city of S. Ju- 
dah (Jos 15 26). Site unknown. E. E. N. 

AMANA, a-mQ'na (~^$, 'dmanah): The south- 
ern portion, probably, of the Anti-Lebanon mountain 
range (Song 4 8). E. E. N. 

AMARIAH, am"a-rai'a (~;"SX, 'dmaryah), 'J" 
hath promised': 1. A son of Meraioth and grand- 
father of Zadok ( I Ch 6 7 f . ; Ezr 73). 2. The ances- 
tral head of one of the subdivisions of the Kohathite 
Levites (I Ch 23 19; cf. 24 23). 3. Chief priest in Je- 
rusalem under Jehoshaphat (I Ch 6 11; II Ch 19 11). 
4. A Levite assistant to Kore, the porter at the 
east gate who was over the free-will offerings of 
God, in the time of Hezekiah (II Ch 31 14 f.). 5. 
Ancestor of Zephaniah, possibly son of Hezekiah, 
King of Judah (Zeph 1 1). 6. One of the priests 
that sealed the covenant of Nehemiah's time (Neh 
10 3). 7. A Judahite who dwelt in Jerusalem (Neh 
114). 8. One of the priests of Zerubbabel's band 
which returned from Babylon (Neh 12 2, 13). 

J. A. K. 



AMASA, am'a-sa (N'lp$J>, 'dmOsH'): 1. A son of 
Jethcr, an Ishmuulite, and David's sister Abigail 
(I Ch 2 17; II S 17 25). Absalom appointed him 
captain of his forces (II S 17 25). After David's 
victory he gave Amasa the place held by his cousin 
Joab (II S 19 13 ff.), probably in order to allay disaf- 
fection in Judah. Very soon after this Amasa was 
assassinated by Joab (II S 20 4-12; I K 2 , 32). 2. An 
Ephraimite (II Ch 28 12). E. E. N. 

AMASAI, Q-mas'ai ('$$$, 'dmdsay): 1. A Ko- 
hathite Levite (I Ch 6 25, 35; II Ch 29 12). 2. One of 
David's captains (I Ch 12 16-18, perhaps the same as 
Amasa, 1). 3. A priest (I Ch 15 24). E. E. N. 



AMASHSAI, Q-mash'sai ("DtfiM?, 'dmashfay, 
Amashai AV): A priest (Neh 11 13), called Maasai 
(ICh9l2). E. E. N. 

AMASIAH, am-a-sai'fl (n;WJ|, 'dmafyOh), 'J' 
bears': One of Jehoshaphat's captains (II Ch 17 16). 

E. E. N. 

AMAZIAH, am"a-zoi'a (V^VttK, 'dmatsy&hu), 'J' 
strengthens': 1. Son of Joash and king of Judah, 
c. 798-790 B.C. Though he executed his father's 
murderers he refused to follow custom and spared 
their children. Having reduced Edom once more 
to subjection to Judah, he raslily engaged in war 
with Jehoash of Israel, but was utterly defeated. 
Jerusalem was captured, its walls partly demolished, 
while Amaziah retained his throne only through 
paying a heavy indemnity and giving hostages. 
Judah was thus reduced practically to the condition 
of subjection to Israel. After this, disaffection 
showed itself and, like his father, Amaziah was mur- 
dered by conspirators (II K 12 21, 13 12, 14 1-22; II Ch 
25). Amaziah is said to have reigned twenty-nine 
years (II K 14 2). It is probable that a mistake has 
been made somehow and that he actually reigned but 
nine years. See CHRONOLOGY OF OT (table). 2. 
Priest of Beth-el under Jeroboam II., who attempted 
to prevent Amos from prophesying in Israel (Am 7 
10 ff.). 3. One of the descendants of Merari (I Ch 
4 34). 4. A Levite (I Ch 6 45). E. E. N. 

AMBASSADOR: In OT the equivalent of (1) 
mtlits (II Ch 32 31). Properly, 'interpreter' (cf. Gn 
42 23; Is 43 27 [RVmg.]; Job 33 23). (2) mal'ak (II 
Ch352l; Is 30 4, 337; Ezk 17 is), 'One who has 
been sent,' 'a messenger.' (3) ts'ir (root idea 'to 
go'), ambassador in a technical sense (Is 18 2, 579; 
Jer 49 14); parallel to "messenger" (Pr 13 17). In 
Jos 9 4, the Heb. form is verbal, not substantive. 

In N T only as a rendering of the verbal form 
iv (II Co 5 20; Eph 6 20). J. M. T. 



AMBER, am'bgr: This word occurs in the AV of 
Ezk 1 4, 27, 8 2, as the rendering of the Heb. TOfO, 
hashmal. The RV replaces it with the term "glow- 
ing metal," which is as satisfactory a rendering as 
can be suggested, since the meaning of the term is 
uncertain. E. E. N. 

AMBUSH, AMBUSHMENT. See WARFARE, 
4. 



Amen 

Amos 



A ST \.\DA1U) BIBLK DICTIONARY 



32 



AMEN, e"mcn' <>r ( WHS. ) ii"men': Originally a 
verbal adjective meaning ' steadfast-,' it became an 
adverb, 'truly,' or an interjection, 'so be it," 'so ii is.' 
(1) In the OT: (a) Initially; in affirmation of a pre- 
ceding statement, which the speaker solemnly makes 
his own (I K 1 3d; Jer 28 6; cf. Rev 7 12, 22 20). (b) 
Detached, as an oath (Nu 5 22; Dt 27 15; Neh 5 13). 
(c) Liturgical; at the close of public prayer and 
U'nediction (I Ch 16 36; Neh 8 6; Pa 106 48). (2) In 
N'T: (n) In the Epistles, commonly a response to 
public or private prayer (I Co 14 10; Rev 5 14). (b) 
In Rev ;{ 14 (cf. II Co 1 20; Is 65 Hi; RVing.) it is 
used as a proper name Jesus as the Word affirming 
the truth of God's promises, (r) In the Gospels its 
use is confined to the utterances of Jesus. Luke 
usually employs instead of it the expressions "of a 
truth," "truly," or " I say." Jesus uses it not as an 
answer, but in strong asseveration. The truth of 
His utterance must be accepted on His own testi- 
mony (cf. "Yea" in Mt 119, 2ii). In John's (ios- 
pel only the double term "verily, verily" (i.e., 
"amen, amen") occurs. R. A. !'. 

AMETHYST. See STONES, PRECIOUS, 2. 

AMI, e'mai ("?, 'aim, Amon in Neh 7 59): An- 
cestral head of a family of "Solomon's servants" 
(Kzr -2 57; Neh 7 59). E. E. N. 

AMINADAB. See AMMINADAB. 

AMITTAI, o-mit'ai (T^X, 'amittay), ' J" is truth ' 
(?): The father of the prophet Jonah (II K 14 25; 
Jon 1 l). E. E. N. 

AMMAH, am'a (~^$, 'ammah): A hill near 
Giah in the wilderness of Gibeon, where Abner, sup- 
porting the claims of Ishbosheth, son of Saul, was 
defeateil by Joab, the leader of David's forces. 

C. S. T. 

AMMI-, am'mai (*"?, 'amml [or Cy, 'am, when 
at the end of a word]): An element in the com- 
position of proper names, which, since this word 
may mean 'uncle,' 'kinsman,' or 'people,' may refer 
to the divine Being (as ' uncle,' i.e., chief kinsman), 
or to one's relatives or people. For illustrations see 
the- significance of the various names compounded 
with " ainmi " (or with the suffix "am"). Cf. G. B. 
(Iray, Studies in Hebrew Proper Names, pp. 41- 
60. E. E. N. 

AMM1, am'mai ("?<?, 'amml), 'my people': The 
designation of Israel as restored to divine favor (Hos 
2 l); the opposite of Lo-ammi, "not my people " 
(1 9), the symbolic name of Hosea's third child 
which was indicative of the separation that had 
taken place between Israel and ,1". E. E. N. 

AMMIEL, am'mi-el (V"i\ 'amtm'el), 'God is 
kinsman': 1. One of the spies (Nu 13 12). 2. The 
father of Machir of Lo-debar (II S94f., 17 27). 3. 
The father of David's wife Bathshua (I Ch 3 5), the 
same as Eliam, father of Bath-sheba (II S113). 
4. A Levite (I Ch 26 8). $. E. N. 

AMMIHUD, am-mai'hud (-,W??. 'ammlhwlh), 
'kinsman is glory': 1. The father of Klishania, prince 



of Kphraim (Xu 1 10, 2 l\ etc.; ICh72B). 2. A 
Siineonite (Nu3420). 3. A Naphtalite (Nu3428). 
4. A Judahite, the son of Omri (I Ch 9 4). 5. For 
II S 1337 see AMMIHUR. E. E. N. 



AMMIHUR, am'mi-hor (lin-^y, 'ammihur, Am- 
mihud AV): Father of Talmai, King of Geshur (II S 
13 37). E. E. N. 

AMMINADAB, a-min'a-dab (:i t j*3i', 'amminll- 
ilhiihh), 'the [divine] kinsman gives': 1. The an- 
crstral head of a family or clan of Judah (Nu 1 7, 
2 3, etc. ; Ru 4 19 f. ; I Ch 2 10). 2. The name of one 
or more Levites, descendants of Kohath (I Ch 6 22 
[elsewhere called Izhar, vs. 2,18,38; Ex 6 18, etc.], 
15 10 f.). A., the father of Aaron's wife (Ex 6 23), was 
probably a Levite. The reference to Nahshon in 
both Kx 023 and Nu 1 7, etc., may indicate some 
intermarriage between Levite and Judahite fam- 
ilies. E. E. N. 

AMMINADIB, ci-min'a-dib (2"!}"?:', 'ammlna- 
ilhtbli): A name which occurs in the AV of Song 6 
12, but RV reads "my princely people." The Heb. 
text is obscure and difficult. E. E. N. 

AMMISHADDAI, am"mi-shad'da-ai ("uf^i', 
'ammishad(lay), 'Shaddai is kinsman': Father of 
Ahiezer, prince of Dan (Nu 1 12, etc.). E. E. N. 

AMM1ZABAD, am-miz'a-bad ("51^1', 'ammlsui- 
hhfiilh), 'kinsman has made a gift': An officer, son 
of Benaiah, David's hero (I Ch 27 0). E. E. N. 

AMMON, am'on fllXJ?, 'ammon; always ]'"i" 'J.5, 
"children [sons] of Ammon," except in I S 11 11; Ps 
837). In Assyrian inscriptions bit-ammainr. The 
termination 'on' ('om'), seen also in Milcom, may 
be an Ammonite linguistic peculiarity, and Ammon, 
like Milcom, a qualitative designation of the god. 
The Ammonites were a Hebraic people, descend- 
ants of Lot through Ben-ammi (q.v.) (Gn 19 30 ff.). 
Dispossessing the Zamzummim (Dt 2 20), they set- 
tled E. of the Jordan. Their boundaries were indef- 
inite, the Jordan was claimed as the W. border (Jg 
11 13), and to the E. lay the uncharted desert. 
When Israel entered Palestine the A. lived E. of the 
Jabbok (Nu 21 24; Dt 3 16). Kabbah ("Rabbah of 
the children of Ammon," Dt 3 n), now AmmAn, on 
the Jabbok, was the capital. 

The story in Gn 19 30 ff., generally assumed to be a 
slur upon the origin of Ammon, is not necessarily 
such. A. and Moab, both being in possession of 
their lands long before the Exodus, might well call 
themselves pure-blooded natives as compared with 
the Hebrew immigrants. Later the story may have 
become a taunt. Their language, nearly identical 
with Hebrew (comp. their proper names), was a 
witness to kinship. 

The term "children of Ammon" suggests nomadic 
characteristics, and while towns are vaguely referred 
to, Rabbah is the only one named. Jg 1 1 gives the 
first detailed account of their fortunes; Jephthah 
repudiated their claims on Gilead and drove them E. 
of the Jabbok. When they again attempted to hu- 
miliate Israel, Saul defeated them (I S 11). David 
was at first friendly to A., but. because of the insult to 



33 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Amen 

Amos 



his ambassadors (II S 10 1 ff.)> besieged and captured 
Rabbab, and discrowned Milcom (II S 12 30 mg.); 
Jotham reduced them to tribute (II Ch 27 S). Later 
we find them at times in a coalition against Babylon 
(Jer 27 3), at other times tributary. They once at- 
tacked Jerusalem (II K 24 2), and later exulted over 
her fall (Ps 83). The prophets bitterly denounced 
them (Am 1 13; Jer 49; Ezk 25 iff.; Zeph 2 8 f.). In 
post-exilic days Tobiah the Ammonite (Neh 2 10) 
was an opponent of Nehemiah. In 164 B.C., under 
a leader, Timotheus, they were defeated by Judas 
Maccabteus (I Mac 5 6-8). The name finally disap- 
pears in the 3d cent. A.D. 

The name of the chief deity was Milcom, from 
the same root as ~Vp, 'king.' In IIS 12 30 we 
should follow the RVmg. Perhaps a colossal idol- 
statue stood in Kabbah. 

LITERATURE: Moore on Judges in Internal. Crit. Comm.; 
Driver on Genesis. J^ t Q Q 

AMNO1T, am'nen 0*^8, 'amnon): 1. David's 
eldest son, slain by Absalom for violating his sister 
Tamar (II S 3 2, 13 1-39). 2. A descendant of Ju- 
dah(ICh420). E. E. N. 

AMOK, e'mek (P'">, 'amoq), 'deep': A post-exilic 
priestly family (Neh 12 7, 20). E. E. N. 

AMON, e'men ("~$, 'amon), 'master-workman': 
1. King of Judah, son of Manasseh, and father of the 
godly Josiah. Of his brief reign of two years (641- 
639 B.C.) little is known. Like his father he was de- 
voted to the worship of Assyrian deities. He was 
assassinated by some of his courtiers, but the people 
took vengeance upon his assassins. Scholars con- 
nect these events with a religious struggle between 
the prophetic and reactionary parties in Judah. The 
former, having put the king to death, was not strong 
enough to maintain its position (II K 21 18 ff.). 2. 
The governor of Samaria, under Ahab (I K 22 26). 
3. One of Solomon's temple slaves whose descend- 
ants returned from Babylonia with Zerubbabel 
(Neh 7 59). J. A. K. 

AMORITE, am'o-rait (*lfc$$, 'emorl), perhaps 
'mountain-dwellers' (Oxf. Heb. Lex.): The early 
inhabitants of Palestine. Two strong Amorite 
kingdoms confronted Israel E. of the Jordan prior 
to the invasion, but they were overthrown and their 
kings, Sihon and Og, slain (Dt 2 33, 3 3). But there 
is evidence that the Amorites early occupied the 
AV. and S. of the land as well as the E. The syno- 
nymity of Amorite and Canaanite is uncertain, and 
it is disputed whether the word martu in early Bab. 
and Assyr. inscriptions is equivalent to A.; but in 
inscriptions from Hammurabi's age onward, the two 
terms are interchangeable. "Land of Amurri" 
occurs on Bab. tablets as early as the 12th cent. B.C., 
and is also common in the Amarna tablets. The 
name is frequent in the enumeration of nations (Ex 
38, and elsewhere). The constant Hebrew tradi- 
tion makes the A. the immediate predecessors of the 
Hebraic and Aramean invaders (cf. Paton, Early 
History of Syr. and Pal.). About 2500 B.C. a new 
type of Semitic names appears in Babylonia, and 
rari.'il changes are evident throughout Syria and per- 
haps Egypt. A. S. C. 



AMOS, c'mos (Ditty, 'amdf ), ' bearer' or ' borne' (by 
God?): 1. The prophet Amos was a ndk&ih or nln-p- 
herd of fine-haired sheep, a fender of 
I. The sycamores, and a native of Tekoa, south 
Man. of Bethlehem (Ami 1, 7 14). In the 
loneliness of his native mountains, as 
with Elijah (I K 19 12 ff.), (iod's voice was more 
clearly heard and His words more perfectly under- 
stood. So he was impelled to go to Beth-el to preach 
against N. Israel his God-given message. His activ- 
ity may be dated some time between B.C. 705 ami 750. 
He repudiated the name nabhl', prophet (7 14), but 
only because of Amaziah's implication that he proph- 
esied for gain and belonged to a venal gild (7 12). 
Yet he is the first of the writing prophets, the origi- 
nator indeed of a new school of prophecy. 

The analysis of the book, externally, is simple. We 
may distinguish four sections: I. 1 2-2 16. Indict- 
ment of the kindred peoples for sins 
2. The against common humanity, culminating 
Book. with Israel, who has broken a holier 
law. II. 3 1-6 14. Oracles in which 
are reiterated the folly of formalism and the futility 
of national hopes, while luxury, extravagance, and 
crime are rampant. To this belongs also 8 4-14, 
which interrupts its present context. 

III. 7 1-9 8a. Five visions of judgment with a 
historical appendix. These visions are climacteric in 
arrangement, though the order is broken first by 
7 10-17, and second by 8 4-14. First, we have two 
visions of remediable evils, 7 1-3, 4-6; then the hope- 
less internal perversity, 7 7-9; and finally the im- 
pending consummation, 8 1-3; with earthquake and 
extermination, 9 1-4. 

IV. 9 8b-l5. The Messianic future follows ver. 
8a abruptly and differs in phraseology, conception, 
and outlook from the rest of the prophecy. It can 
hardly have been the original conclusion of Amps's 
visions of judgment. The five visions seem to be the 
original kernel of the book, and with them is associ- 
ated the story of Amaziah's protest, and the prophet's 
probable expulsion (7 12). The other sections, artis- 
tically elaborated as they are, may well have been 
written later by Amos and committed to posterity. 
Four passages in I are of doubtful genuineness: 1 2 
is probably a late addition; 1 9 f. is a doublet of 1 6 f . ; 
24 f. is vague and colorless and to be rejected; while 
Inf., according to some, with less reason, is post- 
exilic. 

Prophecy began a new era with the herdsman of 
Tekoa. Whatever his predecessors may have done, 

he first wrote for posterity the outlines 

3. Theol- of an ethical theory of the world. The 

ogy. Hebrew term 2'!I, 'good,' attained with 

him a distinct moral significance (5 14; 
cf. ver. 6). The essence of the Law was equity and not 
sacrifice (57, ll, 22-25, 8 4-7). The Day of Jehovah 
was not to be one of national aggrandizement but of 
searching judgment (5 18 ff.). Above all rises the 
conception of the God of Hosts transcendent in 
power, inflexible in justice, whose dictates are 
founded not upon arbitrary will, but upon the very 
constitution of the world (77f.). It would, per- 
haps, be too much to say that Amos had a system. 
It would be inadequate to characterize him as a 
teacher of ethical monotheism. He was one upon 



Amoz 
Angel 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



34 



whom the reality of God had powerfully impressed 
itself, and to the expression of this, monotheism was 
but a corollary. If one attribute of the divine 
nature appealed to him with more intensity than an- 
other, this enabled him to present with startling 
clearness the truths that there can be no religion 
where human rights are not recognized, and that the 
claims of justice between men find their original 
counterpart in the nature of God Himself. In his 
view of the relation of man to man in society, Amos 
has not been outgrown, nor have his conceptions of 
deity become antiquated. 

2. An ancestor of Joseph (Lk 3 25). 

I.ITKKATI-RE: W. K. Smith. The. Prophets of Isrne.t (1895); 
G. A. .Smith, The liuuk <// the Tvelre 1'nnttiets (1890) in 
the Kfiiiaitor'g liihlc; Driver, Joel aitil .-\7iios (1898) in 
the Cambridge Bible: W. H. Harper, Anws and llosea 
(1905), in the International Crit. Comm. A. S. C. 

AMOZ, e'mez (V"$, 'amdts), 'strong': Father of 
Isaiah (Is 1 1, etc.). E. E. N. 

AMPHIPOLIS, am-fip'o-lis: A city of Thrace, 
in a bend of the river Strymon (a/j.(f>t, iro\ts), and 
a post on the Via Egnatia. Under the Romans it 
was a free city and the capital of the province. It is 
mentioned once in the N T (Ac 17 i ). J. R. S. S. 

AMPLIATUS, am"pli-e'tus (' A^iaros, WH 
'A^jrXiaTor, Amplias AV [am'pli-as], '\fiir\ias): 
A Christian greeted in Ro 16 8 as "My beloved in the 
Lord." The name, probably that of a slave, occurs 
in inscriptions. Cf. C1L. 5154. J. M. T. 

AMRAM, am'ram (2"^J?, 'amram): 1. Grand- 
son of Levi, through Kohath, and father of Miriam, 
Aaron, and Moses (Ex G 18-20; Nu 26 69). His de- 
scendants were the Kohathite Levites called Am- 
ramites (Nu 3 27). 2. One of the " sons of Bani " 
who had taken strange wives (Ezr 10 34; cf. ver. 
19). 3. See HAMBAN. E. E. N. 



AMRAPHEL, am'ra-fel (7? 8 > 
The king of Shinar who, with two other kings, in- 
vaded Palestine some time in the 23d cent. B.C. under 
the leadership of Chedorlaomer, King of Elam (Gn 
14). Lately Amraphel has been identified by many 
scholars with the great Hammurabi (see BABY- 
LONIA, 15), who is known to have been king of 
Babylon and therefore of Shinar, or Babylonia 
proper, and to have thrown off the yoke of Elam 
about 2250 B.C. The combination is probable but 
not quite certain. An alternative hypothesis, that 
the king in question was the father of Hammurabi, 
has something in its favor. J. F. McC. 

AMULET. See DRESS AND OKNAMENTS, 11. 

AMZI, am'zai (TJS, 'amtsl): 1. A Merarite 
Levite (I Ch 6 46). 2. A priest (Neh 11 10, 12). 

E. E. N. 

ANAB, e'nab (2ji', 'tnabh), 'grapes': A town of 
Judah. c-ight m. SW. of Hebron (Jos 1121, 1550). 
Map II, D 3. E. E. N. 

ANAH, an'Q (.Vl' ; , 'Uriah): The ancestor of a Ho- 
rite clan of the same name (Gn 36). In ver. 2 read 



11 Anah the son of Zibeou the Horite" as is required 
by vs. 20, 24 ft. E. E. N. 

ANAHARATH, u-ne'ha-ruth (.1">;, 'aniihd- 
rath): A city of Issachar (Jos 19 19). Site uncer- 
tain. E. E. N. 

ANAIAH, Q-nai'Q (r,;5i;, 'inayah), 'J" has an- 
swered': 1. An assistant of Ezra (Neh 84). 2- 
One of those that sealed the covenant (Neh 
1022). E. E. N. 

ANAK, e'nak, ANAKIM, an'a-kim (?;*;, 'ana,]). 
The legendary ancestor of tin 1 gigantic Ana kirn of 
S\V. Palestine (Nu 13 22 ft. ; Dt 2 10 f.; Jos 15 13 f.; 
Jg 1 20, etc.). E. E. N. 

ANAMIM. See ETHNOQKAPHY AND ETHNOL- 
OOY, 11. 

ANAMMELECH, a-nam'e-lee and fi"nam-me'lec 
("!"", 'dnammclckh): A deity worshiped by 
the inhabitants of Sepharvaim (Sippara), at times 
with human sacrifice (II K 17 31). The text of tins 
passage is somewhat uncertain ami A. may be a later 
gloss. The name A. is explained by King (in EB) 
as equivalent to Anu-malik ('Anu is the decider or 
prince'), Anu being the name of one of the principal 
Babylonian deities. See also SEMITIC RELIGION, 
9. E. E. N. 

ANAN, e'nan (%'V): One of those that sealed 
the covenant (Neh 10 28). E. E. N. 

AHANI, a-ne'nai or a-nfl'nt (*JJ, 'dnanl), 'my 
cloud': One of the sons of Elioenai (I Ch 3 24). 

E. E. N. 

ANANIAH, an"a-noi'a (n;j3, 'dnanyah): 'J" 
is a cloud': I. The father of Maaseiah (Neh 3 23). 
II. A town in Benjamin mentioned along with Nob 
and Ramah (Neh 1 1 32). Map II, F 1. A. C. Z. 



ANANIAS, an"a-noi'as (Avavias, Heb. ";JM), 
'J" hath been gracious': 1. A member of the early 
Church, who attempted to enhance his reputation by 
a show of liberality. Having sold a piece of property 
he offered to the Church a part of the amount 
received, pretending that he gave the whole sum. 
Peter detected the deceit and its deliberate purpose 
and laid bare the enormity of the sin to the guilty 
conscience of A., who is represented as having died 
from the shock (Ac 5 1-11). 2. A Christian disciple 
living in Damascus who baptized Paul (Ac 9 10-18, 
22 12-16). 3. The high priest before whom Paul was 
brought by Claudius Lysias (Ac 23 1 ff. ; cf. Ac 24 
1 ff.; Jos., Ant. XX, 6 2). J. M. T. 



ANATH, e'nath 
gar (Jg 3 31, 5 6). 



j?., 'anath): Father of Sham- 
E. E. N. 



ANATHEMA, a-nath'e-ma. See CURSE, 3. 

ANATHOTH, an'a-thoth (H'injX, 'analholh): A 
name connected with that of the Semitic goddess 
Anat. I. A city of Benjamin (Jos 21 18) where the 
priestly family to which Abiathar belonged had its 
estates (I K 2 26) and the home of two of David's 
heroes (II S 23 27, Anethothite AV; I Ch 11 28, 12 3, 



35 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Anathothite, Antothite AV). It was also the home 
of Jeremiah where the family had property (Jer 1 1, 
32 6-15). Its inhabitants once threatened the proph- 
et's life (Jer 11 21-23). After the exile it was reoc- 
cupiecl by the Jews (Ezr2 23; Neh 7 27, 11 32). Map 
II, Fl. 

II. 1. A Benjamite, the son of Becher (I Ch 7 8). 
2. A leader of the men of Anathoth who sealed the 
covenant (Neh 7 27, 10 19). E. E. N. 

ANCHOR. See SHIPS AND NAVIGATION, 20. 

ANCIENT OF DAYS: An apocalyptic name 
of God, first used in its Aramaic form in Dn (7 9, 13, 
22). It was chosen probably not in order to suggest 
the eternity of the divine Being, but to show that 
profound veneration was due Him. The figure im- 
plies a strongly antliropomorphic conception and was 
taken up by later apocalyptic usage (of. Ethiopic 
Enoch 47 3, 48 2-c). A. C. Z. 

ANCIENTS. See WISE MEN and ELDER. 

ANDREW (AvSpeas, 'manly'): Son of John, of 
Bethsaida Julius, brother of Simon Peter, with whom 
he lived in Capernaum. He was the first called of 
the disciples of Jesus, to whom lie was sent by John 
the Baptist, and became one of the inner group of 
four among the Twelve (Mk 13 3). In the lists he is 
always next before his friend and fellow-townsman 
Philip, with whom he is also associated on two im- 
portant occasions in the Fourth Gospel (Jn 6 9, 12 
22). After Ac 1 13 he disappears from view, but tra- 
dition has it that he evangelized Seythia (becoming 
thus Russia's patron saint) and was martyred in 
Achaia. R. A. F. 

ANDRONICUS, an"dro-nai'cus ('AvSpovixos) : A 
Jew as is apparent from the term "kinsman" con- 
verted before Paul, with whom he probably shared 
imprisonment (Ro 1G 7). He is referred to as "of 
note among the apostles," i.e., well known in the 
circle of the apostles, though possibly here " apostle" 
is used in the wider sense of that term (see APOSTLE). 

ANEM, e'nem. See ENGANNIM. R ' A ' F- 
ANER, e'ner (ID}?, 'oner): I. An Amorite prince, 
with whom Abraham entered into covenant (Gn 
14 13, 24). Since, however, Eschol and Mamre are 
names associated with localities, it is quite likely 
that the same is the case with Aner. If so, it may 
be identical with Neir, a range of hills near Hebron. 

II. A city west of the Jordan (I Ch 6 70). Site 
unknown. A. C. Z. 

ANETHOTHITE, an"e-theth'ait. See ANA- 
THOTH, I. 

ANGEL (Gk. ayyfXor, 'messenger,' the LXX 
rendering of ~o?2, mal'akh, 'sent one'): Belief in 
beings intermediate between man and God has 
existed among all nations. In ancient Semitic 
polytheism, this belief was associated 
I. An- with the portraiture of the pantheon 
gelology as a royal heavenly court in which the 
in Semitic Supreme Being was the head of a family 
Religion, and the master of a retinue of servants. 
The sukkalli, ' angel ministers,' of prim- 
itive Babylonian mythology are, however, ordi- 
narily the sons of the gods whose messages they con- 



vey to other gods and men (Muss-Arnolt, Concise 
Diet, oj Ass. Lang., B.V.). An objective ground for 
such a hierarchy of heavenly beings was furnished 
by the astral theology of later times, according to 
which the apparent relative size and importance 
of sun, moon, and stars suggested subordination. 
Even among the Hebrews echoes of an originally 
astral angelology are to be found in such passages 
as Isl4l2f., 2421 (cf. 271). But the Hebrews, 
true to their purer revealed religious thought, elim- 
inated this mythology from their doctrine of angels 
and fixed mainly upon the relation of God and an- 
gels in contrast with men and the work of angels as 
messengers of God. 

In their relation to God and in contrast with men 

they are called "gods" (Ps 977), "Sons of God" 

(Job 1 6, 2 1), "Sons of the Mighty" (Ps 

2. In Their 29 1, 89 6), "Holy Ones " (Job 5 l ; Ps 
Relation 89 5), "Watchers" (Dn 4 13, 17). They 
to God. form the "host of heaven" (I K 22 19), 

the "hosts" of Jehovah (Ps 103 21). It 
is to be understood that these terms are not express- 
ive of physical relationship, but rather descriptive 
of the superior nature of these beings. They are far 
above men. As such, superior and mighty, they 
form the court of heaven. They are the armies of 
the Most High, "the mighty in strength that fulfil 
his word" (Ps 103 20), "the ten thousands of holy 
ones" (Dt 33 2), who are about Him. They attend 
upon Jehovah and constitute part of His royal and 
judicial glory. They continually adore Him in the 
heavenly sanctuary (Ps 148 2), and are the "council 
of the holy ones" (Ps 89 7), i.e., are witnesses of His 
counsels. In a word they form that great, glorious 
company whose presence in heaven helps us to 
conceive of the majesty and royal splendor of God 
Himself. 

As messengers of God to men they execute His 
will whether it be of mercy or of judgment. They 

mediate His purpose in the moral gov- 

3. As Mes- ernment of the world, hence are not 
sengers personified natural forces, but, from 
of God the beginning, actual personal agents 
to Men. who, appearing in the form of man, 

carry out a divine commission which 
may be a deliverance from evil (Gn 19 15), a sum- 
mons to duty (Jg 6llf.), an interpretation of 
special situations (Job 33 23), a prophecy (Gn 18 10), 
a warning (Nu 22 31-35), or an actual judgment (II S 
24 16). It was not until later times in O T history 
that these angels were distinguished in moral char- 
acter. At first simply the character of their mission 
was noted; the bearer of it was not characterized. 
All were executors of God's will. Later, however, 
the conception of 'evil angels' grew up out of the 
mission of destruction or judgment upon which they 
came (cf. Ps 78 49) and from the desire to avoid ma- 
king God the cause of moral evil. At times the provi- 
dential care of God is figuratively spoken of as the 
'encamping' of the angel of the Lord "round about 
them that fear him" (Ps347), or as "giving his 
angels charge" over one (Ps911l), but this is a 
secondary use of the term angel. Primarily it de- 
notes a superhuman being distinct from God serving 
Him in heaven or among mon, and is not a mere 
synonym of our term Providence. 



Angel 
Antichrist 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



36 



Prominent among the descriptions of these heav- 
enly beings is one, The Angel of Jehovah or the 
Angel of Ci(nl, which deserves special consideration. 
While any angel executing God's commands might 
be so named (as in I K 195,7; II S24 16), it is more 
than one of the rank and file, so to speak, who is re- 
ferred to in such passages as Gn 31 11-13; Ex 32 31; 
Is 63 9. This angel in speaking identifies himself with 
God. The conclusion that the "angel of God is God 
himself" descending into visibility or manifesting 
Himself is the one generally accepted. In Is 63 9 we 
read, ''In all their affliction he was afflicted and the 
angel of his presence saved them." Undoubtedly 
there was to those who seemed to look into the 
face of J" a distinction between God Himself and 
His manifestation, but the Angel of His presence 
was a veritable theophany. He represented God so 
fully that in dealing with him they were virtually 
dealing with God. What these temporary manifes- 
tations of God were in the O T, that the Logos, in a 
fuller and more abiding sense, is in the N T. It is 
not surprising, therefore, that they have been looked 
upon as foreshadowings of the Incarnation. 

Beginning with the time of the exile and in con- 
sequence of the new contact with the more developed 
angelology of the Persians, the Jewish 
4. Exilic doctrine started upon a new course and 
and Post- in later times became extreme and 
exilic often fantastic. This is true especially 
Angelology. of extra-Biblical Judaism. Within the 
Scriptures the doctrine is indeed always 
sober, but it shows marked differences from the sim- 
pler doctrines of the pre-exilic period. Some of these 
are undoubtedly due to the increasing emphasis 
given to the transcendence of God. Angels are 
assigned a diversity of different functions such as 
the interpretation of visions, the protection of the 
faithful, etc. To some of them names are given, as, 
e.g., Gabriel and Michael. Such names are always 
of Hebrew etymology and significant of the service 
rendered or the character of the bearer. Gabriel 
signifies 'man of God' and served Daniel as the in- 
terpreter of dreams and of prophecy (Dn 8 15, 9 21). 
He appears in the N T as the foreteller of the birth 
of John the Baptist (Lk 1 19), and as the bearer of the 
glad tidings to Mary (Lk 1 26). In the pseudepi- 
graphic books he is glorified as one of the four great 
angels that stand at the four sides of God's throne and 
act as guardians of the four parts of the globe (Elh. 
En. 91). He is sent upon special missions to the serv- 
ants of God, and against their enemies. He taught 
Joseph the 70 languages of the world. With him 
is closely associated Michael, who ranks just above 
him, but ranks with him near the throne of the 
Most High. Michael has his field of activity in 
heaven, while Gabriel executes God's will on earth. 
Each is the guardian of one of the divisions of the 
twelve tribes of Israel, of which there are four, the 
other two being assigned to Uriel and Raphael. 
Into many an incident of the OT tradition has read 
the name of Michael as the being who warned, res- 
cued, or protected. Indeed he was looked upon as 
the divine advocate of the Jews, and prayers were 
ottered to him. He was the greatest of the Arch- 
angels, of whom there were, according to the Book of 
Tobit (12 15), seven (the number is not in all texts). 



This number varies in other books (cf. Eth. En. 20, 
40 2, 78 1, 89 1). All these chief angels have exalted 
duties. They stand by the throne of God and each 
has dominion over some particular sphere. Uriel 
is set over the world's luminaries, and over Sheol 
(Eth. En. '21 H, '27 2,333,4); Raphael, over the spirits 
of men (To 3 17); Michael, over Israel; Gabriel, 
over paradise and the cherubim, etc. In the Book 
of Enoch the title of Watcher is given to the 
Archangels (20, 39l2f., 402, 61 12). They are the 
sleepless ones who stand before the Lord and say: 
"Holy, holy, holy is the lord of spirits; he filleth 
the earth with spirits " (Eth. En. 39 12). This title 
appears also in the Book of Jubilees (4 15). The 
term is first used in Dn 4 13, 17. Jewish tradition 
declares that the names of the angels came from 
Babylonia. 

In the N T we have substantially all the foregoing 
features of the doctrine of angels, but in sober and 

reserved form. "A multitude of the 

5. In the heavenly host praising God" appears 

N T. over the shepherds (Lk 2 13) on the 

night of the nativity. Angels are min- 
isters to the saints (He 1 14) and they shall accom- 
pany the Son of Man at his coming (Mt 2531; II Th 
1 7). Satan and his angels are spoken of in Mt 
2541; Rev 127. The distinctions in the Pauline 
Epistles referred to under the terms thrones or 
dominions or principalities or powers (Col 1 1C) 
are those of the angelic hierarchy. These distinc- 
tions appear in Jewish literature of the same general 
period and were probably adopted by Gnostic Ju- 
ciaizers (cf. Lightfoot on Col 1 16; see also GNOSTI- 
CISM). In Christ's day the Sadducees were dis- 
tinguished by their denial of angels (Ac 23 8). 
LITKRATURE: Schultz's O T Theology; Oehler, O T The- 
ol VV- J. S. R. 

ANIAM, Q-nai'om (C"}8., 'dnl'am): A Manassite 
clan or family (I Ch 7 19). E. E. N. 

ANIM, e'nim (2*)y, 'anlm): A town of Jud:ih 
(Jos 15 50). Map II, E 3. E. E. N. 

ANIMALS. See PALESTINE, 24-26. 
ANISE. See PALESTINE, 23. 

ANKLETS, ANKLE-CHAINS. See DRESS AND 
ORNAMENTS, 11. 

ANNA, an'a (*Awa): An aged prophetess, daugh- 
ter of Phanuel, of the tribe of Asher, belonging to the 
circle of the ' Pious ' (see SIMEON), who hailed the 
babe Jesus in the Temple as the coming Redeemer 
of Israel (Lk 2 36-38). R. A. F. 

ANNAS, an'os ("Awas; Heb. 1)n, 'merciful,' 
in Josephus'Ai/ai'or): Appointed high priest by Qui- 
rinius in 6 A.D., deposed by Valerius, 15 A.D., who 
later appointed Simon, a son of A. In 18 A.D. his 
son-in-law Caiaphas (q.v.) was appointed to the 
office (Jn 18 13; cf. Jos. Ant. XVIII, 2 2). As head of 
the family A. still retained influence, which explains 
why Jesus was led first to A., probably only for an 
informal hearing, and then to the high priest (Jn 
18 13). For the same reason A. is called the high 



37 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Angel 
Antichrist 



priest in Ac 4 6, although the actual high priest at tho 
time must have been Caiaphas, or another of A.'.s 
sons, either Jonathan or Theophilus (Jos. Ant. XVIII, 
4 3, 5 3). J. M. T. 

ANOINT (mdshah, whence 'Messiah,' is em- 
ployed both literally and figuratively; npifiv [xP'-r- 
licer, xpurdr], always of God's spiritual anointing; 
the other terms [sukh, a\.eltpfiv, etc.] are used only 
in the physical sense): Anointing originally signified 
smearing with soothing and cleansing unguents. 
Pouring oil upon the head was a later, ceremonial 
form. 

1. Practical. The application of scented oils was 
a common toilet operation (Ru 33; Ps 10415; Pr 

27 9), which was 
discontinued in 
time of mourning 
(II S 14 2; Dn 10 
3;cf. Mt6l7). It 
was also a mark 
of welcome to an 
honored guest (Ps 
235; Lk746; Jn 
12 3). Ointments 
were frequently 
applied as reme- 
dies (Is 1 6; Lk 10 
34; Ja5l4); but the anointing of the dead (Mk 14 
8; Lk 2356) seems to have been a token of re- 
spect, rather than an embalming process (cf. Jn 
11 39). Oil was rubbed upon shields to make them 




Anointing of a Sacred Stone 
Pillar. 



slippery and bright (Is 21 5; II S 1 21). See ARMS 

AND Alt.MOK, 7. 

2. Symbolical, as a sign of dedication, sometimes 
with resulting inspiration (I S 10 1 f., 16 13). Jacob 
poured oil upon the pillar at Beth-el (Gn 28 18). The 
Tent and its furniture were sanctified with "holy 
anointing oil" (Ex 30 22 f.). See OINTMENTS AND 
PERFUMES, 1. Priests were consecrated by 
anointing (Lv 8 12, 30; cf. 4 3; Ps 133 2), and the early 
kings were thus designated (I S 10 l, 16 13; cf. IIS 
19 10) and inaugurated (II S 2 4, 5 3; I Ch 29 22). 
Later monarchs apparently were anointed only un- 
der exceptional circumstances (II K 9 6, 11 12, 23 so). 

3. Metaphorical, signifying divine selection for 
some particular service or blessing. In this figura- 
tive sense Hazael (I K 19 15; cf. II K 8 13), Cyrus 
(Is 45 1), Elisha (I K 19 16; cf. 19), and the prophet- 
patriarchs (I Ch 1622; cf. Gn 207) were said to be 
"anointed." Thus also, Israel, or Israel's king, was 
Jehovah's anointed (Hab 3 13; Ps 89 38; La 4 20), and 
Christians received the unction of the Holy Spirit (II 
Co 1 21; I Jn 2 20, 27). For Christ as the Anointed 
One (Is 61 1 =Lk4 18; Ac 1038), see MESSIAH, 7. 
See BURIAL AND BURIAL CUSTOMS, 1. 

ANT. See PALESTINE, 26. 

ANTELOPE. See PALESTINE, 24. 

ANTHOTHIJAH, an"tho-thai'ja ( '^'irijy, 'an- 
thothlyah, Antothijah AV): A Benjamite (I Ch 8 
24). E. E. N. 

ANTOTHITE. See ANATHOTH, I. 



ANTICHRIST, THE MAN OF SIN 

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS 



1. The Name Antichrist 

2. Possible Connection with Babylo- 

nian Myth 

3. Antichrist in Old Testament 



4. In Later Writings of the Jews 

5. In Christ's Teaching 

6. In Pauline Epistles 



7. In the Apocalypse 

8. In the Johannean Epistles 

9. Present Significance of Antichrist 



The actual name Antichrist is first found in the 

Johannean epistles (I Jn 2 18, 22, 4 3; II Jn 7), but the 

main idea underlies St. Paul's descrip- 

i. The tion of the 'Man of Lawlessness' ("Man 

Name Anti- of Sin" EVV) in II Th 2 1-12; while, from 

Christ. the manner in which both writers refer 

to this mysterious figure, it is evident 

that they had in view an oral tradition current at the 

time (I Jn 4 3 "ye have heard," II Th 2 6 "ye know"). 

Any attempt, therefore, to understand the doctrine 

of Antichrist as it meets us in the N T must naturally 

begin with this tradition, so far as it is now possible 

to trace it. 

Here, according to the latest view, we are carried 

far back. Bousset, in his elaborate monograph, Der 

Antichrist (189.5, Eng. transl. The Antl- 

2. Possi- christ Legend, 1896), adopting and dc- 

ble Con- veloping the suggestion of Gunkel in his 

nection Schop/ung und Chaos (1895), would 

with have us see in the Antichrist legend an 

Babylonian anthropomorphic transformation of the 

Myth. Babylonian Dragon Myth, according 

to which the monster (Tidmat), who 

had opposod the Creator at the beginning, would 

again in the last days rear its head in rebellion, only, 

however, to be finally crushed. It is impossible to 



examine here in detail the evidence adduced in sup- 
port of this position, but it seems practically certain 
that this myth had reached Palestine, and may, 
therefore, have had a share in familiarizing the Jews 
with the idea of an arch-enemy of God, and of His 
cause. Beyond this, with the data at our disposal, 
we can hardly go at present, and we are on surer 
ground when, for the early history of this belief, we 
turn to the evidence supplied by the Scriptures 
themselves. 

In the O T we have ample proof of a general Jew- 
ish belief in a fierce attack to be directed against 
Israel in the end of the days by some hostile person 
or power, while this attack is frequently 
3. Anti- so described as to supply later writers 
christ in with their language and imagery in 
Old Tes- depicting the last attack of all against 
tament. God's people. See, e.g., Psalm 88 (89), 
many of whose words and phrases are 
reechoed in II Th 1 and 2 (cf. Bornemann, Thess. 
p. 356 f.), or the account of the fierce onslaught by 
Gog from the land of Magog (Ezk 38, 39; cf. Rev 
20 7 f.). 

It is, however, in the Book of Daniel (168-165 
B.C.) that we find the real starting-point of many of 
the later descriptions of Antichrist, and especially in 



Antichrist 

Antioch 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



38 



the picture that is there presented of Antiochus 
Epiphanes. No other foreign ruler was ever regarded 
by the Jews with such hatred on account both of his 
personal impieties and of his bitter persecution of 
their religion, anil, accordingly, he is here portrayed 
as the very impersonation of all evil. Some of the 
traits indeed ascribed to him are of such a character 
(7 8, 11, 20, 21, 25, 1 1 30-45) that it has been thought the 
writer had not so much Antiochus as the future Anti- 
christ directly in view. And, though this is not exe- 
getioally possible, it is easy to understand how this 
description influenced the Apostolic writers in their 
account of the arch-enemy of God and man (cf., e.g., 
II Th 2 4 with Dn 11 30 f. and Rev 13 1-8 with Dn 
7 8, 20 f., 25, 8 24, 11 28, 30 and see Driver, Daniel, p. 
xcvi f.). With the fall of Antiochus and the rise of 
the Mnecalxjan kingdom, the promise of deliverance, 
with which Daniel had comforted God's people dur- 
ing their dark days, received its proximate fulfilment; 
but, when the nation again fell under a foreign yoke, 
the old fears were once more revived and received a 
fresh coloring from the new powers by which the 
Jewish nation now found itself opposed. 

In determining the Jewish views regarding Anti- 
christ during this period much difficulty is caused by 
the uncertainty regarding the exact date of some of 
the relative writings, and the possibility 
4. In of their having received later Christian 
Later interpolations. The following refer- 

Writings ences, however, deserve notice: 
of the Jews. In the Pharisaic Psalms of Solomon 
(48-40 B.C.) Pompey, as the represent- 
ative of the foreign power that had overthrown 
Zion, is described as the personification of sin 
(o AfiapT<>>\<jf, 2 1), and even as the dragon 
(6 Spdiuav, ver. 29); while in IVEzr51-6, which, 
though belonging to the last decade of the 1st cent. 
A.D., is a characteristically Jewish work, after an 
enumeration of the signs of the last times and the 
shaking of the kingdom that is after the third power 
(i.e., the power of Rome), we read of one who "shall 
rule, whom they that dwell upon the earth look not 
for" a mysterious being generally identified with 
the future Antichrist. Compare also the description 
of the destruction of the "last leader" of the enemies 
of Israel in Apoc. Bar. 40 1 f., where again Pompey 
may be thought of. 

In none of these passages, it will be noticed, have 
we more than a God-opposing being of human origin, 
but it has recently been pointed out with great co- 
gency by Dr. Charles (The Ascension of Isaiah, pp. 
Iv ff.) that, in the interval between the O T and the 
N T, a further development was given to Jewish be- 
lief in Antichrist through the influence of the Beliar 
myth. 

In the O T "belial" is never, strictly speaking, a 
proper name, but denotes 'worthlessness,' 'wick- 
edness,' though, from its frequent occurrences along 
with another noun in such phrases as "sons of Be- 
lial" (Dt 13 13; Jg 19 22, etc., AV), the idea readily 
lent itself to personification, until in the later 
pseudepigraphical literature, the title regularly ap- 
pears as a synonym for Satan, or one of his lieu- 
tenants. 

Thus in the Book of Jubilees (2d cent. B.C.) we 
read, " Let Thy mercy, O Lord, be lifted up upon Thy 



people, . . . and let not the spirit of Beliar rule 
over them" (1 20, ed. Charles), and similar references 
to Beliar as a Satanic spirit are frequent in the Testa- 
ments of the Twelve Patriarchs (2d cent. B.C. in part 
at least), in which see, e.g., Test. Reub. 4, 6. 

The most interesting passage, however, for our 
purpose is contained in the third book of the Sibylline 
Oracles, in a section which in the main goes back to 
the same early date, where Beliar is depicted as a 
truly Satanic being, accompanied by all the signs 
that are elsewhere ascribed to Antichrist (see Orac. 
Sib. iii, 63 ff., ed. Rzach) . And witli this there should 
also be compared Orac. Sib. ii, 167 f., where it is 
stated that "Beliar will come and do many signs to 
men," though here the originally Jewish origin of the 
passage is by no means so certain. 

In the same way it is impossible to lay too much 
stress in the present connection on the speculations 
of Rabbinical theology regarding the person of Anti- 
christ, in view of the late date of our authorities. But 
we may accept, as in the main reflecting the views 
of the Jews about the beginning of the Christian era, 
the conception of a powerful ruler to be born of the 
tribe of Dan (cf. Gn 49 17; Dt 33 22; Jer 8 16, and see 
further Friedlander, Der Antichrist in den vor- 
christlichen jiidischen Quellen [1901] c, ix) and 
uniting in himself all enmity against God and hatred 
against God's people, but whom the Messiah will 
finally slay by the breath of His lips (cf. Weber, Jiid. 
Theologie [1897] p. 365). 

We can at once see how readily this idea would 

lend itself to the political and materialistic longings 

of the Jews, and it is only, therefore, 

5. In what we would expect when we find 
Christ's our Lord, true to His spiritual ideals, 

Teaching, saying nothing by which these expec- 
tations might be encouraged, but con- 
tenting Himself with warning His hearers against 
false teachers, the "false Christs," and the "false 
prophets" who would be ready "to lead astray, if 
possible, even the elect" (Mt 2424; Mk 1322). 
Even, too, when in the same discourse He seems 
to refer to a single Antichrist, the reference is 
veiled under the mysterious figure derived from 
Daniel of the "abomination of desolation standing 
(Ycrn/Korn) where he ought not" (Mk 13 14; ef Mt 
24 15); while a similar reticence marks His words as 
recorded in Jn 5 43, if here again, as is most probable, 
He has Antichrist in view. 

Slight, however, though these references in our 
Lord's recorded teaching are, we can understand how 
they would direct the attention of the Apostolic wri- 
ters to the traditional material lying to their hands 
in their treatment of this mysterious subject, and, 
as a matter of fact, we have clear evidence of the use 
of such material in the case of at least two of them. 

Thus, apart from his direct reference to the Jewish 

belief in Beliar in II Co 6 15, Paul has given us in II 

Th 2 1-12 a very full description of the 

6. In working of Antichrist, under the name 
Pauline of the ' Man of Lawlessness,' in which 
Epistles, he draws freely on the language and 

imagery of the O T and on the specu- 
lations of later Judaism. The following are the 
leading features in his picture: (1) "The mystery 
of lawlessness" is already at work, though for the 



39 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Antichrist 
Antioch 



moment held in check by a restraining person, or 
power, apparently to be identified with the power 
of law or government, especially as these were em- 
bodied at the time in the Roman State. (2) No 
sooner, however, has this restraining power been 
removed (cf. II Es 54; Apoc. Bar. 397) than a 
general "apostasy" results, finding its consummation 
in the 'revelation' of 'the man of lawlessness.' 
(3) As 'the opposer' he "exalteth himself against 
nil that is called God" (cf. Dn 11 36 f.) and actually 
"sitteth in the temple of God, setting himself forth 
as God" the description being again modeled on 
the Danielic account (cf. Dn 8 13, 9 27, 11 31, 12 111; 
while (4) the "lying wonders" by which his working 
is distinguished are illustrated by Orac. Sib. iii, 64 f.; 
Asc. Isaiah 45. (5) And yet, powerful as this in- 
carnation of wickedness seems, the Lord Jesus at His 
parousia will "slay him with the breath of his mouth," 
the words being a quotation from Is 11 4, a passage 
which the Targum of Jonathan afterward applied 
to the destruction of Armilus, the Jewish Antichrist, 
and whose use here Paul may well have drawn from 
the Jewish tradition of his time (cf. the use of the 
same passage in Pss. Sol. 17 27, 39; II Es 13 10). 

The whole description is thus of a very composite 
character, but, at the same time, is so definite and 
detailed that it is hardly to be wondered at that 
there has been a constant endeavor to find its sug- 
gestion in some historical personage of the writer's 
own time. But, though the sacrilegious conduct of 
Caligula (cf. Tacit., Hist, v, 9) may have influenced 
the writer's language in ver. 4, the real roots of the 
conception lie elsewhere, and it is rather, as we have 
seen, in the O T and in current Jewish tradition that 
its explanation is to be sought. 

The same may be said, in part at least, of the 

various evil powers which meet us in the Johannean 

Apocalypse. The wild Beast of the 

7. In Seer (Rev 13-20) vividly recalls the 
the Apoca- horned wild Beast of Dn 7 and 8, and 

lypse. the parallels that can be drawn be- 
tween the language of John and of 
Paul (of. Rev 129, 13 l f. with II Th 29f.; Rev 
13 5 ff., 14 11 with II Th 2 4, 10 ff.; Rev 13 3 with II 
Th 2 9 ff . ) point to similar sources as lying at the 
roots of both. On the other hand, the Johannean 
descriptions have a direct connection with contem- 
porary secular history which was largely wanting in 
the earlier picture. This is seen noticeably in the 
changed attitude toward the power of Rome. So 
far from this being regarded any longer as a re- 
straining influence, it is rather the source from which 
evil is to spring. And we can understand, there- 
fore, how the city of Rome and its imperial house 
supply John with many of the characteristics under 
which he describes the working of Antichrist, until, 
.t List, he sees all the powers of evil culminate in the 
Beast of ch. 17, who, according to the interpretation 
of Bousset (adopted by James in HDB), is partly 
representative of an individual "who was and is 
not," etc., that is, Nero redivivus', partly of a polity, 
namely that of Rome. 

There remain only the references in the Johannean 
Epistles, in which, in keeping with the writer's main 
object, the spiritual side of the conception is again 
predominant. Thus, after indicating some of the 



main elements in Christian truth, John passes in 

I 2 18 to the conflict into which, at "a last hour," 

truth will be brought with falsehood, 

8. In and in token of this points to the de- 

Johannean cisive sign by which this crisis will be 

Epistles, known, namely, the coming of "Anti- 
christ" the absence of the article in 
the original showing that the word has already 
come to be used as a technical proper name. Nor 
does "Antichrist" stand alone. Rather he is to ! 
regarded as "the personification of the principle 
shown in different Antichrists" (Westcott, ad Inc.), 
who, by their denial that "Jesus is the Christ," 
deny in like manner the revelation of God as Fa- 
ther (2 22) and, consequently, the true union between 
God and man (4 3). 

It is, therefore, into a very different atmosphere 

that we are introduced after the strange symbolism 

of the Apocalypse, and the scenic repre- 

9. Present sentation of the Pauline description. 

Signifi- And one likes to think that the last 

cance of word of Revelation on this mysterious 
Antichrist, topic is one which leaves it open to 
everyone to apply to the spiritual work- 
ings of evil in his own heart, and in the world around 
him, a truth which has played so large a part in the 
history of God's people in the past, and which may 
still pass through many varying and progressive ap- 
plications before it roaches its final fulfilment in 
the "dispensation of the fulness of the times" (Eph 
1 10). 

LITERATURE : In addition to the special literature referred 
to above, mention may he made of the articles on A nti- 
chrisl by Bousset in EB, by James (under the title 
Man of Sin) in HDB, by Ginsburg in JE, and by 
Sieffert in PltE 3 , and of the Excursuses by Bornemann 
and Findlay in their Commentaries on the Thessalonian 
Epistles; see also E. Wadstein, Die eschatologische Ideen- 
yruppe: Anlichrist-Wellsabbat-Weltende und WeltgeriM 
(1896). The argument of the foregoing paper will be 
found more fully stated with the text of the passages re- 
ferred to in the Additional Note on The Biblical Doctrine 
of Antichrist in the present writer's commentary on The 
Epistles to the Thesmlonians (1907). Q_ jj. 

ANTIOCH ('Avrtnx(ia): 1. Pisidian Antioch 
was so called to distinguish it from Antioch in 
Syria. It was a Phrygian city situated near the 
frontier of Phrygia and Pisidia (consequently called 
Antiochia ad Pisidiam, i.e., A. toward Pisidia). It 
is said to have been founded by a colony from Mag- 
nesia on the Maeander and to have been renamed 
Antiochia by Seleucus I. It was declared free by 
the Romans (190 B.C.). In 39 B.C. it was given by 
Antony to Amyntas, and in 25 B.C. incorporated into 
the Province of Galatia. About 6 B.C. Augustus 
made it a Roman colony and called it Csesarea. In 
the time of Paul A. was a governmental and military 
center, and the many Latin inscriptions (cf. Sterrett, 
Epiqraphical Journey, pp. 127 ff.) probably belong 
to this period. Later A. became the metropolis of 
Pisidia. It was situated on the still traceable Royal 
Road built by Augustus. It is now called Yalowadj. 
At A. Paul opened his missionary labors in Asia 
Minor. The church here was one of those addressed 
in the Ep. to the Galatians (q.v.) (cf. Ac 13 14-51, 14 
19, 21-24, 15 30, 16 4-6, 18 23). 

2. Antioch on the Orontes ("the [Antioch] by 
Daphne"), chief of the sixteen cities founded (301 



Antiochus 
Apocrypha 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



40 



B.C.) by Seleucus I in honor of his father. It was 
the capital of Syria, the residence of the Seleueid 
kings, and famous for its beauty, luxury, palaces, 
temples, and \v:is a renter of industry and commerce. 
Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch (pop. 400,000) were 
the three greatest eities of the Roman world. There 
the Roman governors of Syria resided. It was 
beautified by CiEsar, Augustus, Agrippa, Herod, Ti- 
berius, Antoninus Pius, Constantino, and was a 
favorite residence of Roman emperors. It had a 
great library and a school of philosophy. It was des- 
troyed by earthquakes ten times in the first six cen- 
turies. Christians were first so called here, and A. 
became the mother-city of Gentile Christianity (Ac 
11 19-30, 13 1-3, 1426-152,15 30ff., etc.). According 
to tradition Peter was for two years Bishop of 
A., whose patriarchs therefore claimed precedence 
over those of Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem, 
and Alexandria. It is now called Antakia (6,000 in- 
habitants). J. R. S. S. 

ANTIOCHUS, an-toi'o-cus ('A.VTIOXOS, 'the op- 
poser'): 

Antiochus III (the Great) was on the Syrian throne 
from 223-187 B.C. By his victory over the Egyptians 
at Paneas in 198 B.C. Palestine came under the con- 
trol of Syria, and though at first the Jews were favor- 
able to the Syrian domination, a growing party in the 
nation opposed the Greek influences furthered by the 
Syrian monarchs. A. was succeeded by his son Se- 
leucus Philopater (187-175), who reigned eleven 
years with the same general conditions prevailing as 
under his father. A crisis came under Antiochus IV 
(Epiphanes), who succeeded his brother Seleucus in 
175. He was a brilliant but moody man a strange 
combination of intellectual power and moral weak- 
ness. With unflagging zeal he sought to Hellenize 
Palestine, and this brought on the Maccabean revolt 
(see MACCABEES). At the very first he decided 
against the high priest Onias III in favorof Jason, the 
leader of the Hellenizing party (II Mac 4 7, 8). All 
attempts of the Jews to resist his policy met with 
swift censure, and twice he vented his rage uponJeru- 
salem (I Mac 1 20 ff. ; II Mac 5 11 ff.). At last he de- 
termined to extirpate the Jewish religion, and issued 
the sweeping decree enforcing uniformity of (pagan) 
worship throughout the land (I Mac 1 41). The ef- 
forts to carry out this decree involved him in the 
Maccabean war in which one Syrian army after an- 
other was defeated by the brilliant Judas Maccabseus 
(I Mac 3 10, 4 35). A., who had intrusted the subjuga- 
tion of the land to his generals, was meanwhile away 
in the East, where he became mad and died (104). 

Antiochus V (Eupator) was only nine years old 
when his father died, and Lysias, the governor of the 
provinces, undertook the guardianship of the young 
boy. Together they made an expedition into Judaea 
and at the famous battle of Bethzacharias they de- 
feated Judas Maccabaeus. The outlook for the Jews 
at this time was very dark, when suddenly the war 
was terminated by the attempt of Philip, foster- 
brother of Antiochus IV, to secure the Syrian throne. 
Hastily concluding a peace, Lysias and A. hurried 
back to Antioch and suppressed Philip. In the fol- 
lowing year (162) A. was betrayed into the hands of 
Demetrius Soter, his cousin, and put to death. 



The next Antiochus (VI), brought as a child 
from Arabia by Tryphon, a Syrian general, as a 
claimant to the throne, was a son of Alexander Balas, 
a pretender to the throne who reigned 150-145. 
Tryphon was successful and A. was crowned, but 
the real power of the government was Tryphon, 
who used the young king as a tool and finally had 
him murdered in order to be himself made king. 
During all the rivalries and intrigues of the Syrian 
court up to this time, Jonathan Maccabseus (q.v. ) 
had been able by clever diplomacy to further the 
interests of the Jews, but he fell at last a victim to 
the treachery of Tryphon in 143 B.C. 

In 138 Antiochus VII, a great-grandson of Anti- 
ochus III (called Sidetes from the place of his edu- 
cation, Side in Pamphylia), drove Tryphon out and 
took the throne. To win the favor of the Jews, 
former privileges were confirmed, and further con- 
cessions granted, but as soon as A. felt himself secure 
upon his throne he changed liis attitude and de- 
manded of Simon (Jonathan's successor) the surren- 
der of all the principal fortresses. On Simon's 
refusal A. sent an army to enforce obedience. This 
army was so disastrously defeated that A. troubled 
Simon Ho further. 

In the time of Hyrcanus (135) A. himself marched 
upon Jerusalem. After a long siege a satisfactory 
peace was arranged (Jos., Ant. XIII, 8 2-3). Sidetes 
fell (128) in a battle with Arsaces, King of the Par- 
thians (Jos., Ant. XIII, 8 4). 

Altogether distinct from these Syrian kings is an 
Antiochus mentioned in I Mac 12 16, 14 22 as father of 
a certain Noumanius, one of the ambassadors sent 
by Jonathan Maccabaeus to Rome. J. S. R. 

ANTIPAS, an'ti-pas ('Ai/r[>]ijrar): 1. Herod 
Antipas, son of Herod the Great. See HEROD, 5. 
2. An early Christian martyr of Pergamum (Rev 
2 13). E. E. N. 

ANTIPATRIS, an-tip'a-tris ('AcrwraT/nr): A city 
built by Herod the Great, named after his father 
Antipater, on the main road from Coesarea to Lydda 
(Ac 23 31). It was held to mark the NW. limit of 
Judtea. Map I, C 7. E. E. N. 

ANTONIA, an-to'ni-a: A strong fortress situ- 
ated at the NW. corner of the Temple area, the 
"castle" of Acts 21 34, etc. See JERUSALEM, 38, 
and TEMPLE, 30. E. E. N. 

ANTOTHIJAH. See ANTHOTHUAH. 

ANUB, e'nub (-"3?, 'Qnubh): A Judahite person 
or clan (I Ch 4 8). E. E. N. 

ANVIL: The rendering of Heb. pa'am, lit. 
'stroke,' in Is 41 7. The Targum renders "mallet." 
The exact meaning is somewhat uncertain. See AR- 
TISAN LIFE, 12. E. E. N. 

APE: This animal does not belong to the fauna 
of Palestine and is mentioned only in the account 
of Solomon's riches, where it is said that his navy 
brought apes, peacocks, etc., once every three years 
(I K 10 22; II Ch 9 21). The Heb. r^p, qoph, rendered 
"apes," apparently a loan-word from the Sanskrit 
knpi (see Ox/. Heb. Lex.), was general in mean- 
ing, so that it is impossible to determine what 



41 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Antiochui 
Apocrypha 



species of monkey was meant. The animals \\vn> 
probably purchased by Solomon's agents in S. 
Arabia, though they may have been of African or 
Asiatic origin. Ancient literature (Egyptian ami 
Assyrian inscriptions, the Amarna letters) contains 
references to apes or monkeys, showing that they 
were well known and prized as curiosities. 

]:. E. N. 

APELLES, o-pel'liz ('Air(\\rjs): A Christian in 
Rome to whom Paul sent a greeting as "the ap- 
proved in Christ" (Ro 16 10). Nothing more is 
known of him. E. E. N. 

APHARSACHITES, APHARSATHCHITES, 

a-far'sac-aits, afur-sath'caits (^'JOC^ES, 'dphar- 
fathkhaye' ) : In Ezr 4 9 the term signifies, apparently, 
a class of Persian officials, a meaning that suits the 
other two passages also (5 6, 6 6). The different 
spelling is probably due to scribal errors. E. E. N. 

APHARSITES, a-fOr'saits (K^N., 'dpharsaye'): 
A term of uncertain meaning, indicating probably 
either a class of subordinate officials or the Persian 
colonists in Syria (Ezr 4 9). E. E. N. 

APHEK, e'fek (p8, 'dpheq), variant APHIK. 
Three, probably four, cities whose identity is doubt- 
ful: 1. Near Jezreel, whose king was slain by Joshua 
(Jos 12 18; I S 29 l; I K 20 26, 30; II K 13 17). 2. 
In the territory of Asher, never wrested from the 
Canaanites (Jos 1930;Jg 1 31,Aphik). 3. Identified 
with Afqa, NE. of Beirut (Jos 134). 4. NearMizpah 
(IS4l). The first and the last are considered 
identical by Robertson Smith. G. L. R. 

APHEKAH, a-fi'ka (~P T ?.S, 'dpheqah): A town 
of Judah apparently not far from Hebron (Jos 15 
S3). E. E. N. 

APHIAH, a-fai'a (n*C$, 'dphlah): One of the an- 
cestors of King Saul (I S 9 l). E. E. N. 

APHIK, e'fik. See APHBK. 

APHRAH, af'ra. See BETH-LE-APHBAH. 

APHSES, af'siz. See HAPPIZZEZ. 

APOCALYPSE, a-poc'a-lips. See REVELATION, 
BOOK OP. 

APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE A class of 
prophetic productions in which the form given to 
the prophet's message is that of a vision. 
i. Nature Such a form assumes the lifting of the 
of Apoca- veil which hides the spiritual world, 
lyptic Lit- bringing into view the realities in 
erature. earthly symbols. Revelation through 
dreams and visions is not uncommon in 
the OT. In Jer, Ezk, and Zee there are apocalyptic 
passages. In Dn the form so far predominates as to 
control the whole book, thus distinguishing it as 
an apocalyptic production. With the vision form, 
however, apocalyptic literature developed asso- 
ciated characteristics as follows: (1 ) Complicated 
symbolism. (2) A dualistic view of the world, in- 
volving on the one side a righteous people and on the 
other a brutal opposition to God. (3) A system of 
angelic mediators between God and man. (4) A 



tendency to use the name of some renowned man of 
piety of the earlier days as the seer of the visions 
portrayed (pseudonorny). (5) An elaborate but op- 
timistic eschatology. (0) Associated with eschatol- 
ogy the division of the whole duration of the world's 
life into ages (eons), chiefly the present age and the 
coming age. 

The period during which the Apocalyptic Litera- 
ture had the most currency was that between 200 B.C. 
and 150 to 200 A.n. During the early 
2. Condi- part of this interval the conditions were 
tions Favor- specially adapted to its being used as 
ing Its the prophetic vehicle of address. The 
Develop- people had objected to the domination 
ment. of a foreign power (the Seleucid dy- 
nasty of Syria). They struggled man- 
fully to regain their independence, and did so at last, 
but meantime they endured the stress of severe per- 
secutions. The apocalyptic form of writing was 
adapted to convey to them encouragement in the 
form of great world pictures, showing that their op- 
pressors were destined to collapse and Israel to rise 
into dominion under the Messiah. These pictures 
were to be understood by them, but to prove unin- 
telligible to their oppressors. 

The apocalypses according to dates of composition 
are : (1 ) The Ethiopic Book of Enoch (first published 
in modern times in 1821). (2) The 
3. The Apoc- Slavonic Book of Enoch (1896). (3) 
alypses. The Sybilline Oracles (1545). (4) 
The Assumption of Moses (1861). (5) 
Fourth Ezra or 2d Esdras (q.v.). (6) The Syriac 
Book of Baruch (1866). (7) The Greek Barueh 
(1886). (8) The Psalter of Solomon (1868). (9) 
The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (1714). 
(10) The Book of Jubilees (1859). (11) The As- 
cension of Isaiah (1819). (12) The Histories of 
Adam and Eve. (13) The Apocalypse of Elias 
(fragm., 1886). (14) Book of Eldad and Modad 
(1713). (15) Prayerof Joseph (1713). (16)Apoc- 
alypse of Zephaniah (fragm., 1886). 

While each of these books does not present all the 
aspects of a typical apocalypse, the combination of 
their characteristics groups them together as liter- 
ary productions of this type 

LITKRATURE: Porter, The Messages of the Apocalyptic 
Writers, 1905; Charles, in HDB, and Zenos, in DCG. 

A. C. Z. 

APOCRYPHA OF OT AND NT: The word 

'apocrypha' (dwoKpvtyos, 'hidden') passed through 

several stages of meaning before it re- 

i. The ceived the sense that we now give to it. 

Term. At first it meant literally rolls which 
were put away, because worn out or 
containing faults in writing. They were thus 'with- 
drawn from publicity,' 'hidden' (see OT CANON, 
10, 12). Books might also become 'hidden' be- 
cause they were unfit for public reading. Such, 
e.g., was the story of Susannah. In this early use 
of the word no other discrediting of the book as to 
authorship, or teaching, was implied. A much 
wider application was given to the word by early 
ecclesiastical writers in denoting by it that which was 
mysterious, secret, esoteric. It was thus used to 
classify all such books as aimed to disclose to the 
favored few 'the hidden things' of nature, of the 



Apocrypha 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



43 



future, of wisdom, :ul (if God. The Bonk of Enoch 
and the Assumption (if Moses arc illustrations of this 
kind (if literature. Their contents were reputed to 
be handed down through secret tradition by the few 
from those whose names are given as their authors. 
In 1 1 Es 14 44-46 will be found an account of the 
miraculous production of seventy esoteric books of 
this kind. This meaning of the word ' apocrypha ' 
was restricted at first to the pseudepigraphieal 
books. The claims of Gnostic leaders to the posses- 
sion of just such hidden disclosures gradually added 
another modification to the word 'apocrypha,' 
and that was the meaning 'heretical,' and this 
opened the way to the use of the word with which 
we are familiar, viz.: to mark the non-canonical 
books found in our English bibles between the OT 
and the N T. Cyril of Jerusalem was, as far as we 
know, the first who applied the name 'apocrypha ' 

T . -to the books which we place under this 
2. List of 
Q . description. 

r ha The following list comprises the books 

usually classed as O T Apocrypha (e.g., 
in the edition published by the Revisers in 1896): 



The Song of the Three 

Holy Children. 
The History of Susannah. 
The History of Bel and 

the Dragon. 
The Prayer of Manasses. 

I Maccabees. 

II Maccabees. . 



I Esdras. 

II Esdras. 
Tobit. 
Judith. 

The Rest of Esther. 

The Wisdom of Solo- 
mon. 

Ecclesiasticus. 

Baruch. Chap. VI - 
Epistle of Jeremiah. 

These works may be classified as follows: I. Works 
of a Historical Character: I Mac, II Mac, I Es- 
dras. II. Works of a Reflective Type: Wisdom of 
Solomon, Ecclesiasticus. III. Legendary Works: 
Tobit, Judith, Rest of Esther, Song of the Three 
Children, History of Susannah, History of Bel and 
the Dragon. IV. Works of a Prophetic Type: Ba- 
ruch. V. Apocalyptic Works: II Esdras. Of all 
these the following were without doubt originally in 
Hebrew: I Mac, Tobit, Judith, and Ecclesiasticus. 

A full description of these various works will be 

found under the separate titles. The purpose here 

is to give only a general idea of each. 

3. General / Esdras (sometimes called the Third 

Character Ezra) is a revision of the canonical 

of the Ezra with the following changes: Ezr 

Several 47-24 is removed to an earlier place; 
Books, ch. 31-56 interpolated; Neh 773-813 
is added at the close. // Esdras (also 
called Fourth Ezra). This work is composite. 
Chs. 3-14 formed the original work and they contain 
seven visions given to E/ra; the work is thus apoca- 
lyptical in character. The other chapters were 
added by a later hand. The whole has come down 
to us in Latin, Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic, and Ar- 
menian versions. The original language was Greek. 
Tobit, a legendary (Hftggttdic) narrative whose scenes 
are from the captivity, was written to lead the Jews 
to adhere strictly to the Law. The work exists in 
several versions, Aramaic, Greek, and Latin. Judith, 
a narrative of the same kind as Tobit. It recounts 
the bravery of Judith, a Hebrew widow, in deliver- 



ing the city of Bethulia from the Assyrians under 
Holofernes. The Greek text is a translation of a 
Hebrew (Aramaic) original. The Rest of Esther. 
These additions to the Book of Esther mention three 
times the divine name in the particulars with which 
they fill out the Bible story. This seems to be the 
primary purpose of these additions to give distinct, 
recognition to God. The original language was 
Greek. The Wisdom of Solomon is a fine example 
of Hellenistic literature written by an Alexandrian 
Jew, and containing, besides a setting forth of the 
glory and value of Wisdom, an earnest warning 
against the folly of idolatry. Ecclesiasticus. This 
work is of the same general character as the Wisdom 
of Solomon. Its fundamental thought is Wisdom, 
and it seeks to give instruction therein by a multi- 
tude of rules for the regulation of life in all varieties 
of experience. It was originally written in Hebrew; 
a considerable portion of this Hebrew original has 
been lately brought to light. Baruch. The book 
in its preface (1 1-14) describes its origin, and then in 
three distinct parts gives us (a) the confession of sin 
and prayer of the Jews in exile (115-3 8), (b) an ad- 
monition to the people to return to the fountain of 
Wisdom (3 9-4 4) and (c) the promise of deliverance 
(45-59). The first half of the book (11-38) was 
originally Hebrew; the latter half was Greek. The 
Epistle of Jeremiah, added to Baruch as a sixth 
chapter, is a warning against idolatry. It purports 
to be a letter from the prophet Jeremiah to the Jews 
in Babylon. The Song of the Three Holy Children. 
This is one of the additions found in the Greek text of 
the Book of Daniel. It gives the prayer of Abed- 
nego, uttered in the fiery furnace, and the song of the 
three children because the prayer was heard. The 
History of Susannah. This story glorifies Daniel, 
who saves the beautiful Susannah from death, to 
which she had been condemned under false charge of 
adultery made by two elders, to save themselves 
when discovered by Susannah as they were peering 
at her in her bath. The History of Bel and the 
Dragon. This third addition to Daniel (after ch. 
12) is made up of two independent stories, both of 
which show the prowess of Daniel and at the same 
time set forth the worthlessness of idolatry. All 
these additions to Daniel are found in the Septua- 
gint, also in the version of Theodotion. The 
Prayer of Manasses. This prayer, attributed to 
Manesseh, King of Judah, was composed as a com- 
pletion of II Ch 3.3. It is a confession of sin and a 
cry for pardon. In most MSS it is in the appendix 
to the Psalms. I Maccabees. A reliable history of 
the period 175135 B.C. It is extant in Greek. 
// Maccabees, originally written in Greek, is an 
epitome of the work of Jason of Cyrene and covers 
the period 175-160 B.C. The work is a mixture of 
history and story told for religious edification. 

A brief outline history of the posi- 

4. The tion given to the OT Apocrypha by 

Position the Jews, the early Christian Fathers, 

Assigned and the Christian Church generally 

to the will reveal their conception of its au- 

Apocrypha. thority and value. It is safe to say 

that, the Jews never have recognized 

as belonging to the Canon of Scriptures any other 

books than those which now constitute our O T. In 



43 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Apocrypha 



Alexandria some of the apocryphal books were read 
in public, but oven here canonical authority was not 
attached to them. They (the Jews) have always 
recognized a difference between these works and 
the OT (see OT CANON). As for the NT the 
most that can be said is that there are interesting 
parallels found in James and Paul with Bcclesiasticus 
and the Book of Wisdom (see these titles). The 
Apostles held to the same canon as their Jewish 
brethren. Owing to the fact that in their Greek 
bibles the early Christian writers found apocryphal 
books joined with books of the Hebrew Canon, they 
used them, citing them sometimes as Scriptures. 
Their very connection with the canonical Scriptures 
gave them honoring consideration. So Clement of 
Alexandria, Tertullian, and Origen used them. At 
the same time when investigation into the matter 
was carried on we find emphasis placed upon the 
number 22 (24) as the number of books in the He- 
brew Canon. A series of writers thus support the 
Jewish Canon as distinct from the Alexandrian 
Melito of Sardis, Origen (despite his own habit of 
citing apocryphal books), Athanasius, Cyril of Jeru- 
salem, Gregory Nazianzen, and Jerome. Critical 
judgment was at variance with common usage even 
among scholars and for a long time the books were 
cited. Eastern learned opinion excluded them 
from the Canon. In the West, Jerome made the 
most determined stand for the Hebrew Canon, but 
the common usage of the apocryphal books, made 
possible by their inclusion in the old Latin versions, 
and the inconsistent practise of the Fathers left the 
matter undecided. At the time of the Reformation 
the question was finally settled in different ways. 
The Protestant Church, following Luther's lead, gave 
the position of inferior authority to the A., and from 
that time the word 'apocrypha' has had the meaning 
which Protestantism now gives to it. The Council of 
Trent (1545) made these books of equal authority 
for the Roman Catholic Church with those of the O T 
proper. Coverdale was the first to translate the A. 
from Greek into English. He placed them between 
the O T and the N T, in which position they have 
appeared in later versions. The English Church 
recognizes the A. in its lessons, but only for edifica- 
tion and not as authoritative in the sense that the 
canonical books are. The A. have no recognition in 
non-Episcopal churches. 

In refusing to receive the apocryphal books as 
canonical, Protestantism has by no means declared 
them to be of no value. On the contrary, their 
worth for certain purposes has always been recog- 
nized. To the student of the centuries just prece- 
ding the Incarnation, they are of deep interest as re- 
flecting the life and thought of Judaism in one of its 
most eventful periods. 

The aim and general character of the N T Apocry- 
pha are quite different from those of the A. added to 

the OT. The latter seek to give the 

5. The history or reflect the thought of the 

Apocrypha period from which they come. The 

of the N T Apocrypha, on the other hand, are 

New deliberate attempts to fill in the gaps of 

Testament, the N T story in the life of Jesus, to 

further heretical ideas by false claims of 
authority, and to amplify the prophecies of Jesus by 



revelations given the Apostles. Works of this de- 
scription were very numerous. They may be classi- 
fied under four heads: 

I. Gospels. These have as their object either 
to offer a narrative which shall rival the canon- 
ical Gospels or to add something to their story. 
It does not fall within the scope of this article in 
discuss the questions which they severally present; 
rather to give a brief, concise idea of those which 
were more prominent. (1) First to be noted is 
The Gospel according to the Hebrews. The fragments 
of this gospel have been brought together and dis- 
cussed by Nicholson in his edition of it. It seems to 
have existed in two forms the Nazarene and the 
Ebionite, the latter being more heretical. It con- 
tains additions to the canonical narrative and gives 
us some new alleged sayings of Jesus. 

(2) The Gospel according to the Egyptians. This 
gospel shows marked Gnostic tendencies. Frag- 
ments of it are found in Clement, Hippolytus, and 
Epiphanius. 

(3) The Gospel according to Peter. An impor- 
tant fragment of this gospel was discovered in 1885. 
In this work appears a strong Docetic tendency and 
it shows acquaintance with all our Four Gospels. 

(4) The Protevangelium of James. The narrative 
of this well-known gospel extends from the birth of 
Mary to the slaughter of the Innocents at Bethlehem. 
This is a good sample of a supplementary gospel. Its 
date is probably quite early. 

(5) The Gospel of Thomas, or the Gospel of the 
Infancy. This has been preserved for us in Greek, 
Latin, and Syriae. It exhibits the life of Jesus from 
the fifth to the twelfth year and makes Him at this 
time a miracle-worker to satisfy His own whims and 
ambitions. These are samples of many attempts 
made to gratify curiosity by intruding upon the 
silence of the Scriptures. 

II. Among the Acts of Apostles we have The Acts 
of Paul and Thecla. It is the story of a young 
woman of Iconium who was converted by Paul and 
suffered much for her faith, but was miraculously 
protected. The work is preserved in a number of 
versions and dates from perhaps the middle of the 
second century. It is a romance inculcating conti- 
nence and its rewards. 

III. Epistles. Under this head we may mention 
the Abgarus Letters one from the king of Edessa 
to our Lord and His answer, which are quite early 
and the Epistles of Paul to the Laodiceans and Alex- 
andrians mentioned in the Muratorian Canon. 

IV. Prominent among early apocalypses is The 
Apocalypse of Peter. A large fragment of this apoc- 
alypse was discovered in the same MSS containing 
the Gospel of Peter (see above). It presents the Lord 
complying with the request of His disciples to show 
them their righteous brethren who had gone before 
them into the other world. To Peter He gives a 
revelation of heaven and hell, with a description of 
the terrible punishment of the lost. It was written 
probably early in the 2d cent, and exerted a wide in- 
fluence. In the attempt to satisfy a demand for par- 
ticulars not given us in our N T nearly all the Apostles 
were made authors of apocryphal Gospels, while ficti- 
tious Acts of the Apostles provided missionary en- 
terprise for the Twelve. These are all of too late a 



Apollonia 
Arab 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



44 



date to require attention here. It is needful only to 
say a word regarding the outcome of this mass of 
kpooryphal literature. It has required no such 
careful discussion as did the Apocrypha of the O T 
to determine its place. The love of the marvelous in 
these creations of the imagination and their vivid 
presentation of some special teaching made them 
very popular. They have been the fruitful source 
of sacred legends and ecclesiastical traditions. It 
is to these books that we must look for the origin 
of some of the dogmas of the Roman Catholic 
Church. Because they have been thus influential, 
scholarship has been deeply interested in a critical 
study of them, and much light has been thrown in 
recent years upon their origin, character, and worth. 

LITERATURE: Commentaries on the T Apocrypha: (1) In 
Lange-Schaff Series by Bissell. (2) Fritzsche und Grimm, 
O T Apocrypha. See also Schurer, HJP. For the N T 
Apocrypha, consult (he editions by Tischendorf and Lip- 
sius. For the Gospel of Peter see the editions by Swete 
and Zahn. J. S. R. 

APOLLONIA, ap"el-lo'ni-a ('AffoAAow'a): A city 
of Macedonia, on the celebrated Egnatian way, 30 
m. W. of Amphipolis and 38 m. E. of Thessalonica 
(Acts 171). Identified by Leake with the modern 
Pollina. E. E. N. 

APOLLOS, a-pel'es ('ATroAAoir possibly con- 
tracted from "ATroAAtiwos. [So in D.]): A cultured 
Jew of Alexandria, who came to Ephesus during 
the interim between Paul's first and second 
visits to that place (Ac 18 24-28). He is de- 
scribed as "an eloquent man" and "mighty in the 
Scriptures" the latter term defining the particular 
field in which Ids gift specially realized itself (ver. 
24). The seeming paradox that, though instructed 
in the way of the Lord and able to speak and to 
teach accurately the things concerning Jesus, he knew 
only the baptism of John(ver. 25) is possibly explained 
by saying that his knowledge of the new religion 
had been confined to an information regarding the 
facts of Jesus' life and teaching and did not involve 
a definite course of instruction in the truths held by 
the early Church (cf. Ac 21 21, 24 for the use of Karij- 
Xflv in the sense of 'imparting information.' Cf. 
also Zahn, Introduction, 60, n. 4). As a matter of 
fact, converts were not at this early period of the 
Church's life given the catechetical training which 
later was given to candidates for baptism. The use 
of Karrjxelv in Gal 6 6, I Co 14 19, in the sense of 
'imparting instruction' refers to the teaching of full 
members within the Church and does not cover such 
oases as that of Apollos (or of Theophilus, Lk 1 3 f.). 
In other words, in spite of pilgrims from Egypt (Ac 
2 10), the news of an organized Church based on the 
Pentecostal outpouring of the Spirit and involving 
general charismatic gifts had not reached him, so 
that he knew nothing beyond baptism as adminis- 
tered by John as a symbol of reformation of life in 
preparation for the Messiah. His condition was 
simply a stage or so more primitive than that of the 
people of Samaria before the coming to them of 
Peter and John (Ac 8 14-17), though not so primitive 
as that of the disciples of John referred to in 19 1-7. 

Attracted by his speaking in the synagogue, 
Priscilla and Aquila gave him the instruction needed 
to complete his knowledge of Christian facts (Ac 18 



20). I'IHIM his departure to Aehaia hi- carried with 
him the warm commendation of the Kphesian 
brethren (ver. 27) and coming to Corinth proved 
specially helpful in controverting the Jews in their 
denial of (lie Messiahship of Jesus (ver. 28). Un- 
fortunately, however, his peculiar eloquence so 
different from Paul's plainness of speech gave 
opportunity to the partisan spirit which possessed 
the Corinthian Church to form the bulk of the dis- 
ciples into rival followings around these leaders' 
names (I Co 3 4 ff. ; cf. 1 10-12). That Apollos was in 
no way party to this rivalry is evident from the fact 
that upon Paul's return to Ephesus, he is found 
there with the Apostle, unwilling, even at his mag- 
nanimous urging, to return to Corinth while parti- 
zanship reigned in that Church (I Co 16 12). 

The only other mention of him is in the brief note 
of Tit 3 13, where, with "Zenas the lawyer" evi- 
dently as bearers of the letter he is commended to 
the brethren at Crete to be diligently cared for and 
forwarded on the journey. M. W. J. 

APOLLYON, a-pel'i-on ('AjroAAiW): The Greek 
name of the Heb. Abaddon (q.v., Rev 9 11). Unlike 
the Hebrew, which first designates a place (of de- 
struction, Job 26 6, 28 22, etc.), and secondarily the 
personification of that place, the Greek word, by 
its etymology, refers solely to the destroyer. It 
thus represents a fuller development of the concep- 
tion. A. C. Z. 

APOSTLE, Q-pos'l (aTToo-roAos, 'a commissioned 
messenger' [cf. Jn 13 16], from airo<rrf\\fii>, 'to send 
from'): A designation in the early Church of gen- 
eral and not exclusive application. It was given not 
only to the originally chosen disciples of Jesus (Mk 
313-19 [ver. 14 Gr.]; Mt 101-4; Lk 613-16), but 
also to others (e.g., James, the Lord's brother, Gal 
1 19; Barnabas, Ac 14 4, 14; Androm'cus and Junias, 
Ro 16 7). 

Whatever natural tendency there may have been 
in the first days after the Ascension to confine this 
designation to the Eleven, it was offset by the au- 
thority assumed by the Church in the filling, under 
divine guidance, of Judas' place (Ac 1 23-26), and 
whatever idea may have yet remained of restricting 
this term to the sacred number of the Twelve was 
removed by the divine appointment of an extra 
Apostle in the person of Paul (Ac 9 15; Ro 1 1). The 
way was thus opened for the application of the title 
to such persons as James, who, though apparently 
not commissioned to any work, was honored for 
his special relationship to Jesus (Gal 1 19) and his 
special witness to the Resurrection (I Co 15 7), and 
Barnabas, who though not related to the Lord nor as 
far as recorded a special witness to the Resurrec- 
tion, was divinely set apart for significant work (Ac 
13 1-3). 

Through this latter application it became natural 
to give the designation to those who, though not 
marked by any outward sign as divinely chosen for 
special work, showed their choice by their notable 
performance of the work given them to do. It is 
this development in the application of the term 
which has led many scholars to understand Paul in 
I Th 2 6 as associating Silvanus and Timothy and in 
I Co 4 9, Apollos with himself as Apostles, and in I 



45 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Apollonia 
Arab 



Co 9 5, 15 5-7, as having in mind a body of Apostles 
extended beyond the Twelve (see Lightfoot, Gala- 
tians, p. !)'2 f. ; Lindsay, The Church and the Ministry, 
p. 79 f.)- In II Co 8 23 and Ph 2 25, however, the 
word in the Greek text is used in its primitive sense 
of commissioned messenger. Thus "messenger," 
RV, though "Apostle" RVmg. 

Once it is used in a highly official sense of Jesus 
Christ (He 3 1) where His representative relations 
to God ("Apostle") and to man ("High Priest") 
are combined. M. W. J. 

APOTHECARY. See OINTMENTS AND PER- 
FUMES, 2. 

APPAIM, ap'pu-im (~*~N', 'appnylm), 'nostrils' 
or 'face': A Judahitc (Jerachmeelite) person or dun 
(ICh230f.). E. E. N. 

APPAREL. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 

APPHIA, ap'fi-a ('Airfftia, a Phrygian name, 
indicating that the bearer was of native provincial 
stock): Greeted (Phm vur. 2) as "our sister." Since 
this epistle concerns one household exclusively it is 
probable that A. was Philemon's wife and the mother 
of Archippus. J. M. T. 

APPIUS, MARKET OF ('Amriov Qopov, Appii 
Forum AV): A station on the Appian Way, 43 in. 
S. of Rome, at the northern terminus of the canal 
through the Pontine marshes (Ac 28 15). E. E. N. 

APPLE. See PALESTINE, 23. 

APRON. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 1, and 
HANDKERCHIEF. 

AQUILA (' AKvAar): A Jew of Pontus, who mi- 
grated to Rome. When Claudius banished the Jews 
from that city in 49 A.D., A. with his wife, Priscilla, 
went to Corinth, where they carried on their trade of 
tent-making (Ac 18 1-3). Probably through Paul, 
who wrought with them, they were converted to 
Christianity. They accompanied the Apostle to 
Ephesus (Ac 18l8f.), where, during the latter's 
absence, they instructed Apollos. Their house in 
Ephesus was used as a Christian assembly-place (I 
Co 16 19). They are mentioned again, Ro 16 (ver. 3), 
a chapter probably addressed to the Ephesian 
church. But see ROMANS, 3. J. M. T. 

AR (iy, 'ar), 'city' (?): A city of Moab, in one of 
the upper valleys of the Arnon. The exact site is 
unknown (Nu 21 15, 28; Dt 2 9, 18, 29; Is 15 1). The 
same place is referred to in Jos 13 9, 16; II S 24 5. 

E. E. N. 

ARA, e'ra (N~K, 'dr'a): A descendant of Asher 
(I Ch 7 38). E. E. N. 

ARAB, ar'ab or e'rab (2^8, 'drabh): A town of 
Judah (Jos 1552), to which Paarai the Arbite (II S 
23 35) probably belonged. Map II, E 3. E. E. N. 

ARAB (2>!, 'drabh); ARABIA: The use of 
these names in the O T and the Hebrew knowledge 
of the land and its people must be carefully distin- 
guished. Middle and northern Arabia and the life 
of its populations were practically the same for the 



Hebrews as they had Ix-en from lime- inimemorial 
and are still. Its steppes, deserts, and oases were 
inhabited by nomads in tins steppes, 
I. Intro- seminomatls around the smaller oases, 
ductory. and settled townsfolk in the larger 
oases, all keeping up relations with the 
nomads. Thus, the life there, at the present day, 
gives us a sufficiently exact idea of their life as the 
Hebrews knew it. The best descriptions are in 
Doughty "s Arabia Deserta, but Hogarth's Penetra- 
tion o/ Arabia may also be used especially for its 
elaborate bibliog.-aphy of exploration. 

Except for the remotest prehistoric times, it is safe 
to start with the position that Arabia was the original 
home of the Semites. From it all the 
2. Arabia Semitic peoples of Asia have gone out in 
the Original successive waves, driven by an economic 
Home of law. The population of Arabia is al- 
the ways on the edge of starvation, just 

Semites, larger than what the land can support. 
In consequence, there is a steady over- 
flowing on its borders; nomads pass over gradually 
into agriculturists; Bedawin into FeUahin. The 
picture in the prologue to Job is of a tribe half-way 
through this process. But further, from time to 
time, the pressure becomes so great that Arabia 
pours out its thousands in a conquering army over 
the neighboring lands. The early conquests of Islam 
are one case in point; those of the Hebrews are an- 
other ; there must have been many more. 

We have, then, to consider the Hebrews as an Arab 
clan that abandoned its original nomadic life, seized 
rich lands, and turned more or less to 
3. The He- a settled, agricultural existence. Yet 
brews Es- this was not complete, and a yearning 
sentially back to the nomadic ideal is always 
Arabians, evident (cf. RECHABITES). Nomad 
and farmer are a frequent contrast in 
the O T, and now one, now the other is given prefer- 
ence, according to the writer. A knowledge, there- 
fore, of Arabian institutions and literature and of 
the Arab religion and mind is of the first importance 
as a guide to the genius of the Hebrews. All the 
forms of Hebrew literature, except the psalm, can be 
paralleled and illustrated from Arabic literature, and 
all the manifestations of Hebrew religion have kin- 
dred appearances in the desert. There can be best 
found that common Semitic soil of ideas and emotions 
from which the unique religion of the Hebrews rose. 
The oldest views of the Hebrews on the Arab tribes 
are given in Gn 10 (cf. ETHNOGRAPHY AND ETH- 
XOLOGY, 10). Later, they speak of 
4. Refer- them separately, as Ishmaelites, Midian- 
ences to ites, Kedarites (q.v.). For the south 
Arab Peo- Arabians, now becoming important for 
pies in the the earliest history and most primitive 
Bible. religion, see SABEAN. Only compara- 
tively late does the name Arab appear. 
Yet the evidence is that the Arabs called themselves 
so from remote antiquity, and that they knew no 
derivation for the name. The Hebrews, on the other 
hand, connected it with the word 'drabhah, a dry, 
sterile tract, and spoke of an ' Arabhi, the inhabitant 
of such a tract, a nomad (Is 13 20; Jer 3 2). Whether 
this is the true derivation of the name, preserved by 
the Hebrews, but lost by the Arabs, we can not tell. 



Arabah 
Aramaic 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



it: 



' Ardbhih does not seem to exist in old Arabic. In 
Is 21 13 the title is probably incorrect, and in the 
oracle should be read, "in the steppe" or "in the 
evening." In Ezk 27 21 the Arabs ('drfibh, a collect- 
ive) are a separate people besides the Kedarites; the 
name is not general. In Jer 25 24 we have, "all the 
kings of the Arabs ('drabh)," evidently now in a broad 
racial sense. The same usage is firmly established 
in II Ch (1) 14, 17 11, 21 16, 22 1, 267), and the Chron- 
icler throws it back unhistorically into earlier times, 
e.g., of Solomon ('. u) and Jehoshaphat (17 11). For 
him, ' Arabhl is clearly an Arab, and he reckons them 
with the Philistines as neighboring enemies of Israel; 
once (21 16) also with the Cushites (Ethiopians). 
More historical is the similar use of the term in 
Xeh 2 19, 4 1,6 1. Apparently the slow appearance 
of Arab, as a name in the O T, reflects the gradual 
movement of Arabian tribes northward (which has 
often occurred), displacing the Ishmaelites, Mid- 
ianites, etc., whom the Israelites had previously 
known. So a new general name for these strangers 
came into use. Cf. especially Noldeke, Arabia, Ara- 
bians, in EB. In Ac 2 11 "Arabians" means, prob- 
ably, Nabataeans, and for Paul (Gal 1 17, 4 25), Arabia 
was the country of the Nabatseans including the Sina- 
itic peninsula. 

LITERATURE: Doughty, Arabia Deserta, 2 vols., 1888; Ho- 
garth, Penetration of Arabia. 1904; NOldeke, in EB. 

1). B. M. 

ARABAH, arVba (T^Z, 'drabhah): In its 
broadest sense, that portion of Palestine extending 
S. from the Sea of Galilee to the Red Sea, or more 
accurately to the Gulf of Akabah (Dt 1 1, 3 17; II K 
25 4; Jos 3 16, 1 1 2, 12 3), and embracing within it the 
Dead Sea, which is sometimes called the " sea of the 
Arabah " (Dt 4 49). The Hebrew name is usually 
translated in the AV by "plain" or "wilderness," 
but in the RV it is treated, more correctly, as a proper 
name; the article frequently accompanies it in the 
original. The modern Arabs give two names to 
this deep depression; that portion N. of the Dead Sea 
they call el-Ghor, 'the depression,' while that S. of 
the Dead Sea and extending to the Red Sea, they 
designate as I I'm/;/ el-'Arabah (Dt 2 8). Both por- 
tions are intensely arid and hot. More than two- 
thirds of the whole stretch lies below the level of the 
Mediterranean Sea. The highest point is the ridge 
about opposite Mt. Hor known as er-Rishy, whose 
altitude above sea-level is 723 ft. (Hull). Almost 
the entire valley is bounded on both E. and W. by 
high mountains which on the average are not more 
than 10 m. apart. Hence the valley is usually very 
narrow. Geologically, it is especially interesting be- 
cause the terraces are filled with fossil shells which 
afford traces of the former height of the waters of the 
Dead Sea. Though barren now, the whole valley, 
being composed of marl, sand, and gravel, might 
become by means of proper irrigation a veritable 
garden of rich productivity. See also CHAMPAIGN. 

G. L. II. 

ARAD, e'rad p^, 'dradh): I. A town in the 
Negeb or "South" region, about 17 m. S. of Hebron. 
Its king fought against the Israelites when they were 
on the southern borders of Palestine (Nu 211, 33 40). 
It was afterward occupied by the Kenites (Jgll6; 



cf. Jos 12 14). Map II, E 4. II. A name in the gen- 
ealogy of Benjamin (I Ch 8 15). E. E. N. 

ARAH, e'ra (rTN, Tmilt), 'traveler': 1. One of 
the sons of Ulla, an Asherite (1 Ch 7 39). 2. A clan 
or family name in the list of Ezr 25= Neh 7 10. 

E. E. N. 

ARAM, e'ram (01$, 'dram): I. Aram, from 

which our words Aramean and Aramaic are derived, 

is the Hebrew name of a people and of a country 

usually translated "Syrian" and "Syr- 

i. Name, ia" in the English versions. The orig- 
inal, however, is retained as the name 
of an ancestor in Gn 10 22, 22 21, who is reckoned as 
one of the sons of Shem. It appears also as the 
name of the country in a few passages. " Ararn- 
itess " is used as equivalent to an Aramean or Syrian 
woman (ICh7l4). The adjective "Syrian" ("Syr- 
iack," AV, or "Aramaic," RVmg.) is employed to 
express the language of the Arameans (see ARAMAIC 
LANGUAGE). 

The Arameans were one of the great divisions of 
the Semitic family, lying, as a whole, after the dis- 
persion of the race, between the Baby- 
2. Geo- lonians (and Assyrians) to the E. and 

graphical the Canaanites to the W. Yet they 

Distribu- were also found in large numbers as a 

tion. pastoral people on both sides of the 

Tigris till the latest Babylonian times. 

W. of the Euphrates they do not appear in force 

till after the 12th cent. B.C., though it was in this 

region that they played their chief role in history. 

Their historical progress may be summarized as 

follows: 

They were, until perhaps the 15th cent. B.C., 

wholly nomadic or seminomadic, ranging from the 

lower Tigris to the middle Euphrates. 

3. Charac- In or about the 15th cent, a portion 

ter and of them formed a settlement near the 

Influence, city of Haran in Mesopotamia and be- 
came interested in trade. With the in- 
creasing development of wealth and industry gener- 
ally in both east and west, their trading habits 
became more general till from the 9th cent, onward 
they became the chief traveling merchants and nego- 
tiators of Western Asia. In the 8th cent, they 
are found doing business in Babylonia and Assyria 
and their language is the lingua jranca of all Semitic 
peoples (cf. II K 18 26). Meanwhile, with the de- 
cline of the Hittite kingdoms in Syria, Arameans had 
been crowding into Northern Syria and gradually 
takipg the positions in Middle and Southern Syria 
from which the Hittites had retired. Thus were 
formed, on both sides of the river, the Aramean 
communities which are referred to in the O T and of 
which Damascus (q.v.) was by far the most im- 
portant. 

The other western districts (see below), which are 
distinguished as Aramean, all lay to the S. and W. of 
Damascus; but the great cities of Syria to the N. 
Carchemish, Arpad, and Hamath were also Ara- 
mean after the 12th cent. 

(1) Aram - Naharaim is the original of the 
Mesopotamia of EVV and designates (somewhat 
inexactly) the country to the E. of the middle Eu- 
phrates as far as the river Habor (the modern 



47 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Arabah 

Aramaic 



Kliabour). Naharaim is generally supposed to mean 
'the two rivers'; but it should probably be explained 
as 'the river region.' The Priestly 
4. Political Code has Paddan-Aram in the place of 
Sub- Aram-Naharaim. The center of pi ^Mi- 
divisions, lation and trade till long after the Chris- 
tian era was the great city or district of 
Haran (q.v.)- This region was of great importance in 
the earliest history of Israel. Abram himself lived for 
a time in Haran (Gn 1 1 31, 12 4 f. ; of. Dt 26 5). In the 
same region dwelt his kindred, from among whom 
both Isaac and Jacob obtained their wives. After the 
patriarchal period we read that Balaam, the seer, 
came from "Aram" (Nu 23 7; cf. 22 5), and not long 
thereafter "Cushan-rishathaim," King of Mesopota- 
mia, invaded the newly formed Hebrew community 
in Palestine (Jg 3 7 ft.). According to II S 10 16 " Syr- 
ians from beyond the River" came to the help of 
their kindred who were involved with the Ammon- 
ites in their war against David, and with them suf- 
fered defeat at his hands. This was the last warlike 
movement against Palestine reported of the Ara- 
means to the E. of the Euphrates, though Arameans, 
as was natural, formed a large element in the army 
of Nebuchadrezzar (JerSoll), and, we may pre- 
sume, of the earlier Assyrian invaders. 

Other cities and districts settled by Arameans 
were the following; those which lay in S. Syria were 
ultimately absorbed in the great kingdom of Da- 
mascus: 

(2) Geshur. A district lying close to Bashan (Dt 
3 U) which was not subdued by Israel (Jos 13 13), 
but at one time took possession of some Israelitic 
territory of northern Gilead (I Ch 2 23). Absalom, 
whose mother, Maacah, was the daughter of Talmai, 
King of Geshur, fled thither after the murder of Am- 
non (II S 13 37). The reference in II S 15 8 shows it 
to have been Aramean. 

(3) Maacah was close to Geshur, probably to 
the N., and equally independent of Israel (Dt 3 14; 
Jos 13 13). The Aramean origin of its people is in- 
dicated by their descent from Nahor (Gn2224). 
They joined the other Arameans of the neighborhood 
in assisting the Ammonites against David and shared 
in then- defeat (II S 10 6-8). See Tob. 

(4) Rehob or Beth-rehob, to be distinguished 
from the city of the same name W. of the Jordan 
which lay "toward Hamath " (Nul321). It was 
a small kingdom E. of the Jordan, closely con- 
nected with Zobah and sent a contingent to join 
the Ammonites in their war against David (II S 
106-8). 

(5) Tob was an Aramean district, to which Jeph- 
thah fled for refuge (Jg 113-5), and which also as- 
sisted the Ammonites in their war against David, 
where it was joined with Maacah as Rehob was with 
Zobah. In II S 10 6-8, omit "the men" before "Tob," 
L'-IS having been written for njj in ver. 6 and re- 
peated in ver. 8. 

(6) Zobah, the most important of the southern 
Aramean settlements after Damascus. Already in 
the time of King Saul it was pressing upon the people 
of Gilead, as we may infer from I S 14 47. In the 
time of David it took the lead of the Arameans in 
endeavoring to prevent the extension of his domin- 
ion. The next year after the defeat of the Aramean 



and Ammonite allies (see above), and wliile Rab- 
bath-Ammon was not yet captured, Iladadezer, 
King of Zobah, sent for reenforcements and defied 
the advance of David, who, however, utterly de- 
feated the combination. The result was the sub- 
mission of all the Arameans of S. Syria (II S 8 3 fl.). 

(7) Hamath, to be distinguished from "Hamath 
the great" (q.v.), was a district lying on the SW. 
slope of Hermon, reaching at least as far as the Jor- 
dan westward, and forming the boundary of Pales- 
tine and Israel to the NE. (Nu 34 8; I K 8 65; II K 
14 25; Ezk 47 16; Am 6 14). In the 10th cent. B.C. 
it was an Aramean kingdom whose ruler Tou, though 
not joining in the league against Israel, became trib- 
utary to David (II S 8 9 ff.; cf. I Ch 18 9). As the 
frontier of a rival people, its control was always 
aimed at by the powerful kings of Israel (II Ch 8 4; 
II K 14 28). See Wincklerin KAT 3 , 182, 231 f., and 
Oriental. Forschungen, III., Heft 3 (1905). 

v (8) Mesopotamia is used in EVV to translate 
'Aram-NaJi&raim. The word among the Greeks and 
Romans stood for the whole territory lying ' between 
the rivers' Euphrates and Tigris, S. of the Masius 
range of mountains and N. of the Syro-Arabian 
desert proper. This great region, however, is not 
designated by tliis or any other single name in the 
Bible (except perhaps in Ac 2 9). It is through 
the influence of the LXX that the term came to be 
used in the versions for the more limited area as 
above described instead of Mesopotamia in the larger 
sense. See the articles under that name in HDB, 
EB, and EBrit. 

, (9) Syria and Syrian. Syriajn the O T translates 
'Aram except in the case of 'Aram-Nah&raim and 
may be said to comprehend all the Aramean settle- 
ments and their inhabitants W. of the Euphrates 
above described. According to the common view the 
word is a contraction of Assyria and was employed by 
the Greeks of Asia Minor to designate the neighboring 
peoples of the Assyrian Empire. It became after- 
ward restricted to the empire of the Seleucidse, 
formed after the death of Alexander the Great, and 
in N T to the surviving portion of it which had its 
capital in Antioch, and Damascus as its second 
great city, and which in 65 B.C. was made a Roman 
province. J. F. McC. 

II. 1. A son of Kemuel, son of Nahor (Gn 22 21). 
See I. 1. 2. A descendant of Asher (I Ch 7 34). 3. 
ForMt I3f. and Lk 3 33 (AV) see RAM. E E N 

ARAMAIC LANGUAGE: The following parts 
of the OT are written in Aramaic: Gn 31 47 (the 
words Y'gar sahddhutlia) ; Jer 10 11; Ezr 
i. Where 4 8-6 18, 7 12-26; Dn 2 4b-7 28: there are 
Spoken, also several Aramaic words cited in 
the N T. Aramaic was a branch of the 
Semitic languages, cognate with Hebrew, which, in 
several closely allied dialects, was spoken formerly 
in the countries surrounding Palestine, and ulti- 
mately also in Palestine itself. The name Aramaic 
is given to this group of dialects because "Aram" 
commonly rendered in both AV and RV "Syria" 
or "Syrians" (II S 85, etc.) was the name of the 
people, spread over different localities (as "Aram 
of Damascus," "Aram of Zobah," etc., II S 85, 10 
8), by whom it was spoken. 



Aramaic 
Arba 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



48 



Looking at Aramaic in general, its relationship 

with Hebrew is such that a person conversant with 

one can at once see that the other is 

2. Relation- allied; but at the same time there .ire 

ship with differences: though most of the roots 

Hebrew, and grammatical forms have evidently 
a common origin, the roots (or deriva- 
tives) in use in one are often not in use in the other, 
and there are differences sometimes in the conso- 
nants, and frequently in the vowels. Thus 'he 
wrote' is, in Hebrew, kathab, in Aramaic, k'thab; 
'I wrote' is, in Heb., kathabti; in Aram., kitlibfth,or 
(in other dialects) kethbeth or k-thabith; 'he made to 
write' is, in Heb., hikhtlb; in Arnm.,hakhteb orakh- 
tfb:' 1' is, in Heb., 'anl, in Aram., 'Ana', the masc. plur. 
ends in Heb. in -dm, in Aram, in -in; Heb. 6 often 
corresponds to Aram, a, as Heb. Id, 'not' -Aram, la, 
Heb. kutheb, 'writing' -Aram, katheb, Heb. f5b, 
'good' =Aram. fab: in Heb. a noun is made definite 
by the article being prefixed, as '6th, 'sign.' ha-'oth, 
'the sign,' but in Aram, by -a affixed, as '6th, 'sign,' 
'atha, 'the sign' (cf. in the NT Abba, Beth-esda, 
Gabbetha, Golgotha, Tabitha, talitha): in certain 
cases, also, consonants are changed, thus 'gold' is 
in Heb. zahab, in Aram, d'hab; 'three' is in Heb. 
shalosh, in Aram, th'lath; Heb. 2J in certain cases 
corresponds to the Aram. 3> (as Y "?,(<, 'earth' 
Aram. J'lK); and in certain other cases to Aram. 
tS (as Y^r, 'he counseled ' = Aram. W?*); many 
words, again, correspond in the two languages, but 
there are some which are in common use in Ara- 
maic but are rare (usually either poetical or late) 
in Heb.: thus 'to go down" is yarad in Heb., but 
n'heth in Aram, (only in a few poetical passages in 
Heb.), 'to go up' is 'alah in Heb., s'leq in Aram, 
(only Ps 139 9 in Heb.), 'to forsake' is 'azab in 
Heb., sh'baq in Aram, (and so in " sabach-thani," 
Mt 27 46 =Mk 15 34), 'lord' is 'adore in Heb., but 
mare in Aram. (cf. I Co 1622, " Marana-tha," 'Our 
Lord, come!'). 

The following are the principal types of Aramaic 

known: (1) The Aramaic found on weights, and in 

short inscriptions attached to contract- 

3. Differ- tablets, from Nineveh, and afterward 

ent Dia- from Babylon, from the reign of Sargon 

lects of (722-705 B.C.) onward. 
Aramaic. (2) The Aramaic of inscriptions 
found at Zinjirli and Nerab, in N. Syria 
near Aleppo two of the former dating from the 
reign of Tiglath-pileser III (745-727 B.C.), and one 
being somewhat earlier. 

(3) The Aramaic spoken by settlers in Egypt, 
found chiefly on papyri dating from the reign of 
Xerxes (485-465 B.C.) onward. Some of the long- 
est and most important of those at present known 
are marriage-contracts (between Jews), containing 
descriptions of house-property, etc., but there are 
also others. An interesting inscription from Tf-ma 
(in N. Arabia, about 250 m. SE. of Edom) presents 
the same type of dialect. Aramaic inscriptions as 
far as they go, of the same type from Cappadocia, 
and (on coins) from Tarsus in Cilicia (c. 350 B.C.) 
are also known. 

(4) Biblical Aramaic (see below). 

(5) Nabataean inscriptions (chiefly sepulchral). 



Mainly from el-'Old, about 80 m. S. of Tema, and da- 
ting from the reign of nmn (i.e., Aretas, II Co 11 
32), 9 B.C. to 60 A.D., and onward, till the over- 
tlirowof the Nabata;an kingdom by Trajan, 105 A.D. 
These inscriptions have a considerable mixture of 
Arabic idioms. 

(6) Inscriptions from Palmyra, 150 m. NE. of 
Damascus, in an oasis in the Syrian desert, dating 
from abqut the Christian era to 270 A.D. Many of 
these are inscriptions on statues erected in honor 
of different magistrates, etc.; others are votive in- 
scriptions; a particularly valuable one is a long 
tariff, regulating the tolls payable on various kinds 
of goods brought into Palmyra. 

(7) Syriac, spoken in and about Edessa, 100 m.NE. 
of Aleppo in W. Mesopotamia, the home of Laban, 
the "Syrian" (Heb. the "Aramean"). In this are 
written the Syriac version of the Gospels commonly 
called the Curetonian or the Sinaitic (c. 200 A.D.), 
the Peshitto version of OT and N T, and an exten- 
sive Christian literature besides (3d cent. A.D. on- 
ward). 

(8) The Targums (Aramaic "interpretations," or 
paraphrases, of the O T) of Onkelos on the Penta- 
teuch, and of Jonathan on the Prophets, of Judaan 
origin, but in their present form redacted in Baby- 
lonia in the 5th cent. A.D., and (according to Nol- 
deke, though doubted by Dalman) considerably 
tinged by the Aramaic dialect spoken by the Jews in 
Babylon. 

(9) Galilsean Aramaic, preserved chiefly in the 
Aramaic parts of the Palestinian Talmud some 
dating from as early as the 3d and 4th cent. A.D. This 
must have been the dialect spoken by Christ and the 
Apostles. 

(10) The Christian Palestinian Aramaic, spoken 
in Palestine in the 5th and 6th cent. A.D., and pre- 
served in a lectionary of the Gospels, and also in va- 
rious fragments, chiefly Biblical. 

(11) Samaritan. The Samaritan version of the 
Pentateuch, liturgies, etc., dating probably from the 
4th and following centuries after Christ. No. 10 has 
many resemblances with No. 9 ; and No. 1 1 has some 
(cf. the synopsis in Dalman Gramm. 2 , pp. 44-51). 

(12) Babylonian Aramaic. The Aramaic dialect 
spoken in Babylonia in the 4th to the 6th cent. A.D. 
preserved in the Babylonian Talmud. 

(13) ' Mandaic,' the language of the strange 
Gnostic sect of Mandaeans (from Manda, ' knowl- 
edge ' = yva><ri.s), half Jewish, half heathen, living in 
lower Babylonia. Closely allied to No. 12. 

(14) The Targums on the Hagiographa, and the 
so-called 'Jerusalem' Targums on the Pentateuch. 
Of later date than No. 8 (c. 5th-8th cent. A.D., or 
later). The language is in the main that of No. 8; 
but it exhibits some of the distinctive features of 
Nos. 9 and 10 (see Dalman Gramm.'', pp. 395 ff.). 

Of these dialects, Nos. 7, 12, 13 are generally 
grouped as Eastern Aramaic, and are distinguished 
from the others, or Western Aramaic, in particular 
by the prefix of the 3d pers. masc. impf. being n 
(in Nos. 12 and 13 also sometimes I) instead of y. The 
dialects all resemble one another, though several of 
them have scripts, representing particular phases in 
the development of the Aramaic alphabet, peculiar to 
themselves ; they differ also, to some extent, in vocab- 






49 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Aramaic 
Arba 



ulary and grammatical forms. Thus, in addition to 
the difference just noted, in Nos. 1, 2, 3 the relative 
and demonstrative pronouns are zi, z'nB,, not, as in 
the others, di, d'na: the pron. suffix of the 3d pers. 
plur. is in Nos. 2, 3, 5, and Jer 10 ll-om, in Nos. 4 
(Daniel) and 6, -On (Ezr has both forms). No. 2 re- 
sembles Hebrew in certain features more than any of 
the other dialects do (e.g., ' to sit ' is ysheb, not ylli f-h, 
cf. Hob. i/ashab). The Biblical Aramaic belongs to 
the West Aramaic group, of the type spoken in and 
about Palestine (the relative, for instance, is di, not 
zi, as in Babylon down to at least 400 B.C.): it is very 
similar to that of No. 8, though in some respects of 
an earlier type; it has also (in particular forms) no- 
table affinities with Nos. 3, 5, 6. It was formerly 
called "Chaldee," from the mistaken idea that the 
language of Dn 2 4 ff. was that actually spoken by 
the "Chaldeans" in Babylon. The verse Jer 10 11 
has some peculiarities showing that its author must 
have spoken a particular Aramaic dialect (cf. the 
writer's LOT, p. 255; Xp'X also occurs in Egyptian 
Aramaic, side by side with SiHX). 

Aramaic was formerly used largely as the language 
of commerce and diplomacy, as is shown by II K 
18 26 (701 B.C.), by some of the Ara- 
4. Use of maic inscriptions on coins and weights, 
Aramaic in and some of those from Egypt. How 
Palestine, prevalent it was in the countries around 
Palestine will be apparent from the 
preceding enumeration of dialects. It is not, there- 
fore, surprising that it gradually made its influence 
felt upon Hebrew. Aramaic words appear occasion- 
ally in Heb. written c. 600 B.C. ; in Heb. writings da- 
ting from the captivity and later Aramaic words and 
constructions become increasingly frequent: there 
are many Aramaic words, for instance, in Job, the 
later Psalms, Jonah, Esther, the Heb. parts of Dan- 
iel; Aramaic words, and sometimes also Aramaic con- 
structions, are marked in Chronicles, Ezr, and Neh, 
and especially in EC. In the end, Aramaic sup- 
planted Hebrew altogether as the popular language in 
Palestine; and so nearly all the Semitic words quoted 
in the NT are distinctively Aramaic (e.g., Akel- 
dama, Maranatha, and the forms in -a cited above). 
Of course, the old view that the Jews forgot their 
Hebrew in Babylonia, and spoke in 'Chaldee,' when 
they returned to Palestine, must be entirely given 
up: the 'Chaldee' (Aramaic) of Daniel was not 
spoken in Babylonia at all; Hag., Zee, and other 
post-exilic writings use Hebrew, which was still 
spoken normally in Jerusalem c. 430 B.C. (Neh 13 24). 
The Hebrews, after the captivity, gradually acquired 
the use of Aramaic through intercourse with their 
neighbors in and about Palestine. 

Another error is also to be guarded against. It 
does not follow because a word, otherwise unknown 
in I leb. but common in Aramaic, occurs once or twice 
in Heb., that therefore the passages in which it 
occurs are late: some regard must be had to the 
character of the word, and we must consider, for in- 
stance, whether it occurs in poetry or prose, and 
whether it is isolated or accompanied by other marks 
of a late style. Such a word may, for example, not 
have been borrowed by Heb. from Aramaic at a late 
date, but have formed part of the original stock 
common to both languages, though in Heb. it may 



have been rare and used only in poetry. Tin -i 
also reasons for thinking that the language of the N. 
kingdom differed dialcctically from that of Jud:i!;; 
and some Aramaic forms may be due to the fact 
the writings in which they are found originated in 
the N. kingdom. This has been supposed to lx: I lie 
explanation of the Aramaic expressions in the Song 
of Sol.; but the trend of recent opinion has been to 
attribute them rather to a post-exilic date, to whirl, 
indeed, viewed in the aggregate, they certainly srrm 
to point. 

I.ITKIIATURE: Lidzbarski, Handlruch der Northern. Epigra- 
phik (1898); Cooke, North-Semitic Inscriptions (1903); 
Sayce and Cowley, Aram. Papyri from Egypt (1906); 
Kautzseh, Griimm. des Bibl.-Aram. (1884); Dalm-m 
Gramm. des Jildisch-1'al. Aram/iisch (ed. 2, 1903), with 
full introd. on the different types of Jewish Aramaic; 
Noldeke, Manddische Gramm., 1875 (important for its 
philol. notes), Syrische Gramm. (translated, 1904). ami 
art. Aramaic Language in EB\ Levias, Gramm. of the 
Aram, of the Bab. Talmud (1900); Wright, Comparative 
Grammar of the Semitic Languages (1890). The first 
three of these books contain numerous examples of Ara- 
maic inscriptions and papyri, illustrative of dialects Nos. 
1,2,3,5,6. S. R. D. 

ARAMITESS, 6'ram-ait"es: An Aramean woman 
(K'h7l4). See ARAM, 1. E. E. N. 

ARAM-MAACAH, e'ram-ma'oeu, NAHARAIM, 
ne"ha-re'im, REHOB, ri'hob, and ZOBAH, zo'ba: 
See ARAM, 4. 



ARAN, e'ran (p$, 'dran), 'wild goat' (?): A 
Horite clan (Gn 36 28; I Ch 1 42). E. E. N. 



ARARAT, a/a-rat ('J^i* 'draraf): A district 
located in E. Armenia, between Lakes Van and Uru- 
mia and the River Araxes. Thither the sons of Sen- 
nacherib fled after killing their father (II K 19 37; Is 
37 38; Armenia AV). In Jer 51 27 it occurs as the 
name of a "kingdom" along with those of the Minni 
and Ashkenaz, all of whom are summoned by the 
prophet to fight against Babylon. The Assyrian 
inscriptions, from the 9th cent. B.C. forward, fre- 
quently mention the land of Urarfu, or Ararat. The 
altitude of this region above the level of the Medi- 
terranean Sea is between 6,000 and 7,000 ft. Noah 's 
ark is said to have rested on "the mountains of Ara- 
rat" (Gn84); the reference being probably to a 
mountain range, rather than to any particular peak. 
In the Babylonian account of the Deluge also the 
impression is given that the mountain (range) of 
Nisir stopped the ship. It is barely possible that 
the double-peaked mountain, whose altitude is 
17,260 and 13,000 ft., respectively, and which is 
situated about half-way between the Black and 
Caspian seas, may have been in the writer's mind. 

G. L. R. 



ARAUNAH, a-re'nfl RpS, 'drawnShy.The Jeb- 
usite from whom David purchased the threshing- 
floor over which the destroying angel seemed to be 
stationed (II S24 16 ff.; I Ch 21 15 ff.; cf. II Ch 3 1). 
Called Oman in I Ch 21 IS ff. E. E. N. 

ARBA, Qr'ba (218, 'arba'), 'four': Only in con- 
nection with Hebron as the "city of Arba." The 
legendary ancestor of the Anakim near Hebron (Jos 
14 15, 15 13, 21 11). See also ANAK and HEBRON. 

E. E. N. 



Arbathite 
Ark 



\ STANDAKI) 11IH1. 1C IWTKi.XAUV 



ARBATHITE, Qr'Uith-uit (T;", '.irbhntln r. 
A man of Beth-arabah (II S 23 31; I t'h 11 32). 

ic. ic. N. 

ARBITE, ilr'bait ("J'N, \irln): A man of Arab 
(II S 23 35). See AHAB (-'*). E. 1C. X. 

ARCHANGEL. See ANGEL, ANGELOLOGY, H. 
ARCHELAUS, cVke-le'iis. See HKROD, 4. 
ARCHEOLOGY. See HEBHEW ARCHEOLOGY. 
ARCHER. Sec WARFARE, 4. 
ARCHES. Sec TEMt>LE (of Ezekiel), 23. 

ARCHEVITE, flr'ke-voit, ARCHI, Qr'kai, AR- 
CHITE, ur'cait ("?">', 'tirk-'inli/r): Only in Ezr 4 9 
and of uncertain meaning. Possibly a mistake in 
the text for Cuthites (cf. II K 1724). Generally ta- 
ken as meaning people from Ereeh (q.v.) in Baby- 
lonia. E. E. N. 



ARCHIPPUS, or-kip'ns ("Apxwnrof ) : A member 
of the household of Philemon, probably his son (Col 
4 17; Phm ver. 2). Though evidently a young man, 
he held an important office in the church of Colossal 
Paul calls him his "fellow-soldier" (Phm ver. 2; cf. 
Ph 2 25; II Ti 2 3). He may have shared with him 
in some arduous labor for the Gospel. R. A. F. 

ARCHITECTURE: The practical art of build- 
ing in Palestine was mainly evolved from a single 
type, the rectangular, flat-roofed house of stone or 
brick. 

The common nomadic tent of skins or stuffs 
exerted no discernible influence upon structural 
forms, and the use of wood was confined to small 
internal details or fittings. The house-type was de- 
veloped into the dwelling or domestic house, the 
palace or royal house, the temple and synagogue or 
house of religious assembly, the tower or fortress, 
the granary or storehouse, and the tomb or house of 
the dead. Aggregations of houses in towns were 
regularly encircled by protecting walls, having gate- 
ways for communication and towers for defense. A 
city like Jerusalem might contain special structures 
for communication, like stairways or bridges, and in 
connection with pools or reservoirs and in the Temple 
area porticos or colonnades were built. It seems 
likely that in the artistic treatment of all these types 
of building there was almost nothing original to 
Palestine. In cases where considerable elaboration 
may be inferred, it was doubtless an imitation of 
Phoenician, Egyptian, or Greek styles. 

The typical house-plan was introverted, i.e., the 
exterior was normally barren, broken only by the 
gateway, while all rooms opened inward upon a 
central court. In the palaces of Jerusalem and 
Samaria there was some use of halls whose roofs 
were supported by columns. In these buildings 
precious materials like ivory, gold, silver, and brass 
and imported woods, like cedar, were used. To 
columns and walls color and carving were somewhat 
applied. The successive Temples were undoubtedly 
devised with an eye to beauty and impressiveness. 
But aside from very general accounts (as in 
I KG; IICh3; Ezk 40-44) and some scattered ref- 



erences to ilct:iils, we have but meager data for 
forming an architectural conception. Remains of 
synagogues are found in Galilee, showing a rectan- 
gular plan, some bases for pillar-supports, and slight 
rarved decoration of doorways. Detached tombs 
are found in some places, as a rule constructed upon 
Greek or Roman plans. (See also CITY, HOUSE, 
PALACE, TEMPLE, SYNAGOGUE, TOWEK, TOMB.) 

W. S. P. 
ARCTURUS. See ASTHONOM Y, 5 4. 

ARD, Qrd (~'S, 'anl): The ancestral head of a 
Hcnjamite clan. In Gn 46 21 he is counted as a 
brother, in Nu 20 40 as a son of Bela. In I Cli 8 3 the 
name is given as Addar. K. 1C. N. 

ARDON, iir'don (!'">', 'anliin): "Son " of A.-/.U- 
bah, wife of Caleb (I Ch 2 IS). Perhaps a place- or 
clan-name. I \. 1C. N. 

ARELI, a-ri'lcii (^8'N, 'nr'fll): Ancestral head 
ofaGaditefamily (Gn 4(i in; Nu26i7). E. E. N. 

AREOPAGUS, e"re-ep'a-gos: A bare rock N\V. 
of the entrance to the Acropolis of Athens; called 
"Aptios Ilayos ('Hill of Ares') from the near-by tem- 
ples of Ares. It was generally the seat of a 
criminal court with jurisdiction over murder, im- 
morality, etc. The Areopagites were drawn from 
the noblest-born and wealthiest citizens, all state 
officials being ex-officio members. It was a self- 
perpetuating, conservative, all-powerful court, prac- 
tically governing Athens. Its power was modified 
by Draco, but Solon extended its jurisdiction to 
criminal, political, and moral cases. Under Roman 
rule all its ancient powers were restored. Before 
this court Paul was summoned and, at least, not 
found guilty of serious offense, but rather dismissed 
in contempt. One of the court, Dionysius, was con- 
verted to the Christian faith (Ac 17 16-34). 

J. R. S. S. 

ARETAS, ar'e-tas (Apiras, more properly 'Apeffas, 
transliteration of Aram. n."l~ri): The name of a 
number of the Nabatsean kings (see ARAB, 4). 
1. A ruler (Gr. rvpawos) of the Arabians c. lli'.t 
B.C. (II Mac 5 8). 2. A king of the Arabians c. !H'> 
B.C. (cf. Jos. Ant. XIII, 13 3). 3. The king men- 
tioned in II Co 11 32 in connection with the escape 
of Paul from Damascus. His original name was 
.<neas (Jos. Ant. XVI, 9 4). In the inscriptions 
and coins from his reign (cf. CIS, Pars II, Aram. 
Nos. 196-217), he is frequently called "Carithath. 
King of the Nabatceans, lover oj his people," in dis- 
tinction from some of his predecessors who were 
called "lovers of the Greeks." His reign dates 
probably from about 9 B.C. to 40 A.D. (cf. CIS, 
Pars II, Aram. Nos. 216, 217). There are no Dam- 
ascene coins extant bearing the image or inscrip- 
tion of Roman emperors between 34 and 62 A.D., 
so that Damascus may have been ceded to Aretas 
during the last years of Tiberius' reign, or, more 
probably, upon the accession of Caligula (37 A.D.). 
This would explain the statement of II Co 11 32 that 
an ethnarch of Aretas guarded the city to prevent 
Paul's escape. As Aretas and Herod Antipas were 
enemies, such an alliance of the former with the Jew- 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Arbathitc 
Ark 



ish priestly party is not unlikely (Jos. Ant. XVIII, 
51,3). 

LITF.RATUHE '. Consult especially Schiirer'a monograph on 
the Nabata>ans in his GJV 3 , I, 726 f. (lieilaue II). 

J. M. T. 

ARGOB, ur'gob (-J"8, 'aryiibh): A region in 
Bnshun. According to the O T, Argob was a port ion 
of the conquered territory of Og, assigned to the half 
tribe of Manassrh (Dt 3 4). In ver. 14 "all liashan'' 
is made coextensive with "the region of Argob." 
Within it were situated ''GO great cities with bra- 
zen walls and bars." Its western border was the 
land of the Geshuritcs and the Maacathites. Dt 
3 14 (cf. IK413) makes these 60 cities identical 
with llavvoth-jair (tent villages of Jair),but this is 
probably a gloss (cf. Driver and also Dillmann, ad 
loc.). The Targum identifies A. with Trachonitis 
(Tarkonfi), the el-Leja, a region 30 m. S. of Damas- 
cus, and 40 in. E. of Galilee, covered with lava from 
the volcanoes of the Ilauran range. It rises from 20 
to 30 ft. above the level of the surrounding plain, 
and its greatest length is 22 m. with a maximum 
breadth of 14 in. It contains, in a good state of 
preservation, many remains of towns, built of the 
black basaltic rock. Similar ruins are found in the 
territory to the S. and E. Archeologists are agreed 
in referring all these remains to cities of the Greco- 
Roman period, which may, however, have been 
built upon sites previously occupied by cities of the 
Mosaic age. Viewed from the plain, el-Leja looks like 
a rugged coast, and "the region (lit. hcbhel; bound- 
ary-line, Dt 3 4) of Argob" has been interpreted as 
referring to this rough stretch of rocks. Authorities 
are skeptical about this identification. Wetzstein 
placed A. and the Zumleh range about 15 m. far- 
ther E.; Guthe locates it between Edrei and Xawa, 
E. of Jolan (ZDPV, 1890, p. 237 f.). Dillmann 
fixed upon the region between Gerasa, Edrei, and 
Ashtaroth on the W. and Jebel Hauran on the E. 
From the evidence at our disposal, it is probable 
that G. A. Smith's cautious statement, "within 
Bashan lay Argob," is all that is justifiable (HGHL, 
p. ool). 

LITERATURE: In addition to works referred to above: 
Buhl, Geogrtlfihie de,i alien I'nliistiiui', Kwing, PEFQ, 
1895; De Vosiii 1 , .Si/r/e Centrale. 

3. A. K. 

ARIDAI, Q-rid'a-ai ('T1K, 'Hrldhay): A son of 
Hainan (Est 9 9). E. E. N. 

ARIDATHA, a-rid'a-tha (N.7718 : , 'Hrldhatha')- 
A son of Hainan (Est 9 8). E. E. N. 

ARIEH, e'ri-e (""8?, ha-'arye): The statement 
(UK 15 25) is not clear. If Arieh be a man's name, 
he was either one of the conspirators against Pek- 
ahiah or one of his servants who fell with him. The 
text may be corrupt. E. E. N. 

ARIEL, e'ri-el (Vs^K, 'dn'll), 'lion of God': 1. 
A Moabite (IIS 23 20). 2. One of Ezra's leading 
helpers, designated more especially teachers (Ezr 
8 18). 3. A mystical name of Jerusalem (Is 29 1-7). 
The original text here may have read ^N^X ' (altar) 
hearth of God.' A. C. Z. 



ARIMATHiEA, ar"i-imi-thi'u ('Api/wtfam): '1 1,.- 
home of Joseph, the counselor (Alt 2757 and ||s). 
Probably the same as Ramathaiin-zoplu'm, or KH- 
mah (q.v.). I ;. 10. N. 

ARIOCH, ar'i-ok ("1"i8, 'aryOkh): 1. King of 
Ellasar (Larsa) who served under the king of 101am, 
in his campaign against Palestine c. 2200 B.C. (Gn 14 
1, 9); probably identical with Kim-Kin, King of I. 
whose name is also written Kri-Aku. 2. The cap 
tain of the guard of Nebuchadrezzar (Dn 2 14 f., 25). 

J. F. M.C. 

ARISAI, a-ris'a-oi ('w"K, '&ri?ay): One of the 
sons of Hainan (Est 9 9). I ;. 10. N. 

ARISTARCHUS, ar"is-tar'cus ('Apla~rap X os): One 
of Paul's traveling companions, a Macedonian of 
Thessalonica (Ae 272). He was attacked by the 
Ephesian mob (1929), but escaped death, and ac- 
companied Paul to Jerusalem (20 4) and to Rome 
(272). J. M. T. 



ARISTOBULUS, ar"is-to-biu'las ('AptorcJ/S 
1. They "who are of the household of Aristobu- 
lus" are greeted by Paul in Ro 16 10. This Aris- 
tobulus was probably the grandson of Herod the 
Great, who lived and died at Rome and was a friend 
of the Emperor Claudius. If the members of his 
"household" became the property of the emperor, 
they might still bear the name of their former master. 
Among them were the Christians whom Paul re- 
members. This is substantially the explanation of 
Lightfoot. 2. The Jewish teacher of Ptolemy 
Philoinetor (II Mac 1 10). J. S. R. 

ARK 011, 'drdn), 'chest' or 'box.' The Ark 
of the Covenant was an oblong box of acacia- 
wood, two and one-half cubits long by one and one- 
half deep and wide, overlaid with gold, with a rim or 
molding around the top. There were golden rings at 
each corner for the staves that were used for carrying 
it. Covering its lid, there was a solid gold plate, 
called the Mercy-seat, with two cherubim of gold at 
each end (Ex 25 10-22). Some of the names of the 
ark are significant. It was termed the "Ark of the 
Covenant of Jehovah" (Dt 10 8), and the "Ark of 
the Testimony" (Ex 25 22), because it contained the 
two tables of stone on which were engraved the 
words constituting the basis of the covenant be- 
tween Jehovah and Israel. It led the way through 
the wilderness (Nu 10 33), at the crossing of the Jor- 
dan (Jos 3), and in the march around the walls of 
Jericho (Jos 6). Joshua took it to Gilgal and finally 
to Shiloh (Jos 18 l), where we find it in the time of 
Samuel. It was captured in battle by the Philis- 
tines, who were forced to return it (I S 4 1-7 1). 
David removed it from Kirjath-jearim to Jerusalem 
(II S 6). Solomon placed it in the Temple (I K 
84ff.). Its subsequent history is unknown, unless 
Jer 3 16 ff. implies its presence in Jerusalem in the 
prophet's day. Shishak may have taken it. Some 
critics interpret the tables of stone as two meteorites 
in which the divinity of Sinai resided, and conse- 
quently relies of fetish worship. This subjective 
view has no support in the O T. The significance of 
the ark lay in its connection with the cherubim 
(q.v.); they were symbols of the presence of Je- 



Arkites 
Arnon 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



hovah, so where the ark rested there was a mani- 
festation of the God of Israel. Ita designations 
"the throne of God" (Jer3l6ff.), "His footstool" 
(Ps. 99 5), and the idea that it could not be looked 
into without danger of death (I S 6 19), all indicate 
that it symbolized the immediate presence of the God 
of Israel. To the popular mind it was a palladium 
(I S 4-7). Mercy-seat (Heb. KappOreth) should be 
rendered 'propitiatory,' or, more literally, 'propitia- 
ting thing.' Deissmann, in his luminous article in 
EB, has proved that simple 'covering,' a favorite 
rendering with German writers, is wholly inadequate. 
The LXX.term i\aa-njpu>v and its significance in the 
ceremonies of the Day of Atonement (Lv 16) point 
to it as being an instrument of propitiation. 

The full description of the ark is confined to P, 
but JE must have had its own account (a fragment 
of which we find in Dt 10 iff.) which was omitted 
by R in favor of P. J. A. K. 

ARKITES, Srk'aits. See ETHNOGRAPHY AND 
ETHNOLOGY, 11. 

ARMAGEDDON, ur"ma-ged'en. See HAR-MA- 

OEDON. 

ARMENIA, ur-mi'ni-a. See ARARAT. 
ARMLET. Sec DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 11. 

ARMONI, ar-mo'nai ("JS'TtS, 'armoni): A son of 
Rizpah, Saul's concubine, executed by order of David 
to satisfy the vengeance of the Gibeonites (I S 21 8). 

E. E. N. 

ARMS AND ARMOR 

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS 



I. OFFENSIVE WEAPONS 

1. The Spear 

2. The Sword 

3. The Bow 

4. The Sling 

5. The Battle-ax 

6. The Chariot 



II. DEFENSIVE WEAPONS 

7. The Shield 

8. The Helmet 

9. The Breastplate, or 

Coat of Mail 
10. Protectionfor theLegs. 



I. OFFENSIVE WEAPONS: Without doubt the old- 
est weapon which the Israelites brought with them 
into Canaan from their nomadic life was 
i. The the spear (hdmth ISlSlOf., javelin, 
Spear. AV; romah Jg5s, called lance [lan- 
cets AV] in I K 18 28). It consisted 
of a wooden shaft (II S 21 19, 23 7) with a point of 
bronze later of iron (I S 13 19), which because of its 
glitter was called lahabh, or lehabhah ("head," liter- 
ally'flame,' I S 177) or baraq ("glittering," literally 
'lightning,' Nah 3 3). The kidhon ("javelin," Jos 
8 18), which is mentioned nine times in the O T, sig- 
nifies perhaps a smaller type of weapon, which prob- 
ably was used mainly as a projectile, while the spear 
was essentially a thrusting weapon, and maintained 
its importance even alongside of the sword. The 
dart, shebhef, referred to in II S 18 14, and the dart, 
ma??a', and the pointed shaft, shiryah (haber- 
geon AV), mentioned in Job 41 26, are probably 
varieties of this kind of weapon. 

The sword (dagger AV, Jg 3 16 ff.), herebh (from 
harabh, 'to be sharp'), most likely did not become 
Israel's chief weapon until they had settled in Pales- 



tinr. The blade, lahabh (Jg322), was perhaps gen- 
erally of iron (I S 13 19; Is 2 4), straight, at times two- 
edged (Jg 3 16; Pr 5 4), held in a sheath, 

2. The ta'ar (from 'aruh, 'to open out,' In ncc 
Sword, 'that which is emptied,' IS1751; II S 

20 8; nadhan, I Ch 21 27), probably of 
leather from which fact the terms herlq (' to make 
empty,' Ex 159; Ezk 5 2, 12) and pathah ('to open,' 
Ezk 21 33) are often used for drawing the sword. 
It was fastened by means of a girdle over the coat, 
and probably, as in the case of the Assyrians, on the 
left side (cf. Ex 32 27; I S 17 39, 25 13). It was used 
both as a cutting weapon, "to smite with the sword " 
(II S 12 9; "to smite with the edge of the sword," Jg 
21 10), and as a thrusting weapon, "to thrust through 
with the sword" (I S 31 4; II S 2 16). 

Along with the sword and spear, the bow, qesheth, 
was from early times the most used weapon. It was 

made of elastic wood (of. II S 1 22), 

3. The sometimes of bronze (II S 22 35). There 
Bow. were probably different sizes. The 

small bow was strung most likely with 
the hand (cf. II K 13 10); the usual way was to place 
the foot upon the bow (cf. Ps 7 12, "he hath bent his 
bow," lit. 'trodden his bow," from darak, 'to 
tread') that is to say, one end of the bow was 
placed upon the earth and held fast with the foot, 
while the other was bent down with the hand. The 
bowstring was made of the intestines of oxen or 
camels; the arrows, hitstsim, of reed or light wood. 
Arrow-heads were at first probably of stone, later of 
bronze and iron. They were sharpened (cf. Is 49 2), 
also poisoned (cf. Ps 120 4) and provided with barbs 
(Job 6 4), and in time of siege were wound with tow 
and pitch, and ignited (cf. Ps. 7 13). The quiver, 
'ashpah (Job 39, 23, etc.), or t'll (Gn 27 3), in which 
the arrows were kept, was carried by the foot-soldier 
on the back, or at the left side; the chariot-warrior 
had it fastened at the side of the chariot. On the 
march the bow was probably carried in a leather 
covering, which, however, enclosed perhaps only tin- 
middle portion of the bow (cf. Hab 3 9). 

From earliest times the sling, qela', was used by 
the Israelites, not only in warfare (II Ch 26 14; cf. 

Jg 20 16), but also as a weapon of the 

4. The shepherd (I S 17 40) and of the hunter 
Sling. (Job 41 20), as was the case with the 

Assyrians, Egyptians, and Persians. 
It consisted of a leather thong, or was woven from 
rushes, or hair, or the sinews of animals. It was 
made wider in the middle than at the ends and con- 
tained a hollow place (kaph hnqqcla', I S 25 29) in 
which to set the stone. The slinger grasped the sling 
by both ends and whirled it in a circle about his heai 1 
several times, and then hurled the shot by letting go 
of one end of the sling. The missile was generally 
a smooth, rounded stone (I S 17 40; Zee 9 15). The 
Benjamites are said to have been especially cele- 
brated as slingers (Jg 20 16). 

The maul or war-club, mcphits (Pr 25 18), or bat- 
tle-ax, mappets (Jer 51 20), was of no great impor- 
tance among the Israelites. The battle- 

5. The ax referred to in the marginal reading 
Battle-Ax, of Ps 35 3 corresponds probably to the 

crdyapts of the Persians (Herod. I, 214). 
The chariot, rekebh (Jos 114) and merkabhah (Ex 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Arkitea 
Arnon 




Hittite War Chariot, Containing Three Soldiers, One of Whom Carries the 
Small Shield. 



15 4), with which the Israelites had long been ac- 
quainted through the Egyptians and Canaanites, 
was first introduced in the time of 

6. The Solomon. Even David disabled all the 
Chariot, chariot-horses which had been captured 

(II S 8 4). In the time of Solomon 
the number of chariot-horses is said to have been 
four thousand (I K 10 26). The chariots were prob- 
ably two-wheeled and open behind similar to those 
of the Egyptians 
and Assyrians. 
They were most 
likely made of 
fig-wood. They 
were not pro- 
vided with 
scythe-blades 
a type of chariot 
which was first 
introduced by 
the Persians 
but were over- 
laid with iron or 
bronze (cf. Jg 4 
3). Probably 
three persons 
usually stood in 
the chariot 
the chariot- 
driver, the warrior, and the shield-bearer, shallsh = 
'the third man' [?] as among the Assyrians, Hit- 
titcs, and others; whereas among the Egyptians only 
two occupied the chariot. According to I K 10 29 
a chariot imported from Egypt cost, in the days of 
Solomon, 600 shekels (about $360), a horse 150 
shekels (about $90). 

II. DEFENSIVE WEAPONS: The shield was of 

two sizes: (a) the small shield, rnagen = acrtris (II S 

1 21), often called buckler, which was also borne by 

bowmen (I Ch 5 18; II Ch 14 8) ; (b) the 

7. The large shield, tsinnah (I S 17 7) = Bvpcos, 
Shield, the Homeric O-OKOS, which covered the 

greater part of the warrior's body. We 
do not know the form of these shields; probably there 
were several forms -as among the Egyptians and 
Assyrians ; in the Roman period the Jews are said to 
have used the oval shield. The material was either 
wood or wickerwork, covered with leather, or thick 
leather arranged in layers. The latter was treated 
with oil to make it pliable, more durable, and 
capable of resisting moisture (II SI 21; Is 21 5). 
Sometimes the shields were studded with bosses 
of bronze (Job 15 26). We are to understand the 
shields mentioned in I K 14 26 ff. as probably of this 
sort. With such shields Rehoboam replaced the 
gold-decorated shields of Solomon which had been 
seized by Shishak (I K 10 ;6ff., 14 25 f.) and used 
them in solemn processions to the House of God (I 
K 14 27 f.). On the march the shield was probably 
carried, as among the Greeks, slung from the shoul- 
der by a strap, and provided with a cover, which was 
removed before battle (Is 22 6). In battle it was 
carried on the left arm. 

The helmet, qobha' or kSbha', in early times was. 
used only by prominent persons, as kings, com- 
manders of armies, and similar officers. I S 17 38 



mentions helmets of bronze; among the Egyptians 
leather helmets also were used. Perhaps the Israel- 
ites were acquainted with helmets of 
8. The this substantial sort made of leather 
Helmet, and protected with bronze or iron 
(cf. II Ch 26 14). Possibly the round 
caps which are found on the Assyrian monuments 
most nearly resemble those of the Israelites; see 
also the representations on the temple walls at 

Karnak. 

The cuirass, 
or breastplate, 
shirydn (Is 59 
17;cf. Eph6l4), 
was evidently 
not very com- 
mon (I S 17 38 
["coatofmail"]; 
I K 22 34 ["ar- 
mor"]; Jer464, 
51 3 [brigandine 
AV]). I S 17 
shows acquaint- 
ance with a coat 
of mail, shirydn 
qasqassim, o f 
bronze. Among 
the Assyrians, as 
among the Is- 
raelites, only kings and the principal chariot-warriors 
wore the long coats of mail reaching to the ankles or 
to the knees ; on the other hand , the com- 
Q. The mon soldier protected the upper part of 
Breastplate his body by means of bands or sleeve- 
or Coat of less jackets of felt, linen, or leather. 
Mail. Often these jackets were strengthened 
with plates of iron, or studded with iron 
or bronze bosses. Perhaps something of this sort is 
meant in II Ch 26 14, where reference is made to the 
preparing of coats of mail for the common soldiery. 
Greaves of bronze, mitshah, are mentioned only 
in the case of Goliath (I S176). 
10. Pro- Military boots, f'dn, are mentioned 
tection for only in Is 9 5 (cf. margin). We know 
the Legs, nothing more about them. Probably 
neither greaves nor boots were widely 
used among the Israelites. W. N. 

ARMY. See WARFARE, 3-5. 

ARNAN, Qr'nan (}F&, 'arnan): One of the de- 
scendants of David (I Ch 3 21). E. E. N. 

ARNI (Apvei): The NT equivalent of the OT 
Ram in the genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3 33, Aram AV). 

E. E. N. 

ARNON,ar'nen (1^~8, 'arndn) : Ariverof Moab, 
formed by the union of many smaller streams spoken 
of as the "valleys" of the Arnon (Nu 21 14). It 
flows through a deep trench into the Dead Sea and is 
one of the three principal watercourses E. of the 
Jordan. It is first mentioned in Nu 21 13 as forming 
the boundary between the Moabites, and the Amor- 
ites who had robbed them of their territory N. 
of the river. It was considered, theoretically, as 
marking the boundary between Moab and the E. 



Arod 
Artisan Life 



\ ST \\DARI) 1UBLE DICTlnNAliV 



.Ionian possessions of Israel, but tlir Moabites were 
actually in possession of a large district N. of the 
Arnon. See MOAB ami MKSHA, STONE OF. 

E. E. N. 

AROD, ar'od (~'~8, 'drfx/h): The ancestral head 
of one of the Arodites, a clan of Gad (On 46 16; 
Nu 26 17). E. E. N. 

AROER, a-m'er ("?''" 'ArO'lr): The name of 
three cities: 1. On the N. bank of the Arnon, the 
modern 'Ara'ir, built by the children of Gad (Nu 
32 34), and subsequently assigned to the tribe of 
Reuben, marking the S. boundary of Israelitic ter- 
ritory E. of the Jordan (Dt 2 36, 312; UK 10 33) 
(Map II, J 3). 2. A city of Judah (I S 30 28), prob- 
ably the same as the modern 'Ard'ra, about 12 m. 
SE. of Becrsheba, Map II, D 5. Possibly the Ada- 
dah (q.v. ) of Jos 15 22 is a corrupt ion of Aroer. 3. E. 
of Kabbah in Ammon, belonging to Gad (Jos 13 25; 
Jg 11 33). The allusion to "the cities of Aroer" in Is 
17 2 is both difficult and doubtful. The LXX. reads 
"abandoned forever." A reference to one of these 
cities is found in the gentilic name Aroerite (I Ch 
11 44). G. L. R. 

ARPACHSHAD, ar-pac'shad, ARPHAXAD, fir- 
fax'ad. See ETHNOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY, 
11. 

ARPAD, ar'pad, ARPHAD, ar'fad P?"8, 'ar- 
pa<lh): A city mentioned in the OT always with 
some reference to its overthrow by Assyria (II K 18 34, 
19 13 -Is 36 19, 37 13; Is 10 ; Jer 49 23). It lay about 
13 m. N. of Aleppo and was once the capital of a 
prosperous Aramean kingdom; several times con- 
quered by the Assyrians and finally made into an 
Assyrian province by Tiglath-pileser III in 740 B.C. 

E. E. N. 

ARRAY. See WARFARE, 4. 

ARROW. See ARMS AND ARMOR, 3. 
ARROW SNAKE. See PALESTINE, 26. 

ART: In contrast with what was true of the 
great nations on either side of them, the people of 
Palestine seem to have had but very meager interest 
in the arts of design. In their pottery, their textile 
fabrics, anil in some architectural fittings there are 
traces of attention to form, color, and decorative 
treatment. But the rigorous religious ban upon 
the making of 'graven images' (Ex 20 4) was in 
later times so interpreted as effectually to repress 
both sculpture and painting as fine arts. The only 
striking exception was the cherubim, said to have 
been used in the Tabernacle and the Temple (Ex 
26 l; I K 6 23-35, etc.). Though the representation 
of plant-forms was unrestricted, yet little of it is 
recorded, and this is altogether confined to archi- 
tectural ornament. (On the art of building, see 
ARCHITECTURE and the references there; for the 
particulars regarding the building of dwellings, see 
HOUSE; concerning the literary fine arts, see Music 
and POETRY.) W. S. P. 

ARTAXERXES, Qr"tax-<;rc'si/ (Xrfi'n^-S, ',,r- 
tahshast'): A name (Old Persian, Artakhshatra, 



'great kingdom') borne by three kings of Persia. 
The one referred to in the Bible is A. Longimanus 
(465-425 B.C.), third son of Xerxes (Ahasuerus). It 
was he who granted the request of his cup-bearer 
Nehemiah to visit Jerusalem and rebuild its walls, 
appointing him at the same time governor of the 
district (Nell 2 1 ff., 5 14). He also (probably later) 
patronized the migration of Ezra and his companions 
to Jerusalem, and provided supplies for them from 
the Syrian satrapy (Ezr7). The mention of his 
name in Ezr 4 7 is, along with the whole section vs. 
6-23, at best a gross anachronism, to be referred to 
the time of the rebuilding of the walls, and in 6 14 it is 
simply interpolated. J. F. McC. 

ARTEMAS, ar'te-mas ('ApT(fias): A compan- 
ion of Paul (Tit 3 12) of whom nothing else is cer- 
tainly known. E. E. N. 

ARTILLERY : In A V of I S 20 40 this term means 
simply weapons, as in RV. E. E. N. 

ARTISAN LIFE 

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS 



1. In General 

I. CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIP- 
MENT OP HOUSES 

2. Tent-making 

3. Masonwork 

4. Mason's Tools; Mortar 

5. Carpenter 

6. Carpenter's Tools 

7. Potter 

8. The Potter's Wheel 

9. Pottery 



II. METAL WORK 

10. Smiths 

(a) Coppersmith 

(b) Goldsmith 
III. OTHER INDUSTRIES 

11. Spinning 

12. Weaving 

13. A Fuller's Work 

14. Needlework: Em- 

broidery 

15. Dyeing 

16. Tanning 

Artisan industry in Biblical Palestine was mainly 
concerned with the construction and furnishing of 

the house and with the manufacture 

I. In Gen- and care of personal apparel and arti- 

eral. cles of adornment. Neither the O T, 

however, nor the NT employs a com- 
mon term to designate all its different forms. The 
nearest approach to a group designation of the arti- 
san industries is that in the word "trade," rt^vrj 
(Ac 19 25, craft AV; also "art," Ac 17 20; craftsman, 
Tixvirr)!, Ac 1924,38, harash, Dt 2715; rendered 
smith in Is 13 19). The Hebrew term, however, in- 
cludes only those arts which are concerned with the 
carving of wood and metal: (1) lifirash 'ets, "car- 
penter"; (2) harash n'hdsheth, "coppersmith"; (3) 
tiarash barzd, "blacksmith"; (4) harash 'cbhcn, 
"stone-mason." 

1. CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT OF HOUSES: 
The antiquity of the tent as a shelter from unpropi- 

tious weather is beyond dispute. An an- 

2. Tent- cient tradition traces it back to the very 
making, origin of the human race (Gn 4 20). It 

survived to the latest Biblical genera- 
tion. Paul, Aquila, and Priscilla were tent-makers 
(Ac 183). Just how the art of tent-making was 
practised is learned from data outside the Bible. In 
the most ancient times the materials used wen- the 
skins of animals (Ex 35 23). Later tents were con- 
structed out of a special kind of cloth woven 
from goat's or camel's hair. The colors brown and 
black seem to have been preferred for this purpose 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Arod 

Artisan Life 



(Song 15). The tends made in apnstolic times were 
of Cilician cloth and used in the Roman army. The 
cloth was woven to the required width, stitched to- 
gether and provided with cords and loops and spread 
over poles about 6 ft. in height and securely fastened 
to the ground by tent-pins. (See HOUSEH, I, 1 
and 2.) 

The work of the mason (oftener in KV "builder," 

baiuih, I K518; Ex 3 10; Neh 4 5) in Palestine was 

diverse according to the material he had 

3. Mason- to use. For very ordinary puqioses 
work. (houses for the poor) sun-burnt brick 

similar to that used in Egypt was con- 
sidered satisfactory. The frailty of such structures, 
however, and their liability to the vicissitudes of 
weather and to attack on the part of robbers (Mt 6 19, 
724f.), rendered them less desirable for those who 
could afford better ones (Job 4 19). Public build- 
ings, such as the Temple, the royal palace, and many 
private houses were constructed of stone. It is to 
those who prepared the stone for such structures 
that the name mason is more specifically given (hd- 
rash 'ebhen, 'cutterof stone,' IIS 5 11; called "en- 
graver in stone," Ex 28 n; hdrash qlr, IChl4l; 
yiiilhar, 'maker of a wall,' II K 12 12, and hotscbh, 
I Ch 22 2; or 'hewer,' IKS 15). Engraving, Ex 28 
11, 21, etc., is literally the 'opening' of the stone. 

Of the implements used in masonwork occasional 
mention is made of the hammer (maqqebheth, I K 

6 7), which, however, may be also the 

4. Mason's tool used in the quarry in cutting the 
Tools ; Mor- stone from its native rock (paftlsh, 

tar. Is 417; Jer 2329). The plumb-line 
C&nakh, Am 7 7 f.) and plummet (mish- 
qoleth, II K 21 13; 'ebhen ha-b'dhll, Zee 4 10) were 
evidently employed in securing straight vertical 
lines, and the "measuring-line [rod]" (middah, Jer 
31 39; Ezk 40 5; Zee 2 1) for the laying out of ground- 
plans. The stones built into walls were held to- 
gether by mortar (morter AV, homer = bitumen, in 
Gnll3). But by mortar is meant probably also 
something more than the equivalent to modern ce- 
ment, namely, the plaster used to smooth the interior 
of the walls of houses (Nah 3 14; Lv 14 42 f.). For this 
purpose clay or lime and sand mixed with straw is 
known to serve at the present day in the construc- 
tion of Oriental houses. (On 21, see also HOUSE.) 
Closely associated with the mason in the building 
of houses was the carpenter (hdrash 'its, II S 5 11 ; II 
K 22 6, T(KT<av, Mt 13 55). Carpenters 

5. Carpen- assisted in building and repairing the 

ter. Temple, I K 6 ff. ; II K 12 1 1, 22 6. But 
the carpenter's art was oftener devoted 
to the manufacture of the furniture of the house 
and of wooden agricultural implements. The 
range of his productions was therefore very wide, 
including articles of the crudest form, benches, tables, 
plows, and yokes (cf . Justin Martyr, Dial. c. Trypho. 
88) as well as the nicest finished carvings, inlaid 
work, and veneering (mi/jla'cith, IK618; pitfuhe, 
I K 6 29). In the latter type of carpentry, the finer 
woods often formed the materials (cedar, fir, and 
olive), and opened the way for the development of 
taste ami the be<;innings of the fine arts. 

liesides the ax and hammer and measuring-line, 
mentioned as used by the mason, suitable forms of 



which were also used by the carpenter, the saw, the 
plane, the pencil, scredh, mg. "redocher " (RV Oxf. 
He. Lex. "stylus," Is 44 13), and compasses are dis- 
tinctly alluded to. In finer carpentry the Israelites 
were dependent not only in the earlier 
6. The periods (I K 5 6h), but also as late as 
Carpen- the date of Ezra (3 7) on the Phceni- 
ter's Tools, eians for the best results. As far as 
Palestine is concerned no great devel- 
opment took place even to the latest day; and the 
work done by Joseph, the husband of Mary (Mt 
13 55), and by Jesus (Mk6 3), both called carpenters, 
was of the general type above described. In any 
case the occupation did not lead to the expectation 
of a high degree of culture or intellectual training. 

Next in importance to wooden furniture in the 
house were earthen vessels (Lv 6 28, 11 33). These 
were naturally numerous and of many 
7. Potter, kinds and imply the existence of a large 
industry. Potters were numerous 
enough to organize into gilds (ICh423). The 
name given to the potter (yHtser, Jer 18 2; I Ch 4 23; 
Kipapfiis, Mt 27 7) also indicates that liis art was 
looked upon as preeminently calling into activity 
creative skill. Allusions are abundant to the pot- 
ter's work in its various phases of progress. He 
takes the clay furnished in the soil and treads it with 
his feet (Is 41 25; cf. also Wis 15 7); he kneads it with 
his hands like dough, puts it upon the wheel (Jer 18 
3) and fashions out of it vessels according to his 
pleasure. Even God's sovereignty is compared with 
the potter's power to make out of the same clay 
some vessels unto honor and some unto dishonor (Jer 
18 C; Ro 9 21). When the form of the product is 
satisfactory to him the potter fixes it permanently 
by firing the clay. The process of glazing was also 
evidently familiar (Pr 2623; Jer 192; Sir 3829 ff.). 
The chief implement of the potter was his wheel, 
or rather wheels (Jer 183," frames or seats, " A Vmg.). 
These were circular slabs of wood so 
8. The arranged that they could be made to 
Potter's revolve in opposite directions. The 
Wheel. potter controlled their motions by his 
feet, thus leaving his hands free to do 
the shaping of the clay, while the wheels were chan- 
ging the face presented to him. 

It is natural to suppose that such a necessary 
industry as that of the potter should have had a con- 
siderable history even in the simple 
9. Pottery, conditions of Palestinian life. This as- 
sumption is borne out by the results of 
excavations on the site of the ancient Lachish 
(Tell-el-Hesy), under the direction of Prof. Flinders 
Petrie and Dr. F. J. Bliss in 1890-93 (cf. Petrie, 
Tell-el-Hesy, 1901; Bliss, Mounds of Many Cities, 
1894). These of late have been enriched by other 
excavations at Tell-Zakarya, Tett-es-Safi, and Tett- 
ej-Judeideh, especially under Stewart Macalister, at 
Gezer (PEFQ, 1899-1900). From the discoveries 
made in these places and some in Jerusalem (Bliss 
and Dickie, Excav. in Jerus., 1898), it appears that 
the history of pottery must be traced back to as 
early a date as the 18th cent. B.C. Its first stage of 
development has been called the Earlier Pre-Israel- 
ite (Amorite). Bowls and jars, which Petrie thinks 
show the influence of Libyan art, have been identified 



Artisan Life 
Asa 



A STANDARD BIRI.K DICTIONARY 



50 



with this type. The second is the later Pro-Isra- 
elite (Phoenician) and shows traces of Phoenician 
influence. Its products are dated as between 1400 
mid 1000 B.C. The third stage, called the Jewish 
([better] Israelite), includes specimens of productions 
of the years 1000 to 300. At the latter date the art 
fell under the influence of Greek models and was 
assimilated to the Greco-Roman type. For pottery 



ons of war, such as swords and spears made of iron, 
must have been early resorted to. In the later 
portion of the period of Judges it was one of the con- 
ditions which the victorious Philistines imposed upon 
Israel, that no blacksmith should be allowed to ply 
his trade in their territory, "lest the Hebrews make 
them swords and spears" (I S 13 19). 

The use of copper was probably developed in the 




THE POTTER AT WORK. 



as emblematic of frailty, cf. Is 29 16, 30 14, 41 25; Jer 
19 l ff. It was into a piece of pottery that Jeremiah 
(32 14) placed a deed of purchase. 

II. METAL WORK: The working of metals is 
traced back to Tubal Cain (Gn 4 22). Among the Ca- 

naanites, it appears to have been com- 
10. Smiths, mon in the period of the Judges ("they 

had chariots of iron," Jg 1 19). From 
there the Israelites may have learned the elements of 
work in metals. The materials most commonly 
used are gold, silver, copper, and iron (see METALS). 
Of the method of working the lower metals nothing 
is learned directly from the text of the O T and little 
from without. The term forger used in Gn 4 22 ("in- 
structor of every artificer," AV and RVmg., "whet- 
ter," AVmg.) is in reality too obscure to serve as a 
basis for investigation. The manufacture of weap- 



Orient even earlier than that of iron. For practical 
purposes, however, it was commonly used with some 
alloy of tin or zinc (brass, bronze, 
10 (a). Cop- n'hosheth, Job 282; Ezk 22l8ff.). 
persmith. Brass is enumerated with gold and sil- 
ver as if regarded one of the precious 
metals (II S 8,10; Ezr 827; "copper" AV, "yel- 
low brass" AVmg.); but it is not probable that 
such enumeration indicates any great scarcity, 
since copper-mines are known to have existed at 
Sinai from the 3d dynasty of Egypt downward 
(Petrie, Researches in Sinai, 1006). Moreover, the 
list of articles manufactured from this metal is long, 
including household utensils such as pots and pans 
and other implements necessary in the construction 
of furniture (cf. Ex 25 ff.; see TEMPLE. 18, 19); 
also weapons of war such as shields, greaves, 




1. Zir, l:trL'f \vaUT-jar. 

2. ///.V//N/// /,.;'..//, Iar-_'f u al.-i -jar. 

'.<,. ilishshi froWrt, large water-jar. 

4. II i*ti.*fi.' .///.;/>, medium water-jar. 

5. Mwihlns, ilnnkiiiL'-iiiiiLV 

G. Jnrr:i.j:ii I'll ranynm ".-H'-i. 



POTTBHT. 

7. Jurril, girl's jar for i-anyiMi; \v:iti-r. 

8. Dorak, cimlinK-jar. 

9. 'Asli'ui', Hat drinking-flaak. 

10. /'wi/;. ilriiikiiiK-jar with spout. 

1 1. A" /'/'' l>it/unl<'i' , t\vo-li:tnilh''l pol. 

1L>. Kiilri , i'iiokiim-|)"t. 



14. .TabAkh, small brazier. 

l.'i. it,',.ilnt 1 1 lini,li. milk-jug. 
Hi. N//'/7'f. diinkinff-bottle. 

17. /ilnlitjf, ili>li for fating. 

15. H:'lnt tHuMl, milk-jug. 



rmmi Hi- ^nvi.i DITMM i-i..!i C-..I1...-H..11 I" iirir..r.i T tortwl Bmli 



57 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Artisan Life 
Asa 



javelins, and helmets (IS 175 ff.; IIS2235). InNT 
times the mention of Alexander the Coppersmith (II 
Ti 4 14) indicates the specialization of work in this 
metal. (See also METALS.) 

Gold and silver were imported into Palestine by 

Solomon from Ophir (I K 9 20-28). But the art of 

working them was introduced from 

10 (b). Phoenicia. The accomplished gold- 
Goldsmith, smith, refiner ('founder,' tsorcph, Jg 
17 4), was one who knew how to sepa- 
rate the pure metal from its alloy (Is 1 25) by melting 
the ore in the refining pot (Pr 17 3) to purify it of 
its dross (Pr 25 4, 26 27), and to fashion it into use- 
ful and ornamental articles. The various ways of 
working the precious metal are beating ("turned 
work" RV, Ex 2518,31) with the hammer (ham- 
mering), plating, overlaying (Ex 25 11, tsaph&h; 
cf. also I K620ff.), soldering, debheq, Is 417, 
"the goldsmith and he that smootheth with the 
hammer, him that smiteth the anvil, saying of the 
soldering [''sodering" AV], it is good." Casting, 
i.e., forming into a given shape by pouring into a 
mold the heated liquid, is also implied in such ex- 
pressions as "molten image" (Nu 33 52; Hos 13 2; 
cf. the distinction between "graven image" and 
"molten image," Nah 1 14; II Ch 34 3, 4). Finally 
gold was beaten into very thin plates, which were cut 
into strips, or threads, and these again used in em- 
broidering garments or woven into cloth (Ex 39 3, 
286). (See also METALS.) 

III. OTHER INDUSTRIES: Of the industries 

which center about the manufacture of clothing, the 

first in point of order is that of spinning. 

11. Spin- The materials used were goat's hair, 
ning. wool, and flax; but the process is that 

familiar elsewhere in the world and the 
implement the spindle, or distaff (Pr 31 19). Like- 
wise, as among other people, this was work usually 
done by women at home rather than in public shops 
by men (Ex 35 25 f.). 

Cloth for use in making garments was imported 

from Egypt and Damascus (linen from the former, 

damask from the latter, Ezk 27 7, 18; 

12. Weav- II Ch 1 16). Babylon too had a repu- 
ing. tation for work of superior quality in 

this class. But Israel was not desti- 
tute of its home productions. The Egyptian monu- 
ments present the art of weaving with somewhat 
crude implements. In Palestine these must have 
been still more primitive. The shuttle is, how- 
ever, especially mentioned (Job 7 6). The weaver's 
beam (IS 17 7; IIS21 19), to which Goliath's spear 
is compared in size, was the heavy post of the frame 
to which the warp of the prospective cloth was fitted 
in. Cloth was woven in lengths suited for one gar- 
ment, not in large pieces from which parts might 
be cut off according to need. When it is said that 
Samuel's mother annually made him a robe it is 
meant that she wove a single piece as above de- 
scribed (IS 2 19). See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 4. 
The fuller (kobhe?, II K 18 17; Is 7 3, 
13. Fuller's 36 2, yvafaiis, Mk 9 3) took charge of 
Work. the cleaning and bleaching of cloth. 

He washed the material with a prepa- 
ration of lye, beat or rubbed it and dried it in the 
sun. For this purpose he must own or have use of an 



open tract of land ("fuller's field"; cf. Is 7 3). From 
samples of fulling work found in Egyptian graves it 
is gathered that the art was highly developed, 

Of the sewing of garments or the modern tailor's 
art nothing is said in Scripture. Sewing (t&phar) 
was probably limited to the repairing 
14. Needle- (patching) of worn-out or torn ap- 
Work : Em- parel (Ec 3 7; Mk 2 21) and the stitching 
broidery, of one piece to another in case more 
than one was to be used in making a 
garment (Ezk 13 18; Gn 3 7). Needlework (ma'&slh 
roqem, Ex 2636,2710, etc., "work of the embroid- 
erer" RV; riqmah Jg 530; Ps 45 14, "broidered 
work" RV) is rather the working in for ornamental 
purposes of figures in colored thread or of silver and 
gold strands on a background of woven cloth. 

The art of dyeing must have been known in Israel; 

but the only clear mention of it has reference to the 

coloring of the skins of animals (Ex 

15. Dyeing. 255, 2614). In AV "dyed attire" 

(Ezk 23 15) is a mistranslation for 

"flowing turban" (so RV). The "dyed garments" 

of the conquering hero in Is 6.3 1 are more literally 

his clothes steeped red in the blood of the foes he had 

slain (so RVmg. "crimsoned"). 

The production of leather from the hides of ani- 
mals was certainly a common industry in O T times, 
but the only leather articles explicitly 
16. Tan- mentioned are girdles (II K 1 8; cf. also 
ning. Mt 3 4). To these sandals and thongs 
must be added (Mk 6 9; Ac 12 8). In 
the N T the employment appears distinctly in (he 
well-known but unique case of " Simon a tanner " 
(Ac 9 43, 10 6). 

LITERATURE : Delitzsch, Jewish Artisan Life, etc. (Eng. 
transl. 1883); S. Meyer, Arbeit u. Handwerk im Talmud 
(1878): Benziger, Hebr. Arch. (1894), pp. 213 ff.. 224 ff.; 
Nowack, Hebr. Arch. (1894) I, 239 ff., 251 ff., 265 ff. 

A. C. Z. 

ARTS, MAGICAL: Ac 19 19, Curious AV. See 
MAGIC AND DIVINATION, 9. 

ARUBBOTH, a-rub'both (H'r^K, 'drubboth): One 
of Solomon's provision districts, probably including 
much of W. Judah (I K 4 10). E. E. N. 

ARTTMAH, a-ru'ma (H^IIIJ, 'arumah): A town 
near Shechem (Jg 9 41). Map III, F 4. E. E. N. 

ARVAD, Qr'vad (1J18, 'arwadh): A Phoenician 
city on the Med. coast 125 m. N. of Tyre. The 
inhabitants (Arvadites, Gn 10 18) are described in 
Ezk 27 8, 11 as skilful seamen as well as good soldiers. 
The city was in existence as late as the Maccabean 
age (Aradus, I Mac 15 23). A. C. Z. 

ARZA, Qr'za (S5T58, 'artsa'): Palace-overseer of 
Elah, King of Israel (I K 16 9). Possibly an accom- 
plice in the murder of the king which took place in 
his house. E. E. N. 

ASA, e'sa (XCX, 'a?a'): 1. Third king of Judah 
(c. 917-876 B.C.), son of Maacah and brother of 
Abijah. His reforming energy was great, and by 
bringing sacred articles from other shrines to Jeru- 
salem (I K 15 15) he enhanced the Temple's preemi- 
nence. Fearing Baasha's blockade (I K 15 17 f.), he 
purchased Aramean aid, thereby incurring prophetic 



Asahel 
Ashtaroth 



\ STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



58 



censure (II Ch 167), and bequeathing to his suc- 
cessors a heritage of war. His defensive works were 
long remembered (Jer 41 0). The Chronicler alone 
records the invasion of Zenih (q.v.), the Ethiopian 
(II('hl49), and perhaps implies a resort to the 
Black Art in his final illness (II Ch 16 12). 2. A son 
of Elkanah (see I Ch 9 1C). A. S. C. 

ASAHEL, as'a-hel (^y;;, 'dsd'el), 'God does': 
1. A son of Zeruiah, David's sister (I Ch 2 16). 
With his brothers Joab and Abishai he was among 
the earliest and most valiant of David's follow- 
ers (IIS2324; I Chi 126). A. was especially re- 
nowned for his fleetncss (II S2 18). The statement 
in I Ch 27 7 that he was the "fourth captain for 
the fourth month" in David's army is a mistake, 
since A. was slain by Abner before David had organ- 
ized his larger army. The death of A. at the hands 
of Abner (II S 2 18-23) was an act of self-defense on 
Abner's part, but was nevertheless avenged later by 
Joab (II S 3 27-30). 2. A Levite under Jehoshaphat 
(IIChl7s). 3. A Levite under Hezekiah (II Ch 
31 13). 4. Father of Jonathan (Ezr 10 15). 

E. E. N. 

ASAIAH, Q-se'yfl (";'yi;, 'dsayah): '}" has made 
(or done)': 1. A trusted servant of King Josiah 
(Asahiah AV, II K 22 12, 14 = II Ch 34 20). 2. A Le- 
vite (IChGSO, also 15 6 and 11?). 3. The ancestral 
head of a branch of the Simeonites (I Ch 4 36-43). 
4. A Shilonite (I Ch 9 5 - Maaseiah, Neh 11 S?). 

ASAPH, e'saf : A Levite repeatedly named by the 
later historians (Ezr 2 41, 310; Neh 7 44, 11 17, 22, 
12 35, 46; I Ch 6 39, 9 15, 15 17, 19, 16 5, 7, 37, 25 1, 2, 6, 
9 [26 1 ?] ; II Ch 5 12, 20 14, 29 13, 30, 35 15) as originally 
one of the leaders of the Temple psalmody and the 
founder of a family or gild of singers. His name 
appears in the captions of twelve Psalms (50, 7383). 
It is not clear what relation this shadowy personage 
bears to the other Asaphs named (under Hezekiah, 
II K 18, 18, 37; Is 36 3, 22, and after the Exile, Neh 
2 8). The word (", 'asaph) means " collector" and 
may be a title. See PSALMS AND Music. 

W. S. P. 

ASAREL, as'ci-rcl (Vs-'~H. 'dsar'fl, Asareel AV, 
a-sfi're-el): An individual or clan (probably Caleb- 
ite) of Judah (I Ch 4 16). E. E. N. 

ASARELAH, as"n-ri'la. See ASHARELAH. 
ASCALON. See ASHKELON. 

ASCENT: A word applied to a natural ascent 
as from a valley to a hill or mountain (e.g., Nu 34 4; 
Jos 10 10; II S 15 30, etc.). In I K 10 5 - II Ch !) 4 
we should probably read "the burnt offerings 
which he offered" (RVing.). See also JERUSALEM, 
23. E. E. N. 

ASCENTS, SONGS OF. See PSALMS, 4. 

ASENATH, as'e-nath (r^S, 'asnath): The Egyp- 
tian wife of Joseph (Gn 4 1 45, 50, 46 20) ; the daughter 
of the priest of On (Heliopolis). Her name is usually 
explained as standing for Nes-\eith, i.e., who be- 
longs to NYith, the goddess of Sais. J. F. McC. 

ASER, e'ser ('Ao-ijp): The AV form in the N T for 
Asher (q.v.) (Lk 2 36; Rev 7 a). 



ASH. See PALESTINE, 21. 

ASHAN, e'shan ("y7, '*/<;,), 'smoke': A Levit- 
ical city (still unidentified) in western Judah (Jos 
15 42; I Ch 6 59, called Ain in Jos 21 16). Bor-Ashan 
(Chor-Ashan AV, I S 30 30) probably indicates the 
same place. E. E. N. 

ASHARELAH, ash"a-ri'la ("^N'tX., 'ishar'flfih, 
Asarelah AV, as"a-ri'la): An 'Asaphite' musician 
(I('h252). Called Jesharelah in ver. 14. 

E. E. N. 

ASHBEA, iish'be-a (1'?'^, 'tmhbe'a): The place 
or family name of a Judahite family, weavers of fine 
linen (ICh42l). E. E. N. 

ASHBEL, ash'bel (b3ft<, 'ashbrl): The ancestral 
head of the Ashbelites, a clan of Benjamin (Gn 46 
21; Nu2638; IChSi). E. E. N. 

ASHDOD, ash'ded (TT;-S, 'ashdodh): The mod- 
ern Esdwl, located 3 m. from the sea almost mid- 
way between Joppa and Gaza (Map I, B 8). It 
was one of the five famous cities of the Philistines, 
and the residence of Anakim (Jos 11 22). The city 
was assigned to Judah (Jos 15 46 f.), but was prob- 
ably not occupied until King Uzziah broke down its 
walls (II Ch266). Thither the captured Ark of 
God was carried by the Philistines and placed in 
the temple of Dagon (I S5 l). About 760 B.C. the 
prophet Amos denounced its inhabitants (1 8), and 
in 711 B.C. the Assyrian tartan, or general, of Sargon 
fought successfully against it (Is 20 1). According 
to Herodotus (ii. 157), Psammetichus, King of Egypt, 
besieged it for 29 years (c. 630 B.C.), only a remnant 
surviving (Jer 25 20). When Nehemiah, in 445 B.C., 
attempted to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, the Ash- 
dodites were among those who opposed him (Xeh 

4 7f.). Both Judas Maccaba5us (c. 165 B.C.) and 
his brother Jonathan (c. 148) sacked the city (I Mae 

5 68, 10 84). It is mentioned once in the N T by 
its Greek name Azotus in connection with Philip 
(Ac 8 40). G. L. R. 

ASHDOTH-PISGAH, ash"deth-piz'ga. See Pis- 

OAH. 

ASHER Pi'IJ, 'fisher), popularly taken to mean 
'happy,' though possibly an old deity name: A 
son of Zilpah, Leah's handmaid, and one of the tri- 
bal ancestors of Israel (Gn30i2f.). See TRIBES, 4. 

ASHERAH, a-shi'ra. See SEMITIC RELIGION, 
111. 

ASHES. See MOURNING CUSTOMS. 2. 



lin^S, '<i.ihhur, Ashur AV): 
father" of Tekoa (I Ch 2 24, 
E. E. N. 



See SEMITIC RELIGION, 



ASHHUR, ash'ur 
A Calebite (clan?), 
45). 

ASHIMA, a-shai'ma. 
12. 

ASHKELON, ash'ke-len (i*rX, 'ashq'lon): The 
modern 'Askelnn, 12 m. N. of Gaza on the seacoast 
(.Icr 47 7), was one of the five principal cities of the 
Philistines (Map I, B 9). The city was luiilt on a 
rocky amphitheater overlooking the sea. Extensive 



59 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Ahtaroth 



ruins of the town remain. It was the seat of the 
worship of the fish goddess Derceto, with temple and 
lake E. of the city. Judah is said to have captured 
it (Jg 1 18; cf., however, the LXX reading; also Jos 
13 3), but the Philistines still occupied it in the days 
of Samson (Jg 14 19), of Samuel (I 86 17), and of 
David (II S 1 20). Three prophets predicted its 
overthrow (Jer 47 5; Zeph 2 4; Zee 9 5). It was cap- 
tured twice by Jonathan the Maccabee (I Mac 10 86, 



ASHRIEL, ash'ri-el. See ASRIKI* 



ASHTAROTH, ash'ta-reth (nvi^J?, 'ashtOroth): 
The plural form of the name of the goddess Ash tore th. 
This is found as the name of a city (Jos 9 10, 12 4, 13 
12, 31; I Ch 6 71) taken by Israel, before the passage 
of the Jordan, from Og, King of Bashan. It is possi- 
ble, but not probable, that the same city is meant 
by Ashteroth-Karnaim (Gn 14 5), an abode of the 




CAPTURE OF THE CASTLE OP ASHKKLON BY RAMEBES II. 



11 60), by the Crusaders, and by Saladin. Herod 
the Great was born there, and built it up (Jos. Wars, 
1,2111). Its name seems to have been derived 
from a characteristic product, a kind of onion, which 
grew there, called shallot, or escallot, whence Ash- 
kelon. Its inhabitants were called Ashkelonites 
(Jos 133, Eshkalonites AV). G. L. R. 

ASHKENAZ, ash'ke-naz. See ETHNOGRAPHY 
AND ETHNOLOGY, 11. 

ASHNAH, ash'na (H^rtf, 'ashnah): The name of 
two cities in Judah (Jos 1.5 33, 43), not yet identi- 
fied. E. E. N. 

ASHPENAZ, ash'pe-naz (?i5!y8, 'ashp'nitz): 
Chief of the eunuchs of Nebuchadrezzar (Dan 
1 3). E. E. N. 



Rephaim at the time of the invasion of Palestine by 
Chedorlaomer of Elam and his vassals. Eusebius 
and Jerome speak of two places bearing the latter 
name, five Roman miles apart, in the Decapoh's. 
One of these may be the modern Tell Ashtarah, 21 
m. E. of the Lake of Galilee (see Map I, H 4). There 
is also a Tell Ashari, 5 m. to the N. of the former. 
Other sites have also been suggested for one or the 
other. It is not known what sense was borne by 
Karnaim as an epithet of Ashtaroth (of which Ash- 
teroth is merely the construct form), nor is it clear 
what was the force here of the plural form of the 
name of the goddess. Similar place-names have 
been found in Egyptian lists relating to Palestine 
and in the Amarna tablets. Be-eshterah, probably 
for Beth-eshterah, is mentioned in Jos 21 27 as a Levit- 
ical city, and apparently as equivalent to Ashtaroth 



Aahterathite 
Asia Minor 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



60 



of I Ch 6 71. The coincidence of the form with Tell 
Ashtarah (see above) is worthy of attention. 

J. F. McC. 

ASHTERATHITE, ash'tg-rath-oit (VT/Tf ? 'ash- 
frdlln), 'man of Ashteroth': The gentilic of Ash- 
toreth, the home of Uzzia, one of David's heroes (I 
Ch 11 44). E. E. N. 

ASHTEROTH-KARNAIM, ash'te-reth-kflr-nS'- 
im. See ASHTAROTH. 

ASHTORETH, ash'to-reth. See SEMITIC RE- 
LIGION, 14. 

ASHUR, ash'Or. See ASHHUR. 

ASHURITES, ash'Or-aits ("jl^, 'Ushuri): In 
IIS29 the Massoretic text reads "Ashurites" in 
the enumeration of districts subject to Ishbosheth. 
This is perhaps a textual error for "Geshurites" (so 
Vulg. and Syr.), the Aramean people N. of Gilead, 
or, more probably, for " Asherites" (so the Targum), 
i.e., the Israelites N. of the plain of Esdraelon. In 
Ezk276 the AV rendering "company of Ashurites" 
is wrong. The correct Heb. reading bith'ashshunm 
means "in boxwood" (or some similar wood), as in 
RV. E. E. N. 

ASHVATH, ash'vath (njp, 'ashwath): A de- 
scendant of Asher (I Ch 7 33). 

ASIA. See ASIA MINOR, 2. 



ASIA MINOR 

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS 



1. General Introductory 

Description 

2. Asia 

3. Bithynia 

4. Cappadocia 

5. Cilicia 

6. Galatia 

7. Lycaonia 



8. Lycia 

9. Lydia 

10. Mysia 

11. Pamphylia 

12. Phrygia 

13. Pisidia 

14. Pontus 



The meeting-place of the nations, and the scene 
of great struggles between the East and the West, 
was inhabited in prehistoric times by 
I. General the Hittites, whose descendants were 
Introduc- later known by the Greeks as "White 
toryDe- Syrians." The Hittites have left traces 
scription. of cities, palaces, rock-sculptures from 
Pteria to Carchemish. They had a 
system of writing and worshiped the Asiatic god- 
dess or patroness of sexual instinct. True marriage 
was unknown, girls gained dowries by prostitution, 
which was a religious exercise and respectable. De- 
scent was reckoned from the mother. The Hittites 
built roads, and their road-system was inherited by 
the Persians (see the 'royal road,' under Lycaonia, 
| 7, below). The Phrygians and Bithynians began 
to invade A. M. in the second half of the second mil- 
lennium B.C. The Phrygians settled first in Troas, 
then advanced to the Smyrna region, then to the 
interior, where Midas-town became the capital. 
Here are found indelible traces of Phrygian art and 
civilization, in the rock-cut city and tombs of the 
kings (Midas, Gordius) who greatly impressed the 



Greeks. The invasions of the Cimmerians (8th and 
7th cent. ) crushed the Phrygians. The Lydian king- 
dom, which became independent of Phrygia about 
716 B.C., and lasted to about 546 B.C., was in con- 
stant intercourse with the Greeks. The Lydians 
were great traders and amassed fabulous wealth 
(Lydia, 9, below). Greek colonies, founded every- 
where along the Asiatic seaboard (8th cent)., brought 
Greek civilization to A. M., which sent back litera- 
ture (Homer, Epos), art, and philosophy to Greece. 
The colonies, weakened by luxury and intermarriage 
with Asiatics, were conquered by Croesus (568 B.C.), 
then, along with Lydia, by the Persians (546 B.C.). 
Unassimilated by the Persians, they remained Greek 
with Greek governors under Persian satraps. The 
Ionian Revolt (500 B.C.) proved unsuccessful, but, 
owing to the intervention of Athens, brought about 
the Persian wars. Alexander destroyed the Persian 
Empire (333-331 B.C.), and under his successors 
A. M. was the scene of struggles for supremacy. The 
kingdom of Pergamum, founded in 283 B.C., was 
celebrated for its art and letters, great library, and 
the invention of parchment. Its ruins are magnifi- 
cent. Attalus III bequeathed the kingdom to the 
Romans (133 B.C.). The Gauls under Brennus in- 
vaded Greece and A. M. (to Syria), but were defeated 
by Attalus I (230 B.C.) and settled in Galatia (below, 
6). Seleucid kings founded many cities in A. M. 
Their power was broken in 191 B.C. when A. M. 
passed under Roman control (Asia, 2, below). The 
Mithridatic wars by Lucullus (74-71 B.C.) and the 
conquest of the Armenians and Cilician pirates by 
Pompey (67 B.C.) completed the conquest by Rome. 
The Roman provinces were: Asia, Cilicia, Lycia- 
Pamphylia, Bithynia-Pontus, Galatia, and Cappa- 
docia. Christianity spread with amazing rapidity 
in Central 'A. M., and fixed the general use of the 
Greek language. 

The Roman Provincia Asia (Ac 16 6, 19 10, 22, 26; 
I Co 16 19, etc.), organized after the death of Attalus 
III of Pergamum in 133 B.C., com- 
2. Asia, prised Mysia, Lydia (probably Caria 
also), and the islands of the seaboard 
including Astypalaea and Amorgos. Phrygia Major, 
temporarily annexed in 116 B.C., was not perma- 
nently incorporated until 49 B.C. Sulla reorganized 
the province in 84 B.C. (the Sullan Era) ; In imperial 
times A. belonged to the Senate, which elected as 
annual governor a consularis with the title of pro- 
consul (residence at first Pergamum, then Ephcsus), 
under whom were three legati and one qiuzstor. The 
kingdom of Attalus had included many free cities 
(exempted from taxation). The Romans reduced 
the number gradually under varying pretexts, until 
Ilium alone preserved libertas and immunitas, i.e., 
the jus Italicum. A. was divided into nine judicial 
districts (conventus): Laodicea ad Lycum, Syn- 
nada, Apamea, Alabanda, Sardis, Smyrna, Ephesus, 
Adramyttium, and Pergamum, though courts were 
occasionally held elsewhere. A. was further divided 
(144 B.C.) into 44 regianes (city districts), responsi- 
ble for the taxes (a tenth in kind, exclusive of 
customs duties and taxes on pasture-lands), which 
were farmed out to Roman knights, until Caesar intro- 
duced a fixed tax, less than a third of the former tax, 
but producing 16,000 talents annually. Under the 



61 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Aabterathite 
Asia Minor 



emperors each city paid a stipulated tax based on the 
size and productivity of its district. The procurator 
Augusti Provincia- Aniin was the tax commissioner 
for the whole province; in each city he was repre- 
sented by an exactor republican, to whom ten citizens 
were personally responsible for the city's taxes. 

The cities of A. retained their native institutions 
(usually timocratical). But only citizens had a 
voice in the eKK\r/<riai and magistrates alone might 
introduce bills. The annually elected /SovXij, or coun- 
cil, survived. The ytpovtrla, or Senate, had no po- 
litical significance.. The \ayurrai (chosen by the 
emperor) had charge of the city's finances. The 
governor appointed the policemen, from a list sub- 
mitted by the jSovXg. Tribal unions (xoivd) for the 
worship of the tribal god flourished everywhere; the 
KOIVOV 'Atrias (Commune Asia') instituted games and 
cared especially for the worship of Roma and AUQUS- 
tux: its delegates met yearly, wherever there were 
provincial temples, to offer prayers for the emperor, 
the Senate, and the Roman people, and to deliberate 
on matters affecting the whole province; it might 
criticize the proconsul and appeal to Rome ; its presi- 
dent (called ap%ifp(i>s '\crias because of the pre- 
dominating cult character of the KOIVOV 'Atrlat in 
the imperial state religion) alone originated bills. 
The games held on these occasions were also called 
KOIVOV 'A<rlas, These unions ceased to exist when 
Diocletian (297 A.D.) divided A. into seven prov- 
inces. The Srifiot were individual cities, while an 
f 9ms was a union of cities. 

A. suffered greatly during the civil wars, especially 
at the hands of Antony, but recovered rapidly and 
was immensely wealthy during the first two cen- 
turies of our era. Her woolen industries and dyeing 
establishments (rugs and seamless garments) were 
famous, as also were her banks (cf. Rev. 13). 

The boundaries of Bithynia (Ac 167; I Pll) 
varied much from time to time, but roughly speaking 
it was separated from Asia on the S. 
3. Bi- by the Rliyndacus and Sangarius, from 
thynia. Pontus on the E. by the Parthenius. 
In general mountainous, it has several 
broad plains and one large river (Sangarius). It 
still abounds in forests. In the Argonaut myth 
B. is inhabited by Bebrycians, who were dis- 
placed and absorbed by Thynian and Bithynian 
Thracians at a time unknown to history. The Thra- 
cians crossed the Bosporus gradually and maintained 
their language and customs in their new home. The 
name Bithynii, alone used in historical times, is an 
expansion of Thynii. The Bithynians appear occa- 
sionally in early history as an independent, warlike, 
inhospitable people. In Persian times they were 
still under native chieftains, whose power grew grad- 
ually after the death of Alexander, when Zipoetes 
defeated Lysimachus (297 B.C.) and Antiochus 
(280 B.C.). His son, Nicomedes I, hired Gallic 
mercenaries, subdued all Bithynia, founded Nico- 
media (264 B.C.), and extended his kingdom. His 
son Ziaelas and his grandson Prusias I continued his 
policy. Prusias sided with Rome against Antiochus, 
but Rome failed to confirm him in his possessions. 
In the consequent war Hannibal led the Bithynian 
troops, but had to surrender Phrygia Epictetus. 
Prusias II, a weakling, was humbled by Rome, and 



conquered by Attalus II, who placed Nicomedes II 
on the throne. His son, Nicomedes III, was rein- 
stated by the Romans, to whom he bequeathed his 
kingdom in 74 B.C. 

Besides Priapus, the native god of the Bebrycians, 
the Bithynians worshiped Zeus on mountain-tops 
under the name of Papas, the Phrygian Attis, Ares, 
and the Thracian Bendis. B. was organized as a 
Roman province (65 B.C.) by M. luncus, governor 
of Asia, but after the annihilation of Mithridatcs by 
Pompey (66 B.C.) Pontus was annexed to B. (Pon- 
tus et Bithynia, 62 B.C.). B. belonged to the Senate, 
and was governed in imperial times by a proconsul 
of pretorian rank. Both B. and Pontus retained 
their KOIVO, presided over by the dp^upevs Hovrov 
and the apxitptiis Bti&vvias. The native legis- 
lative bodies fiov\al, exfcXijaiaj, apxovra, remained in 
power under the Romans, who, however, gave them 
a timocratical character (Asia, 2, above). 

Cappadocia, an Old Persian word katpa-tuka ('land 
of Tucha'), applied by Persians to the country NE. 
of the Taurus to the Euxine and from 
4. Cappa- Lake Tatta to the Euphrates. The As- 
docia. Syrians called all C. Tabal. The inhabi- 
tants were also called Syrians, or White 
Syrians, as contradistinguished from the darker- 
hued natives of Syria (perhaps a folk-etymology). 
The Cappadocians were Aryans, though probably 
there were Semitic settlements in C. The country 
was partially conquered by the Assyrians, probably 
by Tiglath-pileser I (1115-1100 B.C.), certainly by 
Shalmaneser II (859-825 B.C.), Sargon (722-705 
B.C.), and Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.). The Per- 
sians divided C. into two satrapies, which ultimately 
became kingdoms: Cappadocia ad Taurum and Cap- 
padocia ad Pontum (later simply Pontus). The An- 
titaurus and the canon of the Sarus divide C. into 
two halves: in the western half Mt. Arga;us rises to a 
height of 13,100 ft., in Strabo's time a smoldering, 
but now extinct, volcano. The whole surrounding 
country is volcanic. There are deep beds of pumice- 
stone overlain by lava, worn by erosion into lofty 
cones (excavated into dwellings; the canon bluffs 
are also excavated into thousands of chambers). 
Many of these cones have Doric facades (temples), 
while others display Byzantine architecture 
(churches). The inhabitants are still troglodytes. 
The whole region has but little water and few trees 
(though it is the home of the apricot), and was always 
thinly populated. In earliest times Tyana was the 
chief city of western C. The plains of Tyana and the 
Halys region are famous for fat-tailed sheep and for 
horses (light roadsters, race-horses in Byzantine 
times). Mazaca, residence of the Cappadocian 
kings, later named Eusebia, was refounded by 
Claudius and renamed Caesarea (still Kaisariye). 
C. became a Roman frontier province in 1 7 A. D. and 
was united with Armenia Minor in 72. Caesarea was 
captured by Sapor in 268 A.D. It then contained 
400,000 inhabitants, many of whom were massacred. 
It was always prosperous, because it lay on the an- 
cient and modern trade-routes. It became Christian 
at an early period (I P 1 1). To the Church C. fur- 
nished Gregory of Nazianzus and St. Basil. N. 
of the Halys lies Pteria, a Hittite capital, on the 
Persian royal road from Sardis to Susa. Here are 



Asia Minor 



A STAMiMM) 1UBLK DKTHiXMJV 



great rock sculptures. Pteria was supplanted later 
by Taviuiii. a trade-emporium and renter of the 
Roman road-system. The eastern half of ('. was 
known as Melitene, whose earliest capital, also 
Melitcne (Assyrian, Melittu) on the Euphrates, was 
the center of an Assyrian and Roman road-system. 
The later capital of the Cappadocian priest-kings 
was at Comana Aurea, in a narrow gorge. It was 
tin' seat of the impure worship of the great Asiatic 
goddess of fertility, here known as Ma. Six thou- 
sand htcrixlinili served in her temple, practically as 
religious prostitutes and suffered no disgrace by 
such service. 

By Cilicia was usually meant a country in south- 
eastern Asia Minor, bounded on the E. by the Ama- 
nus range, on the N. and the W. by the 

5. Cilicia. Taurus range (Lycaonia, Isauria); but 
in earliest times C. (Assyrian, Khilaku) 
lay N. of the Taurus range, extending N. to beyond 
the Halys River (Pteria) and E. to the Euphrates 
(Melitene). Cilicia proper ('The Plain') was always 
intensely fertile, populous, and wealthy. It is well 
watered by the rivers Sarus, Pyramus, and Cydnus. 
The coast is marshy. The climate is intensely hot in 
summer, very malarious, and deadly to travelers. 
The vegetation is rank (cotton, sugar-cane, tobacco, 
dyestuffs, sesame, wheat, barley), with semitropical 
trees (myrtle, oleander, fig, palm, orange, lemon, 
citron). The marshes pasture great herds of cattle 
and sheep. Western C., because mountainous, was 
called 'Rugged Cilicia' (Tpa^fta, Tpaxa>Ts). Its 
chief river is the Calycadnus, where the Emperor 
BarbsroBsa was drowned. 

C. (Assyrian, Que) was conquered by Assyria in 
834 B.C. At that time Tarsus (Assyrian, Tarzi) 
was its capital. Que was invaded by people from 
Khilaku, who changed the name of the country from 
Que to Cilicia, after their own name. C. became 
an independent kingdom in 607 B.C., under native 
princes, and was not conquered by the Persians till 
c. 400 B.C. After experiencing many vicissitudes 
C. became, with Lycia, a Roman province, 100 B.C. 
It was reorganized by Pompey, 66 B.C., after his 
defeat of Mithridates, and the pirates whom he set- 
tled at Soli (Pompeiopolis). In 22 B.C. it became an 
imperial province. Rugged Cilicia was long inde- 
pendent, under native kings, whose residence was at 
Olba. In 137 A.D., it formed one province, with 
Lycaonia and Isauria, but was finally constituted a 
province restricted to its natural limits by Vespa- 
sian, with Tarsus as capital. C. is difficult of access 
by land: on the N. the Cilician gates (a narrow crev- 
asse-like cleft in Taurus 83 m. long) constitute a 
dangerous, easily defended passage; on the E. are 
the Syro-Cilician gates and the Amanic gates, less 
difficult than the Cilician gates. Under Seleucid 
kings many Greeks settled in Tarsus, which became 
a center of trade and the seat of a school of philos- 
ophy. (See TARSUS.) 

The Gauls, or Celts, appeared on the Adriatic 

coast about 300 B.C., and from 280 B.C. distracted 

the Roman world under Belgius and 

6. Galatia. Brennus. After the repulse of Brennus 

at Thermopylae-Delphi, remnants of 

the mutinous army under Lutarius and Leonnorius 

crossed the Hellespont (278 B.C.) at the invitation of 



Nicomedes I (278-250 B.C.; seeBithynia, 3, above), 
helped him subdue Hithynia, then settled in Lydia, 
Mysia, and Phrygia, whence they harassed west- 
ern Asia Minor as far as Syria, which paid them trib- 
ute. They were defeated by Aiitiochus I (281-261 
B.C.) in one great battle (hence his title Soter, 'Sa- 
vior' [f'fXa<raf]). They were afterward defeated by 
Attalus I (about 235 B.C.), who confined them to a 
part of Phrygia (from I'esMims to Tavium), thence- 
forth known as (lalatia (from rXXot, TaXdroi)- 
They were divided into three tribes: Tolistobogii (in 
the Pessinus region), Tectosages (in the Ancyra re- 
gion), Trocmi (in the Tavium region); each tribe 
was subdivided into four tctrarchies; the twelve 
tetrarclis were controlled by a Council of 300 to 
judge cases of murder. This pasture-region famous 
for its Angora goats and cats suited the Gallic pas- 
toral nomads, who prospered, and, though defeated, 
were independent and continued to be troublesome. 
They became amalgamated with natives, and adopt- 
ed the Greek language so rapidly though still speak- 
ing Celtic in the time of Jerome that the Romans 
called them Gallo-Graci. They fought with Antio- 
ehus the Great against Rome and after his defeat (180 
B.C.) they were conquered by Manlius, who placed 
them under the suzerainty of Pergamum (q.v.). In 
65 B.C. the tetrarch Deiotarus, Cicero's friend, was 
aided by Pompey in return for services rendered 
against Mithridates in suppressing the other eleven 
tetrarchs; Pompey made Deiotarus king of G. He 
died about 40 B.C., when Antony made Amyntas, 
secretary and general of Deiotarus, king of G., Pi- 
sidia, and parts of Lycaonia and Pamphylia in 36 B.C. 
Amyntas annexed Derbe in 35 B.C. At his death 
(25 B.C.) G. became a Roman province, with Ancyra 
as the residence of the pretorian legate. This Pro- 
vincia Galatia comprised G. proper (the kingdom of 
Amyntas), and included portions of Phrygia, Lyca- 
onia (Iconium, Lystra, Derbe), Isauria, and western 
Pisidia to the Pamphylian frontier! Further terri- 
tory was annexed to the Provincia Galatia from time 
to time: the principality of Deiotarus Philadelphus 
(western Paphlagonia) in 7 B.C., Sebastopolis in 2 
B.C., Comana Pontica (Pontus Galaticus) in 35 A.D. 
All this was the country known by Paul as Gtilatia 
(see GALATIANS, EP. TO THE, 4). Pontus Pole- 
moniacus was annexed in 63 A.D., Cappadoeia and 
Armenia Minor in 72 A.D. About 72 A.D. the Pisid- 
ian part of G. was given by Vespasian to Lycia- 
Pamphylia, under a pretorian legate, while the 
governor of G. was a consular legate. Trajan 
(106) divided it into two provinces: (1) G. proper, 
Paphlagonia, Lycaonia, and parts of Phrygia, and 
Pisidia united under a pretorian legate. (2) Cappa- 
doeia, Armenia Minor, Pontus (Galaticus, Polemoni- 
acus, Cappadocius) under a consular legate. In 137 
A.D. Lycaonia and Isauria were transferred to 
Provincia Cilicia. Between 386 A.D. and 395 A.D. 
Theodosius divided G. into Prima (capital, Ancyra) 
and Secunda, or Salutaris (capital, Pessinus). G. is 
now famous for its mohair. The inhabitants still 
bear traces in their blue eyes and red hair of their 
Celtic descent. 

Lycaonia was situated on a high table-land (3,000 
ft.) N. of the Taurus range. Its boundaries fluc- 
tuated from time to time according to its varying 



(Ci 



A STANDARD BIHLK 1 >HTI< i\ \I!V 



Ar,i;i Minor 



political fortunes, but, in general L. was bounded by 
Cappadocia, Phrygi:i, I'isidia, Isauria, and C'ilicia. 
The northern part, in wliich Iconiuni is 
7. Lycaonia. situated , is a vast, treeless, waterless 
(wells reach water at a depth of 20-30 
ft.) plain or steppe (frequent mirages); the rivers 
that flow into this great land-loeked basin disap- 
pear gradually and completely; the soil contains 
much salt and in places is semi-barren, but in gen- 
eral suitable lor pasturing vast herds of fat-tailed 
sheep, of which Amyntas, King of Galatia (30-2.) 
B.C.), had 300 herds. The Lycaonians were wild, 
warlike border-men, who maintained their inde- 
pendence in Persian times, but were conquered by 
the Macedonians. Their ethnical affinities are un- 
known. Luke's mention of the "speech of Lycao- 
nia'' (Ac 14 11) means only that they did not speak 
< heck in his day, and does not prove that the Lyca- 
onians were neither Semitic nor Indo-European, as 
has been assumed. 

L. belonged to the Seleucids till 190 B.C., when it 
was given to Pergamum. In 39 B.C. Polemon was 
made king of L. and of a part of Cilicia by Antony, 
but was transferred to the kingdom of Pontus in 38 
B.C. In 35 B.C. Amyntas, King of Galatia ( 6, 
above) defeated Antipater Derbetes, robber prince of 
southern L. (see DERBE), and annexed his princi- 
pality to Galatia. After the death of Amyntas (25 
B.C.), most of L. passed with the kingdom of Ga- 
latia into Roman hands, and along with Galatia 
proper, parts of Phrygia, and western Pisidia to the 
Pamphylian frontier, formed the Provincia Galatia 
(see Galatia, 6, above). 

The chief cities of L. were Iconium, Lystra, Derbe, 
Laodicea Combusts, Laranda, Parlais. The whole 
region S. of Iconium abounds in Christian inscrip- 
tions and ruins of Christian churches. The Hittite 
road from Pteria, via the Cilician Gates, to Tarsus 
(the entire Hittite road -system: Sardis - Pteria- 
Cilician Gates-Susa was known to Herodotus as the 
"Royal Road") left L. to one side, though much of 
her exports passed through the Cilician Gates. But 
other roads led through the Tarsus passes direct 
from L. to the seaboard at Anemurium, Celenderis, 
Seleueia, along which the wheat, wool, and salt, the 
chief products of L., were transported to the sea. 
Said Pasha's new road to Seleueia follows the line of 
one of these roads. Salt is made by crudest proc- 
esses from the water of Lake Tatta (Tuz Giiil) in 
sufficient quantities to supply all interior Asia 
Minor. 

Lycia (Ac 27 5) was bounded by Caria, Phrygia, 

Pisidia, Pamphylia, and the sea. The country is 

very mountainous, Mts. Cragus and 

8. Lycia. Massacytus being over 10,000 ft. high, 
Mt. Solyma (the 'ladder'), between 
L. and Pamphylia, 8,000 ft. The views from such 
alpine higlilands are the finest in Asia Minor. 
The mountain valleys are fertile. There is only one 
broad valley, that of the Xanthus, distinguished 
for its fertility and its many cities. The ancient 
name of L. was Milyas, which persisted only in the 
northern highlands. 

The first inhabitants of L., known as Solymi, who 
were conquered by the Tramili (Tremil<r, Termilce), 
were famed among the Greeks as builders of Cyclo- 



pean walls in ( irceee; I hey have left proof of their cun- 
ning in sculptures and rock-cut tombs which imitate 
wood construction. The only mention of writing by 
Homer is in connection with Bellerophon and L. The 
numerous inscriptions in the Lycian language are 
written in an alphabet, peculiar to L., but bused on 
the Doric alphabet. Not any of them are very old 
and they do not settle the nationality of the Lycians, 
though they prove them to have been Aryans. It is 
not known why the < .reeks called this |>eople Lycians 
(Lcka in the Egyptian inscriptions). In Homer Lyc- 
ians (Sarpedon, Glaucus) appear as allies of the Tro- 
jans. The Lycians defended their freedom success- 
fully against Cro2sus, but were conquered by the 
Persians under Harpagus after a heroic resistance, 
when the Xanthians cremated themselves and their 
property rather than surrender. The Lycians joined 
the Ionian revolt, were conquered, and became a Per- 
sian satrapy. They sent 50 ships to Xerxes' fleet, 
then joined the Athenian maritime league. They 
readily submitted to Alexander. For a time they 
belonged nominally to the Seleucids of Syria, but 
practically from Alexander to 189 B.C. L. was an in- 
dependent confederation of 23 republics (70 cities ), at 
whose head stood the Lyciarch, assisted by a general 
assembly, held at Xanthus, in which the six chief 
cities (Xanthus, Patara, Pinara, Olympus, Myra, 
Tlos) had two votes each. The internal affairs of 
each city were managed by a council and general 
assembly (see 2, above). In 189 B.C. L. was 
given to Rhodes by the Romans, though it con- 
tinued practically free. It is uncertain when L. be- 
came a Roman province. It espoused the cause 
of Caesar and was conquered by Brutus, when the 
inhabitants of Xanthus again cremated themselves. 
L. was given freedom by Antony, but in 43 A.D. it 
was again a Roman province, under a legate ; about 
72 A.D. Vespasian added Pamphylia to L., thus in- 
stituting the Provincia Lycia-Pamphylia, under a 
pretorian legate, which also included the western 
end of Pisidia, that hitherto belonged to Galatia 
(see 6, above). In Roman times L. had become 
thoroughly Hellenized in speech and manners, and 
her people were very prosperous, as the remains of 
magnificent theaters and other buildings attest. 

Lydia was named from Lydus, son of the sun-god 
Attys. ' In Assyrian the Lydians were called Luddi 
(660 B.C.). The earliest Greek name 
9. Lydia. was Mreonia (in Homer, who calls its 
capital Hyde, afterward Sardis). The 
Greeks assigned two dynasties to L. in mythical 
times: Attyadse and Sandonida;, or Heraclida'. 
The Attyadae were descendants of Attys. Eusebius 
says that Sardis was taken by the Cimmerians 1078 
B.C., but as the Cimmerians did not appear till 
about 670 B.C., the Cimmerians of Eusebius were 
probably Hittites. With the decay of the Hittite 
Empire the second mythical Lydian dynasty came 
into power, the Sandonidce, so called because they 
were descendants of the god Sandon. The founder 
was Ninus, evidently a myth, because the Assyrians 
never crossed the Halys River prior to the times of 
Asshurbanipal; the same dynasty was called Herac- 
lida (from Heracles and Omphale) by the Greeks. 
It reigned for about 450 years, and was supplanted 
by the Mermnada in the person of Gyges about 690 



Asia Minor 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



64 



B.C. Henceforth the name L. wu uied exohnively, 

and the term Ma-onia was restricted to the "burnt" 
(volcanic) region of the upper Ilennus. During 
Gyges' reign the Cimmerian invasion took plaer. 
Asshurbanipal aided Gyges (lilil) n.r.) and therefore 
claimed suzerainty over L. Gyges was slain by the 
Cimmerians (652 B.C.). Ardys, Gyges' son, was 
tributary to Assyria. Alyattes (fourth Mermnad, 
612-503 B.C.) expelled the Cimmerians, destroyed 
the Phrygian Kmpire, and took the Greek cities of 
the seaboard, allowing them to retain their native 
institutions, though they paid tribute. He made L. 
great and wealthy. Alyattes' son Creesus con- 
quered all Asia Minor \V. of the llalys River (ex- 
cept Lycia). He became famous for his wealth (his 
gifts to Delphi alone aggregated $6,000,000). After 
ruling 15 years, he was conquered by Cyrus (546 
B.C.), who annexed L. to Persia, when Sardis became 
the western capital of the Persian Empire. The 
Lydians, who hitherto had been brave and warlike, 
were made effeminate by the Persians. They were 
natural merchants, devoted themselves to commerce, 
and became business mediaries between Asia and 
Greece. The ' Lydian market' was famous and fol- 
lowed every army. They manufactured costly gar- 
ments, rugs (Giordiz, Ushak), dyed woolen stuffs 
(madder, Turkey red), cast bronze, and were the first 
to coin money by stamping a rude ingot of electrum, 
which Crcesus replaced by gold and silver. They were 
musicians, and also kept the first inns. They grad- 
ually lost their nationality and adopted the Greek 
language. They inherited from the Hittitcs the 
nature-worship of Cybele (also called Ma and the 
Ephesian Diana [q.v.]) and the sun-god Attys, the 
sun-husband of Cybele (Semitic Tammuz = Greek 
Adonis), who mutilated himself and was therefore 
served by eunuch priests. His death by a boar 
meant that summer was slain by the boar-tusk of 
winter. 

Mt. Tmolus (6,000 ft. high) divides L. into two 
regions. Famous fertile plains are the Cilbian, 
Caystrian, and Hyrcanian. The rivers are the Ca- 
ystrus, Hermus (tributaries Cyllus, Cogamus, Pac- 
tolus). The Gygcean lake was noted; on its bank 
were the earliest settlements of the Lydians, who 
after their removal to Hyde-Sardis retained it as the 
great national cemetery, whose pyramidal grave 
monuments are still extant, among them the tomb 
of Alyattes (200 ft. high, 381 yards in diameter). 
After Alexander's death L. passed first to Antig- 
onus (about 320 B.C.). Later, Achaeus was King 
of Sardis (about 218 B.C.) until defeated by An- 
tiochus (214 B.C.). In 189 B.C. L. was given by the 
Romans to Eumenes, and at the death of Attalus 
III of Pergamum (133 B.C.) it passed to Rome and 
was incorporated into the Provinda Asia. The 
plains of L. are very fertile. In ancient times they 
produced wine and saffron. At present tobacco, 
cotton, famous melons, and Tchaoosh grapes are 
grown. 

The chief cities of L. were Sardis (the capital and 
the terminus of the Persian 'Royal Road'), Philadel- 
phia, Thyatira, Magnesia ad Sipylum, Hypa-pa. 
L. was Christianized at an early period as a result of 
the labors of Paul and his companions. 

Mysia, a country in the northwestern corner of 



Asia Minor, whose boundaries fluctuated from time 

to time, but, loosely speaking, was bounded by 

Lydia (Mt. Temnus), Phrygia, and 

10. Mysia. Bithynia (Mt. Olympus, 6,000 ft.). It 

was divided into Troas (probably the 
first settlement of the Thracian Briges, or Phryg- 
ians, on Asiatic soil), Phrygia Parvaon the Propon- 
tis (so named because subject to Plirygia when the 
Greeks were founding colonies), .<Eolis (Greek colo- 
nists), Teuthrania (Pergamum region), and M. 
proper, which in Lydian and Persian times was con- 
fined to the interior. The appellation Mysia was 
not applied to all this territory until Pergamenian 
and Roman times. The Mysians maintained their 
tribal independence under the Persian kings, though 
they were never really an independent nation. Their 
origin is not positively known, but they are thought 
to have been akin to the Lydians and Carians. 
Their language was a combination of Phrygian and 
Lydian. They appear first as allies of Troy. They 
were conquered successively by Crossus, by the Per- 
sians (nominally), and by Alexander, after whose 
death M. passed to the Seleucids till 189 B.C., when 
it was given by the Romans to Eumenes, King of 
Pergamum. When in 133 B.C. Attalus III be- 
queathed his kingdom to Rome M. became a part of 
the Provinda Asia ( 2, above). 

The interior of M. is a table-land, stepped by 
mountains running E. and W. It was once covered 
by forests, and had but few cities, but the whole sea- 
board was dotted with cities colonized by Greeks 
from EUca in ^Eolis to Cyzicus. The most impor- 
tant city of the interior was Pergamum ; among those 
on the coast were Cyzicus (on the Propontis, founded 
by Miletus), Lampacus, Abydus, Alexandria Troas, 
Assos, Adramyttium (now 6 m. inland), Myrina, 
lira. The most famous mountains were Ida (5,750 
ft.) in Troas, and Olympus (7,600 ft.). The largest 
rivers were the Rhyndacus and Macestus, but the 
most famous were the Scamander, Simoeis, Grani- 
cus, Caicus. The inhabitants of M. were Phrygians, 
Trojans, jEolian Greeks, and Mysians proper in the 
interior: the latter were a pastoral folk, who played 
but a small role in history. 

Pamphylia, a name applied originally to the level 

coastal plain lying between Lycia and Cilicia, S. of the 

Taurus Mountains (Pisidia). The plain 

11. Pam- is a chalky soil, being a deposit made 
phylia. by rivers, with carbonate of lime, 

which here, as in many places in Asia 
Minor and Greece, is rapidly discharged, forming 
land. The plain is about 75 in. long by 30 m. wii'e. 
At an early period Greek colonies were founded at 
Olbia (afterward Attalia) and Side, whose sphere of 
influence was extended inland to Perga, Sillenus, and 
Aspendus. The Pamphylians were never independ- 
ent and never made their mark in history; they seem 
to have been an admixture of aborigines (probably 
of the same stock as the Cilicians ) and Greek colonist s ; 
their language and institutions also were partly Greek, 
partly barbarian. P. shared the varying fortunes of 
Asia Minor; conquered by Alyattes, King of Lydia 
(612-563), then successively by Persians, Macedo- 
nians, Seleucids. After the defeat of Antiochus III 
(190 B.C.) P. was presented by the Romans to At- 
talus II, King of Pergamum, who made Attalia 






A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Alia Minor 



(formerly Olbia) the capital of P. It passed, by 
the will of Attalus III (133 B.C.), to Rome, but it 
is not known just when P. was united with Cilicia 
into a Roman province; it is known, however, that 
Cicero was governor of Cilicia-Pamphylia-Cyprus. 
For a short time P. was a part of the kingdom of 
Amyntas of (ialatia (36-25 B.C.). It formed a proc- 
uratorial province from 25 to 50 A.D. In 74 A.D. 
Vespasian united Lycia and P. into one province, to 
which ho addod the western end of Pisidia, the moun- 
tainous country hitherto belonging to Galatia. Both 
Cilicians and Pamphylians were notorious pirates, 
whose chief center and slave-market was at Side. 
These pirates were suppressed by Pompey (67 B.C.) 
anil settled at Soli (Pompeiopolis) in Cilician terri- 
tory. The chief cities were Olbia (Attalia), Side, 
Perga, Sillenus, Aspcndus (excellent theater). Fa- 
mous rivers were the Eurymedon (the scene of 
Cimon's naval battle), the Cestrus (whose ultimate 
source is the Egherdir lake, whose water flows under 
the Taurus Mountains, and rises as the Cestrus, a 
fact discovered by the present writer), Melas, Catar- 
rhactes (or Duden Su, 'sinking river' it sinks twice, 
a phenomenon common in Asia Minor and Greece). 
In winter the Circassians now bring herds of horses 
from mountains of Paphlagonia to pasture in plains 
of Pamphylia. In summer the climate is deadly, 
giving rise to pernicious fever. 

The original boundaries of Phrygia were vague, but 
in prehistoric times it included the whole western in- 
terior of Asia Minor, extending through 
12. Propontis to the Hellespont (Phrygia. 

Phrygia. Parva). The Greeks considered the 
Phrygians the primeval people, who 
spoke the original language of man, while her kings 
were peers of gods (Tantalus). The Phrygian king- 
dom supplanted a part of the Hittite Empire (the 
Hittite road, afterward the 'Royal Road' of the Per- 
sians, passed near 'Midas-town'). P. was an inde- 
pendent kingdom for a long time under Midas- 
Gordius. The Cimmerians, 680-670 B.C. (Midas 
committed suicide) held P. for about 80 years. 
They were expelled by Alyattes (590-585 B.C.), who 
annexed P. to Lydia, when the Halys became the 
boundary between Lydia and Media (585 B.C.). 
After the fall of Sardis (546 B.C.) P. was incor- 
porated into the Persian Empire. After its con- 
quest by Alexander it fell to Antigonus. After the 
battle of Ipsus (301 B.C.), it belonged to the Seleu- 
cids of Syria. The quartering of Gauls in P. by At- 
talus I brought ruin to the country (see 6, above). 
The western part of P. was annexed to Pergamum 
in 189 (Phrygia Epictetus). It passed, by the will 
of Attalus III (133), to Rome, and was incorporated 
(120, after the death of Mithridates) into the prov- 
ince of Asia ( 2, above). 

The Phrygians were akin to the Greeks, who 
thought them akin to the Armenians. They prob- 
ably came from Europe via the Hellespont to Asia 
Minor, though some may have come overland via 
Armenia-Cappadocia. They were most famous in 
prehistoric times (Homer, Troas, Sipylus, Sinope) 
and made a tremendous impression on the Greek 
mind (cf. Midas, Gordius, Marsyas, Olympus, the 
flute). Their religion, too, had a great influence on 
the Greeks; their chief deities were Cybele (Motor 



Kubile [Phrygian designation of Cybele], the 'Asiatic- 
Mother,' associated with the nature-worship of pro- 
creative power in animals and plants) and hi.-r son- 
husband the sun-god Sabazius-AUys (i.e., Tammuz, 
the Greek Adonis). The sun-god slain by a boar rep- 
resents summer slain by winter. Therefore, his au- 
tumnal festivals were sad, accompanied by orgiastic 
rites and self-mutilations, while in his spring festivals 
frenzied joy prevailed at the reappearance of the god, 
expressed by orgiastic dances, bacchanalian wander- 
ings in forest to the music of the flute which was 
therefore banished by Plato and Aristotle from their 
republics. There was no real marriage, only tem- 
porary unions. Women gained dowries by prosti- 
tution before the deity, without losing caste, there- 
fore descent was reckoned from the mother. These 
orgiastic, obscene rites were adopted by and main- 
tained a hold on common Greeks and Romans till a 
late period. Meantime P. was converted to Chris- 
tianity at an early period (entirely Christian by 300) 
and abandoned what she had passed on to the Greco- 
Romans. But their early training in mysticism 
bore fruits in Montanism, which was strenuously 
opposed by Abercius, the great Phrygian saint (a 
real personage). 

P. is a high plateau, given chiefly to agriculture 
(now wheat and opium) and sheep. The Phrygians 
invented not only the flute but farming implements 
and wagons. Industries also flourished; especially 
embroideries, rugs (still made in the Giordiz-Ushak 
region). A rug-pattern appears on the tomb of 
Midas. Monuments of Phrygian art are abundant at 
'Midas-town,' on the tombs of the kings, on the 
Acropolis, and at the fortified town hewn in the 
rock (Pidgmish Kale, 'digged castle'). They used 
the Greek alphabet, but the inscriptions are not fully 
deciphered. 

Pisidia was a district of southern Asia Minor. Its 
boundaries fluctuated much at different times, es- 
pecially in the western end. Loosely 
13. Pisidia. speaking, it was bounded by Isauria, 
Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lycia, Caria, and 
Phrygia. The nationality of the Pisidians (first 
mentioned by Xenophon) is uncertain. Some re- 
gard them as Milyans (see Lycia, 8, above), others 
as Solymi, but Strabo says that the language of the 
Pisidians was distinct from that of the Solymi and 
Lydians. They were brave, wild, lawless, liberty- 
loving border-men, who made frequent predatory 
incursions into neighboring territory. Though under 
the Persians they nominally belonged to the Lydian 
satrapy, they were never really conquered. They 
offered a stubborn resistance to Alexander and con- 
tinued to be governed by native dynasts, even when 
nominally a part of a Roman province. Indeed, up 
to 189 B.C. part of the western end of P. formed a 
separate principality (capital Cibyra). It belonged 
nominally to the Seleucids till 189 (the eastern end 
till 102). Under the Pergamenian kings it was 
united with Pamphylia. In 36 B.C. Antony made 
Amyntas (former secretary and general of Deiotarus) 
king of Galatia, western Pisidia, and parts of Lyca- 
onia and Pamphylia. At the death of Amyntas (25 
B.C.) his kingdom (including western P.) became a 
Roman province with Ancyra as the residence of a 
pretorian legate. In 44 A.D. the western end of P. 



Asia Minor 
Assyria 



\ STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



was added to Phryiria a.s part, of Asia ( 2, above), 
and in 72 A.D. to Lyeia-Pamphylia. (See also Gala- 
tia, 6, above.) 

In northern P. lies Lake Egherdir (30 m. long, 
3,000 ft. above the sea), whose waters sink under the 
Taurus Mts. and rise beneath Baulo as the Oestrus. 
Other important rivers rising in P. and flowing 
through deep narrow valleys are: the Catarrhactes 
(Duden Su), the Eurymedon, and the Melas. P. is 
a rugged, impassable, alpine country containing the 
highest, peaks of the Taurus range with thrilling 
scenery, and a salubrious climate on its elevated 
table-lands. The memory of Paul's visit (see AN- 
TIOCH, 1) is still preserved in a village named Baulo 
(corruption of Paulus), on a lofty plateau above the 
source of the Oestrus. The name was given to the 
place probably because Paul rested some time in the 
invigorating climate of Baulo, with its sublime views 
(to cure malaria, the "thorn in the flesh"? See 
also PAUL, 1). P., strangely enough, had many 
important wealthy cities. The chief ones were: An- 
tioch (q.v.), Sagalassus (on an elevated plateau at 
the foot of an overhanging mountain), Crenma (on 
very top of a lofty, inaccessible crag ; streets still clear 
and distinct), Termessus, Selge, and Pednelissus (a 
fortress on the Lycian frontier). 

Educated Pisidians adopted the Greek language, 
while the peasantry clung to the native tongue and 
had but a smattering of Greek. P. contains many 
magnificent ruins and Greek and Latin inscriptions, 
chiefly of the Roman period. 

Pontus means 'sea.' It is not an ethnic but a ter- 
ritorial designation, applied after Alexander to the 
country lying between the River Halys 
14. Pontus. and Colchis, part of which originally be- 
longed to Cappadocia (first known as 
Cappadocia ad Pontum, i.e., 'toward the sea,' and 
then simply Pontus for short); while the rest re- 
mained independent under native dynasts. From 
the 4th cent. B.C. P. was nominally Persian, one of 
whose satraps, Ariobarzanes, assumed the title of 
king, but the real importance of P. begins with the 
kings of Persian stock named Mithridates. Mithri- 
dates I (337) was expelled from Bithynia and killed 
by Antigonus (302). Mithridates II (302-266) 
extended his kingdom from Amastris-Ancyra to 
the Tibareni. Mithridates III was busied in fighting 
the invading Gauls (see Galatia and Phrygia, 6 
and 12, above). Mithridates IV annexed Sinope. 
Mithridates V (Euergetes), 156-121, rendered aid to 
Rome in the third Punic war and received in return 
a part of Phrygia. Mithridates VI (Eupator), the 
Great, 12163, reigned over a kingdom which in- 
cluded most of Asia Minor and extended around the 
Black Sea to the Cimmarian Bosporus (Tauric Cher- 
sonesus). Defeated and driven out of P. by Pompey 
in 66, he retreated to Tauric Chersonesus, where, be- 
sieged by his son Pharnaces, he committed suicide 
(63 B.C.), which ended the kingdom of P. Nicomedes 
III of Bithynia bequeathed his kingdom to Rome 
(74 B.C.), and after the annihilation of Mithridates 
(66) P. was annexed to Bithynia (62), and the com- 
bined province was known as Bithynia et Pontus (a 
senatorial province in 27 B.C.). The rest of Mithri- 
dates' kingdom was given to native dynasts, and 
Deiotarus (see Galatia, 6, above) received the west- 



ern interior between the Iris and Halys rivers (Pon- 
tus Galaticus). Pontux Polcmoniacus got its name 
because it was given by Antony (36 B.C.) to Polemon 
Kusesebcs of Laodlcca ad Lycum, part of whose king- 
dom went with his widow Pythodoris (granddaugh- 
ter of Antony) to Archelaus of Cappadocia (thence- 
forth known as Pontus Cappodocius). Polemon II 
inherited the throne of Pontus Polemoniacus, but 
ceded the kingdom to Nero 63 A.D., when P. became 
a separate province, but in 111 A.D. Pliny was con- 
sular legate with proconsular power in Bithynia et 
Pontus. 

The people of P. were rude, warlike, barbarous, 
and known in earliest, times by Greeks as "White 
Syrians" (see Cappadocia, 4, above). In the 7th 
and 6th cent. Greek colonies were established on the 
coast, at Sinope, Amisus, Side, Themiscyra, Cerasus 
('Cherry'), and Trapezus. The mountainous coun- 
try is intersected by fertile plains of the Iris, Lycus, 
and Thermodon rivers, in which were many native 
cities: Amasia (in the Iris valley) was the birthplace 
of Strabo, and capital of Mithridates VI and from 7 
B.C. the resilience of the Roman governor. Comana 
(in the Iris valley, called Pontica, to distinguish it 
from Comana Aurea; see Cappadocia, 4, above) 
was a seat of the worship of Ma, and the residence of 
independent priest-kings (cf. the Amazon myth). 

J. R. S. S. 

ASIARCH, e'shi-arc ('Ao-iapx 1 ;*) : Brandis has 
proved erroneous the identification (Marquardt, 
Lightfoot, Ramsay) with the dp^iepfir 'Aerial and 
has shown that the Asiarchs were not officials, 
but delegates of individual cities to the provincial 
congress (KOIVOV 'A<rias, Commune Asice; see ASIA 
MINOR, 2). Therefore there might be several 
at the same time in the same city ("chiefs of Asia," 
Acts 19 31 ; see Strabo, xiv, 649). The dignity could 
be held along with a civil or religious office. It was 
held for one year, not for life. The institution ceased 
to exist at the end of the 3d cent., along with the 
KOIVOV 'Atrias, when Diocletian divided the Provin- 
cia Asia into seven provinces. The dignity was 
much sought for and was perpetuated on coins and 
inscriptions. Only the wealthy were eligible, for 
besides other expenses Asiarchs had to institute 
games and gladiatorial contests. J. R. S. S. 

ASIEL, e'si-el (^*TS?2, 'dsi'el), 'God is [my] ma- 
ker': A Simeonite "prince" (I Ch 4 35). E. E. N. 

ASKELON, as'ke-len. See ASHKELON. 

ASMOD-S5US, as"mo-dl'0s: An evil spirit men- 
tioned in To 37 ff. See DEMONOLOGT, 3. 

ASNAH, as'na (~JCS, 'asnah), 'thornbush': The 
ancestral head of one of the families of the Nethinirn 
(Ezr250). E. E. N. 

ASNAPPER, as-nap'gr- See OSNAPPEB. 
ASP. See PALESTINE, 26. 

ASPATHA, as-pe'tha (S??C8, 'aspatha'): One of 
Hainan's ten sons (Est 9 7). 



E. E. N. 



ASRIEL, as'ri-el ("]'?8, 'asrt'el): The ancestor 
of the Manassite clan of Asrielites in Gilcad (Nu 26 






A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Alia Minor 
Asiyria 



31; Jos 172). The variant genealogical notice in 
I Ch 7 14 (Ashriel AV) is probably a scribal error. 

E. E. N. 

ASS : The ass was domesticated very early and is 
mentioned in the earliest literature of the O T as an 
animal with which the Hebrews were well acquainted 
and used extensively. The ox and the ass were the 
two animals that the ordinary Israelite, as a farmer, 
would be most likely to have (Ex 20 17, etc.). The 
horse came into use in Israel at a comparatively late 
period and then only as an animal for riding or for 
war, not as a work-animal (of. the figures for the two 
animals at the Return, Ezr 2 68 f.). The ass, on the 
other hand, was used both for riding and for work. 
The O T distinguishes between (1) the h&mor, the 
male animal, the ordinary beast of burden (cf. Gn 
42 26 ff., 49 14, etc.), also used for riding, frequently 
by women (cf. Ex 4 20; Jos 15 18; I S 25 23). (2) The 
'filliBn, the she-ass, a favorite for riding (Nu 22 21 ff.; 
II K 4 22) ; white (or nearly so) she-asses were consid- 
ered especially valuable (Jg 5 10). (3) The 'aylr or 
ass's colt, i.e., probably a young in distinction from 
an old, worn-out animal, finds frequent mention (Jg 
10 4; Is 30 6, 24; ef. Mk 11 2 and ||; Jn 12 15). The 
possessor of large herds of asses was a rich man (cf. 
Gn 12 16, 32 15; Job 1 3, etc.). 

The wild ass, pcre' and 'arodh, which goes in herds, 
but also loves solitude (Hos 8 9), untamable, rejoi- 
cing in its freedom (Job 39 S), is at home only in the 
desert (Job 245; Jer 224). See also PALESTINE, 
24. E. E. N. 

ASSASSINS ("murderers" AV): The RV so ren- 
ders trueaptoi, Sicarii (derived from sica, a curved 
sword, small enough to be carried under the cloak), 
meaning strictly 'daggermen.' They were a semi- 
political party and were called "assassins" from 
their promptly resorting to murder to accomplish 



their ends. A band of such men led by the " Egyp- 
tian" into the desert is referred to in Ac 21 38. 

A. C. Z. 

ASSEMBLY: I. In OT: (1) mOedh, an 'appointed' 
meeting (I's 74 4; La 1 18, 2 6). (2) mOshabh, 'seat' 
(Ps 107 32). (3) miqrn', 'convocation' (Is 1 13,48). 

(4) fddh, 'circle of intimate friends' (Jer 6 11, 15 17). 

(5) 'MAdA, an 'appointed' gathering (the "congrega- 
tion" of Israel) ; in RV only in Pr 5 14. (6) 'dtscreth, 
a 'compulsory' meeting, generally rendered "solemn 
assembly" (Lv 23 3fi, etc.). (7) qahal, the ' assembly' 
of Is. as a theocratic unit, frequently used with 6; 
nearly always rendered "assembly" in RV (Kx 12 6, 
163, etc.)- A derived word, q'hitlah, is used in Dt 33 
4;Neh57. 

II. In N T: (1) tVucXiprto, the concourse in the the- 
ater (Ac 19 32, 41; cf. vcr. 39). (2) trvvaytay^, 'syna- 
gogue,' i.e., church meeting (Ja 2 2). (3) iravriyvpis, 
a 'whole assembly' (Heb 12 23). E. 11. X. 

ASSHUR, ash'ur. See ASSYRIA, 1,2. 

ASSHURIM, a-shu'rim. See ETHNOGRAPHY AND 
ETHNOLOGY, 11. 

ASSID^ANS, as"i-di'anz. See PHARISEES, 3. 

ASSIR, as'er ("5X. Wir), 'captive': 1. The 
name of two Levites (Ex 6 24 - I Ch 6 22 and I Cli 
23,37). 2. InlChS 17, AV (asonof Jeconiah). But 
RV has the more correct reading, "Jeconiah the 
captive." I :. i:. \. 

ASSOS, as'os ("Ao-o-os, Ac 20 13 f.): A town sit- 
uated on a lofty hill on the southern coast of the 
Troad. Its ruins are extensive. The docks at Con- 
stantinople were constructed from its ancient build- 
ings. The mole is still extant. Excavations have 
been conducted here by the American Archeological 
Institute. It is now called Bekhram, from a Byzan- 
tine officer, Machram. J. R. S. S. 



1. The Name 

2. Earliest History 

3. Nineveh and Its Group of Cities 

4. National Character 

5. Purity of Race 

6. Periods of History 

I. PERIOD OF DEPENDENCY 

7. Dependence on Babylonia 



ASSYRIA 

ANALYSIS OP CONTENTS 

II. STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 

8. Rivalry with Babylonia 

9. First Contact with Israel 

10. Attempts on the Weatland 

III. ASSYRIA SUPREME IN SOUTHWEST 

ASIA 

11. Reorganization of the Em- 
pire 



12. Achievements of Tiglath-pileser III 

13. The Work Done by Sargon 

14. Sennacherib 

15. The Acme of Power 

16. Fall of Assyria 

17. Importance of Assyrian Monu- 

ments 

18. Art and Religion 



Assyria is the Gr. form of Heb. "fl8, Asshur, 
which designates in O T, for the most part, the As- 
syrian land and people, and also the 
i. The extension of the kingdom as embracing 
Name. the whole Assyrian Empire. In some 
later writings, the empires succeeding 
the Assyrian are referred to by the same name, e.g., 
the later Babylonian (Lam 5 6) and the Persian 
(Kzr 6 22), the reason being that Assyria was the 
original comprehensive type, and therefore a natural 
representative of a great Asiatic empire. 

Asshur was first of all the name of the patron 
god of a community of Babylonian emigrants, who 
named after him their first permanent settlement, 
founded on the right bank of the Tigris, north of 
its junction with the lower Zab. This city remained 



for a time the principal seat of the new nation and 

was always the chief frontier station toward the 

south, the lower Zab being normally 

2. Earliest the border of Assyria proper. Gradu- 
History. ally the colonists moved northward , 

and passing the upper Zab they estab- 
lished several fortresses between that river, the Tigris 
itself, and the Zagros chain of mountains to the north. 
The chief of these walled cities were 

3. Nineveh Calah and Nineveh, which formed the 
and Its center of the kingdom. This historical 

Group of process is outlined in Gn 10 10, where 
Cities. Nimrod (ef. ver. 9) represents the 
eponymous founder (Mic 5 6) of Baby- 
lonian and Assyrian civilization and history. "Out 
of that land he went forth into Assyria, and built 



Assyria 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



68 



Nineveh mid Rehoboth-Ir and Calah and Kescn be- 
tweeu Nineveh ami Calah." In this list Rehoboth- 
Ir is probably a .suburb of Nineveh, and the site of 
Rescii is unknown. No mention is mudc of the city 
of Asslmr in the () T, perhaps because it had ceased 
lo have any importance by the time when the He- 
brew traditions took shape. 

The Assyrians, as contrasted with the Babylonians, 
were a more hardy, warlike, independent people, 
with less general intellectual talent and 
4. National enterprise, but with more political 
Character, genius than the Babylonian or indeed 
than any other branch of the Semitic 
race. Their territory, being almost entirely moun- 
tainous or rugged, though fertile, was not, upon 
the whole, as productive as the Babylonian. The 
struggle for existence was made keener by attacks 
from robber bands of the northern and eastern 
mountains. Wars on a larger scale with the (!ute 
and the Kasshites, or Cosseans, of the S. and K., 
and with many tribes and nations of the N., such as 
the Kurds, who still control the same region as of 
old, trained them for systematic military operations 
and gave these Romans of the East a discipline un- 
precedented among Oriental peoples. 

The Assyrians, in contrast with the Babylonians, 
represented also the idea of Semitic independence 
and exclusiveness. Their emigration 
5. Purity was made either before or at the time of 
of Race, the subjugation of Babylonia by the 
Elamites. They successfully resisted 
the attacks of the Cosseans, who later ruled in Baby- 
lon for nearly six centuries. Then- religion, though 

essentially Baby- 
lonian, was less adul- 
terated with foreign 
elements. Their an- 
cestors in N. Baby- 
lonia were of that 
genuine Semitic 
stock which has left 
no trace of 'Sume- 
rian' influence either 
politically or in its 
oldest literary monu- 
ments. Finally, the 
numerous sculptured 
representations of 
Assyrian faces bear 
an unmistakable 
Semitic stamp. 

The history of 
Assyria may be divided into three periods marked 
respectively: (1) by dependence upon Babylonia, 
6 Periods ^ by a long stru &g le for supremacy, 
of History ^ ^ *^ e a " ammen *' an ^ mainte- 

" nance of preeminent dominion. 

I. PERIOD OP DEPENDENCY. The first period 

may be regarded also as a section of Babylonian 

history, for not only Assyria but the 

7. Depend- whole region W. to the Mediterranean 

ence on was during most of the time under the 

Babylonia, control of Babylonia. The relations of 

friendship with the parent country were 

undisturbed, as far as we know, during the centuries 

between the founding of the colony, perhaps about 




Head of an Assyrian. 



2300 n.c.. and t lie era of the collapse of the old Baby- 
lonian world-empire, about 1050 B.C., when Baby- 
lonia proper came under the control of the non-Sem- 
itic Cosseans. During this period the supreme rulers 
wen? not 'kings.' but 'regents of the god Asshur.' 
Such an appellation implies semi-independence of 
Babylonia, which was wisely permitted under the 
regime of Hammurabi and his successors. Complete 
independence and the assumption of kingship on the 
part, of the rulers probably came at last without any 
violent break. 

II. STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY. The second 
period (c. 1650-745 B.C.) shows Assyria as a rival of 
Babylonia and an increasingly aggres- 
8. Rivalry si ve power generally. The Cossean dom- 
with ination in Babylonia gave the Assyr- 
Babylonia. ians the opportunity and justification 
for proclaiming themselves heirs of the 
old Babylonian dominion, and the great rulers of As- 
syria speak of themselves frequently as successors of 
the famous kings of the oldest dynasties of Babylonia. 
The inheritance naturally included the right first of 
all to the Mesopotamian territory through which 
passed the highways of western traffic. This was se- 
cured after several centuries of bitter conflict with the 
growing Aramean settlements E. of the Euphrates. 
Assyria on the whole became continually stronger and 
Babylonia continually weaker. Already in the 12th 
cent. B.C., under the great Tiglath-pileser I, Assyria 
had, in addition to Mesopotamia, subdued the most 
formidable nations or the northern and northwestern 
highlands as far as Cappadocia, and Assyrian armies 
had overrun Syria as far as the Phoenician coast-line. 
But these efforts could not be repeated; and it was 
not till the 10th cent, that they were systematically 
resumed. Meanwhile the Arameans had founded 
their great settlements W. of the Euphrates, and 
Palestine had come largely under the control of the 
Hebrews, while both Assyria and Babylonia were 
enfeebled and inactive. 

It was in consequence of another revival of As- 
syrian power and aggression that Israel first came in 
contact with the empire of the Tigris 
9. First in 854 B.C. The situation created in 
Contact that year was typical. Shalmaneser 
with II (860-824 B.C.), whose annals are 
Israel. engraved on the famous black obelisk 
in the British Museum, was now king of 
Assyria. He was repeating and extending the con- 
quests of his father, the warlike and cruel Asshur- 
nasirpal (885-860 B.C.). He was approaching 
Hamath from the N., and a combination of twelve of 
the western states was formed against him. The 
lead was taken by Ben-hadad II, the king of Da- 
mascus, by this time the most powerful nation on 
the Mediterranean coast-land. Damascus was also 
normally a bitter enemy of northern Israel ; but just 
in that year the peace of Aphek (I K 20 36) had been 
concluded, and Israel under Ahab is mentioned by 
Shalmaneser as contributing a strong contingent 
to the defensive force. Other peoples represented 
were Ammonites and Arabians from E. of Palestine. 
The battle which ensued was indecisive, but Shal- 
maneser was interrupted in his march of conquest. 

As a result of subsequent campaigns the Assyrians 
succeeded in breaking the leadership of Damascus 



60 



A STANDARD BI1U.K DKTIOXARY 



Assyria 



in the W., so that in 842 Jehu, the usurping king of 
Israel, found it to his interest to send gifts to Shal- 
inancser and thus become an Assyrian 
10. At- vassal. Assyria, however, was over- 
tempts on straining herself, and Damascus had 
the West- a reprieve from attack for forty years, 
land. during which time the Syrians were 
able to exert their strength, especially 
under Hazael, against both Israel and Judah. But 
the Aramean capital was at last taken in 797, and 
never again became the seat of a first-class power. 
The strength of Assyria, however, became exhausted 
by strenuous attempts at extension in all directions, 
and for nearly half a century it hail enough to do to 
maintain its hold even upon Mesopotamia. 

III. ASSYRIA SUPREME IN SOUTHWEST ASIA. 
A series of insurrections in several important cen- 
ters was ended in 745 B.C. by the ac- 
ii. Reor- cession to the throne of the most origi- 
ganization nal and far-seeing of Assyrian rulers, 
of the Tiglath-pileser III (q.v.), also known 
Empire, in the Bible by his Babylonian name of 
Pul (II K 15 19). His policy was to put 
all troublesome states under direct Assyrian adminis- 
tration, and to hold the tributaries under a rigid 
system of probation whereby sedition or intrigue 
with outside peoples was punished with heavy fines 
and increase of tribute. Such penalties were usu- 
ally so severe that insurrection was resorted to for 
relief, and direct annexation was the almost invari- 
able reprisal. Thus the work of empire-building 
was reduced to a system for the first time in the 
world's history. His military policy was to keep in 
check the northern and eastern mountain tribes by 
occupying their territory, a process which involved 
terrible and frequent wars; to make Assyrian prov- 
inces of the recalcitrant states ; to make tributaries of 
the rest by virtue of his rightful prerogative, since all 
of them had at one time or another become vassals 
or wards of Assyria; to bring Babylonia under As- 
syrian control; and to make Nineveh the capital of 
the Semitic world. 

By 738 B.C. all northern and middle Syria had been 
made an integral part of the Assyrian realm. In 
that year Menahem of Israel bought off 
12. Achieve- Tiglath-pileser with an immense sum of 
ments of money (II K 15 17-20). In 734 the As- 
Tiglath- Syrians returned to Palestine, where the 
pileser III. new king Pekah had formed an alliance 
against the invaders and attempted to 
coerce Ahaz of Judah into joining the combination 
(Is ch. 7). Ahaz sought Assyrian protection. Tig- 
lath-pileser, within the next two years, dethroned 
Pekah and put him to death, made a province of 
Israel N. of the plain of Jezreel, took the city of Da- 
mascus, extorted enormous tribute from the Phoe- 
nician seaports, and appointed his own creatures to 
rule over the Philistine cities (II K 15 29 fT.). 

Hoshea, who was placed over the dismembered 
kingdom of Israel, kept up tribute-paying till the 
death of the great Assyrian, but he revolted at the 
instigation of the Egyptian princes of the Delta in 
724, the third year of Shalmaneser IV. Samaria 
was at once invaded and was taken at the close of 
722. The principal inhabitants were deported to 
distant provinces of the empire (II K 17). The fall 



of Samaria coincided with Die death of Shalmaneser 
and thi' accession of Sargon, the founder of tin 
and greatest Assyrian dynasty. 

The reign of Sargon (722-705 H.C.) was almost as 

important as that of Tigl:ith-pili-ser, since he con- 

solidalcd and confirmed the work of 

13. The the latter. During his reign the em- 
Work pire assumed permanent shape and 

Done by substantive existence. The west was 

Sargon. carefully watched, and the way to 
Egypt prepared and guarded. A re- 
bellion in Ashdod was put down in 711 (cf. Is 20), 
and Judah, now a recognized vassal state, was 
warned against intriguing with Egypt and the Phi- 
listines. More important was the work accom- 
plished in Babylonia. There the priesthood of 
Babylon had been favorable to Assyrian interven- 
tion under Tiglath-pileser. But a formidable rival 
had arisen in the south, by the Gulf, where the Chal- 
dean chiefs were asserting their claims against all in- 
truders (see BABYLONIA, 19). The famous Mero- 
dach-baladan (q.v.) had, in fact, made himself 
king of Babylon, and it was not until the twelfth 
year of Sargon that he was dislodged. Sargon then 
made himself regent of the country under the gods of 
Babylon. 

On the death of Sargon and the accession of his 

son Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.) a great revolt was 

set on foot. It was headed by Heze- 

14. Sen- kiah of Judah in the west with the coop- 
nacherib. eration of the Philistines and the back- 
ing of Egypt. In 701 Sennacherib 

invaded the country. The allies of Hezekiah were 
defeated, Judah itself ravaged up to the gates of 
Jerusalem, and many of its inhabitants carried into 
exile, while the capital was saved only after a ter- 
rible plague had decimated the Assyrian army when 
about to invade Egypt (II K 18 13-19 37). 

Politically this disaster to Assyria was only a mi- 
nor incident, and Judah remained a vassal of As- 
syria until the fall of Nineveh. Esar- 

15. The haddon (681-668), the best of the 
Acme of Assyrian kings, enlarged the empire by 

Power, the annexation of Egypt. Asshur- 
banipal (668-626) put down revolt in 
Egypt, but had to relinquish its sovereignty in 
or about 645 B.C. A great rebellion in Baby- 
lonia, headed by Asshurbanipal's brother as vice- 
roy, was put down with terrible severity, and Elam, 
which had long opposed the Assyrian advances in 
Babylonia, was finally conquered. 

This rounded out the achievements of Assyrian 

empire-building. But the majestic structure soon 

began to fall apart through internal 

16. Fall strain and the assaults of the Scythians 
of Assyria, of the north ; and at last its corner- 
stone, the mighty fortress of Nineveh, 

was stormed by the soldiers of the new and virile 
empire of the Medes (607 B.C.). Their allies, the 
Chaldeans, who had already thrown off the Assyr- 
ian yoke, succeeded to the headship of the Semitic 
world and to the providential mission which Assyria 
had unconsciously fulfilled. 

The resurrected monuments of Assyria, abundant 
and varied as they are, are perhaps of less impor- 
tance to the student of civilization than the vast 



Assyria 
Astronomy 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



70 



and ever-inrriMMiii; array of Babylonian antiquities. 
They do, however, supply great defects and gaps 
in the Babylonian records, partly be- 
17. Im- cause the longer-lived nation had little 
portance of taste for the chronicling of political 
Assyrian and military events, and partly be- 
Monu- cause much of the best Assyrian litera- 
ments. ture consists of transcripts of invaluable 
Babylonian documents whose originals 
have not yet been found. On the other hand, the 
Assyrian inscriptions, and especially the royal annals, 
are the most valuable material illustrative of the 
O T which antiquity has yielded up. By means of 
them we have obtained a reliable framework for 
Biblical chronology during the most important 
period of Hebrew history, and the history itself dur- 
ing the same period has been rearranged, read- 
justed, and made organically intelligible. More 
important still is the commentary upon O T proph- 
ecy which they afford. For example, the records of 
Assyrian warfare explain and vindicate the most 
powerful exposure and arraignment of imperialistic 
aggression ever made, and at the same time help us 
to understand, better perhaps than any modern in- 
stances, the other declaration of prophecy, that 
vainglorious national ambition and even interna- 
tional strife have a providential mission of chasten- 
ing and humiliation. Perhaps most important of 
all is that we are now shown by the Assyrian annals 
how prophecy itself was conditioned by and shaped 
in accordance with the successive movements of 
Assyria upon the western lands, and the complica- 
tions that resulted therefrom. 

The Assyrian people in the arts of architecture 
and sculpture alone excelled the contemporary 
Babylonians. Of more importance to 
18. Art and us is their religion, not only because it 
Religion, affected the worship of Israel (II K 23 
11 f. ; cf. IClOff.), but also because it 
stands in such close causal relation with the political 
and military system of the Assyrians themselves. 
Just because the empire of the Tigris was a concen- 
trated unit, ever striving to realize itself in action, 
the cult of Asshur, the patron god of the Assyrians, 
became more and more emphasized, as contrasted 
with that of the other gods whom they worshiped 
in common with the Babylonians, their political and 
military rivals. It is true that the foundation of 
their religious system was of Babylonian origin, and 
certain of the gods, such as the theoretical supreme 
triad, Anu, Bel, and Ea, Shamash the sun-god, Sin 
the moon-god, Adad the thunder-god, and Ishtar the 
deification of the female principle, were retained and 
honored. But their own deity, Asshur, who was not 
in the Babylonian pantheon, came to be looked on as 
tlio potential possessor of all the moral attributes of 
the other divinities. Thus there was in Assyria a 
stronger tendency toward monotheism than in the 
parent state, even when Marduk (or Merodach), the 
god of the city of Babylon, became supreme in Baby- 
lonia, the chief distinction being that while Marduk 
was recognized as specially the patron of the capital 
city, Asshur was always the god of the whole state 
and indeed of the whole empire. Asshur was also 
first and foremost a war-god, because war was the 
most genuine and spontaneous expression of the na- 



tional religion. Thus it happened that when Assyria 
passed away as an empire the cult of Asshur was 
ipso facto extinguished, while Marduk of Babylon 
survived the political destruction of Semitism under 
Cyrus and the Persians. 

LITERATURE: For the history and civilization: Hommel, 
Geschiehte Babyloniens und Assyriens, 1885-88; Tiele, 
Babylonisch-Assyrischc Geschichle, 1886-88; Winckler, 
Geschiehte Babylon-tens und Assyriens, 1892; Rogers, Hit- 
lory of Babylonia and Assyria, 1900; for relations to the 
Bible :Schrader. Die Kci/imti-hrillcn ttndtlasalte Testament 
(2ded. 1883, Engl.tr. by Whitehouse, is referred toas COT; 
3d ed., a new work, by Winckler and Zimmern, 1903) ; 
McCurdy, History, Prophecy, and the Monuments, 1894- 
1901 (containing also a connected political history of the 
ancient Semites) ; -Price, The Monuments and the Old Tes- 
tament, 1900; Pinches, The Old Testament in the Light of 
the Records of Assyria and Babylonia, 1902; Delitzsch, 
Babel und Bibel, 1903. For the general subject the best 
resume's are Murison, Babylonia and Assyria (Bible Class 
Primers), 1900, and the articles on "Assyria" and "Baby- 
lonia" in EB by King; and for the religion, Jastrow, Ke- 
ligion of Babylonia and Assyria, 1898. 

J. F. McC. 



ASTRONOMY AND ASTROLOGY 

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS 



1. Scope and Nature 

2. The Sun and Moon 

3. The Stars 

4. Constellations 

5. Star of Bethlehem 



6. Figurative Usage 

7. Religious Interest 

8. Star-Worship 

9. Astrology 



In the current cosmology of Biblical times, the 

earth is not a part of the starry universe, but a flat 

surface, on which the heavens rest like 

I. Scope an inverted bowl. Astronomy does 
and not therefore include an account of the 

Nature, earth, but only of the heavenly bodies. 
These were thought to be fixed in the 
firmament, not absolutely, for they move along cer- 
tain paths in definite periods (Jos 1012; Is 388), 
and can be detached thence and fall (Mt 2429; 
Rev 9 1). The whole view is not animated by 
scientific interest and therefore can not be called 
a theory. It takes cognizance of those facts only 
which have practical bearings. This is true both 
of the O T and the N T. Winckler's theory, that 
the Semitic peoples, including the Hebrews, con- 
ceived of the world and human history as con- 
stituted upon and ruled by principles resident in 
the heavenly bodies (see Winckler, Himmels und 
Weltenbild der Babylonier, 1901; Die Babylonische 
Weltschopfung, 1906) finds no support in Biblical 
data. 

The sun (shemesh, ijXios) is the most splendid 
of God's works (Ps 19 S-7). Its course is continuous 
and includes a section under the earth 
2. The Sun traversed at night (Ec 1 5). It. is the 
and Moon, source of heat and light for the earth. 
Its darkening is the sign and expression 
of great calamities. Hence, "the sun shall be dark- 
ened at midday " may describe the occurrence of an 
eclipse, always an occasion of superstitious dread 
among unscientific peoples (Is 13 10; Jl 2 10; Am 8 9; 
Mt2429; Mk 1324; Rev G 12). The moon (i/r,/.. 
poet., I'bhSnah, trf\^vn) is the substitute of the sun 
for the night period (Gn 1 16; Ps 121 6, 1369) 
Eclipses of the moon may be alluded to in the ex- 



71 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Assyria 
Astronomy 



prrxsion ''the moon turned into blood" (J1231; 
Rev 6 12). 

Of the stars (kokhabhlm, aa-rtpes) as objects of 

interest in themselves, no account is made. In 

a small number of allusions, how- 

3. The ever, it is possible to detect current 

Stars. astronomical notions. The whole of 

the starry firmament as a body is called 

"the host of heaven" (Gn 21), though that phrase 

does not always convey the same meaning (I K 22 19 ; 

II Ch 18 18). Of individual stars, including planets, 

Venus is mentioned under the name "Day Star" 

("Lucifer, son of the morning" AV, Is 1412). 

Saturn appears under the name of Chiun (Am 5 20; 

AV and ERV, but ARV,"the shrine"). But the fact 

that the star is alluded to as an object of worship 

renders the reference to Saturn quite probable (cf. 

also Ac 7 43, "Rephan," probably Saturn). 

The grouping of the stars into constellations 
appears in general (Is 13 10), and in the mention of 
individual constellations as follows: 
4. Constel- (1 ) Orion (h?ll, Am 5 8), which, ac- 
lations. cording to the Semitic conception, 
represents a slow-witted giant chained 
to the skies; hence the question in Job 38 31, "Canst 
thou loose the bands of Orion?" suggesting the im- 
potence of man as compared with the omnipotence 
of God (cf. also Job 9 9). (2) The Great Bear 
('ash, Job 9 9, 38 32, Arcturus AV). In the latter 
passage the sons of the Bear ("the train" RV) are 
the three stars in the tail of the constellation. By 
some, however, this constellation is identified with 
the Pleiades, which is compared to a hen with her 
brood. Schiapparelli argues convincingly (Astr. in 
O T, 1905, p. 54 ff.) for the Hyades. (3) The Plei- 
ades (klmah, Job 99) is identified by its desig- 
nation as a compact group. From this view we get 
the expression in Job 38 31, "Canst thou bind the 
cluster ('chain' RVmg.) of the Pleiades?" making 
the parallelism of the clauses perfect. (4) Mazzaroth 
(Job 38 32). This seems to be not a constellation 
(Corona Borealis, Hyades) nor the circle of the zodiac 
(Job 38 32; AVmg. and RVmg.), with its twelve 
signs, but the planet Venus or the planets collectively 
(so II K 23 5, but mg. " the twelve signs"). (.5) The 
Chambers of the South (hculhre theman, Job 9 9), 
probably some constellation of the Southern hemi- 
sphere. (6) The Swift Serpent (nahash barlah, 
Job 26 13). There is some uncertainty as to whether 
this phrase designates a constellation. It is certainly 
the name of a celestial phenomenon, and, if a constel- 
lation, it is probably the Dragon located between the 
Great and the Little Bear. (7) In Job 37 9, though 
EVV read "north," and mg. "scattering winds," 
there is reason to believe that the Hebrew m-zarlm 
designates the two constellations of the northern 
skies, the Great and the Little Bear (cf. Schiap- 
parelli, p. 67 ff.). 

5. Star The Star of Bethlehem (Mt 2 2 ff.) 

of Bethle- has been sometimes interpreted as a 

hem. conjunction of planets (Kepler; cf. 

Munter, Stern d. Weisen, 1827), but 

was more probably either a comet or a meteor. 

Metaphorically, a star stands for a guide because 
stars are so often taken as guides in travel at night, 
and such expressions as "sun of righteousness" 



(Mai 42), "the bright, morning star" (Rev 22 18) 
are self-explanatory. The apocalyptic use of astro- 
nomical facts includes such instances 

6. Figura- as the "seven stars" (Rev 1 16 ff.), 
tive Usage, symbols of the protecting spirit of the 

Seven Churches; the great star Worm- 
wood (Rev 8 10 f.), symbol of distress, and the moon 
subjected to the Church (Rev 12 1) with others less 
clear. 

That astronomy is in the Bible geocentric has al- 
ready been intimated. It might better be called 

theocentric. It views the material 

7. Relig- heavens as the handiwork of God and 
ious Inter- the instrument of His pleasure in min- 

est. istering to men. He rrcntcd them in 
the beginning (Gn 1 1, 14 f.) in order to 
be the means of lighting the earth and marking the 
beginnings and endings of the seasons. They im- 
press the mind by their multitude (Gn 155), their 
brilliancy, their elevation above the earth (Pr 25 3; 
Jer 31 37; Job 22 12). Poetically, they are conceived 
as personal beings, declaring the glory of God (Ps 
148 3-5). They sing together for joy and in many 
other ways praise their Creator (Job 38 7). 

This is in contrast with the ideas of the other 
peoples of Biblical lands. These in most cases 
worshiped the heavenly bodies. The 
8. Star- contrast is all the more significant be- 
Worship. cause it is certain that the cosmological 
and astronomical ideas of the Hebrews 
are vitally connected with those of Babylonia. The 
faithful Israelite was taught that the heavenly 
bodies as creatures could receive no homage from 
men; but lest he should be too dull to perceive 
that their creaturehood precluded their being wor- 
shiped, he was explicitly forbidden to offer it (Dt 
4 19). Violations of this law were severely de- 
nounced by the prophets and prophetic writers (Jer 
1913; Ezk 810; Zee 1 4f.; cf. also Ac 743, quoted 
from Am 5 28, "star of the god Rephan"). 

Astrology is the art of interpreting the motions of 
the heavenly bodies as portents of future events. 
It was practised probably among the 
9. Astrol- majority, if not all, of the nations 
ogy. mentioned in the Bible; but like star- 
worship it found no favorable soil in 
Israel. Astrologers are spoken of as altogether out- 
side of Israel. In Is 47 13 Babylon is challenged to 
save herself from the doom merited by her sin and 
invited to resort "to the astrologers ('dividers of the 
heavens' RVmg.), the star-gazers, and monthly prog- 
nosticators. " All these terms appear to be syn- 
onymous and, as the words which follow indicate, 
are different names of men who professed to foretell 
the future by observing the stars. Jeremiah (10 2) 
counsels Judah not to be "dismayed at the signs 
of the heavens." Astrologers are named also in 
Dn 1 20, 22 AV, but RV renders more correctly 
"enchanters." The Hebrew word for astrologers 
(hobhre shamayim, 'dividers of the heavens ') sug- 
gests the method employed, which was the section- 
ing of the firmament and assigning a particular 
meaning to each section according to its relation to 
the object sought to be foreshadowed. 

LITERATURE: Schiapparelli, Astron. in O T (1906); M. A. 
Stern, Die Slernbilder in Hiob 38". A. C. Z. 



Asuppim 
Atonement 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



73 



ASUPPIM, d-sup'im (="5^, 'afuppim): In 
I Ch 26 15, 17, AV, this word occurs as a proper 
noun, but it is given more correctly in RV as "store- 
house." E. E. N. 

ASYNCRITUS, a-sin'cri-tus ('A<nWpiTor): A 
Christian mentioned in Ro 16 14, to whom Paul sends 
a salutation. ' M- T. 

ATAD, e'tad (~y$v> ha'af&dh): "The[thrcshing]- 
floor of Atad" (Gn 50 11 f.). Apart from the state- 
ment that it lay "beyond (i.e., E. of) the Jordan" 
no information is given of its locution. But this is 
more likely a later addition, since to go from Egypt 
to Hebron one has no cause to cross the Jordan. 

E. E. N. 

ATARAH, at'u-ra (~~V*!> 'tyarah): One of the 
wives of Jerahmeel, perhaps a clan-name (I Ch 2 26). 

E. E. N. 

ATAROTH, at'a-roth (M'-y;;, 'itarSlh): 1. A 
city of Moab, occupied by Gad (Nu 32 3, 34 and Stone 
of Mesha, line 10). Map II, J 2. 2. A town on 
the S. border of Ephraim (Jos 16 5, in 16 2 A. Addar). 
Map III, E 5. 3. A town on the NE. border of 
Ephraim (Jos 16 7). Site unknown. 4. Atroth-beth- 
Joab, a locality belonging to the Calebites (I Ch 2 54). 
6. A troth - Shophan, a town of Gad (Nu3235). 
Site unknown. E. E. N. 

ATER, e'ter C 1 ^, 'afer): 1. The ancestral head 
of the 'sons' of Ater of Hezekiah, one of the large 
families of returned exiles (Ezr 2 16; Neh 7 21, 10 17). 
2. The ancestor of a family of gate-keepers (Ezr 
2 42; Neh 7 45). E. E. N. 

ATHACH, e'thac (T2, 'tthakh): A place in S. 
Judah not yet identified (I S 30 30). E. E. N. 

ATHAIAH, a-the'ya (~;?S, 'dthayah): A Ju- 
dahite, the son of Uzziah (Neh 114). E. E. N. 

ATHALIAH, ath"a-lai'a On^SX, ' Othalya.hu) ,' 3" 
is great': 1. A daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, and 
wife of Jehoram, King of Judah. She introduced the 
worship of the Phoenician Baal into Judah. After 
the death of her son Ahaziah (q.v.) she usurped the 
throne, securing her position by murdering all the 
seed-royal except Joash, the infant son of Ahaziah, 
who was kept hidden in the Temple, under the tutel- 
age of the priests, for six years. Finally Jehoiada, 
the high priest, taking advantage of the change of 
the palace guards on a Sabbath, assisted by the 
guards, proclaimed Joash king and put Athaliah to 
death (II Kill ff.). 2. A Benjamite who dwelt in 
Jerusalem (see I Ch 8 26 and cf. ver. 28). 3. The 
father of Jeshaiah who went up with Ezra from 
Babylon (Ezr 8 7). J. A. K. 

ATHARIM, ath'a-rim (="?S, 'dtharlm): The 
only occurrence of this word (Nu 21 1) seems to 
imply that it was a place-name. Its use with the 
article, "the way of [the] Atharim," lias led some to 
think of it as an appellative, e.g., "the way of the 
spies," AV (which rests on a wrong reading), or the 
'caravan way' (Dillmann). Both the meaning of the 
word and the site remain uncertain. E. E. N. 



ATHENS ('fidrjvai): The capital of Attica, first 
called Cecropia from Cecrops (autochthonous 
founder). Theseus (semimythical) united the out- 
lying denies (Panathenaea). The Acropolis was the 
seat of worship of Athene and the kings. After 
Codrus the kings were replaced by archons chosen 
from the family of Codrus, elected for life (1068-752 
B.C.); then the archonship was open to Eupatrids 
chosen for ten years (752-682 B.C.). Later, there 
were nine annual archons chosen from the Eupa- 
trids. The chief archon (eponymos) gave the name 
to the year; the second (basileus) was chief priest; 
the third (polemarchos) commanded the forces; the 
other six were thesmothctce (legislators ). The Areopa- 
gus was supreme in religious matters. Draco codified 
the laws in 621 B.C., and Solon instituted the timoc- 
racy in 594; 6,000 judges, chosen by lot, controlled 
the officials, and a council of 400 aided the archons, 
whose presidents were called prytanes. Pisistratus 
the tyrant (561 B.C.) embellished A., patronized 
literature and art, built the altar of the Twelve Gods 
(center of the state), Enneacrounos, began the Olym- 
pieum, finished the old Hecatompedon and other 
buildings. Clisthenes reorganized the tribes in 508 
B.C. A. sent twenty ships against Darius in 498 and 
defeated the Persians at Marat hon in 490. Xerxes de- 
stroyed A., but was defeated in 480 by Themistocles. 
As head of the confederacy in 474 under Pericles, A. 
enjoyed her 'golden age,' when the Parthenon, Pro- 
pytea, Erechtheum, and Odeum were built. In spite 
of the eloquence of Demosthenes, the liberties of 
Greece were crushed at Cheronsea in 338 B.C. A. 
was the great home of literature, art, and science and 
taught the world everything worth knowing except 
the science of government and religion. Paul's 
work in A. (Ac 17 16-34) appears not to have been 
very significant. J. R- S. S. 

ATHLAI, ath'la-ai C/?2, 'athlaij): An Israelite 
who had taken a foreign wife whom Ezra induced 
him to divorce (Ezr 1028). E. E. N. 

ATONEMENT: This word does not occur in the 
RV of the N T and in the AV only at Ro 5 11. In 
the O T it is often used to translate Hob. kaphar (see 
PROPITIATION). The English word simply means 
to make two people 'at one' who have been sepa- 
rated. In theological discussion it is applied to the 
means by which reconciliation between man and God 
has actually been brought about (see RECONCILIA- 
TION). The N T asserts that the person and work 
of Christ, especially His sacrifice on the Cross (see 
SACRIFICE), was that means (Mk 1045, 1424; Jn3 
Hi., 10 15; Ac 3 26, 4 12; Ro 3 21-26, 8 3 f. ; He 9 14; IP 
3 18; I Jn 4 10). The new fact this consciousness 
of reconciliation with the living and holy God un- 
doubtedly implies the forgiveness of sins. No other 
religion has ever offered this as something within 
reach of all men, not even the OT. It is the sub- 
stance of the Gospel, the essence of Christian expe- 
rience, the life of the Church. It was, as a mere 
matter of history, produced by Jesus Christ : it is 
to-day sustained by faith in His name, and so 
spreads over the world. 

No one doubts that the N T connects this new life 
with the sacrifice of Christ. The problem before the 
theologian is a triple one: (1) How does the NT 



73 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Asuppim 
Atonement 



describe this connection between the Cross and the 
forgiveness of sins? (2) What are the principles by 
which theology can explain that connection in the 
light of tho.se descriptions? (3) What authority 
has this whole view over the modern mind and will? 

The following classification of passages, not ex- 
haustive, indicates the cliief methods of descri- 
bing the relation of Christ's sacrifice to 
I. N T forgiveness. Some passages belong to 
Material, more than one group. 

(a) The general idea that Christ 
suffered for or in behalf of persons: I Th 5 9f. : Gal 
220; IICoSHf.; Ro56-ll; I P 3 18; He29;Jn3 
14-17, 10 15, 12 32 (.; I Jn 3 16. (6) The special idea 
that His death was related in some way to our sins: 
Ro 4 25, 5 8; I Co 15 3; Gal 1 4, 3 13; I P 2 24; He 9 28. 
(c) Sacrificial allusions, in which Christ's death is 
likened to that of the animals sacrificed under OT 
laws, and generally connected directly with sins: Mt 
2628; Ro 324-26, 59, 83; II Co 5 21 (cf. Lev 4 21 
LXX); Eph 2 13; I PI 19; He 727, 9-10; Jn 129; 
IJn 1 7, 2 2, 4 10; Rev 1 5 f., 7 14. (d) Terms imply- 
ing purchase or ransom: Mk 10 45; I Th 1 10; Ro 3 24; 
I Co 6 20; Eph 1 7; I Ti 2 5, 6; Tit 2 14; He 9 15; Rev 
5 '9. 

For many centuries little attention was given 
by theology to the problems involved here. The 
crude notion, founded on passages un- 
2. Theories der (d), that a payment was made to 
of the devil for man's release was never se- 

Atonement. riously worked out and perished as soon 
as the subject was earnestly consid- 
ered. In the course of discussion, since Anselm 
(1033-1109) definitely opened the problem, two 
main classes of opinion have emerged: (a) Those, 
called moral or subjective theories, which hold that 
our dread and selfishness were the only obstacles to 
reconciliation, and that Christ so manifested the 
righteousness and love of God that men's hearts are 
won to faith and obedience, (b) Those, called ob- 
jective, or vicarious, or expiatory, which maintain 
that in sin there lay an obstacle to God's offer of 
mercy, that this obstacle was removed by the 
sacrificial death of the God-man. Of course within 
these two main groups there are many varieties of 
opinions; and of some theories there is dispute as 
to whether they belong more properly to (a) or to 
(b). (For one of the best classifications of Atone- 
ment Theories see Introduction to Dr. Simon's The 
Redemption of Man; cf. Stevens, The Christian 
Doctrine oj Salvation, Pt. II.) 

Two extremes in each direction may well be con- 
demned at once. On one side the notion that the 
sufferings freely assumed by Christ and inflicted by 
God form a quantitative equivalent over against 
those due from man as penalty for sin, and that men 
are saved by consenting to that transaction; on the 
other side the notion that Christ's holy life and mar- 
tyr death as of other prophets, but more power- 
fully and widely stimulates the acts of repentance 
and faith. The former is too shallow in its view of 
the problem of forgiveness for God and the latter 
too shallow in its view of the problem of repent- 
ance for man. 

An unhelpful distinction has lately been drawn 
between ethical and forensic theories. The only 



complete opposition to 'ethical' is 'mechanical.' 
Punishment, substitution, vindication of righteous- 
ness, etc., are ethical facts even when expressed in 
terms of forensic procedure. On the other hand 
'ethics' is in danger, if it be maintained that (. 
love does not reckon with law, that God's holy char- 
acter is not involved in the forgiveness of sin. 

All truly Christian theories agree in the following 
points: (a) God, the eternal Father in His holy 
love, is the source of salvation, the sender of the Son. 
(6) Christ in His sinless life, His complete self-sacri- 
fice, has revealed God's holy love, (c) The con- 
templation of Christ in life and death moves the 
human heart to repentance and faith, hope and love. 
But the objective, vicarious theories recognize in 
the Scripture account elements of vital importance 
which must be added to these. The unique empha- 
sis on His Cross is due to unique values in His self- 
sacrifice. Hence the following additional points are 
to be noted: (d) The sinless Son of God did actually 
experience the various results of sin in (1 ) the oppo- 
sition and hatred of men; (2) His deep sorrow over 
human wo; (3) His submission to death; (4) the 
mysterious and awful clouding of the Father's face, 
both in His various temptations partially (Mt 4 1-11; 
Jn 12 27 ff. ; Mk 14 32-39), and on the Cross (Mk 15 34). 
(e) This phase of His experience (even His death) 
was not an incident in His calling as the revealer of 
God, but the crowning work to which He had been 
appointed by the Father (Mk 10 45, 14 24, 36; Jn 3 
14-16, 10 17, 18, 27, 15 13; Ro 3 25 f., 58, 83; II Co 
5 21; Coll 12-14, 20; He 5 5, 10; I P 1 17-21; IJn 4 9, 10) 
and the ground of reconciliation on which pardon is 
offered. (/) The necessity for this is found in that the 
righteousness of God must be vindicated in the very 
act of offering His mercy. The vindication is no 
mere formality, nor does it consist in setting so 
much suffering as equivalent of so much penalty. 
It consists in fulfilling the righteousness which man 
had broken, and in doing so at all costs to God 
Himself in Christ His Son. To be utterly righteous 
among men and for men Christ must die. In a 
world of sin nothing short of that would be complete. 
But to do this was to manifest the supreme holiness 
of God's will, (g) This necessity existed on man's 
side also. In every covenant the conscience of each 
side judges for both sides. Man can not accept sin- 
cerely a pardon whose righteousness is not as com- 
pletely assured as its love. That which breaks the 
heart of the penitent is not only the sight of God's 
love, but of that love in all its stern righteousness a 
love that sacrifices all not merely for mercy but also 
for righteousness. The death on the Cross is there- 
fore an act of God in which He dealt with the race as 
a whole, with the general and eternal principles of a 
righteous mercy, of a holy love. On that objective 
basis the message, the call comes to each soul. 

On these grounds the various NT forms of de- 
scribing the work of Christ are interpretable without 
prevarication, and an objective atonement is as di- 
rectly applicable and potent to-day as in any past 
generation. 

LITERATDRE: (1) For Scripture material in addition to 
works in Biblical theology, T. J. Crawford, The Doctrine 
of Holy Scripture Respecting the Atonement (1871); 
R. W. Dale, The Atonement (1880); A. Ritschl, Recht- 



Atonement 
Azubah 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



ftrtigiing und \'crsi>hnung,Vo\. II (1870-74); W. P. Du 
Bose. The Sotcriologv o! the N T (1892); A. Seeberg, Der 
Tod Chritsti, vie. (1895); J. Denney, The Death ot Christ 
as Interpreted by the N T (1902). (2) For history of dis- 
cussion, besides li;-i.ti u-> of the Church and of doctrm<\ 
A. Hit.-rlil. NfM. u. Vers., Vol. I (translated by John S. 
Black. 1872); Geo. B. Stevens, The Christian Doctrine of 
Salvation. Ft. II. (3) For direct discussion, besides 
those described in the histories above named, the follow- 
ing recent works: J. McLeod Campbell. The Nature <if 
the Atonement. 5th ed. (1878); R. C. Moberly. Atonement 
and Personality; D. W. Simon, Reconciliation by Incarna- 
tion ; J. Scott Lidgett, The Spiritual Principle of the Atone- 
ment. By various writers: The Atonement in Modern 
Beliffious Thought; W. L. Walker, The Cross and the 
Kingdom; J. Denney, The Atonement and the Modern- 
Mind. (4) The larner works on systematic theology 
usually roiitnin a review of (1), (2), as well as (3) see 
Charles Hodge, Dorner, Kaftan, Gretillat, F. A. B. 
Nitisch. W. D. M. 

ATONEMENT, DAY OF. See FASTS AND 
FEASTS, 9. 

ATROTH-BETH-JOAB, at'reth - beth - j6'ab, 
ATROTH-SHOPHAN, -sho'fon. See ATAROTH. 

ATTAI, at'a-ai ("P3?, 'attay): 1. A descendant of 
Jerachmeel (I Ch 2 35-30). 2. A Gadite (IChl211). 
3. A son of Rehoboam (II Ch 11 20). E. E. N. 

ATTALIA, Qt"Q-ll'a ('ArraXf.a): A city on the 
coast of Pamphylia, founded by Attalus II on the 
site of Olbia (159-138 B.C.), the metropolis of Pam- 
phylia. It was an important seaport. Its ruins 
include a gate of Hadrian and a tower of the Em- 
press Julia. J. R. S. S. 

ATTIRE. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS. 
AUGURY. See MAGIC AND DIVINATION, 3. 



AUGUSTAN BAND ((nrtlpa Se^ao-rij): Prob- 
ably the special title of one of the five cohorts of 
provincial troops stationed in Csesarea (Ac 27 1; 
cf. Jos. Ant. XX, 87; CIL VI, No. 3,508). The 
Italian Band (Ac 10 l) consisted of native Italian 
troops (CIL III, Suppl. No. 13,483a). As the 
presence of the latter in Syria is not attested before 
69 A.D. (Arch. Epig. Mittheilungen XVII, 218), the 
author of Ac may be guilty of an anachronism in 
10 1. J. M. T. 

AUGUSTUS, originally Caius Octavius, renamed 
Cains Julius Cizsar Octavianus when adopted 
by Ca;sar (47 B.C.), born 63 B.C., was the son of 
Caius Octavius and Attia (niece of Csesar). He was 
a student in Apollonia when Cassar was killed (44). 
Though Caesar's heir, his property was refused him by 
Antony. He defeated Antony (Mutina 43); became 
consul in 43; and forming a triumvirate (with An- 
tony and Lepidus), defeated Brutus and Cassius at 
Philippi (42). In the distribution of provinces A. 
received Italy, and Antony Asia. He defeated 
Lepidus (36) and Antony at Actium (31). He was 
now master of the Roman Empire. He organized a 
standing army of 25 legions (300,000 men). Though 
opposed to wars of conquest, he conquered Spain 
(27-19), the Parthians (20), and the Germans 
(16-9). His stepsons (mother Livia) were Tiberius 
and Drusus. He adopted Tiberius (4 A.D.) and 
died in 14 A.D., at the age of 76, having reigned 44 
years. A. was cautious, mild, just, and forbearing; 



founded colonies, built roads, enacted laws in the 
interest of religion and morality. His autobiogra- 
phy is given on the Monuincntum Ancyranum. On 
the decree (Lk 2 l) see CHRONOLOGY OF N T, 1. 

J. R. S. S. 
AUL. See AWL. 

AVA, e'va, AVIM, S'vim, AVITE, e'vait. See 
AVVA, etc. 

AVEN, 6'ven (})$, 'awen), 'trouble/ 'wickedness': 
1. An Egyptian city (Ezk 30 17). Since the LXX 
reads Heliopolis ('city of the Sun,' i.e., On), Ezokicl 
probably wrote "X (On, cf. Gn 41 45, 50), which was 
changed to Avon perhaps because of the meaning of 
the word Aven. 2. In HoslOS (cf. ver. 5) "high 
places of Aven" means probably 'high places of 
idolatry' though many take it to refer to Bethel. 
3. In Am 15" Valley of Aven " may indicate some 
place in Syria not yet identified, or the name of a 
deity. E. E. N. 

AVENGER OF BLOOD. See BLOOD, AVEN- 
GER OF. 

AVITH, e'vith (H'W, ( &wlth~): An ancient capital 
of Edom (Gn 36 35; I Ch 1 46). Site unknown. 

E. E. N. 

AVVA, av'va (X1J? ; HI?, 'awwah): A city some- 
where in the Assyrian Empire whence colonists 
(Avvites) were imported to Samaria (II K 17 24, 
31, called Ivvah [Ivah AY] in II K 18 34, 19 13; Is 
37 13). E. E. N. 

AVVIM, av'vim, AVVITES, av'vaits (C'l?, 'aw- 
wlm}: 1. An ancient people dispossessed of their 
territory by the Caphtorim (Dt 2 23). In Jos 13 3 
they are counted with the Philistines. 2. The Av- 
vim (i.e., 'the ruins'), a place of Benjamin (Jos 
18 23). Site unknown. E. E. N. 

AWL (y5T32, martse'a, from J?X^!, rats'a. 'to 
pierce'): A small boring instrument (Ex 210; Dt 
15 17, aul AV). E. E. N 

AWNING. See SHIPS AND NAVIGATION, 2. 
AX, AXE. See ARTISAN LIFE, 6. 
AZAL, e'zal. See AZEL II. 

AZALIAH, az"a-lai'u (W^SJ?, 'dtsalyahu): The 
father of Shaphan the scribe of Josiah, King of 
Judah (II K 22 3; II Ch 34 8). E. E. N. 



AZANIAH, az"a-nai'a (~ 
father of Jeshua (Neh 10 9). 



'dzanyah): The 
E. E. N. 



AZAREL, az'a-rel (^IS, 'dzar'el, Azareel, Aza- 
rael, AV), 'God helps': 1. One of David's followers 
(IChl26). 2. A musician (I Ch 25 18, Uzziel in 
ver. 4). 3. One of the sons of Jeroham, a prince of 
the Danites under David (I Ch2722). 4. One of 
the "sons of Bani" who had taken a foreign wife (Ezr 
10 41). 6. A priest who dwelt in Jerusalem (Neh 11 
13, 12 36). E. E. N. 

AZARIAH, az"a-rai'a (!~;1U?., 'dzaryahu), '}" 
hath helped': 1. KingofJudah. See UZZIAH. 2. A 



75 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Atonement 
Azubah 



son of the Kohathites, an ancestor of the prophet 
Samuel (ICh 6 36). 3. AsonofZadok, priest under 
Solomon (I K42;cf. ICh69). 4. Sonof Nathan, an 
officer at Solomon's court (I K 4 5). 6. A prophet, 
sou of Oded, who met Asa returning from the defeat 
of Zerah, the Ethiopian, and exhorted him to perse- 
vere in his religious reforms (II Ch 15 1-8). 6. A son 
of Jehoshaphat, massacred by his brother Jehoram 
(II Ch 21 2 ff.). 7. The father of Amariah, high priest 
under Jehoshaphat (I Ch 6 10; Ezr 7 3). 8. A son of 
Jehoram (II Ch 22 6). But see AHAZIAH, 2. 9. 
Two captains who assisted Jehoiada (II Ch 23 1 ff.). 
10. A high priest, who withstood Uzziah's attempt 
to desecrate the altar of incense (II Ch 2617, 20). 11. 
An elder of Ephraim, who rebuked Pekah for taking 
Judtean captives in the Syro-Ephraimitish war (II Ch 
28 12 ff.). 12. Two Levites, active under Hezekiah 
(II Ch 29 12). 13. Chief priest under Hezekiah (II 
Ch 31 13). 14. A son of Hilkiah, and grandfather of 
Ezra (I Ch 6 13; Ezr 7 1). 15. A Judsean leader who 
opposed Jeremiah's counsels (Jer432). 16. Two 
persons in the genealogy of Judah (I Ch 2 8, 38 f.). 
17. A common name among the exiles who returned 
(Neh 3 23, 7 7, 8 7, 10 2, 12 33). 18. The Hebrew 
name of Abednego (q.v.) (Dn 1 6). J. A. K. 

AZAZ, e'zaz (H?, 'azaz): A Reubenite, the son 
of Shema (or Shemaiah) (I Ch 5 8). E. E. N. 

AZAZEL, a-ze'zel (^IKJJJ, 'dza'zel), Scapegoat 
AV, 'removal' RVmg. (Lv 16 8, 10, 26): A name used 
in connection with one of the goats selected for the 
service of the Day of Atonement (Lv 23 26 ff.). It- 
is not, however, the name of the goat, for that was 
entitled " unto Azazel " just as the other goat was en- 
titled " unto Jehovah." Azazel must, therefore, be 
the name either of the act of sending the goat away 
into the wilderness or, preferably, of the person to 
whom it was sent, possibly a demon in the wilderness. 

Apart from this ceremony, however, it is not easy to 
trace the existence of belief in such a person among 
the Israelites, though it was common enough among 
other peoples (Wellhausen, Reste Arab. Heid., pp. 
135-140). In Israel it survived as a shadowy vestige 
of primitive Semitic demonology and was used to 
express the thought that sin belongs to a power or 
principle hostile to J" and its complete purgation 
must include its being sent back to its source. 

A. C. Z. 

AZAZIAH, az"a-zai'a (^}'S, 'dzazyahu), 'J" 
is strong': 1. A musician (I Ch 1521). 2. The father 
of Hoshea, prince of Ephraim, in the reign of David 
(I Ch 27 20). 3. A Levite overseer of the tithes un- 
der Hezekiah (II Ch 31 13). E. E. N. 

AZBUK, az'buk (pl2JS, 'azbuq): The father of 
Nehemiah, ruler of part of Beth-zur, who assisted 
in rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem (Neh 3 16). 

E. E. N. 

AZEKAH, a-zi'ka (n^TJ|, 'dzeqah): A town in 
NW. Judah. It is mentioned with Makkedah (Jos 
10 10 f.) as a place to which Joshua pursued the 
Canaanites at the battle of Gibeon. It is also men- 
tioned with Socoh (Jos 15 35; IS 17l), but these 
references are not clear enough to identify the site, 



which remains uncertain. A. was fortified by Ilehc- 
IMKUII (IlChllo), besieged by Nebuchadrezzar 
(Jer 34 7), and reoccupied by the Jews after the 
Exile (Neh 11 30). E. E. N. 



AZEL, e'zel ("$$, 'atscl): A descendant of Jona- 
than, son of Saul (I Ch 8 37 f., 9 43 f.). E. K. N. 

AZEM, e'zem. See EZEM. 

AZGAD, az'gad p;tj?, 'azgadh), 'Gad is strong,' 
or 'fate is strong': The ancestral head of a large 
family of post-exilic Jews (Ezr 2 12 = Neh 7 17; Ezr 
8 12 = Neh 10 15). E. E. N. 

AZIEL, e'zi-el (V?J?, 'tel'tl), 'God is (my) 
strength': A Levite who played the psaltery and 
who was chosen by David to play before the ark 
(I Ch 15 20, Jaaziel in ver. 18). E. E. N. 



AZIZA, a-zai'za (XJ'IK, 'Hzlza'), 'strong': One 
of the "sons of Zattu" who had taken a strange 
wife (Ezr 10 27). E. E. N. 



AZMAVETH, az-me'veth (rtyptJ?, 'azmaweth), 
'death is strong': I. 1. One of David's heroes (II S 
23 31; I Ch 11 33). 2. A descendant of Saul (1 Ch 
8 36, 9 42). 3. Apparently the father of certain fol- 
lowers of David (I Ch 12 3). It is likely, however, 
that a place-name is here used genealogically. See 
II, below. 4. One of David's treasurers (I Ch 27 25). 

II. The home of a colony of returned exiles (Ezr 
2 24; Neh 12 29), called Beth Azmaveth in Neh 7 28. 
It lay a little N. of Anathoth, Map II, F 1. 

E. E. N. 



AZMON, az'me-n (]to22 , 'atsmSn): A town on the 
S. border of Judah (Nu 34 4 f. ; Jos 15 4) called Ezem 
(Azem AV) in Jos 1529, 193; I Ch 429. Site un- 
known. E. E. N. 



AZNOTH-TABOR, az"neth-t6'bSr (Tin 
'aznoth tabhor), 'ears of Tabor': A place, probably 
hills, near Mt. Tabor on the border of Naphtali (Jos 
19 34). E. E. N. 

AZOR, e'zor ('Af<p): One of Christ's ancestors; 
son of Eliakim (Mt 1 13). E. E. N. 

AZOTUS, Q-zo'tus. See ASHDOD. 

AZRIEL, az'ri-el (VS'I'.S, 'azri'el), 'God is (my) 
help": 1. A chieftain of the half tribe of ManassehE. 
of Jordan (I Ch 5 24). 2. The official head of the 
tribe of Naphtali under David (I Ch 27 19). 3. The 
father of Seraiah (Jer 36 26). E. E. N. 

AZRIKAM, az-roi'kam (=^"!U', 'azriqam): 1. A 
descendant of David (I Ch 3 23). 2. A descendant 
of Saul (I Ch 8 38, 9 44). 3. A Levite (I Ch 9 14; Neh 
11 15). 4. An officer of Ahaz (II Ch 28 7). 

E. E. N. 

AZUBAH, a-zu'ba (<i;it;J, 'fcubhah), 'forsaken':!. 
The wife of Caleb (I Ch 2 18 f . ). If A. is a place-name, 
it may indicate that it was once occupied by Caleb- 
ites and afterward deserted. 2. The mother of King 
Jehoshaphat (I K 22 42; II Ch 20 31). E. E. N. 



Azur 
Babylon 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



76 



AZUR, e'zOr. See AZZUR. 
AZZAH, az'za. See GAZA. 
AZZAN, uz'zun Cjii', 'azzan), 'strong': The 
father of Paltiel, prince of Issachar (Nu 34 26). 

E. E. N. 



AZZUR, az'zur (~VS, 'azzur, 'helped 1 : 1. The 
father of Ilaiianiah, the prophet of Gibeon (Jer28 1, 
Azur AV). 2. The father of Jaazaniah, a prince of 
i he people (K/.k 11 l, Azur AV, same as 1 [?]). 3. 
One of the signers of the covenant (Neh 10 17). 

E. E. N. 



B 



BAAL, be'al or bQ'ql. I. Significance of the 
term: The word Ba'al (???) occurs many times in 
the Heb. OT with various meanings. 1. In the 
sense of ' master ' or ' owner,' as in Ex 21 28, 34; Jg 
1922; Is 16 8. 2. In the sense of ' husband, 'as in Ex 
21 3; II S 11 26; see esp. Hos 2 16. 3. To denote the 
inhabitants or men of a town, as in Jg 9 2 f. 4. To 
denote one who is skilled in some practise or inti- 
mately connected with some particular thing (cf. 
RVmg. at Gn 37 19). 6. As the name of the Sem- 
itic deity Baal (see SEMITIC RELIGION, 15). 
6. In compound personal or place-names. In per- 
sonal names Baal referred to the deity. Such 
compounds were very common among the Phosni- 
cians and Canaanites. In Israelitic personal names 
compounded with Baal the term was used as the 
equivalent of Jehovah i.e., Jehovah was called 
Baal. He was -the maker, owner, lord. In later 
times (after the 8th cent.) such compounds were 
viewed with disfavor. Place-names compounded 
with Baal are ancient and in such "Baal" stood 
for the local deity. II. 1. A Reubenite (I Ch 5 5). 
2. A Benjamite (I Ch 8 30=9 36). III. A town in 
the S. of Judah, called Bealoth (Jos 15 24), als > 
Baalath-beer in the list of the cities of Simeon 
(Jos 19 8), where it seems to be identified with 
Raman of the South. Aside from the fact that it 
was somewhere on the border of Simeon's territory 
(ICh433) its site is altogether unknown. 

E. E. N. 

BAALAH, be'a-la (nVj;2, ba'dlah): 1. A city on 
the N. border of Judah (Jos 15 9 f.; I Ch 13 6), also 
called Baale-judah (II S 6 2), Kiriathbaal (Jos 15 
60), and Kiriath-jearim (q.v.). 2. A city in the S. 
of Judah (Jos 15 29), also called Balah (Jos 19 3) and 
Bilhah (I Ch 4 29), and counted as belonging to Sim- 
eon. Site unknown. 3. A range of hills between 
Ekron and Jabneel (Jos 15 ll). For general location 
see Map III, C 5. E. E. N. 

BAALAH, be'a-la, BAALATH, be'al-ath: Vari- 
ant forms of Baal. See BAAL, III. 

BAALATH-BEER, be'ol-ath-bi'er. See BAAL, III. 

BAAL-BERITH, -bi'rith (rn? bsi, ba'al b'rith), 
'Baal of the covenant': The name of the Canaan- 
ite deity of Shechem (Jg 8 33, 9 4), called Elberith 
in 9 46. What the 'covenant' referred to in the 
name was is uncertain. There is no evidence 
that it was a covenant between the original (Ca- 
naanite) inhabitants of Shechem and the Israelites. 
This Baal had a temple at Shechem which, like most 
pagan temples, served as the treasury of the com- 
munity. E. E. N. 



BAALE-JUDAH, be'al-i-ju'da. See BAALAH, I. 

BAAL-GAD, -gad (" "?>'2, ba'al gadh), 'Baal of 
good fortune': A place in the valley of Lebanon (Jos 
11 17, 12 7), "under Mt. Hermon" (13 5). In these 
passages it marks the N. limit of Israel's conquest of 
Canaan. Though often identified with Dan (Ba- 
nios) its site is uncertain. E. E. N. 

BAAL-HAMON, -he/mon fi^H bl>2, ba'al 
hamdn): A place mentioned in Song 8 11. The 
location is unknown. E. E. N. 

BAAL-HANAN, -he'nan ()Jn b'jl, ba'al hanan), 
'Baal was gracious': comp. the Carthaginian name 
Hannibal. 1. The seventh king of Edom (Gn 36 38 f. 
= I Ch 1 49 f.). 2. An official under David (I Ch 27 
28). E. E. N. 

BAAL-HAZOR, -he'zor (TiSn Vl'2, ba'al hatsor): 
A town in Ephraim, where Absalom had a sheep- 
range (II S 13 23). Probably the hilltop Tett 'Asur. 
Map III, F 5. E. E. N. 

BAAL-HERMON, -her'men flftnn Vi'2, ba'al 
herman): A town or place near Mt. Hermon (Jg3 3; 
I Ch 5 23). Perhaps the same as Baal-Gad (cf. Jos 
135). E. E. N. 

BAALI, be'al-ai: Used as an appellation of S'' in 
Hos 2 16. See BAAL, I, 2. E. E. N. 

BAALIM, be'al-im. See SEMITIC RELIGION, 15. 

BAALIS, be'al-is (C-Vi'2, ba''tt?): A king of the 
Ammonites (Jer 40 14). E. E. N. 

BAAL-MEON, -mi'on G<r: u i'2, ba'al m-'ore),'The 
Baal of Meon' ('the dwelling'?) : A prominent town of 
Moab (cf. Ezk 25 9), assigned to Reuben (Nu 32 38; 
I Ch 5 8 ; Jos 13 17, where it is called Beth-baal-meon). 
It is called Beth-meon in Jer 48 23 and Beon in Nu 
32 3. In the inscription of Mesha (q.v.) it is called 
Beth-baal-meon and represented as "built" (cf. Nu 
32 38), i.e., 'built up' or 'fortified' by Mesha. Map 
II, J 1. E. E. N. 

BAAL-PEOR, -pi'er (Itti? b?2, ba'al p-'or), 'The 
Baal of Peor': The god who was worshiped at the 
Moabite town, or place, Peor (cf. Nu 23 28). The 
deity was probably Chemosh, the national deity of 
the Moabites. During Israel's sojourn in Moabite 
territory, the Israelites were drawn away by Moabite 
women to the corrupt worship of the deity (Nu 25 3; 
Dt 4 3; Ps 106 28; Hos 9 10). See also PEOR. 

E. E. N. 

BAAL-PERAZIM, -pe-re'zim (C-S'r"^ 1 '?. ba'al 
p*ratsim), 'Baal of [the deeds of] breaking through': 



77 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Azur 
Babylon 



The scene of one of David's victories over the Philis- 
tines (II S 5 20; I Ch 14 11). The name is significant 
of the use by the Israelites of Baal Jehovah. Is 
28 21 refers probably to this event. The site is un- 
known. E. E. N. 



BAAL-SHALISHA, be/'al-shal'i-sha 
ba'al shfillshah): A place in Ephraim (II K 4 42). Map 
III, E 4. Perhaps identical with Shalisha (q.v.) 
(I S 9 14). E. E. N. 

BAAL-TAMAR, -te'mar ("^ Vl'2), 'Baal of the 
palm': A place near Gibeali (Jg 20 33), not yet 
identified. E. E. N. 

BAAL-ZEBUB, -zi'bub. See BEELZEBUB. 



ollicrrs of Ishbosheth, son of Saul, who murdered 
him and were executed by David's order (II S 4 2 ff.). 
3. The ancestral head of a family of returned 
Exiles (Ezr 2 2; Neh 7 7, 10 27). I :. K. N. 

BAARA, be'a-ra (N'i'2, ba'&rH'): One of the 
wives of Shiihuniim, the Benjamite (IChSS). 

E. E. N. 

BAASEIAH, be"cH3t'ya (n;tj;2, ba'&slyHh): A 
Gershonite Levite, ancestor of Asaph (ICh640). 

E. E. N. 

BAASHA, be'a-sha (K*?2, ba'-shQ.'): The third 
king of Israel, who gained the throne by assassinating 



vwst L'42 from ftzris 



PLAN 

of the Ru-ins of 

BABYLON 

Sftiffgs <*?*?". type 1 "* a "<* fifecAts 



roumh^s 



// v ^ 




PLAN OF THE RUINS OF BABYLON. 



BAAL-ZEPHON, -zi'fen 
'the Baal of Zephon ' : A place near which the Israel- 
ites encamped before crossing the Red Sea (Ex 14 2, 
9; Xu 33 7). The site is unknown. E. E. N. 

BAANA, be'a-na (KJg3, &a'<5rea'): 1. The name 
of two of Solomon's officials (I K 4 12, 16). 2. The 
father of Zadok, one of those who "builded the wall" 
of Jerusalem in Nehemiah's time (Neh 3 4). 

E. E. N. 

BAANAH, be'a-na (njl'2, ba'&nah): 1. A Netoph- 
athite, the father of Heleb (or Heled), one of David's 
warriors (II S 23 29 = I Ch 11 30). 2. One of the two 



Nadab. His reign of 24 years was spent in continual 
warfare with Asa, who forced him to give up Ramah 
by forming an alliance with Ben-hadad (I K 15 16 ff., 
16 l ff.; Jer 41 9). J. A. K. 

BABEL, be'bel (^3?, babhel): The Hebrew 
form of Babylon; used in the EVV only in Gn 10 10, 
119. See BABYLONIA, 2, 25. J. F. McC. 

BABYLON, bab'i-hm (V??, babhel): The city of 
Babylon, as it preceded the making of the kingdom 
of Babylonia (see BABYLONIA, 16), so also long 
survived its extinction. It undoubtedly owed its 
rise at some unknown early period to the develop- 



Babylon 
Babylonia 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



78 



ment of trade with the western oases and along the 

great western canal (Pallakopas) on which lay the 

sister city Borsippa, 7 m. to the SW. 

I. Origin. Tlu 1 native name Babil meant 'gate of 

God.' The form Babbil (Babel) might 

also in Babylonian mean confusion' (cf. Gnll 9); 

but perhaps both of these words are folk-etymologies. 

The city lay mainly on the left bank of the Euphra- 

as is indicated by the three great mounds along 

with lesser ruins. It was not until the new empire 

(see BABYLONIA, 21) that the opposite settlement 

on the right bank was built up on a large scale. 

As in all other Babylonian cities it was the relig- 
ious institutions that chiefly promoted the develop- 
ment of Babylon. In the hands of the 
2. Influence priesthood were ample lands held in fee 
of simple or by mortgage, and great prop- 
Religion, erties accruing therefrom as well as 
from separate loans and investments. 
The priests also were the teachers of youth and the 
promoters of learning and research, controlling the 
schools, workshops, and observatories which were 
connected with the temples. The temple-buildings 
themselves were as imposing as the royal palaces 
and more numerous. Chief among these in Baby- 
lon was E-sagila ('the lofty house') sacred to Bel- 
Merodach (see BABYLONIA, 16, and SEMITIC 
RELIGION, 16, 25), now lying under the most 
southerly of the three mounds that occupy the site 
of the city proper. This, and "not the somewhat 
smaller temple of Nebo in Borsippa, marked by the 
better-preserved lofty ruin Birs Nimrud, was the 
original of the 'Tower of Babel' (cf. Gn 11 1-9). 

Babylon owed most of its prosperity 

3. The and opulence to its two greatest kings. 

Babylon Hammurabi (c. 2200 B.C.; see BABY- 

of Nebu- LONIA, 16) made it not only the 

chadrezzar. political and business but also the 

religious center in place of Nippur, and 

E-sagila became henceforth the pride and inspiration 

of true Babylonians. As enlarged and beautified by 



Neliuchadrezzar (605-561 B.C.; see BABYLONIA, 
21 ), the city was surrounded by a wall of over 50 m. 
in circuit, the largest structure of antiquity. This 
was protected by a broad moat with enclosing walls 
of its own and pierced by a hundred gates of bronze. 
A space of 4,000 cubits intervened between it and 
the ramparts, within which was a moat guarding the 
inner wall. In the city proper the streets were at 
right angles to one another, as in our modern towns, 
ami a canal ran through it from N. to S. parallel to 
the Euphrates. The temple of Merodach, like the 
other great Babylonian sanctuaries, was of two main 
parts. There was the temple proper, having a vesti- 
bule, a long inner court, and an oracle entered once 
a year to learn the will of Merodach. Attached to 
it was a ziggurat or 'high tower,' 600 ft. square at 
the base, divided into seven stages, for the sun, 
moon, and five planets. 

Under Cyrus (538-529 B.C.) Babylon was made 
one of the Persian capitals. It revolted twice against 

Darius Hystaspis (521 and 514 B.C.) 
4. Decline and each time was besieged, taken, and 
of severely punished. Its religion, how- 
Babylon, ever, was encouraged by the Persian 

rulers. Under the Seleucida; it was de- 
spoiled in favor of Seleucia, which was made their 
eastern capital. Parthian misgovernment and neg- 
lect of agriculture completed its decay, though its 
worship and even its written language survived ti". 
within a generation of the Christian era. In the N T 
Babylon is referred to directly only in passages 
reminiscent of the OT (e.g., Ac 7 43). The other 
uses of the name are metaphorical, one instance (I P 
5 13) referring to the city of Rome, and the others 
(Rev 14 8, etc.) to the Roman world-power as op- 
posed to Christianity. In N T times and later there 
was no Christian community in Babylon. After the 
Parthian regime there was a mere village of Babil; 
and the town of Hillah, 3 m. to the S., has long been 
the only center of any permanent settlement. 

J. F. McC. 



INTRODUCTORY 

1. Importance of Babylonia 

I. NAME AND FEATURES 

2. Name 

3. Limits of Country 

4. Soil and Products 

5. River and Canal System 

II. DIVISIONS 

6. Determined by Waterways 

7. Southern Cities 

INTRODUCTORY: Babylonia is, upon the whole, 
the most important to the Biblical student of all 
countries except Palestine. In it is 
i. Impor- laid the scene of the creation of man- 
tance of kind, of the earliest history of the race, 
Babylonia, and of the ancestors of Israel. It was 
also the land where in exile Israel was 
purified and reformed. It was the source and 
nursery of ancient wisdom and knowledge, the pio- 
neer of civilization in Western Asia, the proprietor 
and educator of Syria and Palestine for thousands 
of years before Israel became a nation. Its literature 



BABYLONIA 

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS 

8. Middle Cities 

9. Northern Cities 
III. HISTORY 

10. Region of Earliest Civili- 

zation 

11. Progress of Culture 

12. Earliest Type of Culture 

13. Predominance of Central 

Babylonia 



14. Northern and Southern Dynasties 

15. Rule of the Elamites 

16. Babylon and Babylonia 

17. The Cossean Dynasty 

18. Native Rule Resumed 

19. Chaldeans and Assyrians 

20. Assyrian Rule and Ruin 

21. New Babylonian Empire 

22. Decline and Fall 

23. Continued Importance 

profoundly influenced the form and even the con- 
tents of the early portions of the Bible, and it is one 
of the main problems of archeology to discover to 
what extent the religious institutions of Israel were 
tinctured with Babylonian elements. 

1. NAME AND FEATURES: The country known 
as Babylonia was so called by the Greeks and Ro- 
mans, who named it from its capital city 

2. Name. Babylon (q.v.), the Greek and the Latin 

form of the native Babil. The Hebrew 
^P', Babel, which is an exact equivalent of the 
latter, is used in the O T for both the city and the 



79 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Babylon 
Babylonia 



country, and therefore the modern versions also use 
Babylon in both senses. After the city of Babylon 
had been established and recognized as the capital, 
the kingship of Babylon implied sovereignty over 
the whole country as though it were a city-state, so 
that in an important sense Babylon really stood for 
Babylonia. 

Babylonia properly embraced all the alluvial land 

lying between and beside the lower Euphrates and 

Tigris. This included the territory 

3. Limits varying greatly in breadth, stretching 
of the from Hit on the Euphrates southeast- 
Country, ward to the Persian Gulf. The length 

of the country thus defined was consid- 
erably less in ancient times than it is at present ; for 
the detritus brought down by the great rivers from 
the Armenian mountains and mingling with the 
desert sands has long been gaining upon the sea. In 
the time of the earliest known Babylonian kingdom 
the seashore was at least 150 m. farther to the NW. 
than it is at present, and the Euphrates and Tigris 
flowed into the gulf by separate mouths. 

The most striking feature of the soil of Babylonia 
is the absence of metals and stone of any kind. In 

ancient times the land, except where 

4. Soil the sand predominated close to the sea- 
and shore, was everywhere very fertile. Its 

Products, present condition of desolation simply 
implies a lack of proper care, skill, and 
industry. The inhabitants in the earliest historic 
ages drew off the superfluous water into canals and 
reservoirs, and in the months when the soil was dry- 
est it was constantly and systematically irrigated. 
Its productiveness was enormous, especially in 
wheat, with other cereals, and dates. A very large 
variety of herbs also was cultivated in gardens. 

The general aspect of the country was determined 

by this level alluvial soil, intersected by innumerable 

canals, which in the northern part of 

5. River the country above Babylon formed a 
and perfect network. South of this system 

Canal a long waterway, originally a separate 
System, branch of the Euphrates, now known 
as the Shatt-en-Nil, ran a course almost 
parallel to the main stream. From it were deflected 
several canals in its downward course. The Tigris 
from Bagdad southward ran nearly parallel to the 
Euphrates, till opposite Babylon it began to diverge 
rapidly and ran an easterly course. At its point of 
farthest removal, over 100 m. from the Euphrates, it 
was in its turn relieved of redundant water by a 
great canal, the Shatt-el-Hai, running nearly due 
S. across to the lowest stretch of the Euphrates. 
Lesser watercourses also formed a portion of this 
third system. 

II. DIVISIONS: These waterways and canals de- 
termined the location of the chief settlements 
which developed into cities or city- 

6. Divi- states; and the three main systems 
sions De- above indicated gave rise respective- 

termined ly to three well-marked divisions of 
by Water- the whole country into what we may 

ways. designate North, Central, and South 

Babylonia. 

Nearly all the many important cities of Baby- 
lonia were situated between the Euphrates and 



Tigris. An exception was Ur in South Babylonia, 
the city of the moon-god, which lay on the right 

bank of the Euphrates. E. of Ur and 

7. Southern close to the old mouth of the Euphrates 

Cities. was Eridu, the most southerly city of 

all Babylonia. To the NVV. of Ur was 
Erech, the sacred city of Ishtar. E. of Erech was 
Larsa (the O T Ellasar), and farther to the NE. La- 
gash, the modern Tello. Still farther N. were Iain, 
and Adab, the modern Bismya. There does not 
seem to have been any general native designation for 
the territory embraced by these southern cities. 

The middle group of ancient cities begins on the 8. 
with Nippur (the modern Nufiar) in the geographical 

center of old Babylonia. Of the other 

8. Middle cities the most important in later times 

Cities. was Babylon. Borsippa, the seat of 

the prophet-god Nebo, lay 35 m. NW. 
of Nippur and 7 m. SW. of Babylon, on the right 
bank of the Euphrates; 15 m. NE. of Babylon, and 
half-way to the Tigris, was Cutha, the modern Tell- 
Ibrahim, the seat of Nergal, the god of the dead and 
the underworld. In that same group lay the im- 
portant cities of Kish and Isban, whose sites, how- 
ever, are still uncertain. This group of cities from 
Nippur to Cutha probably represented the very an- 
cient kingdom of Shumer (Shinar). 

Proceeding northward we come to the series of 
numerous canals running across to the Tigris. On 

the northern border of these was Sippar 

9. Northern (the modern ruin Abu-Habba), a very 

Cities. ancient seat of the sun-god, as Larsa 

was in the south. Near it, and prob- 
ably to the S., was the still more ancient Agade or 
Akkad which gave its name to North Babylonia. 
This designation was preserved to the latest Baby- 
lonian times, while the combination 'Shumer and 
Akkad' seems to have originally designated North 
and Middle Babylonia, and not the whole of Baby- 
lonia as is generally assumed. 

III. HISTORY: The development of early Baby- 
lonian civilization was necessarily slow, and a great 

antiquity is to be assigned to its begin- 

10. Region nings. But it is probable that in no 

of Earliest region of the world can the conditions 

Civilization, of the first steps in human culture be 

so easily inferred. The starting-point 
must be assumed to have been not the south but the 
central region of Babylonia. It was riparian and not 
maritime soil that furnished the occasions of the de- 
cisive beginnings of agriculture, and in the most an- 
cient times the rivers could have played no part in 
the historical lower Babylonia. In those days also 
the desert had more numerous and larger oases than 
those which have been known to later times, and the 
inhabitants of one or more of these, perhaps not far 
W. of Babylon, became accustomed to observe that 
vegetables and cereals grew luxuriantly in small 
areas in the neighborhood of the overflow of the 
three-branched Euphrates. 

The natural impulse to repeat and multiply the 
favorable conditions thus noted led by degrees to 
systematic drainage, irrigation, sowing, and plant- 
ing. Then fixed settlements were made; private 
property in land was conceded; fields and gardens 
were set apart in allotments, making earth-measur- 



Babylonia 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



80 



ing or 'geometry' and mensuration a matter of 
gradual invention and development. When stand- 
ards of measurement had been adopted 
1 1 . Prog- they were transferred to products of the 
ress of soil and other articles of value, whence 
Culture, arose a system of weights as well as 
measures. From the beginning religion 
played a leading part in tribal and family affairs. In 
Babylonia it was largely astral and solar, and hence 
measurement of the sky and its divisions went hand 
in hand with measurement of the earth, while tem- 
ple-building employed incessantly all the arts of 
primitive science. Perhaps most of the first work- 
ing tools were modified weapons; but vessels of 
various sorts were readily made from the unsur- 
passed potter's clay that abounded everywhere; 
while cement was furnished by the bitumen that 
here and there welled from the soil. The use of the 
hand in thus modeling objects of utility led to skilled 
labor and the making of objects of primitive art. 
With the growth of agriculture and the increase of 
town life came exchange and trade, and therewith 
and thereafter the use of marks or rudimentary 
writing for record and reference. Such were the es- 
sential foundations of Babylonian culture, and, it 
may be added, the principal elements of the deriva- 
tive science of Babylonia, which found its way to 
other peoples and regions in very early days along 
with many mythological and religious conceptions 
and traditions. 

To what race the people belonged who chiefly con- 
tributed to this momentous development it is very 
difficult to determine. The written 
12. Earli- and monumental records for many 
est Type hundreds of the earliest years point to a 
of Culture, mixture of races. The final determin- 
ing element was Semitic, akin to the 
Aramean, the Canaanite, and the Arabian. But the 
cuneiform system of writing, the chief factor in the 
final stage of cultural evolution, gives much striking 
evidence in the names and values of its many char- 
acters of a non-Semitic origin; and a vast number of 
inscriptions, especially in the south, which are partly 
ideographic and partly phonetic, at first sight point 
the same way. The non-Semitic language, supposed 
to be thus indicated, and its speakers and writers, 
have been designated 'Sumerian.' The term is a 
misnomer (cf. 8, 9); but the theory as a whole is 
now accepted by most scholars. 

A fixed point in the chronology is afforded by the 
date of one of the very ancient dynasties, that of 
Sargon, of Agade or Akkad ( 9), about 
13. Pre- 3800 B.C. The recent researches on 
dominance the site of Nippur, along with excava- 
of Central tions made at Tello, the ancient Lagash 
Babylonia, in South Babylonia, make it probable 
that at a date preceding 4500 B.C. Nip- 
pur was an important political and religious center. 
The earliest rulers mentioned were apparently not 
kings of Nippur, but had made that city their relig- 
ious capital and En-lil (the Semitic Bel) the great 
object of their reverence. For example, the king of 
the city of Kish ( 8), when victorious over his foes, 
made acknowledgment in the temple at Nippur. 
Kish also allied itself with another city-state, Isban, 
apparently situated in the same central region. Aft- 



erward Isban secured control of the whole of Baby- 
lonia, and its successful king, Lugalzaggisi, even 
dominated all the country W. to the Mediterranean. 
He in his turn also recorded his thanks and homage 
in the temple at Nippur. 

The leading place seems to have passed next to 
South Babylonia. Lagash ( 7) became supreme 

over South and Central Babylonia not 
14. North- later than 4000 B.C., and a series of en- 
ern and ergetic rulers laid there the foundation 
Southern of a great empire. Before 3800, how- 
Dynasties, ever, the Semites of the north attained 

to power, and for a time eclipsed the 
splendor of the southern rulers. Inscriptions found 
in various regions show that Semitic communities to 
the NE. (cf. 15) were civilized and in close contact 
with those in Babylonia. Of the latter Akkad came 
to the front under Sargon I, who brought under his 
dominion the whole of Babylonia and the western 
lands as far as the island of Cyprus. His son, Narani- 
Sin, inherited his power and ambition. The building 
up of Sippar ( 9) was one of his projects, and in view 
of the extent of his dominions he assumed the title of 
"king of the four quarters of the world." Soon after 
his death the hegemony returned to Lagash, whose 
rulers are found not only asserting a wide-spread 
authority, but promoting architecture, sculpture, 
and other arts of civilization. Abundant inscrip- 
tions attest the energy and resources of this dynasty. 
But the leadership passed at length from its hands 
to the ancient city of Ur about 3000 B.C. Its rulers, 
by adding to their own proper title that of "king of 
Shumer and Akkad, "showed it to be their purpose 
to unify the whole of Babylonia. This dynasty was 
followed (c. 2500) by one whose capital was Isin; but 
Ur not long after regained the supremacy, after 
which Larsa ( 7, c. 2400) took the lead. 

The hegemony of Larsa was ere long interrupted 
by an invasion of the Elamites (c. 2300), which ended 

in their complete subjugation of Baby- 

1 5. Rule Ionia, Larsa naturally being made their 

of the capital. From Gn 14 we learn that 

Elamites. these Elamites (under King Chedor- 

laomer) as rulers of Babylonia con- 
tinued its role of suzerainty over the 'westland.' 
The expeditions there described had as their object 
to secure control of the trade route from Damascus 
to the peninsula of Sinai (cf. vs. 5-7), which in 
those early days was even more important than it is 
at present. From the same secondary source we 
are informed that the sovereignty of Babylon in- 
cluded that of the northeastern country as well 
("Goiim," "nations," AV, Gn 14 1 - the Bab. Gute). 
The Elamitic yoke was thrown off by Hammu- 
rabi, King of Babylon, probably the "Amraphel, 

King of Shinar" (Shumer or Central 

16. Baby- Babylonia) of Gn 14, who at the 

Ion and same time united all Babylonia under 

Babylonia, one administration. Babylon, which 

thenceforth became the undisputed 
capital of the whole of Babylonia and the leading 
city of Western Asia, was not by any means a new 
city at this era, though its earliest history is as yet 
obscure. The dynasty to which Hammurabi be- 
longed, though known as 'the first," was not native 
but Arabian, and he was the fourth of the line. He 



81 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Babylonia 



was the real founder of the Babylonian type of na- 
tionality, and one of Jie world's greatest men. His 
work was cpoch-mak ig in religion, civic administra- 
tion, provincial organization, legislation, irrigation, 
and national defense. His paternal care extended to 
hundreds of cities and towns from the Persian Gulf 
to the Mediterranean coastland. Among his chief 
monuments were his temples and palaces, his great 
canals, his legislative code, and the city of Baby- 
lon itself, of which he was the virtual creator, which 
he made the successor of Nippur as the center of 
Semitic religion and culture, and whose patron god 
Merodaeh was invested with the prerogatives and 
attributes of Bel himself and even with his name (cf. 
Is 46 1). This first dynasty of Babylon lasted till 
about 2100 B.C. The second dynasty ran till near 
1700 B.C. Little is known of it, but it must have 
been active all over the western country, for the 
Amarna letters of the next period show that Baby- 
lonian influence had permeated the life and thought 
of Palestine and Syria for hundreds of years before 
their date (1450-1400 B.C.). 

The rulers of this second dynasty, especially 
toward the close, had to suffer from inroads of 
Elamites and Cosseans, the latter of 
17. The whom succeeded in obtaining control 
Cossean of Babylon about 1700 B.C. Their 
Dynasty, rule was long and on the whole not 
very prosperous. Their influence was 
mainly political. They conformed to the religion of 
Babylonia, and in their measure they were molded 
by its civilization. They were not devoid of enter- 
prise and daring, but they lacked culture and re- 
sources. Their empire was contracted by other 
causes also. Assyria was becoming continually 
stronger, and was barring the way to the west. Meso- 
potamia became a bone of contention between the 
two nations, and their rivalry resulted in the loss of 
the 'westland 1 altogether. This was also the period 
of the expansion of Egypt. By 1000, when the 
Asiatic Hyksos were expelled from that country, 
no Semitic force was strong enough to keep the 
Egyptians from successfully invading Palestine and 
Syria. They were succeeded there by Hittites and 
Arameans, and finally Assyrians and not Babylo- 
nians resumed the empire of the west. Meanwhile 
the two powers were engaged in frequent warfare 
with occasional treaties of peace; and both of them 
cultivated friendship with Egypt in the 16th and 
17th centuries while it was a power in Asiatic affairs. 
The Cossean intruders were finally expelled by 
Nebuchadrezzar I, an early member of the 4th 
dynasty, about 1130 B.C. He made 
1 8. Native a desperate effort to reclaim Syria, but 
Rule had to succumb to the superior power 
Resumed, of Assyria. Not long after his time 
Babylon itself was captured by the 
Assyrians, but not permanently held. Peaceful rela- 
tions seem to have been maintained for many years 
thereafter. The next dynasty is called that of the 
'Sea-land,' which was probably the result of the 
first effort of the Chaldeans to assert themselves on 
a national scale. The 5th, 6th, and 7th dynasties, 
regarding which little is known, were of short dura- 
tion. The 7th had at least one Elamitic ruler. After 
1000 B.C., the native kings were again in power. 



With the revival of Assyrian aggression on a world- 
conquering scale Babylonia gradually took an in- 
ferior place, but it was not till the era of Tinlath- 
pileser III that Assyria gained a permanent footing 
in the mother-country. Early in the reign of N'a- 
Ixmassar (747-733), the first king of the Canon of 
Ptolemy, the Assyrians occupied Akkad, and in 7i".i 
Babylon itself was taken by Tiglath-pileser, who as- 
sumed the throne under the name of Pulu (the "Pul" 
of II K 15 19). 

The chief obstacle to the progress of the Assyrians 
was presented by the Chaldeans from the shores of 
the Persian Gulf, who had now begun 
19. Chal- systematic plans for gaining possession 
deans and of Babylon ( 18). Their aims seem 
Assyrians, not to have been purely ambitious. 
They wished to maintain a native 
Babylonian dynasty, while the all-powerful priestly 
party in Babylon was quite willing to tolerate As- 
syrian rule for the sake of its protection and better 
chances of settled government. Merodach-baladan 
II was the leading spirit of the first great struggle. 
He was three times in possession of the capital and 
for two periods actual king. For thirty years he 
kept intriguing, fighting, or actually reigning in 
Babylon. It was in 704 that he sent the embassy to 
Hezekiah of Judah seeking help in organizing a gen- 
eral revolt against Sennacherib (cf. II K 20 12; Is 39 
1). He finally disappeared, embarking in his flight 
for the eastern shore of the Persian Gulf. Native 
opposition to the Assyrians was still maintained till 
in 690 Sennacherib captured and destroyed Babylon 
itself, turning the Euphrates over its site. During 
these struggles the Elamites rendered faithful and 
substantial assistance to the Chaldeans. 

Babylon was restored (680 B.C.) by the good 
Assyrian king, Esarhaddon, who forebore to assume 
the title of "King of Babylon" and 
20. Assyr- called himself "viceregent of Merc- 
ian Rule dach." Under his regime Babylonia 
and Ruin, was prosperous and happy. After his 
early death Asshurbanipal became King 
of Assyria and his brother viceroy of Babylon. For 
fifteen years the brothers kept on good terms, and 
when a combination of Chaldeans, Elamites, and 
Arameans of the Tigris pasture-lands was made 
against Assyria, Babylon held aloof. But the vice- 
roy took part in an insurrection which began in 
652 and extended through the whole breadth of the 
empire. The chief cities of North and Central Baby- 
lonia were besieged and yielded only to starvation. 
Babylon was the last to be taken, and the viceroy 
immolated himself in the flames of his palace (648). 
During the rest of his life, till 626, Asshurbanipal 
reigned as "king" over Babylon. Within the next 
three years (648-645) Elam also was finally sub- 
dued, and Susa captured and destroyed. 

Yet, after all, the successor of Asshurbanipal in 
Babylon was a Chaldean, Nabopalassar (625-605), 
who threw off the yoke of the hated 
21. New Assyrian, and founded the new Baby- 
Babylonian Ionia. As Assyria declined and shrank 
Empire, in dimensions the Chaldean regime was 
being constantly strengthened. Nabo- 
palassar allied himself with the rising power of the 
Medes, and after the fall of Nineveh (607 B.C.) the 



Babylonia 
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82 



whole Assyrian Empire \V. and S. of the mountains 
foil to him. His son, Nebuchadrezzar, completed 
the reduction of Syria and Palestine, which had fallen 
under the dominion of Egypt, by driving out Pha- 
raoh Xeeho alter the battle of Carcliemish (005 B.C.). 
He became king upon the death of his father (luring 
this campaign. Only the western districts furnished 
serious trouble to him. Jerusalem rebelled twice 
and was finally destroyed in 586. Tyre withstood 
a siege of thirteen years, since the besiegers lacked a 
competent navy. But Egypt was overrun and for a 
time, it would seem, occupied by the Babylonians. 
Throughout the ruleof Nebuohadrexzarpeaoe reigned 
between his empire and .Media, which extended itself 
mainly westward. His career as a ruler was long 
and successful. While his outlying dominions were 
generally peaceful and contented, Babylonia itself 
prospered beyond precedent. Waste lands were re- 
claimed; irrigation was extended; new settlements 
were formed; commerce, industry, learning, re- 
search, architecture, and above all temple-building 
were promoted; and the city of Babylon became 
more than ever the metropolis of Asia. 

The glory of the Chaldean regime was of short 
duration. Nebuchadrezzar died in 562. His suc- 
cessors were all incompetent. The 
22. Decline fourth and last, Nabonidus, a usurper 
and Fall. (555) and a religious and antiquarian 
enthusiast, was distasteful to his own 
people. Cyrus the Great, in 539 B.C., added the 
Babylonian to the other empires which he had 
acquired and consolidated with magical ease and 
celerity. A midsummer campaign of less than a 
week ended in the surrender of the capital, after 
which the whole Semitic world came under Persian 
control. Babylon henceforth had no higher rank 
than a province. 

But its importance for Biblical history did not 
thereby cease; rather it Bet itself in a new relation. 
It was because Babylonia was a prov- 
23. Con- ince of Persia that the restoration of 
tinued Im- Jerusalem and the return of the Baby- 
portance of Ionian exiles were made possible and 
Babylonia, the maintenance of the precarious set- 
tlements in Palestine secured. Even 
Persian modes of thought had only a slight influence 
on the latest canonical writings. Of Judaism Baby- 
lonia was the center and focus for over a thousand 
years. After the fall of Jerusalem (70 A.D.), Baby- 
lonia took the place of Palestine as a seat of Jewish 
schools and the interpretation of the Law. Under 
the Parthian, the Sassanid, and even the Moham- 
medan rulers, the Jewish scholars and teachers of 
Babylon still held a leading place, and it was not till 
the Mongolians and Turks converted the country 
into a desert that it ceased to be a nursery of Ju- 
daism. 

LITERATURE : See the list of works appended to ASSYRIA. 
For recent explorations see Peters. Nippur, New York, 
1897; Hilprecht, Recent Research in Bible Lands. 1896; 
and reports of excavations by the German expedition 
under Koldewey on the site of Babylon and by the Uni- 
versity of Chicago's expedition at Bismya. 

J. F. McC. 

BABYLONISH GARMENT (properly, "mantle of 
Shinar," Jos 7 21 mg.): If the reading were correct, 
this would be a sample of the excellent and costly em- 



broidered robes of various patterns which are fre- 
quently mentioned in the Inscriptions, and of their 
widespread export from the place of manufacture. 
It is probable, however, that instead of "Shinar" we 
should read se'ar, 'hair.' J. F. McC. 

BACA, be'ca, VALLEY OF (S:;n p^i', ' cmeq 
habbakha', Ps. 84 6, Valley of Weeping RV; "bal- 
sam-trees," RVmg.): Whether there was a real 
valley bearing the name Baca is not clear. The 
context in Ps 84 clearly shows that the .phrase is 
used as emblematic of the hard experiences of life 
which faithfulness and constancy in devotion to 
God may transform into sources of joy. A. C. Z. 

BACHRITE, bac'rait. See BECHEK. 

BACK: Used of God in an anthropomorphic 
sense (Ex 33 23; Is 38 17). 

BADGER, BADGERS' SKINS. See SEALSKIN. 

BAG: The rendering of (1) h&rif (II K 5 23), a 
bag of skin, here one large enough to hold a talent of 
silver. A smaller variety is mentioned in Is 3 22 
('satchel" RV, "crisping pin" AV); (2) kJs, a bag 
or purse in which was carried money (Is 46 6; Pr 1 14 
["purse"], 16 11; Is 46 6), or weights for the balance 
(Dt 25 13; Mic 6 11) ; (3) k'll, lit. any sort of receptacle 
or instrument, used of the shepherd's bag in I S 17 
40, 49; (4) ts'ror, from tsarar, 'to bind' (cf. the vb. in 

11 K 12 10), a "bundle" (Gn 42 35) or bag (Job 14 17; 
Pr 7 20; Hag 1 6). (5) fiaXAvriov, "purse" RV 
(Lk 12 33), the same as (2), above. The term yXmo-o-o- 
Kop.ov in Jn 12 6, 13 29 means a small box (RVmg.) 
rather than a bag. E. E. N. 

BAGGAGE: RV for "carriages" A V (I S 1722; 
Is 10 28; Ac 21 15), and for "stuff," AV and ERV (I 
S 10 22, 25 13, 30 24). In every case but Ac 21 15 it 
means the impedimenta of an army. E. E. N. 

BAHARUMITE, ba-he'rum-ait : In I Ch 11 33 
we read "Azmaveth, the Baharumite," but in the 
parallel passage (II S 2331), "the Barhumite," the 
"h" and " r" being transposed. The former is prob- 
ably the more correct. See BAHURIM. G. L. R. 

BAHURIM, ba-hu'rim (='--;, bahunm): A 

place in Benjamin on the way from Jerusalem to the 
Jordan (II S 3 16, 16 5). B. was the home of Shimei, 
who cursed David on his flight from Absalom (II S 
16 5, 19 16 ff. ; I K 2 8). Here also Ahimaaz and Jon- 
iithan concealed themselves when acting as David's 
spies (II S 17 18). Site unknown. E. E. N. 

BAJITH. See BAVITH. 

BAKBAKKAR, bak-bak'Qr Ci^r?, baqbaqqar): 
The head of a Levite family (I Ch 9 15). E. E. N. 

BAKBUK, bak'buk (^^,bagbuq): The founder 
of a family of Nethinim who returned from Babylon 
with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2 51 ; Neh 7 53). E. E. N. 

BAKBUKIAH, bak"bu-kai'fl (^2J?2, baqbuq. 
yah): A name occurring three times in Neh (11 17, 

12 9, 25), all the references being perhaps to one indi- 
vidual, a Levite of the "sons of Asaph." 

E. E. N. 



83 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Babylonia 

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BAKE, BAKER, BAKING. See FOOD AND FOOD 

UTENSILS, 2, 11. 

BAKEMEATS. See FOOD AND FOOD UTENSILS, 
11. 

BALAAM, be'lam (=^5, Warn): The son of 
Beor and a magician (enchanter) of Pethor, on the 
bunks of the River Euphrates (Nu 22 5; but accord- 
ing to another reading he was of the b'nc 'ainmii 
[by omission of a final n for b'ne 'ammon, 'sons 
of Ammon'], hence an Ammonite). As the nar- 
rative stands in Nu 22 3-24 25 [JE] it presents in 
the character of B. the incongruous, though not nec- 
essarily contradictory qualities of a heathen sooth- 
sayer (24 l) and those of a man touched by the 
spirit of J". The incongruity is removed when the 
narrative is analyzed and its separate portions re- 
ferred to the documents from which they were 
drawn. But the analysis is not an easy one (cf. 
Kent, Beginnings of Hebrew History, 233-239; 
Addis, The Documents of the Hex., 1, 175-184); 
and the story as it stands has a distinct function and 
spiritual value. It presents the heathen occultist as 
coming under the power of the spirit of J" and re- 
vealing the irresistible nature of this force. Balaam 
was summoned by Balak, King of Moab, just after 
the defeat of the Amorites by the hosts of Israel, and 
bribed to curse the victorious invaders, but is led 
first by the miracle of the speaking ass, and after- 
ward directly, to bless them. In four poetically 
constructed oracles (Nu 23 7-10 [E], 19-24 [E], 24 3-9 
[J], 16-24 [J]), he foreshadows the uniqueness of J"'s 
people, their strength, the beauty and fruitfulness of 
their land, their glorious victories, and finally the 
great king ("Star") who shall create an empire out 
of Moab, Edom, Amalek, and Kain. After this B. 
is for a time lost sight of, and when he reappears, it is 
as the corrupter of Israel. Through the means of 
Midianite women he lures many to idolatry and is 
slain with others for this sin (Nu 31 8, 16 [P]). In the 
O T B. stands for the unavailing curse of the heathen 
enchanter (Dt 23 5; Jos 24 9; Mic 65; Neh 13 2) ; in the 
. N T he is the type of the tempter to idolatry, espe- 
cially that form of it in which lust plays a large part 
(II P 2 15; Jude ver. 11; Rev 2 14); cf. Gray on Num- 
bers, chs. 22-24, in Int. Crit. Com., 1903. 

A. C. Z. 
BALAC, be'lac. See BALAK. 

BALADAN, bal'a-dan. See MERODACH-BALA- 
DAN. 

BALAH, be'la (D^3, balah): A town in SW. Pales- 
tine (Jos 19 3), Bilhah in ICh429. Site unknown. 
Perhaps the same as Baalah. E. E. N. 

BALAK, bc'lak (^?, balag; Balac, Rev 2 14, AV): 
King of Moab in Moses' day (Nu 22-23) and famous 
for his connection with Balaam (q.v.). E. E. N. 

BALANCE. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 4. 

BALD LOCUST. See PALESTINE, 26, and LO- 
CUSTS. 

BALDNESS: As to location, the OT contrasts 
baldness of the forehead (gabbahath, only Lv 13 41 ff.) 
with baldness of the crown (qorhah', cf. the proper 
names Korah, Kareah). As to origin, baldness was 



either natural or artificial. The former, which i.s 
seldom mentioned, was believed to result from 
hard labor (Ezk 29 18), as well as disease (Is 3 17, 24), 
and was perhaps considered a reproach (II K 2 23). 
Baldness was not itself unclean, but apparently 
aroused suspicions of some unclean skin-disease (Lv 
13 40 ff.). See DISEASE AND MEDICINE, I (1). 

Artificial baldness, produced by clipping or sha- 
ving (cf. Ezk 5 l) is frequently mentioned. The an- 
cient belief that the hair was a seat of the vitality 
(cf. Jg 16 17) caused the ceremonial shaving of tin: 
head to be regarded as a sacrifice to a deity or to the 
dead ; hence this was a sign of mourning forbidden to 
the Israelites (Dt 14 1 ; Lv 21 5). It seems, however, 
to have been common in pre-exilic times (Is 22 12; 
Am 8 10, etc.; cf. Job 1 20); and baldness is therefore 
used figuratively for mourning (Jer 48 37; Ezk 7 18, 
etc.). See MOURNING AND MOURNING CUSTOMS, 
4. The Arabian practise of shaving all the head 
except a circular patch in the middle (Jer 9 26, 25 23) 
was likewise prohibited (Lvl927, 21 S) on account 
of its connection with heathen worship. At the ex- 
piration of the Nazirite's vow, the shaven hair was 
offered as a sacrifice to J" (Nu 6 18; cf. Ac 18 18, 21 
24). See NAZIRITE. Paul says that "it is a shame 
to a woman to be shorn or shaven" (I Co 1 1 6). See 
HAIR; SHAVING. L. G. L. 

BALM. See DISEASE AND MEDICINE, IV (1), 
and PALESTINE, 21. 

BAMAH, be'ma (nJ, bamah), 'high place': In 
Ezk 20 29 the word is used with reference to a sup- 
posed derivation from ba', 'to come' ('go'), and mah, 
'what.' Hence, 'What . . . whereunto go ye?' 
with evident contempt for it. This allusion to its 
etymology makes the word a quasi-proper noun as 
rendered in EVV. A. C. Z. 

BAMOTH, be'meth (ntoj, bamoth),'h\gh places': 
A town of Moab, probably the same as Bamoth 
Baal (Jos 13 17) and the Beth Bamoth of the stone 
of Mesha (line 27). It was one of the last stations 
on Israel's march through Moab before the final en- 
campment near Pisgah (Nu 21 191.). The identifi- 
cation, Map II, J 1, is uncertain. E. E. N. 

BAND: Often used in OT and NT for divisions 
of an army (cf. II S 4 2; II K 6 23; Job 1 17; Mt 27 27). 
See WARFARE, 4; also BEAUTY AND BANDS. 

BANI, be'nai C3?, bani): 1. One of David's heroes 
(II S 23 36 - Mibhar, I Ch 1 1 38). 2. A Merarite (I 
Ch646). 3. A Judahite, descendant of Pharez (I Ch 
94). 4. "Sons of Bani," a post-exilic family (Ezr 
2 10, 1029, 34ff. = BinnuiinNeh7l5. 6. Name of one 
or more Levites (Neh 3 17, 8 7, 9 4, 5, 10 13, 11 22). 6. 
A term used for one of the divisions of the post-exilic 
community (Neh 10 14); cf. 4. E. E. N. 

BANK. See TRADE AND COMMERCE, 3. 

BANNER : Banners or standards were used in an- 
cient armies very much in the same way as they are 
to-day. (1) The most common word for standard 
is n? (of uncertain root significance); cf. Ex 17 15 
(ni$$i = 'my banner'); Jer 46, 51 12, often rendered 
ensign (e.g., Is 5 26, 31 9). (2) Another word is degel 
('that which is seen'), confined to Nu 1 52, 2 2 ff., 10 



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Barachias 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



84 



14 ff., and Song 24,64, 10. In Nu (if the text be 
correct) it is implied that each tribe had its special 
standard. 3. 'Oth, 'sign,' is used for banner or 




MUitary Standard with the Image of the God Asshur. 

ensign in Nu22; Ps744. One form of Assyrian 
banner is shown in the accompanying illustration. 
There were many other forms. E. E. N. 

BANQUET. See MEALS, 3. 

BAPTISM, BAPTIZE GSdnrurpo, Pam-ifav): 
The words used to designate the rite characteristic 
of John the Baptist's ministry (Mk 14,9 and ||s; 
614,24, 11 30 and ||s; Lk 729; Ac 1 5,22, 1037, 1324, 
18 25, 19 3f.), as also the rite imposed from the begin- 
ning upon converts to the Early Church's preaching 
of Jesus Christ (Ac 2 38, 41, 8 12-16, 36, 38, 9 is [with 
22 16], 10 47 {., 16 15, 33, 18 8, 19 3-5; cf. also I Co 1 
13-l7;Eph45;IP321). 

The call of the Baptist was not only to moral puri- 
fication, but to this as leading to an entirely new 
condition of life to be established in 
the Messianic kingdom which he an- 
nounced (Mt 3 2 f . ). As administered 
by the Baptist, therefore, this rite 
symbolized the candidate's repentance 
in preparation for this coming kingdom (Mt 3 6-12 
and ||s; Lk 3 10-17) and consequently in its form 
must have been influenced largely by the O T puri- 
fication rites, especially as these were involved in 
the rite of initiating proselytes into Israel (cf. 



i. In 

John's 
Ministry. 



Srhurer, HJP, Eng. trans. II (2), 319-324; cf. 
also Edersheim, Lije of Jesus, I, 272-274). 

The baptism of Jesus (Mk 1 9-ll and ||s) was in 
accord with this idea; for while with the people gener- 
ally this rite signified their moral attitude of recep- 
tivity toward the coming Messianic work, with 
Jesus it was a testimony to His moral attitude of 
consecration toward His own work. Consequently 
the statement of Jesus in Matthew's narrative that 
in this baptism both John and Himself would be 
fulfilling all righteousness (3 15) refers simply to the 
carrying out, in this ceremony, of the form thus 
ollered for expressing this relation of consecration 
to the great work of whose commission to His hands 
He had become conscious. The term "righteous- 
ness" (SiKatoa-vvr;) is thus taken in its natural O T 
sense of living up to the divinely prescribed forms of 
relationship between God and man the only sense 
in which the Baptist is likely to have understood it 
in connection with the question of the debated ad- 
ministration of the rite to Jesus (very much as Jesus 
uses it later in speaking of the Baptist's ministry, 
Mt 21 32). The Baptist was to live up to these 
forms by administering this rite to Jesus as publicly 
consecrating Him to His work; Jesus was to live up 
to them by submitting to this rite as publicly 
announcing His consecration. 

This view of Jesus' baptism is confirmed not only 
by the supernatural incidents following it, whose 
evident intent was to express approval of the conse- 
cration involved in the act (Mk llflf. and ||s), but by 
the subsequent fact that the Messianic spirit, with 
which this Divine approval had then and there en- 
dowed Him, was the Spirit by which He was led 
immediately into the Wilderness for the testing of 
the consecration He had publicly confessed. (For 
other views see JESUS CHRIST, 5.) 

The general statement in Jn 3 22-26, that Jesus 
administered the rite of baptism, is corrected later 
by the Evangelist to the effect that 
2. In "Jesus himself baptized not, but his 
Jesus' disciples" (4 If.). This is not con- 
Ministry, tradicted by the Synoptists; so we 
gain the impression that, while bap- 
tism may have been an accompaniment of Jesus' 
ministry, it was not administered personally by Him. 

That it should have been such an accompaniment 
we can easily understand -at least in the early part 
of His work, when John's disciples were coming 
over into His following and His work was being 
done in the neighborhood of John's. If the Baptist 
had felt it necessary by this rite to commit his dis- 
ciples publicly to their attitude toward the Messianic 
work, these disciples may well have felt the need of 
committing in a similar way those who came directly 
into contact with this work in the person of the 
Master. 

The fact, however, that with His actual presence 
among them the time had passed for organizing a 
following in preparation for His work and the fact 
that the time had not yet come for organizing any 
following in the carrying of it on in the world, made 
needless during Jesus' ministry any rite of baptism. 
The call which He made was for personal relation- 
ship to Himself (Mk 1 15), which seemed all the 
public announcement necessary in the personal 



85 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Burner 

Baracblai 



following of Himself in the daily ministry of His 
actual work. 

It is clear, therefore, that the administration of 
this rite by His disciples in the early part of His 
ministry was simply temporary and did not belong 
vitally to tin' work He was carrying on. His state- 
ment that He 'had a baptism to be baptized with 
and would be straitened until it was accomplished' 
(Lk 12 50) and His question to the ambitious dis- 
ciples 'whether they were able to drink the cup that 
He was to drink, or to be baptized with the bap- 
tism with which He was to be baptized' (Mk 10 38 f.), 
are manifestly figurative expressions based on the 
fact of the consecration involved in His baptism at 
the beginning of His work and drawn out by the fact 
that this consecration was now, as His passion ap- 
proached, coming to its supreme and final test. 

After His resurrection, as He unfolded to His dis- 
ciples the work which lay before them (Lk 24 46-49), 
His commission of them to "make disciples of all 
nations and to baptize them " (whether the longer 
Trinitarian formula be understood as having been 
used by Jesus [Mt 28 19] or the simpler one, current 
in the Early Church [Ac 8 16, 10 48, 195, 22 16], cf. 
article "Baptism" in EH) is obviously a recognition on 
His part of the fact that, with the withdrawal of His 
personal presence, there would arise the need of an 
organized following of His disciples and of a gather- 
ing into its membership, through such an initiatory 
rite as had been used by John in the following he had 
brought together in preparation for His coming. 

In view of this commission it is not surprising to 

notice at the very beginning of the Church's life in 

Jerusalem the appearance of this con- 

3. In the dition of membership in the following 

Ministry of of the disciples (Ac 2 38, 41); nor is it 

the Early in any way unnatural that realizing, 

Church, as the disciples must have done, that the 
rite was of the same initiatory character 
as that administered by John, it was connected in 
the apostolic preaching with the requirement of re- 
pentance rather than with that of faith (Ac 2 38). 
In fact, the emphasis upon repentance in the early 
preaching of the Church was part of the strictly Jew- 
ish conceptions with which the Church's life began 
(Ac 5 31) and which were recognized by Christ Him- 
self in His final words to the disciples (Lk 24 44-47). 
It was only with the growth and development of the 
Church's consciousness of the personal relations to 
Jesus in the matter of salvation that the emphasis 
came to be placed upon faith (Ac 10 43, 13 39, 26 18) 
as Christ Himself had placed it in His ministry 
(Mk 5 34 and ||s, 9 23 ; Mt 8 10-13, 9 28 f ., 15 28; Lk 7 so), 
and faith came to have baptism connected with it 
in the entrance into the disciples' brotherhood (Ac 
1043-48, 1117, 1630-33, 188, 193-5; cf. the transi- 
tional phases in Ac 8 12 f., 36-38, and notice the inter- 
pretation placed upon 9 18 by Paul in his later state- 
ment of 22 16; cf. also Eph 4 5; I Co 1 13-15). 

It is in this close connection of the rite with per- 
sonal relations to Jesus Christ that we are to under- 
stand Paul's figurative references to baptism (Gal 
3 27; Col 2 12; Ro63f.; I Co 12 13; cf. also I Co 10 2). 
The reference in I Co 15 29 is most obscure. (For 
various views see Expos. Greek Test., ad loc.) 

The reference to "baptisms" in He 62 (where 



is used instead of jSaTrrto-^a ) is doubtless to 
the various ceremonial washings for purification, 
either of the person, as He 9 10 (cf. Lk 1 1 38), or of 
things, as Mk 7 4. 

That the rite had no high sacramentarian value in 
the Early Church is evident from the secondary 
importance attached to it in his ministry by Paul 
(I Co 1 14 ff.) as well as from the spiritual emphasis 
placed upon it in his Epistle by Peter (I P 3 21). 

We have no record in the N T of the baptism of 
infants; but the fact that the question as to when 
entrance into the Church took place must have early 
come to the front in a community so accustomed to 
theocratic ideas as the Jewish-Christian Church in 
Jerusalem, and the parallelism between baptism and 
circumcision as initiatory rites gives significance to 
such statements of household baptism as we have in 
Ac 16 15, 31-33; I Co 1 16 (cf. Ropes, Apostolic Age, 
p. 198). As to the form of baptism it is clear that 
in so far as the rite of John's ministry was derived 
from purification and initiatory ceremonies it was 
administered in running water, with a partial or 
entire submergence of the body; and further that in 
so far as the rite of the Early Church was a reproduc- 
tion of John's, it was administered after the same 
general form. At the same time the fact that in 
Jewish lustrations immersion of the whole body was 
often symbolized by an ablution of a part, as in the 
washing of the hands before meals (cf. Lk 1 1 38, where 
fiairrifciv is used), opened the way for an early modi- 
fication of the form in the direction of affusion and 
sprinkling (cf. Didache, ch. vii, and the representa- 
tions in Studio Bibl. et Eccles., vol. v., pt. iv.) 

LITERATURE: Schurer, History of the Jewish People, 
1896 2 ; Ederaheim, Life and Times of Jesus the Mettxiiih. 
n. d.; Lambert, The Sacraments in the New Testament, 
1903'- M. W. J. 

BAPTIST. See JOHN THE BAPTIST. 

BAR. See HOUSE, 6 (1). 

BAR- : In proper names compounded with Bar-, 
seven instances of which occur in the N T, this ele- 
ment signifies 'son' (Aramaic "!2, bar = Heb. 1.?, ben), 
e.g., Bar-Jonah, son of Jonah (Mt 16 17). E. E. N. 






BARABBAS, bar-ab'os (Bopa^Sj) : The prisoner 
released at the instigation of the chief priests by Pi- 
late according to a customary but otherwise unknown 
act of clemency at Passover (Mk 15 7f. and ||s). He 
was a notable criminal in Jerusalem imprisoned with 
accomplices for robbery, sedition, and murder. The 
name Barabbas ('son of the Father') probably in 
the sense of 'Teacher' is not unknown, there being 
two rabbis with this surname mentioned in the Tal- 
mud. The reading "Jesus Barabbas" for his full 
name in Mt 27 16 f., found by Origen in many MSS., 
and still extant in some cursives and in the Sinaitic- 
Syriac and Armenian versions, is doubtless due to an 
early scribal error. R. A. F. 

BARACHEL, ba-re'kel (^S?!?, barakh'el), 'God 
blesses': The symbolic name of Elihu's father (Job 
32 2, 6). E. E. N. 

BARACHIAH, bar"a-coi'Q. See BEBECHIAH. 
BARACHIAS, bar"a-cai'as. See ZACHARIAH. 



Barak 

Baruch, Books of 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



8G 



BARAK, bur'ak (P,?, bUraq), 'lightning': A 
hero who shares with Deborah the credit of the vic- 
tory over Sisera and the Canaanites' (Jg 4 c, 5 12). 
He was a native of Kedesh-Xaphtali, anil is usually 
reckoned among the judges of Israel in succession to 
Oihniel and Ehud. In He 11 32 his name occurs 
aiming those who achieved great things through 
faith. A. C. Z. 

BARBARIAN. See GENTILE. 

BARBER : Mentioned in the O T only in Ezk 5 l, 
showing, however, the existence of professional bar- 
bers. "Temple barbers' are mentioned on Phoenician 
inscriptions. Compare the frequent references to 
shaving in the O T (cf. also Is 7 20). See RAZOR. 

E. E. N. 

BAREFOOT : The removal of the sandals was in- 
dicative of awe or reverence, of profound emotion, 
or was a symbolic act. When one was on especially 
holy ground or felt himself in the immediate pres- 
ence of Deity, it was incumbent on him to take off 
his shoes (Ex 3 5; Jos 5 12). The underlying reason 
for this wide-spread custom is not certainly known 
(cf. Dillmann on Ex 3 5). The removal of the san- 
dals in experiences of great sorrow and humiliation, 
or as symbolic of such, is illustrated in the case of 
David (II S 15 30) and Isaiah (Is 20 2-4). The hu- 
miliation of the condition of being unshod is well 
illustrated in a detail of the peculiar law of levirate 
marriage (Dt259f.; cf. Ruth47f.). See BURIAL 
AND BURIAL CUSTOMS, 7; also MOURNING CUS- 
TOMS, 4. E. E. N. 

BARHUMITE, bar-hu'mait. See BAHARUMITE. 

BARIAH, ba-rai'a (Q^bariah): One of the later 
descendants of David (I Ch 3 22). E. E. N. 

BAR- JESUS, bar-ji'zus (BapiTjo-oCs, 'son of Jesus') : 
A Jewish magician and false prophet attached to the 
court of Sergius Paulus when the latter was pro- 
consul of Cyprus. For interference with Paul's 
work B. is represented as stricken with temporary 
blindness (Ac 13 6-12). In ver. 8 B. is called Elymas, 
which may be a second magical name assumed by 
the same person (but see Dalman, Aram Gr., p. 162), 
possibly to be connected with the Aram, root C-^N, 
'strong.' 'O ftdyor (ver. 8) is not necessarily an exact 
translation of the word, but may be a general de- 
scription of its meaning. A similar title seems to 
have been borne by Simon Magus (q.v.) (Ac89f.). 
For later legends concerning B. see Lipsius-Bonnet, 
Apoc. Apgesch., II, p. 299 f. J. M. T. 

BAR- JONAH, bar-jo'na (Bar-jona AV). See PE- 

TE K. 



BARKOS, bar'kes (C'p-.S, barqdf): The ancestor 
of a family of Nethinim (Ezr 2 53; Neh 7 55). 

E. E. N. 

BARLEY. See AGRICULTURE, 4 and 5, FOOD, 
1, and PALESTINE, 23. 

BARLEY HARVEST. See TIME, 4. 
BARN. See AGRICULTURE, 6. 



BARNABAS, bur'nu-bas (Bapvafias [Bapvapas 
U7/]): The surname given by the Apostles to the 
Cyprian-Levite Joseph ami interpreted by the 
author of Acts as meaning "Son of exhortation" 
(Ac 4 30). 

Considerable difficulty exists in tracing the etymology of 
the name. Of the several suggestions perhaps the most 
likely is that of Deismann (Bibelettulien, pp. 175-178 [Eng. 
tr., pp. 187 f., 307-310]), who considers Bapi<ad; the Jewish 
(I ized form of Bapx<6oOc, a personal Semitic name re- 
cently discovered in Asia Minor inscriptions, and meaning 
'Son of Nebo.' 

If this be correct, then, being thus an old theophoric 
name whose heathen origin had been disguised, either it was 
borne by Joseph prior to his conversion, its Christian inter- 
pretation (uiot irapo*A>j<7fi) being alone due to the Apostles, 
or else it was given Joseph by the Apostles at his conversion 
on the basis of its popular interpretation, its heathen origin 
being unknown. The latter could very easily have been 
the case. Nebo being the herald of the gods, the popular 
idea of Barnabas as a 'Son of proclamation,' or 'exhorta- 
tion/ would be natural. 

This interpretation was evidently suggested by 
the special gifts of exhortation which B. displayed 
(cf. Ac 11 23) and which belonged to him as a NT 
prophet (cf. Ac 15 32 with 13 l). 

He first appears as a generous contributor to the 
community of goods in the Jerusalem Church (Ac 
4 36f.), of which circle, through the fact of his aunt's 
home being in the city (cf. Ac 11 12 with Col 4 10), 
he was at the time doubtless a resident member. 
Among the discipleship here he was of sufficient rep- 
utation to become sponsor for Saul upon his first 
visit after his conversion (Ac 9 26 f.) which seem- 
ingly implies a previous acquaintance, possibly in 
Tarsus, an inference which is confirmed by the fact 
that when later B. was delegated by the Mother 
Church to investigate the mission activity in An- 
tioch, he brought Saul from Tarsus to the service of 
the newly established work and labored with him in 
it for a year (Ac 11 21-26). 

Here also he seems to have come into prominence. 
With Saul he was appointed to carry up to Jerusa- 
lem the contributions of the brethren in Judaea (Ac 1 1 
27-30), and upon their return, as the foremost prophet 
and teacher in the community, he was sent out with 
Saul on the first extended mission of the Christian 
Church (Ac 13 1). Through the importance and effi- 
ciency of his service he came to be designated an 
"apostle" (Ac 14 4, 14) in that broader usage of the 
word to which the Church grew in virtue of its wi- 
dened work and life (see APOSTLE). He was sym- 
pathetically committed to Paul's liberal views, en- 
tering with him into the controversy which arose at 
Antioch upon the close of the first mission tour (Ac 
15 If.) and standing with him in the subsequent 
Council at Jerusalem for the admission of the Gen- 
tiles into the Church (Ac 15 4, 12; Gal 2 3-5). At the 
same time, with most of the other leaders, he ap- 
peared unable to carry his convictions to their log- 
ical conclusions (cf. Gal 2 11-13). 

Owing to a dispute over the taking with them of 
his cousin, John Mark, he did not accompany Paul 
on his second mission tour, but returned with Mark 
to his native place, Cyprus (Ac 1536-40), where we 
lose sight of him, except for such evidence as may be 
contained in I Co 9 6 that he continued in his mis- 
sionary work, declining, like Paul, to impose himself 



A STANDARD BIBLK DICTIONARY 



Barak 

Baruch, Booki of 



upon the support of the churches. From the Apos- 
tle's references to him in his subsequent correspond- 
ence with the churches (Gal 2 1, 5, 9, 13; I Co 9 6; Col 
4 10) there is nothing to show that the relations be- 
tween them continued strained ; rather the contrary. 
Tertullian and others in the Western Church held 
B. as author of the Epistle to the Hebrews (q.v.). 
The Sinaitic MS. contains, at the close of the NT 
writings, an Epistle under his name; there is an 
apocryphal Acts of Barnabas and there are obscure 
references (e.g., in the Decretum of Pope Gelasius, 
l!i A.D.) to a Gospel ascribed to him. M. W. J. 

BARREL: The AV rendering of kadh in I K 17 
12-16, 18 33 ("jar" RV). In the latter passage a large 
earthen water-jar is meant. In the former, the kadh 
may have been of earthenware, or, as is common 
among Palestinian peasants to-day, made of a mix- 
ture of clay, dung, and straw, perhaps divided into 
two compartments. See plate of POTTERY, fig. 1. 

E. E. N. 

BARREN. See MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE. 

BARSABBAS, bar'sab-bas (BafxraftScts, Barsabas 
AV): 1. Joseph. Surnamed Justus, was "put for- 
ward" with Matthias as the successor of Judas (Ac 
1 23). In the post-apostolic literature he is reckoned 
among the 'Seventy' (Chron. Pasch., ed. Bonn, I, 
400), and several apocryphal tales concerning him 
are extant (cf. Eus. HE, III, 39, 9; Lipsius-Bonnet, 
Apoc. Apostelgesch., I, pp. 108, 116). J. M. T. 

2. Judas (Ac 15 22, 27, 32). A leading prophet of 
the Jerusalem Church, who accompanied Silas with 
the decree of the Council to Antioch, and afterward 
returned to Jerusalem. Nothing more is known of 
him. Barsabbas being a patronymic, he may have 
been a brother of Joseph Barsabbas (Ac 1 23). 

R. A. F. 



BARTHOLOMEW, bur-thel'o-miu 
'son of Talmai'): One of the twelve Apostles and 
mentioned in all four of the lists (Mk 3 18; Mt 103; 
Lk 6 14; Ac 1 13). Concerning B. there is no trust- 
worthy tradition. For his supposed identification 
with Nathanael see NATHANAEL. J. M. T. 

BARTDVLiEUS, bar"ti-mi'us (Ba/m/iatos, "son 
of Timaeus," perhaps equivalent to Aram, bar- 
tiitii, 'son of Timi'): A blind man restored to sight 
by Jesus near Jericho (Mk 10 46-52 and ||s). In Mt 
and Lk no name appears, and it is possible that 
Bartimjeus was inserted in Mk for the sake of vivid- 
(cf. JAIRUS). J. M. T. 

BARUCH, be'rac ("T^, barukh), 'blessed': 1. Son 
of Neriah, said by Josephus (Ant. X, 9 l) to have 
come of a very illustrious family, one of Jeremiah's 
associates, first mentioned as his trusted friend (Jer 
32 12), and later as his secretary and agent (Jer 36 4). 
Jeremiah dictated his oracles to B., who read them to 
the people. These prophecies roused the wrath of 
Jehoiakim, who commanded the arrest of B., and 
also burned the roll written by him. B., however, 
rewrote the oracles. After the murder of Gedaliah, 
he was accused by the leaders of unduly influencing 
Jeremiah to dissuade the people from leaving Judeea 
(Jer 43 3). Together with Jeremiah he was taken 



into Egypt. Here all authentic records ulioul him 
erase. According to one tradition, lie died in Egypt 
at the same time with Jeremiah. According to an- 
other, he survived the prophet and went to Babylon, 
where he died twelve years alter the fall of Jci 
lem (574 B.C.). 2. The son of Zabbai (Zaccai 
RVing.) who repaired the wall of Jerusalem ( 
3 20). 3. One of those who sealed the covenant in 
Nehemiah's time (Neh 10 6); possibly the same as 2. 
4. The son of Col-hozeh, a descendant of Perez (Xeh 
115). A. C. Z. 

BARUCH, BOOKS OF: I. The Apocryphon: 
The Greek Book of Baruch is based upon tin- 
tradition which represents Baruch (he 

I. Con- son of Neriah as spending the last 
tents. portion of liis life in Babylon (see 
BARUCH 1). The book purports to be 
a treatise addressed by him to the exiles and con- 
sists of an introduction and three sections. In the 
first section (1 15-3 8) the exiled Israelites are 
furnished with a form of confession of sin to 
which is appended a prayer for the return of the 
divine good pleasure toward them. In the second 
section (3 9-4 7) the praises of Wisdom are sung in 
words that recall the panegyrics of Job 28 and 38, and 
the Book of Proverbs. In the third section (4 8-5 9) 
words of encouragement and comfort are addressed 
to the exiles similar to the expressions of the Deu- 
tero- Isaiah. 

These three sections bear the marks of different 
ages and environments. (1) The form of con- 
fession of sin (1 15-3 8) is of the same 

2. Dates of class as Ezr9(M5 and Dn93-9; but 
Its Parts, while it is evidently of later origin 

than the former, it is earlier than the 
Daniel passage. It was therefore produced probably 
about 300 B.C. (2) The section which eulogizes 
Wisdom (3 9-4 7) betrays the effect of a long-stand- 
ing contact with the Gentile world, and can best be 
accounted for upon the view that it originated in the 
first half of the 1st cent. A.D. (3) The last sec- 
tion (4 8-5 9) must be, from its dependence on the 
Psalter of Solomon, dated at the earliest after the 
fall of Jerusalem (70 A.D.) and may be a product of 
the last years of the 1st cent. The introduction (cf. 
1 1-15) is a redactorial addition embodying the tradi- 
tion of Baruch's activity in Babylon and therefore 
the latest of all the parts of the book. 

These differences of setting correspond with a 
marked difference in language as between the first 

and the last two sections. The last two 

3. Original are purer and more choice in particular 
Languages, words and expressions, thus pointing to 

the conclusion that they were originally 

composed in Greek. As to the original language of 

the first section, the evitlence is not so clear, but the 

probability is that it was composed in Hebrew. 

As far as the ascription to Baruch is concerned, his 

known intimacy with Jeremiah and his 

4. Ascrip- concern in the events attendant on the 
tion to deportation to Babylon are sufficient to 

Baruch. account for the use of his name. The 
bookhas been known continuously from 
its first appearance an 1 early secured a place among 
the Apocrypha of th" O T. 






Baruch, Books of 
Beam 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



88 



n. The Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch: This is 

an apocryphon discovered and published in :i Latin 

translation in I860, and later in a more 

1. The primitive Syriac text in 1871. Its con- 
Book, tents consist of a purely apocalyptic 

section (from which the whole takes its 
name), and a letter purporting to be written by 
Baruch to the nine and a half tribes of Israel de- 
ported into Assyria at the time of the fall of Samaria 
(722 B.C.). The first of these parts consists of a 
series of seven sections of which the first gives a 
sketch of the circumstances in which Baruch saw his 
visions. It was at the time of the fall of Jerusalem 
into the hands of the Chaldeans. Jeremiah, by 
Divine command, went to Babylon with the captives, 
while Baruch stayed amid the ruins of Jerusalem. 
What he saw in the visions there together with the 
conversations which he held with heavenly person- 
ages are narrated in detail in the next six chapters. 
The sum and substance of these is that while Israel 
may suffer for a time, the Messiah will soon appear, 
and bring to naught the counsels of his enemies. 
The letter to the nine and a half tribes is designed 
to encourage and strengthen the people in the time 
of their distress. It represents their condition as 
fully known to God, and their sufferings intended for 
their own good. 

The author of the book was evidently a Jew, and 

wrote some time between the middle of the first 

Christian century and before the opcn- 

2. The ing of the second, or approximately 
Author, about the year 100. The original Ian- 
Date, and guage of the document was probably 

Original Hebrew. Its relations to 4th Ezra (II 
Language. Esdras) have roused the keenest inter- 
est. Both books seem to issue from 
the same conditions, are designed to meet the same 
need, and contain the same type of thought. They 
have been called the 'twin Apocalypses.' The 
Syriac text of the book may be found in Ceriani's 
Monumenta Sacra, V, II (1871). An English trans- 
lation with introduction and notes was published by 
Charles (The Apocalypse of Baruch, 1896) and a 
German translation by Rotlistein in Kautzsch's 
Pseudepigrapha (1900). 

III. The Greek Apocalypse of Baruch: A book 
containing a report of a visit by Baruch to the 
seven heavens was mentioned by Ori- 
i. The gen in his treatise De Principiis, but 
Discovery nothing further was known of it until 
of the it was discovered in 1896 by Rev. E. 
Book. Cuthbert Butler in a Greek MS. in the 
British Museum (subsequently pub- 
lished by Prof. M. R. James in the Cambridge 
Texts and Studies, Vol. V, 1897, No. 1, pp. 84- 
94). Almost at the same time a Slavonic trans- 
lation of the production in an abridged form was 
made known by Bonwetsch. These two versions 
are related to each other as the longer and shorter 
recensions of the same writing. Neither one, 
however, is probably the full text of the Apoc- 
alypse known to and mentioned by Origen. 
In that work Baruch is reported to have de- 
scribed seven heavens, whereas in the Greek 
Apocalypse he is represented as visiting five, 
and in the Slavonic only two. 



The relation of the work to the Syriac Baruch is 
probably explained by referring to 76 3 f. of that 

work. Here (!o<l promises to give 

2. Criti- Baruch after the lapse of 40 days a 

cism. further revelation regarding the world 

of material elements, including the 
cycle of the earth, the summits of the mountains, the 
depths of the valleys and of the seas, and the number 
of the rivers. The fulfilment of this promise is not 
recorded in what follows, and the Greek Apocalypse 
was composed to show that it was fulfilled and how 
it was fulfilled. A German translation of the work 
is given in Kautzsch's Pseudepigrapha (1900). The 
Greek text is to be found in James's edition above 
alluded to. A. C. Z. 

BARZILLAI, bar-zil'Q-ai (*$]'$, barzillay): 1. 
An aged and wealthy Gileadite of Rogelim who 
substantially befriended David when he fled from 
Absalom (II S 17 27). As he was returning to Jeru- 
salem, David invited B. to spend the rest of his days 
with him at the capital, but B. refused, asking, how- 
ever, favors for his servant (or sons? II S 19 31-39 ; cf. 
I K 2 7). 2. The father of Adriel (II S 21 8). 3. 
The ancestor of a family of priests who married a 
daughter of 1 (supra), but whose descendants could 
not prove their genealogy (Ezr 2 61 ; Neh 7 63). 

E. E. N. 

BASE. See TEMPLE, 18. 

BASEMATH, bas'e-math (H2P3, bas'math, 
Bashemath AV): 1. One of the wives of Esau, 
daughter of Elon the Hittite (Gn 26 34), but in 36 3 
the daughter of Ishmael (cf. 28 9, where Mahalath 
may = Basemath). 2. A daughter of Solomon (IK 
4 15, Basmath AV). E. E. N. 

BASHAN, bfi'shan (]$1, bashan), in Heb. usu- 
ally with the definite article prefixed: The broad, 
rolling, fertile region E. of the Lake of Gennesaret, 
extending, roughly, from Gilead on the S. to Hermon 
on the N. Map I, GH 4, 5. To-day it is one of the 
granaries of Palestine. In ancient times the region 
was celebrated for its oaks (Is 2 13; Zee 112; Ezk 
27 6) and fine cattle (cf. Ps 22 12; Am 4 1). Its gen- 
eral altitude is about 2,000 feet above sea-level. In 
the NE. portion there is a peculiar, pear-shaped 
region, known to the Arabs as the Leja, which is 
literally a 'petrified ocean' of basaltic lava. This 
district is not improbably identified with "the region 
of Argob," which the Israelites wrested from Og, to- 
gether with its "threescore cities" all fortified with 
high walls, gates, and bars (Nu2l33ff.; Dt34f.). 
This whole region was assigned to the half tribe of 
Manasseh (Dt 3 13, 4 43; Jos 13 29 f.). Edrei, Ash- 
taroth, Golan, and Salechah were its chief cities (Dt 
1 4, 3 l, 10, 4 43). Solomon taxed Bashan (I K 4 13). 
ll:i/-ael put an end to the Heb. supremacy over it (II 
K 10 33). Tiglath-pileser seems to have carried its 
inhabitants into captivity (II K 15 29). Under Tra- 
jan (106 A.D.) it was incorporated into the province 
of Arabia. To-day it is inhabited by a fierce, warlike 
sect, the Druses. G. L. R. 

BASHAN-HAWOTH-JAIR, -he"vath-je'ir. See 
HAVVOTH-JAIR. 

BASILISK. See PALESTINE, 26. 



89 



A STANDARD BIBUC DICTIONARY 



Baruch, Booki of 
Beam 



BASIN (or BASON) and BOWL are the English 
renderings of eight Hebrew words. According to 
modern usage a bo wl is deeper or rounder than a basin 
and is used chiefly for food or drink; but it is difficult 
to preserve (his distinction in naming ancient ves- 
sels whose size and shape are largely a matter of con- 
jecture. 

Basins are most frequently mentioned in connec- 
tion with the sacrificial ritual, beginning in Egypt 
(Ex 12 22) and Sinai (Ex M 6). Among the furni- 
ture of the Tent were bowls of gold (Ex 37 16) and 
basins of "brass" (Ex 38 3). Solomon's Temple 
contained basins of gold (I K 7 50), "brass" (I K 
7 45), and silver (I Ch 28 17), which were carried away 
by the Chaldeans (II K25 14 f.; Jer 52 IS!.), but re- 
turned by Cyrus (Ezr 1 7 ff.). For basins as offerings 
Bee Nu 7 passim; Neh 7 70 (cf Ezr 8 27). 

Bowls for wine (Jer 35 5, "pots," AV; Am 6 6) or 
ordinary household use (Jg 5 25, "dish," 6 38; II S 
17 28) were doubtless common. Among bowl-shaped 
objects were the reservoirs of lamps (Zee 4 2 f.; cf. EC 
12 6), the rounded capitals of pillars (I K 7 41 =11 Ch 
4 12), and the "cups" of the golden candlestick (Ex 
25 31). 

The viirrrjp used by Jesus (Jn 13 5) was probably 
a large foot-basin, provided for the purpose. $10X77 
(AV "vial") is correctly rendered "bowl" by ARV in 
Rev (58, etc.). See also CUP, and LAVER, and 
TEMPLE, 18. L. G. L. 

BASKET: The uses of the various "baskets" of 
the O T are more evident than their form and mate- 
rial. The dudh ., used for figs (Jer 24 2), as well as clay 
or bricks (Ps 81 6), was probably a large, shallow 
basket, such as was used by masons in ancient 
Egypt. The sal or 'plaited' basket used for carry- 
ing bread (Gn 40 16; Ex 29 3) or meat (Jg 6 19) was 
apparently smaller, and dish-shaped. The tene' 
was large and deep, shaped like an inverted cone (cf. 
LXX. KaproAXos), and is mentioned only in connec- 
tion with products of the soil (Dt 26 2, 28 5). The 
k'lubh (Am 8 1) seems to have been a coarsely woven 
cage-like receptacle with a lid. 

The N T Kfyivos (Mk 6 43, 8 19 and ||s) was a stout 
wicker hand-basket, often carried by the Jews when 
traveling, in order to avoid buying food from 
Gentiles. Apparently each of the Twelve (cf. Mt 14 
20) disciples had one. The <nrvpis (Mk 8 8, 20 and ||s) 
was a larger flexible provision-basket of plaited ropes 
or reeds. The basket in which Paul was let down 
was probably a large rope hamper. It is called 
both a trtrvpls (Ac 9 25) and a trapyavrj (II Co 11 33), 
the latter word denoting especially the 'plaited' 
structure. See plate of HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II. 
Figs. 2, 3, 4, 6. L. G. L. 

BASTARD. See MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE. 

BAT. See PALESTINE, 24. 

BATH. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 3. 

BATH-: The element Bath- in compound proper 
names means daughter. It occurs in only two or 
three instances in the O T. E. E. N. 

BATH, BATHING. See PURIFICATION, 2. 
BATH-RABBIM, bath"-rab'im (B^TTO, bath- 
rabblm,) 'daughter of multitudes': The name of a 



gate of Hcshbon (Song 7 4). Nothing furth. 
known of it. For a bold conjecture, see ('heyiie 
in KH. K. K. N. 



BATH-SHEBA, bath"-shi'lm (ritT:, balh-she- 
bha'), 'daughter of Sheba': The wife of Uriah 
the Hittite, who committed adultery with David 
and after Uriah's death became one of David's wives. 
She was a woman of beauty and energy. Her first 
child after her union with D. died, but she later be- 
came the mother of other sons including Solomon (cf . 
I Ch 3 5). She retained her influence over D. until 
his death, and doubtless it was she who was chiefly 
instrumental in D.'s choice of Solomon as his succes- 
sor (IIS 11 2ff., 1224f.;IKl n-219). 

In II S 11 3 her father's name is given as Eliam, 
but in I Ch 3 5 she is called Bath-shua, the daughter 
of Ammiel (only a variant form of Eliam). Ahitho- 
phel, D.'s counselor, may have been the grand- 
father of B. (cf. II S 23 34). E. E. N. 

BATH-SHUA, -shu'a. See BATH-SHEBA. 
BATTERING-RAM. See BESIEGE. 
BATTLE. See WARFARE, 4. 
BATTLE-AX. See ARMS AND ARMOR, 5. 

BATTLEMENT: On the use of this term in 
Jer 5 10 AV compare the RV rendering. See also 
HOUSE, 6 (d). 

BAVVAI, bav'a-oi ("13, bawmy, Bavai AV),(Neh 
3 18). See BINNUI. 

BAY. See COLORS, 2. 

BAYITH, bfl'yith, Bajith, be'jith: This word 
is treated as a proper name in the EV of Is 15 2. 
If a proper noun the RV margin is the more cor- 
rect reading. But bayith (H'S) may be only a 
textual error for bath (.12), 'daughter,' and in that 
case we should read 'The daughter of Dibon is gone 
up to the high places.' E. E. N. 

BAY TREE (Ps3735 AV): In RV the correct 
reading is given: "a green tree in its native soil." 
LXX. reads: "like the cedars of Lebanon." 

E. E. N. 

BAZLITH, baz'lith (.T^>S2, batslUh), and BAZ- 
LUTH (.-n?y2, batsluth): The ancestor of a family 
of Nethinim (Ezr 2 52; Neh 7 54). E. E. N. 

BDELLIUM. See STONES, PRECIOUS, | 3. 

BEALIAH, bi"a-loi'a ('"^l*?, b>'alyah), 'Jehovah 
is Baal (Lord)': One of David's soldiers (I Ch 
125). E. E. N. 

BEALOTH, be-e'leth (.11^3, fr'Sloth): A town 
in the "South" (Jos 15 24). Perhaps the same 
as Baalath-beer. See BAAL, III. E. E. N. 

BEAM (Socrfr): One of the main timbers of a 
building. The term is used figuratively in Mt 73; 
Lk 6 41 f. in contrast to mote (q.v.) in order vividly 
to suggest the inconsistency of criticizing the minor 
faults of others when our own are so much more con- 
spicuous. J. M. T. 






Beans 
Bela 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



90 



BEANS. See PALESTINE, 23, and FOOD, 3. 
BEAR. See PALESTINE, 24. 

BEARD: The Israelite was accustomed to wear 
a full beard which was to be shaved only in ex- 
ceptional cases, as that of a leper (Lv 14 9), or of 
extreme mourning (Jer 41 5), although this was con- 
trary to the stricter spirit of the law (cf. Lv 19 27, 
21 5), which viewed such defacements as heathenish. 
To compel one to cut off his beard was thus to inflict 
upon him an insulting disgrace (II S 10 4 f.). See 
also MOURNING CUSTOMS, 4. E. E. N. 

BEAST: In EVV this term designates: 1. A 
brute animal, as distinguished from man (Ezk 
14 13). 2. A quadruped, as distinguished from other 
living creatures (Gn 6 7). 3. A wild, as distin- 
guished from a domesticated, animal (Job 5 22 f.; Ps 
79 2). 4. An apocalyptic symbol of brute force, as 
eet over against the divine power, or distinguished 
from humanity (Dn 7 3; Rev 4 6 ST., AV; but RV 
"living creatures"). A. C. Z. 

BEATEN GOLD. See METALS, 1. 
BEATEN OIL. See OIL. 

BEATING. See CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS, 
3 (b). 

BEAUTIFUL GATE. See TEMPLE, 32. 

BEAUTY AND BANDS: Two terms used sym- 
bolically in Zee, 11 4-14 (better rendered, "grace and 
union"), signifying God's gracious purpose toward 
His people which they stubbornly opposed. 

E. E. N. 

BEBAI, bi'ba-ai CJ2, bebhay): 1. The ancestral 
head of a large post-exilic family (Ezr2 11; Neh 
7 16, 8 11, 10 28). 2. One of this family (Neh 10 15). 

E. E. N. 

BECHER, bi'ker (IJ?, bekher): 1. The ances- 
tral head of one of the clans of Benjamin (Gn 
46 21; I Ch 76-8). 2. The ancestral head of the 
Becherites, a clan or family of Ephraim. But in 
I Ch 7 20 we read Bered, which may be the correct 
form, or there may have been some genealogical 
confusion, owing to the contiguity of the territory 
of the two tribes Benjamin and Ephraim. 

E. E. N. 

BECORATH, be-co'rath (ni'33, b-khfrath, Be- 
chorath AV): An ancestor of Saul (I S 9 1). 

E. E. N. 

BED, BEDSTEAD (Couch in RV of I Ch5l; 
Kst 1 6, 7 8; Job 17 13; Ps 41 3; Pr 7 16): Inthesimpler 
conditions of life reflected in the Bible it was custom- 
ary to sleep in one's ordinary clothing, using the 
outer garment or cloak for a covering (Ex 22 27). In 
more advanced conditions, an ordinary rug or mat 
was used as a bed. Later, a mattress either took the 
place of the mat or was used with it, and together 
with a pillow and a simple coverlet or quilt for cold 
nights made up the bed furniture of a common indi- 
vidual. The mattress was rolled up and put away 
for the day within a closet. But bedsteads must 



have been used occasionally, as maybe inferred from 
the fact that the sarcophagus of Og, King of Boshan, 
is called his "bedstead" (Dt 3 11). But more usually 
such bedsteads were made of lighter material and 
more easily movable. The place of a bedstead was 
sometimes taken by the raised platform or immov- 
able divan along the walls of a room (mitfah,Gi\ 47 31 : 
UK 4 10; mifhkabh, Song 3 1). This was covered 
with cushions and used as a sofa during the day. 

More elaborate and ornamented bedsteads are 
mentioned in Am 6 4, 3 15 ("beds of ivory") and Est 
1 6 ("couches ... of gold and silver"). These 
were used by the wealthy, and offered an oppor- ' 
tunity for indulging the love of display and luxury. 
Such bedsteads were further furnished with pillars 
and a canopy like those of palanquins (Song 3 10; 
Est 1 6). A. C. Z. 

BEDAD, bt'dad (113, b<dhadh): The father of 
Hadad, King of Edom (Gn 36 35; I Ch 1 40). 

E. E. N. 

SEDAN, bi'dan (p?, b>dhan}: 1. Referred to in 
I S 12 ll as one of the early deliverers of Israel. The 
text is probably wrong. LXX. and Syriac rend 
Barak, but perhaps the original reading was Abdon; 
cf. Jg 12 13 ff. 2. The head of a Manassite family (I 
Ch 7 17). E. E. N. 

BEDCHAMBER. See HOUSE, 1 and 6 (h). 

BEDEIAH, be-di'ya (~V1|, bedhyah}: One of the 
"sons of Bani" who had taken a foreign wife (K/r 
10 35). E. E. N. 

BEE. See PALESTINE, 26. 

BEELIADA, bi"e-lai'a-da (^?3, b''elyOdha'), 
'Baal [in sense of Jehovah] knows': A son of David 
(I Ch 14 7), called Eliada in II S 5 16 and I Ch 3 8. 

E. E. N. 

BEELZEBUB, be-el'ze-bub : 1. The Hel>. 
212T 7P3, ba'al z-bhubh, Baalzebub, 'the god of flies,' 
worshiped by the Philistines of Ekron (II K 1 21.. n, 
16). It is not clear whether this Baalzebub was re- 
garded as a special divinity, sender of flies, or the sun 
as the healer of disease through his piercing rays. 2. 
The Greek form of the same is BfeAfe/3oiiA(Beelzebul, 
so also AVmg. and RVmg., Mt 10 25, 12 24, 27; Mk 3 
22; Lk 11 15 f.). Jerome calls him the "Chief of the 
devils"; Cheyne renders "Lord of the Mansion," 
i.e., of the nether world; Lightfoot, "Lord of Dung." 

A. C. Z. 

BEER, bi'er (183, b-'er): 1. A place where the 
Israelites made a station during the wilderness 
journey (Nu 21 16), also called Beer-elim, ' well of 
terebinths' (Is 15 8). 2. The place where Jotham 
took refuge from his brother Abimelech (Jg92l). 
Both sites unknown. A. C. Z. 

BEER-, bt'er- (-!3, &'), 'a well': On account 
of the necessity of a constant water-supply, sites 
of towns were often chosen because of nearness to a 
well or wells, and named accordingly, as Beer-elim, 
Beer-lahai-roi, Beer-sheba, Beeroth (plural of 
beer). A. C. Z. 



91 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Bii.in.; 

Belt 



BEERA, bi'gr-a (*"*<?, b-'SrO.'), 'well': A son 
of Zophar of the tribe of Asher (I Ch 7 37). 

E. E. N. 

BEERAH, bi'er-a (rv$2, b-'erah), 'well': A 
Reubenite "prince," carried away captive by Tig- 
lath-pileser III (I Ch 5 6). E. E. N. 

BEER-ELIM, bi"gr-i'lim (C^'fct 9, b-'lr 'aim), 
'well of [sacred] trees': According to the common 
IIi-l>. text, 'well of mighty ones,' Is 158. Site un- 
known. E. E. N. 

BEERI, be-i'rai ("18?, b-'cri): 1. A Hittite, 
father of Judith, one of Esau's wives (Gn 26 34). 2. 
The father of the prophet Hosea (Hos 1 1). 

E. E. N. 

BEER-LAHAI-ROI, bi"er-la-hai'-roi" ("tf'l n^ 
"S^, b''irlnh<iy ro'i): The well (probably not far 
from Kadesh) near which Hagar had her theoph- 
any (Gn 16 7-14) and where Isaac lived for some 
time (Gn 24 62, 25 ll). The interpretation of the 
name given in RVmg., "the well of the living one 
who seeth me," is not entirely satisfactory. The 
Ileb. expression offers difficulties of interpretation 
which have not yet been cleared up. In the con- 
text (Gn 16 12 f.) the emphasis is on God's 'seeing,' 
but nothing is said that explains lahay, taken to 
mean 'living one.' The same Heb. letters would 
ordinarily be taken to mean 'jaw bone' (cf. Jg 15 
17 ff.), but this does not explain ro'i, 'who seeth me.' 
Many scholars think that ro'i stood originally for the 
name of some animal. In that case the whole name 
must be considered a place-name much older (and 
no longer understood) than the origin of the story 
in Gn 16, which simply gives it an interpretation. 
See Comm. on Gen., esp. Driver (p. 183, note) and 
Gunkel, ad loc. E. E. N. 

BEEROTH, be-i'reth (!Ti{<3, b-'eroth), 'wells': 1. 
A Canaanite city once leagued with Gibeon and 
included with it in the treaty between Israel and the 
(iibeonites (Jos 9 17). It was in the territory as- 
signed to Benjamin (Jos 18 25; II S 4 2). After the 
Exile it was again occupied by the Jews (Ezr 2 25; 
Neh 7 29). Its inhabitants were called Beerothites 
(II S 4 2, 23 27; I Ch 11 39). Map III, F 5. 

E. E. N. 

BEEROTH BENE JAAKAN, bi'ne je'a-kan. See 
JAAKAN. 

BEER-SHEBA (i'2? IS?, b>'er shebha'): The resi- 
dence of the patriarchs (Gn 21 31, 26 23, 28 10); the 
name signifying 'well of seven' (Gn21 30f.), or 'well 
of oath' (26 31-33), or, as Strabo states it (xvi. 4, 24), 
"seven wells" (cf. Kiriath-arba, 'fourfold city'). It 
is pretty safely identified with the modern Blr'es- 
seba, 28 m. SW. from Hebron. Map II, C 4. The 
neighboring district was called the Wilderness of 
Beer-sheba (Gn 21 14). Being situated on the S. 
border of t lie country, the expression naturally arose 
"from Dan to Beer-sheba" (Jg 20 1 ; I S 3 20), which is 
used conversely by the chronicler "from Beer-sheba 
to Dan" (I Ch 21 2; II Ch 30 5). It was a city of 
Simeon (Jos 19 2). Samuel's sons became judges at 



Beer-sheba (I S82); Elijah fled to Horcb via Beer- 
sheba (I K 19 3). The mother of King Joash was 
born there (II K 12 1). In the days of Amos there 
was at Beer-sheba an important sanctuary (Am 5 5. 
8 14). G. L. It. 

BEESHTERAH, be-esh'te-ra (rr??;?;, b''eshf- 
rfili) (called Ashtaroth in I Ch67l; possibly an ab- 
breviation for Beth- Ashtaroth, 'house of A.'): A 
city in Bashan (Jos 21 27). See ASHTAROTH. 

E. E. N. 

BEETLE. See PALESTINE, 26. 

BEGGAR: The Mosaic legislation was designed 
to prevent the formation of a beggar class among the 
Hebrews (cf. Dt 15 4, 7, 9, 11; Ex 23 11). Accordingly, 
though such a class is common enough in the Orient, 
there is no mention of beggars in the O T (except in 
I S 2 8, AV for the Heb. ebhyon, 'poor'). The term 
'poor,' however, may often mean such destitute per- 
sons as were dependent upon the bounty of their 
more prosperous brethren for their means of daily 
subsistence (Ps 41 1, 82 4). Likewise in the N T the 
term "beggar" (Lk 1620,22) represents the Greek 
'poor.' See also ALMS. A. C. Z. 






BEGOTTEN. See ONLY-BEGOTTEN. 

BEHEAD. See CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS, 
3 (a). 

BEHEMOTH, bi'he-meth (flittrQ, b'hemdth), 
apparently an intensive plural, from b'hfin/ili. 
'beast' (so Cheyne, EB), hence 'colossal !>east': A 
monstrous beast, used as an illustration of the Divine 
creative power in Job 40l5ff. The details of the 
description fit the hippopotamus more nearly than 
they do any other animal. But the description 
(like that of 'Leviathan,' ch. 41) goes beyond the 
bounds of nature into the mythological realm, bor- 
rowing details from Egyptian or Babylonian mythol- 
ogy, simply to make the impression more forcible 
and show how God is absolutely supreme over all 
beings, natural or supernatural. Possibly there is 
a similar instance in Is 30 6 ("beasts" Behemoth?). 
(See Gunkel, Schopfun-g und Chaos, p. 64 f., and 
Cheyne in EB.) See PALESTINE, 24. E. E. N. 

BEKA, BEKAH, bi'ka. See WEIGHTS AND 
MEASURES, 4. 

BEL. See SEMITIC RELIGION, 16. 

BEL AND THE DRAGON. See DANIEL, ADDI- 
TIONS TO. 

BELA, bf'la (3^2., bela'): I. 1. A king of Edom, 
the first in the list given in Gn 36 32 ff. He is called 
the "son of Beor," which has led many scholars 
to identify him with Balaam, son of Beor (Nu 
22 5 ff.), but this is very uncertain. 2. The ances- 
tral head of one of the clans of Benjamin, the Be- 
laites (Gn 4621; Nu 2638ff.; I Ch 76f., 8 iff.). 3. 
The ancestral head of one of the clans of Reuben 
(I Ch 5 8-10). 

II. A city near the Dead Sea, one of the five at- 
tacked by Chedorlaomer (Gn 14 2, 8), identical with 
Zoar. E. E. N. 



Belial 
Bemice 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



93 



BELIAL, bi'li-al (V?"':;, Mn/a',,1), h'li, 'not,' and 
;/"'"/ [in Hiphil], 'profit'): Primarily 'unprofitable.' 
From this neutral sense, however, the term soon 
passed into the more positive one of 'wickedness.' 
It is used in the O T almost invariably in connection 
with some prefixed word, such as "son," "daughter," 
"children," "man," and designates a very wicked 
character (Dt 13 13; Jg 19 22; I S 1 16, 10 27, 25 25, etc. 
AV). In the apocalyptic literature Belial is person- 
ified and identified with the genius of all evil, Satan. 
By a change in the last sound of the word it was 
made into Beliar, ' Lord of the Forest' (II Co 6 15). 

A. C. Z. 

BELLOWS. See ARTISAN LIFE, 10-12, and 
METALS, 1. 

BELLS: Mentioned in Scripture only in the fol- 
lowing instances: 1. The golden bells (pa'amoinni, 
fr. pa' am, 'to strike') which alternated with the 
pomegranates upon the skirts of the high priest's 
robe (Ex 2833f., 3925f.). 2. The bells used on 
horses were called m'tsilloth, fr. tsalal, 'to clang' 
(Zee 14 20). L. G. L. 



BELSHAZZAR, bel-shaz'ar (I'SXS, belsha'- 
tstsar): The last Chaldean king of Babylon, according 
to Dn 5; but prince-regent and son of Nabonidus, the 
last king, according to the Babylonian inscriptions. 
His name appears in his father's and other records 
as Bel-shar-uzur ('may Bel protect the king'). He 
was commander of at least a portion of the army in 
its final stand against Cyrus in 538 B.C. His rela- 
tion to Nebuchadrezzar was simply that of successor 
in power and not 'son,' as Dn 5 18 implies. His 
death described in Dn 5 may have been narrated in 
portions of Nabonidus's annals that have been lost. 
Whatever view we may take of the Book of Daniel it 
may be affirmed with confidence that B. is a histor- 
ical character, that he was the son of Nabonidus, 
and that he occupied a prominent place in the gov- 
ernment of Babylonia just before it fell into the 
hands of Cyrus. I. M. P. 

BELTESHAZZAR, bel"te-shaz'ar (.'V^*'^. 
belf'sha'tstsar, Babyl. Balaf-sharugur, 'guard the life 
of the king'): The Babylonian name given to Daniel 
(Dn 1 7, 2 20, etc.). E. E. N. 

BEMOAN. See MOURNING AND MOURNINO 
CUSTOMS, 5. 

BEN fl3, ben): ALevite (ICh 15 18). The read- 
ing is probably corrupt; comp. ver. 20. E. E. N. 

BEN- (*): In compound proper names means 
'son' (i.e., 'son of). The plural is b'ne ('sons of). 

E. E. N. 

BEN-ABINADAB, ben"-a-bin'a-dab (:-^38-|2, 
ben-'dbhincidhabh), 'son of Abinadab': An official un- 
der Solomon (I K 4 11). E. E. N. 

BENAIAH, be-ne'ya (V^, n *Jf. b*nayah), ']" 
lias built': 1. Ason of Jehoiada, of priestly family (I 
Ch 27 5), commander of David's body-guard, reck- 
oned among the heroes (II S 23 22) with a name 'like 
the three' (cf. Smith in Int. Crit. Com.), a man of 
prowess and the victor over both Moabite and Egyp- 



ti:m champions. In David's later years his star was 
in the ascendant, while between the lines appears the 
story of a bitter rivalry with Joab. When the lat- 
ter's shrewdness forsook him, and Adonijah's coup 
failed, Benaiah's loyalty was rewarded by the chief 
command, and he became his rival's executioner (I 
K 2 28-35). 2. A Pirathonite, another of the thirty 
heroes (II S2330). 3. A Simeonite prince (I Ch 
4 36). 4. A Levite of the second degree who played 
" with psalteries set to Alamoth" in the time of David 
(I Ch 15 18-20). 6. One of the priests who "did blow 
the trumpets before the ark of God" (I Ch 15 24). 
6. A forefather of Jahaziel (II Ch 20 14). 7. A Le- 
vite overseer of the Temple in Hezekiah's time (II 
Ch 31 13). 8. The father of Pelatiah, a "prince of 
the people" (Ezk 11 1-13). 9-12. Names of four 
Israelites who married foreign wives (Ezr 10 25 ff.). 

A. S. C. 

BEN AMMI, ben am'ai. See AMMON, AMMON- 
ITE. 

BENCH. See SHIPS and NAVIGATION. 

BEN-DEKER, ben-di'ker n*"^, ben dheger), 
'son of Deker' (Dekar AV): An official under Solo- 
mon (I K 4 9). E. E. N. 

BENE-BERAK, ben"e-W'rak (p:5"rf5 b'ne 
bheraq), 'sons of lightning' (i.e., of a storm-god?): 
A city of Dan (Jos 19 45), Map III, C 4. 

E. E. N. 



BENEFACTOR: The translation of fiepye'rqs (m) 
(Lk 22 25), a title frequently assumed by rulers in 
antiquity; e.g., Ptolemy Euergetes, i.e., Ptolemy the 
Benefactor. E. E. N. 

BENE-JAAKAN, bi"ne-je'a-kan. See JAAKAN. 

BEN-GEBER, -ge'ber (^.rip, ben gebher), 'son 
of Geber": One of Solomon's officials (I K 4 13). 

E. E. N. 

BEN-HADAD, ben"he'dad (Tin;;, ben h&dhadh), 
'son of Hadad": The name Ben-hadad is the 
Heb. form of the name Dadda-'idri or Adad-'idri 
( =Hadad-ezer, II S 8 3) found in the Assyr. inscrip- 
tions as the name of the king of Damascus contem- 
porary with Ahab. The god Hadad (or Adad, the 
same as Ramman or Rimmon) was a weather- or 
storm-god, widely worshiped in SW. Asia and, ap- 
parently, the national god of Damascus. Adad- 
'idri means 'Adad is my help.' 

The O T speaks of three kings of Damascus with 
this name: 1. The son of Tabrimmon, who was 
hired by Asa of Judah to attack the NE. frontiers 
of Israel (I K 15 18 ff.; II Ch 102ff.). 2. The son of 
the preceding and the contemporary of Ahab of Is- 
rael, wit h whom he was frequently at, war. He was 
an able, energetic king, who waged a long and fairly 
successful struggle against Shalmaneser II of Assyria 
(860-824), who has left a record of a great defeat 
inflicted on B. and a number of confederates (in- 
cluding Ahab) at Karkar in 854. This victory was 
really indecisive, for Shalmaneser did not take 
Damascus and undertook several other campaigns 
against B. without attaining any permanent ad- 
vantage. This B. was succeeded by Hazael (who 






93 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Bernice 



perhaps murdered him; cf. II K 8 15), about 844 (I K 
20, L'J; II K 5, 6 24-7 20, 8 7-15). Many scholars con- 
sider 1 and 2 to be identical. 3. The son and suc- 
cessor of Hazael. He is called Mart in the Assyr. 
inscriptions. He was conquered by R:iiiunan Nirari 
III of Assyria, c. 803. This event broke the power 
of Damascus and gave Israel a chance to recover 
from the crushing defeats inflicted by Hazael (II K 
13 3-5, 24). E. E. N. 

BENHAIL, -he'il (Vn-^, ben kayO), 'son of 
strength': A prince of Judah, one of the company 
of "teachers" appointed by Jehoshaphat (II Ch 
177). E. E. N. 

BEN-HANAN, -he'nan GJn-^, ben hanan), 'son 
of the gracious one': A Judahite, the son of Shimon 
(I Ch 4 20). E. E. N. 

BEN-HESED, -hi'sed (~y~"i?> ben hesedh), 'son 
of Hesed': One of Solomon's officials (I K4 10). 

E. E. N. 

BEN-HUR, -hur' C""]*, ben hur), 'son of Hur': 
One of Solomon's officials (I K 4 8). E. E. N. 

BENINU, be-nai'nu O^J?, b-nlnu): ALevite who 
sealed the covenant (Neh 10 13). E. E. N. 

BENJAMIN, ben'ja-min (f S"}?, binyamin), 'son 
of the right hand': I. 1. Ason of Jacob (see TRIBES, 
f 4). 2. A Benjamite, the son of Bilhan (I Ch 7 10). 
3. One of the "sons of Harim" (Ezrl032; Neh 

323, 12 34). 

II. The tribal name Benjamin was naturally ap- 
plied to the territory occupied by the tribe. This 
territory is denned in Jos 18 11-20, and included the 
towns enumerated in the immediately following par- 
agraph (vs. 21-28). It is not clear whether Bethel and 
Jerusalem were within it. The site of Jerusalem 
was just on the border between Benjamin and Judah, 
and, ideally considered, might have belonged to the 
former during the earlier days when it was still a 
Jebusite city. There are evidences, however, that 
at the time of the Exile it was quite firmly fixed in 
possession of the larger tribe (Jer 37 12). 

As to Bethel, after the destruction following the 
accession of Rehoboam, it is found within the bor- 
ders of Ephraim and was made by Jeroboam one of 
the two shrines of the northern kingdom (I K 12 32). 
In Jos 18 32, however, it is said to belong to Benja- 
min. It is possible that part of Benjamin joined in 
the revolt against Rehoboam. It has been held that 
such was the case upon the basis of I K 12 20 ("There 
was none that followed the house of David but the 
tribe of Judah only"). But against this stand a 
series of explicit statements (I K 12 21, 23; II Ch 11 10, 
12, 23, 14 8, 15 2, 9, etc.), and the fact that even in N T 
times Benjamin was regarded as a portion of the 
Jewish commonwealth. Paul belonged to this tribe. 

III. One of the gates of Jerusalem, Jer 20 2, 37 13, 
387; Zee 13 14 f.; see JERUSALEM, 32. A. C. Z. 

BENO, bi'no (^?, b'no): A son of Merari (I Ch 
2426f.). E. E. N. 

BENONI, ben-o'ni: Another name for Benjamin. 
SeeTKiBEs, 3. 



BEN-ZOHETH, ben-zO'heth (Hnil-jJ, bemiheth), 
'son of Zoheth': A son of Ishi, a man of Judah 
(I Ch 4 20). E. E. N. 

BEON, Wen. See BAAL-MEON. 

BEOR, bi'er (-if?, b-'6r): 1. The father of Bela, 
the first king of Edom (Gn 36 32). 2. The father of 
the seer Balaam (Nu 22 8, etc.). Some would iden- 
tify him with 1. E. E. N. 

BERA, bi'ra (1"_;, beray): King of Sodom (Gn 
14 2). E. E. N. 

BERACAH, ber'a-ca (HJ";?, b-rakhah, Berachah, 
ber'a-cu, AV): I. A Benjamite who came to David 
at Ziklag (I Ch 12 3). II. A valley where an army 
invading Judah in the days of Jehoshaphat was 
destroyed (II Ch2026). Perhaps the modern ruins 
Berektit indicate the locality. Map II, E 2. 

E. E. N. 

BERACHIAH, ber"a-cai'a. See BERECHIAH. 

BERAIAH, ber"a-ai'a (~;X;5, b-ra'yah), ' 3" cre- 
ates': A Benjamite, one of the sons of Shimei (I Ch 
821). E. E. N. 

BEREA, be-ri'a. See BEROJA. 

BERECHIAH, ber"e-cai'a (~;5"1.2, berekhyah),']" 
blesses' : 1. The father of Zechariah the prophet (Zee 
1 l, 7). (In some editions of AV called Barachiah.) 

2. The father of Asaph the singer (I Ch 6 39, 15 17). 

3. A Levite doorkeeper for the ark (I Ch 15 23). 4. 
A chief of the Ephraimites (II Ch 28 12). 6. A post- 
exilic Levite (ICh9 16). 6. The father of Meshul- 
lam (Neh 3 4, 30, 6 18). 7. One of the sons of Zerub- 
babel (I Ch 3 20). E. E. N. 

BERED, bi'red ("H.?, beredh): 1. A place in the 
wilderness S. of Beersheba (Gn 16 7, 14). Site un- 
known. 2. See BECKER, 2. E. E. N. 

BERI, bi'rai ("13, ben): The head of a family of 
Asher (I Ch 7 36). With this family the Berites 
(II S 20 14) had nothing to do. Perhaps the original 
reading was Bichrites (see BECKER, 2). 

E. E. N. 

BERIAH, be-rai'a (~?"!?, b-rl'ah): 1. One of the 
sons of Asher who migrated to Egypt with Jacob 
(Gn 46 17) and therefore the designation of one of the 
clans of the tribe of Asher, the Beriites (Nu 26 44 f.). 
2. The designation of an Ephraimitic clan with a 
Benjamite intermixture. According to 1 Ch 7 21 ff. 
Ezer and Elead, sons of Ephraim, lost their lives in a 
cattle raid against Gath. After a period of mourn- 
ing, their father, Ephraim, begat another son, Be- 
riah. In I Ch 8 13 Beriah and Shema are two Benja- 
mites who put the men of Gath to flight. Scholars 
interpret these names in the tribal sense, B. being a 
clan composed of individuals from two tribes. 3. A 
son of Shimei, the Gershonite (ICh23 10). 

J. A. K. 

BERNICE, bgr-nai'sfe (BepviV?/): Daughter of 
Herod Agrippa I and sister of Herod Agrippa II. 
She was thrice married. At-the time of Paul's trial 
before Festus (Ac 25 13 ff.), she had recently left her 






Berodach-Baladan 
Beth-Gilgal 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



third husband, Polemon, King of Pontus. During 
the war with Rome (66-70) she became the mistress 
of Titus and afterward lived with him at Rome. 
Public policy alone prevented him from acknowl- 
edging her to be his wife. See Jos. Antiq. (passim) 
and Schiirer IMP I. 19 (supplement). 

E. E. N. 

BERODACH-BALADAN, be-r5"dac-bal'u-dan : 
A king of Babylon (II K2012; Is 390- See MERO- 

DACH-BALADAN. 

BERCEA, be-ri'a (Ripoia): A city of Macedonia in 
the province of Emathia, at the foot of Mt. Bermius, 
founded byTheron (Beron) 
or by Beroea, daughter of 
Beros. It was the scene 
of the defeat of Demetrius 
by Pyrrhus (288 B.C.). 
After the battle of Pydna 
(168 B.C.) it was the 
first city to surrender 
to the Romans. Pom- 
pey was quartered 
in 49 B.C. B. was 
the most populous 
city in Mace- 
donia in the 
1st cent. A.D. 
Paul preached 
here with 
some success 
to the Jewish 
colony on his 
second mis- 
sionary jour- 
ney (Ac 17 10, 
13). B. was des- 
troyed by an 
earthquake in 
900 A.D. The 
modern name 
is Verria. 

J. R. S. S. 




Siege of Lachish by Sennacherib. 



BEROTHAH, be-ro'tha 



berothah): A 



place on the (ideal) N. border of the Holy Land (Ezk 
47 16). Site unknown. E. E. N. 



BEROTHAI, be-ro'thai ('D^S, berothay): A 
city belonging to Hadadezer, King of Zobah, con- 
quered by David (II S 8 S). It is identified by some 
with Bereitan, a little S. of Baalbek. E. E. N. 

BEROTHITE, bi'ro-thait (*Cn3, berothl): Na- 
harai the Berothite (I Ch 11 39) was probably a man 
of Beeroth (q.v.). E. E. N. 

BERYL. See STONES, PRECIOUS, 2. 

BESAI, bJ'sai CSS, bcsay): The ancestral head of 
a Nethinim family (Ezr 2 49, Neh 7 82). E. E. N. 

BESIEGE: The offensive wars in which the Is- 
raelites were engaged were usually of short duration 
and probably did not involve any long or elaborate 
siege-operations. Though we read of sieges (e.g., 
in Jg 9 46-52; II S 20 15; I K 15 27) these were little 



more than the brief investment of a town by the 
blockading army. The methods for destroying the 
wall, etc., were of the simplest kind. It was other- 
wise with the operations of the Egyptian and Assyr- 
ian armies. These were provided with scaling-lad- 
ders, with protected cars which could be pushed close 
to the walls (as depicted on their wall inscriptions), 
with battering-rams (Ezk 21 22, the covering of 
which is perhaps meant by mantelet, Nali 2 5), etc. 
Later kings of Judah sought to provide themselves 
with like engines of warfare (II Ch 26 15). Natu- 
rally, with this development of offensive methods 
there went a corresponding development of defen- 
sive works. Walls were made stronger, 
furnished with bulwarks or outer walls, 
etc. By the Romans the science of 
siege-operations was carried to a high 
state of perfection (cf. Josephus' de- 
scriptions in BJ , passim). E. E. N. 

BESODEIAH, bes"o-di'ya (ny]t3, 
b'fodhyah), 'in the secret of J" ' (?): The 
father of Meshullam (Neh 3 6). 

E. E. N. 

BESOM, bl'zom: An old English 
word meaning a broorn. The Heb. 
term mat'tite'm Is 14 23 
is rare, but means 
probably some kind of 
sweeping in- 
strument. 
E. E. N. 



B E S O R , 

bi'ser (-V-;, 
b'sor): A wady 
or brook men- 
tioned in IS 30 
9, 10, 21. Prob- 
ably the Wady 
esh Sheriah, a 
tributary of 
Wady Ghus- 
E. E. N. 



seh, Map II, B 3. 



BESTEAD, be-sted', for early Eng. bested, i.e., 
'placed' (Is 8 21 AV). The RV reads "sore dis- 
tressed." The Heb. (~r"2) has reference to being 
in great difficulty or hardship. E. E. N. 

BETAH, bi'ta. See TEBAH. 

BETEN, bi'ten ("sJ3, beten), 'a hollow': A town 
on the border of Asher (Jos 19 25), site unknown 
(perhaps el Baneh, Map I, E 4). E. E. N. 

BETH- (rrj, beth-), 'house of: In compound 
place-names Beth- means 'place of,' 'abode of,' 
'temple of,' 'house of,' etc. E. E. N. 

BETH-ABARA, beth"-ab'o-ra. See BETHANY, 2. 

BETH-ANATH, beth" - e'nath (DJJ?. '2, beth- 
dnath), 'temple of Anath': An old Cnnaanitish for 
ress later occupied by Naphtali (Jos 19 38; Jg 1 33) 
Though mentioned in Egyptian lists, its exact sit 
is uncertain. E. E. N. 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Berodach-Baladan 
Beth-Gilgal 



BETH-ANOTH, beth"-e'noth (r^i' '2, beth- 
dnoth): A town of Judah (Jos 1559). Probably the 
modern Beit 'AinUn, Map II, E 2. E. E. N. 

BETHANY, beth'a-ni (Bij&wia): 1. Bethany near 
Jerusalem, now called el'Azariyeh from Lazarus, 
the place of Jesus' arrival on His last journey to Je- 
rusalem (Mk 11 l; Mt 21 l; Lk 19 29; Jn 12 l); also 
the place of His ascension (Lk 24 50). Map II, F 1. 

2. Bethany beyond Jordan (Jn 1 28, early changed 
in some MSS. to Bethabara, so AV). One of the 
places where John baptized (cf. also Jn 3 23). The 
site of this second Bethany is uncertain. J. M. T. 



BETH-ARABAH, beth"-ar'a-ba (H^n '2, bUh 
ha-'&rabhah), 'the house of (or in) the Arabah': 
A town on the NE. border of Judah. Site unknown 
(Jos 15 6, 61); Jos 18 22 may refer to a different 
place. E. E. N. 

BETH-ARAM, -e'ram. See BETH-HARAN. 

BETH-ARBEL, beth"-ar'bel (bxjns '2, beth 
'arbc'l), 'house of Arbel': In Hos 10 14 we read "as 
Shalman destroyed Beth-arbel in the day of battle." 
Many conjectures have been advanced to explain 
this statement, as e.g., that Shalman = Shalmaneser 
II, King of Assyria, and Beth-arbel = Arbela (Irbid in 
Gilead, Map I, G 5), but none of them rests on 
certain grounds. E. E. N. 

BETH-AVEN, -e'ven (]'% '2, beth 'awen): A 
place E. of Bethel near Ai (Jos 7 2; I S 13 J, 14 23). 
Near it was a "wilderness" (Jos 18 12). The exact 
site is unknown. According to the pointing of the 
present Heb. text beth 'awen means 'house of wick- 
edness," but the original pronunciation may have 
been beth 'on (so LXX. [B] in Jos 18 12). It was easy 
to transform b.'on into 6. 'awen and use this as a con- 
temptuous designation for Bethel ('house of God'), 
the seat of corrupt worship, as seems to have been 
done by Hosea (4 15, 5 8, 10 5). E. E. N. 

BETH-AZMAVETH, -az-me'veth. See AZMA- 

VETH. 

BETH-BAAL-MEON, -be"ol-mi'en. See BAAL- 
MEON. 

BETH-BARAH,-be'ra (rri2'2, beth-barah): The 
exact situation is unknown, unless the original 
spelling was Beth-'dbharah, 'house (place) of the 
ford ' (Jg 7 24). See BETH-ABARAH. E. E. N. 

BETH-BIRI, -bi'rai ("X^2 '2, beth bir'l), B. 
birei AV: A place in Simeon (I Ch 4 31), called 
Beth-lebaoth in Jos 19 6 and Lebaoth in Jos 15 32. 
Site unknown. E. E. N. 

BETH-CAR, -car" (~? '2, beth fcar): A place, 
possibly a height, marking the limit of a pursuit of 
the Philistines by Israel (I S 7 11). Site unknown. 

E. E. N. 

BETH-DAGON, -de'gen (pl T '2, beth dagSn), 
'house of Dagon': 1. A town of Judah (Jos 15 41). 
Map III, C 5. 2. A town on the border of Asher 
(Jos 19 27). The identification, Map IV, B 6, is 
somewhat uncertain. Both places were doubtless 
once seats of Dagon-worship. E. E. N. 



BETH-DIBLATHAIM, -dib"la-tlu-'im. See AL- 

MON-DIBLATHAIM. 

BETHEL (V&T2., bfth'-d), 'house of God': A 
locality 12 m. N. of Jerusalem on the way to She- 
chem. Two accounts are given of the origin of tlic 
name. According to one, Jacob fleeing from Esau 
to Paddan-aram became aware through a dream of 
God's special presence at the place, and called it "the 
house of God" (Gn 28 19 [J]); according to the sec- 
ond, on his return from Paddan-aram he received 
the assurance of a blessing from God at that spot, 
" and set up a pillar in the place where he spoke with 
him, a pillar of stone, and poured out a drink-offer- 
ing thereon and poured oil thereon, and .Jacob called 
the name of the place where God spake with him 
Bethel" (Gn35l4f. [P]). Originally, the name 
probably belonged more narrowly to a high place or 
shrine in the vicinity of Luz. Later, it passed on to 
the neighboring city with its adjacent country (Jg 
1 23). In Jos 1822 it is reckoned among the cities 
of Benjamin; but from Jg 1 22-25 it appears that 
"the house of Joseph" secured possession of it by 
treachery, and in Jos 8 17 its capture is associated 
with that of Ai. In I Ch 7 28 it is mentioned among 
the possessions of Ephraim. When Jeroboam led 
the ten tribes to break away from Rehoboam, Bethel 
became the most prominent shrine in the new king- 
dom. To this end its history contributed materially, 
for even before the days of Jacob, Abraham had built 
an altar at the place (Gn 12 8, 13 3-6), and Jacob's ex- 
perience gave it a permanent name for sacredness 
(Gn 28 18-22, 31 13, 35 15). To the prophets Bethel 
became a symbol of the idolatrous worship of the 
northern tribes which was evidently thoroughly 
organized with its own priesthood and ritual. In 
modern geography, Bethel is to be identified with 
Beitin. Map III, F 5. (Cf. for fuller history G. A. 
Smith, HGHL, p. 250 ff.) A. C. Z. 

BETH-EMEK, -1'mek (p)JJ?H '2, beth ha-'emeq), 
'house (place) of the valley': A place on the border 
of Asher (Jos 19 27). Possibly the modern 'AmkS, 
Map IV, B 6. E. E. N'. 

BETHER, bi'ther 03?, bether): In Song 2 17 we 
read " the mountains of Bether." The name may be 
only figurative, 'mountains of divisions or separa- 
tions.' But a Bether is mentioned in LXX. of Jos 
15 19 probably the modern Bittlr on a hill about 6 
m. SW. of Jerusalem. Map II, E 1. E. E. N. 

BETHESDA, be-thez'da. See JERUSALEM, 12. 

BETH-EZEL,-i'zel (^>'8n '^bethha'etsel^'pl&ce 
near by': A place in the Shephelah (Mic 1 11). Site 
unknown. E. E. N. 

BETH-GADER, -ge'de.r (11J '2, beth gadher): A 
place inhabited by a Calebite clan (I Ch 2 51), 
otherwise unknown. E. E. N. 

BETH-GAMUL, -ge'mul (bltt? '2, beth-gamul): A 
town of Moab (Jer 48 23), probably between Kiriat- 
haim and Beth-mcon. E. E. N 

BETH-GILGAL, -gil'gal (^"?J3 '2, beth haggilgal), 
'house of Gilgal,' so AV (Neh 12 29). Same as 
GILQAL (q.v.). A. C. Z. 






Beth-Haccherem 
Bethul 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



<JG 



BETH-HACCHEREM, -hac'k.j-rnu ("." '~,bith 
liiil.L-i i-i in, Beth-Haccerem AV), 'place of the vine- 
yard': A place iii Juilali (Jer 6 1; Neh3l4). Site 
unknown. I'.. tt. N. 

BETH-HARAN, -he'ran (]" '-, Inh-haran): A 
city E. of Jordan in (lie territory of Gad (Nu '.'<- 86, 
called B.-Haran in Jos 13 27 [B.-Aram AV]), iden- 
tified by some as Tel Rtaiuili, Map II, H 1, by 
others as Beit Hnrran. At the latter place Herod 
built the palace in which he celebrated his birth- 
day (Alt 140-12). A. C. Z. 

BETH-HOGLAH, -hog'la (H",- ':, btth-haglah): 
A town of Benjamin, near the NE. border of Jiulah, 
not far from the Dead Sea (Jos 15 6, 18 19, 21). 
Map II, III. E. E. N. 

BETH-HORON, -ho'ron (frh '", btlh huron), 
'house of a hollow,' perhaps from a bowl-shaped 
valley in the vicinity: Two neighboring places 
(II Ch 8 5) about 3 in. apart, distinguished 
from each other as the "upper" (Jos 165) and 
"nether" (Jos 16 3) Beth-horon. They were both 
on the boundary between Ephraim and Benjamin 
to the W. of the watershed of the hill-country (Jos 
lOlOf.). Map III, E 5. Josephus (BJ. II, 19 8) 
places the region on the way from Jerusalem to An- 
tipatris and Ca;sarea. The importance of B. in his- 
tory lies chiefly in the availability of the spot as a 
fortified strategic point (Jth 4 4). Solomon evidently 
appreciated this fact when he "built" it (I K 9 17; 
II Ch 8 5); so did the Ephraimitess Sheerah, whose 
interest and authority, however, are very obscure 
(I Ch 7 24). In the Maccabean period, Jonathan 
used the spot in a similar way (I Mac 9 50). Beth- 
Horon was also invested with a sacred character 
as a Levite city (Jos 21 22; I Ch6C8). In modern 
times the two Beth-Horons are known as Beit-Ur el 
Foqa and Beit-Ur et-Tahla respectively, two villages 
with some old ruins (cf. G. A. Smith, HOHL, pp. 254, 
290). A. C. Z. 

BETH-JESHIMOTH, -jesh'i-meth (n^';";- O, 
beth ha-y*shlmoth) : A town in the territory of Moab, 
in the region where Israel encamped (Nu 33 49). It 
was assigned to Reuben (Jos 12 3, 13 20), but after- 
ward reocccupied by the Moabites (Ezk 25 9). 
Map II, H 1. E. E. N. 

BETH-LE-APHRAH, -le-af'ra (~~ T f ?^ '2, bcth 
l r 'aphrah), 'house of Aphrah' (so AV): A town near 
the western border of Judah (Mic 1 10). Site un- 
known. E. E. N. 

BETH-LEBAOTH, -Ie-b6'eth (H^ 'Z, beth 
I'bha'oth), 'place of lions': A town of Simeon (Jos 
19 6), also called Lebaoth (Jos 15 32) and Beth-biri 
(I Ch 4 31). Site unknown. E. E. N. 

BETHLEHEM, beth'le-hem (E-VvTJ, bcth le- 
hem), 'house of bread': 1. A city of Judah, called at 
times Beth-lehem-judah (Jgl77ff., 19 Iff.; Ru 1 
If.; I S 17 12; cf. Mt 2 1, 5f.), to distinguish it from 
the city of similar name in Zebulun (see 2), the 
modern village of Beit Lahm ('house of flesh'), 5 m. 
SSW. of Jerusalem (Map II, F 1), situated in a re- 
gion which was, and still is, one of the most fertile 



in Judaea, though, singularly enough, unsupplied with 
springs of water. 

If the I. XX. text nf Jos 15 59 is genuine, (lie name 
occurs in the list of the cities of Judah. The first 
reasonably assured mention of the place, however, is 
in the David narrative, where it is spoken of as the 
home of his father, Jesse, the Bethlemite (I S 16 1, 
17 12, 15, 58) and his own city (I S 20 6, 28), the scene 
of his anointing (I S 164ff.), and from the well at 
whose gate he longed for a draft of water (II S 23 
14 ff.). If the gloss of Gn 35 19 and 48 7 is correct, it 
is mentioned under the name of Ephrath (cf. I S 
17 12; Ru 1 2, where inhabitants of B. are called 
Ephrathites), which is given in its longer form 
Ephrathah (Ephratah AV; cf. also Ru 4 ll; I Ch 
2 50, 4 4; Ps 132 (i), as part of the accepted name of 
the place by Alicah (5 2; cf. the later documents Ru 
4 11 [also 1 2]; I S 17 12; Ps 132 6. [In the pa.ssage I 
Ch 2l9ff. Ephrath is considered as the district in 
which B. lay]). It is the scene of the story of Ruth 
(1 19, etc.); the place of the family sepulcher of Asa- 
hel, brother of Joab and Abishai (II S 2 32); the 
home of Elhanan, one of David's mighty men (II S 
23 34). It was fortified by Rehoboam (II Ch 11 6). 
It was near B. that the Jews, who in 586 B.C. fled to 
Egypt, found a wayside refuge (Jer 41 17), and the site 
itself was repeopled by the "Children of Bethlehem" 
after the return from Babylon (Ezr 2 21 |] Neh 7 26). 

Its special distinction came from its prophetic 
assignment as the home of the coining Messianic 
King (Mic 5 2). In fulfilment of this prophecy it 
appears in the Mt narrative as the birthplace of 
Jesus (2 1-18). In the N T it is still distinguished as 
the Judaean B. (Mt 21, 5f.), and as the "City of 
David" (Lk 2 4; cf. Jn 7 42). As such it was recog- 
nized in the Roman administration of the land; 
since the fact that Jesus was born in the place was 
due solely to the coining there at that time of Joseph 
and Mary to be registered as "of the house and family 
of David" under the Syrian census of Quirinius, 
c. 6 B.C. (Lk 2 1-7). The statement of Luke 
(2 7) that, because of the lack of room in the inn, or 
khan, Mary laid the infant in a manger is confirmed 
by the early tradition that makes Him to have been 
born in a cave (Justin Martyr, 140-150 A.D., Dial c. 
Tryph. 78) and by the ancient practise of using the 
limestone caves of the hill-country of Judaea as shel- 
ters for cattle. The modern Church of the Nativity 
is built over a group of caves, some one of which 
may have been the historic cave of the nativity. 

2. A city of Zebulun (Jos 19 15), the modern insig- 
nificant village of Beit Lahm, 7 m. NW. of Nazareth 
(Map IV, C 7), generally held to have been the home 
and burial-place of Ibzan, who judged Israel seven 
years (Jg 12 8, 10). 
LITERATURE: Sanday, Sacred Sites of the Gospels (1903); 

Ramsay, Was Christ Born in Bethlehem"! (1898); Smith, 

HGHL;Pn\merinZDPV,xvii;SWP,H, iii. , T 

M. VV. J. 

BETH-MAACAH, -me'a-ca (~^ '2, bcth ma'dk- 
hah, Beth-Maachah AV): The district where the 
town Abel was situated. "Abel of Beth-maacah" 
should be read in II S 20 14. This Abel was attacked 
by Ben-hadad I (I K1520) c. 900 B.C. Its people 
were borne away by Tiglath-pileser III (II K 15 29) 
c. 734 B.C. It was an old city, famous for its circle of 



97 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Beth-Haccherem 
Bethul 



"wise" men and women (II S 20 18). The fertil- 
ity of the site is indicated in its alternate name 
Abel-maim, 'meadow of waters' (II Ch 16 4). Its 
situation was strong and advantageous.' Map IV, 
E 4. E. E. N. 

BETH-MARCABOTH, -mflr'ca-beth (nl3?1 '3, 
bethmarkabhoth), 'place of chariots': A town of Sim- 
eon not far from Ziklag mentioned along with Hazar- 
susah in Jos 19 5; ICh43l. The parallel passage 
(Jos 15 31) has Madmannah (q.v.) and Sansannah 
(q.v.) as the names of the places. Since B.-Marca- 
both 'place of chariots,' and Hazar-susah = 
'place of horses,' it is not impossible that the places 
had some connection with the trade in horses men- 
tioned in I K 10 28 f . ; cf. 9 19. E. E. N. 

BETH-MEON, -mi'en. See BETH-BAAI^MEON. 

BETH-MERHAK, -mer'hak (pni.^n '3,bethham- 
merhdq), 'the house afar off,' 'the far house' (II S 
1.57; cf. AV): Apparently the name of a house or 
station near Jerusalem, between the city and the 
Kedron. E. E. N. 

BETH-NIMRAH, -nim'rS (H^J '3, beth nim- 
rah) : A town of Moab, in the region assigned to Gad. 
It was further built up and fortified by the Gadites 
(Nu 32 36; Jos 13 27). It is called Nimrah in Nu 
32 3. Map III, H 5. E. E. N. 

BETH-PAZZEZ, -paz'ez (YB 'l,bethpatsets): A 
town on the border of Issachar (Jos 19 21). Site 
unknown. E. E. N. 

BETH-PELET, -pi'let (!S^5 '3, beth pelef), 
'house of escape': A town in Judah (Jos 15 27, Beth- 
palet A V) reoccupied in post-exilic times (Neh 1126, 
Beth-pheletAV). Site unknown. E. E. N. 

BETH-PEOR, -pi'or (Tij?5 '3, beth p''or), 'house 
of Peor,' possibly 'house of Baal-Peor,' i.e., a shrine 
where Baal-Peor was worshiped: A city of Moab, 
not far from Mount Pisgah, the place where Is- 
rael listened to the farewell discourses of Moses (Dt 
3 29, 4 46) and the neighborhood in which Moses was 
buried (Dt 34 6). In the assignment of territory E. 
of the Jordan it fell to the lot of Reuben. Regard- 
ing its more definite identification in modern geog- 
raphy, there is great uncertainty (cf. Conder, PEFQ, 
1882, p. 85 f.). Map II, HI. A. C. Z. 

BETHPHAGE, beth'fa-ji (Bij^ayij), 'house of 
figs' (Mt21 1 and ||s): A place on the Mt. of Olives, 
near Bethany. Site unknown. E. E. N. 

BETH-RAPHA,-re'fa(NfJ '3, beth-rapha'): Prob- 
ably a place-name in the genealogy of Chelub 
(Caleb) (I Ch 4 12). E. E. N. 

BETH-REHOB, -ri'heb (3lrn '3, beth r-hobh): A 
district of Syria, not far from Dan (Jg 18 28; II 
S 10 6). Its exact limits are not known. The city 
of Dan was situated in the "valley of Beth-rehob" 
(Jg 18 28). Syrians of B. were involved in war with 
David (IIS106ff.). See also REHOB. E. E. N. 

BETHSAIDA, beth-se'i-da (Bij&raiSd), 'house of 
the fishers': According to Josephus (BJ. Ill, 10 7; 
cf. Vit. 72; Ant. XVIII, 2 l), a town situated 120 



furlongs S. of Lake Semechonitis (McrOm, Jos 114), 
the site of the modern et-Tell. Map IV, E 6. Early 
in the reign of Philip the Tctrarch B. was advanced 
to the rank of a city and named Julian in honor of 
Julia, the daughter of Augustus (Ant. XVIII, 2 1). 
B. was the home of some of Jesus' disciples, Philip, 
Andrew, Peter (Jn 1 44, 12 21), and was denounced 
by Jesus for its unbelief (Mt 1 1 21 and ||). Jesus and 
His disciples withdrew to B. in order to escape Herod 
(Lk 9 10) and to avoid the multitudes (Mk 6 45, 8 22). 
The N T passages do not require the assumption of 
a second B. on the W. side of the lake (so Ewing, 
HBD, I, 282). When Jesus set out from Galilee His 
destination was B. Julias (Lk 9 10). But this not 
agreeing with tptipov TOWOV (Mk 6 31, 32), it is possible 
that Mark omitted the name in this passage, insert- 
ing it at the end of the accounts of the feeding of the 
multitude (Mk 6 45, 8 22). For the later history of B. 
cf. Schurer, HJP, II, i, p. 136. J. M. T. 

BETHSHATC, -shan 0$ '3, beth shun), so in IS 
31 10, 12; II S 21 12; elsewhere Beth-shean, fttf'3, 
beth sh''&n), 'house of safety': A city in the posses- 
sion of the western half of Manasseh about 4 m. W. 
of the Jordan, and 12m. S. of the Sea of Galilee, 
Map III, G 2. It is generally mentioned as a land- 
mark (I K 4 12), except that in the collapse of the 
cause of Israel it seems to have been the first and 
easiest accessible place for the Philistines to cele- 
brate their victory (I S 31 10). Its modern name is 
Beisan. It had an important history in post- 
biblical times, for which see G. A. Smith, HGHL, 
pp. 357 ff. A. C. Z. 

BETH-SHEMESH, -shi'mesh (SOT '3, beth 
shemesh), 'house of the sun': 1. A town on the bor- 
der of Judah (Jos 15 10) counted as a priestly city 
(Jos 21 16). Here, in the field of Joshua the Beth- 
shemite, the Ark rested on its return from the Phi- 
listines, but was not allowed to remain (IS69JF.). 
Here Amaziah of Judah was defeated by Jehoash of 
Israel (II K 14 ll ff.). Later, in the days of Ahaz, it 
was taken by the Philistines (II Ch 28 18). It was 
probably an ancient seat of sun-worship. Map II, 
D 1. 2. A town of Naphtali (Jos 19 38; Jg 1 33). 
Site unknown. 3. A town on the border of Issachar 
(Jos 19 22). Site unknown. 4. A city of Egypt, 
probably On (Heliopolis). E. E. N. 

BETH-SHITTAH, -shit'a (T^tf '3, beth-shiff&h), 
'place of acacias': A place to which the Midianites 
were pursued (Jg 7 22). The ordinary identification 
with Shutia (Map IV, D 8) is not entirely satisfac- 
tory. E. E. N. 

BETH-TAPPUAH, -tap'pu-3 (01EJ3 '3, beth-tap- 
pftah), 'place of apples' (?): A town of Judah (Jos 
1553), connected possibly with the family named 
Tappuah (I Ch2 43), Map II, E 2. E. E. N. 

BETHUEL, be-thu'el (VjjTl?, b>thu'el). I. A 
son of Nahor, Abraham's brother and the father of 
Rebekah, Isaac's wife, and of Laban (Gn 22 22 f., 24 
15, etc., 25 20, 28 2, 5). II. See BETHUL. E. E. N. 

BETHUL, beth'ul (H"l3, b'lhul) : A town in the S. 
of Judah (Jos 194) called Bethuel (I Ch430) and 
Chesil (Jos 1530). Site unknown. E. E. N. 






Beth-Zur 
Bible 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



08 



BETH-ZUR, -zOr" (US ':, bfth tar), 'house of 
rock,' or Zur may be the name of a deity: A town 
of Juduh (Jos 15 58; I Ch 2 45), strongly situated, 
commanding tine road between Hebron and Jerusa- 
lem (Map II, E 2) and fortified by Rehoboam (II 
Chi 17). It was occupied by a post-exilic colony 
(Neh 3 10) anil was the scene of several conflicts in 
the Maceabean war (I Mac 4 19, etc.). E. E. N. 

BETONIM,bet'o-nim (2'j'Jp, b-tOnlm), 'pistachio 
nuts': A place on the border of Gad (Jos 13 26). 
Site unknown. E. E. N. 

BETROTH. See MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE. 

BEULAH, biu'la, 'married': The reference in Is 
62 4 is to the old Semitic idea that a deity stood in 
closest relation to the land in which he was wor- 
shiped, i.e., he owned it, controlled it, gave fertility 
to it, etc. The prophet here uses the term, but not 
in its old purely physical sense. E. E. N. 

BEWAIL. See MOURNING CUSTOMS, 5. 
BEWITCH. See MAGIC AND DIVINATION. 

BEWRAY: An old English word meaning 'to 
disclose,' found in the AV of Is 16 3; Pr 29 24, 27 
is; Mt 26 73. The Heb. of Pr 27 16 is altogether ob- 
scure. E. E. N. 

BEYOND THE JORDAN: When this phrase oc- 
curs in the reported speeches of Moses it denotes 
the W. side of the river (Dt 3 20, etc.), but when used 
by the author who reports them, the E. side (Dt 1 1, 
5, etc. Cf. also Gn 50 10). A. C. Z. 

BEZAI, bi'za-ai (*XS, betsay): The ancestral head 
of a large post-exilic family (Ezr 2 17; Neh 7 23, 
10 18). E. E. N. 



BEZALEL, bez'a-lel (Sp, b'tsal'el, Bezaleel 
AV), 'in the shadow of God': 1. The son of Uri, 
the son of Hur, who was divinely called to be the 
chief artificer of the Tent and its furnishings (Ex 
31-39; I Ch 2 20; II Ch 1 5). 2. One of the "sons 
of Pahathmoab" who had taken foreign wives (Ezr 
10 30). L. G. L. 

BEZEK, bi'zek (p.J3, bezeq): 1. A town ruled 
over by Adonibezek, captured by Judah and Simeon 
in their invasion of Canaan (Jg 1 4f.). It could not 
have been far from Jerusalem (cf. ver. 7), but its site 
is unknown. To identify it with the following with- 
out distorting the whole narrative is impossible. 2. 
The place where Saul rallied the Israelites before 
marching to the relief of Jabesh-gilead (I S 11 8). 
Map III, G 2. E. E. N. 

BEZER, bi'zgr (1*2, betser), 'fortress': I. The 
head of a family of Asher (I Ch 7 37). II. A city of 
refuge, also one of the Levitical cities in the tribe of 
Reuben, Dt 4 43; Jos 20 8, 21 36; I Ch 6 78). It was 
"in the wilderness in the plain (mishor, here 'upland 
plain')." Of the same place Mesha says (Mesha 
stone, line 27) :" I built B., for ruins had it become. " 
Site unknown. E. E. N. 



BIBLE 

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS 

1. Name and Names 5. The Gradual Growth of 

2. The Bible a Collection of the O T (A Brief His- 

Books of Various Dates torical Sketch of the 

and by Many Writers Literature of the O T) 

3. The Original Language 6. The Growth of the N T 

and Text of the Bible 7. The Permanent Signifi- 

4. The Relation of the Bible cance of the Bible 

to Life and History 8. Modern Biblical Study 

The word Bible is from the Gr. j3i'/3Xo?, (lie 

inner layers of the papyrus-plant used in making 

the paper of which books, |3i/3X<H, were 

i. Name manufactured. The dim. j3i/3Xioi/ was 
and Names, especially used of a 'book' as a part or 
division of a larger work. The pi. 
TO. fiip\ia, 'the books,' was applied to the Scriptures 
in consequence of their supreme importance. This 
Greek plural passed over into the Latin as a singular 
biblia, whence the English word ' Bible.' The oldest 
name among the Jews for their Scriptures was "the 
books" (Dn 9 2) or, for the legal part, the "book of 
the law" or "book of Moses" (Neh 9 3, 13 l). In 
NT times the Jews were accustomed to say 'the 
writings' (Heb. k'thubhlm; Gr. ypafpai, Lat. Scri/>- 
turce), or, in case of quotation, etc., 'Scripture' 
(f) ypafj)!); Lat. Scriptura), which term passed 
over into Christian usage and has maintained itself 
until the present day. 

The term Testament is from the Lat testamentum, 
'will,' the LXX. rendering of the Gr. SiafJijKi; (cf. also 
Mt2628, etc.), which, however, neither in the LXX. 
nor in the N T, means ' will' but (as e.g., in II Co 3 4) 
'covenant.' It was easy, however, to take Smf9>jic<j 
in the sense of a testamentary document and use it 
of the Scriptures of the old and new covenants, and 
in ecclesiastical literature from the 2d cent, this is 
a common designation of the Scriptures. For the 
names applied by the Jews to the various parts of 
the O T see OLD AND NEW TESTAMENT CANON. 

The Protestant Bible in common use is a collection 

of sixty-six books. Of these thirty-nine originally 

constituted the Jewish Scriptures and 

2. The make up the O T. The remaining 

Bible a twenty-seven originated in Christian 
Collection circles in the Apostolic Age. In the 
of Books Roman Catholic Church the O T part 
of Various consists of forty-six books (the seven 
Dates and Apocryphal books Tobit, Judith, Wis- 
by Many dom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, I and II 

Writers. Maccabees being counted as Scripture) 
plus the so-called Additions to Esther 
and Daniel. 

The material in the Bible was composed at differ- 
ent times during a period of more than a thousand 
years from the foundation of the Hebrew nation 
by Moses (c. 1200 B.C.) to about the end of the 1st 
cent. A.D. The number of writers whose work is 
preserved in the Bible is unknown. A large number 
of the OT books and some of the N T are anonymous. 
The range and variety of subjects are indicative of a 
corresponding variety and number of authors. The 
poet, the historian, and the philosopher (' wise man'), 
the priest, the prophet, and the apostle, the king and 
the statesman, the popular story-teller, the serious 
legislator, the antiquarian delighting in genealogy 
and statistics, the zealous reformer, the faithful 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Beth-Zur 
Bible 



teacher, the seer, all these and others, even the 
Divine Son of Man Himself, find their words or work 
represented in the Bible. 

It is also a world of varied thought and culture 
that is reflected in the Biblical material. In one 
part we are face to face with the primitive simplicity 
of the Semitic nomad; in another we are in touch 
with the rich culture of the ancient Babylonian 
civilization ; again we share the experiences incident 
to the predominantly agricultural type of life of the 
ancient Hebrew commonwealth; at first we witness 
the crude and petty warfare between clans or tribes, 
then the larger struggles of Israel with her near 
neighbors; next we hear the measured tread of 
Assyria's victorious armies, creators of the first world 
monarchy; then, in succession, it is the Babylonian, 
the Persian, the Greek, and finally the Roman em- 
pires that form the background of the Biblical his- 
tory. 

The original languages of the Biblical books were 

Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. Nearly all the O T 

was composed in Hebrew, the language 

3. The spoken by Israel in Canaan before the 

Original Exile, but after the Return gradually 

Language giving way as the speech of common 

and Text intercourse to the Aramaic, then the 

of the lingua franca of all SW. Asia. Parts 

Bible. of Daniel and Ezra and one verse in 
Jer (10 11) are in Aramaic. There is 
also an Aramaic coloring to many expressions scat- 
tered through the O T. A dialect of Aramaic 
was the vernacular of Palestine in N T times, and it 
is probable that Jesus' teachings were spoken by 
Him in Aramaic and later rendered into Greek by 
the teachers of the early Apostolic Church (see 
ARAMAIC LANGUAGE). Apart from this Aramaic 
basis of the Gospels, especially the first three and of 
some material in Acts, the N T was composed en- 
tirely in Greek, the Greek of ordinary intercourse 
in the Hellenistic world (see HELLENISTIC AND 
BIBLICAL GREEK). 

The text of the Bible has doubtless had a very 
checkered history. Nothing is known of the means 
taken to preserve the text of the O T autographs. 
It is probable that much editorial work was done by 
exilic and post-exilic scholars on the material in their 
hands, and we do not know when the text came to be 
so carefully guarded that no more changes were pos- 
sible. The Greek translation of the O T, the Septua- 
gint (LXX., begun c. 250 B.C., and perhaps com- 
pleted by 150 B.C.), shows that in many places the 
text before the translators differed from the Hebrew 
text current to-day (see GREEK VERSIONS OP THE 
O T). The great Hexapla of Origen, c. 225 A.D. (a 
six-column edition of the O T, one column giving the 
Hebrew text), and the Latin Vulgate of Jerome (390- 
405 A.D.), who made use of the Hebrew, also furnish 
valuable testimony to the ancient Hebrew text. 
Finally, the Massoretes (Jewish scholars who were 
careful students of the text, 3d to 10th cent. A.D.) 
settled upon a uniform text which is that repre- 
sented in practically all Hebrew MSS. extant. 

The text of the N T has had a corresponding 
history. The autographs, written on papyrus, were 
perishable and soon disappeared. The first copying 
was of an unregulated and perhaps at times careless 



character. With the growth of (ho Church in num- 
bers and culture more attention came to be paid to 
the copying of the text. At last, mainly through tin: 
influence of the first printed editions, one type of 
text, unfortunately very corrupt, the so-called Text us 
Receptus, became dominant. Only within the lust 
half-century have more critical and therefore correct 
texts become available. (For a full discussion see 
TEXT OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.) 

Since the Biblical material was produced under 
such a variety of circumstances, by so many different 
authors, and its composition covered such a long 
period of time, it is evident that the collection in its 
present form has a complicated history behind it. 
The O T was already complete before a word of the 
N T was written. But neither collection was the 
work of a single age or made at the dictation of 
any external authority. For full discussion of the 
formal steps that led to the final results in both 
cases see the articles on O T and N T Canon. 
Others of a less formal but fundamental nature will 
find mention below. 

From what has been said in 2 it is evident that 

the Bible material, in the process of its composition, 

sustained a most intimate relation to 

4. The life and that progressive development 
Relation of of man we call history. This is of 
the Bible fundamental importance to a true 
to Life and understanding of the Bible and appre- 
History. ciation of its value. The Bible, both 
as a whole and as to its separate parts, 
was in the first instance a result, not a cause, a prod- 
uct of something that was actual in life and history 
before a written record of it was made. 

The O T is the product of something that was in 
actual existence in Israel before it found expression 
in writing. Israel and Israel's religion came first, 
and it was because there was an Israel with such a 
religion that a literature like that of the O T was a 
possibility. The O T is the product of Israel's vital 
religion and is a competent witness to the vitality 
and divine character of that religion. While it is 
true that the older parts of the O T, once written, 
had an influence on subsequent stages of Israel's 
religious development, the important fact remains 
that, the strong vital, progressive religion of Israel 
is the foundation of the written material we have in 
the O T. 

The same general fact is true of the N T. Jesus 
lived and taught and died and rose and was present 
by His Spirit in His Church before a book of the N T 
was written. The earliest N T book was probably a 
letter of an Apostle to recently planted churches, 
giving needed advice on matters of pressing impor- 
tance. It was within a church, alive, vigorous, pro- 
gressive, and withal not free from faults, that our 
N T literature originated, and almost without excep- 
tion do the N T books show themselves to be prod- 
ucts of what was already at hand in the possession 
of the Church at large or in the hearts of the chosen 
few whose understanding of the common faith was 
most profound. 

Nothing can be further from the truth, then, than 
to say that the religion of Israel or Christianity are 
'book-religions.' In both the book is the product, 
not the cause; in both the religion was in existence 






Bible 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



100 



and in a strong vital touch with life and history 
before the book appeared; in both the book is tin- 
expression of and witness to the strength and vigor 
as well as character of the religion. How different 
in these respects the Bible is from other sacred 
books is as evident as is the related fact, the differ- 
ence' between the religions of other sacred books 
and the religion that produced the Bible. 

Israel, both as a nation and as a nation with a 

peculiar religion, was the creation of God through 

Moses. He consolidated the tribes 

5. The into a national unity the basis of which 

Gradual was a religion the religion of Jehovah, 
Growth of the God of Israel. This religion was 

the O T. essentially spiritual and ethical in 
character, simple in its mode of worship 
and capable of being expressed in comparatively few 
fundamental propositions. Because of its essential 
reality and inherent vitality, in virtue of its Divine 
origin, the apprehension and appreciation on Israel's 
part of the true character and significance of her 
religion were capable of great expansion. It was 
both possible and necessary for her to grow into an 
ever-deepening and widening knowledge of its theo- 
logical and ethical principles. As time went on, and 
environment changed; as new modes of life were 
adopted, new conceptions of the world both of 
nations and of ideas were forced on Israel's mind; 
as great national crises were met and bitter experi- 
ences endured, Israel was called upon to meet such 
circumstances and adjust herself to them in the light 
of her religion. In the course of this long process 
the O T originated and gradually grew into a distinct 
body of literature. To say that the O T represents 
Israel's national literature may be too sweeping a 
statement. It probably comprehends the most of 
the religious part of Israel's literature. It is likely 
that much old Hebrew literature perished with the 
fall of Samaria in 721 B.C. and of Jerusalem in 586 
B.C. Only that which was religious in character 
was preserved of the pre-exilic literature, and in 
exilic and post-exilic days those who produced liter- 
ature in Israel were mainly interested in religion. 

There is no very early evidence that Moses wrote 
more than the statements of the fundamental prin- 
ciples of Israel's religious constitution. The cove- 
nant terms (Ex 34 10-27), the Decalogue (Ex 20 2-17), 
and certain directions as to the attitude of Israel 
toward the Canaanite cultus (Ex 20 22-26, 23 20-33 || 
34 10-17) 'are all that can be safely affirmed as in- 
cluded by both J and E in the written material of the 
Mosaic Age. In addition, according to E, an ancient 
code (Ex 21 1-23 9 in the main) was drawn up by 
Moses. The Mosaic era and the era of the Con- 
quest and Settlement in Canaan were not conducive 
to the production of literature, though rich in deeds 
of courage and faith. These deeds became the sub- 
ject of popular story and song (oral, not written), the 
latter especially being generally inspired by strong 
religious feeling. 

Under David, Israel became supreme in Canaan 
and under the Kingdom conditions were more favor- 
able to the development of literature. History was 
written first on a small scale, then on a larger. At 
last the great 'prophetic' histories, J and E (in 
which popular tradition was used and its religious 



significance pointed out), were completed (see 
HEXATEUCH). Legal material, in the form of 
codes of smaller or larger compass, was written at 
the great sanctuaries, of which the one at Jerusalem 
was of chief importance, while poetry, probably 
almost exclusively religious, was constantly being 
produced. In the 9th cent. B.C., Elijah did his 
great work for Israel's religion, but he committed 
none of his teachings to writing. Later a history of 
his and Elisha's work was written which was em- 
bodied in part by the author of Kings in his large 
history. In the 8th cent. Israel was face to face wit h 
a most serious religious crisis. The old barriers of 
comparative isolation were broken down. Before 
the rapidly growing power of the Assyrian Empire 
the smaller nationalities lost their individual exist- 
ence, while their religions were either destroyed or 
amalgamated into the great Assyro-Babylonian 
pantheon. Such changes threatened the religion of 
Jehovah with destruction. It was saved, under God, 
by the prophets, the exponents in new and trying 
situations of the true character of Israel's religion, a 
task involving instruction along theological, ethical, 
political, and Messianic lines. From Amos (c. 760 
B.C.) to the Exile (536 B.C.) the messages of proph- 
ecy, though in most cases originally spoken dis- 
courses (cf. Jer 36 2), came to be committed to 
writing. Whether this was done by the prophets 
themselves or by their disciples we do not know. 
No pre-exilic prophet systematically arranged anil 
published his prophecies in a complete edition. The 
prophetic oracles were more probably gathered up 
by disciples into smaller or larger collections which 
were later made up into the books we have at 
present. 

In the 7th cent., when the light of the true religion 
of Jehovah was almost extinct, Deuteronomy was 
written as a statement of the original Mosaic consti- 
tution interpreted in the light of the teachings of 
prophecy (Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah). The lit- 
erary form chosen was that of a hortatory address 
by Moses, followed by a code in which much an- 
cient material is preserved and (partially) adjusted 
to new and changed conditions (see DEUTERON- 
OMY). Through the discovery of this book and 
the Reform of Josiah (621 B.C.) based upon it, Israel 
(Judah) came to have for the first time a written 
religious constitution. The Holiness Code (Lev 
1726) was also a contemporary attempt to codify 
the main principles of life (for an Israelite) from the 
point of view of 'holiness to Jehovah.' During this 
period, under the influence of the teachings of Deu- 
teronomy, the series of historical narratives (Judges, 
Samuel-Kings) was completed (apart from post- 
exilic revision). In these, history is almost entirely 
subordinated to religion. The events simply fur- 
nished the occasion for the religious lessons of the 
history. During the latter part of Josiah's reign 
and the whole of the reigns of his sons and successors, 
Jeremiah was opposing in vain the formalism and 
essential irreligiousness that affected all ranks of 
society. In the reign of Jehoiakim (608-597) Jere- 
miah revised and published his earlier oral dis- 
courses with additions (Jer 36). His later proph- 
ecies (just before and after the Exile, 586 B.C.) 
were probably taken down and preserved by his 



101 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



secretary Barurh anil through him <>r others at last 
transmitted to the faithful workers in Babylonia. 
Among the Exiles the already existing literature 
was carefully preserved, studied, and edited. New 
messages were delivered to them by Ezekiel (597- 
570) and by 'second' Isaiah (Is 40-66), messages 
looking to the new era which these gifted seers 
taught was sure to come for Israel. The exilic 
scholars gave much attention to the Law with a view 
to making it the perfect standard for Israel as the one 
people of Jehovah. This revision and perfecting of 
the Law were incomplete at the time of the Return in 
536 B.C. The returned Exiles organized themselves 
mainly on the basis of the Deuteronomic Code. 
Their efforts to rebuild the Temple were encouraged 
by the prophetic messages of Haggai and Zechariah, 
who addressed themselves directly to the situation. 
But the tendency of post-exilic Judaism was toward 
a reduction of religion to formally denned practise. 
The 'scribe' (generally of priestly descent) rather 
than the prophet was now the main religious force. 
At last Ezra succeeded in having his edition of the 
Law recognized by the public assembly (c. 444 B.C.). 
If this was not the canonization of the Penta- 
teuch in its present form, it was at least the great 
step toward such canonization which must have fol- 
lowed in a comparatively short time. 

When this was done the remaining literature, 
historical, prophetic, and poetical, while highly 
honored and esteemed, was still an unclosed collec- 
tion. The later minor prophets and the great his- 
torical work, Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah, were as yet 
unwritten. At last probably before 200 B.C. it 
was felt that no more prophetic voices were to be 
heard and the prophetic succession was considered 
closed. This, of course, led to the separation of the 
prophetic writings as a group next to the Law 
sacred and authoritative, into which no recent liter- 
ature could gain admission. 

In the stress and discouragement of the persecu- 
tion by Antiochus Epiphanes, c. 168-105 B.C., the 
Book of Daniel, the one apocalypse of the O T, was 
written to stay and cheer those whose faith was wa- 
vering, by teaching that the Kingdom of God is 
supreme in spite of all appearances to the contrary, 
and must triumph in the end. This book came too 
late to be included in the prophetic canon and thus 
took its place with the 'other books' (such as the 
Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Chronicles, etc.), not 
yet canonized but highly esteemed and considered 
as of a somewhat different character from other 
writings (as, e.g., The Book of Ecclesiasticus). Of 
the books of this division, Job, Proverbs, and Psalms 
reflect three distinct types of religious experience. 
In Job a great problem is dealt with. In Proverbs 
the maxims of practical life are given, while in the 
I'salms all phases of religious feeling find expression. 
Il is probable that by 100 B.C. the Jews of Palestine 
had come to a general understanding as to the char- 
acter and value of these 'other books' and that this 
third division of the Canon was closed, practically at 
least, about that time. The Judaism of Alexandria 
was inclined to a less rigid view and looked upon cer- 
tain other late books (now called the Apocrypha) 
as of a sacred or semi-sacred character. (For the 
whole subject see O T and N T CANON.) 



It was the larger (Alexandrian) Canon that at first 
circulated in the Gentile-Christian world (as the lan- 
guage of this was Greek, not Hebrew). But quite 
early (from c. 175 A.D. on) the Eastern (Greek) 
churches came to feel that the only true O T Canon 
was the Hebrew (Palestinian). In the Western 
(Latin) churches the Apocrypha continued in gen- 
eral use in spite of protests from men like Jerome 
and at last its use was made binding by the Council of 
Trent (1546). (See APOCRYPHA.) 

The O T was the Bible of the Jews in N T times 

and it was the Scripture of Jesus and His Aposllrs. 

Jesus, so far as we know, wrote nothing 

6. The and in His work He constantly referred 

Growth to the O T as the Scripture fulfilled in 
of the N T. Him. To Him, what He taught and 
what He did and what was to follow as 
the result of His coming were, all in all, the ' fulfil- 
ment" of the OT. In other words, the essential 
religious truths of the O T were the truths on which 
Jesus built in His work as the founder of Christian- 
ity. The real religion of the O T passed over into 
Christianity. Jesus succeeded in implanting this 
truth into the hearts of His disciples, although it took 
time and discipline, even after His resurrection, to 
get them to see it clearly. The life and work of 
Jesus are the real fulfilment of the O T, and the N T 
is the record of Jesus' life and work. Familiar as 
we are apt to be with the N T, it is easy to fail to see 
the real order of development of the N T literature 
and its necessary connection with the progress of 
Christianity in the Apostolic Age. Because the 
Gospels and Acts stand first in the lists of the N T 
Books, it is easy to get the impression that Christi- 
anity began with these documents. Christianity 
began with the Gospel, not with the Gospels, and, 
after the Resurrection, with the work of the Apostles, 
not with the Acts of the Apostles. Jesus proclaimed 
a Gospel of which He Himself was the incarnation. 
He impressed upon a chosen few, who proved fit to 
receive it, the fundamental truths of that Gospel 
and, what is perhaps still more important, He im- 
planted in their souls a knowledge of Himself which 
was doubtless the most powerful and permanent 
influence that ever touched their lives. They simply 
became different men under the tutelage of Jesus. 
It was not a reasoned-out, intellectual process they 
went through, but a complete moral and spiritual 
transformation. They saw life, duty, and destiny 
in a new light, and the central figure and influence in 
their new world was Jesus Himself. Deep into their 
hearts and memories His words and deeds penetrated 
to be brought out and told and partially recorded in 
days to come. But as yet nothing was written of 
all this; it was living in the life experience of living 
men and women. And Jesus left matters thus, know- 
ing as only He could know that the future was 
assured. 

Under the inspiration of Pentecost the Apostolic 
preaching of Christianity began. Preaching, oral 
'proclamation, persuasion, not literature, were the 
means used, and so it continued for decades. 
Multitudes were converted, a brotherhood was 
formed, a new type of life manifested itself, all cen- 
tering about a definite belief in Jesus. The move- 
ment spread from Jerusalem outward into all Pal- 






Bible 
Bilhan 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



103 



estine. Persecution only increased its vigorous 
growth. It reached Antioch, the great metropolis 
of Western Asia. Paul was converted, the Gospel 
was carried into the Gentile world, the First Mis- 
sionary Journey was completed, and the Council of 
Jerusalem had met to discuss the question whether 
the Gospel was something independent of or subsid- 
iary to the old dispensation all before a single book 
(except possibly the Epistle of James) of the N T 
had Keen written. 

This undeniable fact is of sufficient importance to 
be most carefully considered by all who wish to have 
a correct view of the nature of the N T. That the 
Founder of Christianity did His own work and that 
His followers organized His Church and carried it 
on through a vigorous, even remarkable, growth for 
twenty years before any of the N T books were pro- 
duced is conclusive proof that there is something 
more fundamental to Christianity than even the N T. 
It is just here that the real significance of the N T 
must be sought in the relation the NT writings 
bear to that more fundamental something that the 
Christian Church possessed before it possessed these 
writings. That fundamental something was the 
Apostolic Church's conception of Jesus Christ, and 
this consisted (1) of the knowledge that Church pos- 
sessed of Jesus' person, teaching, and work, and (2) 
of the Apostolic interpretation of the significance 
of Jesus' person, teaching, and work for the life and 
destiny of man. In the NT writings we find the 
Apostolic Church's conception of Jesus Christ set 
forth, not in any formal sense, as in official docu- 
ments of the Church, but in a no less real sense. 
These writings originated as special occasions de- 
manded, each being called forth by some particular 
circumstance or reasons affecting only a limited 
circle. This is true even of the Gospels. They all 
deal with living issues, and reflect the actual faith or 
knowledge of their writers and (in most instances) 
readers. 

The first documents of Christianity were Apostolic 
letters, one from the Jewish-Christian Church to 
scattered communities in Palestine and Syria (Epis- 
tle of James, c. 50 A.D. ?), the others from Paul to the 
Thessalonians (c. 50-51 A.D.). Before the year 64 
Paul had written all his Epistles (except the Pas- 
torals). It was in the decade from 60-70 that the 
Synoptic Gospel traditions took definite shape (the 
Logia and Mark both before 70, the Gospel of Mat- 
thew probably later). To the same decade the Epis- 
tle to the Hebrews belongs, addressed to Jewish 
Christians to explain difficulties easily likely to 
trouble such readers, also I Peter. To the next two 
decades (70-90) probably belong the later writings 
of the N T (Gospel of Luke, Acts, II Peter, Jude, 
the Johannine literature). All these were scattered 
over a wide area, not at once brought together, the 
very existence of many being probably unknown out- 
side of a limited circle. For the steps by which they 
became collected into our N T see NEW TESTAMENT 
CANON. 

It was in such a way that the Bible arose, the lit- 
erature of a living, divinely inspired and guided relig- 
ious development. It was a development that went 
hand in hand with historical movements, with en- 
larging intellectual comprehension, with profound 



experiences of sorrow as well as of joy, until the 

"fulness of time" came. Because the Bible arose 

thus its significance and value must be 

7. The permanent. The older view of strictly 
Permanent verbal inspiration is indeed artificial 

Signifi- and untenable, but its real import 
cance of remains intact. The inspiration of 
the Bible, the Bible may be, at places, not far 
from the letter, but in most cases it is 
in the vital religion behind the letter. It is thus 
easily seen how mistakes as to fact may be found in 
the Bible, yet its essential value remain. Criticism, 
in its search for the facts as to the origin, composi- 
tion, authorship, integrity, etc., of the various books, 
is both necessary and, when rightly conducted, 
helpful (see 8, below). The results of all such 
research only bring us closer to the truths that the 
Bible, and the Bible alone, contains the truths of 
God's revelation of Himself and of His will, in the 
history and life of Israel first, but fully set forth in 
Jesus Christ, whom we can know through the Gos- 
pels and the interpretation given in the documents 
of the Apostolic Age. E. E. N. 

Criticism is that branch of Biblical study which 

aims to ascertain with as much precision as possible 

the facts regarding the origins and 

8. Modern original forms of the books of the 

Biblical Bible. So far as it deals with the ques- 
Stucly. tion of the original text, it is called 
the Lower or Textual Criticism, and is 
properly treated in the articles on the Text. So 
far as it concerns the origin, i.e., authorship, date, 
integrity, literary form, purpose, etc., of the sepa- 
rate books, it is called Higher Criticism, and the 
results of its application will be found in the articles 
on the separate books or parts of the Bible. 

The Higher Criticism, so called, is a comparatively 
recent branch of study. There were indeed questions 
raised and hints thrown out regarding a method of 
inquiry analogous to it even as early as the Middle 
Ages. Spinoza is supposed to have put forth certain 
suggestions which, if pressed, must have led to the 
use of such a method of study. But it is generally 
admitted that the first to resort to this method was 
the physician Astruc (Conjectures sur les Mfmoires, 
etc., 1753). He called attention to the use of the 
names Jehovah and Elohim in successive sections of 
Gn, and from this fact drew the inference that in the 
composition of the book Moses had incorporated 
older documents, each characterized by the use of 
one of these names. 

But this use of the divine name was only one of 
several features distinguishing the sections (docu- 
ments) in which they occurred. These were next 
examined, and their significance developed into the 
so-called Documentary and Fragmentary theories 
of the Pentateuch, put forth by men like Eichhorn, 
J. D. Michaelis, and Geddes. (Eichhorn was the 
first to use the phrase "higher criticism" as the name 
of the new method of study. ) 

Other material for investigation in a similar way 
was soon brought into view by De Wette and Ewald. 
This consisted in the mass of historical data fur- 
nished by the O T books themselves. From an ex- 
amination of this historical material, De Wette was 
enabled to propound the theory that Gn was tho 



toa 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Bible 

Lillian 



work of a writer who found an Elohistic document 
and used this as a nucleus for the addition of mate- 
rial from Jehovistic and other sources. This was the 
Supplement theory (or in the form in which Ewald 
put it, the Crystallization hypothesis). Meanwhile, 
what was being done in Gn and the Pentateuch be- 
gan to be extended to the other books of the O T. 

But there remained still another class of facts 
available for criticism, those, namely, which were to 
be found in the flow of thought. This was arranged 
in the order of a hypothetical development. The 
meaning of the facts in this sphere was partially 
shown by Vatke and George quite early (1835); but 
it was not fully worked out into a complete theory 
until Kuenen (1805), Graf (18GG), and Wellhausen 
(1872) fully presented their conception of it, and 
made it clear how revolutionary the results would 
prove (see HEXATEUCH). 

The development of the critical method, as above 
summarily sketched, made clear its necessity, its 
nature, and its danger. Its necessity was seen to lie 
in the fact that the truth with reference to many 
phases of real importance regarding the origin of the 
books of the Bible had been lost or obscured in the 
course of the ages since their first composition. This 
led naturally to their being ascribed to others than 
their real authors, or else their being left anonymous. 
The original purpose also and the literary form of 
some of them were forgotten and other designs and 
forms were attributed to them. Some books of 
poetry were read as if they were prose, some para- 
bolic or allegorical books were taken as accurate 
history. All this had to be rectified, and the new 
method was seen to be helpful in rectifying it. 

The nature of the method also became clearly 
apparent. It is a method which depends upon the 
observation of internal marks, mainly of three 
classes, i.e. (1) literary, (2) historical, and (3) such 
as pertain to the content of thought. The literary 
marks are those characteristics of style, including the 
choice of words, the construction of phrases, and the 
infusion of a tone and spirit into a writing, through 
which the author reveals his personality. The his- 
torical marks are the signs of age, place, and environ- 
ment which unconsciously betray a forgery or a 
misplaced production and furnish the ground for as- 
signing it to its true place ; or if it is genuine, of verify- 
ing its genuineness and dispelling suspicion about it. 
The marks drawn from the content of thought are 
those considerations which fix a certain relationship 
of succession and development of ideas from one 
book, or one part of a book, to others. To these 
should be added also such considerations as grow 
from the relation of the content of the O T books to 
the religious ideas of contemporary and neighboring 
nations. 

The main danger in the use of the critical method 
in the O T is that of giving too free a range to sub- 
jective considerations. In each one of the fields 
within which the materials for critical examination 
lie, there is the possibility of reading much more or 
much less than the facts warrant. The personal 
equation is, therefore, paramount. Philosophical 
presuppositions either for or against what is usually 
called the supernatural element inevitably enter 
into the processes and appear in the conclusions of 



critics, and extreme and sometimes startling views 
are often propounded in the name of criticism. 

As against this danger, two counterbalancing fac- 
tors may be named: (l)That extreme subjectivism 
on one side corrects extreme subjectivism on the 
other. For the student who is approaching the crit- 
ical method and critical results with intelligence .ui<l 
impartiality, the philosophical bias of one school will 
nullify the philosophical bias of the other, leaving 
him in possession of the essential facts. (2) While 
each part of the method may be used with too much 
subjectivity and become untrustworthy, there is a 
cumulative effect from the use of all which is in the 
main trustworthy. 

LITERATURE: Zenoj, Elements of Higher Criticism (1805); 
McFadyen, Old Testament Criticism and the Christian 
Church (1903); Briggs, The Study of Holy Scripture 
(1899); Nash, History of the Higher Criticism of the 
ff T (1900); J. A. Smith, Mod. Criticism and the Read- 
ing of the OT (1901); Ryle, On Holy Scripture and 
Criticism (1904). A. C. Z. 

BIBLICAL GREEK. See HELLENISTIC AND 
BIBLICAL GREEK. 

BICHRI, bic'rai (")?3, bikhrl): Sheba, who re- 
volted from David (II 820 iff.), is called "son" of 
Bichri, i.e., he was of the clan of Becher of Ben- 
jamin. See BECHEH. E. E. N. 

BID. See MARIUAQE AND DIVORCE. 

BIDKAR, bid'kflr (1R1?, bulhqar): Captain of 
Jehu's chariot, i.e., his aide (II K 9 25). E. E. N. 

BIER. See BDRIAL AND BURIAL CUSTOMS, 4. 

BIGTHA, big'tha (*!?, bigtha"). See CHAMBER- 
LAINS, THE SEVEN. 

BIGTHAN, big'than; BIGTHANA, big-the'na 
(]riJ3 ,Nj!s!53, bigthan, bigthana'): One of the cham- 
berlains of Ahasuerus who kept the door of the 
palace (Est 2 21, 6 2). E. E. N. 

BIGVAI, bigVa-oi (1J?, bigway): 1. One of the 
leaders of the Return (Ezr 2 2; Neh 7 7). 2. The an- 
cestor of a large post-exilic family (Ezr 2 14,8 14; 
Neh 7 19), possibly the same as 1. 3. A representa- 
tive of this family (Neh 10 61). E. E. N. 

BILDAD, bil'dad (Tib?, bildadh), 'Bel loves' 
(?): One of Job's friends (Job 2 11, etc.), called "the 
Shuhite," i.e., of the line of Shuah, son of Abraham 
(Gn 25 2, 6). E. E. N. 

BILEAM, bil'g-am. See IBLEAM. 

BILGAH, bil'ga (."$?, bilgSh): The ancestral 
head of the fifteenth course of priests (I Ch 24 14; 
Neh 10 8 [Bilgai], 12 5, 18). E. E. N. 

BILHAH, bil'hd ("'?)?, bilhah): I. The hand- 
maid of Rachel and mother of Dan and Naphtali 
(Gn 29 29, 30 3-7, 35 22, etc.). See TRIBES, 2, 3. 
II. A town in Simeon. See BAALAH, 2. E. E. N. 

BILHAN, bil'han (in 1 ??, bilhan): 1. AHoriteclan 
(Gn 36 27; I Ch 1 42). See HORITES. 2. A Benjamite 
clan (I Ch 7 10). E. E. N. 






Bill 

Bohan 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



104 



BILL. See MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE, and 

TllADE AND COMMEHCE, 3. 

BILSHAN, bil'shan (}$1, bilshdn): One of the 
leaders of the Return (Ezr 2 2; Neh 7 7). E. E. N. 

BIMHAL, bim'hal (Vn?P5, bimhal): One of the 
descendants of Asher and a son of Japhlet (I Ch 
733). E. E. N. 

BINEA, bin'g-a (N???, bin'a'): Son of Moza and a 
descendant of Jonathan (I Ch 8 37, 9 43). E. E. N. 

BINNUI, bin'na-ai ("i:?, Wnnfl), 'building': The 
ancestral head of the "sons of Binnui," one of the 
great post-exilic families (Neh 7 15; Bani in Ezr 2 10). 
To this family most of the following individuals 
probably belonged: (a) The Levite (Ezr 8 33; Neh 12 
8); perhaps the same person is called Bunni (Neh 
9 4) and Bani (Neh 8 7). (fc) One of the "sons of 
Pahath-moab" and (c) "one of the sons of Bani," 
both of whom had taken foreign wives (Ezr 10 30, 38). 
(d) A Levite, the son of Henadad, who helped in re- 
pairing the wall (Neh 3 24, 10 9; the same as Bavai 
of 3 18?). E. E. N. 

BIRDS. See PALESTINE, 25. 



BIRSHA, bir'sha 
Gomorrah (Gn 14 2). 



&$, birsha'): King of 
E. E. N. 



BIRTH, BIRTHDAY, BIRTHRIGHT. See 

FAMILY AND FAMILY LAW, 6, 8. 

BIRZAITH, bir-ze'ith; BIRZAVITH, -vith 
(H';'.; or ri*'i~i2,birzawUhorbirzayUh): Aplace(?) 
in Asher (I Ch 7 31). Site unknown. E. E. N. 



BISHLAM, bish'lam (2^ 
official (Ezr 4 7). 



"5, bishlam): A Persian 
E. E. N. 



BISHOP, BISHOPRIC. See CHURCH, 8. 

BIT, BRIDLE: These words, as used in EV, 
indicate three different objects: (1) The bridle (me- 
theg, xaXiKor), which includes the curb or bit, is 
mentioned as part of the harness of the horse (Ps 32 
9, "bit"; Rev 14 20) and ass (Pr 26 3). It is used fig- 
uratively for restraint (II K 19 28 = Is 37 29; Jas 1 26, 
32f., of the tongue) and for the authority of the 
mother-city (II S 8 l). (2) The re?en is a halter (EV 
"bridle") and is used metaphorically for restraint of 
the actions (Job 30 ll; Is 30 28). The "double bri- 
dle" (Job 41 13, AV) of Leviathan seems to refer to 
his upper and lower jaws (so ARV). (3) The mah- 
fOm was a muzzle, intended to prevent the animal 
from biting (Ps 39 l; cf. ARVmg.). See plate of 
ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL, Fig. 5. L. G. L. 

BITHIAH, bith'i-a (irn?, bithyah): A daughter 
of Pharaoh whom Mered, a descendant of Judah, 
married (I Ch 4 18). The statement is a peculiar one 
and difficult of explanation. E. E. N. 

BITHRON, bith'ren fl*1!??, bithron), 'the gorge': 
A wady through which Abner fled from the Jordan 
to Mahanaim (II S 2 29). Perhaps the Wady 'Ajlun, 
Map III, H 3. E. E. N. 

BITHYNIA, bi-thin'i-o. See ASIA MINOR, 3. 



BITTER HERBS: One of the elements of the 
Passover meal (Ex 128; Nu 9 11). The herbs used 
were watercress, lettuce, endive, and chicory. They 
were either mixed or used separately. Regarding 
their significance different views are held, some 
alleging that they symbolized the sufferings of the 
people in Egypt, while others hold that like the pro- 
hibition of leaven they were the sign of the haste in 
which the Exodus took place. A. C. Z. 

BITTERN: The A V rendering of "!Ej?, qippSdh 
(Is 14 23, 34 ll;Zeph2l4). The meaning of the Heb. 
is not known. RV renders "porcupine." Chcyne 
(EB, s.v.) favors bittern. Socin, in Guthe's Bibel- 
worterbuch, thinks some kind of lizard is meant. 
See PALESTINE, 25, 26. E. E. N. 

BITTER WATER. See DISEASE AND MEDI- 
CINE, 7(12); CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS, 3 (b). 

BIZIOTHIAH, biz"i-o-thoi'a (r^"??, bizySth- 
yah; Bizjothjah, biz-jeth'jfl, AV): The reading 
found in the Heb. of Jos 15 28, but in LXX. and at 
Neh 11 27 we read "and the towns thereof" ( - Heb. 
~'r^;i), which is probably the true text. 

E. E. N. 

BIZTHA, biz'tha. See CHAMBERLAINS, THE 

SEVEN. 

BLACK. See COLORS, 1. 

BLAIN. See DISEASE AND MEDICINE, 5 (9). 

BLASPHEMY. See CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS, 
2 (c). 

BLAST: The rendering of n'shamah, 'breath,' as 
in II S22 16; Ps 18 15, where it is followed immedi- 
ately by ruah,' wind, 'and of rwa/^inExlSS; II K 197, 
etc. In all cases it refers to a manifestation of God's 
power, either in the physical world by wind or storm, 
or by a plague (Is 37 7), except in Is 25 4, where it 
refers to human violence. E.. E. N. 

BLASTUS, blgs'tus (BXaoror): The chamberlain 
of Herod Agrippa I (Ac 12 20), through whose inter- 
vention certain men from Tyre and Sidon secured an 
audience with the king. No mention is made of 
Blastus in Josephus' account of the death of Herod 
(Ant. XIX, 82). See HEROD AGRIPPA I. 

J. M. T. 

BLEMISH. See SACRIFICE AND OFFERINGS. 
5. 

BLESS, BLESSING. See TERMS OF BLESSING 
AND REPROACH. 

BLINDNESS. See DISEASE AND MEDICINE, 
5(5). 

BLOOD: The important meaning attached to 

blood in the Oriental world was determined by the 

notion that the life principle either is 

I. Signif- the blood itself or has its residence in 

icance the blood (Lv 17 ll). Just how such a 

notion might originate it is not difficult 

to understand when one considers that after the 

blood is allowed to run out of the body the life of the 



105 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Bill 

Boluii 



body is extinguished. This is true of both man and 
the lower animals (( !n 9 4). 

From this notion are deducible the prescriptions 
as to the treatment of the blood: (1) Blood was 
not to be made an article of food (Lv 
2. Legis- 720f.; Dt 12 16). This law is applied 
lation to all blood, not simply to that of ani- 
About mals slain for sacrificial purposes. (2) 
Blood. The tabooing of the blood of sacrificial 
victims (I S 14 32). (3) The presenta- 
tion of the blood of an innocent victim at the altar of 
Jehovah as pure life to cover the offending life of the 
offerer (Lv 1 S, etc. See also SACRIFICE). (4) The 
value of blood as means of ceremonial cleansing, as 
in the case of purification from leprosy (Lv 14 5-7). 
(5) The law of blood revenge, i.e., a life for a life 
(On 9 6; Dt 19 6), and (6) the use of blood as a means 
of establishing a covenant (Ex 24 6). Cf. Trumbull, 
Threshold Covenant. See SACRIFICE AND OFFER- 
INGS, 16. A. C. Z. 

BLOOD, AVENGER OF (go'el hod-dam, Nu 35 
19): The next of kin whose duty it became to visit 
vengeance for the violent death of those related to 
him. The duty was based on the theory that the 
family, tribe, and clan constituted sacred units. 
When the blood of a member of one of these units 
was shed, atonement was required either through the 
death of the shedder of the blood or through that of 
some member of the unit to which the offender be- 
longed (II S 21 1-14; Jg 8 18-21). The earlier law 
made no distinction between intentional murder and 
undesigned homicide (Gn 9 6). The later legislation 
(Nu 35 9 ff. ) was a great improvement over the earlier 
in that it distinguished in this particular and soft- 
ened the asperities of natural feeling, placing safe- 
guards about the whole practise and thus preventing 
injustice and cruelty. A. C. Z. 

BLOODGUILTINESS. See BLOOD, 2 (S), and 
BLOOD, AVENGER OF. 

BLOOD, ISSUE OF. See DISEASE AND MEDI- 
CINE, 5 (7). 

BLOODY FLUX. See DISEASE AND MEDICINE, 
5 (2). 

BLOODY SWEAT: Taken literally this would 
mean the oozing of the blood through the pores 
of the skin, together with the perspiration. That 
under intense excitement such as was experienced 
by Jesus (Lk2244) perspiration sometimes breaks 
into bloody sweat is a well-known fact in medical 
science. But it is by no means certain that the text 
of Lk is pure (cf. Westcott and Hort, The N T in 
Greek, Vol. II, App. p. 64 ff.) or that the statement 
was intended as a literal one (cf. Plummer on Lk in 
Int. Crit. Com. 1896). A. C. Z. 

BLUE. See COLORS, 2. 

BOANERGES, b6"a-ne.r'jtz (Boav qpyt s ) : A sur- 
name given by Jesus to James and John (Mk 3 17), 
interpreted by Mark to mean "Sons of thunder" 
(Yioi Bpoirijf). The nearest known Aram, equiva- 
lent is b"ne regez (see Dalman, Aram. Gr.*, p. 
144), which, however, means 'sons of wrath," not 
'sons of thunder.' Mark's interpretation is perhaps 
a reminiscence of the tradition in Lk 9 54. For an 



explanation of B. as equivalent to the Dioscuri, or 
Heavenly Twins, see J. Rendel Harris, Expo. Feb.. 
1907. J. M. T. 

BOAR. See PALESTINE, 24. 

BOAT. See SHIPS AND NAVIGATION, 1. 

BOAZ, bo'az Qy'},b6'az), 'swiftness' (soOxf.Heb. 
Lex.): A prominent citizen of Bethlehem, kinsman 
of Naomi (Ru2lff.). Upon the return of Naomi 
from Moab with Ruth, her daughter-in-law, Boaz 
was led to take the latter under his protection by 
purchasing the right of redemption from the next of 
kin. And as this right included according to the 
Law that of levirate marriage (Dt 25 5 ff . ), Boaz took 
Ruth as his wife, and from this marriage sprang 
Obed, the grandfather of David (Ru42l f.). The 
importance of Boaz in history is accordingly in the 
main genealogical (cf. Mt 1 5; Lk 3 22, Booz AV). 
For the pillar called Boaz at the vestibule of Solo- 
mon's Temple, see TEMPLE, 14. A. C. Z. 

* 

BOCHERU, bo'ke-rfl or bek'e-ru (1153, bokh'ru): 
A Benjamite of the stock of Saul through Jonathan 
(I Ch 8 38, 944). E. E. N. 

BOCHIM, bo'kim (0*52, bokhim), 'weepers': A 
place where the Israelites were reproved by an 
angel (Jg2l, 5). In 21 LXX. reads "Bethel," 
which is probably the true reading. In that case 
"Bochim" would be a place in or very near Bethel. 
See ALLON-BACUTH (cf. Moore on Judges, in Int. 
Crit. Com.). E. E. N. 

BODY: The earliest Biblical usage has no fixed 
name for the human body as a living organism. A 
series of terms is used which designate it from some 
portion or peculiarity, such as 'belly,' beten (Mic 6 7; 
Job 19 17), which is quite uniformly, however, a syno- 
nym of 'womb'; also 'bowels,' me'im (Song 5 14, 15 
4); 'back,' gew, gewah, gwiyyah (Is 51 23; Job 20 25; 
I S31 10; also gabh, Job 13 12, AV); 'bone/ 'etsem (Ex 
24 10, AV); 'thigh,' yarek (Jg 8 30); 'flesh,' basar (Is 
10 18); also she'er (Pr 5 ll); 'breath,' nephesh (Lv 21 
11); 'carcass,' n'bhelah (Dt 21 23), together with an 
occasional metaphorical expression such as "house 
of clay" (Job 4 19). The later usage added to these 
guphah, 'back' (I Ch 1012), geshem, 'material' (Dn 
3 27), and nidhneh, 'sheath' (Dn 7 15). In the N T 
the single term <ro>/ia is comprehensively used (except 
in Ac 19 12, where \puis is found). In Paul's concep- 
tion of the spiritual body, there is a hypothetical 
counterpart of the animal organism with which the 
spirit of man is always found associated on earth. 
Such a hypothetical being, whatever its true nature, 
removes a difficulty in the way of belief in the resur- 
rection (I Co 15 44). See also MAN, DOCTRINE OF, 
6, 7. A. C. Z. 

BODY OF CHRIST. See KINGDOM OF GOD, 8, 
and CHURCH, 4. 

BOHAN, bo'han 0~3, bshan), 'thumb': "The 
stone of Bohan, son of Reuben," was a landmark on 
the NE. boundary of Judah (Jos 15 6, 18 17). No 
mention is made of B. in the genealogies of Reuben. 
The stone may have had the appearance of a great 
thumb. E. E. N. 



Books and Writing 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



IOC 



BOIL. See DISEASE AND MEDICINE, u (9), and 
SACRIFICE AND OFFERINGS, 16. 

BOLLED: The English word "boiled" (Ex 9 31) 
means 'swollen,' as pods are by seed. But the Heb. 
terra, gibh'61, is more correctly rendered by the 
ARV" in bloom." E. E. N. 

BOLSTER: The translation in AV of a Heb. 
term (m'ra'&shoth) meaning 'at the head of or 'near 
the head' (I S 19 13 ff., 26 7 ff.). K. K. N. 

BOLT. See HOUSE, 6 (l). 

BOND : Besides having its more common meaning 
of a fetter or chain (Jer 27 2; Ac 26 29; Eph 6 20) or of 
a pledge in connection with an oath or vow (Nu 30 2), 
the word stands in EV for (1) mu$ar, the bond of a 
king (Job 12 18), i.e., the obligation imposed by the 
authority of a king; (2) ma$oreth, the bond of the 
covenant (Ezk 20 37), i.e., the relation of the theo- 
cratic community; (3) o-uvSeer/ioy, "the bond of in- 
iquity," "the bond of peace," "the bond of perfect- 
ness" (Ac 8 23; Eph 4 3; Col 3 14), i.e., the fellowship 
created by the acceptance of these as ideals of con- 
duct. In I Co 12 13, etc., it is used to render SoGXot, 
'slave,' or 'bond servant." See also SLAVERY, 1, 
and TRADE AND COMMERCE, 3. A. C. Z. 

BONDAGE, BONDMAID, BONDMAN, etc. See 

SLAVERY, 1. 

BONES, DISEASES OF. See DISEASE AND 
MEDICINE, 5 (i). 

BONNET. See DRESS AND ORNAMENT, 8. 
BOOK OF LIFE. See LIFE, BOOK OF. 

BOOK OF THE WARS OF JEHOVAH. See 

WARS OF JEHOVAH, BOOK OF. 

BOOKS AND WRITING: In the earliest times 
leaves, bark, hides, and for certain sacred purposes 
linen, were used as materials on which 
i. Book to write, but in historical times papyrus 
Materials, and parchment were the only materials 
Wax of importance for writings intended to 
Tablets, be permanent. For writings not in- 
tended to be permanent wax tablets 
were used (cf. Is 8 l; Hab 2 2; Lk 1 63). They were 
made of wood and resembled our double slates, 
and like our slates the surfaces intended to re- 
ceive the writing were sunken panels, whose raised 
edges served to protect the writing from defacement 
when the tablets were closed. The sunken surfaces 
were covered with a thin layer of red or black wax, 
in which the letters were scratched (hence they were 
called \apaKrrjpts, from xapawiiv, 'to engrave") 
with a sharp-pointed stylus (ypa<pic) made of bone, 
ivory, or metal. When the tablet had been filled 
with writing and was to be used again, the wax was 
smoothed down by the upper part of the stylus, 
which was purposely fashioned broad and flat. Pa- 
pyrus and, after its invention, parchment were too 
costly to be used in schools or in every-day business 
life, and therefore wooden wax tablets were kept at 
hand and used as the depository of memoranda of 
every kind, such as stray thoughts, verses, outlines 
of speeches or arguments, contracts, bills, day-books, 



notes to friends and sweethearts, invitations, etc. 
Single tablets do not appear, because the writing 
could not be protected from defacement, but double 
tablets (diptychs) were in the hands of every one, 
and in paintings and reliefs, letters and oracular ut- 
terances are always depicted as diptychs, but trip- 
tychs, tetraptychs, pentaptychs, and polyptychs were 
common. Double tablets were fastened together by 
hinges of string or metal, but often, especially in the 
case of polyptychs, holes were bored in the center of 
the panels ; a string was then passed through the hole 
and tied. If the diptych or polyptych were to be 
sent as a letter, the ends of the string were sealed, 
among the Greeks, with sealing-clay, but among the 
Romans with wax. The tablets were often supplied 
with handles by which to carry them or to hang 
them up. Wax tablets were used even as late as the 
time of Christ for contracts, bonds, and receipts, and 
from Pompeii we have 126 such tablets which were 
the property of a banker in 54 B.C. Every scratch 
made in the wax is distinct and undefaced after 
more than 1 ,900 years. 

But for documents of length and those intended to 

be permanent, such as long letters and books, wax 

tablets were not only too cumbersome 

2. Papyrus but too perishable. In earliest times 

Paper. books were written on hides, tanned 

Rolls. and untanned (8i<f>depa, membrana), 
which were both cumbersome and 
costly. Hides were supplanted by papyrus paper, 
which was invented and manufactured in Egypt. 
Papyrus paper was made of the inner lining of the 
papyrus-reed. Long and necessarily narrow strips 
were placed side by side on a level surface and then 
crossed at right angles by other similar narrow 
strips. Sheets thus manufactured were first soaked 
in mucilaginous water, and then pressed and dried. 
A multitude of such sheets were cemented together 
into a roll (or "scroll," Is 3 44; Rev 6 14), i.e., one 
continuous sheet of any desired length. 

In antiquity the word book (/3i'/3Xor, liber) did 
not mean either a volume or a subdivision of a work, 
but referred solely to papyrus, the material on which 
the book was written, for |3u/3Xor was the name ap- 
plied to the papyrus-plant, and later on the word, 
with a slight change, was transferred from the 
material to the matter written on the material. The 
long strip of papyrus paper on which a book had 
been written was rolled together beginning with the 
end of the book. The resulting roll was called 
icuXii/Spos rofios, volumen. As one began to read 
such a roll, the first column of reading-matter was 
on the left of the reader, whose right hand unrolled 
the unread part, while his left hand rolled up the 
read part in a direction the reverse of that of the 
original roll. When the book had been read, the 
student seized the two ends of the umbilicus (see 
below) with both hands and rolled the whole volume 
back again into its original form. The rolls were 
often very large; some found in recent years in 
Egypt consist of sheets 42 meters long. It is reck- 
oned that the history of Thucydides (23,144 lines) 
would require a sheet of papyrus 81 meters long, 
that the Odyssey would require one 42 meters long, 
that the Iliad and Odyssey which we know were 
written on one sheet in antiquity would require a 



107 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Boil 

Books and Writing 



sheet 90 meters long. Such an unwieldy roll could 
not be held in the hands and be unrolled and re- 
rolled as read, bul could be read only when lying on a 
table. The writing on the papyrus sheet was not 
done in unbroken lines extending from one end of the 
sheet to the other, but in narrow parallel columns 
perpendicular to the length of the sheet. It was 
therefore difficult to consult a book, especially if 
the desired passage was toward the end of a papyrus 
sheet 45 or 90 meters long. This fact supplies one 
reason for the inaccurate quotations of the ancients, 
who usually quoted from memory, not verbatim. 
Callimachus, one of the Alexandrian librarians, was 
therefore justified in his famous saying, that "a big 
book is an awful nuisance," to abate which he took 
steps to reduce the size of books or rolls to certain 
limits. So that for poetry, novels, letters, etc., small 
and easily handled rolls of about 1,000 lines were 
used (cf. a 'book' of Homer). Larger rolls, aver- 
aging 1,500-2,000 lines, were used for prose litera- 
ture and scientific writings, though some rolls con- 
tained 4,000 lines of prose writing. The size of a 
book was reckoned by lines, not by pages. Poetry 
fell naturally into lines, and the dactylic hexameter 
practically fixed the length of the line at 35 letters 
or 16 syllables. Every column on the papyrus 
sheet had the same number of lines, so that an author 
could easily calculate the length of the papyrus 
sheet needed for his book. The price of books varied 
in accordance with the number of lines they con- 
tained, because the copiers of books were paid by the 
line. Diocletian fixed the wage of the copier at 40 
denarii for each 100 lines, less than 25 cents. Many 
publishers used their slaves as copiers, and the slaves 
received merely food and clothes as pay. The work 
of the ancient authors, such as the Iliad, the Odyssey, 
the Anabasis, Herodotus, etc., were not divided by 
their authors into what we call 'books.' They 
quoted, the Iliad for instance, by ballads or episodes, 
and the quotation was merely a general reference. 
The division into 'books' was made by the Alexan- 
drian librarians after the time of Callimachus to avoid 
the nuisance of the big work, and to make it easier 
to consult works, so that the ' books ' with which 
we are familiar referred to that part of a work con- 
tained in a single roll in the libraries of Alexandria. 
The Iliad and the Odyssey were divided into 24 
'books' solely because there were 24 letters in the 
Greek alphabet, so that 'Iliad A' meant 'Roll A of 
the Iliad.' 

Writing was done only on one side of the papyrus 
sheet; the lines were unnumbered; there were no 
paragraphs, no punctuation, no accents in classical 
times. When the roll had received the writing, it 
was soaked in cedar-oil to protect it from moths and 
bookworms; this soaking gave the roll a yellow 
tinge; the ends of the roll were polished with pumice- 
stone and colored, chiefly black. A round stick 
called op<f>a\6s, umbilicus, was fastened to the 
papyrus sheet at the end of the volume ; the volume 
was rolled round this stick, from right to left. The 
ends of these sticks were often even with the edges 
of the roll, but they often protruded from both ends 
and served as handles (cornua) by which to roll and 
unroll I he volume (see above). All the rolls belong- 
ing to a given work (24 for the Iliad, 7 for the Anab- 



asis) were placed together in a case (capsa) UMially 
of leather, made to fit them. The title of the whole 
work was on the capsa. A statement of the con- 
tents of each roll was made on a slip of leather or 
deep-red parchment, after the invention of the latter. 
It was called the O-ITTV^OV, lilulus, index, and it waa 
fastened to the umbilicus of each roll. Thus any 
'book' could be found easily. 

Papyrus was always the favorite material for 
letters intended to be despatched to a distance. The 
papyrus letter was either folded or rolled; it was tied 
in the center and the ends of the string were scaled. 
Such papyrus letters have been found in recent 
years in Egypt; the strings are still intact and the 
addresses still undefaced. 

Owing to the non-existence of a postal service in 

antiquity, letters of private persons were forwarded 

only as opportunity offered through 

3. Parch- traveling friends, merchants, or cap- 

ment and tains of ships. Governments and kings 

Codices, forwarded their letters by special cour- 
iers, and rich individuals utilized their 
slaves as couriers and private secretaries (see Ram- 
say's Letters to the Seven Churches, pp. 1-14). 

Great libraries arose at aU the capitals of the Hel- 
lenistic kingdoms. The most important were those 
of Alexandria and Pergamum. Owing to the jeal- 
ousy and fear felt by the librarians of Alexandria, 
lest the library of Pergamum should surpass that 
of Alexandria, the Egyptian Government forbade 
the exportation of papyrus. The expectation was 
that, if deprived of the material on which books were 
written, the library of Pergamum and those of all 
the rest of the world could no longer add books to 
their collections. This corner on the book manu- 
facture led to the discovery at Pergamum of a new 
process of tanning sheepskins. The skins thus 
tanned were called itcpyafirjvr] \apra, Pergamenian 
paper, a term which was soon shortened to irtpyafirivi), 
which in turn was corrupted into the English parch- 
ment (the German Pergament is nearer the original). 
Parchment was not only much cheaper than papy- 
rus paper, but books made of it were far less cum- 
bersome and more easily consulted, for parchment 
was too thick and heavy to be used in a roll, and it 
was thick and heavy enough to permit writing on 
both sides. The roll was therefore abandoned ; the 
new parchment codex consisted of single leaves 
bound together practically as in our books to-day. 
The parchment codices were employed chiefly for 
works of great length, but they did not become 
common until the 3d cent. A.D., and indeed the 
papyrus roll maintained itself until the 5th cent. 
A.D. Papyrus itself was sometimes employed in the 
codex form. 

The ink used in writing both on papyrus and 

parchment was called "writing black" (jiAnv 

ypa<t>ueov). It was made chiefly of 

4. Ink, pine-soot mixed with gum arabic and 
etc. then dissolved in water. Sepia, the 
secretion of the cuttlefish our India, 
Chinese, or Japanese ink was also used, though not 
extensively. Ink prepared from the galls of the 
gall-oak was used at a later period for writing on 
parchment. Red ink, made from red chalk, cinna- 
bar, or red lead, was used for illuminating initial 



Books and Writing 
Brethren of the Lord 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



108 



letters, but in Byzantine times the use of red ink was 
limited to the Emperor. 

The inkstand (or inkhorn, Ezk92ff.) sometimes 
double, for red and black ink was usually u tall 
cylinder. Sometimes the inkstand had a double 
metallic cover, each being supplied with holes, 
which when adjusted directly over each other per- 
mitted the dipping of the pen into the ink; the lower 
cover was fixed, and the top cover, which was mov- 
able, served by a mere turn to close or open the ink- 
stand. 

The Greeks used a reed pen (xoXa/ior ypa<j)tKot; cf. 
Jer 8 8), as do the Orientals to this day. The best 
reeds for pens grew in Egypt. They were shaped 
with a knife and split at the point, as were the goose- 
quill pens of our recent ancestors, and for that pur- 
pose a knife (07*1X17, scalprum librarium, 'penknife'; 
cf. Jer 36 23) for shaping and splitting the reeds is 
always seen in pictures of the writer's outfit. Goose- 
quill pens were not used. Iron pens (cf. Job 19 24; 
Jer 171) were used by the Romans of a late period, 
but pen and penholder formed one piece. 

The reed pens, styluses, knives, drawing-pens, 
compasses, chalk-holders, etc., were kept in a case 
(6i)Ktf, calanaria). Sponges for cleaning the pens 
and for erasing miswritten words from papyrus and 
parchment, and a ruler (icavaii) for drawing lines 
which are visible in most MSS. also belonged on the 
writer's table. The lines were drawn with a circular 
sheet of lead. Sharp-pointed compasses (with a 
ring attachment to keep the spread of the compass 
fixed) were used for fixing the distances between the 
lines. The holes made by the compass-points are 
still visible in MSS. Other adjuncts were: a whet- 
stone for sharpening the knife and a pumice-stone 
for sharpening the point of the reed pen and for 
smoothing both papyrus and parchment. 

J. R. S. S. 

BOOTH: In the climate of Biblical lands, the 
booth or bower (sukkcih), constructed in the form 




A ' Booth ' or ' Lodge ' in a Vineyard. 



of a tent from branches of trees, is a very conve- 
nient refuge from the heat of the sun by day and a 
comfort al ile place for sleep at night. It was used 
for the accommodation of both men and bea.sts (Gn 
3317; Job 27 is; Jon 4s). Essentially the same 
thing is meant by the term 'lodge' in Is 18. Cf. 
also VINES AND VINTAGE, 1. A. C. Z. 

BOOTHS, FEAST OF. See FASTS AND FEASTS, 
8. 

BOOTY. See WARFARE, 5. 
BOOZ, bo'ez. See BOAZ. 
BOR-ASHAN, ber"-ash'an. See ASHAN. 

BORDER: (1) The word g'bhul, used in most of 
the geographical notices of the O T, means 'bound- 
ary' or 'limit.' Sometimes other terms as g'll/ah, 
'circuit' (Jos 132, etc.), yarkhuh, 'side' (Gn 4913), 
qetsor qatseh, 'end' or'extremity' (II K 19 23; Ex 16 
35, etc.), saphah, 'lip' (Jg 7 22), totsaoth, 'outgoings' 
(I Ch 5 16) are used. Yadh, 'hand' (II S 8 3; I Ch 
7 29) means dominion or power. In Jos 11 2 "bor- 
ders of Dor" means the high land, near Carmel, be- 
longing to Dor. In the N T ra opia (Mk 7 24; cf. Mt 
4 13) means 'boundary' or 'frontier.' (2) The word 
is used also of the hem or edge (Heb. kanaph, ' wing') 
of a garment (Nu 15 38; cf. Kpda-ireSov, Mt 23 5, etc.), 
of the enclosing edge, misgereth, of a table or 
other structure (Ex 25 25; I K 7 28, etc.). In Ex 
137; Dtl98; Song 111; Is 26 15, the RV corrects 
the AV. E. E. N. 

BORROWING. See TRADE AND COMMERCE, 
3, 5. 

BOSCATH, bes'cath. See BOZKATH. 

BOSOR, bo'sor (BorAp): In IIP 2 15, the Greek 
form of Beor (q.v.). 

BOSS. See ARMS AND ARMOR, 7. 

BOTCH. See DISEASE AND MEDICINE, 5(9). 

BOTTLE: (1) The&og&ug or'gurgler' (I K 14 3; 
Jer 19 1, 10) was an earthenware bottle or cruse. (2) 
The nebhel sometimes denoted a breakable jar (Is 22 
24, 30 14; Jer 13 12, 48 12; La 4 2). (3) In all other in- 
stances (except Hos 7 5; Hab 2 15, where the meaning 
of the Heb. is 'heat 'or 'rage'; cf. RV) the "bottle" of 
AV ('obh, hcmeth, nodh, do-Kos) is a vessel made of 
goatskin, and is usually so translated by ARV or 
ARVmg. (e.g., Job 32 19; Gn 21 14; Mt 9 17). Glass 
bottles are not mentioned in the Bible. See also 
FLAGON, PITCHER, CRUSE, and plate of HOUSE- 
HOLD UTENSILS, II. L. G. L. 

BOTTOMLESS PIT. See ESCHATOLOGY, 48. 
BOUND, BOUNDS. See COSMOGONY, 3. 

BOW: Metaphorically, the word is used to sig- 
nify the military power or prestige of a nation or 
people; cf. Gn 49 24; Jer 49 35; Hos 1 5. In the same 
way it is symbolical of God's power and wrath in 
action against His enemies; cf. Ps 7 12; La 2 4. See 
also AKMOR, 3. As used in Gn 9 13 ff., see RAIN- 
BOW. E. E. N. 

BOWELS. See MAN, DOCTRINE OF, 8 (2). 




HKIN- r-i-i:Nsn.s. 

1. Jerdbktiubt, bread-bai;. 

2. Jernh I;, i, ml,. Hour-sack. 

3. Mijrulx, snial] liM>ail-ii)! "I' :-!ii'liln-nl. 

4. Hum, rea|)iii(t-apron. 

.">. Se'fn, Mater-skin for woman. 

li. Kirln-, waler-skin for man. 

(Fn.II! th- MM-i :l IMvNm. I Vii, n (',,11,., .[inn it, llar.fnril Tliv,.!,^ i,-al >riiiin. l r> . 



7. Jtmli klintiz. brca(l-l);i.L r . 

S. ./' nit) khuhz, hrcad-liair. 

!l. />' ///. \v:)T('[-btii'k<'T. 

ID. ./'/vi/ khuhz. bic;i(|-b;ii:. 

11. Jcrnb khlihz, bread-lia-j:. 



109 



A STANDARD HIBLE DICTIONARY 



Books and Writing 
Brethren of the Lord 



BOWL. See BASIN. 

BOX, BOX-TREE. See PALESTINE, 21. 

BOZEZ, bo'zez (yjfS, bstscts): A high rock in 
the pass of Mirhnmsh (I S 14 4). The name is 
thought by some to mean 'shining' and in con- 
sequence this rock is located on the N. or sunny side 
of the pass, a little E. of Michmash. E. E. N. 

BOZKATH, bez'kath (.lp_2|2, botsqath, Boscath 
AV): A town in the lowlands of Judah (Jos 15 39; 
II K 22 1). Site unknown. E. E. N. 

BOZRAH, bez'ra (HIM, htsrOh), 'fortress': 
1. The capital of Edom (Gn 36 33; Is 34 6, 63 1; Jer 
49 13; Am 1 12), located by modern explorers at el 
Buscira, about 50 m. SE. of the Dead Sea (Robin- 
son, Expl. III. p. 125; Buhl, Edomiter, p. 37). Z. A 
city in Moab (Jer 48 24), probably the same as Bezer 
-(Dt 4 43). It was the city of refuge for the Reuben- 
ites (Jos 20 8). King Mesha claims to have fortified 
it (cf. MESHA, Stone of, line 17). A. C. Z. 

BRACELET. See DRESS AND ORNAMENT, 11. 
BRAMBLE. See PALESTINE, 21. 

BRANCH (n:_:.y, tscmah): A designation of the 
Messiah first used as such by Jeremiah (23 5, 33 15), 
although it had been employed in an impersonal 
sense as early as by Isaiah (4 2). It was taken up 
later by Zechariah (3 8, 6 12) and more definitely 
identified with the ideal king of Israel. Its selection 
was made at a time when the house of David viewed 
as a tree was in a decaying condition, showing signs 
of a speedy and complete collapse. In the prophetic 
vision the dying away of the tree was not to be 
its final disappearance. A new branch, shoot, or 
sprout (netser) would issue from its trunk in the per- 
son of the Messiah (Is 11 1). A. C. Z. 

BRAND. See FIREBRAND, and CRIMES AND 
PUNISHMENTS, 3 (b). 

BRASS. See METALS, 3. 
BRAZEN SEA. See TEMPLE, 13. 
BRAZEN SERPENT. See SERPENT. 

BREACH : (1 ) The rendering of bedheq, a rent or 
break especially in a wall (II K 12 6-12, 22 5). (2) Of 
baq'a and derivatives, meaning 'to cleave' (Is 7 6, 
22 9; Ezk 26 10). (3) Of parats (vb.) and perets (n.), 
'to break, "a breaking,' especially associated with the 
idea of violence (II S 5 20, 6 8, etc., very frequent). 
(4) Of shebher, a breaking or crushing that has 
serious results (Lev 24 20, etc.). In Jg 5 17 both 
"breaches" AV and "creeks" RV are open to ob- 
jection. Moore (Int. Crit. Com.) renders "landing- 
places." On Nu 14 34 AV cf. RVmg. for the true 
sense. In Am 6 ll the Heb. r'jfjzm means 'ruins,' 
rather than "breaches." E. E N. 

BREAD. See FOOD, 2. 

BREAD, BREAKING OF. See CHURCH, 2. 

BREAST. See SACRIFICE AND OFFERINGS, 
10,11. 



BREASTPLATE. Set- ARMS AND ARMOR, 0, 
and STONES. PRECIOUS, 2. 

BREATH. See MAN, DOCTRINE OF, 2, 6. 
BREECHES. See PRIESTHOOD, 9b. 



BRETHREN OF THE LORD, THE (o, 1 <J8 
i-oO Kvpiov): A term used by Paul in I Co 9 i (ef. also 
(!al 1 is) to designate the brethren of Jesus who arc 
referred to in the Gospels (Mk 3 31 ff. and ||s; Mt 13 M; 
Jn 2 12, 7 3, 5, 10), and whose names are given as 
James, Joses (Joseph, Mt 13 5fi), Judas, and Simon. 

As to the specific relationship which theysust:iinc-<l 
to Jesus there has been question since the early ages 
of the Church, the discussion formulating itself 
finally into three theories, termed by Light f< ml 
(Com. on Galatians, p. 242), after the names of their 
foremost supporters, the Epiphanian, the Helvidian, 
and the Hieronymian. 

The Epiphanian theory holds that the brethren of 
Jesus were children of Joseph by a former wife; the 
Helvidian, that they were children of Joseph and 
Mary, born after Jesus; the Hieronymian, that they 
were children of Mary, the wife of Alpheus (Clopas) 
and sister of the Virgin. 

Of these the first two alone occupied the thought 
of the Church up to the 4th cent., the former being 
by far the more prevailing view. In that century 
Jerome, in controverting Helvidius' claim for a re- 
lationship of full brotherhood, suggested the novel 
idea that the relationship was one not of brother- 
hood, but of cousinship; so that, as he boasted, there 
was preserved a virginity not only to Mary but to 
Joseph also. 

Modern scholarship has discarded the theory of 
Jerome, as in fact without the backing of any tradi- 
tion, confessedly motived in the interests of a dis- 
tinctive dogma, and wholly without Biblical support. 
Serious consideration is given to the first two theo- 
ries alone and both of these claim abundant and 
scholarly following. 

It will be sufficient, therefore, if the main argu- 
ments of these two views be presented. 

I. ARGUMENT FOR THE EPIPHANIAN VIEW: (1) 
Mary's reply to the angel's announcement that she 
should conceive and bring forth a son (rrat ?<rrcu 
TOVTO, fTTfl Sv8pa ov ytvKKrKo ; "How shall this be, 
seeing that I know not a man," Lk 1 34) implies that 
she understood the angel to mean that the child 
was to be born in the natural way, and that she was 
conscious of some obstacle to such an event. Mary 
could not have meant that she did not yet know a 
man, for the angel was aware of this when he spoke, 
and her statement would have been no demurrer 
to his announcement, as her betrothal would have 
given her every reason to believe it would be ful- 
filled. It can only mean, therefore, that with Jo- 
seph's consent she had devoted herself to a life of 
virginity even in marriage. This renders impossible 
that the brethren of Jesus were later children of her 
own. (2) The brethren of Jesus conduct them- 
selves toward him with a spirit of superiority natural 
to older brothers. They presume to control His 
conduct (Mk 3 21 with 31 and |js) and advise him in a 
faultfinding way (Jn 72ff.). This would, however, 
make it impossible for them to be Mary's children. 



Brethren of the Lord 
Burden 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



110 



(3) At the Cross Jesus commits His mother to the 
care of his cousin John (Jn H)26f.), which would he 
more natural on His part if His brethren were not 
Mary's own children than if they were. (4) Besides 
these evidences from the Gospel narrative ilsclf (a) 
it is likely that Joseph out of reverence for Mary as 
the mother of God would have refrained from mari- 
tal intercourse with her alter the birth of Jesus: and 
(6) the general acceptance of virginity as an ideal 
state renders it probable that such a woman as Mary 
would have preserved her virgin life throughout her 
marriage. (5) The most ancient tradition of the 
Church particularly that of Palestine (Hegesippus, 
a nat ive of Palest ine,c. IGOx.D.) supports this view, 
and the most reliable of the old apocryphal narra- 
tives (Gospel of Peter, Protevangdium of James) 
and the earliest versions (Curetonian Syriac, Pesh- 
itto, Thebaic) seem to confirm it. 

II. AUGUMENT FOR THE HELVIDIAN VlEW: (1) 
Jesus is called Mary's "first-born son" (irparoToKov, 
Lk 2 7), the natural implication of which is that she 
had other children later. (2) In Mt 1 24 f. it is stated 
that Joseph at the bidding of the angel recognized 
his relationship to Mary and took her to be his wife, 
"and knew her not till she had brought forth a son" 
(leal OVK (ytvaxrKfv avTtjV ta>s [^] fTftcrv viov), 
which clearly implies that he did know her after- 
ward. (3) In confirmation of these specific points 
are the facts (a) that the natural and unconstrained 
meaning of brethren (d8(\<f>ot) is in the direction of 
full brotherhood especially since in the Epiphanian 
view they would not be blood relations of Jesus at all ; 
and (6) that these brethren not only lived under the 
same roof with Mary, but are found in her company 
wherever she went (Mk 3 31 ff. and ||s; Jn 212; Ac 
1 14), which would be most natural, if they were her 
children as well as Joseph's. (4) Though no sup- 
port for this view is to be found in the Palestinian 
tradition of the Church, it is maintained by a scholar 
like Tertullian (160-220 A.D.), whose known advo- 
cacy of asceticism makes such an admission on his 
part highly significant. 

In examining the above argument (I) it is clear 
that the traditional support of the two views is after 
all about equal. Hegesippus and Tertullian were 
not far from contemporaries; and though Hegesip- 
pus, being from Palestine, is more strictly a local 
witness, Tertullian, being pronouncedly ascetic, is an 
unwilling witness. The fact that the Hegesippian 
view was more widely accepted in the Church is after 
all largely accounted for by that instinctive sentiment 
which in every age of the Church has tended to pre- 
serve a peculiar holiness for the mother of our Lord. 
It is this prevalent view that finds its way into the 
apocryphal Gospels and the early versions; so that 
their testimony is not in any strict sense of the 
word independent. (II) It is further obvious that 
the argument of Joseph's probable marital relations 
to Mary after the birth of Jesus is the product of this 
reverent sentiment of the Church and not of any 
facts, which are confessedly absent; while the state- 
ment of the "general acceptance of virginity as an 
ideal state" is based upon a wholly wrong view of 
marriage itself, which, from all we know of the He- 
brew domestic life, was not the view that either 
Joseph or Mary is likely to have entertained. As a 



matter of fact, such determination of the question as 
may be possible lies in the interpretation of the state- 
ments of Scripture. 

As to these, (1) it may be at once admitted that 
not much is to be determined by the usage of the 
term a8c\<f>ol. It is used for relationships outside of 
full brotherhood (e.g., of first cousins, I Ch 23 21 f. ; of 
first cousins once removed, Lv 10 4; of nephews, Gn 
14 14 ff., 29 15) and, though its N T use doubtless is 
less elastic than its LXX. use, it might easily be used 
of those who are brothers by less than full blood re- 
lationship. If Joseph could be spoken of by Mary 
herself as Jesus' father, the sons of Joseph could be 
spoken of by others as His brethren. (2) It may 
also be admitted that the fact that the brethren of 
Jesus are found constantly in the company of Mary 
is not necessarily determinative as to their relation- 
ship to her. Assuming, as there is every reason to 
do, that Joseph was no longer living, that Jesus was 
busied with the affairs of His public ministry, and 
that the sisters were settled in Nazareth in homes 
of their own (cf. Mk 6 3 and ||), it was but natural 
that the brethren, whether Mary's own sons or not, 
should consider themselves responsible for her care. 
(3) It is evident, consequently, that Jesus' com- 
mittal of His mother at the Cross to the care of His 
cousin John throws no light upon the relationship of 
the brethren to Mary; for, in view of their close and 
constant companionship with Mary, Jesus' action 
is difficult to understand, whether they were her 
own sons or not. It must have been due to some 
motive not clear from the record. (4) There is 
more significance in the claim that the brethren con- 
ducted themselves toward Jesus in the superior 
spirit of older brothers. This would seem to find 
support in the incidents of Mk 3 21, 31 ff. and Jn 7 2 ff. 
In fact, however, it does only when these incidents 
are wrongly understood. The reason for the at- 
tempt in the earlier part of His ministry to control 
His actions (Mk 3) was a simple failure as yet to 
understand the spirit of His mission, and was com- 
mon to the mother and the brothers and sisters 
alike; while the spirit of the suggestion of the breth- 
ren, toward the close of His ministry (Jn 7), is far 
moreadesireto have Him come to public recognition 
by the authorities at Jerusalem, now that the popu- 
lar favor in Galilee had been lost, than a contemp- 
tuous scorn of His claims. Indeed, it is quite im- 
possible to understand the brethren's final belie 
in these claims after the resurrection save as we 
recognize a growing appreciation of them as Jesus' 
ministry drew toward its close. In neither incident 
is there anything to necessitate the brothers' being 
older than Jesus. (5) The statements of most im- 
portance in determining the question are naturally 
those which record Mary's assertion of her virginity 
(Lk 1 34), which speak of the marital relations be- 
tween Joseph ami Mary (Mt 1 24 f.), and which refe 
to Jesus as Mary's first-born son (Lk 2 7). 

It must be acknowledged that the natural im- 
pression created by these passages is that Jesus wa 
but the first of Mary's children. Admitting, how- 
ever, the interpretation placed by the Epiphania 
view upon Mary's reply to the angel and accepting 
further the technical meaning of "first born" (Ex 
34 19 ff.), which, it is urged by this view, does not in 



Ill 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Brethren of the Lord 

Burden 



ply the birth of subsequent offspring, it is significant 
that the Gospel of Luke, which records these two 
statements, most open to ascetic interpretation, was 
written much later than the Gospel of Matthew and 
might be supposed to reflect the growth in the Church 
of later ideas. The earlier Gospel of Matthew, 
which reflects most strongly the Jewish ideas of the 
early Church, is the Gospel whose nativity state- 
ments convey most simply and most strongly the 
impression that, supernaturally conceived though 
He was, Jesus was but the first of Mary's children 
and that the brethren of Jesus were such in the full 
sense of the word. 

LITERATURE: For the Hieronymian view, see Jerome adv. 
Ilelridium; Mill, The Accounts of Our Lord's Brethren, 
1843 ; Schegg, Jakobus der Briidcr des Herrn, 1883. For 
the Epiphanian, Bee Epiphanius, adv. Hcereses, iii. 2; 
Lightfoot, Com. on Oalatians, 1865, pp. 241-275; Harris 
in DCG. For the Helvidian, see Mayor, Com. on Ep. of 
St. James, 1897, pp. v ff., and art. in HDD ; Zahn, Forsch. 
z. Gesch. d.NT Kanons. VI, 1900, pp. 227-363; Patrick, 
James, the Lord's Brother, 1906, pp. 4 ff. ; Sieffert, art. Ja- 
kobus, and Zockler, art. Maria, in PHE 3 ', Schmiedel, art. 
Clopas in EB. M. W. J. 

BRIBERY. See CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS, 
2(b). 

BRICK, BRICK-KILN: Brickmaking was 
well understood among the Israelites, since their 
houses of the more common sort were often con- 
structed of bricks (see HOUSE, 4), though the 
references to such are very few in the O T (II S 12 31, 
Is 9 10). The art of brickmaking was highly de- 
veloped in Babylonia (cf. Gn 113) and in Egypt (cf. 
Ex 1 14, 5 7-19). From the Egyptian inscriptions 
and illustrations on the walls of temples, tombs, etc., 
a very complete knowledge of the ancient process of 
brickmaking can be gained. The details agree quite 
closely with those in Ex 5 7 ff. On Jer 43 9 cf. RV 
for the correct reading. E. E. N. 

BRIDE, BRIDEGROOM, BRIDE-CHAMBER. 

See MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE. 

BRIDLE. See BIT AND BRIDLE. 
BRIERS. See THORNS AND THISTLES. 

BRIGANDINE, brig'an-dm or -dain. See ARMS 
AND ARMOR, 9. 

BRIMSTONE: The Heb. term gophnth, 'sul- 
fur,' is of uncertain derivation. Many connect it 
with kopher, 'bitumen,' of which there is an abun- 
dance in the Jordan Valley and near the Dead Sea. 
The 'raining' of brimstone (Gn 1924, etc.) refers 
perhaps to combustion of sulfur or petroleum from 
sulfur or petroleum springs which thus could be 
used as illustrations of the Divine judgment, espe- 
cially under the influence of the story in Gn 19. 
(Cf. Dt 29 23; Is 30 33, etc., and in NT Rev 14 10, 
19 20, etc.) E. E. N. 

BROAD PLACE. See CITY, 3. 
BROAD WALL. See JERUSALEM, 38. 

BROID, breid, BROIDER, brei'der: The word 
riqmah, so rendered in Ezk chs. 16, 26, and 27, means 
'variegated' and indicates that the garments were of 
variegated colors, not that they were embroidered. 
In Ex 28 4 tashbets and in I Ti 2 9 irXc'y/ta are ren- 



dered in AV "broidered," but cf. RV for a more cor- 
rect translation. E. E. N. 

BROOCH. See DRESS AND ORNAMENT, 10. 

BROOK: With only a few exceptions the Heb. 
word rendered " brook" is nalial, which means either 
the valley or ravine in which water is found (cf. Gn 
26 19; Nu 21 IS; Job 30 6) or the brook itself. Nahal 
is the word used for the streams that run only a part 
of the year, drying up in the summer-time, while 
nahar is the proper word for the larger permanent 
river. But this distinction is not always observed. 

BROOM. See JUNIPER. 
BROTH. See FOOD, 10. 

BROTHER. See FAMILY AND FAMILY LIFE, 
1, 8, and CHURCH, 2. 

BROWN. See COLORS, 1. 
BRUISE. See FOOD, 1. 

BRUIT, brat (from the Fr. bruire, 'to make a 
noise'): The word means rumor or report (Jer 10 
22; Nah 3 19; cf. RV). E. E. N. 

BUCKET rt?, d'll, from nbl, 'to draw'): A 
vessel for drawing water, usually of earthenware. 
The word is used in O T only figuratively (Nu 
24 7; Is 40 is). E. E. N. 

BUCKLER. See ARMS AND ARMOR, 7. 

BUKKI, buk'ai ("^\, buqqi), short for Bukkiah: 
1. A priest in lineal descent from Aaron according 
to I Ch 6 5, 51; Ezr 74. 2. A Danite (Nu 34 22). 

E. E. N. 

BUKKIAH, bnk-kai'fl (T^buqqlijah): A mu- 
sician, 'son' of Heman (I Ch 25 4, 13). E. E. N. 

BUL, bul: The Heb. term for the eighth month of 
the old agricultural year (I K 6 38). See TIME, 3. 

BULL, BULLOCK, WILD BULL. See PALES- 
TINE, 24. 

BULRUSH. See REED. 

BULWARK: The rendering of (1) ^n, hel (Is 
26 l), properly the lesser wall before the main wall, 
elsewhere often rendered "rampart" RV ("trench"' 
AV). (2) T&?p, matsddh, 'fortification' (Ec 9 14). 
(3) )'}?, mOtsor, a besieger's wall (Dt 20 20). (4) 
Of ~:?, pinnah, 'corner' (II Ch 26 is A V, "battle- 
ments" RV). See also BESIEGE, and CITY, 3. 

E. E. N. 

BUNAH, bQ'nfl (HJ13, bKn&h), 'intelligence': A 
'son' of Jerahmeel (I Ch 2 25). E. E. N. 

BUNNI, bun'nai ('i^, bunnl): A personal name 
occurring three times in Neh. The same person may 
be referred to in 9 4 and 10 15, while 11 is seems to 
refer to a man belonging to an earlier generation. 
It is possible that in 9 4 and 10 15 we have only a 
scribal error (dittography) for Bani. E. E. N. 

BURDEN. See PROPHEC Y, 9. 






Burial 
Byword 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



BURIAL AND BURIAL CUSTOMS 

ANALYSIS or CONTENTS 



III. PLACE OF BURIAL 

5. The Grave 

6. Sanctity of the 

Grave 

IV. MOURNING 

7. Customs 

8. Their Signifi- 

cance 



I. PREPARATORY TO BUR- 
IAL 
1. Preparation of the 

Body 
II. BURIAL 

2. Interment Cere- 

monies 

3. Importance of 

Burial 

4. Mode of Burial 

I. PREPARATORY TO BURIAL: Customs and 
usages connected with death clearly reach back into 

remote antiquity, and show the family 
i. Prepara- to have been even then a social-religious 
tion of the unit. When death occurred, it was a 
Body. duty to close the eyes (Gn 46 4), prob- 
ably also the mouth of the person. It 
is true this is distinctly mentioned only in the Mishna 
(cf. Tract. Shabbath 23 5 codified about 200 A.D.), 
but the custom certainly antedates this tractate. 
Kissing the dead (Gn 50 l) was probably exceptional. 
The body was washed (Ac 9 37) and anointed (Mk 
16 l ; Lk 24 I ; Jn 12 7, 19 40). It was wrapped in a 
white linen sheet (Mk 15 46 and ||s), the hands and 
feet being bound (Jn 19 40) with grave-bands (RVmg. ; 
Gr. Kftpiai) and the face with a napkin (<rov8dpiov, 
'kerchief'), Jn 11 44. How ancient these customs 
were it is not possible to determine. 

II. BURIAL: The Israelites did not embalm their 
dead (cf. Gn 50 2 f., 26). From I S 28 14; Is 14 9 ff. ; 

Ezk 32 27, we must conclude that in the 
2. Inter- ancient period the dead were buried 
ment Cere- with the garments they had worn while 
monies, living. According to Jer 34 5; II Ch 16 
14, 2119 (cf. Jos. BJ. 1, 33 9), spices were 
burned beside the bodies of prominent men. Later i t 
was the custom to bury together with the dead ob- 
jects which had been used by them during life, e.g., 
inkhorns, pens, writing-tablets, keys, etc. Herod 
furnished Aristobulus his funeral spices and other 
articles (Jos. Ant. XV, 3 4). Probably this custom 
goes back to older times (cf. Jos. Ant. XIII, 8 4; XVI, 
7 1). Cremation was not practised in Israel (cf. 
Comm. on I S 31 12 ; Am 6 10) ; the usage was rather to 
bury the dead, while cremation, e.g., of criminals (Lv 
20 14, 21 9; Jos 7 25; cf. Dt 21 23), appears as a disgrace 
added to the penalty of death (Mishna, Tract. Aboda 
Zara I, 3 rejects cremation as heathen practise. Cf. 
Tac. Hist. V, 5 4). 

Not to be buried was considered by the Israelites, 

as by other peoples of antiquity, a frightful fate 

which one wished visited only on his 

3. Impor- worst enemies (Am 2 1; cf. Is 33 12; Jer 

tance of 16 4; Ezk 29 5; II K 9 10). This is to 

Burial. be explained from the beh'ef that the 

spirits of the unburied dead were obliged 

to drift about restlessly. Even in Sheol the lot of 

the unburied is lamentable. They must shift about 

uneasily in nooks and corners (Ezk 32 

4. Mode 23; Is 14 15, etc.). 

of Burial. In all probability burying came usu- 
ally on the very day of death, as at pres- 
ent in the Orient. Of coffins the Israelites knew as 
little as the ancient Arabs (II K 13 21). The body 
was carried on a litter or bier (miffah II S 3 31; cf. Lk 



7 14), and was followed by mourners who chanted 
lamentations. 

III. PLACE OP BURIAL: In view of the belief 
that family unity survived death we can under- 
stand the importance attached to the 

5. The custom of placing bodies in a house- 
Grave, hold grave; it was thus that con- 
nection with the family was preserved 
after death (cf. Gn 15 15, 25 8, 17, 35 29, etc.). It is 
obvious that in ancient times these household graves 
were located upon land belonging to the family and 
in proximity to the house (cf. Gn 23; I S25 l); ac- 
cordingly the tombs of the kings down to Ahaz are 
found in the citadel, later in the "garden of Uzza," 
which in any case is to be sought for in the vicinity 
(cf. Ezk 43 7). Preferably such graves were local c< I 
under shade-trees (sacred trees, Gn 35 8; I S 31 13), or 
in gardens (II K 21 18, 26). Gradually the habit pre- 
vailed of placing them outside of inhabited districts 
and of making use of clefts and of caves, in which the 
country abounded. For the most part, however, the 
graves were excavated and the effort was made to 
place them on the rocky hillsides and often on heights 
difficult of access (Is 22 16; UK 23 16); but in view of 
the dangers from beasts of prey, their openings were 
closed with heavy stones. The sepulcher was always 
strictly regarded as family property, hi which no 
stranger should be laid. Only in later times, as older 
views were relaxed, did strangers, in exceptional cir- 
cumstances, find burial in them (II Ch 24 16; Mt 27 
60). For the destitute (II K 23 6; Jer 26 23) and for 
pilgrims (Mt 27 7) there were common, i.e., public 
cemeteries, where criminals also were interred (Jer 
26 23; Is 53 9; I K 13 22). 

Inasmuch as the graves of ancestors were in earlier 

times places of worship (shrines), and as such, holy 

ground, it is easy to understand that 

6. Sanctity over the tomb of Rachel a matstscbhah 
of the ("pillar") was raised (Gn 35 20). It ap- 
Grave. pears probable that the sacredness of 

some shrines rests upon the fact that 
they were burial-places of heroes (cf. Hebron, Gn 
23,259,4931; Shechem, Jos 24 32; Kadesh-barnea, 
Nu 20 1). The tomb of Deborah was under a sacred 
tree near Bethel (Gn 35 8). In later times sepulchers 
as a whole were regarded as unclean, because asso- 
ciated with another worship i.e., the worship of 
the spirits of the departed as contrary to the worship 
of Jehovah, and the custom arose of whitewashing 
the stones which covered them in order to render 
them distinguishable from afar and keep passers-by 
from ceremonial pollution (Mt 23 27). 

IV. MOURNING: Upon the news of the death of 
a relative it was customary to rend the clothes (II S 
1 11) and gird oneself with the mourning garment 
(cf. II S 3 31 f.), which originally was probably noth- 
ing but a loin-cloth. Among the Ara- 

7. Customs bians the custom prevailed of going 

of about naked as a sign of mourning. 

Mourning. Whether this was practised in Israel 
is doubtful (Mic 1 8; Is 20 2 f . are not 
clear evidences of such a usage). But it was cus- 
tomary to go bareheaded and barefoot (Ezk 24 17; 
II S 15 30), to sprinkle dust and ashes on the head 
(Jos 76; II S 1 2), to cover the head, or at least the 
beard (Ezk 24 17; Jer 14 3; II S1530), or to place 



113 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Burial 
Byword 



the hand on the head (II S 13 18 f.), and to sit in 
dust and ashes (Jer 6 20; Job 2 8). In addition, 
various disfigurements and mutilations were self- 
inflicted. The head was shaved (Jer 16 6, 47 5); the 
beard was cut off, or at least clipped (Jer 41 5, 48 37; 
Is 152; Lv 1927); gashes were made on the whole 
body, or at least on the hand (Jer 16 6, 41 5, 
etc.). It was quite usual upon the occurrence of a 
death to follow the wide-spread custom of holding a 
funeral repast (Hos 9 4; II S 3 35; Jer 16 7 f.; Ezk 24 
17, 22). In addition there were separate offerings of 
food and drink which were placed upon the grave 
(Dt 26 H). From To 4 18 and Sir 30 18 f., we learn 
that this custom continued until quite late. Wide- 
spread was also the custom, while the women of the 
house were sitting upon the earth weeping, for pro- 
fessional female mourners to come and chant peculiar 
rhythmic lamentations beginning with 'ekh or 'ekhah. 
Evidently this custom of funereal lamentation was a 
religious usage regulated by nearness of relationship 
(cf. Zee 12 10 ff.). See also MOURNING CUSTOMS, 5. 

How these different customs are to be accounted 

for is a much-debated problem, which has not yet 

been brought to a definite solution. 

8. Signifi- Particularly, it is in no way certain that 

cance of all these customs can be traced back 
These to one original idea and practise. 

Customs. Some may possibly be conceived as ex- 
pressions of the vivid sense of grief 
peculiar to the Oriental ; but the attempt to say this 
of all, as Kamphausen and others have done, has 
failed. As far as one class of these customs is con- 
cerned, it is not to be disputed that they probably 
were connected with the worship of the deceased, 
once prevalent also in Israel. This in no way means 
that the Israelites in all ages were conscious of such 
connection. It is much more likely that in this case, 
as in many others, such customs continued even 
when the original idea from which they sprang had 
long since disappeared. 

LITERATURE: Fr. Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode, etc., 
1892; Joh. Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelenkult, 1898; 
C. Grilneisen, Der Ahnenkultus und die Urreliyion Israels, 
1900. W. N. 

BURNING. See CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS, 
3 (a): BURIAL AND BURIAL CUSTOMS, 2; 
MOURNING AND MOURNING CUSTOMS, 6; SACRI- 
FICE AND OFFERINGS, 6 ff., 16, and DISEASE 
AND MEDICINE, 5 (3). 

BURNT OFFERING. See SACRIFICE AND OF- 

FERINGS, 6. 



BURY, BURYING-PLACE. Sec BURIAL AND 

BURIAL CUSTOMS, 2-6. 

BUSH, THE BURNING: The instrument of a 
theophany in the experience of Moses (Ex 3 2 f. ; Dt 
33 16; Lk 20 37; Ac 7 30, 35). The ' natural mecha- 
nism of the phenomenon may have been electrical 
(W. Robertson Smith, Kel. Sem.' p. 193 f. ). The im- 
portant feature of it is the revelation of God through 
it to Moses. The effort to identify the species of t he 
bush (Heb. pneh) with the seneh, a thorny shrub, is 
not altogether successful. A. C. Z. 

BUSHEL. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 3. 

BUSINESS: This term is used in EV in a vari- 
ety of senses, corresponding to the different original 
Heb. and Gr. terms. (1) As the rendering of d&b- 
har, 'word,' often used in the more general sense of 
'matter,' 'affair,' like the Gr. \ayos (Dt 245; 
Jos 2 14, etc.). (2) Of m'la'kh&h, 'work,' i.e., 'occu- 
pation' (Gn 39 ll; cf. RV; I Ch 26 30, etc.). (3) Of 
'inyan, 'travail,' or labor (Ec 53, 816). Most of 
the other cases need no comment. On Lk 2 49; Ro 
12 11 (both AV) cf. RV for the correct rendering. 

E. E. N. 

BUTLER. See CUPBEARER. 

BUTTER. See FOOD, 6. 

BUY. See TRADE AND COMMERCE, 3. 

BUZ, buz (112, buz): 1. The name of a region (Jer 
25 23) probably somewhere in N. Arabia, possibly 
the Basu of the Assyrian inscriptions. The inhabi- 
tants were called Buzites (Job 32 2, 6). 2. 'Son' 
of Nahor, who (as a tribe or clan?) may have lived 
in Buz (Gn 22 21). 3. A descendant of the tribe of 
Gad (I Ch 5 14). E. E. N. 

BUZI, biu'zai (TQ, bUzl): The father of the 
prophet Ezekiel (Ezk 1 3). E. E. N. 

BYPATH, BYWAY. See ROADS. 

BYWORD: (1) In Job 30 9 the Heb. millsh 
means 'word.' (2) In Job 17 6; Ps 44 14 mashal, the 
ordinary word for 'proverb,' means a saying of more 
than ordinary significance (in a good or evil sense). 
(3) In Dt 28 37; I K 9 7; II Ch 7 20 sh-nlnah from sha- 
nan, 'to sharpen,' means a 'sharp' saying, i.e., one 
with a 'sting' to it. See TERMS OF BLESSING AND 
REPROACH. E. E. N. 



Cab 

Calf, Golden 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



114 



CAB. See WKIC: IITS AND MEASURES, 3. 

CABBON, cab'lmn (',':;, kabbdn): A town of 
Judah near Eglon (Jos 15 40), site unknown. 

E. E. N. 

CABINS : This term occurs only in Jer 37 16 (AV), 
for which RV has, more correctly, "cells." 

E. E. N. 

CABUL, ke'bul (Vi:j, kabhul): A town on the 
border of Asher (Jos 19 27), Map IV, C 6. In I K 
9 13 it is said that Hiram called the 20 cities in 
Galilee given him by Solomon "the land of Cabul," 
indicative in some way of his dissatisfaction. The 
meaning of the term is unknown. E. E. N. 

CAESAR AUGUSTUS. See AUGUSTUS. 

C^SAREA, ses"a-ri'a: A city on the coast of 
Palestine (Map I, C 5). The ancient name of 
the place, Strato's Tower (Jos. Ant. XIII, 12 2), 
may have been derived from the name of one of the 
Sidonian kings (cf. CIGr. 87). The city became a 



O indium Wells 




Plan of Cajsarea. 



part of the domain of Herod the Great, who rebuilt 
both city and harbor on a magnificent scale (Jos. 
BJ. I, 21 5-8), naming the city Kato-dpfta and the 
harbor Aifii}v 2eaoror in honor of Augustus. 
After the deposition of Archelaus in 6 A.D., it be- 
came the residence of the Roman procurators (cf. Ac 
2323, 251). J. M. T. 



C^ESAREA PHILIPPI, fi-lip'ai (Map IV, F 4): 
The site, near one of the sources of the Jordan, is 
probably the same as that of Baal Gad (Jos 11 
17) and Baal Hermon (Jg 3 3), so called because it 
was one of the early seats of Canaanitic worship. 
Tinier Greek domination city and district were 
called Paneas (Jos. Ant. XVIII, 2 1, Havias, Pliny 
Hist. Nat. V, 18, Paneas), from a grotto dedicated 
to the god Pan (TO Tlavtiov Jos. Ant. XV, 10 3). 
The tetrarch Philip enlarged the city and called it 
Csesarea in honor of Augustus (Jos. BJ. II, 9 1). 
In the N T (Mt 16 13; Mk 827) and Josephus (BJ. 

III, 9 7; Vita, 13) it is known as Csrearea Philippi, ' 
distinguish it from Csesarea on the const. I'ndr 
Agrippa II the city was called Neronias, but afte 
the 4th cent, only the old name Paneas occurs, 
still preserved in the modern Arabic name of th 
place, Banias. J. M. T. 

CESAR'S HOUSEHOLD (oi rf/s icai'o-apo 
oiKias): A group of Christians mentioned only 
Ph 4 22, where greetings are sent from them to th 
Church in Philippi. Since domus (oixia) is 
classically to include the dependents as well as th 
immediate members of the household (Cic. ad At 

IV, 12), it is not necessary to assume that the con 
verts to whom Paul here refers were of distinguishe 
rank (ef. Dissertation by Lightfoot; in Ep. to the 
Phil., p. 169 f.). See also PRETORIUM. J. M. T. 

CAIAPHAS, kc'a-fas or cai'a-fas (Kaid<j>as): 
The high priest before whom Jesus was tried (Jn 
18 14 f.). His original name was Joseph (Jos. Ar, 
XVIII, 2 2), and he was the son-in-law of Anna 
(Jn 18 13). He became high priest not late 
than 18 A.D. (Ant. XVIII, 22), and retained his 
office until about 36 A.D. (Ant. XVIII, 2 2, 4 3). 
His adroitness and capacity for intrigue are well illu 
trated in Jn 11 49 f. He naturally presided at tli 
session of the Sanhedrin at which Jesus' arrest wa 
planned (Mt 26 3), and after His condemnation 
was his official duty as head of the nation to delive 
Him to Pilate with the request for His execution 
(Mt 26 57 f. ; Jn 18 24, 28; cf. Jos. Ant. XX, 10, end; 
Contra Apwnem, II, 23; Schiirer, HJP, II, i, 182 
199). J. M. T. 

CAIN, ken ("p_, qayin), 'smith,' 'artificer': 
The eldest son of Adam and Eve (Gn 4 1 ff.). In the 
ancient story of Gn 4 by a popular etymologica 
word-play the name is made to mean 'acquired' or 
'possession.' The material in Gn 4 1-24 is not all of 
the same character. The Cain of vs. 12 ff. (a "fug 
tive" and a "wanderer") is not the Cain of vs. 16 ff. 
(a city builder and head, after Adam, of one of th 
great genealogical lines of descent). The story in 
vs. 2-15 probably reflects some ancient struggle or 
antipathy between two different types (or tribes) < 
men (see ABEL). That in ver. 16 ff. is an ancient at 
tempt at tracing the development of civilization by 
connecting the discovery of the different arts wit 
certain legendary heroes. The two stories later 1 
came connected, perhaps through the ancient song < 
Lamech (q.v.) which may have been originally en 



115 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Cab 

Calf, Golden 



tirely independent of both (cf. ver. 15 with ver. 24). 
The "sign" put upon Cain is thought by some to 
have been the totem sign of the clan or tribe of Cain. 
II. A town in Juciali (Jos 15 57). See KAIN. 

E. E. N. 

CAIN AN, ke'nan (}??.., qenan): 1. Son of Enosh. 
See KENAN. 2. Son of Arphaxad (Lk 3 30). In the 
Heb. text of Gn 10 24, 11 12, there is no mention 
of Cainan. Luke has followed the LXX., where the 
name was probably interpolated to make 10 terms 
in the genealogy. E. E. N. 

CAKE. See FOOD, 2, and SACRIFICE AND OF- 
FERINGS, 12. 

CALAH, ke'la (PI^J, kelah, Assyrian kalhu, 
ktilalt): One of the chief cities (next to Asshur and 
Nineveh) in Assyria, said in Gn 10 11 to have been 
built by Nimrod. It acquired importance under 
Shalmaneser I in the 14th cent. B.C. The period of 
its greatest glory was during the reigns of Assur- 
nazirpal and Shalmaneser II (885-824 B.C.). Many 
of the inscriptions of these kings have been discov- 
ered on its site, which is identified by Layard and G. 
Smith with the mound Nimrud, about 20 m. SE. 
of Nineveh {Kuyunjik). It was the first of these 
kings (Assurnazirpal) who built and fortified the 
town, adorned it with a palace, constructed a canal, 
and induced many to take up their residence in 
the city. A. C. Z. 

CALAMUS. See OINTMENTS AND PERFUMES, 
1 (3), and PALESTINE, 23. 

CALCOL, cal'cel (^3, kalkol, Chalcol AV): 
Son of Zerah, son of Judah, according to I Ch 2 6, 
but in I K 4 31, a famous wise man, son of Mahol. 

E. E. N. 

CALDRON, coTclrun: In Job 41 20 the RV render- 
ing "rushes" is correct. The other words rendered 
" caldron " ("pots" in RV in Jer 52 18 (.), all refer 
to earthenware vessels, but it is now impossible to 
ascertain how they differed from one another. 

E. E. N. 

CALEB, ke'leb ($, kalebh), 'dog': 1. One of the 
twelve spies; son of Jephunneh, of the tribe of Judah 
(Nu 13 6, 34 19). With Joshua he advised an im- 
mediate advance into Canaan. For his faith shown 
in this attitude, he was rewarded with long life, and 
entered into the possession of his share of the land 
allotted to Judah. From Jos 146, 14, it appears that 
Caleb was not a natural descendant of Judah but a 
Kenizzite adopted into the tribe, within which his 
name became the eponym of a subdivision (cf. I S 
252, the kalibbl [Calebite], "of the house of Caleb" 
EV). The name of Caleb is also given in the variant 
form of Chelubai (I Ch29, 18), brother of Jerah- 
meel. In Chronicles he is designated not as the son 
of Jephunneh but of Hezron, a remoter ancestor, i.e., 
a Hezronite. 2. Son of Hur and grandson of the 
preceding (I Ch 2 50). A. C. Z. 

CALEB-EPHRATHAH, ke"leb-ef'ra-tha (tt*S$ 
2.?f, kalebh 'ephrathah): According to the com- 
mon text (cf . I Ch 2 24) this term is a place-name. 
But the Heb. is confused and the true reading prob- 



ably was "and after Hezron was dead Caleb went in 
unto Ephrath(ah), the wife of his father Hezron, and 
she bare," etc. See Kittel in Handkom. E. E. N. 

CALF. See SACRIFICE AND OFFERING, 5, and 
FOOD, 10. 

CALF, GOLDEN, and CALF IMAGES: 1. The 
account in Ex 32: This narrative is the result of 
combining two distinct accounts (J and E), neith'-r 
of which is now preserved intact (see HEXATEUCH, 
12-18). 

In J's account (vs. 7 and [s] 9-14, 25-29) emphasis 
is laid on the mutinous disorder in the camp and 
on the loyalty of the Levites. E gives a detailed 
account of the making of the calf (vs. 1-6), of Moses' 
surprise as he enters the camp (15-18), and of his 
wrath and rebuke of Aaron (19-24). Ver. 8 may 
be editorial; consequently it is uncertain whether 
J's original narrative said anything about a calf. It 
is in E that we get the fullest description of the apos- 
tasy as consisting in making a calf to symbolize J* 
and in worshiping Him by this means. Since E 
was probably written in northern Israel, this is what 
might be expected, as calf-worship was practised in 
the northern kingdom. 

There is nothing improbable in the story that the 
Israelites in the desert fell into this sin. The prohi- 
bition of metal images as symbols of deity was one of 
the fundamental principles of Moses' teaching (see 
DECALOGUE), while the temptation to symbolize 
their deity under the form of a young bull, for such is 
the meaning of "calf" here, was one that might have 
presented itself very easily to the Israelites even in 
the desert, not because of their knowledge of the 
Egyptian animal-worship (which was of a very dif- 
ferent type), but simply because of the wide-spread 
use of the bull as a symbol of deity throughout the 
Semitic world. The kernel of E's account may then 
be considered historical, although the narrative it- 
self may well be colored by details drawn from the 
writer's personal knowledge of calf-worship in N. 
Israel. It is probable that the bull was a symbol of 
strength, possibly also of generative power. 

2. The bull-worship introduced by Jeroboam I 
(I K 1228-30): Jeroboam's motive in this was po- 
litical rather than religious. He was not introducing 
a new deity, since his proclamation in ver. 28 evi- 
dently refers to J". Theplural ("thesebe thy gods") 
is remarkable, but is more natural here than at 
Ex 32 4, 8, which therefore is suspected of having 
been edited under the influence of I K 12 28. On 
the other hand, in the [[ in Neh 9 18 the singular is 
found, which after all may be the original reading. 

Furthermore, Jeroboam was not guilty of making 
a complete innovation; for the worship of J" by 
means of images was practised before his time 
(cf. e.g., Jg 17 4, 18 17, 30-31). Nevertheless, it was a 
step downward, tending to obliterate the essential 
distinction between the religion of J" and common 
Semitic religion. The severe judgment pronounced 
upon Jeroboam expresses the view of the deutero- 
nomic author of Kings (see HEXATEUCH, 19, and 
KINGS, BOOKS OF). It is the view of a later time, 
after the prophetic polemic (Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, 
Micah) had aroused and enlightened the conscience 
as to the true character of such worship. 



Calling 
Cappadocia 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



110 



3. Subsequent history of calf-worsliip in Israel: 
Jeroboam I set up this worship at two old and im- 
portant sanctuaries, Bethel in the S. and Dan in 
t he N. There is no evidence that calf images existed 
;ii any other N. Israelite sanctuary, while Jurlah 
seems to have been free from the practise at least 
in nny officially recognized form. The early oppo- 
sition to it in Israel seems to have quieted down. 
Elijah and Elisha made no protest against it, though 
they can not have approved it. It survived the de- 
struction of the Baal-worship by Jehu and possibly 
then took on new strength. Amos' attitude to- 
ward it is not explicitly noted, but Hosea vehe- 
mently opposed it (cf. 85-6 where "Samaria" 
means not the city, but the realm and 13 2). It 
maintained its hold until the fall of N. Israel in 721. 
(See also SEMITIC RELIGION, 17.) 

LITERATURE : Besides Comtn. on Exodus and Kings, see 
Bacon, Triple Tradition of the Exodus (1894) ; Histories of 
Israel, by Kittel, Stade, Wade, etc., and the important 
discussion by Baudissin in PKE 3 , vol. 9, pp. 704-713. 

E. E. N. 

CALLING (K\TI<TIS): The primary significance of 
the Greek word is 'invitation.' Sometimes the ob- 
ject or design of the invitation is explicitly stated 
(I Th 2 12, "unto his own kingdom and glory"; Col 
315, "to peace"; IP29, "his marvelous light"). 
The word is also used without such definition of the 
object. In that case it signifies God's invitation of 
men to accept the redemption He offers through 
Christ (Ro 8 28, 11 29; Ph 3 14). This calling is asso- 
ciated with God's eternal purpose, but is also repre- 
sented as involving the response of acceptance by 
man as a necessary condition of its completeness. A 
difference may be noted between the Pauline and the 
Synoptic usage. According to the latter it is com- 
plete, irrespective of the response of man (Mt 20 16, 
but text doubtful). A. C. Z. 



CALNEH, cal'ne (3, kalneh, Am 6 2, also 
Calno, 1^3 Is 10 9): A city in Syria (probably 
the Kul-imu of the cuneiform inscriptions (cf. 
Schrader, COT, II, p. 143). It was captured in 738 
by Tiglath-pileser III. Calneh in Gn 10 10 is also 
identified by Delitzsch (Wo Lag d. Parad., p. 226) 
with Kul-unu', but it is probably a textual corrup- 
tion for Calbeh, Kuttaba, one of the most important 
early Babylonian cities. A. C. Z. 

CALVARY. See JERUSALEM, 45. 

CALVES OF LIPS: InHosl42 we read: "We 
render as bullocks (the offering of) our lips"; but 
the LXX. evidently read a text equivalent to "fruits 
of our lips." If EV be correct, the phrase means: 
'that which proceeds from the lips' as an expression 
of heart devotion in lieu of animal sacrifice. 

A. C. Z. 

CAMEL (^5, gamal): The camel is referred to 
in the OT most frequently as in use in the no- 
madic stage of civilization, as by the patriarchs 
(Gnl216, etc.), the Midianites (Jg 6 5-8 21), Job 
(Job 1 3, 42 12), the people of Kedar (Jer 49 29), etc. 
Its use in caravans is referred to in I K 10 2; Ezr 2 67. 
David is said to have had a herd of camels (I Ch 27 
30). Possibly the same thing is to be inferred as to 



the Pharaoh from Ex 9 3. At the same time it must 
have been a more or less common possession of many 
in Palestine (cf. I S 15 3; I Ch 12 40; and the prohibi- 
tion of the camel as food in Lv 11 4, Dt 147). The 
camel was used mainly as a beast of burden (cf. II 
K89), or for riding, especially on long journeys and 
over desert country (cf. Gn246l; IS 30 17, etc.). 
Its milk was also used (Gn 32 15). The structure 
of its feet, its capacity for going without water for a 
long period as much as a week and its ability to 
subsist on almost any sort of pasturage, even this- 
tles, fit it preeminently for hard service on the 
hot, dry, and barren desert. Its wool is woven 
into coarse cloth much used by the Bcdawin (cf. 
II K 1 8, RVmg. and Mt 3 4). The camel, while 
generally patient and serviceable, is often vindic- 
tive and savage. The word translated "drome- 
dary" (Is 60 6; Jer 2 23) should be rendered "young 
camel." E. E. N. 

CAMEL'S HAIR. See CAMEL and DRESS AND 

OliNAMENT, 9. 

CAMON, ke'imrn. See KAMON. 

CAMP: The word mahdneh, rendered "camp," 
means the place where the tent is pitched and thus in- 
dicates the encampment, or resting-place, of the t ril >< 
or clan, and has no necessary connection with war- 
fare. Throughout the Hexateuch it is generally 
used of Israel, whether stationary or on the march, 
as dweEing together in tents. In the subsequent 
O T books (except Psalms) it always refers to a mili- 
tary camp. See also WARFARE, 3. E. E. N. 

CAMPHIRE, cam'fair: Only in Song 1 14, 4 13 AV. 
See PALESTINE, 23. 

CANA, ke'na (Kavd): A village of Galilee referred 
to several times in the Gospel of John (2 1, 11, 4 46, 
21 2). Since Jesus,' mother and apparently His en- 
tire family were at the wedding-feast (Jn 2 2, 12), 
Cana was probably not far from Nazareth, while t he- 
fact that Jesus "went down" (212) from Cana to 
Capernaum would imply that it was among the 
hills. This agrees somewhat better with the mod- 
ern Khurbet Kanah (Map IV, C 7), on a ridge above 
the plain of el Buffauf, than with Kejr Kenna (Map 
IV, D 7), although the latter is much nearer Naza- 
reth. Khurbet Kanah is also to be preferred on 
philological grounds (cf. Jos 16 8, LXX., where, as 
the Heb. nahul qanah is evidently the original of the 
Gr. XeX-Kava, Kai/a is the equivalent of Qanah). 
The hints in Josephus (cf. Vita, 16 with 40), and the 
traditions of the crusaders favor the same identifi- 
cation (see Conder, Tent Work in Pal., p. 79 f.). 

J. M. T. 

CANAAN, ke'nan (|J>J?, k'na'an). I. The son 
of Ham in the ethnological (really geographical) 
lists in Gn 9 and 10. It is possible that Canaan and 
Cain may be but two varieties of the same ethnolog- 
ical-geographical tradition (see ETHNOGRAPHY AND 
ETHNOLOGY, 10 f.). II. One of the old designa- 
tions for Palestine, the land of the Canaanites whom 
the Israelites dispossessed. This term can be traced 
as far back as the Egyptian inscriptions of c. 1800 
B.C. in which it is used for the coastland between 



117 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Egypt and Asia Minor. It appears also in the 
Aimirnu letters of c. 1400 B.C.. as a. designation of JM- 
estinc. The etymology and earliest history of tin- 
name are unknown. Phoenician traditions show that 
the Plurnicia us t hemsel vt-s were known as Canaanites 
Some hold that the name originally belonged to a 
region of Babylonia and was carried west by the 
Semitic emigrants who settled on the Mediterranean 
coast 3000-2000 B.C. The OT uses the word Ca- 
naanite sometimes in a wider, sometimes in a nar- 
rower sense. In Gn 12 o, 24 3, 37; Jos 3 10, it includes 
the whole pre-Israelite population, even those E. of 
the Jordan. In other passages the Canaanites are 
spoken of as but one of six or seven different peoples 
dispossessed by Israel (Ex 3 8, etc.). The "land of 
generally refers to the whole W. Jordan land. 
Canaanite and Amorite are often used synony- 
mously. In Is 23 8, Hos 12 7, the Heb. word ren- 
dered "trafficker" is Canaan, the word having be- 
come the equivalent of 'merchant,' because of the 
mercantile activity of the Canaanites, especially the 
Phoenicians. See ETHNOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY 
6. 

The Canaanites were of Semitic stock, like the 
icenicians to the N., and were but a part of the large 
Semitic group (Phenicians, Amorites, Canaanites) 
whose ancestors migrated west from NE Arabia 
3000-2000 B.C. Their language (the ' lip' of Canaan 
18), the same as that spoken in Phoenicia Moab 
etc., was adopted by the Israelite invaders and is the 
Hebrew of the O T. They were well acquainted with 
Babylonian culture long before they were conquered 
by Israel. They were made subject to Egypt c 1500 
B.C. and continued under Egyptian suzerainty until 
c. 1300 B.C., when Egypt's hold gradually relaxed. 
1 lie Canaanites lacked organization. Each city held 
If aloof from the rest, jealous of its own independ- 
ence and thus fell more easily into the hands of the 
Invading Israelites. The majority of the Canaanites 
were probably not exterminated, but gradually ab- 
sorbed into Israel, which eventually contained a 
large Canaanite admixture. It was the presence of 
the Canaanites among the Israelites and their close 
itimacy with them that rendered the religious 
lem in Israel so serious and difficult. They 
taught their conquerors agriculture and many other 
useful arts and also led them to adopt many of their 
religious practises. The ultimate triumph of Israel 
speaks loudly for the strength and vitality of Israel's 
own rehgion. (See Paton, Early History of Syria 
and Palestine.) See also TRADE AND COMMERCE, 

E. E. N. 



CANAN^AN, ke"na-ni'an (Kawwalor, perhaps 
more correctly Kawaios = Aram, qannai 'a zeal- 
ous one,' of which the Gr. equivalent was fnXcor^ 
zealot.' Some MSS. have Kan-V = Canaanite 
so AV): A title borne by the Simon mentioned 
toward the end of the lists of the Apostles (Mk 3 18; 
) 4). In Lk 6 15, Ac 1 13 the Greek form 'zealot' 
i used The Zealots were the party headed by 
s of Gamala in opposition to the census under 
Qmrinius (q.v.), in 6 A.D. (cf. Jos. Ant. XVIII 
11, 6). They were intensely nationalistic in their" 
aims and during the civil war committed many ex- 
cesses (Jos. BJ. IV, 5 1-3). See also Schurer, IIJP 



Galling 
OappadocU 



Mathcws> The 



, can ' da ; 8 (KaWtd*,): According to 
26 f. the queen of the K.hiopian.s, w | lllw . treas- 
urer was baptized by Phili,,. I, i.s p,,.s,il,|,. ,, mt L 
name was a dynastic title rather than u persona" 
name (cf. Pliny, HN. VI, p. 35). J. M T 

CANDLE. See LAMP. 

CANDLESTICK: In Mt 5 ,5, Mk 4 , Lk 8 10, 
U 33 for "candlestick" (AV) the RV r,ad.s "lamp " 

u! 6 ^ P 'i M ' r ther occurren <** ^ TEMPLE, 
16, 23, and TABERNACLE, 3. | ; ( .; N 

CANE. See PALESTINE, 21, and SWEET CANE. 
CANKER. See DISEASE, 5 (9). 
CANKER-WORM. See LOCUST. 
CANNEH, can'e <n, kanneh): A place in Syria, 
mentioned with Haran and Eden (Ezk 27 23). Site 



E. E. N. 



CANON. See OLD TESTAMENT AND NEW TES- 
TAMENT CANON. 

CANOPY: In the ERV of Is 45 for AV "de- 
fense." The ARV reads "covering," the primary 
meaning of the Heb. term (n*n, huppah). 

E. E. N 
CANTICLES. See SONO OP SONGS. 

AND MEDICINE, 



CAPERNAUM, ca-per'na-um apva, i.e. 
Kaphar-Nahum, 'village of Nahum'): A city of 
Galilee where Peter and Andrew had taken up 
their residence before Jesus called them to be Hb 
disciples (Mk 1 16-21; Jn 1 44). Jesus Himself made 
it the headquarters of His ministry in Galilee 
after His rejection at Nazareth (Mt 413; Mk 2l) 
That it was a town of considerable size in the days of 
Jesus there can be no doubt whatever. It contained 
the office of a tax-collector (Mk 2 14), a representa- 
tive of the king, Herod Antipas (Jn 4 47 mg.), and 
a military station whose commander had built a 
synagogue for the people (Mt 8 5-13; Lk 7 l-io) Its 
present site is a matter of dispute. The view that 
J ell-Hum is the ancient Capernaum is supported by 
a tradition going back to the 4th cent., as well 
as by the excavation of the ruins of a synagogue 
there. Further, the last syllable of the name (Hum ) 
seems to be a remnant of Kaphar-Nahum. In favor 
of Kahn-Minyeh the facts are cited that Capernaum 
must have belonged to the Plain of Gennesaret (Jn 
6 1-21), that a place of such size and importance must 
have been on a highroad, and that the name Min- 
yeh is a remnant of the ancient designation of Chris- 
tians as Minim, ' heretics.' See Map IV E 6 (Cf 
G. A. Smith, HOHL, p. 456.) ' A. C. Z. 

CAPHTOR, caf'ter; CAPHTORIM. See ETH- 
NOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY, 11. 

CAPITAL. See TEMPLE, 14. 

CAPPADOCIA, cap"a-d6'shi-a. See ASIA MI- 
NOR, 4. 



Captain 
Centurion 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



118 



CAPTAIN: This term is used somewhat loosely in 
tin- Kng. Bible (especially the AV) as the rendering 
of nineteen different Heb. and Gr. words, only one 
of which, xiAi'opxor, 'chiliarch,' was specifically a 
designation of a particular military rank. Most of 
the others are terms expressive of leadership, but not 
technical terms for specific grades or ranks in a mili- 
tary organization. In some instances the more cor- 
rect RV rendering is altogether different from the 
AV, e.g., "friends," Jer 13 21, "marshal," Jer 51 27, 
Nali 3 17, "battering-ram," Ezk 21 22. In other 
cases, the substitutions of "prince" (ISO 16, etc.), 
"governor" (Jer 51 23; etc.), "chief," or "chief men" 
(Jos 10 24; I Ch 11 15, etc.) are not significant. Cf. 
also the RV in I K 4 19; I Ch 11 11, 12 18; He 2 10 for 
improvements in translation. In the O T the most 
frequently used term is "ty, sar, a term that could 
be used for almost any kind of military leadership. 
Chief captain is used in the N T to render x^ a PX f t 
the technical Gr. term for the commander of a 
cohort, i.e., one-tenth of a legion, for which the Latin 
term was 'tribune.' In Ac the usage of this term is 
perfectly regular, but in the Gospels (Mk 6 21; Jn 
18 12) and in Rev 6 15, 19 is, it is used to designate 
any high military rank. See also WARFARE. 

E. E. N. 

CAPTIVITY. See ISRAEL. 

CARAVAN. See TRADE AND COMMERCE, 2, 3. 
CARBUNCLE. See STONES, PRECIOUS. 

CARCAS, cur'cas. See CHAMBERLAINS, THE 
SEVEN. 

CARCASS. See DEFILEMENT under PURIFICA- 
TION. 

CARCHEMISH , cur'ke-mish (ST S? , kark-mlsh ) : 
A city of ancient times on the W. bank of the Eu- 
phrates River, identified with the modern Jerobis in 
upper Syria. It dates from about 2200 B.C., and 
was for long centuries a Hittite capital and head- 
quarters of commercial and military activity. Though 
it paid tribute to several Assyrian kings, beginning 
with Shalmaneser II about 858 B.C., it was not com- 
pletely overcome and defeated until the disastrous 
assault of Sargon II in 717 B.C. (cf. Is 109). 
Henceforth it declined, and became merely an As- 
syrian dependency. It was the scene of Nebuchad- 
rezzar's great victory over Pharaoh Necho (Jer 46 2; 
II Ch 35 20). I. M. P. 

CAREAH, cu-ri'a. See KAREAH. 

CARITES, car'i-tlz: The RV rendering of a Heb. 
word (karl) of uncertain meaning (II K 11 4, 19). 
The AV has "captains." It was evidently the desig- 
nation of a body of troops, but whether a proper 
name or a mere appellation is uncertain. E. E. N. 

CARMEL (V?J-p, karmel), 'garden,' 'vineyard': 
1. The name of a mountain situated between the 
plain of Esdraelon and the Mediterranean Sea, 
so called because of its thickly wooded aspect, 
which was even more striking in ancient times than 
it is at the present day (Map IV, A 7). From the 
single peak, however, the name passed to the range 



of hills associated with it, thus designating the moun- 
tainous territory more than 20 m. in length, and from 
3 to 8 m. in breadth to the W. and NW. of Esdrae- 
lon. In history Carmel became noted for the con- 
test between Elijah and the Baal prophets (I K 18). 
It was also famed in literary composition for natural 
beauty (Song 7 5; Is 35 2). Together with Sharon, 
Lebanon, and Bashan it is one of the points of Pales- 
tine which especially show God's favor to Israel in 
bestowing such a country upon it (Jer 50 !9;Mic7i4). 
Its devastation is, therefore, a sign of the decided 
displeasure of J" (Is 339; Jer 426; Am 12; Nah 

1 4). In post-biblical times Carmel continued to be 
a site of note both among the heathen and among 
Christians (cf. Jambl. Vita Pythag. 8 15; Tacit. Hist. 

2 78; Sueton. Vesp. 5), serving finally as the site of a 
renowned monastery (the Carmelite). 

2. A town in the hill-country of Judsea (Jos 15 53). 
The residence of Abigail, wife of Nabal, who after her 
husband's death was taken by David as one of his 
wives (I S 30 5). Abigail is accordingly called "the 
Carmelite." This Carmel was also the scene of 
other incidents in the lives of Saul and David (I S 
15 12, 252). Its modern name is Karmal, and its 
exact location 8 m. SE. of Hebron. Map II, E 3. 

A. C. Z. 

CARMI, cur'mai CS"!5, karml): 1. Father of 
Achan and head of a family of Judah (Jos 7 1, 18; 
I Ch 2 7). 2. Head of one of the clans of Reuben 
(Gn 469; Nu 266, etc.). While it is possible that 
in I Ch4l Carmi is a textual error for Caleb, it is 
also possible that the text is correct, the reference 
being to the preceding. E. E. N. 

CARNALLY. See CRIMES and PUNISHMENTS, 
2(c). 

CARPENTER. See ARTISAN LIFE, 5. 

CARPET : The term occurs in the RV of Jg 

5 10 for AV "in judgment," and of Pr 31 22 for the 
AV "coverings." The two different Hebrew words 
(middln and marbhaddim) are of uncertain mean- 
ing, but each indicates a covering of some sort. 

E. E. N. 

CARPUS, cur'pus (Kdptros): A friend of Paul's, 
probably a resident of Troas (II Ti 4 13). Later 
legend made him one of the seventy disciples of 
Jesus. E. E. N. 

CARRIAGE: This term occurs five times in the 
AV, and in each case the RV substitutes a more cor- 
rect rendering; in Jg 18 21 "goods"; in I S 17 '22; Is 
10 28; Ac 21 15 "baggage"; in Is 46 1, "the things that 
ye carried about." E. E. N. 

CARSHENA, cfir'she-na (Est 1 14). See PRINCES, 
THE SEVEN. 

CART (T^Ji;, 'agalah, from 'agal, 'to be round,' 
'to roll'): The cart or wagon of the Hebrews was 
probably a somewhat rude and clumsy affair. It 
was two-wheeled, the wheels being of wood, and 
was furnished with a tongue or pole, as it was drawn 
by two oxen yoked side by side. The accompanying 
cut of a modern Syrian cart probably well represents 



119 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Captain 
Centurion 



those used in ancient times. In Is 28 27 f. the refer- 
ence is to the 'rollers' of the threshing-sledge (see 



ft. 




An Ox-Cart, as Seen in Palestine To-Day. 

AGRICULTURE, 6). For "wagons" in Ezk 23 24 
AV, the RV renders correctly "chariots." 

E. E. N. 
CARVING. See ARTISAN LIFE, 5. 

CASEMENT. See HOUSE, 6 (j). 

CASIPHIA, cQ-sif'i-a (X;;C?, kasiphya'): A 
"place" (in Babylonia) which was the home of a 
colony of Levites and Nethinim (Ezr 8 15-20). Its 
site is unknown. E. E. N. 

CASLUHIM, cas'lu-him. See ETHNOGRAPHY 
AND ETHNOLOGY, 11. 

CASSIA, cash'ia. See OINTMENTS AND PER- 
FUMES, 1, and PALESTINE, 23. 

CAST. See ARTISAN LIFE, 10, 11, and 
METALS. 

CASTANET. See Music, 3 (1), (c). 

CASTAWAY: In Co 9 27 d8oKi/*or, "a castaway" 
AV, is rightly changed in RV to "rejected." The 
Gr. word means 'not approved,' 'unable to stand 
the test.' E. E. N. 

CASTLE. See CITY, 2, FORT, and JERU- 
SALEM, 38. 

CASTOR AND POLLUX, cas'ter, pol'ux. See 
TWIN BROTHERS and SHIPS AND NAVIGATION. 

CATERPILLAR. See PALESTINE, 26. 

CATHOLIC EPISTLES: A term applied to the 
Epistles of James, Peter, John, and Jude. Since 
no one of these seven epistles is addressed to a spe- 
cifically named church or individual, and all (except 
II and III Jn) deal with general rather than merely 
local or individual questions, they easily came to be 
considered by the early Fathers as addressed to the 
Church at large, i.e., the catholic (or universal) 
Church. The AV expresses this idea by the word 
"general" in the titles of Ja, I P, II P, I Jn, and 
Jude, which is the translation of iratfoXiKij, found 
in many late MSS. With the early MSS. the RV 
omits it. E. E. N. 

CATTLE. See NOMADIC AND PASTORAL LIFE 
and SACRIFICE AND OFFERINGS. 

CAUDA, co'da. See CLAUDA. 



CAUL: The sacrificial term (Ex 29 13, etc.). (1) 
The Heb. (tTlJV, 'the excess' or 'that which is 
left over") seems to mean the fatty mass near the 
opening of the liver (cf. Dill, on Lv 3 4). (2) In 
Hos 13 8 (Heb. Ttelp, "enclosure") it means either the 
pericardium or the breast as a whole. (3) For Is 3 
18 see DHESS AND ORNAMENTS, 11. See SACRI- 
FICE AND OFFERINGS, 10. E. E. N. 

CAUSE. See LAW AND LEGAL PRACTISE, 4. 
CAUSEWAY. See ROADS. 

CAVE: In the hilly regions of Palestine caves 
are very numerous. The O T contains many refer- 
ences to them as places of temporary abode (Gn 19 
30), of refuge from invaders (Jg 6 2; I S 13 6, etc.), or 
from pursuers (Jos 10 16; I S 22 1, etc.), and as burial- 
places (Gn 239ff.; cf. Jn 11 38). The Horites (Gn 
14 6, 3620ff.) were probably cave-dwellers, as the 
word Horite is from hor (one of the O T words for 
cave). E. E. N. 

CEDAR (3$;$, 'erets): The cedar so often re- 
ferred to in the O T is always the cedar of Lebanon 
with the possible exception of Nu 24 6 (where the 
text may be corrupt). These cedars were famed 
throughout all SW. Asia. The lumber made from 
them, because of its size, durability, and fragrance, 
was used by the kings of Assyria and other countries 
for the decoration of their palaces, etc. The various 
notices of the use of cedar in Israel (Lv 4 14; II S 5 11; 
I K 5 8, 6 9, 7 2; Song 1 17; Jer 22 14, etc.) illustrate 
its use in other countries. The tree itself was con- 
sidered the most beautiful and majestic of trees and 
was easily made the symbol of strength, glory, and 
regal power (Ps 92 12; Ezk 31 3, etc.). The cedars 
now extant on Lebanon are probably only stunted 
and scattered remains of once large and magnificent 
forests. See also PALESTINE, 21. E. E. N. 

CEDRON, si'dren. See JERUSALEM, 5. 

CEILING. See HOUSE, 5 and 6 (a). 

CELLAR : In I Ch 27 27 f., the word rrilVX ('otse- 
roth, plur. of 'olsar, rendered "cellars") means merely 
storehouses or rooms, where wine and oil were 
stored. In Lk 1 1 33 (RV) the Gr. icpwmj means 
literally 'a hidden place,' i.e., anything similar to 
a vault, crypt, or cellar. E. E. N. 

CENCHREA, sen-cri'a (Kevxpda): A harbor of 
Corinth on the Saronic gulf and a town of some size 
(Ac 18 18; Ro 16 1) . It contained temples of Aphro- 
dite and Artemis, a bronze statue of Poseidon, sanc- 
tuaries of Asclepius and Isis, also the Baths of Helen. 
The mole is still visible. J. R. S. S. 

CENSER. See TEMPLE, 19. 

CENTURION (eKaTovTapxif [and -ot], 'ruler of a 
hundred,' and Kcrrvpiaiv [ - Lat. centurw]): The 
commander of a 'century,' i.e., a hundred men, the 
sixtieth part of a legion, in the Roman army. The 
centurion mentioned in Mt 8 5-13; Lk 7 2-6 ( -Jn 4 
46 ff?) belonged probably to the small military force 
of Herod Antipas, organized on the Roman model. 
In all other cases a Roman officer is meant. 

E. E. N. 



I 



Cephas 
Cherethites 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



120 



CEPHAS, si'fus. Soc PETEK. 

CERTIFY: The words rendered certify" mean: 
in IIS 15 28 'to announce or toll '; in Ezr 4 14, 1, 
5 10, 7 24 'to let one know.' In Est 2 22 the RV ren- 
ders, much more correctly, "told," and in Gal 1 11 
"make known." E. E. N. 

CHAFF: The translation of: (1) mdts, always 
correctly rendered "chaff" in both RV and AV. 
(2)hishash, "dry grass" (Is524AV, 33 ll). (3) 'fir, 
Dn235. (4) 3 X vpov (Mt3 12; Lk3 17). InJer23 
28 the RV "straw" is more correct. E. E. N. 

CHAINS: These were either voluntarily worn 
for purposes of personal embellishment or imposed 
from without as means of preventing movement. 
(1 ) Of ornamental chains the most typical are those 
referred to in the stories of Joseph and Daniel (Gn 
41 42; Dn 57, etc.)- See also DRESS AND ORNA- 
MENTS, 11. (2) Of restraining chains those worn 
by Paul are the best example (Ac 28 20; II Til 16; 
but of. also Ac 12 7). In this case for a clearer 
understanding it must be borne in mind that the 
prisoner was fastened by the wrist through a chain 
to a guarding soldier, whose wrist was also attached 
to the other end of the chain. A. C. Z. 

CHALCEDONY, cal - sed ' o - ni. See STONES, 
PRECIOUS, 3. 

CHALCOL, cal'cel. See CALCOL. 

CHALDEA, cal-di'a, CHALDEANS: The Heb. 
term kasdlm (Gn 11 31, etc.) corresponds phonet- 
ically to the form kaldu found on the Assyrian in- 
scriptions. The Chaldeans were a Semitic people 
who pressed into Babylonia from the S. (c. 12th 
cent. B.C.), and occupied the whole seacoast region 
of S. Babylonia. They were not without political 
ambition and from this time on more than one Baby- 
lonian king was of Chaldean origin. The capital 
city of the Kaldu was Bit Yakin. The Assyrians 
found in the Kaldu most determined opponents of 
their supremacy in Babylonia (see MERODACH- 
BALADAN). Finally, the Chaldean Nabopolassar, 
c. 626 B.C., on the eve of the downfall of Nineveh, 
established himself on the throne of Babylon, thereby 
founding the new Babylonian or Chaldean kingdom 
of which his son Nebuchadrezzar was the greatest 
ruler (see BABYLONIA, 18-22). For Chaldeans 
in another sense see MAGIC AND DIVINATION, 7, 
and WISE MEN, 1. E. E. N. 

CHALKSTONES: In Is 27 9 the word is used as 
a symbol of brittleness. The altars of idols were to 
be as easily destroyed as if made of chalkstones. 

A. C. Z. 

CHAMBER. See HOUSE, 5, 6, and TEMPLE, 
11,20,21. 

CHAMBERLAIN (II K 23 11): The chamberlain 
occupied a position of trust involving political 
duty, which was, therefore, somewhat more impor- 
tant than that of the steward. Here the Heb. saris, 
'eunuch,' is not to be taken strictly in its literal 
sense. On Ro 16 23, see ERASTUS. A. C. Z. 

CHAMBERLAINS, THE SEVEN: The term 
"chamberlain" (II K23 11; Est 1 10 ff.) is a somewhat 



euphemistic rendering of C"f, farts, 'eunuch.' 
The same idea is contained in the phrase eVi KIHTIU- 
vns, 'over the sleeping-room,' applied to Blastus (Ac 
12 20). It was the custom for kings to have eunuchs 
supervise the affairs of their harems. The seven 
eunuchs of Xerxes, according to Est 1 10 ff., were 
Mehuman, Biztha, Harbona, Bigtha, Abagtha, 
Zethar, and Carcas. Others, however, are also 
mentioned, as Hegai (2 3), Bigthan and Teresh (2 21, 
6 2) and Hatach (4 5). To what extent these per- 
sons are historical is unknown. See ESTHER, BOOK 
OF. E. E. N. 

CHAMELEON, ca-mi'le-on. See PALESTINE, 
26. 

CHAMOIS, sham'i or sham'we. See PALES- 
TINE, 24. 

CHAMPAIGN, sham-pen': In Dt 11 30 ("Arabah," 
RV) the original means a low-lying, open plain. 

A. C. Z. 

CHAMPION: In I S 17 51 this word renders 
gibbor, 'mighty man.' In I S 17 4, 23, it is a good 
translation of the Heb. C^3,1"B"i<, 'man of the 
middle places,' i.e., the man who stands between 
two armies to decide the case of one against the 
other. E. E. N. 

CHANAAN, ke'nan (Xavdav): The AV spelling 
for Canaan (q.v.) in Ac 7 11, 13 19. E. E. N. 

CHANCELLOR: The title of Rehum, Ezr 4 8-17. 
The exact significance of the Aram. DJrV'^y?, 'mas- 
ter of discernment,' is obscure. Most modern schol- 
ars take it in the sense of 'chief official' (see RE- 
HUM). E. E. N. 

CHANGE OF RAIMENT. See DRESS AND 
ORNAMENT, 5. 

CHANGER. See TRADE AND COMMERCE, 3. 
CHANT. See Music, 5. 

CHAPEL: The AV rendering of miqdash, ' sanc- 
tuary,' in Am 7 13. E. E. N. 

CHAPITER. See TEMPLE, 14. 

CHAPLET. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 1 11. 

CHAPMAN. See TRADE AND COMMERCE, 3. 

CHAPT (Jer. 144, AV; "cracked," RV): The 
Heb. term hattah means 'broken, "terrified," or 'dis- 
mayed.' E. E. N. 

CHARASHIM, car'a-shim. See GE-HARASHIM. 
CHARGER. See PLATTER. 

CHARIOT. See WARFARE, 4, and ARMS AND 
ARMOR, 6. 

CHARIOT HORSE. See ARMS AND ARMOR, 
6, and HORSE. 

CHARITY : The AV rendering in about 28 pas- 
sages in Paul's Epistles, the Catholic Epistles, and 
Revelation of the very frequent Gr. aydm), 'love,' 
in the sense of 'Christian love for one's fellow men.' 
"Charity," without doubt, crept into the Eng. Bible 



131 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



used the Latin Vulgate, in which caritas was often 
from to render dydwij. Caritas, however, means 
'dearness,' 'high esteem,' rather than 'love' in the 
broad sense of the Gr. dydnrj- consequently charity 
should not be used to render dydirrj, since, in the 
modern English, it is not synonymous with love. 
See also LOVE. S. D. 

CHARM, CHARMER. See MAGIC AND DIVI- 
NATION, 3. 

CHARRAN, car'an (Xappdv, Acts 7 2, 4): The AV 

spelling for Haran (q.v.). 

CHASTE (Ayvot, 'unsullied'): Used to indicate 
inward, personal purity which shrinks from con- 
tamination or pollution, consequently free (1) from 
imperfection generally (I P32); (2) from carnality 
(II Co 11 2, "pure" RV; Tit 2 5). S. D. 

CHASTEN, CHASTENING; CORRECT, COR- 
RECTION: The Heb. verb yasar is used of pun- 
ishment (Pr 7 22), of chastisement inflicted by love 
(Pr 3 11), 'especially of discipline of children by 
parents (Ps 50 17) and is often joined with yakhah, 
a milder word (IIS 7 14; Ps6l; Pr3 12). IntheOT 
the idea of chastisement is inseparable from the fact 
of sin. From being an indication of God's anger, 
suffering, especially through the experience of exile, 
came to be regarded as purposeful chastisement at 
tin 1 hand of a righteous and merciful God, and in Is 
53 5 even vicarious. 

In the N T much of the mystery of suffering is re- 
moved by the death of Christ, but for its remedial 
value as chastisement see I Co 5 5, 11 32; II Co 69; 
I Ti 1 20. Chastisement as the discipline of sons 
issuing in peace, righteousness, and holiness is 
beautifully described in He 12 5-12 (cf. Rev 3 19). 
In II Ti 3 16 correction means 'restoration.' 

R. A. F. 

CHEBAR, ki'bflr (IJp, k-bhar): A river by which 
Ezekiel and the exiles dwelt in Babylonia (Ezk 1 
1, 3, 3 IS, etc.), now identified by Clay as a canal, 
Kabaru, just E. of the ancient site of Nippur. 

I. M. P. 

CHECKER- WORK. See TEMPLE, 14. 

CHEDORLAOMER, ked"er-la-6'mer (Tj'^'TTP, 
k'tlhar la'omer): A king of Elam in the 23d 
cent. B.C. who also held sway over Babylonia. He 
was the leader of the two expeditions against Pales- 
tine mentioned in Gn 14. Such expeditions were 
frequent in that remote age, being made by the Bab- 
ylonians to the Mediterranean coast, and in connec- 
tion with their trade and colonizing in that region. 
When Elam became suzerain of Babylonia, as it did 
a few years before this date, it continued the Baby- 
lonian state policy, foreign as well as domestic. The 
disaster to the second expedition, mentioned in the 
Biblical narrative, did not permanently affect the 
Babylonian control of the West-land, which was con- 
tinued to the 18th or 17th cent. B.C. The dominion 
of Elam in Babylonia was itself soon brought to an 
end by the great Hammurabi, the Amraphel of the 
Biblical story, who expelled the foreigners, perhaps 
during the lifetime of Chedorlaomer himself, about 
2250 B.C. The name Chedorlaomer has not yet 



been discovered in the cuneiform inscriptions, to 
which we owe the supplementary details of the Htory 
in Genesis; but the two elements, in the forms Kudur 
and Lagarnar, are well attested as Elamitic words. 

J. F. McC. 
CHEESE. See FOOD, 6. 

CHELAL, ki'lal $>3, k'lal): One of the "sons 
of Pahath-moab" who married a foreign wife (Kzr 
10 30). E. E. N. 

CHELLUH, kel'Q. See CHELUHI. 

CHELUB, ki'lub (2^5, k-labh, another form of 
Caleb): 1. The ancestral head of a clan of Judah, 
possibly a place-name (ICh4 11). 2. The father of 
Ezri, one of David's officers (I Ch 27 26). 

E. E. N. 

CHELUBAI, ke-lu'bai. See CALEB. 

CHELUHI, ke-lu'hai ('Hlbp, k'luhl, Chelluh, AV): 
One of the "sons of Bani" who had taken a foreign 
wife (Ezr 10 35). E. E. N. 

CHEMARIM, kem'a-rim. See PRIESTHOOD, 2 



CHEMOSH, ki'mesh (ttftej, k-mdsh): The na- 
tional deity of the Moabites. See SEMITIC RE- 
LIGION, 18. 

CHENAANAH, ke-ne'a-na (HJM5, k-na'inah): 
1. Father of the court prophet Zedekiah (I K 22 11, 
24; II Ch 18 10, 23). 2. Head of a Benjamite family 
(ICh7lO). E. E. N. 

CHENANI, ke-ne'nai ("JJ5, k-nanl): One of the 
assistants at the reading of the Law (Neh 9 4). 

E. E. N. 

CHENANIAH, ken"a-nai'a (^M?, kvuinyahu), 
'J" establishes ': 1. A prominent Levite musician 
(I Ch 15 22, 27). 2. One of David's officers (I Ch 
26 29). E. E. N. 



CHEPHAR-AMMONI, ki"fflr - am'en - ai 
Jfisyjl, k'phar ha'ammonl, Chephar - Hammoni, 
AV), 'village of the Ammonites': A town^of Ben- 
jamin (Jos 1824), perhaps the mod. Ke/r And, Map 
III, F 5. E. E. N. 

CHEPHIRAH, ke-fai'ra (H75J, k-phlrah): One 
of the cities of the Gibeonites (Jos 9 17), later as- 
signed to Benjamin (Jos 18 26) and reoccupied after 
the Exile (Ezr 2 25; Neh 7 29), Map II, E 1. 

E. E. N. 

CHERAN, ki'ran (]?, k-ran): A Horite clan (?) 
(Gn 36 26; I Chi 41). E. E. N. 

CHERETHITES, kerVthaits (t^.?, k-rethi): The 
name of a people in the S. of Philistia, perhaps a 
division of the Philistines themselves (I S 30 14; Ezk 
25 16; Zeph 2 5). That the word has anything to 
do with Crete is doubtful. The Cherethites and 
Pelethites are frequently mentioned as composing 
David's body-guard (II S 8 18, 15 16, etc.). The word 
Pelethite (T 1 !??, p'ttthl) is probably but a variant 
form of 'Philistines.' Thus David's guard was re- 
cruited largely from the Philistines. E. E. N. 



Cherith 
Chosen 



A STANDARD HIBLE DICTIONARY 



123 



CHERITH, ki'rith (."I.?, kvlth): The torrent- 
valley or wady where .Elijah sojourned for a while 
(IK 17 3-5). The statement that it was "before," 
i.e., E. of the Jordan, is indefinite and the site 
remains uncertain. E. E. N. 

CHERUB (211;, k-rHbh, pi. CHERUBIM) : The 
Hebrew conception of the cherubim varied at differ- 
ent periods of history. In the O T they are referred 
to in four connections. After the expulsion of Adam 
and Eve from the Garden of Eden, they appear as 
guardians of the tree of life (Gn 3 24 J ). A different 
version of this story is alluded to by Ezekiel (28 14, 
16): a cherub expels the Prince of Tyre from Eden, 
the Garden of God. In the Tabernacle there were 
two golden cherubim at each end of the propitiatory 
or mercy seat (see ARK). Figures of cherubim were 
embroidered on the curtains and the other hangings 
of this sanctuary (Ex 25 18, 26 1, 31 P; cf. He 9 5). 
In Solomon's Temple two huge cherubic figures of 
olive-wood overlaid with gold stood in the Holy of 
Holies. Their outstretched wings overshadowed 
the ark (I K 6 23-28). Cherubim, sculptured in bas- 
relief and alternating with palm-trees, ran in a frieze 
round the wall of the Temple, and decorated the base 
of the great sea, the capitals, and doors (I K 6 29, 32, 
35). They were figures connected with religious 
symbolism; they acted as bearers of Deity, and were 
consequently emblematic of Jehovah's presence. 
Cf. the phrase "Thou that sittest above the cheru- 
bim" (Ps 80 l). In the Holy of Holies they were 
guardians of the ark and its treasures, as well as 
symbols of God's presence, and consequently em- 
blematic of His unapproachability. We have a 
similar conception of the cherubim in the living 
creatures of Ezekiel's vision (Ezk 1; cf. 10 2). These 
composite figures, each with four wings and four 
faces man, lion, ox, and eagle carry the firmament 
which supports the throne of Jehovah. In discussing 
the origin and significance of the cherubim, a crucial 
passage is Ps 18 10 (cf. IIS 22 11). The poet de- 
scribes the descent of Jehovah on the lowering thun- 
der clouds: " He rode upon a cherub, and did fly; Yea, 
he soared upon the wings of the wind." The func- 
tion of the cherub in this passage is similar to that of 
the symbolic figures in the sanctuary and the living 
creatures in prophetic vision. But we also have 
here a hint of their origin. Primarily they were a 
personification of the storm cloud or wind, and this 
poetic passage has preserved this ancient popular 
conception of the cherubim. Three theories have 
been held in regard to the form and nature of the 
cherubim: (1) That they were real existences, 
(2) that they were mythological beings, (3) that 
they were mere symbols. The view that they were 
supernatural spiritual essences is now generally 
discarded, although it was long dominant in the 
Church. The facts point to a combination of the 
symbolic and mythical theories as the true view. 
The religious imagination of the Hebrews, working 
on mythological figures which they had in com- 
mon with their neighbors, produced these symbolic 
forms. To them they were not mere allegories, but 
hail a real existence. As to their actual shape and 
form there is considerable uncertainty. They were 
winged and composite, and consequently have been 



compared to the colossi at the entrances to Baby- 
lonian temples and palaces. These often had a 
man's head, a lion's body, and eagle's wings; sonic- 
times they were winged bulls with human heads. 
Cheyne thinks they were more like the Hittite griffins 
in figure, and had a similar function as guardians of 
sacred things. In later Jewish theology they are 
one of the three highest classes of angels, and are 
evidently the original of the four living creatures of 
the Apocalypse (Rev 4 6-8). 

LITERATURE: Commentaries on Genesis by Driver, Dill- 
mann, and Delitzsch; on Isaiah by Cheyne; Schultz, 
O T Theology, II, 229 ft. j ^ ^ 

CHERUB, ki'rub (311?, kvubh): A Babylonian 
locality where a colony of exiles lived (Ezr 2 59; 
Neh76l). J. A. K. 

CHESALON, kes'a-len CpVy?, k'salon): A town 
on the boundary-line between Judah and Benja- 
min (Jos 15 10), between Kirjath Jearim and Beth 
Shemesh, modern Kesla, 10 m. W. of Jerusalem. 
Map II, El. -A. C. Z. 

CHESED, ki'sed (IS.?, kesedh): A 'son'of Nahor 
(Gn 22 22). Probably the name of an Aramcan 
clan. E. E. N. 

CHESIL, ki'sil (^tpj, fc. 9 ): A town of Judah 
(Jos 15 30) called Bethul in 19 4. See also BETHUL. 

E. E. N. 

CHEST: In II K 12 9f.; II Ch 24 8 ft., the Pleb. 
'aron means simply a box or chest suitable for the 
purpose mentioned. In Ezk 27 24 the term g'na- 
zlm is of doubtful meaning. There is no sound basis 
for the rendering "chest." Rich garments or cloths 
may be meant. E. E. N. 

CHESTNUT. See PLANE-TREE and PALES- 
TINE, 21. 

CHESULLOTH, ke-sul'eth (n^C?, k-suUdth): A 
town of Issachar (Jos 19 18), probably the same as 
Chisloth-Tabor (Jos 19 12), the mod. Iksal, Map IV, 
C 7. E. E. N. 

CHEZIB, ki'zib. See ACHZIB 2. 
CHIDON, cai'den. See NACHON. 

CHIEF: The rendering of a number of Heb. and 
Gr. terms, all of which express the idea of head- 
ship, but generally in a somewhat loose and non- 
technical sense. The most commonly used term is 
rxi, ro'sh, 'head.' In Nu 25l4f., Jos 2214, the 
Heb. is 'abh, 'father,' and RV renders "fathers' 
house." For other cases needing special mention 
see CHIEF MEN. See also FAMILY AND FAMILY 
LAW, 4, and WARFARE, 1. E. E. N. 

CHIEF MEN: A term used in the N T to render 
two Gr. words. (1) ot irpOrroi. (a) In Mk 6 21 
("chief estates" AV) it refers to the leading provin- 
cials of Galilee, who doubtless formed the unofficial 
retainers of Herod's court. These, with the chief 
civil dignitaries (fuyitrravfs) and the chief military 
officers (xMapxot), constituted the invited guests at 
the feast. (6) In Ac 13 50 it refers to the board of 
magistrates of the city, (c) In Ac 28 7 it is used in 



123 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Oherith 
Chosen 



the singular ("chief man"). It is not clear whether 
it refers to Publius as the procurator of the island 
an official assigned to Malta under the Empire (OIL, 
x, 7494), or as the actual Governor of the island 
(C1L, x, 6785), or whether it was simply a title of 
compliment (C1G, 5754 - Kaibel, IGSicil. 601). (d) 
In Lk 19 47 it is rendered "the principal men ["chief" 
AV] (of the people)," in Ac 25 2 "the principal men 
["chief" AV] (of the Jews)," and in Ac 28 17 "the 
chief (of the Jews)." In the first passage it is seem- 
ingly unofficial and has reference to the socially 
prominent laymen among the people, who were sym- 
pathetic with the "chief priests and the scribes" in 
their hostility to Jesus. In the second passage it is 
probably official and refers to the Sadducean leaders 
in the Sanhedrin (cf. v. 15, 24, 23 14). In the third 
passage it is more general and includes doubtless the 
elders (irpecrfivTcpoi) and chiefs (lipxovrfs) of the con- 
gregation, and the synagogue rulers (dpxtfvvaytayoi) 
of the various communities into which the Jews in 
Rome were divided (cf. Schurer, HJP. II, ii. 31). 

(2) i)yovp.fvoi, which in Ac 15 22 refers to Judas 
Barsabbas (q.v.) and Silas (q.v.) in a wholly unoffi- 
cial sense, simply as men prominent in the Christian 
community for their work and counsel and instruc- 
tion (cf. v. 32) and so preeminently fitted to accom- 
pany Paul and Barnabas on their return mission to 
the brethren in Antioch. M. W. J. 

CHILD, CHILDREN. See FAMILY AND FAMILY 
LAW, 6. 

CHILDBEARING, CHILDLESS. See FAMILY 
AND FAMILY LAW, 5, 6. 

CHILDREN OF THE BRIDECHAMBER. See 

MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE. 

CHILDREN OF THE EAST. See EAST. 

CHILEAB, kil'e-ab (2^5, kil'abh): According 
to the Heb. text' of II S 3 3, a son of David by Abi- 
gail. In I Ch 3 l he is called Daniel. The LXX. 
of II S 3 3 reads AaXouia, which may imperfectly 
represent the original name, but this can not now be 
recovered. E. E. N. 

CHILION, kil'i-en flV^S, kilyon): Chilion and 
Mahlon were sons of Elimelech and Naomi (Ru 1 2). 
They married two Moabite women, Orpah and Ruth, 
Chilion being the husband of Orpah, and both died in 
the land of Moab (Ru 4 10, 1 5). The names Chilion, 
'wasting,' and Mahlon, 'sickness,' are significant 
possibly of artificial elements in the story. 

E. E. N. 

CHILMAD, kil'mad ("1^9, kilmadh): A place 
mentioned in Ezk 27 23 along with Sheba, Assyria, 
etc. The identification is doubtful. Some, follow- 
ing the Talmud, would read "TJ?"^, 'all the Medes,' 
or 'all Media,' but this is only a conjecture. 

E. E. N. 

CHIMHAM, kim'ham (ST?5, kimham): The son 
(probably) of Barzillai of Gilead who was given a 
place at David's court in return for kindness shown 
to the king (II 81937-40; I K 2 7). Geruth-Chim- 
ham, 'the habitation of Chimham' (Jer 41 17; cf. 



RVmg. ) near Betlilehem, may refer to a lodging-place 
or inn erected by this person. Another well-sup- 
ported reading is "sheepfolds of Chimham." 

E. E. N. 
CHIMNEY. See HOUSE, 6 (j)- 

CHINNERETH, kin'e.-reth (P^?, kinnereth); 
CHINNEROTH, -roth (H'n^?, kinrOth); CINNE- 
ROTH, sin'e-roth: 1. The name of a town (Jos 19 
35) extended also apparently to a district (I K 15 
20). The name is old, being found on the Egyptian 
list of towns captured by Thotmes III (16th cent. 
B.C.), the form there being Kinneroth. Its signifi- 
cance is a matter of dispute, also its relation to the 
name Gennesaret. It was located probably in the 
plain of Gennesaret. 2. For the Sea of C. (Jos 
112, etc.), see GALILEE, SEA OP. E. E. N. 

CHIOS, ki'os or cai'os (Xior): A mountainous 
island, off the Asiatic seaboard (Ac 20 15). It 
joined Cyrus in 546 B.C., but fought the Persians in 
480. It became independent in 355 and later fa- 
vored Rome. It has now about 100,000 inhabitants 
and a considerable commerce in blue marble, anti- 
mony, ocher, silk, mastic, fruits, and brandy. 

J. R. S. S. 

CHIRP (occurs only in Is 8 19, " peep," AV). 
See MAGIC AND DIVINATION, 3. 

CHISLEV, CHISLEU, kisliu. See TIME, 3. 

CHISLON, kis'lon (]^C5, kiflon): The father of 
Elidad (Nu342l). E. E. N. 

CHISLOTH-TABOR, kis"leth-te'bor. See CHE- 

SULLOTH. 

CHITHLISH, kith'lish (tf^rc, Kithlish, AV): A 
town of Judah, in the Shephelah (Jos 15 40). Site 
unknown. E. E. N. 

CHITTIM, kit'im. See KITTIM. 

CHIUN, cai'on: A deity mentioned in Am 526. 
See SEMITIC RELIGION, 19. 

CHLOE, clo'e (XXdq): Paul was informed of the 
conditions in the church at Corinth by "them which 
are of the household of Chloe" (I Co 1 11 ). It is un- 
known whether this woman had her home in Ephe- 
sus or in Corinth and nothing whatever is known of 
her relation to the church. E. E. N. 

CHOR-ASHAN, c8r"-ash'an. See ASHAN. 

CHORAZIN, co-re'zin (Xopafelv): One of the 
cities condemned by Jesus for its unreceptivity to 
His works (Mtll 21; Lk 1013). The site is not 
identified with absolute certainty, but is probably 
the modern Keraseh, N. of Tell Hum (Map IV, 
E6). J. M. T. 

CHOSEN: The word is sometimes used in the 
general sense of 'choice,' 'superior' (cf. Ex 14 7, "six 
hundred chosen chariots," or Jg20 15, "seven hun- 
dred chosen men"). In a more restricted and quasi- 
technical sense, it is applied to believers, and denotes 
from the Divine point of view their distinctive char- 
acter. "Ye are a chosen generation" (I P29; cf. 






Chozeba 
Chronicles, Books of 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



124 



also Rev 17 14). In a still more restricted sense, it 
is applied to the people of God as a whole (I Ch 16 13, 
"children of Jacob, his chosen ones"; of. also Ps 105 
6; Is 43 20). See also ELECTION. A. C. Z. 

CHOZEBA, co-zf'ba. See ACHZIB, 2. 
CHRIST. See JESUS CHRIST and MESSIAH. 

CHRISTIAN: The name applied to the followers 
of Christ by the heathen populace of Antioch (Ac 
11 26; cf. Tac. Anna!. XV, 44) a city famous, as was 
Alexandria, for its habit of nicknames. The reason 
for its giving was not simply the extended size and 
the organized form which the disciples had assumed, 
but the preponderating Gentile element which in 
that city had entered its membership and which 
marked it as distinctly different from Judaism. 

As an adjective derived from a personal name its 
ending (-tavos) is Latin and not Greek (cf. Zahn, In- 
troductwn, 40, n. 10; Blass, NTGr., 27. 4). If its 
primary form was Chrestianos (Xprjartai'dr), as we 
might be led to suppose from Suetonius (Claud. 25; 
cf. Kaibel, IGSicU. 78, 754; C1L. X, 7173; also 
codex N, in all the N T passages, and the possible 
word-play in I P 2 3), then there was a mild contempt 
intended in its giving, Chrestos (Xpi/o-Tos) signifying 
a 'worthy fellow.' It is in this spirit that the name 
is used by Agrippa in his reply to Paul's impassioned 
appeal (Ac 26 28), whether the form he actually used 
was Chrestianos, or Christianas which came to be 
adopted by the disciples and which consistently is 
used in the N T. 

In I P 4 16 the name is used from the point of view 
of the hostile heathen world, and indicates a date for 
the Epistle when the followers of Christ were con- 
demned if they confessed to being Christians (cf. 
Ramsay, Church in Rom. Empire, Index [s.v.], and 
see PETER, FIRST EPISTLE OP). 

The references in Ac 5 41 and Ja 2 7 are not to the 
appellative, Christian, but to the personal name, 
Christ. M. W. J. 

CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF: The Books of 

Chronicles, together with those of Ezra and Nehe- 

miah, are the compilation of an author 

I. Con- whose name has not been handed down 
tents. to us, but who may be conveniently 
termed the 'Chronicler,' and who 
wrote probably not before 300 B.C. The books em- 
brace the period from Adam to the edict of Cyrus 
permitting the exiles to return to Judah, 537 B.C.: 
they thus cover substantially the same period as the 
other great series of historical books, Gn to II K 
(from the Creation to 561 B.C.); but they are writ- 
ten from a very different point of view, and with a 
much more limited aim. Their main object, viz., is 
to give a history of Judah, with special reference to 
the institutions connected with the Temple; and 
whatever has no bearing upon one or the other of 
these subjects is either passed over rapidly or 
omitted altogether. The author begins (after the 
manner of the later Semitic historians) with Adam; 
but I: 1 consists merely of genealogies, excerpted 
from Gn, leading up (ver. 34) to Esau and Jacob ; 2 l f. 
enumerates the sons of Jacob ; and the rest of ch. 2 is 
devoted to statistical particulars (genealogies of 
clans and clan settlements) of the tribe of Judah, as 



ch. 3 is devoted to the descendants of David. In 
1 : 48, dealing from the same point of view with the 
other tribes, the priestly tribe of Levi is treated at 
greatest length (1:6). 1:9 1-34 is on the post-exilic 
residents in Jerusalem and certain arrangements 
relating to the Temple. Tin- introduction (1 : 1 1-9 34) 
ended, the history proper begins. The account of 
Saul is limited to his genealogy (I: 9 35-44) and the 
narrative of his death (1: 10). The history of David 
begins with his election as king over all Israel at 
Hebron: all events in his reign of a personal or 
private character (e.g., the revolt of Absalom) are 
omitted; on the other hand, the arrangements for a 
temple attributed to him are narrated at consider- 
able length (1:22-29). After the division of the 
kingdom the history of Judah occupies almost en- 
tirely the compiler's attention, the N. kingdom being 
referred to only where absolutely necessary. The 
writer dwells throughout with the greatest satisfac- 
tion upon the ecclesiastical aspects of the history. 
The same interest is not less apparent in Ezr, Neh; 
and hence the entire work (Ch, Ezr, Neh) has been 
not inaptly termed by Reuss the "Ecclesiastical 
Chronicle of Jerusalem." The compiler, it is often 
supposed, was a Levite, perhaps in particular a 
member of the Temple choir. 

The basis of the Chronicles consists of a series of 
excerpts from the earlier historical books (Gn to 
II K; I: 9 3-17a is also from Neh 11 4- 
2. Charac- 19a), with which is combined much 
ter of entirely new matter. These excerpts 
Contents, are not made throughout upon the 
same scale. In the preliminary chap- 
ters (1: 1-9) they are often condensed, and consist 
chiefly of genealogical notices; in I: 1011: 36 (which 
is parallel to I S 31-11 K 25) passages are, as a rule, 
transferred in extenso with but slight variations of 
expression ; not infrequently, however, the excerpted 
narratives are expanded, sometimes remarkably, 
by the insertion either of single verses or clauses, or 
of longer passages, as the case may be. It is im- 
possible to give here a list of all the Chronicler's ad- 
ditions; the following are, however, the principal 
longer passages: I: 12, 21 20b-29 (dealing mostly 
with David's preparations for a temple, and organi- 
zation of the Levites, etc.), 11:115-23, 121, 2b-9a 
(inserted between I K 14 25 and 26), 13 3-22, 14 3-15 
15, 16 7-10, 17 lb-19, 19 1-20 30, 21 2-4, 10b-19, 24 15-22, 
255-10, 12-16, 265-20 (to "because"), 274-6, 285-15, 
17-20, 293-3121 (Hezckiah's passover, etc.), 322-8, 
25-29, 331 lb-19 (Manasseh's captivity, repentance, 
and restoration), 34 3-7, 35 lb-17 (Josiah's passover), 
21-23 (inserted between II K 23 29 and 30). 

The reader who desires properly to understand the 
method and point of view of the Chronicler should 
mark in his RV by underlining in the case of sim- 
ple words or verses, and by drawing a line along the 
margin in the case of longer passages these and (lie 
other passages peculiar to him. He will then soon 
discover that they have a character of their own, 
in language and expression, not less than in subject- 
matter, which differentiates them materially from the 
parts transferred unaltered from Samuel or Kings. 

Thus (1) they often comprise statistical matter, 
genealogies, lists of names, etc. (e.g., most of I: 2-9, 
12, 154-10, 259-31, etc.). 



125 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Choxeba 
Chronicles, Books of 



(2) Very frequently they relate to the organiza- 
tion of public worship, or describe religious cere- 
monies, especially with reference to the part taken 
in them by Levites and singers, as 1: 13 1-5, 15 1-28, 
16 4-42 (where the older narrative of the transference 
of the ark to the city of David has been enlarged, 
or, MS in 15 25-28 -II S 6 12b-15 altered, from this point 
of view) and most of I: 22-29, II: 8 13-15, 20 14, 19, 21, 
28, 29 3-31 21, 35 lb-17. 

(3) In many cases they have a didactic aim: in 
particular they show a tendency to refer events to 
their moral causes, to represent, for instance, a great 
calamity as a punishment for wickedness, and a great 
deliverance as the reward of piety; notice, for exam- 
ple, II: 12 1, 2b-8 (the cause of Shishak's invasion), 
13 18, 17 10, 21 JOb, 22 7, 24 23-24, 26 5, 16-20 (only the 
fact of Uzziah's leprosy is narrated in UK 15 5), 
27 6, 32 25 f., 33 11-13, 35 21-23; and in speeches put 
into the mouths of various prophets, II: 12 5-8, 13 
4-12, 16 7-10, 19 2-3, 20 14-17, 37a, 21 12-15, and else- 
where. Attention should also be directed to the 
short insertions introduced often into the narratives 
excerpted from Samuel or Kings for the purpose of 
supplementing them from the points of view just in- 
dicated. Comp., for instance, the notes of this kind 
on ritual, or the parts taken by Levites, singers, etc., 
in II: 5 llb-13a (inserted in the middle of I K 8 10), 
6 13, 7 1-3, 6, 23 2, 4, 6a (and much besides in this ch., 
altered from II Kll), 34 12b-13; and the explana- 
tions, or reflections, in I: 10 13 f. (the cause of Saul's 
death), 21 6f., 29f. (justifying David's sacrifice on 
Zion), II: 1 3b-6a (legalizing the worship at the high 
place of Gibeon), 8 lib, 12 12, 14, 16 12b, 18 Sib, 22 
3b, 4b, 24 25 (middle), 25 20b, 27a. 

One main source of the Chronicler has been suffi- 
ciently indicated, viz., the earlier historical books 

from Gn to II Kings (especially I Sam- 

3. Sources II Kings). What, however, were the 

Used by sources from which the additional mat- 

the Com- ter contained in Ch was derived? The 

piler. notices contained in 1 : 19 were derived, 

it is natural to think, from genealogical 
and other tribal records (cf. 1: 5 17, 9 l). But from 
the time of David onward the Chronicler, like the 
compiler of Kings, refers, as a rule, at the end 
of each reign, to some definite source where further 
particulars are to be found. The source most fre- 
quently cited is the "book of the kings of Judah 
and Israel" (or "of Israel and Judah"), II: 16 11, 
277, etc.; elsewhere (where this book is not men- 
tioned) he refers to some special authority bearing 
the name of a prophet (I: 29 29, II: 9 29, 12 15, 13 22, 
20 34, 26 22, 32 32, 33 19) ; once (II: 24 27) he cites the 
"Commentary (midhrash) of the Book of the 
Kings" (cf. II: 13 22, the "Commentary (midhrash) 
of the prophet Iddo"). That the first of these 
books is not the canonical Book of Kings is ap- 
parent from its being cited for particulars which 
this does not contain (as II: 277,33 18): inasmuch, 
moreover, as the prophetic histories just mentioned 
are never cited with the "Book of the Kings of 
Judah and Israel" (though this must have extended 
at least from Asa, II: 16 11, to Jehoiakim, II: 36 8), 
and as two of these histories are stated to have 
formed part of that book (II: 20 34, 32 32), it is gen- 
erally supposed that they were not independent 



works written by the prophets in question, but sec- 
tions of the great "Book of the l\ingn" relating to 
them, and hence familiarly cited under their iinmea. 
Whether the "Commentary of the Book of the 
Kings" (11:24 27) is another name for the "Book of 
the Kings of Judah and Israel" is uncertain; but 
in any case the name is significant; for 'niidhrash' 
(common in postbiblical Hebrew) means a didactic 
or homiletic exposition, or an edifying religious 
story (such as To or Sus): the 'midhrash' here re- 
ferred to will thus have been a post-exilic work in- 
tended to develop the moral or religious lessons de- 
ducible from the history of the kings. Now this is 
just the leading motive in many of the narratives 
peculiar to Chronicles, wliich have been apparently 
derived by the compiler from the "Book of the 
Kings"; the last-named work, therefore, even if 
not (as many scholars suppose) identical with the 
"Commentary of the Book of the Kings," will have- 
been similar in character and tendency. The "Com- 
mentary of the Prophet Iddo" will have been 
either a particular section of the same work or a 
separate work of the same kind, in wliich Iddo was 
the prominent figure. 

Much of the additional matter peculiar to Chroni- 
cles can not be historical. In some cases the figures 
are incredibly high; in others the scale 
4. Histor- or character of the occurrence is such 
ical Value, that, had they really happened pre- 
cisely as described, it is difficult to 
think that they would have been passed by in Sam- 
uel and Kings; while as regards the speeches as- 
signed to historical characters, and the motives at- 
tributed to them, these are nearly always conceived 
largely from a point of view very different from that 
which prevails in the earlier narratives, and agreeing 
closely with the compiler's. The compiler lived in 
an age, two centuries or more after the return from 
Babylon, when new religious interests and a new 
type of piety had been developed, and asserted 
themselves strongly. The Chronicler reflects faith- 
fully the spirit of his age. A new mode of viewing 
the past history of his nation began to prevail: pre- 
exilic Judah was pictured as already in possession of 
the institutions, and governed by the ideas and prin- 
ciples, which were in force at a later day; the em- 
pire of David and his successors was projected on a 
magnified scale: the past, in a word, was idealized, 
and its history, where necessary, rewritten accord- 
ingly. Thus the Levitical organization of the com- 
piler's own time, especially the three choirs, are rep- 
resented as established by David : the ritual of the 
Priests' Code is duly observed under the early kings: 
religious ceremonies, including even some not men- 
tioned in Samuel and Kings at all, are described with 
an abundance of detail suggested evidently by the 
usage of the compiler's own day; David amasses for 
the Temple enormous treasures (I 22 14) ; and his suc- 
cessors have the command of large armies, and are 
victorious against forces even larger than their own 
(e.g., II 13 3, 17, 14 8, 9, 17 14-19). There is doubt- 
less a genuine historical nucleus at the basis of many 
of these representations; but it has been expanded 
by the Chronicler and thrown by him into a form 
adapted to describe past events as he conceived 
they must really have happened, and to inculcate 



Chronicles, Books of 
Chronology 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



126 



the lessons which ho understood the history to teach. 
There is thus nothing improbable in the statement 
that David collected materials for a temple; but the 
details in I : -2, L".i must be greatly exaggerated. The 
narrative in II S Oof the removal of the ark to Zion 
makes no mention of Levites as present on the occa- 
sion; but in 1:13, 15-16 (see above) the Chronicler 
introduces many additions with the object of making 
good the omission, and in 16 8-36 places in David's 
mouth a Psalm composed of parts of three post- 
exilic Psalms (105 1-15, 96 l-13a, 106 1, 47, 48). In 
I K 8 3 the ark is borne by priests; but in II Ch 5 4 
"Levites" is substituted to make the usage conform 
to the later Levitical law; I K 8 66 is similarly 
altered in II Ch 7 9 f. to harmonize with the custom 
of the Second Temple. In II Kll Jehoiada's as- 
sistants in the deposition of Athaliah are the foreign 
body-guard; in II Ch 23 they are Levites, in ac- 
cordance with Inter usage, which did not allow aliens 
to approach so near to the holy things; a series of 
deliberate alterations has been made in the older 
narrative, and a new coloring given to the entire 
occurrence. In 11:23-16 the correspondence be- 
tween Hiram and Solomon (I K 5 2-9) has been re- 
written by the Chronicler in his own style. Other 
similar instances could be quoted. It is also hardly 
open to doubt that both the speeches attributed to 
various prophets, and the representations of the his- 
tory itself, are in many cases strongly colored by the 
compiler's theory of the prompt and direct punish- 
ment of sin and reward of virtue (comp. above, 3, 
and the short insertions quoted just afterward). 
The Chronicler supplies evidence of the highest value 
for the ideas and institutions of the age in which he 
himself lived; but his representations of the past 
must be accepted with great caution and discrimi- 
nation. He is not, however, on that account to be 
regarded as a falsifier of history; on the contrary, he 
is a man of deep moral earnestness, and a pleasing 
and doubtless also a characteristic example of the 
type of godliness prevalent in Israel at his time; he 
simply viewed the past as his contemporaries viewed 
it, and described it accordingly. 

The Hebrew style of the Chronicler is peculiar: it 

is marked by many mannerisms (some of which are 

perceptible even in a translation), and 

5. Lin- also by the occurrence in it of numer- 
guistic Pe- ous words and expressions which are 
culiarities. not only peculiar, but distinctively late 
(see particulars in HDB I, 389 ff., or 
Driver, IDT, p. 535 ff.). This fact is of impor- 
tance; for it is conclusive evidence that no part of 
the additions can be an excerpt from the autographs 
of any pre-exilic writing; if such autographs were ac- 
cessible to the compiler, the information derived from 
them must have been entirely recast by him and pre- 
sented in his own fashion. The speeches contained 
in the additions form no exception to what has been 
said: these also, even the shortest, are shown, by their 
close similarities in both thought and expression to 
the post-exilic narratives peculiar to the Chronicles, 
to be one and all the Chronicler's own composition. 

LITERATURE: The standard commentary is still that of 
Bertheau (1873), to be supplemented, where necessary, 
by BenzinEer (1901) and Kittel (1902). The Eng. 
reader may consult W. K. Barnes' Comm. in the Cambr. 



Bible; W. H. Bennett's vol. in the Expositor's Bible, 
though not a continuous commentary, contains much 
that is suggestive and useful, especially on the aims and 
method of the Chronicler. g t ft j) 



CHRONOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 

I. THE FKAMEWOBK OF CONTEMPOKAKY 
HISTORY. 

An outline of the relevant political events of the 
Roman Empire and its dependencies within which 
Christianity arose will serve as a setting for the 
chronology of the Apostolic Age. 



Augustus, 30 B.C.-14 A.D. 

Tiberius his colleague, 
with power over 
armies and prov- 
inces, probably 12 
A.D. 



Tiberius, 14-37. 



Caligula, 37-41. 

Claudius, 41-54. 

Expulsion of Jews 
from Rome, some 
time between 45 
and 54. 



Nero, 54-68. 

Rome burned 19 July, 
64, followed by 
persecution of 
Christians cliiefly 
in Rome. 

Galba, Otho, Vitellius, 

68-69. 

Vespasian, 69-79. 
Titus, 79-81. 
Domitian, 81-96. 

Persecution of Chris- 
tians. 

Nerva, 96-98. 
Trajan, 98-117. 



Herod the Great, king of 
Palestine, 37-4 B.C. 

Temple begun at Jeru- 
salem, probably 
in Jan. or Dec., 
20-19 B.C. 

Sons of Herod. 

(1) Archclaus, eth- 
narch of Judaea 
and Samaria 4 
B.C., banished 6 
A.D. 

(2) Antipas, tetrarch 
of Galilee and Pe- 
rsea 4 B.C.-39 A.D. 

(3) Philip, tetrarch of 
Trachonitis, etc., 

4 B.C.-34 A.D. 

Judaea under procura- 
tors, 6-41 A.D. 
Pontius Pilate, 26-36. 
Aretas probably suze- 
rain of Damas- 
cus for a short 
time after 37. 
Herod Agrippa I (Ac 
12) after a life of 
adventure, King of 
the territory of his 
grandfather, Herod 
I, 37^14 (including 
Judtea 4144). 
Judsea under procura- 
tors from 44. 
Revolt of Theudas be- 
tween 44 and 48. 
Famine in Juda;a 
46 (?). 

Herod Agrippa II (Ac 
25 26), King of 
Chalcis and parts 
of Galilee and Pe- 
rsea, 50-100. 
Outbreak of Jewish 
War 66. 

Fall of Jerusalem, Sept., 
70. 



127 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Chronicles, Books of 
Chronology 



II. THE LIFE OF JESUS CHHIST. 

With no direct evidence from secular history for 
the life of Jesus, and only indirect and elusive evi- 
dence from the Gospels, it is impossible 
i. Birth to obtain other than approximate re- 
and Open- suits as to the Gospel chronology, 
ing of (a) At first sight Lk 2 1-5 seems to 

Jesus' supply a fixed point ; but unfortunately 
Ministry, scholars are not agreed as to the histor- 
ical value of these statements, though 
Professor Ramsay's researches have strongly height- 
ened the probability that Luke used reliable infor- 
mation as to the main facts. Jesus was born in 
Bethlehem, it would appear, during a periodical im- 
perial census, held by the dependent King Herod 
("a procurator with the title of king") in accord- 
ance with the custom of his Jewish subjects. It 
may have been carried out in Palestine about 5 or 6 
B.C. 

(b) According to Mt 2 1, 16, Jesus was born some 
time during the last two years of the reign of Herod 
the Great, so that the earliest date would be 6 B.C. 
Very little can be inferred from the star seen by the 
wise men, though a bright constellation, supposed to 
havo followed on the conjunction of the planets 
Jupiter and Saturn, B.C. 7, is held by some to sup- 
port 5 or 6 B.C. as the date of the birth. 

(c) In Lk 31,23 two difficulties emerge first, 
from what point did Luke calculate the fifteenth 
year of Tiberius? Second, what is implied in "about 
thirty years of age"? According as they compute 
the reign from the coregency, or the death of Au- 
gustus, or accept different systems for reckoning the 
imperial year, scholars arrive at dates ranging from 
26 to 29 A.D. Most admit that "about" thirty 
might mean a year or two either way, so that even 
6 B.C. would not necessarily be excluded as too early 
for the birth. 

(d) John 2 20. The Temple was begun probably 
in Dec. or Jan., 20-19 B.C. But was the 46th year 
completed at the time of this Passover? With our 
present information the year 27 A.D. seems to suit 
this statement best, though some leading scholars 
estimate 28 A.D. But as we can not tell how near 
Jesus was to thirty, no certain inference can be 
drawn from this as to His birth. 

It would appear on the whole that 5 to 6 B.C. sat- 
isfies the various data for the year of our Lord's 
birth. Nothing at all can be gathered with cer- 
tainty as to the season of the year. 

There is an early tradition still accepted by a few 
scholars that the ministry lasted for one year, but 
though this seems at first sight to agree 
2. Dura- with the Synoptic narrative, it does not 
tion of the fit the facts. The details of His work 
Ministry, as recorded and the impression pro- 
duced by Jesus throughout Palestine 
would lead us to expect a longer period than one 
yi j ::r. The SynopticGospels themselves demand more 
than one year. For though even Mk does not afford 
a certain chronological scheme for the life of Christ, 
it is probable that the references to the ripe wheat 
(April to June) in 2 23, and to the green grass (early 
spring) in 6 39, represent a year of ministry; and Lk 
i 13 34 involves several visits to Jerusalem. In the 



fourth Gospel there are three Passovers 2 13, 4 (so 
true reading), 18 28. We have, therefore, good rea- 
son to assume that the ministry lasted at least be- 
tween two and three years. 

The events of Jesus' life may be arranged chron- 
ologically as follows: 

(a) Birth of Jesus 5 or 6 B.C. 

3. Results (b) Baptism (Lk 3 1), 15th year of 
for the Life Tiberius, 27 or 28 A.D. 

of Jesus. (c) Earlier Ministry in Judiea, Jeru- 
salem, and Samaria, Jn 1 191 42. With 
a Passover in Jerusalem (Jn 2 13), 27 or 28. 

(d) Public Ministry in Galilee. This opened 
after John was cast into prison (Mk 1 14), though 
Jesus had probably taught in Galilee even before 
that event (Jn2l2) perhaps May of 27 or 28 (Jn 
4 35-38?). 

To it belong (1) The visit to Jerusalem to an un- 
known feast (Jn 5 1) Tabernacles in Octobeij (?). 

(2) Journeyings to Phoenicia, the Decapolis, 
Ca;sarea Philippi (Mk 7 25-9 30) during early sum- 
mer of 28 or 29. 

(3) The close of the public Galilean Ministry 
perhaps late summer of 28 or 29 (Mk 9 30 ; cf . Jn 7 1 f . ). 

(e) Itinerant teaching in Samaria, Persea, and 
Judrea (chiefly in Lk 9 51 to 18) autumn and winter 
of 28-29 or 29-30, including visits to Jerusalem 
and neighborhood. (1) Tabernacles (Jn 7), Oc- 
tober. (2) Dedication (Jn 10), December. (3) Rais- 
ing of Lazarus at Bethany (Jn 11), early spring of 
29 or 30. 

(f) Last week in Jerusalem anil environs from 
Friday evening of the arrival in Bethany until the 
next Friday afternoon Passover of 29 or 30. On 
the whole, the evidence of the Jewish calendar, which, 
however, is uncertain, points to 30 A.D. 

(g) The day of Jesus' death. An unsolved prob- 
lem. It was a Friday (Mt 27 62, 28 1; Mkl542; 
Lk 23 54; Jn 19 31), but the Synoptic Gospels seem to 
say Friday the 15th Nisan, after Jesus had eaten the 
regular Passover (Mkl4l2; Lk 227); John (131, 
18 28, 19 14, 31, 42) seems to imply that Jesus died on 
the afternoon of the 14th Nisan. Some try to recon- 
cile John with the Synoptists (Edersheim, LTJM II, 
p. 490 ff. ); others, with better reason, hold that even 
the Synoptists, by their account of the arrest, trial, 
and death of Jesus (Mk 14 If., 48, 151, 11,21, 46), afford 
evidence of the superior testimony of John, inasmuch 
as the Passover would have been profaned by any 
work except what was necessary for preparing food. 
If the year was 29, the crucifixion took place prob- 
ably toward the end of March ; if 30, early in April. 

III. THE APOSTOLIC AGE. From 29 or 30 to circa 
100 A.D. 

The crucial date for the chronology of the Apos- 
tolic Age is the trial of Paul by Felix and Festus (Ac 
2424,251). The ordinarily accepted 

4. Acces- date for the accession of Festus is 60, 
sion of though some incline to 59, others to 61. 
Festus. But of late a few eminent scholars, re- 
turning to the date in the Chronicle of 

Eusebius, have placed it in the year Oct., 55-Oct., 
56. However, the opinion prevails strongly that, 
Eusebius is in error, and that even Josephus and 






Chronology 
Church Life 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



128 



Tacitvis arc mistaken in their references to Felix 
ami his brother Pallas. We start then from (ill us 
bring approximately correct, :tml with Ac 13-25 
for our guide arrive at the following tentative 
scheme. 

The Missionary Journeys of Paul can be dated as 
follows: 

(a) First Missionary Journey (Ac 13, 14) to Cy- 
prus and S. Galatia, 47-49 or 50; followed by 
the Council at Jerusalem (Ac 15), 50 
5. Mission- or 51. 

ary Jour- (b) Second Missionary Journey (Ac 
neys. 15 36-18 22). S. Galatia revisited, Mac- 
edonia, Athens, Corinth (1J years, Ac 
1811), Antioch; spring of 51 to spring of 54. Paul 
arrived in Corinth shortly after the expulsion of the 
Jews from Rome (182); but unfortunately the date 
of this expulsion can not be fixed, nor that of the 
proconsulship of Gallio (18 12), except that it can 
not have been before 50. 

(c) Third Missionary Journey (Ac 18 23-21 30). 
S. Galatia, Ephesus, Corinth, Jerusalem ; spring of 55 
(or possibly summer of 54) to spring of 58. Ephesus 
2i years (Ac 18 23, 19 1-20 l); summer of 55 to 
late autumn of 57. Corinth (3 months) and journey 
via Philippi to Jerusalem (Ac 20 3-21 16); winter of 
57-58 to Pentecost of 58. 

(d) Two years' imprisonment (Ac 21 17), May of 58 
to spring of 60. 

Galatians 1 ll-2 10 is the second source for our 
chronology. The visit of Paul to Jerusalem in Ac 
15 is almost certainly to be identified 
6. Paul's with the second visit of Galatians (2 1; 
Conversion, cf. 1 18), which was 17 years after his 
conversion (with much less probabil- 
ity some count it 14 years). So the conversion of 
Saul of Tarsus may be placed, after making allow- 
ance for partial years, in 34 A.D. From Ac 8 1, 9 1 
we judge that Stephen's martyrdom must be put 
very shortly before this. We thus gain the follow- 
ing results for the Apostolic Age as a whole: 

(a) Life of the Church within Jeru- 
7. Results salem and in Juda?a (Ac 1-7), 29 (or 
for 30) to 34 A.D. Conversion of Saul, 
Apostolic 34 A.D. 

Age. (b) Extension through Palestine. 

Antioch a new center (Ac 8-12), 34 
to 46 A.D. First visit of Saul to Jerusalem (Ac 
9 26; Gal 1 18; II Co 11 32), probably in 37. James, 
son of Zebedee, killed by Herod (Ac 12 2), 44. 
Visit of Barnabas and Saul to Judaea and Jeru- 
salem with famine funds. Possibly Saul did not 
go to the capital. 

(c) The missionary activity of the Apostle Paul 
(after his earlier work in Syria and Cilicia, Gal 1 21- 
23) narrated in Ac 13-21 16 47 to 58 A.D. (for 
details see above, 5). In this period are to be 
placed the two earliest groups of the extant letters of 
Paul: (1) I and II Thessalonians, written shortly 
after his first arrival in Corinth, 52. (2) Galatians, 
probably during his first sojourn in Corinth, 53-54 
(see, however, GALATIANS, Ep. TO THE, 5); I and 
II Corinthians, and other lost correspondence with 
Corinth, from Ephesus, 56-57; Romans, shortly 
before final departure from Corinth, winter or 
spring of 58. 



(d) Paul the prisoner: 

(1 ) In Cirsarea (Ac 24 24-27), May of 58 to 60 A.D. 
(2) Voyage to Rome and two years in Rome (Ac 27, 
28), spring of 61 to 63 A.D. During his Roman im- 
prisonment Paul wrote Ephesians, Colossians, Phi- 
lippians, and Philemon. Many scholars infer from 
Ac 20 25, 38 that his hope of acquittal (Ph 1 25) was 
not fulfilled and that he was martyred at this 
time. But the testimony of Clement of Rome, 
that he died after having reached "the boundary 
of the West" i.e., probably Spain (cf. Ro 1524, 
28) and the impossibility of placing the Pastoral 
Epistles in their present form within the period 
of Acts, are in favor of the view that Paul did not 
die until after a second imprisonment, perhaps in 
65, though some good authorities place his death in 
66 or 67. 

(e) A persistent and thoroughly credible tradi- 
tion is that Peter also died as a martyr in Rome 
under Nero, perhaps in 64 or 65, shortly before 
which the first epistle may well have been written 
(see PETER, FIRST EP. OF, 3); and Josephus 
states that James, the brother of Jesus, was put to 
death by the high priest after the death of Porcius 
Festus in 62. Some place the Epistle of James prior 
to the time when the controversy between Paul and 
the Jewish Christians became acute, i.e., before 50. 
Others put it about 60. Of those who hold that it 
was not written by James, the Lord's brother, most 
place it outside the limits of the Apostolic Age (see 
JAMES, EP. OF, 2 b). 

(f) Though the great movements of Church life, at 
least as known to history, were toward the West after 
the middle of the first century, so that the churches 
in Rome and other places rapidly rose into promi- 
nence, the fall of Jerusalem in 70 A.D. left profound 
and enduring effects on Christian history. Before 
this date the earliest sources of the Synoptic Gospels 
were put into writing, and during the next decade 
our present Gospels probably took their present form. 
Acts follows Luke, and Hebrews may be placed 
within a few years of the fall of Jerusalem (see also 
special articles on these books). 

(g) Ephesus becomes a center of influence during 
the last quarter of the century, and there is a strongly 
authenticated tradition, though discarded by some 
eminent scholars to-day, that John the Apostle pre- 
sided over this church and died there at a great age 
under Trajan, i.e., not before 98 A.D. The Johan- 
nine literature, including the Apocalypse, is to be 
assigned to the last decade of the first century. 
Though serious difficulties surround the Epistles of 
II Peter and Jude, there is no inherent reason 
against placing them within the Apostolic Age (see 
also the articles on all these books). 

LITERATURE: For the enormous literature of this subject a 
general reference must be made to articles in the larger 
encyclopedias: in PRE 3 , Jesus Ghristus by Zoekler, and 
Paulus by Zahn; Chronology by C. H. Turner, HDB. 
(the best conservative statement), and by v. Soden in EB. 
(hinhly critical). See also Schurer, History of the. Jewish 
People in the Time of Christ (1890); Harnack, Chronoloffie 
der altfhrist. Litteratur (1897); Ramsay, Was Christ Born 
at Bethlehem,? (1898), and St. Paul the Traveler and Koman 
Citizen (1897); Zahn, Introduction to the N. T. (1907). all 
representative recent works. In James Moffatt's Historical 
N. T. (1901) there are very complete and useful tables rind 
summaries of recent opinions. J, A. F. 



129 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Chronology 
Church Life 



CHRONOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT: 
While the OT contains a great many chrono- 
logical notices, as a whole it has no chronolog- 
ical system. A chronological system requires some 
fixed event or point of time from which all dates 
may be reckoned. No such event finds mention 
in the OT, although a limited use is made of 
several different eras. In the Pentateuch many 
events are dated according to the year of life of the 
person concerned, and the life-periods of a long suc- 
cession of individuals are parts of an era computed 
from the creation of Adam. But this mode of reck- 
oning ends with Jacob. All such dates, moreover, 
belong to the late P element of the Pentateuch and 
are entirely absent from the earlier J and E docu- 
ments (see HEXATEUCH), which gave only the 
vaguest sort of dates and had no chronological 
system whatever. 

An attempt seems to have been made at one time 
to use the Exodus as a starting-point for chronology. 
The notices Gn 15 13, Ex 12 40, and I K 6 1 seem to 
belong to calculations connected with such an era. 
But there is no evidence that this system was gener- 
ally used. The chronological figures of the Book of 
Judges give no satisfactory results, partly because 
they probably rest primarily on vague tradition, 
partly because they belong to events that were in 
many cases contemporaneous, not successive (as 
they are viewed in the book), and partly because 
they are open to the suspicion that they have been 
manipulated to work out an ideal scheme of 12 X 40 
- 480 years from the Exodus to the Temple (cf. 
IKGl). 

With the Books of Kings definite chronological 
data begin. These are not connected with an era 
but with the regnal years of the kings of Judah and 
Israel. During the period of the divided monarchy, 
we have two sets of figures in the Books of Kings. 
One is a synchronistic scheme in which the acces- 
sions of the kings in Israel are dated according to 
the regnal years of the kings in Judah and vice versa. 
The other is an independent set of figures for each 
reign. There can be no doubt that the latter is the 
oMer and more trustworthy on the whole and was the 
b:isi.s of the synchronism, although the results ob- 
tained from the two systems do not agree, indicating 
probably that all the figures have not been trans- 
mitted correctly. 

With II K 24 12 we have the beginning of dating 
events by the regnal year of the great kings whose 
sway was supreme over SW. Asia, thus connecting 
the Biblical chronology directly with that of the 
larger world of events outside of Palestine. From 
tin- Mxile on most of the OT dates are of this char- 
acter (except in Ezekiel). 

Fortunately, connection can be made between 
many events of the O T history and the exact chron- 
ological records of Assyria. The correctness of the 
rian figures, at least for c. 900-62.5 B.C., can not 
be doubted, as they are well substantiated and pre- 
sent a practically unbroken record. Thus the earli- 
est fixed date of O T history is given us by the in- 
scription of Shulmaneser II of Assyria (860-824) to 
tin; effect that in 854 Ahab of Israel was one of the 
confederates defeated by him at Karkar. The same 
monarch records that Jehu of Israel paid him tribute 



in 842. Since the reigns of Ahnziuh and Jchoram, 
sons and successors of Ahab, are given as 2 and 12 
years respectively, it is evident the date 842 must 
belong very near the beginning of the reign of Jehu 
(Jehoram's successor) and 854 very near the end 
of Ahab's reign. Since the 2 years of Amaziah may 
mean really but parts of two successive years and 
the 12 of Jehoram but 10 full years plus part of 
two others, the figures 2 + 12 may represent no 
more than 1 + 10 1 - 12. 854 B.C., then, 
may be taken as the date of the close of Ahab's 
reign and 842 as that of the accession of Jehu. < >n 
the basis of these dates, using the figures for the 
regnal years of the kings as substantially correct 
(only subtracting about one year from each reign 
for the overlapping period which otherwise would 
be counted twice), we can get approximately correct 
dates back to Saul's reign. 

For the period beyond Saul no exact dates can be 
given. The Exodus and the conquest of Canaan 
can be given general dates in view of the ascertained 
facts that Egypt was supreme in Palestine from 
Thotmes III to the end of the reign of Rameses II 
(except during one short interval) or, in round num- 
bers, from 1500-1250 B.C. The conquest of Canaan 
by Israel must have taken place after this supremacy 
came to an end, especially since there is no trace, in 
Israel's tradition of the conquest, of any conflict 
with Egyptian forces in Canaan. 

For the Patriarchal Age dates are impossible, as 
the early traditions were entirely without figures. 
Only in the case of Abram (contemporary with Am- 
raphel -Hammurabi?) can a possible date be sug- 
gested. 

The table on pages 130 and 131 presents either 
generally accepted results or, where no general agree- 
ment has been reached, results that appear to com- 
mend themselves as reliable. E. E. N. 

CHRYSOLITE. See STONES, PRECIOUS. 
CHRYSOPRASE. See STONES, PRECIOUS. 
CHUB. See CUB. 
CHUN. See CUN. 

CHURCHES, ROBBERS OF. See TEMPLES, 
ROBBERS OF. 

CHURCHES, THE SEVEN. See REVELATION, 
BOOK OP. 

CHURCH LIFE AND ORGANIZATION: The 

Christian Church, in the proper sense of the word, 

did not exist in the lifetime of Jesus. 

i. Church Though the choice of the Twelve, and the 

Not Organ- references to a church, or new Israel, of 

ized by His own (Mt 16 18), and to a temple not 

Jesus. made with hands (Mk 14 58), may be 

pointed to as evidence that He had in 

view the formation of a separate society, He gives no 

rules for its constitution or organization. It is vain 

to seek such either in Mtl6l8ff. or in Mtl815ff. 

Even the ordinance of baptism is not connected in 

the N T with the historical but with the risen Jesus. 

and though we accept as historical the command to 

repeat the Last Supper (Lk 22 19), nothing is said as 

to the way in which obedience to it was to be ren- 

(Continued on page 132.) 






Chronology of the 
Old Testament 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



130 



KMical 



Other Etcnts 



2250. Abraham? 



Israel in Egypt. 



1300. The Oppression of Israel in Egypt. 
1250. The Exodus. Moses. 
1200. The Conquest of Canaan. 
1200-1050. Period of the "Judges." 
1050-1010. Samuel and Saul. 
1010. David King of Judah. 
1003. David King of all Israel. 



971. Solomon. 

967. Temple begun (I K 6 ' "). 

960. Temple finished (I K 6 38 ). 

931. Division of the Kingdom. 



4000-3000. High state of civilization in both Egypt and 

Babylonia, 
c. 2250. Babylon becomes chief city of Babylonia under 

Hammurabi, 
c. 1900. The beginnings of Assyria (cf. Gn 10 8 ') 
c. 1800. The Hyksos control lower Egypt. 
1500. Conquest of Palestine, etc., by Thotmes III of Egypt. 

c. 1400. Decline of Egypt's power in Palestine. The 
Chabiri (Arameans, e.g., Edomites, Moabites. 
etc., threatening the land). 

.350-1250. Revival of Egypt's power in Palestine under the 
19th Dynasty. 



Syria (Damascus) 



Judah 



931. Rehoboam. 
915. Abijah. 
913. Asa. 



873. Jehoshaphat. 



849. Jehoram 

842. Athaliah 

841. Ahaziah. 

837. Joash. 



931. Jeroboam I. 



910. Nadab. 

909. Baasha. 

887. Elah. 

$85. Omri. Moab conquered 



874. Ahab. 

(Elijah.) 

854. Ahab at Karkar. 
853. Ahaziah. 
852. Jehoram. Mesha of 
Moab revolts. 
(Elisha.) 



842. Jehu. Pays tribute to 
Shalmaneser II, 842. 
Israel brought very 
low (II K 13). 

815. Jehoahaz. 



798. Amaziah. 
c. 790. Uzziah. 

c. 750. Jotham (coregent ?). 

c. 740. Jotham. 
(Isaiah.) 

734. Ahaz. Appeal to As- 
syria (II K 16 s ") 



Israel 



c. 950. Rezon I. 



? Hezion. 



? Tabrimmon. 



c. 900. Ben-hadad I. 



870. Ben-hadad II. 

854. Confederacy headed by 
Ben-hadad II vs. As- 
syria defeated at Kar- 
kar, 854. 



844. Hazael. 

Israel suffers great re- 
verses in war with 
Hazael. 



812. Ben-hadad III. 



799. Jehoash. 
Israel. 



Revival of 



Phoenicia 



c. 1000. Abibaal. 
969 (?). Hiram. 



935. Baalbazer. 



918. Abdashtart. 



900. Ashtart. 
888. Astharymos. 
879. Phelles 

878. Ithobaal (father of Jeze- 
bel). 



865. Baalazar. 

848. Metten. 

820-774. Pygmalion. 
814. Carthage founded. 



A ssyria 



812. Ramman Nirari III. 
806-803. Western campaigns. 



784. Jeroboam II (Amos c 
760; Hosea c. 750- 
730). 

745. Zechariah. 
Shallum. 
744. Menahem. 

738. Menahem pays Assyria 
Indemnity(IIK15""-). 

735. Pekahiah. 

734. Pekah. Coalition of 
Pekah and Rezin 
against Ahaz (cf. Is 
7-9). 

732. Hoshea. 



797. Syria conquered by Ramman Nirari III. 
c. 770? Tabeel (Tab Rimmon 7) . 



740. Rezon II. 



745. Tiglath-pileser III. 



732. Damascus taken by Tiglath-pileser III. End of this 
Syrian Kingdom, 



131 A STANDARD MULE DICTIONARY Chronology of the 
Old Testament 


Judah Israel 


Assyria 


(Micah.) 722 Fall of Samaria. 
End of the Kingdom o 
Israel. 
719. Hozekiah. 


727. Sl,aliiiHn.-s,. r IV. 
722. Sargon. 

705. Sennacherib. 

681. Esarhaddon. 
668. Assurbanipal. 

626. Death of Assurbanipal, rapid decline of Assyria. 

606. Capture of Nineveh by the Medes. End nf (he- Assyr- 
ian Empire. 
605. Pharaoh Necho conquered by Nebuchadrezzar. 


1 701. Sennacherib's campaign against Judah. 
li'JO. Manasseh. Religious decline in Judah. 

1 650. Deuteronomy written. 

\ mon. 
t..v Josiah. (Zephaniah.) 

021. Josiah's Reform, centralization of worship in Jerusalem 
(Jeremiah. Habakkuk, Nahum.) 
1 608. Josiah slain by Pharaoh Necho (of Egypt). 

f'tOX 005. Judah under Egypt. Jehoiakim made king by 
Necho. 


97. Jehoiachin. 
597. Nebuchadrezzar takes Jerusalem. Jehoiachin anc 
many others taken captive (1st Captivity). (Eze- 
kiel.) Zedekiah made king. 
88. Zedekiah revolts. Nebuchadrezzar lays siege. 
586. Fall of Jerusalem. 2d Captivity. Exile. (Obadiah.) 


Chaldean Empire 


605. Nebuchadrezzar king of Babylon. Head of the new 
Chaldean Empire. 

Babylon becomes a magnificent metropolis. 
586-573. Siege of Tyre by Nebuchadrezzar (Ezk. 29 " ".). 

561. Evil-merodach. Releases Zedekiah from prison. 
359. Nergal Sharezer. 
558. Cyrus I becomes king of Persia. 
555. Nabonidus (last king of Babylon). 
550. Cyrus conquers the Medes. 

539. Cyrus takes Babylon. 


Period of the Exile 


Ezekiel prophesies until c. 570. 

>50. The prophet of Is 40-55 (and other prophecies in 56-66?) 
546. Cyrus conquers Croesus of Lydia. 


Post-exilic Period 


Persian Empire 


>38-536. Edict of Cyrus permitting the Return, and the 
Return under Zerubbabel and Joshua. 

20. (Haggai. Zechariah 1-8.) 
516. Completion and dedication of the 2d Temple. (Malachi.) 

58. Ezra goes to Jerusalem with his law-book and with a 
number of colonists. 
45. Nehemiah appointed governor. Jerusalem walled and 
fortified. 
44. The Law made the constitution of the colony. 
132. Nehemiah's 2d visit. Origin of the Samaritan Sect. 
(Jonah.) 

50. Many Jews transported to Hyrcania. (Joel.) Samari- 
tan temple on Mt. Gerizim 

!32. Jews subject to Alexander the Great. 


538. Cyrus at head of the Persian Empire. 
529. Cambyses. 
522. Revolt of Gaumata (Pseudo-Smerdis). 
521. Darius I (Hystaspis). Organizer of the Persian Empire. 

490. Marathon. 
485. Xerxes I (Ahasuerus). 
480. Salami*. 
465. Artaxerxes I (Longimanus). 

;23. Darius II (Nothus). 
:04. Artaxerxes II (Mnemon). 
359. Artaxerxes III (Ochus). 

336. Darius III (Codomannus). 
33-331. Persian Empire conquered by Alexander the Great. 


Greek Period 


2-323. Alexander organizing his empire, etc. 332. Alexandria founded. 
3-301. Strife between Alexander's successors. 
:23-197. Palestine under the control of Egypt (Ptolemies). High priest at head of the Jewish community in Palestine. 
Large and growing colony of Jews in Alexandria. 
Beginning of the Greek version of O T, the LXX. 
'17 142. Palestine under the control of Syria (Seleucids). Hellenizing tendencies in Judaism. 
Antiochus IV (Epiphanes) king of Syria. Attempt to Hellenize Judaism. 
The decree prohibiting the Jewish religion in Palestine. Jerusalem plundered, Temple desecrated. The revolt 
under the Maccabees. 
68-142. The war with Syria for independence. 
66. The Book of Daniel. 
Independence secured. 
42-63. Independence of .hi. tea under the Hasmonean (Maccabean) Dynasty. 
Pompey takes Jerusalem. Jews become subject to Rome. k. & N. 



I 



Church Life 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIO\.M:V 



132 



dered. The life and Organisation of tho Church lire- 
visible only after the Insurrection and tlie Pente- 
costal gift of the Spirit. They are in fact the free 
products of these great events. 

The earliest picture of church life is given in Ac 

2 42: 'They waited assiduously on the teaching of 

the apostles and the fellowship, on the 

2. Earliest breaking of the bread, and the pray- 

Apostolic ers.' In these four particulars Luke 

Church has given us the notes of the Church 
Life. in its first days. The Apostles had a 
unique place in it by virtue of their 
unique relation to Jesus. They wore the Church's 
teachers. In other respects "unlearned and igno- 
rant men" (Ac 4 13), there was one thing they knew 
better than others: they knew Jesus, and could 
bear witness to Him (Ac 1 8). To this devotion to 
the teaching (doctrine AV) of the Apostles we in- 
directly owe the knowledge of Jesus preserved in 
the Synoptic Gospels. But the Church was devoted 
also to the fellowship, the Koiviavla. Its members 
had a profound sense of their unity. They were 
much together. None of them said any of the 
things he had was his own. 

There was no compulsory communism (Ac 5 4), 
but an immense generosity which commanded es- 
teem, as in the case of Barnabas. Out of common 
funds voluntarily given distribution was made to 
every one according as he had need (Ac 4 35). A 
spontaneous and genuine attempt was made to real- 
ize brotherhood, or the oneness of the children of 
God. Besides the apostolic teaching and the fellow- 
ship, a characteristic of the Church was the breaking 
of the bread. This was done daily? (Ac 2 46), 
and house by house, and is interpreted by the phrase 
/j.(Tf\upl3avov Tpo(f>rjs, "they took their food." If 
it was sacramental, it was a sacramental meal, and 
not a sacrament in the modern sense, which excludes 
the idea of taking bodily nourishment. It is not 
"the daily ministration" of Ac 6 1 which is in view 
this last is rather akin to a food dispensary for 
those distressed by poverty but a sacred meal 
shared in by all Christians, like that described in I 
Co 11 18 ff., and under the title dydmu ('feasts of 
charity,' "love-feasts"), in Jude ver. 12. What we 
speak of as the Lord's Supper was always connected 
in the beginning with these love-feasts. It may 
have been identical with them, or have had a specific 
place at the beginning, or end, or even in the course 
of the meal; but it was only the emergence on heathen 
soil of such disorders as are referred to by Jude and 
Paul which led to its being decisively separated, and 
made, in short, in the strict sense, a sacrament (I 
Co 11 34). If the love-feasts express vividly the 
fraternal gladness of the Christian life, the prayers 
to which the Church was devoted bring out its sense 
of access to God. The definite article shows that 
stated prayers are meant, perhaps those in the tem- 
ple at fixed hours (Ac 3 1). Prayer became a new 
thing when it became prayer in the name of Jenus, 
and in the primitive Church the life of prayer re- 
ceived a mighty impulse. 

There is no trace at this stage of any organization 
in the Church. The Apostles were its natural and 
inevitable, rather than its official, leaders, and not 
only witnessed to Jesus but had the management 



of the common funds (Ac 4 35, 37, 5 1 ff.). Tin- 
nificance of the number twelve for the new Israel 
was recognized by the choice of Matthias to replace 
Judas (Ac 1 15 ff.). The members of the ( 'hurch were 
all baptized in the name of Jesus Christ for remission 
of sins, and baptism coincided normally with re- 
eri\ ing the Holy Spirit (Ac 2 38). All who were of 
the Church were in this sense inspired. They are 
spoken of as "those who believed" (Ac 2 44) faith 
in Jesus Christ, or in God through Him, being the 
characteristic act and power of the new life (Ac 
3 1C). In relation to one another they are dSf\<f>oi, 
brothers; in relation to Jesus they are padrjTai, 
disciples. This last word (the fem. fiadrjTpia, Ac 
9 30) is found only in Ac and in the Gospels. Though 
it signifies not merely a pupil but an adherent, it 
seems to have been felt unequal to the truth; .! 
was more than a teacher, the Christian owed more to 
Him than a pupil to his master, and in the Epistles 
the word disappears. 

The first, indication of officials and organization is 

given in Ac 6: the appointment of the Seven. There 

is no hint of a constitution Divinely 

3. Extent fixed beforehand, and now put in effect. 

of Organi- A new need emerges in the Church's 

zation in life, and reasonable steps are taken to 
the meet it. Neither is there any idea 

Jerusalem that all office in the Church is implicit 
Church, in the apostolic position, and that the 
Apostles here delegate part of their 
authority to what may therefore be called an apos- 
tolic ministry. The very reverse is the case. The 
Apostles say: 'This daily ministration, this -serving qS 
tables, is not our business; it is not meet that we 
should leave the word of God to attend to it ; 
out qualified men whose business it is, and we 
entrust it to them" (Ac 6 l-G). This was done, 
is an irrelevant question to ask whether the Se\ 
were deacons. To be a deacon is to have a cert a 
office, but these men were not invested with an i 
isting office, they were appointed to a function. It 
is equally irrelevant to ask whether the Seven were 
elders, though, when elders first appear in the Jeru- 
salem Church (Ac 11 30), it is in connection with the 
same work, the relief of the poor. The task may have 
been merely a temporary one, and some of the Seven 
at least ceased to be local officials as deacons in the 
technical sense must be and like Philip the Evan- 
gelist did distinguished service for the Church in 
other ways, and in places far from Jerusalem (Ac 
8 5, 20, 40, 21 8). If it is an anachronism to call the 
Seven deacons, it is an additional anachronism to 
speak of the prayer and imposition of hands as their 
ordination (see 8, below). To lay on hands in 
prayer was a spontaneous gesture which needed 
no interpretation; here, it signified, is (lie point on 
which all our desires are concentrated; here we de- 
sire God's gifts to descend. The key to it is to be 
found in Mk 10 10 where Jesus blessed the chil 
"laying his hands upon them"; it is a movement of 
affection, impressive no doubt and significant, but 
not in any dogmatic sense. For the rest, we learn 
little about the organization of the Church in Jeru- 
salem or in Palestine. 

We come across elders without warning in Ac 
11 30. It was so natural for any Jewish socict 



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rule itself by E'JjTJ that the historian takes their 
\iMcnce for granted. It is clear from Ac 15 2, 4, 6, 
jj, Hi 4, where they are mentioned in connection with 
lie Apostles, that they had an important place in 
he administration of the Church (see 8, below). 
'The whole Church" indeed is associated with both 
n Ae 15 22, but the Apostles and elders took the lead 
n guiding its deliberations, and formulating and 
arrv'ing into effect its decisions. In all these pas- 
sages the Apostles are no doubt the Twelve. Ac- 
cording to the representation in Ac they exercised a 
general supervision over the spread of Christianity, 
Hid maintained in this way the sense of unity in the 
'luircli. Thus when Philip preached in Samaria, 
hey sent Peter and John down from Jerusalem to 
ceep the work in contact with the center. The 
irayers of the two Apostles, accompanied with the 
ayingon of their hands, procured for the Samaritans 
wlii) had been baptized the gift of the Holy Spirit 
[Ac 8 14). As the gift here spoken of is a sensible 
n ii' -it fell upon them; i.e., there was an ecstatic 
)urst of glossolalia or prophecy it is not what is 
it her asked or expected in the modern sacrament of 
confirmation, when a bishop lays his hands on the 
and to speak of what happened here as 
malogous to confirmation is one anachronism more. 
The extent to which the life of the Church was con- 
sciously under Divine guidance is shown especially 
n the stories of Philip and Peter in Ac 8 26, 29, 39, 
.0 3, 10, 19. Every step in its expansion is super- 
laturally guarded and sanctioned, and it is by the 
ministry of its inspired men "by the exhortation 
of the Holy Spirit," Ac 9 31 that it is multiplied, 
'rayer and the ministry of the word are the main 
duties of the Twelve (Ac 6 4), but there is no trace 
of official preachers. 

Prophets are mentioned, several by name (Aga- 
ms, Ac 1 1 27, 15 32). Any one might speak the word 
who had the spiritual gift to do so (84, 11 19). It 
VMS in point of fact unofficial preachers to whom the 
.lospel owed its diffusion, and in the most important 
cases, like Samaria (Ac 8 5ff.) and Antioch (Ac 11 22), 
the Apostles and the mother-Church supervised and 
ipproved as they could. Life was abundant, free, 
nspired, but though conscious of its unity and with 
in instinct for its preservation it neither was nor 
could be organized in legal forms. At the same time, 
the most singular phenomenon in the life of the 
Church at this period is the kind of ascendency which 
came to belong to James, the Lord's brother. 

We have the first hint of this in Ac 12 17; it is 
conspicuous in Ac 15, 21, and Gal 2. It rested no 
doubt in part on the special appearance of the risen 
Savior to him (I Co 15 7), in part on his natural 
p-lation to Jesus (cf. the later case of his kinsman 
Symeon as given by Euseb. HE. Ill, 11), and in part 
ni t he congeniality of his ideas of religion to the mass 
of Jewish believers. But even if he was counted an 
apostle (Gal 1 19), his ascendency was personal, not 
"Bcial, and however it may suggest what was later 
own as episcopal, James is never in the NT 
oken of as a bishop. 
A more varied scene meets us when we pass to the 
urch in the Gentile world. The casual indications 
Ac are lost in the abundant information of the 
tie Epistles. Some are more occasional, deal- 



ing with things as they are in existing coiiuum 
e.g., I Co; others more doririnal, dealing win. 

ideal of the Church and ite life and 

4. Paul's ministries, e.g., Kph. Only we must 

Ideas of remember that in Paul the real ami 

the Church, the ideal do not so much contrast as 

interpret, and Interpenetrate eoeb other. 
The actual community of believers in Corinth is the 
Church of (iod in that city; the apostle describes it as 
trtajia Xpurrov, Christ's body (I Co 12 27); anil the 
ideal and eternal Church of Kph 1 2.'i, "his body, the 
fulness of him that fillelh all in all," i.s actually 
represented in the local churches to which Paul 
sends this circular letter. 

The life of the Church is one, because it is the life 
of one Spirit in it, and thic vital unity, or unity of the 
Spirit (Eph 4 3), is the only unity in which Paul is 
concerned. When he says there i.s one body, In- 
the word body in the organic or physiological sense; 
the Church is one body because one life pervades it 
and unites its members; it is not one corporation, in 
the sense of the law; or one organization, with a legal 
constitution to depart from which is schism or deal 1 1. 
True Christians are one in Christ, or in the one spirit 
which all have drunk (I Co 12 13), or in the common 
life of love by which they are all animated; they 
have one Lord, one faith, one baptism; but it is an- 
other matter to say that they form one visible or- 
ganization or corporation throughout the world. 
This was not the case. 

To get a fairly proportioned look at the life, or- 
ganization, and ministries of the apostolic Churches, 

we must start with the Pauline con- 

5. The ception of the <r<a/j.a XpioroC, " the body 

Church a of Christ" which, as has been pointed 

Living out, is applied both to the local (I Co 

Body. 12 27) and to the universal Church (Kph 

1 23; Col 1 24). Every Christian is a 
member of the body of Christ, and every member 
has its function in the body. That function is the 
HiaKovia or ministry which it can render to the 
whole; and the primary truth about Christian min- 
istries is that ministry is not official, but a function 
of membership in the body. Every member min- 
isters, in virtue of its membership, and at bottom 
there is no other ministry possible. The peculiar 
mode in which, or the particular extent to which, 
the life of the whole or if we prefer to say so, the 
Spirit functions in the individual, determines his 
ministry, and nothing else can determine it (cf. Eph 
47-16). 

No office can bring or impart a gift for ministry; 
it is the divinely given spiritual gift which marks a 
man for this or that office. This is why the minis- 
tries which exist in the apostolic Church arc traced to 
God as their source (I Co 12 28), specifically to Christ 
as the head of the body (Eph 411). The most 
elaborate passage upon them is I Co 12-14, and it is a 
striking fact that neither there nor throughout the 
Epistle do we meet the idea of official ministry at all. 
"God hath set some in the church, first apostles, sec- 
ondly prophets, thirdly teachers, then miracles, 
then gifts of healing, helps, governments, divers 
kinds of tongues" (I Co 12 28). Both earlier (ver. 10) 
and later (ver. 30) Paul mentions in the same 
way "discernings of spirits" and interpretations of 






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134 



tongues. A close parallel to this is found in Ro 
12 3-8. There also ministry is conceived as the ex- 
ercise of a spiritual gift (^dpia-pa). Every mem- 
ber of the Church has such a gift; the gifts differ ac- 
t-on ling to the grace that has been given to each. 
Different men are spiritually qualified that is, 
qualified by a special grace and gift of God to 
prophesy, to teach, to rule, to give, to show mercy, 
or in a special sense (ver. 7) "to minister" i.e., in all 
probability, to do some lowly practical service for the 
Church. God gives to each as He will, but also, as 
Jesus says in the parable (Mt 25 15), to each accord- 
ing to his several ability. Every member is a min- 
ister to the Church, and the laws of the ministry (as 
explained in Ro 12; I Co 12-13) are the same for all. 
The first is humility; it is only with what we have 
received that we can minister, and therefore gifts 
are never to be used for vainglory. The second is 
love; nothing that we have received is for ourselves 
alone; the manifestation of the Spirit is given to 
every man irpos TO <rv/j.<pfpov in the interest of the 
whole. 

In the list in I Co 12 28 God's gifts first take the 

form of gifted men apostles, prophets, teachers. 

These gifted or inspired men were min- 

6. The isters of the Church universal. They 
More Im- were not elected by local churches, they 

portant filled no office in them, they did not 
Ministries, necessarily remain in one place; indeed 
the apostle of necessity did not. Their 
gift had to be self-attesting; the spiritual power 
which accompanied the exercise of it was the only 
guaranty it had. Besides the stricter sense of the 
word apostle, according to which it includes only 
Paul and the Twelve, there was a larger sense in 
which it presumably included all who had seen the 
Lord and exercised the vocation of bearing witness to 
His resurrection without restriction to one place (see 
I Co 15 5, with ver. 7; Ro 16 7). The apostle, in the 
sense in which Paul vindicates the title for himself, 
was the main witness to Jesus and the supreme au- 
thority for the Gospel. See also APOSTLE. The 
prophet was a man who had more than the common 
Christian inspiration, whose xapioyio, "gift," is 
highly estimated by Paul, and who spoke edification, 
exhortation, and consolation in the Church (I Co 
14 3). The Divine impulse in him was not such as to 
carry him irresistibly away; " the spirits of the proph- 
ets are subject to the prophets" (ver. 32). Though 
inspired, however, the prophet was not infallible, and 
when two or three had spoken in the Church, the 
time for discernment came. It is clear from Paul 
that discrimination was needed, but not very clear 
how it was achieved. We read of a dogmatic test of 
inspired utterances inspiration is genuine, if it goes 
to exalt Jesus (I Co 12 3); we read of discernments 
of spirits as a separate ^apto-fta (I Co 12 10) that 
is, there were men who had, so to speak, a Divine in- 
stinct in this region, and could tell in a way passing 
analysis whether a fervent utterance really was of 
God; we read again of appeals to the whole Church 
(I Co 14 29 ol uXXot ?) not to despise prophecies, or 
pour cold water on the heart which was spiritually 
aglow, but to prove all such fervid words, and hold 
fast what was good (I Th 5 19 ff. ) as though the com- 
mon sense of the Christian community had more of 



God in it than the most fervent single heart. Proph- 
ets no doubt spoke often of things to come, es- 
pecially of the glory to be revealed (I Co 2 9 ff. ; Kpli 
1 17 f.; Rev passim), and may sometimes have let 
imagination run wild; sometimes, as in the case of 
Agabus (Ac 11 27, 21 10), and the others through 
whom the Holy Spirit bore witness to Paul in every 
city that bonds and affliction awaited him in Je- 
rusalem, they concerned themselves with a nearer 
future. 

Here also they had to be subject to criticism, 
all events Paul could appeal from the spirit speakin 
without through the prophet to the same spirit 
speaking with a higher authority within, and, 
spite of prophetic warnings, go on to Jerusalem 
die, if need should be, for the name of the Lord Jesu 
About the teachers it is not easy to say much. 
Ac 13 1 they are combined, as in I Co 12 28, with th 
prophets; in Eph 4 11 they are more closely cor 
nected, perhaps to some extent identified, with th 
pastors. Probably teachers had the special x a 
fMTa called in I Co 12 8 "the word of wisdom" i 
"the word of knowledge"; and, though the gift of 
teaching, or the right to teach, was not at first con 
nected with any office (see I Co 14 26, " When ye con 
together, every one hath a Si8a^^ " a lesson 
teach), it would be an advantage in many way 
when once offices did come into being, to have then 
filled, other things being equal, with men who eoul.l 
also render the Church this sen-ice. "Wisdom' 
always teleological; if the teacher had "the word < 
wisdom," he could exhibit the chief end of tl 
Christian life, be an expounder of Christian ethic; 
"Knowledge"is more abstract; if he had "the wor 
of knowledge," he could interpret Christianity as : 
system of truth, be an expounder of Christian the 
ology. There are indications in the N T that th 
ministry tempted the fluent and the vain (Ja 3 l ) 
One other inspired minister is mentioned in Eph 4 1 1, 
the evangelist, and two representatives of this eh 
are named in the N T, Philip (Ac 21 8) and Timothy 
(II Ti 4 5). The name implies that the man preached 
the Gospel, and so does all we know of Philip's 
career. Perhaps the disappearance of the name in 
later times is due to the fact that all wandering 
preachers, after the death of the Twelve, 
counted "apostles" in the wider sense (see HDB. 
s.v. Evangelist). 

The other inspired ministries are of minor impor- 
tance. Paul describes them by abstract nouns in the 
plural number Swdpfis, ^apiar/tara 

7. The lafidrwv, dwtXiJ^i^fts, Kvf$(pi>t]<rfis, yffl 
Less Im- y\a>o-<ra>v. It is as though the person 

portant here were of less significance compared 
Ministries, with the function. What Sucdfieir, 
"miracles," were as distinct from 
gifts of healing, we can not tell. Perhaps the 
particular kind of healings distinguished as exor- 
cisms is meant. The word dvn\r)fi\lffis, helps, 
suggests the practical "ministry" of Ro 12 7 such 
work as came later to be assigned to the official 
deacon; and Kvf$(pvfi<rfis, governments, "wise 
counsels" mg. suggests such a function of guid- 
ance or administration as came later to be assigned 
to the official elder. But neither in Ro nor in I Co is 
there any trace of officials. Such gifts are freely 



135 



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given by God, and spontaneously exercised by those 
who have them; the house of Stephanas (I Co 16 15) 
were not in office, but set themselves to minister unto 
the saints. All Christians were called to put their 
Xapia-fiara into the common stock, and no official 
organization canceled freedom or, as Paul says, 
"quenched the spirit." 

The last gift specified in I Co 12 is kinds of 
tongues (ver. 28), or "speaking with tongues" (ver. 
30), or "with a tongue" (14 2). It is frequently com- 
bined with prophecy, from the day of Pentecost on- 
ward, as one of the most characteristic of spiritual 
gifts (Ac 2 4-11, 10 46; I Co 13 1, 14 2). Paul himself 
possessed it in a conspicuous degree (I Co 14 18), and 
thanked God for it, but he ranked it as the lowest of 
spiritual gifts. It is his account of it in I Co 14, and 
not the idealized or transfigured one in Ac 2, on which 
we must base our conception of it. It had nothing to 
do with foreign languages. It was an emotional, not 
a linguistic, gift; the man who spoke with a tongue 
spoke out of an emotional rapture; he was carried 
out of himself by the intensity of his feeling a feel- 
ing stimulated, we must assume, by the great reali- 
ties with which he was brought into contact in the 
Gospel and in this rapt condition he gave vent to 
inarticulate, unintelligible sounds. His "spirit" was 
active in this as we might say now, his religious 
nature was engaged in it; but his vovs, his under- 
standing, was not. There might be some one present 
in the assemblies who could interpret this over- 
whelming emotion better than the man who was sub- 
ject to it: if so, to speak in a tongue might be allowed 
in church; otherwise, the gift must be exercised (we 
should rather say indulged) in private. It is clear 
from Ac 2 11, 10 46; I Co 14 16, that, in its general 
character, speaking with tongues was an ecstasy of 
praise, a thanksgiving to which Amen was the nat- 
ural sequel, a magnifying of God and His mighty 
works of redemption. But as a sort of spiritual in- 
toxication its dangers were evident, and Paul warns 
against them. Partly they lay in the temptation to 
indulge what is only valuable when controlled; partly 
in the tendency to vanity, making a display of one's 
spiritual ecstasies; partly also in the inevitableness 
of reaction, and the mysterious connection of sen- 
sual with spiritual susceptibilities. On all grounds 
Paul discouraged speaking with tongues in favor of 
the intelligible and self-controlling gift of prophecy 
by which one could build up not only himself but 
also the Church (I Co 14 3), and in course of time it 
died out. 

The ministry which is a function of membership 

and which depends on the free exercise of spiritual 

gifts, though it is the vital and funda- 

8. Organi- mental one on which the being of the 

zation Church depends, is not the only one. 
of Local No society can live and act without 
Churches, some kind of organization, some kind 
of official ministers who act as its rep- 
resentatives, and the beginnings of such a min- 
istry can be traced in the N T. We have seen 
that there were elders in the church at Jerusalem, 
and in Ac 14 23 we read that Paul and Barnabas 
appointed elders in every church founded during 
their first journey. On the mode of appointment, 
Luke is not quite explicit (see Ramsay, St. Paul 



the Traveler, pp. 120 ff.). No doubt the Apos- 
tles described the kind of men wanted, the; Church 
would choose them, and they were introduced to 
their work with fasting and prayer. Laving on of 
hands is not mentioned, but is probably to be taken 
for granted. The duties of elders are not defined, 
and can only be inferred indirectly. It is clear from 
Ac 20 28, compared with 20 17, that they were mainly 
pastoral that is, duties of moral supervision. The 
elders of Kphesus are exhorted to take heed to the 
flock of God in which the Holy Spirit has in.-idr 
them bishops (iirla-iunroi, overseers mg.), and to 
shepherd the Church of God. So in I P ."> I, IVter 
exhorts the elders among his readers, as himself an 
elder, to shepherd the flock of God, exercising the 
oversight (firto-Kowovirrcs; some authorities omit 
this word). Cf. also IP225, "the shepherd and 
bishop" of your souls. It is hardly possible to say 
that the antecedents of the name Trpftrfivrfpos, 
"elder," were Hebrew, and those of eirio-Kcmos, 
"bishop," Greek. There are Jewish antecedents for 
the latter also (see Concordance to LXX. s.v.). 
The facts justify us in saying that elder is a title of 
dignity, and bishop is a corresponding title of func- 
tion. The persons were the same. In every church 
there were several men who had the rank of elders 
and the duty of bishops that is, "oversight" (of. 
Tit 1 5-7). Pastor is a more pictorial name for the 
same persons at the same task. Moral supervision 
and discipline were their preeminent concern. 

The edifying of the Church by teaching, prophe- 
sying, praise, and public worship generally, belonged 
to the apostles, prophets, and teachers who might 
visit it, or to the free exercise of their spiritual gifts 
by the members generally. No doubt, however, 
men would often be chosen as elders or bishops on 
the ground of their possessing other gifts useful to 
the Church, and, as the enthusiastic inspiration 
waned, the conduct of the public worship and espe- 
cially the administration of the sacraments (in 
which the Church must act through authorized rep- 
resentatives, if all is to be done decorously and in 
order) would fall into their hands. Thus we see 
pastors bracketed with teachers, and contrasted with 
the non-local ministry of apostles, prophets, and 
evangelists in Eph 4 11. Elders who labor in the 
word and in teaching (as well as in their more proper 
function of moral oversight) are to be reckoned 
worthy of double honor (I Ti 5 17) ; when the Pastoral 
Epistles were written it was even one of the qualifica- 
tions of a bishop that he should be MOKTIKOS, "apt to 
teach" (I Ti 2 2). The whole body of elders in a 
church was called the irpKr^vrtpiov, "the presby- 
tery" (I Ti 4 14). At Lystra it joined with Paul in 
laying hands on Timothy, when he was set apart as 
an evangelist. The gift of God given in this ordina- 
tion (I Ti 4 16; II Ti 1 6) can not be interpreted 
rationally apart from Timothy's experience at the 
time. It must be a greater degree of humility, of 
conscientiousness, or courage, or love, fitting him 
better for his task, and coming to him naturally, by 
the grace of God, in that solemn hour. Probably in 
many cases, as well as that of Timothy, there were 
"prophecies leading the way to" the men to be 
chosen ; that is, inspired voices naming fit persons for 
any particular task (I Ti 1 18; Ac 13 2); but, though 



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136 



they were appointed because they were fit, such per- 
sons got a new degree of lit ness through the experi- 
ences connected with their appointment and insti- 
tution to office. In the later N T books (Ph 1 1; I 
Ti 3 1-13), we find side by side with bishops a subor- 
dinate set of officers called technically SiaKovoi, 
deacons. This word is applicable to every min- 
ister of the Church from the apostle down, but in its 
special sense, in which it is used of women as well as 
men (Ro 16 1; I Ti 3 11), it indicates a class of officers 
who seem to have had duties connected with the 
Church's charities, its care of the poor, strangers, 
etc. Their qualifications are all those of character 
and common sense; nothing is said of teaching. Men 
like Timothy at Ephesus or Titus in Crete were not 
church officers, but apostolic delegates ; they do not 
represent the organization of the Church, but help us 
to see how the organizing was attended to. The 
development of the monarchical episcopate, as dis- 
tinctive from the collective oversight just explained, 
lies beyond the limits of the N T. 

The variety of gifts, functions, and offices in the 
N T church is only the foil to its essential unity. It 

is expounded in Ro 12; I Co 12; and 
9. Essen- Eph 4 in relation to that unity. The 
tial Unity great conception of the body of Christ 
of Church, underlies it everywhere. The sense of 

this comes out in numberless ways: in 
the fact that early Christian literature is mainly 
epistolary, in the salutations of the churches to each 
other tlirough the Apostles (Ro 16 16; I P 5 13; He 
13 24), in the holy kiss, or kiss of love, which became 
a regular part of the church service (Ro 16 16; I Co 
16 20; II Co 13 12; I Th 5 26; I P 5 14), in the collec- 
tions which they made for each other's help in times 
of distress (for Paul's great collection in all Gentile 
churches for the poor saints at Jerusalem cf. Ac 
24 17; I Co 16 1-4; II Co 8, 9; Gal 2 10; Ro 15 25-31), 
and even linguistically in the multiplication of com- 
pounds with o-vv. Of these the commonest arc 
(TWfpyos, variously rendered in AV fellow helper, 
-laborer, -worker, and work-fellow ; a-vvaTpaTKarrjs, 
fellow soldier, the Christian ministry being con- 
ceived as a campaign (Ph 2 25; Phm2); o-uvat^aX- 
<aros, fellow prisoner in war, the same figure con- 
tinued (Col 410; Phm 23; Ro 167); a-vvSov\os, 
fellow slave (Col 1 7, 4 7). Yoke-fellow (ovvfryos ) 
and fellow elder (o-wirpfo-pvrfpos) each occurs once 
(Ph 4 3; I P 5 1). More significant still are onWca^a, 
<rvvK\ipov6na, and trw/ie'ro^a (Eph 3 6). J. D. 



LITERATURE: The best books are Hort's Christian Ecclesia, 
1897; Hatch, The Organisation of the Early Christian 
Churches, 1881; Harnack, Die Lehre aer Zwdlf Apostel, 
1884, in Vol. 2 of the Texle und Unlersuchungen; Gore, 
The Ministry in the Christian Church 3 , 1893; Lindsay, 
The Church and the Ministry in the Early Centuries, 1903; 
E. von Dobschutz. Die Urchristlichen Gemeinden, 1902 
(translated under the title Christian Life in the Primitive 
Church, 1904). 

CHUZAS, chu'zas (Xoufar, Chuza AV): The stew- 
ard (fTTiVpoTror) of Herod (probably H. Antipas) (Lk 
8 3). As general manager of Herod's estates and 
household (cf. Plummer, Int. Crit. Com., ad loc.) he 
was probably a man of rank and means. E. E. N. 

CIELING. See CEILING. 
CILICIA. See ASIA MINOR, 5. 



CINNAMON. See OINTMENTS AND 

1, and I'ALESTINE, 23. 

CIRCLE. See COSMOGONY, 3. 
CIRCUIT. See COSMOGONY, 3. 

CIRCUMCISION: The cutting off of the fore- 
skin (praputium). Among the Hebrews, the Law 
required (lie submission to the rite by all the male 
members of the community on the eighth day after 
birth (Lvl23; Gn2l4[Pj). In later Judaism, the 
Law was so strictly interpreted that even the Sab- 
bath might be disregarded for the sake of conform- 
ing to the time limit prescribed by it (Shabb. 19 2 ff. ; 
Jn 7 22). The person whose duty it was to perform 
the rite was primitively the father of the child (Gn 
1723); but in exceptional cases in earlier days 
women were known to have administered it (Kx 
4 25), and in later times it became more and more 
common either to call in a physician (Jos. Ant.\\, 
2 4) or to relegate the duty altogether to a special 
official (the Mehol), as at the present day. Besides 
the male children of the household, it appears from 
Gnl722ff. that slaves also were circumcised; and 
according to the law of Ex 12 48 (P) also strangers 
who wished to participate in the Passover. The 
practise was not peculiar to the Hebrews. Among 
the Egyptians there is no doubt that some (Ebers 
Aegypt u.d. Buck. d. Mas., 1,278, 283), and if Herodo- 
tus was correctly informed, all persons were circum- 
cised (Herod. II, 36; cf. also Pliilo 2. 210,ed. Mangey; 
Erman Egypt, p. 32 f., 539). The Semitic peoples 
generally do not seem to have practised the rite. 
The Assyrians, Babylonians, Edomitcs, and Mo: 
were uncircumcised. The reproach of uncircumci- 
sion, however, is especially held up against the Phi- 
listines; from which it has been inferred that the 
Canaanites practised the rite. Among extra-biblical 
peoples the primary and original aim of the rite was 
that of a sacrifice designed to secure fertility: but 
among the Hebrews from the earh'est days the idea 
of purification appears to have supplanted this con- 
ception. The ceremony indicated the casting off of 
uncleanness as a preparation for entrance into the 
privileges of membership in Israel. In the N T, with 
its transfer of emphasis from the external and formal 
to the inner and spiritual side of things, it was first 
declared unnecessary for Gentile converts to the 
Gospel to be circumcised (Ac 15 28), and afterward 
the rite was set aside even by Jewish Christians. In 
the Pauline Epistles it serves as the basis of a figure 
signifying the casting off of the uncleanness of sin 
(Gal 2 7 f.; Eph 2 11). A. C. Z. 

CIS, sis. See KISH. 

CISTERN: The character of the land-surface of 
most of Palestine is such that the rain penetrates but 
a little way and is soon drained off from the 
hillsides through the numerous ravines and water- 
courses. Recourse must be had, therefore, to arti- 
ficial means for collecting and holding the water, and 
cisterns have been numerous and much used in Pal- 
estine ever since it has been inhabited. Every well- 
ordered house had a cistern in its court (see HOUSE, 
6 (f); FOOD AND FOOD UTENSILS, 12). The RV 
uses "cistern" for "well" AV in Dt 6 11 (mg.); I S 
19 22 (mg.); II Ch 26 10; Neh 9 25, and for "pit" AV 



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in Is 30 14 and Jer 14 3. See PALESTINE, 19, 20, 
and also Libbey and Hoskins, The Jordan Valley and 
Petra, Vol. I, p. 245 f. E. E. N. 

CITIZENSHIP: The civic side of community 
life is almost never referred to in the O T. This was 
partly because the basis of Israel's social organiza- 
tion was the clan or tribe rather than the city, 
partly because of the emphasis laid on the religious 
organization of Israel, rendering city and state sec- 
ondary features in social life and the congregation or 
theocratic kingdom primary, and partly because of 
the life of the people which was mainly agricultural 
during the greatest part of its history. The good 
citizen was the faithful Israelite and the lawless a 
"son [man] of Belial" (Jg 19 22; I K 21 10 AV). With 
the admission of Greek ideas secular relations were 
distinctly recognized (II Mac 5 8, 14 8). In the NT 
the figure of the state is so prominent that even the 
religious community is at times symbolized by it 
("commonwealth of Israel," Eph 2 12). Likewise 
the privileges of the spiritual community are figured 
under the conception of citizenship (iro\tTvp.a, Phil 
320; butAV conversation, and RVmg. "common- 
wealth"). In fact, citizenship is the type of the whole 
sphere of conduct both social and moral (cf. II Co 1 12, 
"behave ourselves" RV, "conversation" AV, and 
Eph 2 3, " live" RV). For this figure the conception 
of the kingdom of heaven furnished proper founda- 
tion ("fellow citizen," Eph 2 19). Of citizenship in the 
literal sense mention is made but once (Ac 22 25, 28, 
freedom AV). See also ROMAN. A. C. Z. 

CITY: The beginnings of city building are re- 
ferred by Israelitic legend to the earliest period of 
human history, and are associated not 

1. Age of with nomadic (Abel), but with agricul- 
Israelitic tural (Cain) life. As a matter of fact, 

Cities. most of the cities of the Israelites were 
originally Canaanite, and came into 
the hands of the Israelites only as the result of a 
rather long development. For as the Israelites 
reached Palestinian territory, they succeeded in 
Btablishing themselves first in the open places and 
especially in the mountain districts; but as nomads 
they could not at first secure possession of the for- 
tified cities. In course of time, however, these 
Canaanite cities were subdued and to them were 
added also others distinctively Israelite. 

Many of the names of cities are characteristic, and 

give us the points of view which were determinative 

in the selection of localities. (1 ) Names 

2. Signif- like Ramah, Mizpah, Geba, etc. (all 
icance from roots signifying elevation) indi- 

of City cate that a mountain or a hill site was 
Names, preferred, evidently because it could 
be easily defended against assault. (2) 
Kii-gedi, En-gannin (En - 'spring'), Beer-sheeba 
(I'.eer - 'well'), etc., indicate the importance of the 
nearness of a spring, astream, etc. (3) Designations 
such as Jearim ('forest'), Kerem ('vineyard'), 
AW (' meadow' ), etc., show that the location of these 
ri t i es was marked by such natural features. Cities in 
valleys, such as Hebron, constituted an exception, 
since cities usually were built on the slope of a hill 
the citadel, or castle, perched on the summit always 
offering a sure refuge and one difficult to capture. 



Villages and hamlets (hatser, pertedth, kHph&r, 
kopher) on one side, and cities ('lr, poet, kiryath) on 
the other, are clearly distinguished in the O T. 
The hatsirlm are open localities without walls (Lv 
2531); also the '&ri perHzoth (Est9l9) arc desig- 
nated as places without walls, without 

3. Distinc- gates and enclosures (Kzk .'i8 n), for 
tion Be- which latter kdpher is the characteristic 

tween name. The city ( l lr), on the contrary, 
"City" and was surrounded by a wall, sometimes 
"Village." also by a moat (Dn 9 25, "wall " AV), 
and even by a second smaller wall in the 
nature of a rampart (II S 20 15, trench AV; I K 
21 23) ('lr hSmah), and had a citadel (migdnl), the 
gates of which were closed during the night (Jos 

2 5, 7), and in later times on the Sabbath (Neh 13 19). 
Such cities were called fortified (II Ch 11 10, etc., 
fenced AV). The gates were provided with 
bronze or iron bars and bolts (Dt 3 5; Jg 16 3; Neh 

3 6, lock, AV), and were built with chambers over- 
head (II S 18 24 ff.). From the roof of the struc- 
ture (II S 18 24), or from a tower by the gate (II 
K 9 17), a watchman looked out in order to announce 
approaching danger (Jer 6 17). Near the gates 
within the city were to be found open places (broad 
places, broad ways, r'hoboth, streets, AV Jer 5, Am 
5 10), the centers of communal life. Here contracts 
were entered into (Dt 25 7; Ru 4 l f., 11; Gn 23 10, 18), 
assemblies for judicial or deliberative purposes were 
held (Am 5 12, 15; Is 29 21), buying and selling took 
place (IIK71; cf. market-place, Mt 20 3), and 
public announcements were made (Jer 17 19). Here 
was the center of social intercourse in general (Gn 
19l; Ps 69 12). Here strangers who had no friend 
in the city passed the night (Gn 19 2 ff. ; Jg 19 15). 

The plan and construction of cities were not in 

ancient times essentially different from those of the 

Orient of to-day. As walled cities win 

4. Principal used more or less as strongholds, it was 
Features of advantage not to extend the walls too 
of a City, far from the center. In consequence, 

there was a tendency to contract cities 
into as small a space as possible. The streets 
(hutsoth) were as narrow as they are to-day (cf. Jos. 
Ant. XX, 53; BJ. II, 149, 155; VI, 8s). For the 
most part they ran through the city in circuitous 
courses, so that a straight one was quite the 
exception (Ac 9 11). In cities which were built on 
steep hillsides, the roofs of the lower houses served 
as the street for the higher ones, as at the present 
day. The streets were not paved. It is in the days 
of Herod Agrippa II that we first hear of the paving 
of the streets of Jerusalem with white stones (Jos. 
Ant. XX, 97). This was, however, after the 
principal street of Antioch had been paved with 
stone slabs at the expense of Herod the Great (Jos. 
Ant. XVI, 53; BJ. I, 21 ll). Street-cleaning was 
as unusual in ancient times as it is to-day. Gar- 
bage was thrown out of the houses and left to be dis- 
posed of by the dogs that roamed at will about the 
city (Ex 22 31 ; Ps 59 6, 14 f.). There was also no such 
thing as the lighting of the streets. The only care of 
them that is referred to is that by night-watchmen 
(Song 3 3, 5 7; Is 21 11; Ps 127 1, 130 o). The custom 
practised even to-day of establishing bazaar-streets 
(shuq; cf. sh'waqim, I K 20 34; EC 12 4; SongS 2) 



. 



City, Fenced 
Collection 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



138 



tl in which artisans or merchants of the 
wune class ply their t null's is traceable to ancient 
1 of a bakers' street in ,ler 37 21, of a 
goldsmitlis' quarter and a quarter of spice-merchants 
I f., of a fish-gale in 1 ( li I n. \i-li .'f n, and 
of a valley of craftsmen in Neh 11 35. Josephus 
mentions the quarters of wool-merchants, of smiths, 
and of cloth-dealers (H.f. V, 8 1). To provide an 
adequate supply of water was frequently a matter of 
great difficulty. It was necessary at times to con- 
struct ri>trrns or aqueduct*. Jerusalem, for ex- 
ample, had quite early in its history a conduit, whieli 
was later iiu|>roved' (Is 7 3, 22 9, 11). See JERU- 
SALEM, J 13, :il. 

As to the administration of the affairs of cities, 
we know but little. In the days of the Deuteron- 
omist there is evidence of elders and 
5. City along with them judges (Dt 16 18 ft., 19 
Govern- 12, etc.). Probably the former were 
ment. the heads of the most influential fam- 
ilies. Over Samaria we find a gov- 
ernor (I K 22 26). In fact, Jerusalem must have had 
several high officials (II K 23 8, etc.). This ancient 
Jewish administration of cities by elders and others 
was preserved in the specifically Jewish territory 
down to the days of the Hcrods, while other cities 
adopted a Hellenistic policy (cf. also TOWN CLERK, 
and TREASURER, and CITY, RULERS OF). 

W. N. 
CITY, FENCED. See CITT, 3. 

CITY, ROYAL. See RABBAH. 

CITY, RULERS OF (no\trdpxa, 'politarchs,' Ac 
176): Civil magistrates of a Greek city as contra- 
distinguished from Roman officials. The term poli- 
tareh is self-explanatory, but it was confined to 
Macedonia and the sphere of Macedonian influence. 
Luke's use of the unusual title is confirmed by an 
inscription on an arch in Thessalonica mentioning 
n nitrates as politarchs. They are mentioned also 
in seventeen other inscriptions. In Ac 16 19 " rulers" 
are 'archons,' the ordinary title of the magistrates 
reek city. J. R. S. S. 

CITY OF DAVID. Sec JERUSALEM, 15. 

CITY OF DESTRUCTION: The similarity of 
htrcf (""."), 'destruction.' to //in x (""), 'sun, 'ap- 
parently caused confusion in Is 19 18. Many MSS. 
and several versions read "City of the Sun, "which, 
as indicating Heliopolis, may well have been the 
original reading. The LXX. reads "city of right- 
eousness." E. E. X. 

CITY OF PALM-TREES. See JEIUCHO. 

CITY OF SALT (n^n vy, ,> ham-melah): A 
town of Jiidah in the wilderness (Jos 15 62). The 
identification with the ruin Tell el Milh (Map II, 
E 4) is unsatisfactory. E. E. N. 

CITY OF WATERS. Sec RABBAH. 
CLASPS. See TABERNACLE, 3. 

CLAUDA (KXaCJa), more correctly Gaudos, now 
diirilhir. A small treeless island S. of Crete, with no 
safe anchorage on its 10. side (Ac 27 16). Its present 
population numbers but 70 families. J. R. S. S. 



CLAUDIA (KXavSia): Probably a Roman Chris- 
tian (II Til-'l), perhaps a freedwoman of the 
Claudian gens. She figures in later tradition as the 
mother or wife of Linus mentioned in the same pas- 
i,l p. Const. VII, 46). J. M. T. 

CLAUDIUS (KXav8iosA.cn 28, 182): The fourth 
Roman emperor (41-54), son of Drusus (son of 
Livia) and Antonia. He was nephew of Tiberius 
and grandson of Mark Antony. Being feeble- 
minded, he was not educated for the throne. He 
was proclaimed emperor by the Pretorian guards 
in 41. C. was a harmless, well-intentioned man, 
but was induced to bloodshed by his favorites Nar- 
cissus, Pallas, and his wife Messalina. Messalina 
was executed in 49 and C. married Agrippina (his 
niece), disinheriting his own son Britannicus and 
adopting Nero (Agrippina's son). He was poisoned 
by Agrippina in 54. 

The relations of Claudius to Agrippa, to whose 
political energies he largely owed his advancement 
to the throne (cf. Jos. Ant. XIX, 4 5), were most 
friendly throughout his reign and led him not only to 
bestow upon this Jewish prince pecidiar honors and 
an extension of his Palestinian domain (cf. Dio Cas- 
sius, LX, 8; Jos. Ant. XX, 7 1, 1 3), but to grant to the 
Jews in general throughout the Empire the right of 
religious worship, warning them at the same time to 
use it peacefully (cf. Jos. Ant. XIX, 52f.). This 
grant naturally did not imply a love of the Jewish 
people as such; so that, if the warning attached to it 
was not heeded, restrictive measures against them on 
the Emperor's part can easily be understood. In the 
line of such restriction is to be interpreted the state- 
ment of their expulsion from Rome referred to in 
Ac 18 2 (cf. Suet. Claud. 25) whether the expulsion 
of the entire Jewish community actually occurred, 
which seems doubtful (note the silence of Tacitus 
and Josephus regarding it), or was merely attempted 
and found impracticable (cf. Suet. Tiber. 36), or was 
not an expulsion at all but only a prohibition of 
tumultuous assemblages of the general Jewish popu- 
lace, apart from their ordinary religious services, the 
right to which they still possessed (cf. Dio Cassius, 
LX, 6 6). In any case the action of the Emperor 
would cause many of them to leave the city and ac- 
count for the presence of Aquila and Priscilla in 
Corinth when Paul arrived there; since the date of 
the 'edict,' while not possible of accurate determina- 
tion, is quite likely to have been between 50 and 52 
(cf. Schurer, HJP. II, ii. 31, n. 69; Zahn, Intro,!.. 
part XI, Chron. Survey; Ramsay, Paid, p. 254; 
Knowling on Acts in Expos. Greek Testament). 

J. R. S. S. and M. W. J. 

CLAUDIUS LYSIAS: The military tribune ( X i\t- 
"PX OS > "chief captain") holding the chief com- 
mand in Jerusalem, who rescued Paul from the mob 
and sent him to Csesarea to Felix (Ac 21 31-23). 
He had under him a cohort of Roman auxiliaries, 
about 1,000 strong, which upon the occasion of the 
Jewish festivals was always held in readiness in their 
headquarters in the castle of Antonia, which was 
connected by stairs with the Temple court. Lysias 
had bought his Roman citizenship at a high price, 
and had probably taken the cognomen Claudius from 
the Emperor, whose wife and court drove a flourish- 



130 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



City, Fenced 
Collection 



ing trade in such sales. Paul's inherited citizenship 
greatly impressed Lysias. R. A. F. 

CLAY: This term renders (1) homer, from a root 
moaning 'red' (Is 45 9, etc.); (2) fit, 'mud,' 'slirne,' 
etc. (Ps 40 2; Is 41 25); (3) Mfaph, 'pottery' (i.e., 
made of potters' elay) (Dn 2 33-45); (4) ir^Xor, 
either 'mud' made of soil and spittle (Jn 96ff.) or 
clay proper (Ro 9 21). The rendering "clay ground" 
(I K 7 46; II Ch 4 17) is uncertain, and the AV "clay" 
of Ilab 2 6 is corrected into "pledge" by the RV. 
In the low lands of Palestine clay is abundant and its 
use for brick, mortar, and pottery was common in 
O T times. In Job 4 19, etc., the word is used figura- 
tively for the flesh (as made from earth) and in Is 
64 8, etc. , it represents human subjection to the divine 
sovereignty. E. E. N. 

CLEAN, CLEANNESS, CLEANSE. See PURI- 

FICATION, J 1, 2. 



CLEMENT (KAij/ivr): A fellow worker with 
Paul at Philippi (Ph 4 3). There is nothing to jus- 
tify his traditional identification with Clement of 
Rome. E. E. N. 

CLEOPAS (K\* OTTOS): One of the early dis- 
ciples, mentioned only in Lk 24 18. Not to be con- 
fused with Cleophas. E. E. N. 

CLEOPHAS. See CLOPAS. 

CLOAK, CLOKE. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 
3. 

CLOPAS (KAwTraj, Cleophas AV): Mentioned 
only in Jn 19 25 as the husband of a certain Mary, 
thought by many to be the sister of Jesus' mother. 
See MARY. E. E. N. 

CLOSET. See HOUSE, 6 (h). 

CLOTH, CLOTHES, CLOTHING. See BURIAL, 
| 1, and DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 5. 

CLOUD : The cloud is of frequent occurrence in 
figurative speech. (1) Its darkness serves as the 
image of mystery (Ps972; Job 3 5), especially the 
profound mystery of the creation (Job 38 9). (2) 
Its distance from the earth is made to represent the 
unattainable (Is 14 14; Ps 108 4; Job 20 6). (3) Its 
chnngeableness is the image of the transitory, espe- 
cially of short life (Job 7 9, 30 15; Hos 6 4). (4) But 
the most suggestive use of the figure is in connection 
with the divine presence. Not only is Jehovah said 
to ride upon the cloud (Is 191; Nah 1 3), but He 
makes a special cloud the sign of His presence (Ex 
1321, etc.), both in the guiding of the Israelites 
toward Canaan and in the dedication of the Temple 
(I KSlOf.; IICh5l3f.). A. C. Z. 

CLOUT: In Jer38llf. "clouts" means 'rags,' 
or 'ragged cast-off clothes.' In Jos 9 5 it means 
'patched' and has been so translated by the RV. 
Here the references is to patched shoes. E. E. N. 

CLUB. See ARMS AND ARMOR, 5. 

CNIDUS, noi'dus (Kw'Sor Ac 27 7): The capital 
of the Dorian Hexapolis in Caria. It lay on a small 
island (Triopium), connected by a causeway with the 
mainland. It had two harbors and contained a 



li-mple of the Cnidian Aphrodite (by Praxiteles). 
(lames in honor of the Triopian Apollo were cele- 
brated conjointly with Rhodes and Cos. 

J. R. S. S. 

COAL: The following words, wrongly translated 
"coal" in AV, are correctly rendered in ARV or 
ARVmg. : resheph (Song 8 6; Hab 3 5), a poetic word 
for 'flame'; retseph (I K 19 6) or rilspah (Is 6 6), a 
heated stone; sh'hor (La 4 8), 'blackness.' 

Mineral coal is not found in Palestine, and the de- 
posits in Lebanon have been little mined. The 
words properly rendered "coal" in EV refer either 
to charcoal (peham, 'black'; Is 44 12, 54 16, and es- 
pecially Pr 26 21), or, more broadly, to live embers of 
any kind (gaheleth), including glowing charcoal. 
The latter is the common Heb. term (Ps 1204; Is 
44 19; Ezk 24 ll). It is written more fully "coals of 
fire" (e.g., Pr 25 22 =Ro 12 20 &v6paKcs irvpos), and 
is frequently used metaphorically (II S 14 7; Ps 18 8). 
The N T avdpaiua (Jn 18 18, 21 9) was, of course, a 
fire of charcoal. See also BRASIER, HEARTH, 
CHIMNEY. L. G. L. 

COAST: A term frequently used in the AV, but 
largely displaced by other more correct terms in 
the RV. (1) In the many cases where the Heb. 
is g'bhvl, the RV reads "border(s)" instead of 
"coast(s)." (2) In the other instances "coast(s)" 
AV is displaced in RV by "regions" (Jl 3 4) "shore" 
(Jos 9 l), "side" (Nu 13 29, 34 3; Jg 11 26), "height" 
(Jos 12 33), "whole number" (Jg 182), "among them" 
(Ezk 33 2), "end" (Nu 34 3), "parts" (Mt 15 21, 16 
13), "borders" (Mk 5 17, 7 31, 10 1; Ac 13 50), "places 
on the coast" (Ac 27 2), and "country" (Ac 26 20). 

E. E. N. 

COAT. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 2. 
COAT OF MAIL. See ARMS AND ARMOR, 9. 
COCK. See PALESTINE, 25. 
COCKATRICE. See PALESTINE, 26. 
COCK CROWING. See TIME, 1. 
COCKLE. See PALESTINE, 23. 

CO3LE-SYRIA, sf'le-sir'i-a (KoiXj; Supi'a), 'hol- 
low Syria' : A term of frequent occurrence in the O T 
Apocrypha. Strictly considered, it was the desig- 
nation of that part of Syria that lay between the 
Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges, but it was often 
used to cover all the Syrian possessions from the 
Lebanons S. as far as Egypt. E. E. N. 

COFFIN: Used only in Gn 50 26. The Heb. word 
'{iron means literally a 'chest' or 'box, 'but is used 
here evidently in the sense of 'mummy-case.' See also 
BURIAL AND BURIAL CUSTOMS, 4. E. E. N. 

COIN. See MONEY. 

COL-HOZEH, col-ho'ze (njn-^f, kol-hozeh), 'he 
sees all' (?): A Jew of Nehemiah's day (Neh 3 15, 
US). E. E. N. 

COLLAR, COLLARS (Jg8 26). See DRESS AND 
ORNAMENTS, 11. 

COLLECTION. See TAX, and CHURCH, 9. 



A STANDAliD ItlliLE DKTK i.VARY 



140 



COLLEGE. See JERUSALEM, 36. 

COLLOP: An old Knglish word meaning 'sli<'- 
meat' ni:i.l<- tender l>y In-ating (see Skeat's Diet.). 
: only in .lot. !">-'". where \l\ read- "tat," 
n U tin- meaning !' lli' 1 Hob. ' ''' N. 

COLONY (from tin 1 Latin rolonus, 'fanner'): 
S-nlers sent to foreign parts to establish trading- 
iii:itiiiiis generally retained their native institutions 
anil llirir allegiance to the mother country. The 
;v successful colonists (Asia Minor. 
Black Sea, lower Italy [Magna Gnrcia], southern 
l-'rancc. Spain, northern Africa), and Alexander 
colnni/.ed many cities from Egypt to Bactria. Hume 
established military colonies (of invalid soldiers) 
e\, rywhcre, of \vhicli Philippi (Ac 16 12) was an 
instance. Roman colonists as such enjoyed certain 
well-defined privileges which were not granted to 
ordinary provincials. J. H. S. S. 

COLORS: Both the OT and the NT illustrate 
the general fact that ancient literature knows little 
of the modern > ^s to color-effects and their 

subtle gradations. Most of the references are casual 
and involve merely primary distinctions. The only 
passages where colors are emphasized arc the ac- 
count of the materials and vestments of the Taber- 
nacle and Temple (i:\ 25-28, 35-39; Nu 4, 15; II 
<'li 12-3), the diagnosis of leprosy (Lv 13-14), and 
tin- apocalyptic visions of 'horses' (Zee 1, 6; Rev 
0, 111). 

White is the symbol of purity, as shown in com- 
parisons with snow (Ps 51 7; Is 1 18), in the vesture 
of angelic beings and of the redeemed 
I. White (Dn 7 9, 12 10; Mt 17 2; Mk 9 3; Lk 9 2!); 
and Black. Mt 28 3; Mk 16 S; Jn 20 12; Ac 1 10; Rev 
3 4, 6, 18, 4 4, 6 11, 7 9, 13, 14, 19 8, 14), in 
the mystic "stone" with the "new name" and the 
heavenly "throne" (Rev 2 17,20 11). It was also the 
color of nobility and elegance (Est 8 15; EC 9 8; La 
17; .Ig~>10; ef. Rev 19 11, 14). From it came the 
name "Ix-banon" the 'white' mountain. Refer- 
ence is made to the whiteness of the skin, the teeth, 
and the hair (Song 5 !0; On 49 12; Mt 5 3C), of wool 
(Kzk 27 18; Rev 1 14), of milk (La 4 7), of alabaster 
or marble (Kst 1 6; Song 5 IS), of ripe wheat-fields 
(Jn 4 35), of bread (Cn -111 ifi), of walls (Mt 23 27; Ac 
23 3), and of blinding heat (Is IS 4). Whiteness of 
the skin and hair was a symptom of leprosy (Kx 
4 a; Lv 13-14; Nu 12 10; II K 5 27, etc.), as paleness 
was of fear (Is 2(122). Doubtless 'white' often 
means 'gray' or 'light brown,' as in the description 
of garments of linen or byssus. 

Black, or some dark hue, is the symbol of disaster 
or mourning, :w in the visage of the overwhelmed 
(Job 3(1 30; Jcr 8 21; La 4 8, 5 10; Jl 2 6; Nah 2 10) 
or the irirh of the sorrowing (Job 30 28; Ps 42 9; Jer 
I 1 -'. etc.). Hut swarthy skin or hair was a sign of 
_' 1 .If., ."> 1O, as of Ethiopians and other 
Africans. The blackness of night or tempi 

I (I K 1845; Job 3 5; Is 50 3; Jer 4 28; lie 12 is; 

.bide 1:1, etc.), of the raven (Song "> lO, of ice on the 

us (Job 6 16), and of porphyry or dark marble 

I i.). lilack hairs are mentioned in testing the 

li'p'T (Lv 13), and the visions include black horses 

(Zee (1. Hev (1). Brown '.n 30 :i:'-40 AV) is prop- 



erly black asinRV. The "black marble" referred 
to 'in Kst 1 (i (cf. margin "stone of blue color") was 
probably a drab slate or marble. 

Bright red, "scarlet," or "crimson," a color ob- 
tained from the kermes-worm or cochineal, and a 
richer "purple" from a mollusk, were 
2. Scarlet, the badges of royalty, or at least of 

Purple, wealth. The two often occur to- 
and Other gether (Ex 25-28, 35-36, 38-39; Xu 

Reds. 48,13; II Ch 27,14, 314; Pr 3l2lf.; 
Rev 17 3f., 18 12, 10), but also the for- 
mer alone (Gn 38 28, 30; Lv 14 ; Nu 19 6; Jos 2 is, 21 ; 
II S 1 24; Song 43; Is 1 18; Jer 4 30; La 4 5; Nah 2 3; 
Mt 2728; He 919), and the latter alone (Jg82C; 
Kst 1 c, 8 15; Song 3 10, 7 5; Jer 10 9; Ezk 27 7, 1C; Dn 
5 7, 16, 29; Mk 15 17, 20; Jn 19 2, 5; Lk 16 19). Lydia 
was a dealer in purple (Ac 16 14). 

It is likely that the term rendered 'blue' was 
some variety of purple. It occurs only with dyed 
stuffs (Ex 25-28, 35-36, 38-39; Nu 4, 1538; II Ch 
2 7, 14, 3 14; Est 1 6, 8 15; Jer 10 9; Ezk 23 6, 27 7, 24). 

Ruddiness, such as that of a clayey soil, is often 
indicated, as of the flesh (Gn 25 25; I S 16 12, 17 42; 
Song 5 10; La 4 7), a sore (Lv 13), the lips (Song 4 3), 
animals (Nu 192; Zee 1,6; Rev 6,12 3), wine (Ps 
758; Pr 2331; Is 272), pottage (Gn 2530), dyed 
leather or cloth (Ex 25 5, 26 14, 35 7, 23, 36 19, 39 34; Is 
63 2), painted wood (Jer 22 14; Ezk 23 14; Nah 2 3), a 
kind of stone (Est 1 6, sardius and ruby?), and the 
fiery twilight sky (Mt 16 2-3). The word for the 'red' 
eyes of the drunkard (Gn 49 12; Pr2329) probably 
means 'unclear' or 'darkened.' The term bay 
a bright red (Zee 6 3, 7 AV) is properly rendered 
"strong" in RV. 

Green is naturally often indicated as the attribute 

of vegetation in all its forms (as Ps528; Jer 17 8; 

Hos 14 8; Rev 9 4, etc.). In one description of dyed 

stuffs (Est 1 6) the word rendered 

3. Green "green" may mean simply a special 

and kind of linen. A greenish color occurs 

Yellow. in the test for leprosy (Lv 13 49, 14 37), 
and also a glistening yellow (Lv 13 30- 
30); the former of these two words is also used with 
gold (Ps 68 13). 

In the disposition of the precious stones in the 
high priest's breastplate (Ex 28 17-20, 39 10-13: K/k 
28 13) and in the foundations of the heavenly Jeru- 
salem (Rev 21 19-20) there was probably an inten- 
tional color-scheme. W. S. P. 

COLOSSI, co-los'e (KoAooW): A city of Phryijin 
l'i i mtitma, situated on the S. bank of the Lycus, on 
rising ground in the open plain (10 m. from Laodieea, 
13 m. from Hierapolis). See Map of the Pauline 
World. The acropolis was on the N. bank. Though 
now quite deserted, Colosste was the great city of 
Phrygia when visited by Xerxes (481) and Cyrus 
the Younger (401). It lay on the main trade- 
route from the seaboard to the East. It was ruined 
by the change of the road-system and the establish- 
ment of Laodieea. C. was famous for its wool of 
violet hue (colossinus). Philemon, Onesimus, Ar- 
chippus, and Epaphras, the probable founder of the 
Church at C., all lived here (see COLOSSIANS and 
PIIII.KMO.N'). The "worship of angels." against 
which Paul preached (Col 2 is), was perpetuated in 



Ill 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



College 

Colossians 



the great and pretentious church of Michael tho 
Archistrategus, which was destroyed by the Turks 
(l-Jth cent.). J. R. S. S. 

COLQSSIANS, co-los'ianz, EPISTLE TO THE: 

One of the letters of Paul written during his first 
imprisonment at Rome. From the be- 

1. Intro- ginning of a critical study of this Epistle 
ductory. (Mayerhoff, 1838) it has been recog- 
nized that it presents a troublesome 

problem and that this problem gathers about the 
errors which it discusses and seeks to counteract. 
The Tubingen School (1845) held these errors to be 
characterized by the Gnosticism of the 2d cent, and 
consequently denied the authorship of the Epistle 
to Paul. Tliis was modified later (Holtzmann, 1872) 
to the effect that there was an element of asceticism 
in the errors which might well have belonged to the 
Apostolic Age, so that a portion of the letter may 
have come from Paul. At present the almost uni- 
versal acceptance of the Epistle as Paul's is due to 
the conviction that whatever these errors may be 
they lack the developed philosophical character that 
would place them later than his day and conse- 
quently offer no hindrance to assigning the letter in 
its entirety to him. 

In view of these facts there is a peculiar interest 

attaching to the thought of the Epistle. After the 

usual epistolary greeting (llf.) and 

2. Con- the customary Pauline thanksgiving 
tents. for the readers' spiritual condition 

(1 3-8), the main message of the letter 
(1 94 6) begins. It is based upon what the Apostle 
has heard of their Christian life, his personal interest 
in which keeps him constantly in prayer that it may 
be divinely nourished in the direction of an increas- 
ing spiritual intelligence and a consequent fruitful 
activity and faithful endurance on the readers' 
part (1 9-ll), recognizing the fact that the life they 
have is due to God's work of salvation through 
Christ (1 12-14), who is supreme in His place over the 
Church and the World (1 15-20); so that if their sal- 
vation is fully to realize itself in their lives, it will be 
dependent simply upon the stability of their faith 
in Him and the firmness of their hold upon the 
hope which He has assured to them in the Gospel 
(1 21-23). 

After a word as to his ministrant relations to this 
>1 and its bearings upon his service to the 
Church at large and the circle of individual churches 
to which his readers belong (1 24-2 2), the Apostle 
returns to this theme of Christ, whose supreme suffi- 
ciency for all their living makes it needless that they 
should subject themselves to the delusive persua- 
i"ss of teachers who would substitute human 
philosophy for the teaching which He has given 
them (2 3-15), and impose an unnecessary ceremonial 
and a false worship and an arbitrary asceticism upon 
their living (2 16-23). On the contrary, his plea is 
that they give themselves to a spirituality of living 
1 on their life with Christ, the reality of which 
should be a compelling force to a new character and 
conduct on their part (3 5-11). 

After a consequent general exhortation in the 
direction of positive graces (3 12-17) and some spe- 
cific exhortations within their household relations 



(318-41), and their relations among the uncon- 
verted (45f.), the message ends, and with a short 
personal conclusion (4 7-18) the letter is brought to 
its close. 

A survey of these contents makes clear that the 

Apostle is dealing in only a general way with the 

errors which have invaded the Colossian 

3. Char- Church. He has not denned them 

acter of either to his readers or to himself, and 

the Errors, has not opposed them with anything 

more than general truths. 

On a more specific study of the Epistle, however, 
there are discernible certain characteristics of the 
situation with which the Apostle had to deal. (1 ) 
The errors were evidently not so developed as to 
have caused separation from the Church (2 18 f.), 
though they appear to have had with their teachers 
a constructive form and to have been propagated in 
a dogmatic way (2 3 f., 8, 16, 18 f.). (2) They came 
from teachers who were Jews and Jews of a Judaistic 
type (2 8, ll, 14, 16, 20-22; cf. Gal 43 9 f.). (3) At the 
same time the insistence upon a regulation of drink, 
as well as of food, and on the other hand the absence 
of any antithesis between faith and works, or any 
insistence of their legalism as necessary to salvation, 
mark them as of an essentially different type from 
those which we find in the neighboring province of 
Galatia. (4) As to what this type could be it is 
most difficult, if not impossible, to determine, (a) 
Such passages as 2 20-23, which characterize their reg- 
ulations as an ascetic severity toward the body, and 
2 18, which shows them as given to angel-worship, 
suggest the influence of Essenism, and yet their as- 
ceticism is evidently not practised as an end in itself, 
as it was with the Essenes, while their angel-worship 
was accompanied by visions which were foreign to 
the Essenic cult. Certainly, many things which 
characterized Essenism are absent here. (6) The 
presence in such passages as 2 2f., 9f., 18 f., of char- 
acteristic Gnostic terms and the opposition which 
such passages as 1 15-20, 2 6, 9-11, 15, 19 furnish to the 
known Gnostic subordination of Christ and the re- 
moval of union with Him suggest the influence of 
Gnosticism, though some of these terms are present 
in other of the Apostle's letters, where Gnosticism 
can not possibly have come into consideration. 

From all this it is clear that an exact identifying 

of these errors with any known system of teaching 

in the Apostolic or post-apostolic time 

4. Histor- is out of the question. At the same 

ical Loca- time, the fact that Gnosticism had no 

tion of the definite origin in any specific school, 

Errors. but grew up in an eclectic way through 
the mingling of Jewish, Oriental, Greek, 
and Evangelic elements within the Church, makes 
it specially significant that this letter is addressed 
to a region of Asia Minor which had been colonized 
under Antiochus Epiphanes with Jews from Baby- 
lonia, a great center of theosophical mysticism, who 
would be peculiarly liable to such speculative va- 
garies as we find embodied in these errors. At all 
events.it is evident that the vague and indeterminate 
character of the Epistle's errors show them to be- 
long to an early rather than to a late time; while their 
distinctively Jewish elements place them quite nat- 
urally within the missionary horizon of Paul. 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Comforter 
Conscience 

- 

lii-i letter shows the development of Paul's niin- 
iMrv condition.*! l,y tin- region of country in which 
it was carried on. In this region o 
5. Bearing Western Asia Minor, missioni/.ed largely 
of the uiiiU-r his leadership during his three 
Epistle years' stay in Ephesus, he had been 
on the uroughtfacetofacewithspeculativedif- 
Work of tin ill it* such as had not come before 
Paul. him in any other of his fields of work. 
His approach to them consequently is 
not that of an experienced disputant, but that of a 
man of practical spiritual ministry, hesitant through 
his ignorance of the technical elements involved and 
yrt m.-istnit U-cause of his instinctive appreciation 
lit their n-lations to and their influence upon the fun- 
damental truths of the Gospel which he preached. 
Colossians thus stands apart from the four mam 
Epistles of Paul and from his letters to the Thessa- 
lonians as born of the speculative necessities of his 
work. 

LITERATURE: The best critical material will be found in 
the N T Introduction* of Julicher (1904) and Zahn (1907) 
anil in the prolegomena to the Commentaries of Peake 
(Bxpot. Greek Tet., 1903). Abbot (Internal. Crit. Corn., 
1897). Haupt (Meyer", Exeget.-Krit. Kom. fift. d. N T, 
1897) Ewald (Zakn-Kom. z. N T, 1905); Lightfoot 8 
(1886) ami KH>per (1882). Haupt and Kliipper are 
especially thorough in their exegesis of the Epistle. 
For specific discussion of the critical problems consult 
Holumann. Kritik der Epheser und Koloserbriefe (1872) 
and the articles on the Epistle in the Bible Dictionaries 
of Smith 2 , Hastings, and Cheyne. See also GNOSTICISM. 

M. W. J. 
COMFORTER. See HOLY SPIRIT, 2, a. 

COMING OF THE LORD. See ESCHATOLOG T, 
34-36, 41,48. 

COMMANDMENT: All but three of the OT 
words rendered ''commandment" (and these three 
derived from the same root) signify primarily 'that 
which is uttered or spoken.' The idea of authority is 
read into these terms from the character or office of 
the person who makes the utterance. A command- 
ment is, therefore, in the Biblical sense of the term, 
the word of one who has a right to be obeyed. In 
the N T the conception of authority has crystallized 
in the terms used. A. C. Z. 

COMMANDMENTS, THE TEN. See DECA- 

LOC. 

COMMENTARY ("'"!'?, midhrash, from da- 
rash, 'to inquire,' 'investigate'): In II Ch 13 22 a 
reference is made to the "commentary" ("story" 
AV) of the prophet Iddo and in 24 27 to the "com- 
mentary" ("story" AV) of the "book of the Kings." 
The Heb. term means "didactic or homiletic exposi- 
tion," or "an edifying religious story" (Driver). 
Some such works are referred to by the Chronicler 
as among his sources. See CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF. 

E. E. N. 

COMMERCE. See TRADE AND COMMERCE. 

COMMON: The Biblical conception of what is 
common included: (1) The broad and general idea 
(if the ordinary as distinguished from the excep- 
tional (.ler '_'(> 23 ; Lv427; Ezk2342; AcSlsAV; I Co 
10 13 AV, etc.); (2) the conception of that which 





belongs to all as a general characteristic (Tit 14; Jude 
er. a) or that in which all participate (Ac 2 44); and 
3) the notion of ceremonial uncleanness, in which 

sense the word is used in I S 21 4 f. ; Jer 31 5 RVmg. ; 

Ac 10 14, 28). A-. C- Z. 

COMMONWEALTH. See CITIZENSHIP. 

COMMUNICATE, COMMUNICATION: These 
words are employed: (1) In their original though 
now rather obsolete English meaning of 'making 
common,' i.e., of sharing, dividing, taking another as 
one's partner, having fellowship with in temporal 
goods (Gal 6 6), afflictions (Ph 4 14 AV), nc< 
ies (Ro 12 13), giving and receiving (Ph4l5AV), 
or of Christian fellowship generally (I Ti 6 18; Finn 
5 AV; He 13 16). (2) In the usual modern sense of 
sharing or imparting information, knowledge, etc., 
jy speech, hence meaning 'word,' 'speech,' 'dis- 
course' (II S3 17; IIK9H AV; Mt537 AV; Lk 
24 17; Gal 2 2 AV; Eph 4 29 AV). In I Co 15 33 the 
3r. 6fu\ia probably means 'conversations,' 'dis- 
putings' rather than "companionship" (ARV). In 
bol 3 8 by al(rxpo\oyia abusive as well as obscene 
speech is intended. 

COMMUNION. See LORD'S SUPPER and HOLY 
SPIRIT, 2, b. 

COMPANION: This word is the rendering of 
nine Hebrew terms and one (four AV) Greek. Five 
of the Hebrew originals indicate general community 
of interest and enterprise (of. Ezr 4 7 ff . ; Is 1 '. 
Mai 2 14), whereas the other four convey the idea 
of delight in personal association (cf. Ex 32 27; ,lg 
14llff.; Prl320). In the NT the Greek terms 
signify simple association or partnership in a com- 
mon work or cause (cf . Ac 19 29; also in AV Ph 2 25; 
He 10 33; Rev 1 9). A. C. Z. 

COMPANY. See TRADE AND COMMERCE. 3. 

COMPASS. See COSMOGONY, 3. 

COMPOUND. See OINTMENTS AND PERFUMES, 
2. 

CONANIAH, cen"a-nai'a (W^J?, kananyahu): 
1. A tithe supervisor in the days of Hezekiah (II 
Ch31 12f.; Cononiah AV). 2. A prominent Levite 
who lived in the reign of Josiah (II Ch 35 9). 

A. C. Z. 

CONCISION: A term which occurs but once in 
the Bible, Ph 3 2, where it renders the Gr. KO.TO.TOW 
('incision') a word not found at all in the LXX. 
nor in prechristian Gr. in this connection. It is a 
paronomasia evidently used here by Paul to char- 
acterize as nothing less than the flesh-cutting for- 
bidden in the Law (Lv 21 5; cf. I K 18 28), the circum- 
cision which was wholly ceremonial and lacked all 
regard for its spiritual significance. The term 
be distinguished from the yet stronger expression 
iaroKvnrw ('to cut off') in Gal 5 12, where the 
reference is to the prohibition of Dt 23 1. See Ciu- 
CUMCISION. M. W. J. 

CONCUBINE. See MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE, 
and FAMILY AND FAMILY LAW. 4, 5. 



113 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Comforter 
Conscience 



CONDEMN, CONDEMNATION: The render-in?; 
of a group of NT Gr. words, the chief element in 
which is made up of Kplvfiv, with its compound (xara- 
Kpiveiv) and its derivatives ([itpl<ns AV], Kardicpuns, 
Kplpa, KaraKptfia, avTOKaraKpiTos). In some pas- 
sages the meaning is confined to human action 
and refers (1) to one's judgment against another 
([KaraKpiveiv] Jn8 10 f.; Ro834; [xaTaKpuris] II Co 73; 
[K/)('H I Ti 3 6). In Ro 2 1, 14 23 ("damned" AV), 
where xpivtiv is the original, there seems to be in- 
cluded also the element of one's judgment against 
himself (cf. ver. 22 AV); or (2) to the judgment into 
which another's conduct is brought by one's own 
good life ([KaTcuepiveiv] Mt 1241 and ||; He 117). 
In the great majority of passages, however, the 
meaning is distinctively that of the Divine judgment 
against sin ([xplvfiv] Ja 5 7 AV; Jn 3 17f. AV; [K<IT<I- 
Kpivfiv] Ro 8 3; [KaraKpuris] II P 2 6; I Co 11 32; II 
Co 3 9; [K/M>O] Mk 12 40 and ||; Ja 3 AV; I Co 11 34 
AV; Ro 3 8; [KaraKptfjia] Ro 5 16, 18, 8 1). In Jn 3 
17-19, 5 24 (where only the AV renders Kplveiv and 
Kpla-ts by "condemn" and "condemnation") there 
is meant the judgment brought by men upon them- 
selves because of their rejection of Christ. Parallel 
with this is Tit 3 11 (avTOKaraKptrot) , where the refer- 
ence is to the judgment brought upon oneself by 
persistency in evil. In Ac 13 27 (KpLveiv); Lk 24 20 
(Kpifia) ; Mt 27 3; Mk 10 33 and ||s, 14 64 (KaraKpivdv), 
the reference is to the sentence of a court, expressing 
the general judgment of the people; in Lk2340 
(icpifia) to the sentence of a court, resulting in con- 
demnation to death. 

The rest of the group consists of the compounds 
KaraSiKaffLV, KarayiyviacrKfiv, and aKaTayvtacrras. In 
all but one of the passages where these words occur 
the meaning is confined to human judgment. Twice 
it is the censorious judgment against one's fellow 
man ([icaraSiKaffii/] Mt 12 7; Lk 6 37); twice it is the 
self-judgment which comes from the condemning 
character of one's own conduct ([Karayiyvoxriceiv] Gal 
2 ll; I Jn 3 20 f.); once it is the sentence of a secular 
court as an instrument of oppression ([KaraSiKafeii/] 
Ja 5 6). Once only is the meaning that of Divine 
judgment against evil ([(caraSiicdffif] Mt 12 37). 

There are two passages (I Ti 5 12 [icpi'/ja]; Tit 2 8 
[aKUTayvtatrros]) where the reference seems to be to 
a judgment implying more or less of ecclesiastical 
oversight and review. See also JUSTIFICATION. 

M. W. J. 

CONDUIT. See JERUSALEM, 13, 34. 
CONEY. See PALESTINE, 24. 

CONFECTION, CONFECTIONERY. See OINT- 
MENTS AND PERFUMES, 2. 

CONFEDERACY, CONFEDERATE. See CON- 
SPIRACY. 

CONFESS, CONFESSION (6>oXoyfi [t^o^oXo- 
yfiv], 6/ioXo-yi'a): A term which in the N T has 
several varieties of meaning. (1) 'To concede,' 
'allow' (Jnl20; Ac 24 14; He 11 13). (2) 'To ac- 
knowledge one's sins' 'confess' in the narrower 
sense (Mt 3 6; Mk 1 5; Ac 19 18; Ja5 16; I Jn 1 9). (3) 
'To openly acknowledge' or profess one's faith in 
anything (Ac 23 8 [cf. Gr. of Tit 1 16]), especially in 



Jesus as the Messiah, Son of God, etc. (Mtl032a; 
Lk 12 8a; Jn922, 1242; RolOO; II Co 9 13; Ph2 n; 
ITi6l2f.; He 3 1,4 14, 1023; IJn223, 4 2 f., 15; II 
Jn 7). Also of Jesus' acknowledging His own in 
the judgment (Mtl032b; Lkl28b; Rev36[cf. Gr. 
of Mt 7 23]). In the papyri 6/ioXoyfix is the offi- 
cial formula for publicly acknowledging a contract, 
sale, receipt, etc.; cf. also Mt 14 7; Ac 7 17, where it is 
used in the sense of a public assurance or promise. 
(4) Of thankfully and worshipfully acknowledging 
God, so 'to praise' Him (Ro 14 11, 159 [both cited 
from LXX.]; He 13 15). See SACRIFICE AND OFFER- 
INGS, 8, 16. S. D. 

CONFISCATE, CONFISCATION. See CRIMES 
AND PUNISHMENTS, 3 (c). 

CONFORM, CONFORMED : The translation of 
the Gr. <rip.p,op<j>os (Ro 829; Ph 321 RV); of 
the ptcpl. (rvfjtpop<pi6fifvos (Ph 3 10) ; and of <ruv 
o-xwun-ffro-dtu (Ro 12 2, "fashioned" RV; cf. Gr. 
of I P 1 14). It is evident that in the N T the com- 
pounds <rvnfiop<pos and <rvp.fiop(piffiv place the em- 
phasis on the internal (moral and intellectual) 
aspects, while o-uwr^/iaTifetv refers primarily to the 
external (physical and formal) relations. 

E. E. N. 

CONGREGATION: Predominantly an O T word. 
In the N T found only in Ac 13 43 AV ("synagogue" 
RV). The AV uses the term as the translation of a 
variety of Hebrew words in all of which the notion 
of meeting is primary. The RV has properly sub- 
stituted in all cases which designate the place of the 
meeting of God with (he people in the person of their 
representative Mosos (Ex 27 21, etc.) the more ac- 
curate form Tent of Meeting. Another change in- 
troduced in RV, in the interest of greater clearness 
and uniformity, is the substitution of assembly for 
"congregation" wherever the theocratical convoca- 
tion of the people is meant, as when the original Heb. 
is qahal (Lv4 14). The term "congregation" (in the 
RV) is thus almost limited to the designation of the 
stated meetings of the people for the transaction 
of political or legislative business. The distinction 
can not be pressed too closely, but in general it will 
hold true. The word is preeminently a 'priestly' 
one, confined almost entirely to the priestly elements 
of the Hexateuch and to Chronicles Ezra Nehemiah. 
See also ASSEMBLY (51 and (7). A. C. Z. 

CONIAH, co-nai'a. See JEHOIACHIN. 

CONSCIENCE: This word is not used in the OT, 
(butcf.Ec 1020[LXX.J and, in theApoc.,Wis 17 ll). 
In the N T it is used mainly in the Pauline Epistles; 
twice in Paul's speeches in Acts (23 1, 24 16). Else- 
where it appears only in Hebrews, and in I Peter. 
Outside its Biblical visages the Greek word (trvvctSij- 
a-is) had not yet obtained the fuller meaning given to 
it in the N T. It was used somewhat vaguely for the 
consciousness with which a man views his completed 
act, especially for the feeling aroused as he recalls and 
contemplates a wrong deed (Cremer's Lexicon and P. 
Ewald ). In the N T a distinct development is found. 

In Ro 2 14 f., Paul finds a double proof that the 
law of God is real for the heathen world, first in 
the very character of their works which imply the 



Conscience 
OonTVution 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



144 



powiT of making moral distinctions; and, second, 
in u twofoltl inner movement described in two 
independent clauses in the passage. 
i. Pauline The second clause is not explanatory 
Usage. of the first. Their "thoughts" in 
mutual intercourse (Xoyr/ioi) are not 
identical with their "conscience." The latter is 
private conscience ami individual; the former are 
social. The occurrence of mvfi&i<rif here premip- 
poaea a well-known meaning which may be found 
elsewhere. It appears clearly in the two passages in 
Acte, where Paul, reviewing his past, expresses his 
consciousness of having always tried to preserve his 
sense of integrity before God. At this point the 
N T agrees with extrabiblical usage, except that 
the religious reference is present. But that is the 
new element which makes a great change ultimately 
in tin- idea of "conscience." In the remaining pas- 
sages of Romans (91, 13 5) the meaning is the same. 
In fact, it will be found that, as its fundamental 
meaning. Paul uses the word for that sense of integ- 
rity, or of righteous standing before God (or Christ), 
which accompanies the moral and religious conduct 
of the believer. All other new meanings of the 
word grow out of consideration of that function of 
human Christian consciousness. 

The passage where "conscience" occurs most often 
(I Co 8-10) illustrates the manner in which the con- 
ception grew as soon as the fact began to live in the 
Christian environment. In the presence of a dif- 
ficult practical problem conscience appears as a 
complex fact. (1) The Christian man who recog- 
nizes God's relation to all things and the nothingness 
of idols knows that the consecration of food to idols 
means nothing. He is, therefore, free to eat what- 
ever is set before him. His knowledge of the facts 
becomes the ground of his integrity before God 
when he partakes. His conscience is clear and sound. 
(2) But he recognizes also that his action affects 
other consciences, of which in this regard there are 
two classes, (a) The weak conscience of a brother 
"used until now to the idol" (8 7). This man can 
not rid himself of the feeling that in eating meat he 
continues a former heathen practise. He eats "as 
of a thing sacrificed to an idol." He therefore eats 
with a "weak conscience," because of an unclear 
judgment of the facts, and therefore with a " defiled" 
(8 7) or "wounded" (8 12) conscience that is, with a 
lack of conscious integrity before God. Now Paul 
will not despise his ignorance nor merely pity his 
confused judgment; he will reverence his conscience. 
For while the conscience is ignorant, lacking knowl- 
edge (8 7), yet it is conscience, which if it be forced 
by example instead of being set free by insight is 
wounded, and he perishes (8 10 f.). (6) The igno- 
rant conscience of the heathen man (10 27a). If the 
( 'hristian man purchase his food in the open market 
lie mut do BO in his own freedom ignoring the cer- 
emonial connection between meat and idol-worship 
(lOZif.). But as soon as the relation becomes 
pcnional, the problem is changed. If a heathen host 
(!() :?) win meat before you without remark, your 
own conscience is free. But as soon as any one 
(rtt 10 28) calls attention to the connection of the 
meat with idol-worship, the feast becomes a sacred 
meal, a heathen sacrament. That makes abstinence 



a duty, but only for the sake of the other's con- 
science. To him your partaking now would be a 
denial of the very thing which you know, that this 
consecration of the meat is nothing. From this it 
is clear that the oft-quoted verse (I Co 8 13) does 
not mean that Paul practised or enjoined permanent 
abstinence from meat. The abstaining conscience 
must keep its own dignity and rights by making ab- 
stinence wholly relative to the good of others, and 
must not erect its act into a new law of permanent 
and universal authority. There is a dangerous tend- 
ency in the 'weak' conscience to become censo- 
rious (Ro 14 3b, lOa) and in the strong and free con- 
science to become contemptuous (Ro 14 3a, lOb), 
and against both the Apostle utters urgent warn- 
ings. The guiding principle in this passage (I Co 
8-10) is the same as in Ro 14, although in the latter 
for "knowledge" the Apostle substitutes the word 
"faith" (14 12). In both passages the awful signifi- 
cance of conscience appears in this that, if a man 
eat who feels or thinks that it may be against, the 
honor of Christ to do so, he thereby abdicates his 
own judgment and acts outside of faith. And whoso 
does this is 'destroyed' (Ro 14 15b) and 'per- 
ishes' (I Co 8 11). And in both passages the man 
who by his example deliberately exerts that com- 
pulsion on him is held responsible for the disaster. 
In II Co "conscience" is applied not to his own ap- 
proval of his conduct, but to its approval by others 
(42,5ll). This is a new and most important 
step in the growth of the general conception. And 
yet it comes naturally through the intensely 
social Christian spirit. For it is the same inner 
power in virtue of which I appraise my own con- 
duct and that of others, and I must do both "in 
Christ." 

In the Pastoral Epistles conscience is named six 
times; in three cases (ITi 1 5, 19, 3 9) with "faith" 
or "heart," as if it had begun to define itself before 
Christian eyes as a fundamental element or faculty 
of human nature. In Tit 1 15 it can be, along with 
the "mind," defiled. And in I Ti 4 2 it is said that 
certain who fall away from the faith are "branded 
in their own conscience as with a hot iron." This 
does not mean that they lose the power of making 
moral distinctions, a quite un-Pauline idea; but that 
they suffer the intolerable shame of their defection. 
It is the intense pain of ineradicable guilt which is 
theirs. 

The three passages in I Peter in which "con- 
science" occurs yield the same meaning as the 
Pauline. In the first two (2 19, 3 16) 
2. The the general context is similar. The 
Petrine believer is amid hostile critics and even 
Usage. persecutors. His strength and peace 
must be found in the possession of "a 
good conscience" which must be the inner sense of 
"a good manner of life in Christ" (3 10). The word 
is used in a startling way, however, when (2 19) the 
author speaks of the (rvifi'Sijo-is tot), which is vari- 
ously translated. Is it "conscience toward God," 
or, as Canon Bigg prefers, "consciousness of God"? 
The phrase was apparently so constructed because 
the writer saw that there is no consciousness of God, 
in the Christian sense, without a good conscience 
toward God. It marks the dawn of the great idea 



1 15 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTION A It Y 



Conscience 
Conversation 



that conscience is the voice of God in us. But here 
il means that in the sense of uprightness bcl'mv 
Him a man already possesses Him. The very diffi- 
cult passage which almost immediately follows (3 
20 f.) repeats the word in a sentence that is gram- 
matically dark. The baptized man is saved 'into 
God,' as the eight souls into the ark. But this 
baptism is not concerned with the outward man, 
"the flesh," but with the inner man. In the bap- 
tismal rite "the good conscience" is the matter of 
inquiry, the decisive fact. 

In four out of the five places where "conscience" is 
named in the Epistle to the Hebrews the general 
topic is the subjective effect of the 
3. Usage atonement of Christ. Whatever effect 
in the the gifts and sacrifices, the blood-shed- 
Epistle ding, under the old covenant produced, 
to the they did not reach the conscience. 
Hebrews. The worshiper remained in that re- 
gard unperfect (99); he still had the 
conscience of sins (102) or dead works (9 14). But 
the blood of Christ does "cleanse conscience from 
dead works to serve the living God," and men may 
have their '' hearts sprinkled from an evil conscience," 
so that they can "draw near with a true heart in ful- 
ness of faith" (10 22). It is evident that in all these 
passages the good conscience is regarded as the sense 
of righteousness before God (cf. 13 18). Our sense 
of guilt prevents all approach to God; and that is 
removed only by the blood of Christ. His work of 
sacrifice has made it possible for men to enter the 
holy presence of God with bold hearts and confident 
prayer that is, with clear consciences. The con- 
science is that in us on which forgiveness through 
atonement operates. 

It is evident that in the N T we have no clearly 
defined doctrine or theory of conscience, nor even a 
description of it. Like other Greek 
4. The words a-vveiSr/ins was passing into a 
Philosophy new world, to describe great facts 
of Con- which were now more clearly perceived 
science, than was possible for prechristian 
eyes. Some of these may be stated 
here. (1) The feeling of guilt or of joyous confi- 
dence before God, as in Hebrews, is the deepest fact 
in human religious experience. The work of Christ 
deals with that, and it is called "conscience." (2) 
The believer's feeling of personal integrity and sin- 
cerity in conduct before God and man, as in Acts, 
Romans, Corinthians, is traced to the same inner 
seat of authority. (3) But this feeling is so closely 
allied with and dependent upon 'knowledge' or 
intelligent 'faith' (I Co, I Ti) that the conscience 
is seen to be a moral scrutinizer of all human con- 
duct. (4) As thus conceived conscience is the 
supreme, the most sacred fact in human nature, to 
preserve which is essential and to destroy which 
can only be the doom of the individual. There can 
be little doubt that N T writers, by their emphasis 
upon this phase of human nature, by making it so 
concrete, and by attaching to it the very highest and 
most solemn significance in relation to the final 
destiny of man, presented fresh material and a new 
stimulus to ethical inquiry. It may be added with 
some confidence that no theory of conscience can hold 
its own which takes no account of those aspects of it 



which are set before us in these brief but momentous 
N T discussions. 

LITERATURE: P. Ewald, De vocis ii.|.. .,,.,,. VI < /,. 
texlate, 1883; W. Herrmann, Ktlrik, 3 1004; Martenwrn, 
Christian Kthics (Individual), Translation. 1884, 338 IT. ; 
H. Schultz, Grundruus d. Kvang. Kthik, 1891; Nownmn 
Smyth, Christian Ethics, 1802; T. li. Strong, C'lu 
Ethics, 1890; B. Weiss, Bib. Theol. ot N T, Translation, 
1803, 1, p. 476", II, pp. 39-41, 128; U. IS. Stevens, Thcal. 
of N T 454-456. \y ). Jfl. 

CONSECRATE: This term is the correct render- 
ing of the Heb. 2?Tp T , qadhesli, (and cognate words), 
signifying 'to be holy,' i.e., 'separate' from that which 
is common or profane (sec HOLY). But there are a 
number of passages where the Heb. or Gr. terms 
are not adequately represented by the Eng. word 
"consecrate." In Mic 4 13, "devote," in Nu 6 7, 9, 12, 
"separate," "separation," in He 10 20, "dedicate," 
and in He 7 28, "perfected," all RV, are more correct 
renderings. In the majority of instances, however, 
where "consecrate" (and consecration) occur, 
they render a peculiar Ileb. expression meaning lit- 
erally ' to fill the hand,' or ' filling' with 'hand' under- 
stood (cf. Ex 32 29; Jg 17 5, 12 for passages where the 
force of the literal expression can still be discerned). 
The expression goes back probably to a remote an- 
tiquity when the priests' hands were "filled" with 
the offerings, etc., from which he derived his income. 
See PRIESTHOOD, 2a. E. E. N. 

CONSOLATION (n-apdfcXijo-w): The "consolation 
of Israel" (Lk 2 25) was an expression derived 
pro! mbly from Is 40 1 (LXX. ). The comfort or con- 
solation there predicted was popularly understood 
in later times as referring to the Messianic age 
rather than to the return from the Exile. The "con- 
solation of Israel" was consequently the time when 
the promises of the prophets would be fulfilled and 
all especially the lowly would rejoice in the rule 
of righteousness and peace. E. E. N. 

CONSPIRE, CONSPIRACY : The only instance 
where the term "conspiracy" calls for comment is Is 
8 12, where AV reads confederacy. Here the term 
qesher refers probably to the coalition of N. Israel 
and Damascus against Judah which was filling all 
minds with apprehension (cf. 7 1-2). E. E. N. 

CONSTELLATION. See ASTRONOMY, 4. 

CONSULT. See MAGIC AND DIVINATION, 3, 
and COUNCIL, COUNSEL. 

CONSUMMATION. See ESCHATOLOGY, 45. 

CONSUMPTION. See DISEASE AND MEDICINE, 
5 (3). 

CONTRIBUTION. See CHURCH, 9. 

CONTROVERSY: The Heb. word 3"!, nbh, 
often translated "controversy," means 'a case or 
suit at law' (Dtl78; II S 152). In the prophets 
the term is frequently used for Jehovah's 'case' 
against Israel. Once (Is 34 8) for the 'case' of Zion 
against Edom. E. E. N. 

CONVERSATION: This word is frequently used 
in the AV to render various terms signifying 'be- 



Conversion 

Connthi.it::, 



A STAM'AKU 1UHLE DICTIONARY 



146 



havior' or 'manner of life.' These or equivalent BX- 

preK .. : therefor.-, bren substituted in the 

KV In I'll :< -' ill- 1 ( 'r- ' ffoAi>fu/i, 'citiMuahip 

E. E. N. 

CONVERSION, CONVERT: The RV retains 

vert" only iii I's'-l i:< """I Ja5l9f. The He- 
brew ami (ire-k originals are almost uniformly 

lated i<> turn. 1 They an- applied to inanimate 
objects or to the movements of living things (cf. Jos 
19 is; IIS 23 10; Ru 1 16; Mk 5 30, 833; Lk239; 
Jnl'l :o: 11 I'l! --'>. They are most significantly 
appli.-d both in the OT uml the N T to that act in 
which the soul turns from unbelief or sin to God. 
I'aul uses iwurrpiifHiv indeed of turning away from 
the true Gospel (Gal 4 9), and there are two other 
natural uses (Lk 22 32; cf. 17 4; Ja5 19 f.). But the 

generally uses it, sometimes in close union with 
repentance, ' quasi-technically for the great crises 
when men respond to God's work of redemption 
in Christ (IThl'Jf.), and His call through the 
preaching of the Gospel (Ac 11 20 f., 26 17-20). 

W. D. M. 

CONVOCATION. See FASTS AND FEASTS, 1, 
and AS^KMBLY. 

COOK, COOKING. See FOOD AND FOOD UTEN- 
niia, 11. 

COOL: As a noun in Gn 3 8 (Heb. ruah, 'wind,' 
'breeze') it is evidently used to indicate the time of 
day when a breeze is apt to arise as the heat declines 
to its lowest degree before sunset. It was in the cool 
of the early evening that the Orientals usually roused 
themselves from their midday rest. A. C. Z. 

COOS, co'es. See Cos. 
COPING. See TEMPLE, 10. 
COPPER. See METALS, 3. 
COPPERSMITH. See ARTISAN LIFE, 11. 
COR. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 3. 

CORAL: The rendering, which is not entirely 
e-Ttain, of the Heb. ra'moth (Job 28 18; Ezk 27 16). 
In Pr 247 the same word is rendered "too high." 
Coral abounds in the Mediterranean Sea, and the va- 
riety thought to be referred to is the red coral. 

E. E. N. 

CORBAN. See SACRIFICE AND OFFERINGS, 17. 

CORD : The only instance of the occurrence of this 
word in the Bible that calls for special comment is in 
Job 30 10, where, however, the sense is obscure, and 
the text uncertain. See Davidson, ad loc., in Camb, 
Bible. E. E. N. 

CORE. See KOKAH. 
CORIANDER SEED. See MANNA. 

CORINTH (Kopivtios): The capital of Corinthia. 
Its location was incomparable strategically and com- 
iii'-rrially, iw it commanded the sole land route by the 
natural bridge; IM-IWIM-II the continent and Pelopon- 
nesun, and was supplied with deep-water harbors 
(Lechffium, Ccnchrese) on both sides of the Isth- 



mus (3i m. wide). Thessalian Minyans settled 
here c. 1350 B.C. and founded 'E$iV><' (later Kopiv- 
6os) on a plateau at the northern foot of the lofty 
(1,750 ft.) and impregnable Acro-Corinthus, which 
served as a stronghold and as the site of the temple 
of Poseidon (the natural patron-god of a seafaring 
people). The purple-fish of Greek waters early 
attracted Phoenicians to Corinth. These brought 
with them their traditions and gods (especially 
Axtiirte-Aphrodite, whose worship was impure (cf. 
the hierodouli of Cappadocia, q.v.). The Phoe- 
nieian sun-god Melkarth supplanted Poseidon on 
Acro-Corinthus, which became sacred to Melkarth 
(as Helius) conjointly with Astarte (Aphrodite), 
while the worship of Poseidon was relegated to 
the Isthmus. They introduced also many manu- 
factures, which made Corinth the center of indus- 
trial art at an early period (purple dye, artistic 
weaving, cloths, rugs, bronze objects, tables, coffers, 
armor, and pottery). Later, emigrants from Attica 
became supreme. These probably changed tin- 
name to Corinth. They glorified the games in honor 
of Poseidon at the Isthmus, and opened them to 
other states. 

The Dorian conquest, which occurred under Alet >-s 
(c. 1074 B.C.), brought a Dorian element to Corinth. 
C. was now ruled by Heraclid kings (Bacchiada;) till 
748, when kings were superseded by prytanes chosen 
annually from 200 Bacchiad families. The Dorian 
conquest did not make Corinth really Dorian; she 
detested Dorian exclusiveness and remained lux- 
urious, immoral, and commercial. A new era of 
prosperity was introduced by Cypselus (of Eolian 
stock), who expelled the Bacchiadae and reintroduced 
the monarchy 657-629 B.C. Under Periander (629- 
585) and Psammetichus (585-582) triremes were in- 
vented, and a series of trading-stations (colonies) 
were established in the W. and N., and relations with 
Miletus, Mitylene, Lydia, and Egypt were cultivated. 
The Cypselids were succeeded by the old Dorian 
conservative aristocracy, under which Corinth be- 
came famous for her wealth, luxury, extravagance, 
and licentiousness (abounding in hetoeroe, and relig- 
ious prostitutes). Hence the proverb, "I do not 
advise every man to visit Corinth." Not only Cor- 
inth's position between two seas, but the difficulty of 
circumnavigating Peloponnesus, and the easy trans- 
fer of wares and even ships by a wooden railway 
(Si'oAKor) across the Isthmus made C. the meeting- 
place of Occident and Orient, and a commercial and 
banking center. Being a commercial city, C. was 
lukewarm in the Persian wars. Later, because of her 
jealousy of the growing commerce of Athens, C. sided 
with Sparta, and incited that city to the Peloponne- 
sian War (431), but in 395-387 she joined Athens, 
Thebes, and Argos in the Corinthian War against 
Sparta. Philip and Alexander were proclaimed 
leaders of the Greeks at the Isthmian Games (in 
338 and 336). A Macedonian garrison held the Acro- 
Corinthus (335-243), and though expelled during the 
existence of the Achean League (243-222) (headed by 
Aratus) it was later restored (222-199). Corinth and 
Greece were declared free by Rome at the Games of 
196. But it later became the head of a new Achean 
League, and at the command of the Roman Senate 
was totally destroyed by Mummius in 146. The 



147 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Conversion 
Corinthians 



inhabitants were slaughtered or enslaved and the 
statues, pictures, and furniture sent to Rome. The 
place was uninhabited for 100 years, ami the site was 
cursed and given to Sicyon for the maintenance of the 
Isthmian Games. Cii'sar in 1 1 n.c. removed the curse 
and refounded the city as a Roman colony (Colonia 
Laus Julia Corinthus). The new city was confined 
to the northern plateau: temples and public build- 
ings were reconstructed. As the political capital of 
Aehaia and residence of the proconsul during the 
following 100 years C. regained her former magnifi- 
cence, luxury, and immorality. It is this Graco- 
Kdinan city which Pausanias describes, and it was in 
this city that Paul lived and wrought, and it was 
this atmosphere that made possible the excesses re- 
proved by him (cf. Ac 18 5-17, 20 2 f.; I and II Co; 
see also COKINTHIANS, EP. TO). C. maintained its 
existence until 1858, when it was annihilated by an 
earthquake. Since 1896 the site has been gradually 
bought and excavated by the American School at 
Athens. 

In earliest times Corinth patronized literature, 
but materialism gained the day and consequently 
Corinth has no place in literature, though she pro- 
duced many statesmen. In art she is famous for her 
early school of painting and for the Corinthian order 
of architecture. The colonies of C. were Syracuse, 
Solium, Ambracia, Anactorium, Leucas, Corcyra, 
Epidamnus, Apollonia, and Potida;a. The results 
of American excavations have been disappointing, 
as nothing of prime importance has been found. 

J. R. S. S. 

CORINTHIANS, EPISTLES TO THE 

ANALYSIS OP CONTENTS 



1. Review of Criticism 

2. Date of I Corinthians 

3. Condition of Church 

4. Early Correspondence 

5. Oral Information of the 

Situation 

6. Motive and Contents of 

I Corinthians 



7. Date of II Corinthians 

8. Condition of Church 

9. Sorrowful Visit 

10. Painful Letter 

11. II Corinthians a Com- 

posite Epistle 

12. Bearing of Epistles on 

Paul's Work 



These letters belong to a group of Paul's Epistles 
(Corinthians, Galatians, and Romans), whose au- 
thorship, apart from certain sporadic 

I. Criti- attacks, conspicuous by their failure 
cism of the (Evanson, 1792; Bruno Bauer, 1852; 

Epistles. Dutch Critical School, 1882), has 
never been questioned. In fact, this 
group has been made by such radical critics as the 
Tubingen School (1845) the standard of Pauline lit- 
erature, over against which the remainder of the 
canonical Epistles bearing his name were shown, to 
their satisfaction, to be pious forgeries. 

As a consequence, the chief matters of interest in 
these letters center, not in their authorship, but in 
the conditions of church life in the Apostolic Age and 
in the relations to that life borne by the work and 
the personality of Paul. 

It is evident from 16 8 f. that I Corinthians was 
written from Ephesus shortly before Pentecost. As 
to what year, it is plain that it could not have been 
that of Paul's first visit to the city, on his return 
from his second mission tour (Ac 1819, 52 A.D.), 



since the Kpistlr was written after Apollos had been 
preaching in Corinth (1 12, 16 12), which was sub- 
sequent to this time (Ac 18 24-19 i). 

2. Date of It must have been some year during 
I Corin- the longer stay in Ephesus on his third 

thians. mission tour (53-56 A.D.) most likely 
at the end of the period; since it was 
after Timothy had been sent to Corinth as the repre- 
sentative of the Apostle (4 17, 16 10) and after the 
Apostle himself had planned a journey soon to fol- 
low to the same place (4 19, 16 5, 7) which from 
Ac 19 10, 21 f. was after he had been two years en- 
gaged in his Ephesian work. The probable date 
may, therefore, be given as late in the winter or 
early in the spring of 56. 

The situation disclosed by I Corinthians is one of 

marked unspirituality among the members of the 

Christian community and of distinct 

3. Condi- pastoral anxiety for their condition on 
tion of the part of Paul. The people were re- 
Corinthian turning, in a measure, to their old pagan 

Church, habit of living, as shown particularly 
in the party spirit which seemed to 
possess them all (1 10-21, 3 3 f.), the sensuality which 
existed unrebuked among them (5 1 f.), the skeptical 
questionings to which they were giving themselves 
(15 12, 35), and the general attitude of independency 
in life and worship (89-13, 1027-33, 11 1-6, 20-22, 12- 
14) which was threatening their respect and rever- 
ence for Paul himself (4 3-19, 5 9-ll, 9 1-3). 

Indeed before I Corinthians the Apostle had been 
moved by their lack of sensitiveness to moral condi- 
tions to write the people bidding them 

4. Early not to keep company with fornicators 
Corre- (59). To this they had replied that 

spondence. the command was impracticable, indi- 
cating either an indifferent or a de- 
signed misunderstanding of it as involving the 
general population of the city (5 10) a misunder- 
standing which Paul corrects by showing them 
that his reference was to immoral members of the 
church (511). 

In this reply they also lay before the Apostle other 
troublesome problems in their church life, such as 
marriage and divorce (ch. 7), meat offered to idols 
(chs.Sand 10), the exercise of spiritual gifts (chs. 12- 
14), the collection for the Jerusalem poor (161-4), 
and the possible return to them of Apollos (16 12). 

In addition to this, oral information had come to 

him through members of the household of Chloe 

concerning the wide prevalence in the 

5. Oral community of a partizan spirit (1 ll) 
Informa- not that there existed among them 

tion as to clearly denned parties or distinct relig- 

Partizan ions sects, but that the habit of fac- 

Spirit and tionalism gathering around claimed 

Other excellencies in certain of their ministers 

Matters, and boasted superiority in certain of 

their members had generally possessed 

the church. 

Doubtless through the same informants Paul 
had learned of the aggravated case of immorality in 
the community (ch. 5) and possibly also of the litig- 
ious spirit among them (ch. 6), as well as of their 
skeptical attitude of mind toward the fact of a gen- 
eral resurrection of the dead (ch. 15). 



Coriiilln.iti.-i 



A STAM>-\l;li HIBLE DICTIONARY 



148 



It WM to rvlmke this factionalism in its various 

forms of manifestation, to denounce this skepticism 

as to tin 1 tnilli.aiul to discuss the qucs- 

6. Motive lions laid IM-I.IIV him Ihat I Corinthians 

and Con- was written. 

tents of I I. The A|K>stle takes up, first of all, 
Corin- the reported factionalism. After tell- 
thians. ing them how he had come by the news 
..f it . he visits upon it a plain and out- 
spoken reproof, which extends practically through 
the lirst thtvc chapters of the F.pistle. He shows 
them that this spirit is contrary to the divine pur- 
pose l-chind the ministry which he had accomplished 
aiming them (1 12-17) in fact, against the spirit of 
the Cos] -el itself and God's calling of them to its 
privileges (1 is-31), that it was opposed to the prin- 
ciple which had controlled his preaching of this 
.-I. not only among them (2 1-5) but in general 
(2-lfl), that it was against the spirit which had 
actuated himself ami A|K>llos in their ministry to 
them (:> 1-1:1) and against, the true spirituality of the 
life implanted in them Uydod (3 16-23). 

II. Such plainness of speech, however, calls for 
a|H)logy, which he gives (4 1-5), stating that the rea- 
son for his reproof had been his desire for a humble- 
ness of life in them such a.s was .seen in Apollos and 
himself (1 6-lti), to bring which desire to realization 
lie had sent to them Timothy (4 17-21). 

III. With his mind relieved on this first point of 
dilliciilty between them, he takes up the reported 
immorality (ch. 5), accusing them not of being them- 

immoral, but of not being sensitive to those 
of their number who were, and that too although the 
particular case which had been cited to him as con- 
doned by them was one of infamous nature (5 l f. ). 
He prescribes the punishment in the case, which 
apparently involved exposing the offender to the 
infliction of a miraculous death (cf. case of Ananias 
and Sapphira, Ac 5 1-11), though with the purpose of 
the saving of his soul in the day of judgment (5 3-5). 
He then renews his reproof of their lack of moral 
judgment, taking occasion to remind them of his 
commands to them on this matter in his former 
(unpreserved) letter (5 6-13). 

IV. In ch. 6 he conies to their irritating habit 
of going to law in cases of dispute among themselves. 

LOWS them that such a spirit is out of all har- 
mony with the high dignity of their relationship to 
the world and the true fellowship of their relations 
to one another (6 1-11), which leads him to a state- 
ment of (lie principle of Christian liberty, though 
the especial application he makes of the prin- 
ciple is to the matter of immoral relationships 
(0 12-20). 

V. 1. This application presents to him the first 
"f (he specific questions laid before him in the letter 
from the ( 'hurch the question concerning marriage. 
On this he takes high ground. He holds marriage 
to be wise and honorable (7 1-7) a bond not to be 
loosened even where it involves an unbelieving com- 
panion (78-17). In general, he holds that exist ing 

nships Ixith in and out of wedlock should best 
remain as they are, though his personal preference is 
for tin- mmmrried state (7 18-40). 

The second question concerns the eating of 
meats offered to idols, in reply to which he urges the 



principle of a self-denying regard for others' opinion 
(ch. 8), as illustrative of which principle he refers to 
liis own action in the matter of receiving support 
from churches, answering objections to his course 
(9 1-27), and exhorting against a spirit of self-conli- 
dence (10 1-13), and against idolatry (10 14-22). To 
this he adds a fuller statement of the principles of 
Christian liberty (1023-11 1). 

3. There then follows a rather prolonged discus- 
sion of the complicated question of public worship 
(11 2-14 40). He considers first the matter of appro- 
priate head apparel in their assemblies (11 2-ie), 
from which he proceeds to the vital situation in- 
volved in their conduct of the Lord's Supper, which 
had grown so disorderly as not only to become a 
scandal but to bring a deadening influence on their 
spiritual life (11 17-34). Finally he takes up the 
confusion which had fallen upon their exercise of 
spiritual gifts, disclosing the spirit of order and 
mutual service that should actuate it (ch. 12), 
while he leads them up to a consideration of love as 
the greatest gift of all (ch. 13) and shows them the 
practical worth and value of the gift of speaking 
with tongues (ch. 14). 

4. With ch. 15 he apparently digresses to the orally 
reported difficulties in the Church, and takes up one 
of the most important and significant of their troub- 
les their skeptical attitude of mind toward the 
resurrection. With great earnestness and apolo- 
getic skill he meets the objections raised against 
the doctrine, showing how it is necessitated by the 
historical fact of the resurrection of Christ (15 1-19) 
and by principles involved in Christ's relationship 
to them (15 20-28) and fundamental to their spiritual 
life (1523-58). 

6. In ch. 16 he returns to the stated questions 
from the Church first that concerning the collection 
ordered among them for the Jerusalem poor, which 
was evidently languishing for lack of proper method 
(16 1-4), and finally, after a discussion of his own 
and Timothy's plans of travel (16 5-11), that concern- 
ing their request for the return of Apollos to them 
a request which the Apostle himself had favored, but 
Apollos for the present had declined (16 12). 

This ends the Epistle's message, and a few verses 
bring it to its conclusion (16 13-24). 

The Second Epistle was written after Paul had 

left Ephesus and had come by way of Troas into 

Macedonia (2 12 f.). He had been 

7. Date despondent about the Corinthian 
of II church before leaving Ephesus and had 

Corin- consequently sent Titus (by the short 
thians. sea route) to Corinth for a betterment 

of its affairs. Titus had met him in 
Macedonia, coming north from Corinth (75-7; cf . 2 
12 f . ). If Paul left Ephesus in the spring or the sum- 
mer of 56, II Corinthians was written in the summer 
or the autumn of the same year. 

The situation in Corinth at the time 

8. Con- II Corinthians was written is a develop- 
dition of the ment of that disclosed by the First 

Church. Epistle. The moral sensitiveness of 
the community seems to have im- 
proved, but the factionalism appears to have con- 
centrated itself in an actual movement of hostility 
against Paul (1 15-17, 2 5-10, 10 10 f., 11 5-12, 16, 12 11, 



11!) 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Corinthians 



15-18, 13 1 f., 5-7), emanating seemingly from the 
Christ party (10 7, 11 13, 22 f., 13 3) and in all like- 
lihood possessing the spirit, if not actuated by the 
claims, of the Judaizers (11 4 f. fcf. Gal 1 6, 2 6-8], 11 
13-15 [of. Gal 1 8 f.], 11 18-20 [cf. Gal 2 4, 4 3, 9, 5 l]). 

That this development endangered the relation- 
ship of Paul to the Corinthian Church of course 
needs no proof. Its seriousness, however, gives sig- 
nificance to several indications in II Corinthians 
that the Apostle had been personally involved in the 
process by which it had come to its strength. 

There are, for example, certain passages which 

seem to show that the visit to Corinth Paul has in 

mind when writing is to be his third 

9. Sorrow- visit to that city (12 14, 13 1-3), while 
ful Visit, it has promise of being a second visit 

of sorrow (21, 1221). The explana- 
tion formerly given, by which these passages were 
referred to the Apostle's third plan to go to them, 
rather than to his third actual visit, is now generally 
abandoned, and a visit, unrecorded in Acts, is ad- 
mitted to have been made from Ephesus after I 
Corinthians. Its occasion was the development of 
this personal hostility which Timothy, who had been 
sent to Corinth in connection with the First Epistle, 
had apparently been unable to hold in check. Its 
result was unsuccessful (1010f.), and the Apostle 
returned to Ephesus in great despondency of mind, 
from which he had not recovered when he left the 
city (2 12 f., 7 5). 

All this is borne out by certain other passages 
which seem to hint at another letter sent by the 

Apostle to Corinth a letter of "many 

10. Pain- tears," written out of "much affliction 
ful Letter, and anguish of heart" (24, 78-12) 

a description that can not suit I Corin- 
thians, which, though a letter of censure and shame, 
was written rather in a balance between anger and 
meekness (I Co 4 21) than in the abandonment of 
grief. Added significance to the foregoing descrip- 
tion is afforded by the fact that it is found in the 
passages which refer to events evidently connected 
with this unrecorded visit (2 1 f. [3 f.], 5-8 [9], lOf.) 
and with Titus' mission in the emergency (7 5-7 
[8f.], 10 f. [12], 13-16). 

Apart, however, from all such admissions regard- 
ing a special letter of tears, though gaining signifi- 
cant interest through them, there has 

11. II Cor- been a growing conviction among 
inthians a. scholars that the peculiar difference in 
Composite tone and contents of chs. 1-9 from chs. 

Epistle. 10-13 points to the composite character 
of II Corinthians. The cheerful and 
sat isfied character of the earlier chapters discloses a 
situation in the Church of general loyalty to the 
Apostle; the dissatisfied and anxious character of 
the latter chapters betrays one of general disloyalty 
to him. In fact, when we note the peculiar cross- 
references between 23 and 13 10, 1 23 and 132, 29, 
and 10 6, it would seem that the states of feeling on 
the Apostle's part, which in the later passages are 
considered as threatening the Corinthians, in the 
earlier passages are regarded as laid aside and re- 
moved as though between the situation referred 
to in chs. 10-13 and that referred to in chs. 1-9 there 
had come a change for the better. 



In view of these peculiarities it would appear not 
only that these last four chapters were written be- 
fore the first nine, but that they contain at least a 
portion of the painful letter, written after Paul's 
return to Ephesus from the unsuccessful visit a 
position which gains significance from the fact that 
in the foregoing cross-references those in the earlier 
chapters (1 23, 2 3, 9) are all taken from the pas- 
sages which expressly refer to this visit and the 
letter connected with it. 

This theory is strongly confirmed when the con- 
tents of these chapters are considered in the order in 
which this arrangement places them. 

In chs. 8 and 9 Paul is urging upon them the col- 
lection for the Judsean saints, citing the generous 
spirit of the Macedonian churches as a stimulus 
to their own benevolence and disclosing the spiritual 
rewards that follow upon a liberal giving. Through- 
out his appeal he leaves no doubt as to his confi- 
dence in what they will do in the matter the chap- 
ter ending with a thanksgiving that suggests the 
hope he has of them. 

In contrast to this, ch. 10 begins abruptly with an 
assertion of his apostolic authority, over against a 
state of criticism and open hostility toward him such 
as is not hinted at in any of the preceding chapters 
(101-11). In proof of the fact of his authority he 
cites three things: (a) The independence of his 
ministry (10 12-18), which united with it a jealousy 
of affection for them (11 1-15) an affection which 
was all the more marked in comparison with the sel- 
fishness of his opponents' conduct (11 16-21a), which 
lacked the background of the labors and sufferings 
that belonged to all his missionary life (11 21b-33); 
(6) the visions granted him by God (12 1-4), to- 
gether with the infirmities laid upon him by the 
same divine hand and the contact with God's 
strength into which these weaknesses brought him 
(125-10); (c) the manifestation of his apostolic power 
in the working of miracles among them (12 11-13). 
This assertion of his challenged authority is then 
followed by a passage which, for the heaviness of 
heart and bitterness of spirit that it discloses, is 
unique among Paul's writings (1214-1310). It is 
burdened with anxious fear for the stability of his 
relations to them (12 14-21), while it is sharp with 
threatened action against them at his coming (13 
1-10). With this his message closes. 

When we turn to the first nine chapters this stress 
and strain would seem to be all over. The opening 
chapter, to be sure, takes up a criticism which is 
being urged against him by the people; but the 
charge is a mild one, concerning simply his delay in 
coming to them as he had promised, which seemed 
to them to be a show of fickleness (1 15-17). This 
charge he meets in a spirit of abounding confidence 
in his own sincerity and in their loyalty toward him 
(1 12-14), showing that his delay had been due to his 
desire to spare them in giving himself time to re- 
cover from his sorrow over their condition and them- 
selves time for a change of their condition, indicating 
that the case of hostility toward him, which they 
had furnished, should now be forgiven by them, as it 
practically had already been by himself (1 182 10). 
Then, after showing how his anxiety to hear from 
them through Titus had left him no peace of mind 



Corinthians 
Cosmogony 



A STANDARD BIRLE DICTIONARY 



150 



on liis journey (Jl.'f. ), 1.. y a short transi- 

tion (LMt-lT), ID :i review of his ministry among I IK-MI, 
ippmval of it over against 

. unfririully element as .;till remained in the 
-eh. Beibowi the fruit of sen-ice to ! (In- 
proof of :i tnit- ministry (31-11), while he displays 
Ix'forv them tin- plainness and honesty of his 
preaching ('! i-'-4 6) and at the same time the hard- 
ship of his ministry and the secret of his endurance 
(4 7-5 10), closing with an assertion of the absence 
from his mind of all spirit of self-glory (5 11-21) and 
an exhort a I inn to them to make their lives effective 
in the service to which they were called (61-10). 
This is evidently the end of his message; for there 
f. .Hows u|H>nthis simply the practical warning against 
fellowship with unbelievers (0 11-7 1 unless 6 14-7 1 
Ix- a remnant of his first letter to them, referred to in 
I ( 'o 5 9 f. ), a plea for yet closer fellowship with them, 
with an acknowledgment of the comfort their loy- 
alty toward him had already produced (7 2-16) and 
the urging on them of the Jerusalem collection (chs. 
8 and 9; see above). 

It is seen from this that, while in both sections in 
our II Corinthians there is a personal element in the 
motive for the writing, there is between them a 
marked difference of direction in which this motive 
proceeds. In chs. 10-13 it is straight toward a 
determination to meet and master the hostility 
which had manifested itself against the Apostle since 
I Corinthians, but in chs. 1-9 it is all toward a de- 
sire to lay hold of and safeguard the loyalty which 
had finally shown itself in the church. 

With such an understanding of the contents of 
these two parts of our Epistle and of the purpose 
which lay behind them, it would seem that the 
only arrangement of them possible is that of the 
theory that chs. 10-13 belong to the painful let- 
ter written at Ephesus and chs. 1-9 to the letter 
which followed it on the journey from Ephesus to 
Corinth. 

There would thus be four letters of Paul to the 
Corinthians: (1) The initial letter of prohibition, re- 
ferred to in I Co 5 9 !., and possibly preserved in frag- 
ment in II Co 6 14-7 l. (2) The letter in answer to 
the Corinthian communication and preserved in our 
I Corinthians. (3) The painful letter, preserved 
in part in II Co 10-13. (4) The final letter, pre- 
served practically entire in II Co 1-9. 

It is a fact that there was a correspondence be- 
tween Paul and the Corinthian church which had 
not been preserved that led in the latter half of 
the 2d cent, to the forging of two apocryphal Cor- 
inthian letters one from the church to Paul and 
the other a reply of Paul to the church. They 
formed originally a part of the old Acts of Paid and 
were admitted by the ancient Syrian and Armenian 
churches into the N T which they ac- 
12. What cepted and read. 

the Epis- \\hen Paul went into Europe on 
ties Show his second mission tour his work was 
of Paul's carried on much more among the Glen- 
Work, tiles and was consequently different 
in its character from what it had been 
previously. The cities of his first tour, though in 
Asia Minor, were much nearer Syria and, therefore, 
more likely to have in them a distinctive Jewish 



element. In fact, Ac 16 1-4 shows us that, while 
.still having this near-by region in mind as his im- 
mediate field of labor, Paul felt the Jewish situa- 
tion must be especially respected in the way his 
work was done. 

In Europe, however, not only was the Jewish 
element in the communities less in number and in 
influence (cf. Ac 16 13, 18 12-17), but in view of the 
agreement reached at the Jerusalem Council (Gal 
2 9) the Gentiles were now much more specifically 
and admittedly the object of Paul's work. The 
Corinthian Epistles disclose the character of that 
European work as it developed in a large city center 
among people uninstructed in religious principles, 
whose difficulties and shortcomings were not so 
much in the direction of doctrinal preconceptions as 
of sheer ignorance of doctrinal truth and crude con- 
ceptions of ethical obligation. 

In other words, the Corinthian Christians being 
predominantly gentile, these Epistles show us that, 
in spite of the Apostle's long residence among them, 
they still tended toward a liberalism of Christian 
living, which seriously threatened their moral char- 
acter, while they retained enough of the partizan 
spirit of the old Greek paganism to endanger vitally 
that Christian brotherhood which was the heart of 
their religion. It is evident, therefore, that the Cor- 
inthian stage of Christianity was not so developed 
in its knowledge and in its disputes as the stage of 
the more Jewish churches in Galatia though it was 
clearly more developed than that of the gentile 
church in Thessalonica. Consequently whatever 
Judaizing element may have entered into the opposi- 
tion which developed against the Apostle between I 
and II Corinthians, it must have been of a less ad- 
vanced kind than that which animated the great 
controversy in Galatia. For though it is clear that 
another Gospel was being preached among the 
people (II Co 11 4, 12 f.; cf. Gal 1 6), there is no 
evidence that the propaganda of circumcision as 
necessary to salvation was being carried on. If this 
was the same movement as the Galatian as would 
seem generally to be the fact it was concerning 
itself rather with the preliminary personal opposi- 
tion to Paul's apostleship than with the central 
debate and controversy over doctrinal truth (cf. 
II Co 10 1-3, 11 5, 12 11; Gal 1 l, 15, 17, 2 6). 

LITERATURE: Among the N T Introductions accessible to 
English readers Jiilicher 6 , 1906 (Eng. transl. 1904), may 
be consulted for the more advanced critical views, and the 
unexampled treasure-house of Zahn 3 , 1906 (Eng. transl. 
1907), explored for the conservative positions. Consult 
also the introductions to the Commentaries of Schmiedel, 
1891; Heinrici, I Co, 1896; II Co 1900; Bachmann, 
1905; Findlay, I Co, 1900; Bernard. II Co, 1903 (the 
last two in The Expositor's Greek Testament). 

For a description of the Corinthian situation consult, be- 
sides Zahn's Introduction, von Dobschiitz's Christian 
Life in the Primitive Church (chs. 2-4), 1904. 

For the composition of II Co, consult Hausrath Der Vier- 
kapitetbrief des Paulus an die Korinther, 1870. with 
reply by Klopper in his Commentar iiber d. zweite Send- 
schreiben an die Gemcinde in Korinth, 1874 ; also Kennedy, 
The Second and Third Epistles to the Corinthians. 1900; 
and art. "The Problem of Second Corinthians" in Her- 
mathena, No. XXIX. 1903, with contrary view in Intro- 
duction to Bernard's Com. above. Jf \y_ J. 

CORMORANT. See PALESTINE, 25. 

CORN. See AGRICULTURE, 4-7, and FOOD, 1. 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Corinthians 
Cosmogony 



CORNELIUS, cf.r-ni'li-us (Kopvfaios) : A Ro- 
man official referred to in Ac 10 as a centurion of the 
"Italian bund " (q.v.) and resident in Csesarea, either 
in connection with his troops stationed there or on 
detached duty from his command, or even possibly 
retired altogether from active service, his Roman 
name probably indicating that he himself was an 
Italian. 

At the same time the terms in which he is relig- 
iously described (ver. 2, "a devout man and one that 
feared God," et>o-c/3f}c [differing from "devout," 
iJXa/3iJ, of Jews, Ac 2 5, 8 2, 22 12] KOI fapovfifvos 
TOV Qeov; ver. 22, "a righteous man and one that 
feareth God," SUcuot ical Qofiovpevos TOV Beov) show 
him to have belonged to those half-way followers of 
Judaism who, though not circumcized (of. ver. 28 
with 113) and consequently not members of the 
congregation of Israel, had in their feeling after the 
true God adopted certain Jewish practises (cf. vs. 
2, 30), in virtue of which they not only came into 
good favor with the Jews (cf. ver. 22; also Lk 7 4), but 
were permitted to take part in the worship of the 
Synagogue (cf. Ac 13 16, 26, 43, 17 17). He was thus 
of a class who were neither 'proselytes of the gate,' 
nor 'proselytes of righteousness'; in fact, from the 
evident conflate reading, Ac 13 43 (TW o-f/3o/*e'vwy 
irpoa-Tj\vTit>v), not proselytes at all. Under these 
circumstances the baptized admission of himself 
and his household into the Christian brotherhood 
(ver. 47 f.) was such a breach of the Jewish prin- 
ciples which then ruled in the Church that upon his 
return to Jerusalem Peter was called to account for 
his connection with the incident (11 2f.). His justi- 
fication of his action on the basis of the visions re- 
ceived by himself and Cornelius and the outpouring 
upon the convert of the gifts of the Holy Spirit was 
accepted and the case was doubtless treated as ex- 
ceptional, its significant relation to the ideal racial 
unity within the Church not being comprehended. 

LITERATURE: For the military status of Cornelius in Cses- 
area, cf. Ramsay, Was Christ Born in Bethlehem f (1898, 
pp. 260-269); Expos., Sept. and Dec., 1896, Jan., 1897; 
Rackham, Acts in Westminster Corns., note, p. 146. For 
the relation to Judaism of the class to which C. belonged 
cf. Schurer, HJP. II, ii., 311-327. For the bearing of 
the incident on the development of the early Church, cf. 
works on Apostolic Age by Bartlett (1899, p. 41 f.), and 
McGiffert (1897, p. 107 f.) ; Rackham, Acts in Westm. 
Corns. ; Knowling, Acts in Expos. Gr. Test. 

M. W. J. 

CORNER : The exact equivalent of the Heb. pin- 
nah, pdnah, zawiyyoth, and the Gr. yiavia, the ma- 
jority of instances where the word occurs. The word 
is also used to render (1) pa'am, 'foot' (Ex 25 12, 
AV); (2) miqtso'a, 'angle' (Ex2623); (3) pe'ah, 
'quarter' or 'side' (Ex 25 26); (4) kanaph, 'wing' (Is 
11 12); (5) katheph, 'shoulder' (II K 11 11, AV); 
(6) tsela', 'rib' (Ex 304, AV); (7) qatsah, 'end' 
(K\-274); (8) Hoph'al participle of qats'a, 'turn' 
(Ezk 4622); and (9) the Gr. ap x h 'beginning' (Ac 
1011). A. C. Z. 

CORNER GATE, GATE OF THE CORNER. 

See JERUSALEM, 32. 

CORNER-STONE: In Is 28 16 the "precious cor- 
ner-stone" that J" is to lay in Zion is the great prin- 



ciple of genuine- failh in Him, in contrast to the false 
confidence exhibited by the prophet's contempo- 
raries. In Ps 118 22 it is Zion (viewed ideally) over 
against the world (its oppressor) that is the corner- 
stone of J". In the N T both of these ideas are sub- 
ordinated to the application of the passages to Christ 
as fulfilling them in the widest sense possible (Mk 12 
10 and ||s; Ac 4 12; Eph 2 20; I P 2 6f.). E. E. N. 

CORNET. See Music, 3 (5). 
CORN-FLOOR. See AGRICULTURE, 6. 

CORPSE. See BURIAL AND BURIAL CUSTOMS, 
1, and PURIFICATIONS, 6. 

CORRECT, CORRECTION. See CHASTEN. 

CORRUPTION, MOUNT OF (UK 23 13): The 
literal meaning of the Heb. mashhUh is 'des- 
troyer,' though it may have been taken in this 
passage in the sense of 'destruction.' The reference is 
probably to the S. elevation of the Mount of Olives, 
afterward called the Mount of Offense. E. E. N. 

COS (Kcir, Coos AV): A long, narrow island 
between the promontories of Cnidus and Halicar- 
nassus (Ac 211). The ancient capital, A stypalcea, 
was supplanted by the town Cos (366 B.C.). Cos 
belonged to the Dorian Hexapolis and the Athenian 
Confederacy. It was declared free by Claudius. 
The island was often devastated by earthquakes. 
Cos was much favored by Herod. It was the birth- 
place of Apelles, Hippocrates, Aristo, and Ptolemy 
Philadelphus. It contained a temple of Asklepios 
and a medical school and was also a banking 
center. J. R. g. g. 

COSAM (Kwo-a'/i): One of the ancestors of Jesus 
(Lk328). E. E. N. 

COSMOGONY 

ANALYSIS or CONTENTS 

1. The Biblical Accounts of 4. The Babylonian Creation 

Creation Epic 

2. Gn l'-2< 5. Superiority of the Bib- 

3. Gn l-2 and Modern lical Account 

Science 

Besides a number of references in the poetical 
books (e.g., Job 26, 38; Ps. 24 2, 104), the O T con- 
tains two chief accounts of the Creation, 
i. The (a) Gn 1-2 4a belongs to the Priestly 
Biblical narrative (see HEXATEUCH), whose 
Accounts regard for system is seen in the ar- 
of Crea- rangement of the entire book under 
tion. ten generations or 'begettings' (2 4 a , 
5 l, 11 10, etc.). In the case of "the 
heavens and the earth," the term "generation" is, 
of course, employed figuratively; and 2 4 a probably 
stood originally before 1 1 i.e., at the beginning of 
its section, as in the other occurrences of the expres- 
sion. The characteristic formal arrangement of the 
Priestly writer is also seen in the recurrence of stere- 
otyped formulas in Gn 1-2 4 a : "And God said," 
"and it was so," "and God saw that it was good," 
and there was evening and there was morning, 
a ... day." (6) Cn24bff. is from the earlier 
Jehovistic narrative, and differs from 1-2 4a not 



Cosmogony 



\ SI \ND\i: I> IUHLE DICTIONARY 



only in l-in;; mure simple, concrete, and anthropo- 

rphic. > iis content. It is concerned 

ahni..-t entirely with the creation of man, and the 

.m' secondary. 

Turning now to (in 1 'J^i. we notice that there 

distinguished by charac- 

ic formulas; and of these one falls 

2. Gn (m each day. excepting the third and 

: i 14*. sixth days, which have two works each. 

Again, the six days arc divided into two 

groups of three each, whose relation of preparation 

and accomplishment will at once be seen from the 

following summary: 

iht. 

2. The waters divided by the 
firmament. 



3. (a) Dry land separated 
(mm thewMU. (6) Veiee- 
tation. 

7. Sabbath of Rest. 



4. Unlit*: sun, moon, and 

r>. Living creatures in the 
HUNT*, mid birds that 
fly in front of U'' 1 ' 1 - '"" 
the fnce of ') the firma- 
ment. 

ll. (a) Land animals. (l>) 
Man. 



Without attempting a detailed exegesis of Gn 
1-2 4a. the following points should be mentioned for 
their bearing u|>n the general subject under dis- 
n: I In' Hebrew word bard ('create,' Gn 1 1), 
while it here denotes the production by Divine power 
of something fundamentally new, does not necessaiilj' 
mean 'to i :iiiln. An original creation out 

of nothing is not denied by <!n 1, but the narrative 
begins no farther back than the picturing of a vast, 
dark, chaoti, . watery mass (cf. IIP 3 5), upon the 
face (i.e., surface) of which the spirit (literally 
'breath') of God was brooding as a bird over her 
nest. 1 The syntax of vcr. l is obscure; it should 
be translated probably as follows: 'In the begin- 
ning of Cod's creating the heavens and the earth 
now the earth was without form and void and dark- 
'.vas upon the face of the deep then God said, 
Let there be light.' The primeval light is here rep- 
lied as something in itself, independent of the 
luminaries (cf. vcr. 14(1.). Furthermore, darkness 
. to be thought of as having a distinct existence 
and abode, and not as the mere absence of light (cf. 
(in 1 5, is with Job '_'<! 10, 3819 f.). 

It already appears that the conceptions of Gn 
1-2 4a are not exactly those of modern astronomy, 
geology, or paleontology. Other dis- 
3. Gn crepancics might be noted, of which the 
l'-24 and following are perhaps the most obvious: 
Modern (1) There is no reason for supposing 
Science, that the Hebrew word y6m in Gn 1 is 
used in any but its ordinary sense of a 
day of twenty-four hours; but even if the writer 
this word figuratively, the periods there men- 
tioned could not possibly be identified with the geo- 
s. (L>) The sun and stars sire said to 
have been created after the earth. (3) According 
toCn 1 there is light, and evening and morning, be- 
fore there is a sun. (I ) Plant life precedes sunlight. 
I '.in Is precede all land animals, and vegetation is 
complete in its highest, forms before any animal life 
appears. 

> See ( Ixf.ird Hrljm, Genesis,' 5 5. 



Attempts to reconcile these statements with the 
teachings of modern science have been marked 
either by a dogmatic denial of .scientific truths ' or 
by a distortion of the plain meaning of Hebrew and 
h words. The efforts of the most eminent 
harmonists 2 are remarkable only for their uniform 
failure.' "Read without prejudice or bias, the nar- 
rative of Gn 1 creates an impression at variance with 
the /acts revealed by science: the efforts at reconcilia- 
tion . . . are but different modes of ... reading 
into it o view which it does not express" (the italics 
are Canon Driver's). The preeminence of the relig- 
ious conceptions of the narrative will be dealt with 
later; but we can not, and need not, escape from the 
conclusion that here, as elsewhere in the Bible, the 
inspired writer shares the 'scientific' beliefs of his 
contemporaries. 

The Hebrew conception of the universe or world 
may be brieBy stated as follows: The earth is the 
center of all; apparently a circular disk (cf. Is 40 22) 
restingupon unseen foundations (Job 380; Zee 121). 
The firmament (sky or heaven), like a thin, solid 
dome (cf. Job 22 14, "vault" [circuit AV]; Pr827, 
circle [compass AV]; Ps 1049, "bounds"), re- 
strains the waters above it (Gn 1 6), except when 
its windows are opened to let down rain (Gn 711). 
The firmament also rests upon mysterious founda- 
tions (II S 22 8; Job 26 11). In it are fastened the 
luminaries (Gn 1 14-17), which move in their fixed 
courses. Sometimes a plurality of heavens ( ? seven ; 
cf. II Co 12 2; Eph 4 10) are spoken of (Dt 10 14; Ps 
148 4), in the highest of which God dwells (Dt 26 15; 
II Ch 6 21; Am 9 6, upper chambers, rather than 
"stories" [i.e., 'success! ve heights'] of AV). Within 
the mass of the earth is the dark abode of the de- 
parted, called Sheol, Abaddon, Hades, or the Pit (Nu 
16 33; Ps 15 11; Is 38 18; cf. Rev 6 8, 9 11). Beneath 
the earth is the great deep (Is 51 10), whose store- 
houses and fountains (Gn 7ll) feed the seas. 

Such a rapid generalization, however, is apt to 
give the impression that the O T portrays a very 
rigid, mechanical universe; and the outlines of the 
picture need to be softened by a consideration of the 
following important facts: There is no single con- 
nected passage which describes the cosmos as a con- 
sistent whole, or even brings together all the funda- 
mental conceptions just mentioned. A very large 
proportion of the cosmological references are found 
in formal poetry, and ought not to be interpreted as 
literal prose; while many others are in highly figura- 
tive prophecy or apocalypse. The inspired writers 
showed no more hesitancy in employing metaphors 
that were shifting and contradictory than do we in 
using these very same crystallized figures of speech 
in our modern poetry and colloquial prose. 4 Along 
the horizon everything is vague and mysterious; 
concerning some things all that the Bible tells is 

1 K.U., Keil, Genesis. 

! E.g., Prof. Arnold Guyot, Creation (1893); Prof. J. D. 
Dana, in Bib. Sacra, Apl., 1885; Sir J. W. Dawson, The 
Origin of the World According to Kerelntiini mid Science 
(1893); Wm. E. Gladstone, The ImprcgnaMr Hm-k of Holy 
Scripture. 

3 See further H. Morton, 'The Cosmogony of Genesis 
and Its Reconcilers,' in B b. Sacra, Apl. and July. 1897. 

4 To compare 'the sun rises' \vith Ps 19 * " is the redltctio 
ad absurdum for a too mechanical criticism. 



153 



A STANDARD HIHL1C DICTIONARY 



Cosmogony 



that man knows nothing about thorn; indeed, the 
whole question of the; original creation and present 
structure of the universe is frequently stated to be 
beyond the comprehension of the human reason (e.g., 
Jer 3137; Is 40; Job 20 14, 30 29, 37l6f., 38). In 
other words, the O T does not draw the universe in 
plan and elevation, but paints it in perspective, seen 
from man's point, of view; UK; instrument^ used 
are not the theodolite and telescope, but the brush 
and palette of poetic imagery. In the light of such 
an understanding of the Hebrew cosmology, one 
class of apologetic problems simply vanishes. 



The cuneiform text just mentioned dates from the 
7th cent. B.C., but the poem was originally cmnj . 
probably at least, as early as 2000 B.C. This great 
epic, entitled" When in the Height," from its opening 
words, consists of 994 lines, divided into seven sec- 
tions of approximately equal length, each inscribed 
upon a separate tablet. "The poem embodies the 
beliefs of the Babylonians and Assyrians concerning 
the origin of the universe; it describes the coming 
forth of the gods from chaos, and tells the story of 
how the forces of disorder, represented by the prime- 
val water-gods, Apsu and Tiamat, were overthrown 




MARDUK'S FIGHT WITH TIA*MAT. 



The narrative of Gn 1-2 4a has points in common 
with several ancient cosmogonies; 1 but archeolo- 
gists are now agreed that its immediate 
4. The source is to be found in the beliefs 
Babylonian concerning the beginning of the uni- 
Creation verse which were held by the Assyrians 
Epic. and Babylonians. 2 These beliefs have 
long been known in an incomplete form 
through Greek-Christian references to the writings of 
Berossus, a Babylonian priest (c. 300 B.C.); but it 
was not until 1875 that fragments of a cuneiform 
account of the Creation were discovered at Nineveh 
by George Smith. Since then other tablets have 
been brought to light, until we now have more than 
enough to indicate the general plan of the Baby- 
lonian cosmogony. 3 

1 See Dillmarm, Genesis (trans. 1897), pp. 27-94; EB, 
s.v. Creation. 

2 For other parallels between Hebrew and Babylonian 
narratives, see articles FLOOD, PARAOISE, EDEN. 

8 See L. W. King, The Seven Tablets of Creation (1902), 
vol. I, translation and notes; also his more popular Baby- 
lonian Religion and Mythology (1899), pp. 53-120. 



by Ea and Marduk respectively, and how Mar- 
duk, after completing the triumph of the gods 
over chaos, proceeded to create the world and 
man" (King). Its central theme is the glorifica- 
tion of Marduk, the supreme god of Babylon, 
and the actual account of the creation of the 
world does not begin till near the end of the Fourth 
Tablet. The Seventh Tablet gives the fifty titles 
of Marduk, and ends the poem with a fine hymn 
of praise. A few lines from the opening and clo- 
sing are given to illustrate the style of the epic 
(King's translation): 

" WHEN IN THE HEIGHT heaven was not named, 

And the earth beneath did not yet bear a name, 

And the primeval Apsu, who begat them, 

And chaos, Thtmat, the mother of them both, 

Their waters were mingled together, 

And no field was formed, no marsh was to be seen; 

When of all the gods none had been called into being, 

And none bore a name, and no destinies [were ordained]; 

Then were created the gods in the midst of [heaven], 

Lahmu and Lahamu were called into being [. .]. 

Ages increased [. , . .], 

Then Ansar and Kisar were created. . . ," 



Cosmogony 



A ST\M)\l;i) BIB1.10 DICTIONARY 



l.-. I 



EriLoou*. 

'Let thrm [i.c . the namr.i of Manluk] lx> held in rcmem 

branoe, and let the first man proclaim them; 
Let the wine and the understanding consider them together 
I ! the (athrr repeat them and teach them to his son; 
Let thorn be in the ear* of the pastor and the shepherd ! 
Ijel a man rrjuicf in Mnrduk. the Lord of the gods, 
That he may cause his land to t fruitful, and that he 
himself may have prosperity I " etc. 

A study of (he entire epic reveals many remark- 

:il)lc parallels between the Hebrew and Babylonian 

narratives. The general course of the two accounts 

is the some, anil the following specific agreements 

(among others) are striking: (1) Both narratives 

i with a description of primeval chaos. (2) 

The early creation of light (Gn 1 3) is paralleled in 

the original form of the Babylonian myth, according 

to which Manluk was a solar deity. In both ac- 

counts there is light before the creation of the lumi- 

naries. (3) The deep (t'hOm) of Gn 1 2 shows even 

a verbal similarity to the Babylonian chaos-monster, 

TiAmat; and the occasional personification of the 

ileep as a sullen, pouching monster (Dt 33 13; see 

also SERPENT, DUAOON, KAHAB, LEVIATHAN) 

is undoubtedly a survival of the Babylonian 

dragon myth. (4) The creation of a firmament to 

divide the waters (Gn 1 6) is parallel to the act of 

Manluk, who used half of the cleft body of Tianiat 

for a similar purpose. (5) The Biblical account of 

the creation of the heavenly bodies (Gn 1 14-19) finds 

an exceedingly close parallel in the beginning of the 

Tifth Tablet. (6) In each narrative the culmina- 

ting act is the creation of man. According to the 

Babylonian epic, he was made from the blood of 

Marduk, who spoke thus: 

"My blood will I take, and bone will I [fashion], 
I will make man, that man may .... 
I will create man who shall inhabit [the earth?], 
That the service of the gods may be established, and that 
[their] shrines [may be built]." 

Finally, though it is not mentioned in what has 

been recovered of the creation epic, the Sabbath 

(q.v.) (Gn22f.) was probably of Babylonian origin.' 

To the thoughtful and reverent student, however, 

these resemblances in the framework 

5. Superior- of the Hebrew and Babylonian cos- 

ity of the mogonies will only serve to emphasize 

Biblical the infinite superiority of the content 

Account, of the Biblical narrative. The Baby- 

lonian epic is verbose in language and 

grotesque in its polytheism; chaos is anterior to 

deity, and Marduk gains the supremacy only after 

a fearful struggle. In Gn 1-2 4a the language is 

simple yet majestic, God is from the beginning su- 

preme. ui'l the processes of creation are but the or- 

derly working out of His unimpeded plan. 2 

The foregoing considerations lead to two conclu- 
sions: (1) Historically: there must have been a 
long period of naturali/.ation in Palestine to allow 
the Babylonian cosmogony to be so refined and 
stripped of all ite mythological features. The Baby- 
lonian creation legends were probably already cur- 



i' In t ! 1 *^r < ^ ond , "s*^ Btory <w 

coloring is distinctly Babylonian. 

' The divergences between the Hebrew and Babylonian 
narrative* are emphasised by Morris Jastrow. Jr., in the 
JtmiH Quarterly Review. July, 1901, pp. 020-654 



rent in Canaan when the Israelites entered the Prom- 
ised Land. (2) While Gn 1-2 4a does not attempt 
tn teach .scientific facts which we coukl find out for 
ourselves, its revelation of transcendent religious 
truths evidences the guidance of the Holy Spirit. 
The general outline of the Babylonian epic survived, 
together with the common Semitic conception of the 
universe; but the grossness and polytheism of the 
earlier cosmogony were divinely transmuted into 
monotheism and spirituality. By a series of repre- 
sentative pictures we are taught that the universe 
was not self-originated, but dependent for its exist- 
ence and present form upon the decrees of the one 
omnipotent God, whose plan penetrated every detail 
of creation; while man is shown in his ideal state as 
head and center of creation and the image of his 
Maker. 

To sum up what has been said: The O T writers 
certainly shared the ideas of their contemporaries 
concerning the material universe; and, in particular, 
the outlines of the Biblical cosmogony were derived 
from the Babylonian beliefs embodied in the crea- 
tion epic. Therefore it is impossible to 'reconcile' 
( lenesis with modern science. To insist upon such 
a reconciliation shows a misconception of the char- 
acter of divine revelation; and has put a stumbling- 
block in the path of many an earnest, intelligent 
inquirer after spiritual truth. The methods of Gen- 
esis and geology have nothing in common. The 
Bible is silent concerning the operation of second- 
ary causes which can be investigated by the human 
reason. While the more speculative minds of Egypt, 
Babylonia, and Greece put foundation under foun- 
dation and creator behind creator in a vain attempt 
to provide a firm basis for their cosmogony and on- 
tology, the inspired writers disregarded all inter- 
mediate processes in order to press home the supreme 
truth that "God said . . . and it was so"! Thus the 
human and temporary framework of the creation 
story is so subordinate to its permanent religious 
message that no advance in our scientific knowledge 
weakens our confidence in the great elemental truths 
concerning God, man, and the universe, which are 
so simply and inimitably told in this fitting prelude 
to the history of redemption. 

LITERATURE: The best popular presentation is in Driver's 
Genesis (3d ed , 1905), pp. 19-33 (with a large bibliogra- 
phy). George T. Ladd's Doctrine of Sacred Scripture 
(1883), part II, ch. ii, is scholarly and exhaustive, yet 
very readable. See also the works mentioned in the 
foot-notes to this article. L G L 



See NOMADIC AND PASTORAL 



COTE, SHEEP-. 
LIFE, 6. 

COTTAGE: (1) In Is 24 20 A V. The Hob. 
s the same word as that rendered "lodge" in 1 s. 
The reference is to the frail hut used by the watch- 
man and easily swayed by the wind ("hut " ERV, 
'hammock" ARV). (2) In Is 1 8 AV. A less cor- 
rect rendering of ?ukkah than the RV "booth." 
3) In Zeph 26 the text is probably confused, and 
the word rendered "cottages" may be a mere (In- 
dication of the preceding "pastures." See also 
T 'ODGE. E. E. N. 

COUCH. See BED. 
COULTER. See PLOW. 




PRIMITIVK HABYLONIAX REPRESENTATIONS OP THE COSMOS (THE SlGNS OF THE ZODIAC'). 

The serpent of cuts Nos. 1, 3, 4 probably represents the irreiit dragon Tiainat, i.e., the primeval watery chaos 

(the " deep " of Gn 1 a , etc.). 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



156 



COUNCIL: The chief court ot the Jews. Umlcr 
tin- Romans a measure ul nment was con- 

ceded the Jewish n.-iiion, both as a 

1. Origin religious community and as a race. 
of Council. The r.-mgm up of the com- 
munity w:ia accordingly vested in the 

council of len.lers known in the Jewish writings as 
Hrthilin hag-gOdhSl, or by t he < ireek mime SiWfywoi/, 
tyntdrium, n-dutvd into the Aramaic Sanhedrin 

u.-ously Xiinhedrim). The original of this body 
probably in the IVr.-ian jK'riod, although it can 

not ! traced clearly farther buck than the time of 
I he (ireek dominion. In ihis early stage of its exist- 
howevcr, it w:w known only under the name 
Senate, yipova-la (Ac 5 21; Jos. Ant. XII, 3 3). The 
name Sanhedrin :ipi)ears first under Herod. 

The mcmU-rsliip of this court was according to 

the Mishna (.Sn/i/i. 1 ) lixcd at 71 in imitation of 

tlii> ancient court of elders (Null 16). 

2. Consti- Those qualified to be members were in 
tution and general of the priestly h-mse and es- 

Member- |>ccially of the Sadducean nobility. 
ship. But from the days of Queen Alexandra 
(69-68 B.C.) onward there were with 
these chief priests also many Pharisees in it under 
the name of scribes and elders. These three classes 
are found combined in Mt 27 41; Mk 11 27, 14 43, 53, 
15 l. How such members were appointed is not 
entirely clear. The aristocratic character of the 
body and the history of its origin forbid the belief 
that it was by election. Its nucleus probably con- 
sisted of the members of certain ancient families, to 
which, however, from time to time others were 
added by the secular rulers. 

The presiding officer was the high priest, who at 

first exercised in it more than the authority of a 

member, claiming a voice equal to that 

3. High of the rest of the body. But after the 
Priest's reduction of the high priesthood from a 

Place in It. hereditary office to one bestowed by 
the political ruler according to his 
pleasure, and the frequent changes in the office in- 
troduced by the new system, the high priest natu- 
rally lost his prestige. Instead of holding in his hands 
"the government of the nation," he came to be but 
one of many to share this power; those who had 

! a.s high priest, being still in esteem among 
their nation and having lost their office not for any 
reason that could be considered valid by the relig- 
ious sense of the community, exerted a large in- 
Iliience over the decisions of the assembly. In the 
N T they are regarded as the rulers (Mt 26 59, 27 41; 
Ac 4 5, 8; Lk 23 13, 35; Jn 7 26), and Josephus' testi- 
mony supports this view. 

The functions of the Sanhedrin were religious 

and moral, and also political. In the latter capacity 

they further exercised administrative 

4. Func- as well as judicial functions. As a ra- 
tions, ligious tribunal, the Sanhedrin wielded 

a potent influence over the whole of the 
Jewish world (Ac 9 2), but as a court of justice, after 
the division of the country upon Hie death of Herod, 
its jurisdiction wa.s limited to Judaea. Here, how- 
ever, its power was absolute even to the passing of 
111.' .sentence of death (Jos. Ant. XIV, 9 3, 4; Mt 26 
3 f. ; Ac 4 S, 6 12, 22 30), although it had no authority 



to carry the sentence into execution, except as 
approved and ordered by the representative of the 
Human government. 

The law by which the Sanhedrin governed \\;is 
naturally the Jewish, ami in the execution of it this 
tribunal had a police of its own, and 
5. The made arrests at its discretion (Mt 2647). 
Law It Accordingly, to the extent that the pro- 
Observed, visions of this law were respected in 
the trial of Jesus, that trial and execu- 
tion were legal (but cf. Taylor Innes, The Trial of 
Jesus, 1899; Rosadi, The Trialoj Jesus, 1905). The 
trial and stoning of Stephen, however (Ac 6 12 ff.), 
appear to have been too summary and out of har- 
mony with the procedure prescribed by the law, 
and therefore illegal. 

Among the administrative duties of the Sanhedrin 
was the collection of taxes. Under the procurators, 
the custom had been established 
6. Taxa- throughout the empire of committing 
tion. the levying of taxes to the local au- 
thorities of the subject countries, for 
the most part to the senates of the towns. In 
accordance with this practise the Sanhedrin became 
responsible for the collection in Judaea (Jos. BJ . II, 
17 1). In carrying out this provision it sold the 
revenue to tax-purchasers or speculators (publicans). 
The foregoing holds true of the period between 
6-66 A.D., i.e., the period of the Roman proc- 
urators. Before the opening of this 

7. Tempo- period restrictions and restorations of 
rary Limi- the jurisdictions took place alternately. 
tations of. Gambinius, the proconsul of Syria, for 

Power, instance (57-55 B.C.), subdivided Ju- 
daea into five districts, assigning each to 
a separate council (owffipiav, (rvvoSos, Jos. Ant. 
XIV, 54; BJ. I, 8 5). Thus he limited the jurisdic- 
tion of the Jerusalem council very materially. This 
was, however, done away with by Julius Cesar in 
47 (Ant. XIV, 9 3-5; BJ. I, 10 7), and the Sanhedrin 
was restored to its former supremacy. With the de- 
struction of Jerusalem the council was abolished. 

While the general authority of the Sanhedrin ex- 
tended over the whole of Judaea, the towns in the 
country had local councils of their 

8. Extent own (vvveSpia, Mt 5 22, 10 17; Mkl39; 
of Juris- /3ouAm, Jos. BJ. II, 14 1) for the ad- 
diction, ministration of local affairs. These 

were constituted of elders (Lk 73), at 
least 7 in number (Jos. Ant. IV, 8 14; BJ. II, 20 5), 
and in some of the largest towns as many as 23. 
What the relation of these to the central council in 
Jerusalem was does not appear clearly. They were 
probably not inferior courts in a uniform system with 
the right of appeal from the lower to the higher, but 
rather independent judicatories with a definite recog- 
nized work. And yet their independence did not 
amount to absolute unrelatedness to one another. 
Some sort of mutual recognition existed among them; 
for whenever the judges of the local court could not 
agree it seems that they were in the habit of referring 
their eases to the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem (Jos. Ant. 
IV, 8 14; Mishna, Sanh. 11 2). A. C. Z. 

COUNCIL, also COUNSEL: A conference more 
or less informally held (swlh, Ps 55 14; Pr 15 22), but 



157 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Council 
Covenant 



not necessarily of those who bore no office or re- 
sponsibility. The council of leaders in Jerusalem 
(crvpfiovXiov, Mt 12 14; Ac 25 12) included probably 
members of the Sanhedrin, as well as leading lay- 
men. The act of holding such councils (counsels) 
is called "consulting" (Ps 83 3) and its finding 
'counsels' (ouAij, Lk 2351). A. C. Z. 

COUNT: Besides being the usual rendering of 
maiuih, saphar, ^nj^tfuv, and crvptyr)<j>tfiv, all mean- 
ing in general 'to calculate,' the word renders (1) 
the Heb. hashabh = Gr. \oyle<r6ai, 'to think' or 
'impute' (Gn 150; Ro220; Ph 3 13). (2) paqadh, 
'to inspect' (ICh21 o). (3) xi, 'to hold' (Mt 145; 
Phm 17), and (4) fjyela-dat, 'to account' or 'esti- 
mate' (Ph 3 7, 8; He 10 29). A. C. Z. 

COUNTENANCE: In most instances this is the 
rendering of words meaning 'face' or 'appearance.' 
In Dii 5 6, 9, the original ziw means the 'brightness' 
or 'color' of the face. In I S 16 12 'eye,' in I S 25 3 
' form ' is the literal meaning of the Heb. E. E. N. 

COUNTRY : In most instances the suitable ren- 
dering of terms meaning 'land,' 'field,' or 'place.' 
The following cases call for remark: In Dt 3 14 the 
original word means a 'district marked off'; in Mk 6 1, 
4 and ||s; Jn444; He 1114, it means 'fatherland'; 
in Lv 10 29, 17 15, 24 22; Nu 15 13; Ezk 47 22, the one 
Heb. word means 'native'; in Mk 12 1 and ||s and Mt 
2514, "went into a far country" is simply 'went 
away from home.' In Jos 1711, Jer 47 4, and Ac 4 36 
RV gives the more correct rendering. E. E. N. 

COUNTRYMAN: The translation of yevos, 'race' 
(II Co 11 20), and of o-u/^vAfYr;?, 'of the same tribe' 
(I Th 2 14). In the first instance Paul is referring 
to the Jews, in the second to the fellow citizens of 
the Thessalonian Christians. E. E. N. 

COURSE: This term signifies one's way or habit 
of life (Jer 8 6, 23 10). In Eph 2 2 it renders the Gr. 
ala>v, 'age.' In Acts 13 25, 20 24; II Ti 4 7 the Gr. 
is Spofios, 'running course,' i.e., the task or mission 
of life. In Ja 3 6 the Gr. rpo^os, 'a running thing,' 
'a wheel,' refers to one's natural disposition, tem- 
perament, tendencies, etc. ; in other words, to the en- 
tire compass of one's life. Other occurrences need 
no explanation. (See also COSMOGONY, 3, and 
PRIESTHOOD, 10.) E. E. N. 

COURT. See HOUSE, 6 (f), PALACE, and TEM- 
PLE, 6, 20, 27, 29 f. 

COUSIN: In AV of Lk 1 36,68, in the sense of 
'kinswoman' or 'relative' (cf. 'cousin' RV); as used 
to-day, is too definite. In Col 4 10 " cousin," RV, 
is preferable to " sister's son," AV. E. E. N. 

COVENANT (.I"?, b'rith, Assyr. Mritu; cf. Zim- 
mern, Bab. Busxps., 59, 82, from a root barah, 'to 

determine,' Assyr. baru, Gr. 8uid!)Krj, 

I. General 'disposal'): Broadly, a compact or 

Idea. agreement. In this sense covenant is 

used frequently of contracts among 
men. Abimelech at Gerar entered into covenant 
with Abraham (Gn 21 27), and afterward under 
similar conditions with Isaac (Gn2G2S). Abraham 
entered into covenant with the Amorites (Gn 14 13), 



Laban with Jacob (Gn3t 44), Jonathan with David 
(18183,2318), Solomon with Hiram (I K526), 
Ahab with Ben-hadad (I K 20 34), etc. 

But in Biblical usage, this general conception of 
covenant developed into a much more specific one. 
For (1) as a contract includes a binding 
2. The element, or creates an obligation, a 
Biblical covenant becomes a bond, imposed by 
Covenant, two covenanting parties upon each 
other, or by one upon himself and the 
other. Hence in passages such as Gn 15 18 f. the 
covenant is made by J" (cf. also Jos 24, by Joshua in 
behalf of J"; Jos 9 7, Joshua with the Gibeonites; II K 
11 4 by Jehoiada, and II K23 3 by Josiah, in behalf 
of J"). The part of Abram (or those who may be 
called the second party in the affair) is passive. It 
is quite proper to speak of it as voluntary; but the 
covenant is not in these instances entered into by 
God and man upon absolutely the same terms. (2) 
The second limitation of the general idea is intro- 
duced with the religious element in it. A covenant 
is not merely a contract as between men and before 
men. God is invoked in it as a third party. He has 
a share in its terms and results. Even when the 
agreement aims at outward material ends, it is not 
complete until by a religious service J" has been 
brought into the transaction. To this end an oath, 
curse, or sacrifice is an indispensable ceremonial ac- 
companiment. When Abimelech (Gn 26 26 ff.), act- 
ing for himself, Ahuzzah, and Phicol, proposed to 
Isaac that they should enter into covenant, he used 
the formula "Let there now be an oath betwixt us, 
even betwixt us and thee," and "let us make a cove- 
nant" (ver. 28). The word used here for "oath" may 
also be rendered "curse" (cf. also Gn 31 44 ff., the 
covenant between Laban and Jacob). (3) A third 
limitation is the creation of a new relation between 
the covenanting parties. In the later development 
of the idea and in some extrabiblical expressions of 
it, this is symbolized by some act or acts denoting 
the possession of a common life. The partaking of a 
sacrificial meal, of salt (which is in such cases the 
substitute of blood), or of blood itself, either poured 
out in the form of a libation or used in other em- 
blematic ways (W. Robertson Smith, Rcl. of Sem., p. 
451), was made to serve as the sign of the new and 
irrevocable relationship, the object of which was 
mutual benefit and helpfulness. So far as the cove- 
nant was concerned, those who entered upon it were 
bound to regard each other as members of a new 
organic entity. So sacred and intimate was the new 
relation that nothing could surpass the enormity of 
the sin of covenant-breaking. The sin is loathed and 
denounced by the prophets in unmeasured terms (cf. 
Hos67, 8 1, 104; Is 24 5; Jer 11 10). On the other 
hand, it is a sure manifestation of God's perfection 
that He can not and does not forget His covenants, 
but remains constant to the rights and obligations 
created by them (cf. Ro 3 1-4). 

Accordingly, the covenant of God with His people 
is an expression of His love for them. It may be 
called the divine constitution or ordinance, which 
is designed to govern human relations with Him- 
self. As such it appears in the record of His deal- 
ings with Noah (the Noachian covenant, Gn 9 11 ff.). 
Even the story of Eden has been read by some in 



Covenant 

Crimes and Punishment* 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



158 



tin- terms f lln' r.iv<-n:iiit idea. Hut it is more 

partic.ilarlythe Divine mode of defining (lie relation 

with tin- Chosen People. Abraham 

3. God's was taken into covenant at the very 
Covenant Ix-piming (Gn 15 18) with a symbolical 

an Ex- :m.l impressive ceremony. With Moses 
pression of mul the new stage of development in 
His Grace, the life of the people, Israel as a na- 
tion Is pictured as entering into cove- 
nant with J" in :ui even grander and more impressive 
n (the Sinaitie covenant, Ex 34 10, 27,_28). 
I'.v :i covenant with I'hinehas an everlasting priest- 
hood was established (Nu25l2f.). Other cove- 
nants with the same ruling idea are those with 
at :,n,l Israel (Jos 24 25), David (Ps 89 4, 132 12; 
.I.T3321), Jehoiada (II K 11 17), Hezekiah (II Ch 
.". 10), Josiah (II K 23 3), and Ezra (Ezr 10 3). 

It w:is characteristic of the covenant idea that 

when entered into it bound not only the individual 

but his family and posterity, and as a 

4. Cove- counterpoint the benefits ai/d privileges 
nant with secured by it were transferred to the 
Collective offspring of the parties to it. The 

Bodies. covenant with Abraham was made with 
him and with his seed forever (Gn 17 
10). Moses was not an individual but a representa- 
tive of the whole people before J". The covenant 
with David was the means of blessing to the whole 
lineage of the great king (II S235; II Ch 135,21 7; 
Jer 33 21 ). The national poetry embodied in glowing 
terms the conviction that the covenant with David 
was the ground for the unfailing care on the part of 
J* over the royal dynasty as well as over the people 
ruled by it. 

Israel's experiences with the covenant led the 
prophets to despair of its continuance, but its lapse 
would not be final (Hos 1 9f., 22,23, 
5. The 3 3). They predict its renovation and 
Prophetic reestablishment under better condi- 
New tions. In this form they called it the 
Covenant. New Covenant differing from the old 
(1) in spirituality. It should be a 
covenant written on the hearts of God's people 
(Jcr 31 31), and God's people should be not a tribe 
or nation but a society of individuals who should 
know Him and keep His covenant. (2) In uni- 
ility. Through Israel the new religion of God 
should extend to other nations and the covenant 
should embrace these too (Is 49 6). (3) Its results 
would be forgiveness of sin and a new righteous- 
ness (Jer 31 34). 

The covenant conception having served its pur- 
pose in the O T, it disappears from the N T, yielding 
to the expression of God's relation to 
6. Covenant man in the terms of an individual fel- 
in N T. lowship and indwelling. In the Epistle 
to the Hebrews, however, it is still made 
to serve the basis of the difference and contrast be- 
tween the better order of things introduced through 
i* Christ and the old order either under the 
Abrahamic or the Sinaitic covenants (7 22, 8 6 ft"., 

A. C. Z. 

COVERING. See TABERNACLE, 3 b. For usage 
in K\ !'_' 27: Job :il 19, cf. DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 
3. 



COVERT: (1) In I S 25 20 the meaning is that 
Abigail was concealed from view as she drew near 
to David and that the meeting between them was 
sudden. (2) In II K 16 18 KV reads "covered 
way." The sense of the entire verse is obscure, 
and what is meant is not known. E. E. N. 

COVET, COVETOUSNESS : This term ex- 
presses various ideas: (1) Desire to have. As such 
it is not only innocent, but when its object is worthy, 
commendable (I Co 12 31, 14 39, "desire" RV). Also, 
however, (2) desire inordinate and without any 
ulterior purpose, in which case it is folly (Lk 12 15 ft". ) 
and idolatry (Eph 5 5; Col 35). (3) Desire to possess 
that which belongs to another. Such desire is 
contrary to the moral law (Ex 20:7, "lust" AV; 
Ro 7 7). Possibly (4) the effort to secure what one 
has no right to possess (I TiGlO, "to reach after" 
RV). A. C. Z. 

COW. See NOMADIC AND PASTORAL LIFE, 
4, and PALESTINE, 24. 

COZ. See HAKKOZ. 

COZBI C3J5, kozbl), 'deceitful': A Midianite 
princess, slain by Phinehas (Nu 25 7 f., 15, 18). 

E. E. N. 
COZEBA. See ACHZIR. 

CRACKNELS. See FOOD, 2. 
CRAFT. See ARTISAN LIFE, 1. 

CRAFTSMEN, VALLEY OF. See GE-HARA- 
SHIM and CITY, 4. 

CRANE. See PALESTINE, 25. 
CRAWLING THINGS. See PALESTINE, 26. 
CREATE, CREATION. See COSMOGONY, 1-3. 
CREDITOR. See TRADE AND COMMERCE, 3. 
CREEPING THINGS. See PALESTINE, 26. 



CRESCENS, cres'senz (Kp^o-^f): An early Chris- 
tian mentioned in II Ti 4 10 as having gone to Gaul 
(Gr. roXario, which must be rendered 'Gaul,' not 
"Galatia"; cf. Zahn, Introd. toNT, 33, n. 8). The 
fact that Titus was sent at the same time to 
Dalmatia suggests that both journeys may have 
been undertaken for the purpose of preaching the 
Gospel in new regions. According to later tradition 
(see Tillemont, Mem. I, 585) C. was the founder of 
the Church in Vienne and Mainz. J. M. T. 

CRESCENTS. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 
111. 

CRETE (K/;TI;): Modern Candia, a rich and 
beautiful island, one of the chief seats of the worship 
of Zeus, whose birthplace was Mt. Ida or Dicte. Long 
before the Phoanician traders came, and even before 
the Mycenaean Age, the island had a highly devel- 
oped civilization, which seems to have been buried by 
invasions from the N. (For excavations now pro- 
ceeding at Knossos and elsewhere see Ch. Quar. Rev., 
Jan., 1906.) "The pottery found in southern Pales- 
tine is Cretan, confirming the Hebrew tradition that 
the Philistines were strangers who wandered in from 



159 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Covenant 

Crimes and Punishments 



Civic" (Caphtor [Jer 47 4; Am 9 7]. See Breasted, 
Hist, of byypt, p. 512). The island possessed a large 
number of independent cities, in some of wliich, no- 
tably Gortyna, many Jews were settled before the 
middle of the 2d cent. B.C. The Romans occupied 
Crete in 67 B.C., during the great war with the pi- 
rates, and under the Empire it was made a sena- 
torial province along with Cyrene. By universal 
testimony the Cretans were avaricious, fraudulent, 
and sensual, as their poet Epimenides (600 B.C.), 
called by Plato a "divine man" and quoted in Tit 
1 12, also affirms. Even in the rich coinage of their 
cities, which were in a state of constant feud among 
themselves, "there is always present a substratum 
of barbarism." If the Gospel was first carried 
there after Pentecost (Ac 211), it did not appar- 
ently make headway until the visit of Paul and 
Titus (Tit 1 5). Fair Havens was touched at by 
Paul on his way to Rome, and Phoenix was a good 
harbor to the W. (Ac 27 8, 12). R. A. F. 

CRICKETS. See PALESTINE, 26. 

CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS: The fundamen- 
tal principle of Hebrew penology is strict retribu- 
tion. The lex talionis, including prop- 
i. Hebrew erty as well as the person, is enunciated 
Penology, in all three sections of the Mosaic codes 
(Ex 21 23-25; Lv 24 17, 19f.; Dt 19 21). 
This was an ancient Semitic penal custom, and we 
find it expressed in the CH [Code of Hammurabi 
(c. 2250 B.C.)] in phraseology almost identical with 
Biblical language: son for son, 116, 230, daughter 
for daughter, 210, eye for eye, 196, limb for limb, 
197, tooth for tooth, 200, life for life, 229, slave 
for slave, 219, 231. The punishment of crime had 
two great purposes: (1) deterring others from simi- 
lar offenses (Dt 17 13), (2) the extirpation of the evil 
from Israel (Dt 13 5). In reviewing this subject the 
historical development of the Hebrews must be kept 
in mind. In the nomadic state crime was revenged 
rather than punished, and it was looked upon as an 
injury done to a tribal brother (see BLOOD, AVEN- 
GER OF). When the nation passed into the agri- 
cultural and later to the commercial state of society, 
the object of punishment was to protect life and 
property. Under the ethical influence of the religion 
of Jehovah, crime came to be regarded as a violation 
of the righteousness and holiness of God, and was 
punished in order to vindicate these Divine attri- 
butes. The N T reflects Roman as well as Hebrew 
ideas in regard to both crimes and punishments. 

The more serious infringements of the Law may be 
grouped into three classes: (a) Injuries to property. 
Under this group falls theft, which is 
2. Crimes, absolutely prohibited in the Decalogue 
(Ex 20 15). The CH is more severe 
than the Biblical codes in its treatment of this evil. 
In the former, stealing is a capital crime the re- 
ceiving, purchasing, and selling of stolen goods, the 
theft of a child, the detention of a slave, brigand- 
age, looting at a fire, appropriating state levies all 
being punishable with death (cf. Ex 22 2; Jos 7 25; 
Ex 21 16). The owner of a vicious bull was liable for 
any injury inflicted on the slave of another by the 
goring of the animal (Ex 21 28 ff . ). The CH, 250- 
252, inflicts a fine for a similar case. The practise of 



extortion was no doubt common enough in O T 
times (Ps 10911, "extortioner" - 'usurer'), but in 
the NT (Mt 23 25; Lk 19 8) it refers to a form of 
blackmail levied by the publicans (q.v.). 

(b) Injuries to person or life. Bribery, also 
trnnrd a gift, not only might prevent justice, but 
place the person of the accused in jeopardy. The 
Biblical codes have the former evil in mind (Ex 23 8; 
Dt 16 19), while the CH contemplates the latter: "If 
a man in a case bear witness for gain or money, he 
shall himself l>ear the penalty imposed in that case" 
( 4). Lying, forswearing, and bearing false 
witness also resulted in the miscarriage of justice 
and were fraught with danger to the accused person. 
They were prohibited (Ex 20 16; Lv 19 12; cf. Mt 
5 33), and the guilty party was to be punished ac- 
cording to the lex talionis. In the CH the false charge 
of a capital crime makes the accuser liable to the 
death penalty ( 1 ), and the slanderer of a priestess or 
of a married woman was to be branded on the fore- 
head ( 127). The breaking of a vow that had 
been strengthened by an oath was not permissible 
(Nu 30 2; cf. Lv 5 1-6; Jg 17 2 ff.). The oath of pur- 
gation is required in seven instances by the CH ( 
131, 227 et al). The O T regards human life as 
sacred, because it was created in the Divine image 
(Gn 9 6). Manslaughter is carefully distinguished 
from murder, the latter being the result of premedi- 
tation and malice, the former of accident (Ex 21 13; 
Dt 19 4). In the case of manslaughter the offender 
could find an asylum (Nu 35 ll, 15; Dt 195), but 
murder was always a capital crime and the penalty 
could not be commuted by a ransom (Nu 3531 ff.). 
Parricide and infanticide are not mentioned in the 
Mosaic codes, but there are many instances of assas- 
sination and suicide in the O T (Jg 3 20 ff. ; I S 31 4 ff.). 
The tribal custom of blood revenge (see BLOOD, 
AVENOEK OF) which is entirely unknown to the CH, 
prevailed among the Hebrews in the earlier periods 
of history, but the attempt was made later to regu- 
late it (Dt 24 16; Nu 35 12-34). 

(c) Offenses against the moral order and the fun- 
damental laws of the theocracy: Every improper 
use of the Divine name (Lv 24 ll), speech derogatory 
to the majesty of God (Mt 26 65), and sins with a 
high hand i.e., premeditated transgressions of the 
basal principles of the theocracy (Nu 9 13, 15 30; Ex 
31 14) were regarded as blasphemy; the penalty 
was death by stoning (Lv 24 16). The Mosaic 
codes dealt with the improper relation of the sexes in 
detail. To lie carnally, and fornication are gen- 
eral terms for illicit sexual intercourse (Lv 18 20). 
The prevalence of prostitution, at a later date in 
Israel as well as in the Grseco- Roman world, was ap- 
palling (Pr 4 6-19; Ro 1 26), but it was strictly pro- 
hibited (Lv 1929; Dt 23l7f.). See also HARLOT. 
The abominable Canaanitic practise of having tem- 
ple prostitutes (q'dheshoth) was forbidden (Dt 23 17). 
The devotee, or sacred prostitute, enjoyed the privi- 
leges of special legislation in the CH ( 110, 178, 181, 
182). The Mosaic codes, however, debarred a son of 
harlotry or of fornication from the congregation (Dt 
23 2). Adultery is a capital crime in the CH ( 1 29). 
Incest in its various forms is prohibited in Lv 18 6-18. 
The CH, 154-158, deals severely with this crime, 
in one case a man with his son's wife drowning 



Crimes and Punishments 
Crucifixion 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



160 



In-ill); tin- Anally, iii another- a 111:111 with his moth- 
er ilrath :it the (take. Sodomy, common enough 
MiiioiiiMlieCanaamli's. is looked upon as an abomina- 
tion and ilMoliitoly prohibited (Lv 18 tt; Dt28n). 
purpose of punishment has boon noted above. 

OK and b:irb:iroiis method* of inflict ing penal- 
ties - ^., blinding, maiming, tearing out 
3. Punish- the tongue, and suffocating, which were 
ments. common in antiquity are foreign to the 
^pirit of the O T. Torture was first 
introduced by tlio llonxls. (a) Capital punishment 
was administered in various ways. Stoning was the 
ordinary method of inflicting the death penalty 
among the Hebrews (Exl'Jiaff.; Lv 2027, 24 10-23; 
I )t 1:5 5, 10, 21 21; Ac 7 59). The stoning took place 
outxidt! of the cnmp and in the name of the congre- 
i (l.v '_'! 14), the witnesses casting the first 

. s. Beheading was not known as a judicial 
penalty in the Mosaic codes, and when death by the 
uword'is mentioned in the O T we are to think 
of thrusting rather than decapitation. The latter 
was first introduced among the Jews in the Ro- 
man period (MtHlOff.). The hanging of the 
living was introduced by the Romans; the He- 
brews sometimes impaled or hung the lifeless body 
on a tree (Dt 21 23 ff.; Gal 3 13), the exposure of 
the body being intended as an added indignity. 
The Heb. yaqa' (translated "hang") is uncertain in 
meaning (Nu254; IIS 216). Gallows are men- 
tioned as a Persian institution in the story of 
Roman (Est 2 23, 7 9). According to the CH, 153, a 
woman who murders her husband is to be impaled. 
The Habylu.iian code imposes burning as a pen- 
alty for incest ( 157; cf. Lv20 14,21 9), for theft 
at a fire ( 25), and upon a priestess for entering 
or conducting a wine-shop ( 110). The oft-recur- 
ring phrase cut off is not a designation for the 
death penalty, but signifies excommunication (Ex 
12 15, 19; Lv 7 20 ff., 23 29; Nu 9 13). Crucifixion 
was a terrible method of punishment adopted by the 
Romans from the Orient, and used by them only on 
slaves and the vilest criminals (Cicero: extremum 
sitiHiinimque supjjlicium). Roman citizens were 
always exempt. The shape of the cross upon which 
our Savior suffered was probably y, the crux im- 
missa or Latin cross (T crux commissa). The 
upright was 7J ft. to 9 ft. high and remained per- 
manently in the ground; the crosspiece (patibidum) 
was carried by the criminal. A piece of wood 
(tedilc) was used as a saddle to support the sufferer. 
The crime was either proclaimed by a crier or in- 
scribed on a board (litulus; see SUPERSCRIPTION) 
which was nailed to the cross. In the history of the 

'i in nf .le.siis, we have a detailed account of the 
procedure at a crucifixion. (See CROSS, 1.) 

(b) Physical punishments other than capital: 
I'min its frequent mention in the OT (Ex 21 20; Pr 
111 13, 1720,263; Jer 20 2, 37 15; Is 50 6), we infer that 
beating was a very common punishment among the 
ll'brews. According to Dt25 3 the penalty was in- 
flirtod before the judge, with the culprit in a recum- 
bent position. The phrase "cause him to lie down" 
(I it 25 2) suggests the bastinado. The humane 
spirit of tin- Deuteronomic legislation mitigated the 

:ily of this penalty by restricting the number of 
strokes to forty. The words chasten and chastise 



sometimes refer to corporal punishment (Dt22 18; 
I K 12 14). The scorpion is mentioned as a terrible 
instrument of castigation; it consisted probably of 
thongs armed with pieces of lead (I K1214; II Ch 
10 14). In the N T the terms stripe and scourge 
have a twofold signification. In some passages the 
writer had in mind the Jewish form of punishment 
which was administered with a whip of three lashes 
(II Cor 11 24; cf. Jos. Ant. IV, 821). Again the 
reference may be to the Roman custom of beating 
slaves and criminals (Ac 16 22, 22 25; II Co 11 25). At 
Philip])! Paul alludes to the Porcian law, which ex- 
empted Roman citizens from this penalty (Ac 16 37). 
This is not to be confused with the scourging of Jesus, 
which was flagellation with thongs. The branding 
of slaves was a common custom (Is 44 5; CH, 226, 
227), and, according to Babylonian law, the slan- 
derer of a woman was to be branded on the forehead 
( 127). Imprisonment is a penalty unknown to 
both the CH and the Mosaic codes, but it is men- 
tioned toward the close of the monarchy (Jer 32 2, 
37 10), and implied in the mention of prison garb (II 
K 25 29), and use of chains, fetters, and stocks (II 
S 3 34; Jer 20 2, 29 20; Ac 16 24). The so-called 
law of jealousy was really an ordeal for a woman 
suspected of adultery (Nu 5 11-31). In the CH the or- 
deal by water was employed as a test for a sorcerer 
and a suspected wife ( 2, 132). 

(c) Penalties in means or money: Fines in our 
modern sense were unknown, but the injured party 
received an indemnity for loss or injury from the 
guilty person. Three instances are given in the 
OT (Ex 21 32; Dt 22 19, 29), while the CH pun- 
ishes twenty-one offenses in this way. The res- 
toration of things lost, stolen, or injured is a 
fundamental principle in the Mosaic codes, and is 
quite prominent in the CH, which contains forty-eight 
enactments exacting restitution in some form. The 
restitution of a stolen ox must be fivefold, of a 
sheep fourfold (Ex 22 1; cf. Lk 19 8) ; in the CH, 112, 
goods lost by carrier in transportation must be re- 
stored fivefold. For other O T instances see Ex 
22 1-9; Lv 6 4 f., 24 21. A Roman jailer or guard 
allowing a prisoner to escape made himself liable to 
the penalty imposed on the criminal (Ac 12 19, 16 27). 
The CH, in fifteen enactments, punishes with for- 
feiture, which is twice mentioned in the O T (Dt 
22 9; Ezr 108). Confiscation was not practised by 
the Hebrews, but is referred to as a Persian custom 
(Ezr 7 26). 

LITERATURE: Keil, Biblical Archeology, II, 337 ff. (1887); 
Schurer, History of the Jewish People, II, 11, 90ff.; JE 
separate articles on various crimes and punishments; for 
The Code of Hammurabi, see edition of K. F. Harper 
and article by C. H. W. Johns in HDB, Vol. V; in German, 
the works of Benzinger and Nowack on Heb. Archriologie 
(1894). J. A. K. 

CRIMSON. See COLORS, 2, and DRESS AND 
ORNAMENTS, 5. 

CRIPPLE. See DISEASE AND MEDICINE, 4 (4). 

CRISPING PINS. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 
11. 

CRISPUS, cris'pirs (KpiWos): A ruler of the Jew- 
ish synagogue in Corinth who with his entire family 
accepted Christianity (Ac 18 8) and probably was 
baptized by Paul himself (cf. I Co 1 14). J. M. T. 



161 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Crimes and Punishments 

Crucifixion 



CROOK-BACKED. See DISEASE AND MEDI- 

CINK, 4 (5). 

CROSS (oravpos, probably a 'stake' or 'pole,' 
nnlirally cognate with I-OTIJ-/U): The N T word 
for the instrument on which Jesus was put to death. 
I. Physical: The early usage of the term <rravp<>s 
corresponded to its primary meaning (of. Odyssey, 
14 11, 'poles for fencing'; Xen. Aruib. V, 221, 'stakes 
for fortification'; Hdt. 56, 'foundation piles'). As 
a means of execution it was first used in its form of a 
stake (crux simplex) for impaling the victim the 
custom being practised by the Assyrians, Persians, 
Phcenicians (Carthaginians), and Egyptians, and 
passing from the Persians and Carthaginians to the 
Greeks and Romans. This form was later elaborated 
into the crux compacta, of which there were, in the 
tirurs of Christ, two varieties the crux commissa 
(' St. Anthony's cross') shaped like a T, and the crux 
immissa (the 'Latin cross') shaped, as we generally 
know it, like a -f- The 'St. Andrew's cross' (crux 
decussata), shaped like an X, was of much later 
origin and of a usage much disputed. The cross used 
at Jesus' death was almost certainly the crux im- 
missa, not only because this is the testimony of the 
oldest tradition, but because it is impossible other- 
wise to understand the setting "up over his head" 
of His "accusation" (Mt 27 37; cf. also ||s). 

The upright (staticulum) was of some strong wood 
and, after implanting in the ground, did not stand 
more than 9 ft. high. This was left permanently 
erected outside the walls of the city, only the cross- 
bar (patibulum) being carried by the criminal to the 
place of execution, where it was affixed, with him 
fastened on it, to the upright. On this upright there 
was placed a short piece of wood (sedile or cornu) on 
which the body rested as on a saddle. Whether 
there was also a support for the feet (suppedaneum 
lignum; cf. Greg, of Tours, De Glor. Martyr, vi) is 
still in question. 

II. Religious: The infamy of such a punishment, 
together with the primary significance of Jesus' 
death in His redemptive work, quickly brought the 
crucifixion into prominence in the thought and 
preaching of the Apostolic Church (cf. Peter's early 
references to it, Ac 2 23, 36, 4 10). The Cross thus 
became not only in its suffering and shame a mark 
of the self-sacrificing love of Jesus (Ph 2 8; He 12 2), 
but also in its infamous indignity an assertive sym- 
bol of the disciples' faith, in which they gloried (Gal 
5 14), for which they were willing to be persecuted 
Gal 6 12; cf. He 13 13), to which those of unchristian 
iving were counted enemies (Ph 3 18; cf. He 6 6), and 
n which, because of its infamous character as a pen- 
alty, the unbelieving were scandalized (Gal 5 11) and 
bund nothing but ridicule and contempt (I Co 1 18) 
as in fact the disciples themselves were confused 
and mystified by Jesus' references to His coming 
death before they realized its necessity (Mk 8 31 f. 
and ||s). From this it easily grew to be the term in 
which Christian work was most strikingly presented 
in its triumph over the condemnation of the Law 
(Col 2 14) anil its consequent reconciliation of sinners 
to God (Col 1 20) and to each other (Eph 2 16). In 
fact, with Paul it came to stand as the sympathetic 
term for the Gospel of God in Jesus Christ, the pro- 



claiming of which was his consecrated life-work (I 
Co 1 17; cf. ver. 23, 2 2; Gal 3 l; also vs. 10-13); as 
a consequence his union with Christ through faith 
was summed up in his claim to have been crucified 
with Christ (Gal 2 20) and in this experience to be 
crucified to the world (Gal 6 14; Ro 6 0; cf. Gal 5 24). 
Though Jesus' allusion to the manner of His 
coming death was unintelligible to the Jews (Jn 12 
32 ff.), His warning to His disciples of the necessary 
cross-bearing which their following of Him would 
nvolve (Mk 8 34 and ||s; Mt 10 38; Lk 14 27) was per- 
: ectly clear, in view of the crucifixions inflicted by 
Antiochus Epiphanes, Alexander Jannseus, Varus, 
and Titus. There is therefore no anachronism in 
the statement; while to Jesus Himself it was part of 
His prophetic consciousness of His death. See CRU- 
CIFIXION. 

LITERATURE: Besides works on the Life of Christ and 
commentaries on the passion narrative in the Gospels, 
cf. Zockler, D. Kreus Christi (1875 [Eng. transl. 1878]). 

M. W. J. 

CROSSWAY. See WAY. 
CROW. See TIME, 1. 

CROWN : An ornamental head-dress symbolic of 
unusual honor or prerogative. Crown, diadem, and 
fillet are used in the Bible without very 
I. Lin- strict regard to different shades of 
guistic meaning. In general, the first of these 
Usage. terms takes the most conspicuous place 
among them. It is applied (1) in a 
literal sense: (a) to the round border or edge of ob- 
jects like the ark or the altar (Ex 25 11,30 3, zer, 
"rim or molding" RVmg.) and (6) to the headgear 
of persons distinguished from the ordinary as kings 
and queens (nezer, II K 11 12; kether, Est 1 11, etc.; 
'utarah, II S 12 30; 8mSi)/ia, AV Rev 19 12; ore'^avoy, 
Mt 27 29, etc. ) ; also to the emblem of priestly office 
worn upon the miter (Ex 29 6; cf. also Zee 6 11. 
Wellhausen and Nowack, however, think Zerub- 
babel and not Joshua must be meant). Brides 
and bridegrooms also wore crowns as they do at the 
present day in Asia Minor (Ezk 16 12; Is 61 10, "gar- 
land," RV, but cf. mg.). Victors in athletic con- 
tests were crowned (I Co 9 25; cf. PRIZE). (2) 
Metaphorically, "crown" is the head as that mem- 
ber of the body on which the literal crown is worn 
(qodhgodh, Job 2 7) and also any cause of justifiable 
pride (Prl24, 1631, 176; Is 28 5; Ph4l; Jal 12). 

The Egyptian and Assyrian kings wore crowns of 
definite shape, the former combining the two em- 
blematic head-dresses of the upper and 
2. The the lower country, and the latter using 
Royal a truncated cone with a low projecting 
Crown in point on its summit. That the He- 
Israel, brews had something of a similar na- 
ture distinguishing their kings is prob- 
able, but no data have survived as to its form. The 
material of crowns was generally some precious 
metal (Zee 6 9-15). The date of the introduction of 
crowns is fixed by Nowack (Hebr. Arch., 1894, 
I, p. 307) as the reign of Solomon. But if so, II 
S 1 10 must be regarded as due to a later working 
over of the narrative. A. C. Z. 

CRUCIFIXION. See JESUS CHRIST, | 16. 



Crucify 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



102 



CRUCIFY: 1. As a mode of punishment 
CIIIMKSAM. l'i MSHMKNTS, J 3 (n). Z.TIietermU 
lipiratively by Paul (<'">' ^ 2 . - r> 24 - 14 > to de ~ 
note his own m..r:il unity with Christ's death as a 
death unto sin. and by the author of He (6 6) to 
show tli,- terrible nature of the sin of apostasy. (See 
CROSS, II.) L - L ' y 

CRUSE: The rendering of three different Heb. 
terms- (1 ) baqbuti (I K 14 3) means a small earthen- 
ware flask. (2) ts-ldhlth (II K220), an earthen- 
ware dish. (3) tsappahath (I S26 11 ff.; I K 17 12 ff., 
19 ) a bottle-shaped vessel, probably of metal, used 
journeys for carrying drinking-water, or for oil, 
,-tc In the NT, RV substitutes "cruse' for AV 
'|H.\"m Mt 2<>7; Mk 143; Lk 7 37. A smaU jar or 
flask of alabaster is meant . E. E. N. 

CRYSTAL. See GLASS. 

CUB (-':, kubh, Chub AV): Probably a mistake 
in the Heb. text of Ezk 305 for Lud (so LXX.), 
,>.. l.ydia. E. E. N. 

CUBIT. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 2. 
CUCKOO, CUCKOW. See PALESTINE, 25. 

CUCUMBER. See FOOD, 53, and PALESTINE, 
J23. 

CUMI. See TALITHA-CUMI. 

CUMMIN. See PALESTINE, 23, and FOOD, 
4. 

CUR ("-, kiln, Chun AV): An Aramean city be- 
longing to Hadadezer, taken by David (I Ch 18 8). 
In the || II S 8 8 Berothai is given as the name of the 
city. The identification is uncertain, but Kuma 
(Curanue), between Laodicea and He.liopolis, may 
be the place. E. E. N. 

CUNNING: The various words rendering "cun- 
ning" in the AV all have the general meaning 'skil- 
ful' or 'able to plan and execute' and are accordingly 
rendered usually in the RV by "skilful." In Is 3 3 
the Heb. means 'wise' ("expert" RV). In Dn 1 4 
KV renders yodhe, 'knowing,' by "endued with." In 
Job 5 13 the Heb. ;/ i/ililaUm has in it the idea of fraud 
or deceit ("cunning" RV, "f reward " AV). 

E. E. N. 

CUPBEARER (literally 'drink-giver'; in Gn 40 1- 
419 translated butler; cf. "butlership," Gn402l): 
On account of frequent intrigues and attempts at 
poisoning, the office of cupbearer to an Oriental 
monarch was one of considerable responsibility and 
honor. The loyalty of the persons who served the 
king's wine had to be above suspicion, and they 
often, like N'ehcmiali, enjoyed the esteem and con- 
fidence of their royal masters. The OT mentions 

tl iiplx-arcrs of Pharaoh ((In 40 1), Solomon (I K 

111 5-IICh94), and Artaxerxes (Neh 1 11). 

L. G. L. 

CUPS: The exact form and size of some of the 
vessels called ''cups" in EV are uncertain. The or- 
dinary drinkin^-cup was the km (Gn 40 11; II S 12 3 
or jrorij/doi/ (Mt 1042; Mk 14 23). The gaswah (I 
Ch'JS 17; NH I 7) stems to have been a jug (cf. K> 



25 29 "flagons"). The gabhla' in Benjamin's sack 
'Gn 442) was probably a large goblet (cf. Jer 
355 "bowls"). The 'aggan (Is 2224) and ?aph 
(Zee 122) are both elsewhere translated "basin" 
(q.v.). L ' G " L - 

CURE. See DISEASE AND MEDICINE, 7 f . 

CURIOUS: To devise "curious" ("skilful" RV) 
works (Ex 35 32) means to plan works requiringa 
thought. In Ps 13915 "curiously" means -woven 
together'; the "lowest parts of the earth" being the 
womb. For Curious Arts see MAGIC AND DIVI- 
NATION, 9. 

CURSE : In the Bible "curse" means in general an 
expressed wish or prayer for evil, i.e., an impreca- 
tion. It may be pronounced with 
I. In reference to all sorts of beings, such as 
General, the day (Job 3 8). When its object is 
God it is tantamount to blasphemy 
(barak [in Piel] Job 15,11,25,9, AV ["renounce" 
RV]). More frequently, however, it is a prayer 
addressed to God for some evil toward another per- 
son or thing. As such it may be as vague as a mere 
oath or invocation of the Divine name, and is prop- 
erly translated by the English oath (Jg 172; Is 65 
15 ["oath" RVmg.]). 

More specifically a curse is an act of dedication. 
Anything (primarily objects taken in war) may be 
devoted to God. Such an act carried 
2. Devoted with it the prohibition of appropriating 
Thing. things thus devoted to private uses 
(her em Lv 27 28, etc. ). According to a 
primitive Semitic custom, the inhabitants and goods 
of a city or territory in time of war were vowed to 
God as the Lord of Battles and when conquered de- 
voted to Him, each according to its nature. Men 
and animals were slaughtered in sacrifice (Dt 20 12-14; 
Jos 6 25 ff.). But virgins and children were re- 
deemed (Nu 31 7 ff.; Dt 21 11 ff.). Things capable of 
being burned were consigned to the flames (Dt 7 
25), and incombustible objects such as metals were 
taken into the Temple (Jos 6 24). Whoever violated 
the law of the curse ("devoted thing") was him- 
self made a curse (cf. Achan, Jos 6 18, 71 ff.). 

From the destruction which followed the curse in 
the narrower sense the accursed thing (Jos 6 17, 7 12) 
was viewed simply as that which was 
3. De- consigned to destruction. The Ca- 
struction naanites were thus put under the ban 
of the of extermination (Jos 2 10, 6 17, "de- 
Accursed. voted," RVmg.). The conception in 
this form is transferred to the N T aa 
anathema (Gal 1 St.; Ro 9 3). When Christ Ls said 
to have become a curse (Gal 3 13) it is because 
according to the Law (Dt 21 23) the mode of death 
which He suffered rendered its subject accursed (de- 
voted his body to destruction). "Curse" and "ac- 
cursed" seem to be used here as exact synonyms. 

A. C. Z. 

CURTAIN : The curtain was a much more nec- 
essary and familiar piece of household furniture in 
Oriental life than elsewhere, especially in the trans- 
ition from the tent of the nomad to the house of a 
more settled condition of society. Accordingly it is 
of frequent occurrence in poetic composition as the 



10,3 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Crucify 
Cyprus 



symbol of that which either hides or adorns. Of 
the latter use Is 4022; Ps 1042, and of the former 
Jer 420,1020, are illustrations. See also TAHEK- 
NACLE, 3. A. C. Z. 

CUSH, cush (", kush) : I. 1. A descendant of 
Noah, the eldest son of Ham (Gn 106, etc.; I Ch 
18). See ETHNOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY, 10. 
2. The name of a Benjamite (Ps 7, title) sup- 
posed to be the enemy (of David) referred to in 
the Psalm. A. C. Z. 

II. The name of a country. Until recently it 
was thought that, all the occurrences of this word 
in the Heb. O T (except possibly in Gn 2 13) referred 
to the same country, viz., Ethiopia, consequently it 
is often so translated (e.g., Is 11 11, 18 1, etc.). But 
reeent researches (especially by Winckler; cf. KAT. 3 
]>. 144 ff.) have made it probable that two districts 
were known both to the Assyrians and to the He- 
brews under the sane name, "Cush." One of them 
was Ethiopia (q.v.). The other was in the W. and S. 
of Arabia, not always exactly defined. Winckler con- 
siders that the Arabian Cush is meant in the following 
passages: Gn 2 13, 10 6 ft.; Nu 12 1; II S 18 21; II Ch 
14 8 ff., 21 16; Is 20 3, 43 3, 45 14; Hab 3 7; Ps 87 4. 

E. E. N. 

CUSHAN-RISHATHAIM, cu"shan-rish"a-the'im 
(C!."^"f1 ]&, kushanrish'athayim): King of Meso- 
potamia, Aram-Naharaim (AVmg. and RVmg.), 
who oppressed the children of Israel for 8 years 
when a rebellion under Othniel, the son of Kenaz 
and younger brother of Caleb, of the tribe of Judah, 
put an end to his rule (Jg 3 8-10). It has been 
questioned whether there is a foundation in tradi- 
tion for the story as thus given. The reasons for 
this doubt are (1) the improbability of the sub- 
jugation of Canaan at this time by an enemy from 
such a distance, and (2) the equal improbability 
that Othniel, a Kenizzite clan in the extreme S., 
should be the liberator (cf. Moore on Judges, in Int. 
Crit. Com. 1895). But the improbability of an Ara- 
mean conquest of Canaan is not conceded in view of 
the inactivity of Assyria just before the reign of 
Tiglath-pileser I (1120 B.C.). (Cf. McCurdy, HP 
and M. I, p. 230.) As to the Kenizzite clan of Oth- 
niel, it is not certain that it was so insignificant. 
If there be no corroboration from without of the sub- 
stantial correctness of the story, there is, on the other 
hand, nothing to compel its being set aside as un- 
trustworthy. But see JUDGES. A. C. Z. 

CUSHI Ov'12, kushl): 1. "The Cushite" is the des- 
ignation of the woman whom Moses married (Nu 121); 
also of the messenger sent by Joab to report to Da- 
vid the death of Absalom (II 818 21). Probably 
both persons were of Ethiopian origin (see CUSH, 
II). 2. The great-grandfather of Jehudi (Jer 36 14). 
3. The father of Zephaniah (Zeph ll). A. C. Z. 

CUSHION: This term does not occur in the AV. 
It has been introduced into the RV (Mk438) as 
the rendering of trpo(TKf<j)d\aiov, 'a rest for the 
head.' A. C. Z. 

CUSTOM. See TAX, and LAW AND LEGAL 
PRACTISE, 1 (1). 



CUT, CUTTING. See MOURNING CUSTOMS, 
3, and SEMITIC RELIGION, 2(i. 
CUTH, CUTHAH, roth, cuthd (H13, kuth; n^", 
kuthiih): A place whence the Assyrians deported 
:olonists to plant them in Samaria (II K 1724,30). 
The same place is mentioned on the Assyr. in- 
scriptions as Kutu. It was near Babylon and 
was the chief center of the worship of Nergal, a god 
of war, hunting, pestilence, and of the realm of the 
dead. (Cf. KAT.'p. 412 ff.) 

CUT OFF. See CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS, 
3 (a). 

CYMBAL. See Music, 3 (1). 
CYPRESS. See PALESTINE, 21, and HOUSE, 
4. 

CYPRUS (KVTT/JOS, 'copper'): An island of 3,584 
sq. m., 45 m. from the coast of Asia Minor and 
60 m. from that of Syria. A very fertile plain run- 
ning E. and W. is bounded on the N. and S. by two 
mountain ranges in which there were formerly rich 
copper-mines that gave the island its name. There 
was also a valuable export of timber, which, to- 
gether with other productions, made a large trade. 
In the O T its inhabitants were called Kittim (Gn 
104; Is 23 1,12; Ezk276) from Kitti (Kition - 
modern Larnaka) on the S. coast. In very early 
days there were Mycenaean settlements on the island, 
but afterward the Phoenicians took possession, 
though side by side with them Greeks were found, 
who, isolated by the Persian rule, organized them- 
selves, in dependence upon Egypt, in autonomous 
cities according to Greek polity (Mommsen), their 
coinage being very well known. Paphos, at the W. 
end of the island, was the home of the wide-spread 
cult of the Phoenician Astarte, the Greek Aphrodite. 
After the time of Alexander the Great, Cyprus be- 
came one of the most valuable possessions of Egypt. 
Taken by Rome in 58 B.C. it first came under im- 
perial administration, but was transferred a few 
years later to the control of the Senate (see PROV- 
INCE) and was in the time of Paul governed by the 
proconsul Sergius Paulus (Ac 13 7, 12), whose name 
has been with probability identified on an inscrip- 
tion. Jews had settled in Cyprus in early times and 
were there in large numbers at the beginning of the 
Christian era; in the reign of Trajan they massacred 
thousands of the native Cypriotes and were there- 
after forbidden to live on the island. Soon after the 
persecution that arose on the death of Stephen, 
Christianity secured a foothold in Cyprus. This 
island was the first place visited by Saul and Barna- 
bas, a native of Cyprus (Ac 4 36), on their first mis- 
sionary journey. They landed at Salamis on the E., 
the largest city of the island, and traversed its entire 
length to Paphos, the capital, about 100 m. to the W. 
(Ac 13 4-12). Later, Barnabas, with Mark, returned 
to the island, evidently to carry on the work already 
begun (Ac 15 39). It was men of Cyprus and Cyrene 
who first preached the Gospel to Greeks in Antioch 
(Ac 11 19f.), and the early disciple Mnason, with 
whom Paul lodged in Jerusalem, was a Cypriote (Ac 
21 16). Nothing further is known regarding the 
history of Christianity in Cyprus in the Apostolic 
Age. But see HEBREWS, EP TO, 6. R. A. F. 



Gyrene 
Damascus 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



164 



CYREKE, sdi-ri'ni (Ku / j./i'/j): The rich and pow- 
erful capital city <>l C\n-n;iira (Nortli Africa). It 
was founded tvil n.c. by people from the island of 
Thcra under Matins. ('. was situated on a lofty hill 
HI in. from the so a and was a center of Greek learning 
and culture. It was the birthplace of Aristippus, 
Carneades, and Callimachus. Its kings took part in 
l IIP games of Greece (cf. the Charioteer of the group 
at U-lphi). \\hileC.foughtsuccessfullyagainstthe 
Libyans and Egyptians, it was worsted by Carthage 
and became tributary to Cambyses 524 B.C. The 
Cyrenaic Pentapolis under the protectorate of the 
Ptolemies was founded in 321 B.C. Under the Ptol- 
emies C. became the home of large numbers of Jews 
(cf. Ac 6 9). It became an independent kingdom in 
117. It was bequeathed to Rome in 96 and with 
Crete was made a Roman province in 67 B.C. Its 
ruins are vast in extent, but hostile natives prevent 
excavations. Simon of Cyrene was not a negro, but 
a Jew of Cyrene (Lk 23 26, AV "Cyrenian"). 

J. R. S. S. 

CYRENIUS, soi-rl'ni-ns. See QUIKINIUS. 

CYRUS, soi'rus (EH'S, kBresK), the Latinized 
form of Gr. Kvpos, for the old Persian Kurush: The 
founder of the Persian Empire and the greatest of 
the kings of W. Asia. He was hereditary prince of 
Anshan or S. Elam, a dependency of Media at the 
time of his birth, c. 590 B.C. He was, however, of 
the Persian royal race, a great-grandson of Achsem- 
enes the founder of the line, Anshan having first 
come under the control of the petty Persian rulers 
and then with them under the suzerainty of the 
Median kings. In 550 he threw off the yoke of Me- 
dia, the troops of whose king Astyages came over to 
him without giving battle. He thus became ruler 
of the great Median Empire, which reached west- 
ward to the river Halys. In 546 he took Sardis, the 
capital of Croesus, the king of Lydia, and thereby 
secured the sovereignty of Asia Minor, including its 
Greek colonies. In 539 war arose between him and 
Nabonidus, the last native king of Babylonia. After 



a campaign of two weeks the city of Babylon sur- 
rendered to the Persians without resistance. All 
the lowlands of W. Asia were thus added to his 
possessions, including Syria and Palestine to the 
border of Egypt, Babylon being made one of his 
capitals. He died in 529, probably on some eastern 
journey or expedition, for his later years were de- 
voted to the organization of his own Iranian peoples. 
His tomb remains at the oldest Persian capital, 
I'asargedce (modern Muryhab; see Jackson, Persia 
Past and Present, 1906, p. 278 ff.). 

Cyrus has a twofold importance in the Bible, 
being an imposing figure in both prophecy and his- 
tory. In the former he presents himself to the great 
prophet of the close of the Exile as the servant and 
friend of Jehovah Himself, under whose protection 
and guidance he should destroy the power of Israel's 
oppressors, restore the captives to their own land, 
and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem (Is 41 2 f., 44 28- 
45 6). In the latter he, in the first year of his reign, 
actually gives the exiles permission to return, also 
encouragement and support in their migration (Ezr 
1 Iff.). The fact that the glowing anticipations of 
the seer were not fulfilled under Cyrus himself does 
not diminish his significance as a grand prophetic 
ideal any more than the collapse of his empire under 
his unworthy son and successor detracts from his 
greatness as a statesman and consummate ruler of 
men. 

Babylonian inscriptions of Nabonidus and of 
Cyrus himself materially supplement and correct 
the traditions and legends of the classical writers. 
These inscriptions state also that Cyrus, after the 
capture of Babylon, restored many exiled peoples to 
their homes. 

LITERATURE : Besides the general Oriental histories of 
Duncker and Meyer, see E. Lindl, Cyrus, Munich, 1903. 
For Old Testament relations see Winckler in KA T 3 (In- 
dex under "Kyros")l McCurdy, History, Prophecy, and 
the Monuments, Vol. Ill, 1373-1420, where are given 
translations from the relevant inscriptions, which are 
dealt with in full by Hagen, in Beitr&ge ZUT Assyrioloffie, 
III. 205-257. J. p. 



DABAREH, dab'a-re. See DABERATH. 

DABBESHETH, dab'e-sheth (n^, dabbasheth, 
Dabbasheth AV): A place on the border of Zebu- 
Ion (Jos 19 11). Perhaps the modern Dabsheh, Map 
IV, C 5. E. E. N. 

DABERATH, dab'e-rath (."051, dabhrath, Dab- 
areh AV), the mod. Deburieh, Map IV, D 7: A 
town of Issachar on the borders of Zebulon (Jos 
and also a Levitical city (Jos 21 28; I Ch 6 72). 
Ita position is strategic and possibly here the 
Israelites under Barak gathered for their attack on 
Siscra (Jg4 14, 5 15). E. E. N. 

DAGGER. See ARMS AND ARMOR, 2. 

DAGON, dr'gon: A Philistine deity. See SEM- 
ITIC KKMCION, J 20. 

DALAIAH, dal"a-<ii'a. See DELAIAH. 



DALE. See KING'S DALE. 

DALMANUTHA, dal"ma-nu'tha. See MAGADAN. 

DALMATIA, dal-me'shi-a (AaA/wm'a) : A prov- 
ince on the eastern shores of the Adriatic Sea, 
originally a part of Illyricum. It became independ- 
ent 180 B.C., but was made tributary to Rome in 
156 B.C. Augustus made it a Roman province. It 
now belongs to Austria. It is mentioned once by 
Paul (II Ti 4 10), but nothing is known of the nature 
of Titus' mission thither. J. R. S. S. 

DALPHON, dal'fen O'C/1, dalphon): One of the 
sons of Haman (Est 9 7). E. E. N. 

DAMARIS, dam'a-ris (Aa/iapir possibly AapiXif 
['heifer'], a frequent feminine name): One of Paul's 
converts in Athens (Ac 17 34). The title ripta, 
'honorable,' Riven her in one N T MS (E), was 
due perhaps to a desire to save her reputation, in 



105 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Cyreno 
Damascus 



view of the fact that a respectable woman of Athens 
would not have been present in such a public gather- 
ing. Her association with Dionysius may be in- 
tended to imply that she was a woman of rank. 

J. M. T. 

DAMASCUS, da-mas'cus (pwS~, dammeseq, but 

also darmeseq, I Ch 18 5, II Ch 28 5, and dum- 

meseq, II K 16 10. In the Egyptian 

1. Name lists of the 16th cent, called timasqu 
and and of the 13th cent, ti-ramaski [W. 

Location. Max M tiller, Asien u. Eur., 1893, pp. 
162, 234]. Assyrian, dimaski. Ety- 
mology obscure): A well-known city located in the 
X\V. end of a fertile plain which the rivers Abana 
(the modern Barada) and Pharpar convert into a 
beautiful garden 
spot. The whole 
plain is excep- 
tionally rich in 
natural features, 
ami must from 
the first have 
offered attrac- 
tions to travelers 
between the 
Mediterranean 
seaboard and the 
Mesopotamia!! 
valley as a con- 
venient place for 
rest, and also to 
the merchants as 
a suitable site for 
a center of dis- 
tribution. It is 
no wonder that 
a populous and Plan of Modern 

prosperous town 

grew up at this point, al:nost as early as the country 
on either side was fairly settled. 

The origin of the city is not traceable to any defi- 
nite date or agency, although the belief prevailed 
among the later Jews that it was found- 

2. Early ed by Uz, grandson of Shem (Jos. 
History. Ant. 1, 6 4). It ia mentioned as exist- 
ing in the days of Abraham (Gn 14 15). 

Eliezer, Abraham's steward (Gn 15 2), is called a 
Damascene. It is very probable that between the 
l.'jth cent. B.C. and the 13th Damascus was a sub- 
ject of warfare between the Egyptians and the Hit- 
tites; but it was about the year 1200 that the Syri- 
ans (Arameans) secured possession of it and made 
it the capital of their kingdom. In the days of 
David the city as well as the kingdom of which it was 
the capital was made subject to Israel (IIS 8 5). 
But this relationship could not have lasted very 
long, for soon afterward (c. 950) Rezon (Hezion), 
son of Eljada, established a strong dynastic rule at 
Damascus (I K 11 23-25), which lasted until the com- 
plete collapse of Syria under the irresistible blows 
of the Assyrian power in 732. 

Rezon was succeeded by Tabrimmon (I K 15 18), of 
whom, however, nothing more is known than that he 
was the father of Ben-hadad I (c. 900). Ben-hadad 
helped Asa against Baasha and later made war 



against and defeated Omri of Israel (I K 20 34). 
Ben-hadad II (870-844, Hadadezer in the inscrip- 
tions of Shalmanezer II) came into con- 
3. Later flict with Ahab and was by him defeated 
History, at the battle of Aphek and compelled 
to yield the king of Israel the right to 
"make streets" (i.e., bazaars) for himself in D. 
Shortly after this, Ben-hadad put himself at the head 
of a confederacy including Israel and other neigh- 
boring states, which was designed to stem the grow- 
ing power of Assyria in Western Asia. But in this 
plan the confederacy completely failed, being de- 
feated at the decisive battle of Karkar (854). These 
reverses undoubtedly rendered Ben-hadad unpopular 
in his own realm. He was finally slain by Hazacl, 
who assumed his place on the throne (II K 8 15). 

Under Ilazarl 
(844-813) the 
prestige of Da- 
mascus revived in 
spite of two de- 
feats sustained at 
the hands of 
Shalmanezer II 
(843 and 840). 
In his wars with 
Jehu, this king 
succeeded in 
wresting from 
Israel the terri- 
tory E. of the 
Jordan and S. as 
far as the river 
Arnon (II K 10 
32 f.; Am 1 3) and 
threatened Judah 
into paying him 

City of Damascus. a large tribute (II 

K12l7f.). Haza- 

el's son and successor (Ben-hadad III, or Mari, 812- 
770) was obliged to abandon the war against Israel 
and defend himself against Assyria. In the twenty 
years between 773 and 753, Damascus suffered five 
separate attacks, all of which resulted in the ex- 
haustion of its resources. The immediate successor 
of Mari is not certainly known. The names of Ta- 
beel and Tabrimmon II both occur (770-740). 
It was under Rezon (740-732) that Damascus finally 
succumbed to the attacks of Tiglath-pileser III. Its 
beautiful territory was devastated, its people taken 
into captivity, and its king put to death (Schra- 
der, COT. I, 252). 

For the next five centuries Damascus was simply 
the residence of Assyrian, Babylonian, or Persian 
governors. Biblical allusions to it 
4. Damas- are scarce and doubtful (Jer 49 23-27; 
cus from Ezk47 16 ff., 48 1). In the Greek pe- 
732 riod it even ceased to be the capital of 
Onward. Syria and was supplanted in that capac- 
ity by Antioch, though the Seleucids 
kept possession of it throughout. In 85 B.C. it was 
captured by the Nabataean king, Aretas (Jos. Ant. 
XIII, 15 2), and in 65 acknowledged the sovereignty 
of Rome. When the Apostle Paul fled from it, it 
was under command of an ethnarch. In N T times, 
there were evidently many Jews in Damascus (Ac 9 2 ; 




Damnation 

Daniel, The Book of 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



1 1 1 1 1 N; Jos. BJ. II, 20 2, VII, 8 7). That one of 
ite streets which has acquired fame as the "street 
which is called straight" (Ac 9 11) was probably 
flanked by pillars. The houses of Judas and Ana- 
nias (Ac 9 10 f.) and the window in the wall through 
which Paul was let down (II Co 11 33; Ac 9 M) are 
still shown in tin- modern city, which has been under 
Mohammedan rule since 624 A.D. A. C. Z. 

DAMNATION. See ESCHATOLOQY, 18-21, 
30, 39, 48, 49. 

DAMSEL. See FAMILY AND FAMILY LAW, 6, 
and MAHKIAQB AND DIVORCE. 

DAN (11. dan), 'judge': I. A son of Jacob and 
Bilhah, Rachel's maid, and the ancestor of one of 
tl' tribes of Israel. See TRIBES, 2 and 4. II. 
A city in the extreme N. of Israel's territory, once 
called Laish (Jg 18 29, "Leshem" by mistake in Jos 
l;i tl), but changed to Dan after its capture by a 
large section of the tribe of Dan that emigrated 
thence in the early days of the occupation of Canaan 
by Israel (Jg 1 7 f.). The exact site is a matter of dis- 
pute, opinions being divided between Tell el-Kadi, 
a mound from which flow two of the streams that 
unite to form the Xahr Leddan, or "Little Jordan," 
and Banlas, the ancient Paneas, also called Cffisarea 
Philippi. See Map IV, E 4, F 4. The fact that the 
Arabic KSdi is the equivalent of the Hebrew dan is 
strongly in favor of the site of Tell el-Kadi, and with 
this agree express statements in Jos. Ant. 1, 10 1, V, 
3 i, VIII, 8 <; BJ. IV, 1 1 and in theOnomasticon of 
Eusebius and Jerome perfectly which locate Dan at 
the source of the ' lesser' Jordan and about 4 m. from 
Paneas. For the argument for the site of Paneas see 
G. A. Smith, HGHL. p. 472 f. Dan was counted 
the northern limit of Israel's territory, "from Dan to 
Beersheba," meaning the whole extent of Israel N. 
to S. (I S 3 20, etc.). At Dan was one of the most 
ancient sanctuaries in Israel, over which Jonathan, 
a grandson of Moses, was said to have first presided 
(Jg 18 30). As situated near a large spring (the 
mound being that of an extinct volcano), it was 
probably always considered a sacred spot. Here, at 
a later time, was placed one of the two golden calves 
made by Jeroboam I (I K 12 29). E. E. N. 

DAN, DANITE. See TRIBES, 4. 

DANCE : Throughout the O T period down to the 
Greek era, the dancing in vogue among the Hebrews 
was predominantly a religious exercise. In very an- 

cient times it 
was customary 
for worshipers to 
engage in a joy- 
ous religious pro- 
cession around 
the sacred tree 
or other sacred 
symbol. (See 
accompanying 
cuts.) The com- 
mon word for 
dance, nahdl 
(from hdl, 'to 
A Dane* Around a Sacred Tree. move ill a circle,' 




'to twist') refers to such circular rhythmic move- 
ment (Ex 15 20, 32 19; Jg 11 34,21 21; I S21 11,295). 
This dancing was generally accompanied by music 
and song. It was engaged in by men, or more often 
women, or both together (cf. Ps 68 25), frequently 
in two antiphonal companies (cf. Song 6 13 RVmg.). 
Other words for dancing as kdrar, 'to turn' (II S 6 




A Sacrificial Ceremony. 

The dancers move toward the altar, behind which is seated a 
woman holding a flower to her nose. Behind her are 
female musicians. 

14, 16), raqadh, 'to leap' (I Ch 15 29; Job 21 11; cf. Is 

13 21), and pazaz, 'to spring,' reveal the fact that 
the motion was violent rather than graceful. The 
verb hagag (I S 30 16, from which hag, the ordinary 
word for a religious "feast" [cf. Ex 5 1], is derived) 
is evidence for the original religious character of 
dancing. During the Greek period the Jews became 
acquainted with professional dancing women, and 
sometimes did not hesitate to imitate them (cf. Mt 

14 6). But the dances most loved by the people re- 
tained their primitive character of pure and joyous 
simplicity. Social dancing, as practised to-day in 
the Occident, was unknown to the Hebrews. 

E. E. N. 

DANIEL (Vx.!5^, daniyyel), 'God is my judge': 
1. Son of David and Abigail, the Carmelitess (1 Ch 
31). 2. Son of Ithamar, one of those who sealed the 
covenant with Nehemiah (Ezr82; Neh 10 o). 3. A 
sage whose reputation entitled him to be classed 
with Noah and Job (Ezk 14 14, 20). In addition to 
his exemplary piety, he had also acquired a great 
name for his exceptional wisdom (Ezk 28 3). There 
is no valid reason for distrusting the traditional 
identification of this Daniel with the Daniel of the 
book bearing that name. Neither is there any evi- 
dence of the existence of another Daniel at an earlier 
date. Outside the book, however, the three refer- 
ences in Ezekiel are the only ones made to him until 
a very much later time (I Mac 2 59 f. ; Mt 24 15 [Mt 
13 14]; Jos. Ant. X, 2 7). But the name of Daniel 
became the rallying-point of apocryphal and pseud- 
epigraphical writings (Bel and the Dragon; History 
of Susannah; Prayer of Azariah; Song of the Three 
Children; cf. also Fabric., Cod. V. T., i, 1124). 

A. C. Z. 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Damnation 

Daniel, The Book of 



DANIEL, THE BOOK OF 

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS 



8. Internal Evidence: Lin- 

guistic Aspects 

9. Internal lOviclenoe: 

Type of Religious 
Thought 

10. Authenticity 

11. Canonicity 

12. Interpretation 



1. Contents. Part I 

2. Contents. Part II 

3. Language 

4. Date and Authorship; 

The Rival Views 

5. The Exilic Date 

6. The Maccabean Date: 

Kxternal Evidence 

7. Interim! Kvidence: His- 

torical Aspects 

This book consists of two parts easily distin- 
guishable. The first part (chs. 1-6) is narrative in 
form and has for its theme Daniel as 

I. Con- a sage and interpreter of dreams; the 
tent. subject of the second (chs. 7-12) is a 

Part I. series of visions seen by him. The 
narrative element in it is at a minimum. 
The l>ook opens with a portraiture of Daniel and 
the three young Jewish nobles, who because of 
ceremonial scruples refused at Babylon to eat the 
kind's food and were prospered for their fidelity to 
the national law (ch. 1). This incident is followed 
by an account of Daniel's successful interpretation 
of Nebuchadrezzar's dream of the composite image 
(ch. 2). Next comes the story of the refusal of 
Daniel and his three associates to worship the image 
set up by the king and their subjection to the ordeal 
of the fiery furnace (ch. 3). Daniel is then pictured 
as interpreting the king's dream of a tree (ch. 4). 
He also plainly explains the meaning of the hand- 
writing on the wall at Bclshazzar's banquet (ch. 5), 
and is promoted by Darius the Mede, but on account 
of envy is subjected to the ordeal of the lion's den 
(ch. 0). 

The second part of the book contains an account 
of four great visions seen by Daniel. The first is an 
apocalyptic representation of the four 
2. Part II. great world powers (Babylonian, Medo- 
Persian, Persian, and Macedonian or 
Greco-Syrian) in the form of four beasts, followed by 
the establishment of the "people of the saints of the 
Most High, whose kingdom is an everlasting king- 
dom" (ch. 7). The second vision is also an apoca- 
lyptic representation, but of the Macedonian power 
with its fourfold development. Here Alexander 
the Great appears in the form of a he-goat who over- 
came the ram (the Persian Empire). From one of 
the four divisions of the Greek Empire a king arises 
who proceeds to desecrate the sanctuary (ch. 8). 
The third vision is given in answer to a prayer of pen- 
itcnce and is cast in the form of a Divine communi- 
r:iiinn through the angel Gabriel, which concerns 
the Messianic Kingdom to come in 70 weeks (ch. 9). 
The fourth vision is given by direct angelic visitation 
assuring Daniel of God's love for His faithful people 
and detailing the course of events under the tyran- 
nical and sacrilegious king of the N., Antiochus 
Kpiplumes (c. 17,5-165 B.C., chs. 10-12). 

One striking feature of the book is its bilingual 
character. The portion of it which is included be- 
t \vccn 2 4 and 7 28 is in Aramaic, all the rest in He- 
brew. To account for this fact, it has been assumed 
(by Meinhold, Kam. z. li. Dn, in Strack-Zockler, pp. 
21 i 1 , 262 ) that Dn is drawn from sources of which the 



first, an Aramaic document of c. 300 B.C., furnishes 
the basis of chs. 1-6, and the second, a Hebrew work 

of the Maccabean Age, makes up chs. 
3. Lan- 7-12. But as ch. 1, outside of these 
guage. natural divisions, is in Hebrew and ch. 

7 in Aramaic, Preiswerk (Der Sprach- 
wechsel im B.Dn, 1903, pp. 88, 1 12) alleges that ch. 1 
has been translated from Aramaic into Hebrew and 
ch. 7 from Hebrew into Aramaic. But aside from 
the support which such an allegation is intended to 
furnish to the theory of two underlying documents, 
there is no evidence for it. Moreover, why should 
the translation of Hebrew and Aramaic respectively 
stop precisely where it does? Another attempted ex- 
planation of the facts is in the theory that the speech 
of the Chaldean magicians in 2 4 is given in their 
own language. But as the conversation with the 
Chaldeans is so brief, the continuation of the narra- 
tive in the Aramaic dialect is on this theory unac- 
counted for. As against these grounds a more sat- 
isfying explanation may be found in a comparative 
use of the two languages at the time of the composi- 
tion of the book. If this be fixed in a period when 
Hebrew was being largely supplanted by Aramaic 
in popular usage, the author may be imagined as re- 
sorting to the more intelligible dialect in portraying 
affairs in Babylonia and turning to the less familiar 
Hebrew when desirous of limiting the circle of those 
who could understand his meaning; i.e., in the more 
purely apocalyptic sections of his book. As this 
dealt with current affairs, the risk of incurring the 
displeasure of the Syrian authorities would be thus 
lessened. At the same time the encouragement and 
confidence in a speedy relief would be imparted to 
the narrower circle of the faithful. 

Strictly speaking Dn is anonymous. In this it 
differs from Is, Jer, and Ezk. So far as it contains 

any traces of the date of its origin and 

4. Date its authorship, the proper use of these 

and Au- data will depend upon a correct con- 

thorship; ception of its literary form. If this 

the Rival proves to be that of a purely historical 

Views, prophetical book, these facts can only 

be read as a claim on the part of the 
book that it was written in the Exilic period and by 
the illustrious sage (prophet) who is its chief char- 
acter. Upon this understanding of it the prophet 
Daniel would bear the same relation to the book 
which Ezekiel does to the book bearing his name, etc. 
But if Dn be an apocalypse, written according to the 
current methods of composition governing the writing 
of apocalyptic productions, it is plain that the author 
lays no claim to giving precise history or accurate 
minute prediction, but, wishing to convey a message 
of hope, and to infuse fortitude under trial into the 
hearts of a persecuted generation, he transfers him- 
self back to the time of a great God-fearing man, and 
through his figure conveys his message. In so doing 
he embodies such knowledge as he possesses of the 
age and environment of his hero. In no case, how- 
ever, does he, on this supposition, aim to produce the 
impression that his work is that of the sage himself. 

Of these two alternatives, the first prevailed in 
ancient times, as may be gathered from the treatment 
of Porphyry's attack on the genuineness of the 
book and the defense by Christian writers (Jerome, 



Daniel, The Book of 
Daniel, Apocryphal 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



ir>8 



Pro/, in Dan.). In modern times the criticism of 
.--ins with doubts regarding the authorship of 
clis. 1-7 (Spinoza, Newton), which were 
5. The followed by tin; view that the Aramaic 
Exilic section (_> 4-7 28) was an interpolation 
Date. (J. D. Miehaelis), and were finally sup- 
planted by the theory that the whole 
book is the work of a Jewish patriot of the time of 
Antiochus Epiphanes (Corrodi, 1783, followed by 
1 .icliliorn. etc.). The argument for the Exilic date of 
i h- lxx>k is chiefly based on the alleged traditional 
acceptance of it as such from the earliest days. It 
is, however, also supported by such features of it as 
come into view in I hi; effort to defend this traditional 
theory against attacks from the critical view-points. 
Tin- weakness of the argument is that the tradition, 
when traced to ita earliest date, becomes quite un- 
certain. The Baba-Bathra (146) ascribes the writing 
of Dn not to Daniel but, along with that of some 
other books, to "the men of the great synagogue." 
The first portion of the book, at least, bears out the 
assertion that Daniel is rather the hero and sub- 
ject of it than the author. Of the latest advocates 
of this position the ablest are C. H. H. Wright, Dan- 
iel and His Prophecies (1906); Kennedy, Daniel from 
the Christian Point of View (1898). 

The Maccabean date of Dn is supported by con- 
siderations both external and internal. Of the 
former (1 ) the place of the book in 
6. The the Hebrew canon between Esther and 
Maccabean Ezra in the group of Hagiographa, and 
Date: not with the prophets, shows that it 
External was composed after the second group 
Evidence, of the canon (the N'bhi'lm) had been 
closed. The effort to break the force 
of this fact by pointing to the Psalter, which is 
also put among the Ilagiographa, although com- 
pleted before the second division of the canon 
had been closed, is unavailing, because from the 
nature of the case (lie Hook of Psalms could not have 
been put either in the first division (Pentateuch) or 
in the second (Prophets). A better analogy is fur- 
nished by the Book of Jonah, which, though in every 
respect exactly like Dn, found a place among the 
prophets simply because it was composed before the 
collection of the N'bhi'lm had teen completed. (2) 
The silence of Ben Sira regarding the prophet indi- 
cates that Daniel was not prominently before the 
mind of the faithful Hebrew, as would have been the 
case had such an account of him as Dn presents been 
published (Sir 49). According to Ben Sira no man 
has arisen like Joseph since Joseph's day, but as 
Koenig points out (Einl., p. 386) Daniel is such a 
perfect analogue to Joseph, especially in the matter 
of rising to a first place in a foreign realm because of 
the successful interpretation of dreams, that the 
failure to recognize him is unaccountable upon the 
Exilic dating of the book. (3) The total absence of 
any trace of the influence of Dn upon subsequent af- 
faire is also a fact not accounted for by the theory 
of its |.'.\ilic date. 

The internal grounds for the Maccabean date may 

be grouped as (I i those which are drawn from the 

nature of the historical details included in the book. 

Them; show that to the author the conditions of the 

iln were not the familiar environment of his own 



day but an atmosphere and surrounding into which 

he had mentally transferred himself. On the other 

hand, the history of the Maccabean 

7. Internal Age as reflected in the book is mi- 
Evidence : nute and accurate (cf. Farrar on Dn 
Historical in Expositor's Bible, pp. 38-62). (2) 

Aspects. The fact that the author touches upon 
the conditions of the Exile, passes over 
the entire period between Cyrus and Alexander, and, 
glancing at that conqueror as a landmark, proceeds 
at once into a minute description of events during 
the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes is accounted for 
best by the Maccabean dating of the book. The 
historical conditions of the Exile were necessary as 
the literary framework for his great hero. The 
intermediate period was irrelevant and therefore 
omitted. The details of the Maccabean Age were 
introduced because they were of all-absorbing in- 
terest. Upon the theory of an Exilic date such a 
selection of historical material is unexplainable. 

The linguistic aspects of Dn point to the Macca- 
bean Age. The language of the Hebrew section 
affiliates it with that of Esther and 

8. Internal Chronicles, the latest books of the O T 
Evidence: (Driver, LOT*, p. 504 ff.). Its 
Linguistic maic is not the Babylonian but the Pal- 
Aspects, estinian variety of that language (cf. 

Koenig, EM., p. 387; Driver, op. ci!., 
p. 502). Certain Persian words (about 10 to ]."> i fix 
the earliest limit for the composition of the book as 
c. 500 B.C., while the Greek terms for musical instru- 
ments used in 3 4 f. point to a date subsequent to 331 
B.C. The explanation sometimes offered for t he- 
intrusion of these words in a book of the 6th cent. 
B.C. which assumes that they might be stray names 
introduced through occasional intercourse between 
Babylonia and the Greeks of Asia Minor is inade- 
quate, inasmuch as two of them at least belong to a 
much later age. Sumponyfth ("dulcimer," &vn<t>a>- 
via) is first found in Plato, and psanterln ("psal- 
tery," tyakrlipiov) by its change of 1 into n betrays 
the influence of the Macedonian dialect and must 
therefore be later than the conquest of Alexander. 

The type of religious thought which prevails in 
the book confirms the conclusion pointed to by the 
considerations already adduced. The 
9. Internal theology of the book is akin to that of 
Evidence: the Books of the Maccabees and quite 
Type of different from that of the Exilic pro- 
Religious ductions or even from that of the wri- 
Thought. tings of Haggai, Zechariah, Ezra, and 

Nehemiah. 

If Dn was not intended to be taken as the work of 
the man whose name it bears but as an apocalypse 
in which the prophet's figure was used 
10. Au- as the vehicle of a Divine message to 
thenticity. the persecuted generation of Jews who 
lived in the middle of the 2d cent., 
there can be no question of its authenticity. For the 
question of authenticity can arise only when facts 
are discovered that point to a conclusion con- 
tradicting the claim of authorship made by a 
book for itself. As a book cast into the apoca- 
lyptic form, Dn could not biit be put, in ac- 
cordance with the legitimate literary principles 
governing such forms, into the mold in which it is 



169 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Daniel, The Book of 
Daniel, Apocryphal 



found. Even such a statement as 124 belongs to 
the literary framework, and does not constitute a 
claim of Danielle authorsliip. 

Whether Dn deserves a place in the canon of 
Scripture does not depend cither upon the personal- 
ity of the author or the species of lit- 
n. Can- erature he may have chosen for his 
onicity. message, but upon the recognition of 
the book by the spiritual consciousness 
of (iod's people as containing a real message of per- 
manent value. This recognition was accorded to 
the book in the days of Jesus and by Jesus Himself. 
It lias been concurred in by almost the unanimous 
body of believers. No investigation of a literary 
historical character can shake its place in the rule of 
faith. 

Much of the difficulty experienced with the mean- 
ing of Dn is lost when it is recognized as a product 
of the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes. 
12. Inter- Ch. 11 especially, with its four world 
pretadon. kingdoms, is wonderfully cleared when 
viewed from this standpoint. The third 
of these kingdoms is explicitly named as the Per- 
sian (112); the fourth to follow is evidently the Greek 
(Macedonian). Of this the Syrian (Seleucid) king- 
dom is considered the northern branch. The same 
fourfold division of history appears in the earlier 
part of the book (cf. ch. 2, the image of Nebuchad- 
rezzar's dream) and in both cases the fourfold 
world-power is succeeded by the kingdom of the Mes- 
siah, .specifically represented in 7 9 ff. as the reign of 
the Son of Man. 

LITKKATURF. : Driver, LOT 1 ; J. D. Prince, A Crit. Com. 
on the Book of Dn, 1899; Driver, Camb. Bib. for Schools 
and Coll., Dn, 1900; Belirmann, Hand-Kom. z. Dn, 1894. 

A. C. Z. 

DANIEL, APOCRYPHAL ADDITIONS TO: In 

the Greek text of the Book of Daniel are found the 
following additions: (1) The Prayer of Azariah and 
the Thanksgiving of the Three Children in the Fiery 
Furnace. (2) The History of Susannah. (3) The 
Story of Bel and the Dragon. The first of these has 
a much closer relation to the Book of Daniel than the 
other two. 

This is an apocryphal addition of 67 verses to the 
Book of Daniel inserted after 3 23. The title does 
not fully express all the contents of the 
i . The Song section , for it contains also the Prayer 
of the Three of Azariah (1-22), and a brief narrative 
Children. (23-27) of the heating of the furnace, 
and of the coming of the Angel of the 
Lord to the rescue. Codex B has the headings "The 
Prayer of Azariah" and "The Hymn of the Three." 
It has been often noted that the prayer, which is 
really as if a nation was speaking, confessing its past 
sins and seeking mercy, is singularly inappropriate 
to the circumstances. So too the Hymn is quite as 
unlikely in such a situation. It is more like a litany, 
and seems to be modeled after Ps 136. Both are 
unauthentic amplifications of the story in the ca- 
nonical Dn, that are meant to fill out the account of 
the miraculous deliverance of the three Hebrews 
by giving the prayer which one of them offered, be- 
seeching God for deliverance, and the hymn of 
praise which they sang when they saw that this 
prayer was answered. It is entirely unknown who 



composed them. Their date also is unknown. Tlu-y 
have l>een preserved for us in the Greek Bible and in 
the versions made from it. It has been much dis- 
cussed whether the original of this section was 
Hebrew or Greek. The question is not easy of set- 
tlement, since every extant version is based on the 
LXX. As yet there is no unanimity in the matter. 

This apocryphal addition to the Book of Daniel is 

entitled in some MSS. "The Judgment of Daniel." 

In Greek MSS. and in the Old Latin 

2. The version it is placed before Dn ch. 1; in 
History of the Vulgate it stands at the end as 
Susannah. Dn ch. 13. The Greek text is extant 

in two recensions, the LXX. and that 
of Theodotion, which differ from each other in some 
details. There are several Syriac versions of the 
book. The story is as follows : Susannah, the wife 
of a wealthy Babylonian Jew, was accustomed to 
walk daily in her garden. Two elders, who had been 
recently appointed judges, becoming enamored of 
her beauty, concealed themselves one day in the 
garden and when Susannah was taking her bath 
suddenly appeared and made shameless proposals 
to her. Her outcry discovered them, and to save 
themselves they publicly accused Susannah of adul- 
tery with a young man whom they had found in the 
garden. The innocent woman was condemned to 
death, but was saved by Daniel, who by sharp cross- 
questioning exposed the falsity of the elders and se- 
cured their punishment. 

This narrative can not be regarded as historical. 
It is full of improbabilities. Ball (Speaker's Bible, 
Apoc. II: 325) following Briihl finds the origin and 
motive of the Susannah story in a tradition of two 
elders of the time of the Captivity, who by promising 
women that they would become the mothers of great 
prophets led them astray, and he suggests that in 
the time of Ben Shetach (100 B.C.) we can find rea- 
sons for the presentation of the story in the form in 
which it here appears with the trial attached. If 
this theory be correct, several important teachings 
are exemplified in the story. Julius Africanus was 
the first to dispute its canonicity. It is still re- 
garded by the Roman Catholic Church as canonical. 

These are two distinct stories which have been 

added to the Bo'ok of Daniel in the Greek and other 

versions. They both have as their aim, 

3. Bel along with the glorification of Daniel, 
and the the exhibition of the emptiness and de- 
Dragon, ception of idolatry. In the story of 

Bel, Cyrus the Persian king discovers 
that Daniel does not worship the Babylonian idol 
Bel, and calls him to account for his conduct. Daniel 
denies that Bel is a living god, and offers to prove it. 
The test is to be made in reference to the daily offer- 
ings of meat and drink which Bel was supposed to 
consume. If it should be found that these were 
made away with by other means than by the god 
himself, then Daniel was to be honored. Upon the 
floor of the temple Daniel had spread a thin coating 
of fine ashes and after the food had been deposited 
before the god, the king himself shut and sealed the 
door. The next morning when the door was opened 
the food was gone, but the marks of human feet were 
\ipon the pavement. This led to the discovery of a 
secret door, through which the priests with their 



Dinjain 
David 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



170 



I :mcl children had entered the room. The 
proof was irrefutable, the false priests were slain, 
and Daniel was honoi 

In the Story .-f tin- Dragon ihc same question was 
at issue as to whether it was a living god. Daniel 
denied it and offered to slay him. The king gave 
him permission to try, and Daniel making lumps 
"of pitch, and fat, and hair" gave them to the 
dragon to cat. whereupon he burst asunder. Baby- 
lon was indignant at the death of their god and 
compelling the king to give up Daniel cast him into 
the lions' <len. where he was miraculously kept 
unharmed. The king's wonder at this led him to 
honor the prophet and to acknowledge the prophet's 
God. 

Neither of these stories, of course, is authentic, 
but each is framed from material taken from current 
legends and ideas. The dragon myth had wide cir- 
culation. As in the case of the History of Susannah, 
the two Greek recensions, that of the LXX. and that 
of Theodotion, differ in details. The original lan- 
guage of these stories has generally been considered 
to be Greek. Caster's discovery of an Aramaic text 
of the Story of the Dragon in the Chronicles of 
Jerahmecl gives strong support to the few who have 
stood for an Aramaic original and has started again 
the question of Aramaic originals for them both, but 
as yet a clear decision is not possible. 

The Roman and Greek Churches accept these 
stories as canonical ; the Protestant Church holds 
them to be apocryphal. J. S. R. 

DANJAAN, dan"je'an (i?- ~J-, danah ya'an) 
(IIS 24 6): The text here seems to be corrupt. 
The LXX. is unintelligible, but indicates that 'Dan' 
occurred twice. Some would amend: "And from 
Dan they went round to Sidon." Others would 
read "and to Ijon" for "Jaan." E. E. N. 

DANNAH, dan'a (~J1, dannah) : A city in the hill- 
countryof Judah( Jos 1549). Map II, D 2. E.E.N. 

DARDA, dflr'da (l'~"1, darda') : A person famous 
for his wisdom (I K4 31). He is called a son of Mahol, 
but in I Ch 2 6, where the same set of names occurs, 
he is called Dara and counted as a son of Zerah, 
son of Judah. Mahol may have been the name of 
a family of the clan of Zerah, a subdivision of the 
tribe of Judah. E. E. N. 

DARIC. A Persian coin. See MONEY, 8. 

DARIUS, da-rai'us (*"% daryawesK): 1. D. 
Hystospes, King of Persia (521-485 B.C.), the restorer 
of the empire of Cyrus, who followed the policy of the 
founder in his treatment of the subject states, and 
acted generously toward the Jewish settlement in 
Palestine which had been made under Cyrus. He 
commanded by a special decree, in his second year, 
that all those who had hindered t lie rebuilding of the 
Temple of Jerusalem should cease their obstruction, 
and that money and material for sacrifices should be 
granted from the revenue of the province (Kzr 6 6-12; 
< f. Hag. 1 1, IS, 2 10; Zech 1 1, 7). "Darius the Per- 
sian," whose reign is mentioned in Neh 12 22 as the 
date of registration of certain priests, was probably 
alao the great Darius. 2. "Darius the Mede" is 
named in Dn 5 31 as succeeding Belshazzar, at the age 



of sixty-two, on the throne of Babylon. In 9 1 he is 
said, in addition, to have been "the son of Alias- 
uerus of the seed of the Medes" (cf. 11 l). Both of 
these alleged personages are unhistorical; and, judg- 
ing from the character of the other references to mat- 
ters of history in the Book of Daniel, it is perhaps not 
necessary to assume that the author, writing nearly 
four centuries after the fall of Babylon, had any 
definite individuals in mind. Fortunately, the cunei- 
form inscriptions have given us the history of the 
Babylonian succession after the fall of the native 
dynasty. The last Chaldean ruler was Nabonidus, 
not Belshazzar, who was the crown prince. After 
the surrender of Babylon, and the formal entry of 
Cyrus three months later, his son Cambyses, as it 
would appear, was made king, but only for less than 
a year; thereafter Cyrus himself assuming the title 
and function. It is barely possible that some tradi- 
tion of Gobryas, the Median general of Cyrus who 
occupied the city till his sovereign came to take 
possession, may have lain at the foundation of the 
references in Daniel. But this hypothesis would at 
best be only another illustration of the author's 
notion of the relative unimportance of the minute 
details of history. J. F. McC. 

DARKNESS: In figurative language darkness 
often appears as the symbol of mystery (Ps 139 12; 
I Co 4 S), of ignorance (Is 42 7; Ps 82 5), and oftener 
of moral evil or sin (Is 5 20; Mt 4 16; Jn 3 19). ( 
of physical darkness are alluded to in connection 
with the creation, the plagues in Egypt, the cruci- 
fixion of Jesus (Mt 27 45), and the last day (cf. Es- 

CHATOLOQY, 39). A. C. Z. 

DARKON, dar'ken CrpTl, darqori):' The ances- 
tral head of a subdivision of "Solomon's servants" 
in post^exilic days (Ezr 2 56; Neh 7 58). E. E. N. 

DARK SAYING. See PROVERB. 

DARLING: The rendering of the Heb. "",*, 
yahldh, 'only,' 'only one,' in Ps 22 20, 35 17, where it 
is used poetically for one's life or soul. E. E. N. 

DART. See ARMS AND ARMOR, 1. 

DART IN THE LIVER. See DISEASE, 6 (3). 

DATHAN, de'than (}?-, dathan): A Reubenite 
and a leader in a rebellion against Moses (Nu 16). 
See KORAH. E. E. N. 

DAUGHTER. See FAMILY AND FAMILY LAW, 
5, 6. 

DAVID 

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS 



1. Name 

2. Sources for the History 

of David 



3. David's Life 

4. Estimate of David's 

Reign and Work 

The name David (Tl^ ,T^, davndh) is probably 

related to Til, dodh, 'beloved one.' Some take it 

to mean 'paternal uncle' (cf. Gray, 

i. Name. Heb. Pr. Names, p. 83). Others refer 

it to Dodo, the name of a deity. 
In the Biblical material relating to David later 
and earlier narratives have been fused together in 



171 



A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY 



Danjaan 
David 



I he accounts in the Books of Samuel and in I K 
1-2. The account in I Chronicles is based for its 

nuiin facts on the earlier account in 
2. Sources Samuel and Kings. While the Chron- 
for the icier may have had access in a few 
History of instances to other ancient sources of 
David. information, most of the remarkable 
differences between his narrative and 
that in the earlier books must be laid to his unhis- 
torical imagination. He projected back into David's 
time the fully developed liturgical and other arrange- 
ments of the Temple service in his own day. Com- 
pare, e.g., the account of the bringing of the Ark to 
Jerusalem in I Ch 15 with the earlier account in 

I 1 S 6, and the difference in point of view will at once 
be apparent. See CHRONICLES. 

We are thus practically limited to the accounts 
in I and II S and I K 1-2 for our knowledge of Da- 
vid. This material will be found, on examination, 
to consist of excerpts from older and originally in- 
dependent narratives in addition to editorial notes 
of various kinds. See SAMUEL, BOOKS OP. 

David is introduced, for example, in I S 16. The 
account in 16 1-13 is a natural sequence to ch. 15. 
But at 16 14 a new strand of narrative appears. 
Saul is persuaded to send for David, already famous 
as "skilful in playing, a mighty man of valor, and a 
man of war," etc., as one who by his playing on the 
harp might soothe the troubled spirit of the king. 
David comes to Saul, who likes him, makes him liis 
armor-bearer and provides for his permanent stay 
at court. The sequence to tliis narrative is cer- 
tainly to be found in such a passage as 18 6 ff. (note 
that in ver. 6 the correct reading is "Philistines" 
[plural] and the reference originally may not have 
been to the Goliath story). But instead of this we 
have next the account of David and Goliath, ch. 
17-185, in which David is introduced, as if for the 
first time