prcsentcfc to
She Xibrai^
of tbe
of Toronto
The Department of Oriental
Languages
for use in the
Oriental Seminar.
A STANDARD
BIBLE DICTIONARY
STANDARD
BIBLE DICTIONARY
DESIGNED AS A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE TO THE SCRIPTURES,
EMBRACING THEIR LANGUAGES, LITERATURE,
HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, MANNERS AND
CUSTOMS, AND THEIR THEOLOGY
EDITED
MELANCTHON W.^JACOBUS, D.D.
(CHAIRMAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD)
DEAN, AND HOSMER PROFESSOR OF NEW TESTAMENT EXEGESIS AND CRITICISM, IN HARTFORD
THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
EDWARD E/NOURSE, D.D.
PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY, AND INSTRUCTOR IN NEW TESTAMENT CANONICITY AND
TEXTUAL CRITICISM, IN HARTFORD THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY
AND AV r^
ANDREW Cs^ENOS, D.D.
PROFESSOR OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY, IN McCORMICK THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, CHICAGO
IN ASSOCIATION WITH AMERICAN, BRITISH
AND GERMAN SCHOLARS
Embellished With New and Original Illustrations and Maps
FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY
NEW YORK AND LONDON
1909
1
+ *
t
COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY
FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY
Att rights of translation reserved
Registered at Stationers' Hall, London, England
[Printed in the United States of America]
Published January, 1909
KEY TO INITIALS OF CONTRIBUTORS
A. C. Z Andrew C. Zenos, M.A., D.D.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical History in
McCormick Theological Seminary,
Chicago.
A. S. C Augustus Stiles Carrier, D.D.,
Professor of Hebrew and Cognate
Languages, McCormick Theological
Seminary, Chicago.
A. T Albert Thumb, Ph.D.,
Professor in the Philosophical Facul-
ty, University of Marburg.
C. S. T Charles Snow Thayer, Ph.D.,
Librarian of Hartford Theological
Seminary.
D. B. M. . . .Duncan B. Macdonald, M.A., B.D.,
Professor of Semitic Languages, Hart-
ford Theological Seminary.
E. E. N Edward E. Nourse, S.T.B., D.D.,
Professor of Biblical Theology in
Hartford Theological Seminary.
E. K Eduard Konig, Ph.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis
in the Protestant Theological Faculty,
University of Bonn.
E. K. M. . . Edwin Knox Mitchell, D.D.,
Professor of Grseco-Roman and East-
em Church History, Hartford Theo-
logical Seminary.
E. von D. . .Ernst von Dobschutz, D.D.,
Professor of Theology, University of
Strasburg.
G. B. G George B. Gray, M.A., Hon. D.D.,
Professor of Hebrew and Old Testa-
ment Exegesis, Mansfield College, Ox-
ford.
G. E. P George E. Post, M.D., F.L.S.,
Professor in the Syrian Protestant
College, Beinlt.
G. L. R George L. Robinson, Ph.D., D.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Literature
and Exegesis, McCormick Theological
Seminary, Chicago.
G. M George Milligan, D.D.,
Minister of the Established Church of
Scotland.
H. G Hermann Guthe, D.D.,
Professor of Theology, University of
Leipsic.
I. M. P Ira Maurice Price, Ph.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Semitic Languages and
Literature, University of Chicago.
J. A. K James A. Kelso, Ph.D., D.D.,
Professor of Hebrew and Old Testa-
ment Literature, Western Theological
Seminary, Allegheny, Pa.
J. D James Denney, D.D.,
Professor of New Testament Lan-
guage, Literature, and Theology,
United Free Church College, Glasgow.
J. F. McC.. James F. McCurdy, Ph.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Oriental Literature, Uni-
versity College, Toronto, Canada.
J. H. R James Hardy Ropes, A.B., D.D.,
Bussey Professor of New Testament
Criticism and Interpretation, and
Dexter Lecturer on Biblical Litera-
ture, Harvard University.
J. M. T John Moore Trout, Ph.D.,
Dobbs Ferry, N. Y.
J. R. S. S.. . John R. S. Sterrett, Ph.D., LL.D.,
Professor of Greek, Cornell Univer-
sity, Ithaca, N. Y.
J. S. R James Stevenson Riggs, D.D.,
Taylor, Seymour, and Ivison Pro-
fessor of Biblical Criticism, Auburn
Theological Seminary.
J. V. B J. Vernon Bartlet, M.A., D.D.,
Professor of Church History, Mans-
field College, Oxford.
K. L Kirsopp Lake, M.A.,
Professor of Early Christian Litera-
ture and New Testament Exegesis,
University of Leyden.
KEY TO INITIALS OF CONTRIBUTORS
L. B. P Lewis Bayles Paton, Ph.D., D.D.,
NYt ili-inn I'rnfi-s-a.r of Old Testament
Exegesis and Criticism. Instructor in
Assyrian :tml Cognate Languages,
Hurt ford Theological Seminary.
L. G. L Lewis Gaston Leary, Ph.D.,
l':i-tor of Huguenot Memorial Church,
1'clham Manor, New York.
M. D Marcus Dods, D.D.,
Professor of New Testament Theol-
ogy, United Free Church College,
Edinburgh.
M. W. J Melancthon W. Jacobus, D.D.,
Dean, and Professor of New Testa-
ment Literature and Criticism, Hart-
ford Theological Seminary.
R. A. F Robert A. Falconer, D.D.,
Principal of Toronto University, To-
ronto, Canada.
S. D Samuel Dickey, M.A.,
Professor of New Testament Litera-
ture and Exegesis, McCormick Theo-
logical Seminary, Chicago.
S. M Shailer Mathews, D.D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology,
and Dean of the Divinity School,
University of Chicago.
S. R. D Samuel R. Driver, D.D., Hon. D.Lit.,
Regius Professor of Hebrew, and Can-
on of Christ Church, Oxford.
W. D. M. . .Wm. D. Mackenzie, D.D., LL.D.,
President and Riley Professor of
Christian Theology, Hartford Theo-
logical Seminary.
W. N Wilhelm Howack, Ph.D.,
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis
in the Theological Faculty, University
of Strasburg.
W. S Wm. Sanday, D.D., LL.D., D.Sc.,
Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity,
and Canon of Christ Church, Oxford.
W. S. P Waldo S. Pratt, Mus.D.,
Professor of Ecclesiastical Music and
Hymnology, Hartford Theological
Seminary.
PREFACE
I. THE ORIGIN OF THE DICTIONARY.
THIS Dictionary owes its origin to two facts, not altogether unrelated: In the first
place, the existence of a general need, frequently expressed in many quarters, as not
beincr supplied by the two comparatively recent Biblical dictionaries of Hastings and
Cheyne These dictionaries have been found to be too discursive to answer the purpose
of handy and ready-reference books. In addition to this fundamental objection, their
high price has made it impossible for many to purchase them who are desirous of having
in their possession an accurate, modern Bible Dictionary.
The second fact was the appearance in Germany of the one-volume Bibelworterbuch,
edited by Professor Hermann Guthe. This work attracted the attention of the Funk
& Wagnalls Company, who planned at first to have it translated and thus put before the
English reading public. It was found, however, on investigation that Guthe's work would
involve so much editorial revision in order to adapt it to an American or a British public
that the idea of translating it was abandoned, and it was determined to construct an ab-
solutely new Dictionary, altogether independent of any existing one, which it was hoped
would meet the demands of the situation. Of this effort the present work is the result.
II. THE PROBLEM OP THE DICTIONARY.
The construction of a modern single-volume English Bible Dictionary, accurate and
abreast of modern scholarship, presents a complicated problem. For the production of
such a book there must be an understanding of the material with which it has to deal;
there must be an appreciation of the constituency to which it is to minister; and there must
be an intelligent consciousness of the critical position to which its purpose commits it.
(1) The material with which an English Bible Dictionary has to deal is the contents
of the English Bible. The English Bible, however, is simply a version, and behind its
English terminology are the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek originals. As a consequence,
the Dictionary, while it reproduces the words and phrases of the English Bible in its titles,
must treat them primarily with reference to the Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek terms which
underlie them. In other words, its task must be the explication of a terminology drawn
in the first place from the English Bible, but not from the point of view of English philology
or etymology, but from the point of view of the underlying terminology of the originals.
(2) The constituency had in view in such a Dictionary is determined largely by the
facts which have called the book into existence. It is a constituency which is much wider
than the class of distinctive scholars, continually engaged in Bible study, familiar wit'
Hebrew and Greek, and having a first-hand acquaintance with the field of modern E
research. It is made up of the educated ministry, who, while possessed of technici
scholarship, have not always the leisure to enter into a discursive presentation of crit:
research; besides this, it includes the Sunday-school teachers and workers, who in most
cases have not had the benefit of a technical education in Bible study and yet
and appreciate all that Biblical scholarship can give them of its results; and, finally, u
includes the intelligent laymen interested in Bible study, but not acquainted with Hebrew,
PREFACE
or in many cases with Greek. For this widely extended circle of interested Bible students
the Dictionary, to be of service, must avoid being too scholastic in its general character.
It should be accurate in its presentation of facts, but not so technical as not to be easily
understood; it should be up to the day in its information, but not so discursive as to burden
its pages with the pedantry of undigested facts. What it gives should be given in such a
way as not to repel the busy man and woman of to-day, but to help them in their under-
standing of the Bible, which they wish' to read intelligently and to study with a view to
the best results for themselves and others.
(3) The critical position to which such a Dictionary is necessarily committed must
be one of acceptance of the proved facts of modern scholarship, of open-mindedness toward
its still-debated problems, and of conservation of the fundamental truths of the Christianity
proclaimed and established in the message and mission of Jesus Christ. The constituency
to which the Dictionary appeals is not to be helped by an apologetic method that ignores
what a reverent critical scholarship has brought to light regarding the Book of the Christian
religion; nor is it to be served by a radical spirit so enamored of novelty and opposed to
tradition that it would seek to establish a new religion on the ruins of the historical facts of
Christianity. It can be ministered to only by a clear, charitable, uncontroversial presenta-
tion of the results which a century and a half of earnest, conscientious, painstaking, self-
denying study of the Bible has secured, to the end that all students and readers of the Book
may be led into* its more intelligent understanding and its more spiritual use.
III. THE PRINCIPLES GUIDING THE EDITORS.
Such being the character of the problem, the principles guiding the editors in the
constructing of the Dictionary have been the following:
(1) The text of the American Standard Edition of the Revised Bible (copyright,
1901, by Messrs. Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York) has been made the standard English
text 'of the Biblical citations and references. At the same time, it is evident that, the
Dictionary being intended for English readers in general, this text could not be adhered
to exclusive of any reference to that of the English Revision of 1881 (copyright by the Ox-
ford University Press, Oxford, England) which occupies in British- countries relatively the
same position as that held by the American Revision in this country; much less could there
be an ignoring of the Authorized Version of 1611, which in all English-speaking countries
still maintains, and is certain to continue to maintain for some time to come, a position of
great respect and considerable use. In fact, in so far as the Dictionary concerns the Eng-
lish Bible as a version of its original languages, it must, while adopting a standard English
text, have constant reference to such varieties of interpretation as the English versions
actually in use present.
(2) The Concordance to the English Bible has been made the basis of the list of titles.
At this point the editors were confronted with a peculiar difficulty; for there is as yet no
complete concordance of the American Revised text. The nearest approach to any such
work that was at their disposal is the elaborate Concordance of James Strong, S.T.D.,
LL.D., which indicates the passages in the Authorized Version where changes were made
in the Revision of 1881, and which shows these changes in a comparative table, but contains
no concordance of them. While every effort has been made to supply this fundamental
lack, it is more than likely that some terms in the American Revision have been inad-
vertently omitted. Apart from this, however, it is obvious that this basal relation of the
concordance to the list of titles does not mean that all the words in the concordance have
been given a place in the list of titles. The purpose of the Dictionary is not to record
the contents of the Bible, but to give information and instruction regarding such parts
PREFACE U
of the Bible contents as may be of service to Bible readers and students. Furthermore,
it is clear that not all the contents of the Bible which call for such treatment belong legitimately
to a Bible Dictionary; for, again, the purpose of such a Dictionary is not to do the work
of an English lexicon or grammar. There are not a few obsolete English words and phrases
especially in the Authorized Version which are subjects of interesting study in our own
language, but are without significance in the underlying original languages of the Bible.
These can safely be omitted, and both the space and the dignity of the Dictionary be
conserved. Still further, there are words and phrases which so obviously belong to the
field of ordinary Bible comment, having little or no significance in the study of the Bible,
that there would be no real service rendered the student or the reader in considering them.
The Dictionary is not intended to do the work of the general English commentary any more
than of the general English lexicon. With these exceptions, however, the effort has been
made to include in the list of titles every term in the American Revision.
(a) This being the working list, it will be found as a matter of fact that its larger part
consists of names of persons and places. These resolve themselves into two classes, the
more important and the less important. As to the latter class, it has been impossible in
many cases to do more than record the Bible statements, there being nothing known
beyond them. But even in doing this the endeavor has been to place these statements in
the critical connections to which they belong, the purpose of the Dictionary being not
simply to gather Bible references, but to present results of scholarship wherever they
have been secured. As to the former class, the endeavor has been to treat them not only
in regard to the facts of the Bible record, but also and more especially in regard to the
relation which they sustain to the progress of the history and the development of the
religion contained within and connected with the Bible. This, the editors believe, will
be conspicuously evident in the most important articles in this class such as those on
Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt, Asia Minor, and Palestine on the one hand, and those on
Moses, David, Elijah, Jeremiah, John the Baptist, James, Peter, John, and Paul on the
other. It will be found at its best in what has been written of the One Supreme Person-
ality in all religion.
(6) Closely connected with these person and place articles and necessitated by the
historical method employed in their treatment will be found a class of articles presenting
in larger compass the general subjects of the History of Israel, Semitic Religion, Greek
and Roman Religions, Ethnography and Ethnology, with a specific discussion of the
politico-religious parties of the New Testament times, and the Religious Thought and Life
and Institutions of the Jewish People.
(c) Conversely, in the direction of the details of the people's civic and domestic life,
the reader of the Dictionary will find articles on such subjects as Crimes and Punishments,
Law and Legal Practise, Family and Family Law, Marriage and Divorce, Money, Trade
and Commerce, Agriculture, Artisan Life, Disease and Medicine, Dress and Ornaments,
Burial and Mourning Customs.
(d) It is impossible, however, in any study of the Bible to dissociate the history
and life of the people from the literature in which the history has been recorded and the
life has found expression. Necessarily, therefore, the plan of the Dictionary has included
a discussion of the origin, composition, and characteristics of the Bible writings, together
with those of the Apocrypha and of the more important writings in the apocalyptic litera-
ture. In the treatment of these writings the editors have been influenced by a considera-
tion of the readers for whom the Dictionary is intended, and have sought, consequently,
not so much to enter into the details of the critical problems involved as rather, along
with a plain statement of the critical facts which scholarly investigation has brought to
PREFACE
light, to unfold the significance of the writings in their connection with the history which
they record and the teachings which they present. This will account for the space de-
voted to the analysis of the contents of the respective books and for the treatment in
many of them of their theological position. With a treatment of the Biblical books nat-
urally is connected a treatment of the languages in which they were written, of the text
in which they have been preserved, and of their collection into the canons of the Old and
New Testaments.
(e) From such a treatment of the Biblical literature it follows that there must be
some specific presentation of the theological teachings of the Bible, as a whole. The plan
of the Dictionary confessedly did not permit it to enter the field of systematic theology;
but equally, it did not admit of its ignoring the Biblical basis on which this science is
founded the point in fact at which the Bible is perhaps most profoundly searched and
studied. The editors consequently determined upon including among the articles the
fundamental doctrines on which the Scriptures themselves give utterance, such as Faith,
Repentance, Atonement, Sin, Forgiveness, Grace, together with such presupposed doc-
trinal facts as God, such doctrinal inferences as Predestination, and such general fields of
doctrinal thought as Eschatology.
In all these varied directions it has been the endeavor of the editors to maintain the
purpose of the Dictionary to present to the readers and students of the Bible the results of
a reverent scholarship, committed to the accepted facts of criticism, open-minded to its un-
settled problems, and thoroughly loyal to the basal truths of an evangelical Christianity.
It is difficult to measure the help to the editorial work which has come from the sym-
pathetic interest of the contributors to the undertaking. The editors desire that their
appreciation of the assistance which has thus been rendered them shall not be underesti-
mated. In addition, they would acknowledge the courtesy of the authorities of the BRITISH
MUSEUM in permitting the use of illustrations taken from their magnificent collection of
antiquities as well as the generous use which the PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND and the
EGYPTIAN EXPLORATION FUND have permitted of the cuts which their records contain of
the valuable finds made at Gezer and elsewhere.
Thanks are due also to Professor JOHN R.'S. STERRETT, of Cornell University, for the
map of the Pauline world; to Professor SAMUEL DICKEY, of McCormick Seminary, for the
excellent photographs of Oriental scenes and places gathered by him while in Palestine and
the East; to Dr. LEWIS GASTON LEARY, of Pelham Manor, N. Y., for photographs tak^n
by himself of the tombs of the Cave of Machpelah; to Professor LEWIS BAYLES PATON, of
Hartford Seminary for his map of Jerusalem, and to him in conjunction with Professor
ELIHU GRANT, of Smith College, for the admirable photographs of objects included in the
complete collection of articles of dress and utensils of domestic and agricultural life gathered
by him and his devoted wife during their year in Jerusalem and Palestine.
The editors would not forget the constant kindness of Professor CHARLES SNOW
THAYER, the librarian of the Case Memorial Library of Hartford Seminary, and of his as-
sistants, Mr. ANANIKIAN and Doctor CHAPMAN, in the bibliographical details of the Dic-
tionary; and also the painstaking care of Mr. EDWARD F. DONOVAN, of the publishers'
editorial staff, in correcting the proofs for the press, particularly in the care of the Hebrew
text and its transliteration. To Miss ETHEL L. DICKINSON special thanks are due for her
efficient service in preparing the manuscript for the printers.
M. W. JACOBUS.
E. E. NOURSE.
A. C. ZENOS.
HARTFORD, January, 1909
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
N. B. In the following list subjects likely to be sought for under various headings are repeated under
each heading. Cross-references in this list are to other items in the list, not to articles in the
Dictionary.
v PA"E
'Agalah, Threshing with an 17
Agricultural Implements facing 16
Alexander the Great, Tetradrachmse (Silver Coins) of 556
Alexandria, Map of 23
Alphabets, Specimens of Early Hebrew and Aramaic 27
Altar of Burnt Offerings 29
Altars, Primitive (Dolmens), in Eastern Palestine 29
Amon, Temple of, at Thebes, Ground-Plan of the 850
Amulets Collected in Cyprus 191
Ancient Lamps (Simplest and Improved Forms) 474
Palestinian Lamps 475
- Seals on Pottery (Jar Handles) 777-778
Semitic World, Map of the facing 780
Anklet and Toe Rings, Foot with 192
Anointing of a Sacred Stone Pillar 37
Aramaic Alphabet Specimens of
Archers in Battle
Articles Used in Travel facing 760
Ashkelon, Capture by Rameses II of the Castle of 59
Ass, Pack-Saddle for: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760
Asshur, Military Standard with the Image of the God 84
Asshurnasirpal's Palace, Archers in Battle seen from 895
Assyrian, Head of an 68
Slave-Labor Transporting Colossal Bull 818
Astarte, Clay Figure of 783
, Coin from Byblus Showing Symbol of "83
with a Dove, Clay Figure of "83
Baal Hamman of Carthage 784
Babel, Tower of
Babylon, Plan of the Ruins of
Babylonia, Procession of the Gods in 790
Babylonian Map of the World, Early
Representation of the Cosmos, Primitive
Bagpipe: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing y
Baker's Oven Showing the Dough Against the Oven Wall 2
Showing the Loaves on Hot Ashes 263
Showing the Loaves on Red-Hot Stones 2
Bar Kochba, Coin of Simon ;
Base with Laver
Basket for Carrying Earth: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II
for Fruit or Vegetables: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II /<<"</ -
- with Handle: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II
- Large, with Handle: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II ! acil >3 2 06
xli LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Basket, Small, for Flour: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I faci 264
Bellows see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II..
Bells, Woman's Girdle with [\
Bethel, Stone Circle (Supposed) at ' \'_ . ' .
Bin, Grain: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I
Bird-Hunting with Boomerangs in a Swamp. . .
Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser, The. . ' 'o 70 ,
Boot, Modern .......'.'.'.'.'.".'.'' IOQ
Booth in a Vineyard
Bowl, Dough: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I 'lacing '>64
Breastplate of the High Priest, Diagram Showing Arrangement of Stones. .... . . . 830
Bridle: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL "foci ' ' 760
Brook Cherith, An Eastern Jordan Wady facing 620
Broom: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II
Bull, Assyrian Slave-Labor Transporting a Colossal ....
Burnt Offerings, Altar of 9 o
Byblus, Coin from, with a Temple and Symbol of Astarte
Caesarea, Plan of
Camel's Pack-Saddle: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL 'facing 760
Saddle Bag: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL
Capture of the Castle of Ashkelon by Rameses II
Cart, Ox, as seen in Palestine To-day ' ,<
Carthage, Baal Hamman of ' _.
Castle of Ashkelon, Capture by Rameses II of the
Cedars of Lebanon, One of the Few Remaining Groves of the. . . ' facina 118
Central Palestine, Map (III) of "'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '. lacing 622
Ceremony, Sacrificial
Chariot, Hittite War- '.'. '.'. ... ' ' '.',[ _.[ .......... ... ' "
Cherith, Brook ' V ac j- " 690
Chest for Clothes: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II. .
Clay Figure of Astarte \..\.\\\\\\\ '. * . 783
with a Dove ' _'
Coffee-Mill: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II ' y ac j-" 266
Coin from Byblus, with the Temple and Symbol (Cone) of Astarte
of Eleazar ' .._
of Herod I, Copper
of John Hyrcanus
of Simon Bar Kochba ' ,-_
Coins of Darius Hystaspes, Gold
Colossal Bull, Transported by Assyrian Slave-Labor 81 S
Conduit from the Virgin's Fountain to the Pool of Siloam, Course of Underground. . 397
Copper Coin of Herod I -
Denarius of Emperor Tiberias, Roman
- Kettle: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 26&
Cosmos, Primitive Babylonian Representations of the
Course of Underground Conduit from the Virgin's Fountain to the Pool of Siloam. .
Court of the Tabernacle '
Cover, Wicker, for Dough-Bowl: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I '.facing 264
Crooks, Types of Shepherds' g 02
Cross-Section of the Site of Jerusalem, Showing Elevations
Showing Comparative Heights of Different Parts of Jerusalem
Cyprus, Amulets Collected in ' jgj
- Model of a Phoenician Temple at Idalion o to
Pillars from -
Damascus, Plan of Modern City of , 6 _
Dance Around a Sacred Tree
Darics (Gold Coins of Darius Hystaspes) . .
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS mi
PAI.K
Darius Hystaspes, Gold Coins of ^-j
Denarius (Copper) of the Emperor Tiberius, Roman
Dervish's Tambourine: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 504
Dibon of Moab, Plan of \^i
Dolmens (Primitive Altars) in Eastern Palestine 29
Dough-Bowl: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 'Jti 1
Drum, Hand: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564
Kettle: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing ."><; 1
Dung-Catcher: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS Joeing 1ft
Early Babylonian Map of the World 287
Eastern Jordan Wady Joeing 620
Egypt, Map of facing 200
Semitic Traders Bringing Their Wares into 370
Eleazar, Coin of 557
Elevation, Cross-Section of the Site of Jerusalem Showing 397
Ephesus, Ruins of Theater in Foreground facing 216
Excavation of Gezer 29O
Exodus, Probable Route of the 371
Ezekiel's Ideal of the Holy Land and People 841
Vision, Ground-Plan of the Temple of 854
Feed-Bag: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760
Female Head with Nose-Ring 191
Fetter for Horse: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760
Fiddle: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing ">(>4
Fight with Tiamat, Marduk's 153
Fishing Scene on the Sea of Galilee 777
Floor, Threshing- 16
Flour-Sieve: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264
Flute: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing .564
Foot with Anklet and Toe-Rings 102
Fork, Two-Pronged: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16
Winnowing, Five-Pronged: see AGRICULTURAL, IMPLEMENTS facing 16
Forks and Shovel Used in Winnowing 1&
Fountain, Virgin's, Course of Underground Conduit from the, to the Pool of Siloam 397
Front Elevation of the House of the Forest of Lebanon 482
Front View of Solomon's Temple, after Stade 851
Galilee, Fishing Scene on the Sea of 777
Sea of 275
Genealogy of Hebrew Tribes 877
Gentiles, Tablet Forbidding Them from Entering the Court of Israel 856
Geography, Map of Hebrew -facing 288
Gezer, Excavation of 290
Girdle with Bells, Woman's 191
Girth: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760
Goad: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16
God, Sun-, Shamash, Representation of the "8' 1
Goddess Emerging from, or Growing Out of, a Sacred Tree 782
Gold Coins of Darius Hystaspes
Golden Necklace 1^1
Goshen, Land of, Showing Probable Route of the Exodus 371
Grain-Bin: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264
Grain, Reaping facing
Grain-Sieve: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing
Grinding Meal with a Mill, Women ' ' '
Ground-Plan of the House of the Forest of Lebanon
liv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Ground-Plan of Solomon's Temple 850
of the Temple of Amon at Thebes 850
Groves of the Cedars of Lebanon, One of the Few Remaining facing 118
Growth of the City of Jerusalem, Map Showing the facing 402
Half-Shekel (Copper) of Simon Maccabjeus 26
Hamman of Carthage, Baal 784
Hananiah, Seal of 26
Hand-Drum: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564
Hand-Mill for Grinding Flour: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264
Head of an Assyrian 68
with Nose-Ring, Female 191
Hebrew, Early, and Aramaic Alphabets, Specimens of 27
Geography, Map of facing 288
Tribes, Genealogy of 877
Hebron, Interior of the Mosque at, The Monuments to the Patriarchs 504
Heights of Different Parts of Jerusalem, Cross-Section Showing Comparative 395
Herod I, Copper Coin of 26
High Priest, Diagram Showing Arrangement of Stones on Breastplate of 830
Hittite War Chariot 53
Holy Land, Ezekiel's Ideal of the Distribution of the People of the 841
Horn: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564
Horse, Breast Ornament for: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760
Fetter for: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760
Head Ornament for: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760
House in the Forest of Lebanon Front Elevation 482
Ground-Plan of the 482
Household Utensils, I facing 264
- II facing 266
Hyrcanus. Coin of John 26
Hystaspes, Gold Coins of Darius 557
Image of the God Asshur, Military Standard with the 84
Implements, Agricultural facing 16
Inscription, Mesha (Lines 24 and 25) 25
The Siloam 25
Instruments, Musical facing 564
Interior of the Mosque at Hebron, The Monuments to the Patriarchs 504
Jacob's Well (Sectional View) 380
Mouth of 379
Jar Handles Found in Palestine, Seals on i 777-778
Jerusalem, Cross-Section Showing Comparative Heights of Different Parts of 395
Cross-Section Showing Elevation of the Site of 397
Map Showing the Growth of the City facing 402
Outline Map Showing Topography of, and Vicinity facing 396
from Scopus facing 400
Jewish Ram's Horn: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564
John Hyrcanus, Coin of 26
Jordan, Wady, Eastern facing 620
Judah, Wilderness of 61.")
Kefr Bir'im, Galilee, Front Elevation of the Synagogue at 834
Ruins of a Galilean Synagogue at 834
Synagogue at, Ground- Plan of 833
Kettle, Copper, see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266
Kettle-Drum: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564
Key and Lock: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv
FAOE
Key of a Palestinian Peasant House, with Lock
Kochba, Coin of Simon Bar
Lachish, Siege of, by Sennacherib 94
Lamps, Ancient 474-475
Land of Goshen, Showing the Probable Route of the Exodus 371
Laver, Base with 853
Lebanon, House of the Forest of, Front Elevation 482
House of the Forest of, Ground-Plan 482
One of the Few Remaining Groves of the Cedars of facing 118
Lilybaeum, Sicily, Stele from 784
Lock and Key: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266
of a Palestinian Peasant's House .'!."><>
with Key 356
Locust 488
(with Extended Wings) 488
Lodge in a Vineyard 108
Lute: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564
Lyre: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564
Maccabaeus, Simon, Half-Shekel (Copper) of 26
Silver Shekel of 26
Mallet: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266
Mandolin: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564
Mandrake 628
Map of Alexandria 23
of Ancient Semitic World facing 780
- of Central Palestine (III) facing 622
- of Egypt facing 200
of Hebrew Geography facing 288
- of Jerusalem, Showing the Growth of the City facing 402
of Nineveh and its Environs 58.~>
- of Northern Portion of Palestine (IV) facing 638
- of Palestine (I) between 610-611
- of Pauline World lacing 648
- of Southern Portion of Palestine (II) facing 614
- of the World, Early Babylonian
Showing Topography of Jerusalem and Vicinity, Outline -facing 396
Marduk's Fight with Tiamat
Meal, Women Grinding, with a Mill 547
Mesha Inscription (Lines 24 and 25) 25
Metal, Mirror of Polished 293
- Plate for Baking Bread: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing Ji I
Military Standard with the Image of the God Asshur
Mill, Coffee-: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266
Hand-, for Grinding Flour: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264
Women Grinding Meal with a *"'
Mirror of Polished Metal 2
Model of Phoenician Temple at Idalion, Cyprus
Modern Boot
Pool of Siloam, Showing the Mouth of the Underground Conduit from the Virgin's Fountain . . .
Shoe ^
Monuments to the Patriarchs, Interior of the Mosque at Hebron
Morag or Sledge for Threshing
Mortar for Grinding Coffee: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II
Mosque at Hebron, Interior, The Monuments to the Patriarchs
Mouth of Jacob's Well
Musical Instruments / aci "
ivl LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Necklace, Golden 191
Nethaniah, Seal of 778
Nile God 584
Nineveh and its Environs, Map of 585
Northern Palestine, Map (IV) of facing 638
Nose-Ring, Female Head with 191
Obelisk of Shalmaneser, The Black 372-373
Offerings, Altar of Burnt 29
Oil-Press 595
Outline Map, Showing Topography of Jerusalem and Vicinity _. facing 396
Oven (Tabun) Used in Baking. Under View 265
Baker's, Showing the Dough Against the Oven Wall 264
Showing the Loaves on Hot Ashes 265
Showing the Loaves on Red-Hot Stones 264
Large: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264
Small: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264
Oi-Cart, as Seen in Palestine To-day 119
Pack-Saddle for Asses and Camels: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760
Palestine, Map (I) of between 610-611
Map (III) of Central Portion facing 622
Map (IV) of Northern Portion facing 638
Map (II) of Southern Portion facing 614
Seals on Jar Handles Found in 777-778
Palestinian Lamps, Ancient 475
Pannier for Water-Bottles: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760
Papyrus Plant 628
- Skiff Made of 808
Patriarchs, The Monuments to the, Interior of the Mosque at Hebron 504
Pauline World, Map of facing 648
Peasant Plowing, Syrian 15
People of the Holy Land, Ezekiel's Ideal of the Distribution of the 841
Person Worshiping Before the Sacred Tree 782
Pharaoh with the Crown of Upper and Lower Egypt 666
Phoenician Temple at Idalion, Cyprus 852
Pillar, Anointing of a Sacred Stone 37
Pillars from Cyprus 788
Pithom, Store City of, and Its Vicinity 679
Plan of Caesarea 114
of Dibon of Moab , 181
of Modem City of Damascus 165
of Royal Buildings 849
of the Ruins of Babylon 77
of the Ruins of Samaria 766
Plate, Metal, for Baking Bread: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264
Plow and Ox-goad, Syrian 681
see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 10
Plowing, Syrian Peasant 15
Polished Metal, Mirror of 293
Pool of Siloam, Course of Underground Conduit from the Virgin's Fountain to the 397
Pot for Hot Water: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266
for Making Coffee: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266
Potter at Work 56-
Pottery facing 56
Ancient Seals on Jar Handles 777-778
Pounder, Washing: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266
Pre-Exilic Seals on Jar Handles Found in Palestine. . . 777-778
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvil
Press, Oil- 95
Primitive Babylonian Representations of the Cosmos (The Signs of the Zodiac) 155
Procession of the Gods in Babylonia 790
Ram's Horn, Jewish: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564
Reaping Grain lacing 18
Representation of a Procession of the Gods in Babylonia 790
of a Sacred Tree 782
of the Sun-God Shamash 789
Ring, Signet- 191
Road, Sectional View of Roman 898
Roman Denarius (Copper) of Emperor Tiberius 556
Route of the Exodus, Probable 371
Royal Buildings, Plan of 849
Ruins of Babylon, Plan of the 77
of Ephesus Theater in the Foreground facing 216
Sacred Stone Pillar, Anointing of 37
Tree, Goddess Emerging from 782
Person Worshiping Before 782
Representation of 782
Sacrificial Ceremony 166
Saddle: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760
Saddle-Bag: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760
Samaria, Plan of the Ruins of 766
Street of Columns 766
Samaritan Script 28
Sandals, Various Forms of 190
Scopus, Jerusalem from facing 400
Script, Samaritan 28
Sea of Galilee 275
Seal of Hananiah, Son of Azariah 26
of Nethaniah, Son of Obadiah 778
of Shemaiah, Son of Azariah 26
Seals on Jar Handles Found in Palestine, Pre-Exilic 777-778
Section of the Underground Conduit at the Virgin's Fountain 399
Seed-Sowing, Tube for: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16
Semitic Traders Bringing Their Wares into Egypt
- World, Map of Ancient facing 780
Sennacherib, Siege of Lachish by 94
Shalmaneser, The Black Obelisk of . 372-373
Shamash, Sun-God, Entering Through the Eastern Gate of Heaven
Representation of the Sun-God
Shechem and Its Environs
Shekel of Simon Maccabteus, Silver
Half (Copper) of Simon Maccabsus
Shemaiah, Seal of 26
Shepherds' Crooks, Types of 802
Shoe, Modern 190
Shovel Used in Winnowing, Forks and
Winnowing: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS ./'"'"'? 16
Sickle: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS .facing 16
Siege of Lachish by Sennacherib
Sieve, Flour: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264
Grain: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16
Signet-Ring
Siloam Inscription
Pool of, Course of Underground Conduit from the Virgin's Fountain to the
xvill LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Silver Shekel of Simon Maccabseus 26
Simon Bar Kochba, Coin of 557
Maccabteus, Half-Shekel (Copper) of 26
Silver Shekel of 1>6
Site of Jerusalem, Cross-Section Showing Elevation of the 397
Skiff Made of Papyrus 808
Skin Utensils facing 108
Sledge, Threshing with a 17
Threshing: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16
- Used for Threshing (Under Side) 18
Solomon, Plan of the Royal Buildings of 849
Solomon's Temple (After Stade), Front View of 851
Front Elevation, Showing Probable Construction of the Side Chambers 851
Ground-Plan of 850
Southern Palestine, Map (II) of 614
Specimens of Early Hebrew and Aramaic Alphabets 27
Stand and Tray: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760
Standard with the Image of the God Asshur, Military 84
Stele from Lilybjcum, Sicily 784
Stone Circle (Supposed) at Bethel 292
Pillar, Anointing of a Sacred 37
Stool: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266
Store City of Pithom and Its Vicinity 679
Street of Columns. Samaria 766
Sun-God Shamash Entering Through the Eastern Gate of Heaven . 789
Shamash, Representation of the 789
Synagogue at Kefr Bir' im, Galilee, Front Elevation, Partially Destroyed 834
- in Galilee (Ground-Plan) 833
Ruins of a Galilean, at Kefr Bir'im 834
Syrian Peasant Plowing 15
- Plow and Ox-goad 681
Tabernacle, Court of the 838
Tablet, Warning Gentiles Not to Enter the Court of Israel 856
Tabun, or Small Oven, Used in Baking (Under View) 265
Tamarisk-Tree 627
Tambourine, Dervish's: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564
Temple and Symbol of Astarte, Coin from Byblus Showing 783
at Idalion, Cyprus, Model of a Phoenician 852
of Amon at Thebes, Ground-Plan of 850
of Ezekiel's Vision, Ground-Plan of 854
of Solomon (After Stade), Front View of 851
Ground-Plan of the 850
Showing Probable Construction of the Side Chambers, Front Elevation of 851
Terebinth-Tree 626
Tetradrachmse (Silver Coins) of Alexander the Great 556
Thebes, Ground-Plan of the Temple of Amon at 850
Threshing with a Sledge, or Morag 17
Threshing-Floor 16
Threshing-Sledge: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16
- (Under Side) ^ 18
Threshing with a Wagon, or 'Agalah 17
Tiamat, Marduk's Fight with 153
Tiberius, Denarius (Copper) of Emperor 556
Toe-Rings, Foot with Anklet and 192
Tower of Babel 872
Traders, Semitic, Bringing Their Wares into Egypt 370
Transportation of a Colossal Bull by Assyrian Slave-Labor 818
Travel, Articles Used in facing 760
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xlx
FAOB
Tray and Stand: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760
Tree, Dance Around a Sacred 168
Tube for Sowing Seed: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16
Types of Shepherds' Crooks 802
Underground Conduit from the Virgin's Fountain to the Pool of Siloarn, Course of
Utensils, Household, I facing 264
II facing 26C
Skin facing 108
Vineyard, Booth or Lodge in 108
Virgin's Fountain, Course of Underground Conduit from the, to the Pool of Siloam 397
Wagon, Threshing with a 17
War Chariot, Hittite 53
Warning Tablet Forbidding Gentiles to Enter the Court of Israel 856
Washing-Pounder: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266
Water-Bottle: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760
Well, Jacob's (Sectional View) 380
- Mouth of Jacob's 379
Wicker Cover for Dough-Bowl: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264
Wilderness of Judah 615
Winnowing-Fork, Five-Pronged: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16
Winnowing, Forks and Shovel Used in 18
Winnowing-Shovel: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 19
Woman's Girdle with Bells 191
Women Grinding Meal with a Mill 547
World, Early Babylonian Map of the 287
Map of Ancient Semitic facing 780
Yoke for Threshing Animals: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16
Zither: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
[Self-evident abbreviations, particularly those used in the bibliographies, are not included here.]
X, *, b - , B, DEHLP, etc. Symbols by which the
various N T Gr. MSS. of the uncial type are designated. The
* signifies the first hand or writer of the MS. ; the superior
letters (* b - c , etc.) indicate later revisers or correctors.
See NEW TESTAMENT TEXT.
AJSL . . . American Journal of Semitic Literature.
AJT . . . American Journal of Theology.
Am.PEFSt. . . American Palestine Exploration Fund,
Statement.
Ant. . . . Josephus, Antiquities.
AOF . . . Hugo Winckler, Altorientalische For-
schungen.
ARV . . . American Standard Revised Version.
ARVmg. . . American Revised Version, margin.
Asc. Mos. . . Ascension of Moses.
AV . . . Authorized Version (i.e.. King James's
Version of 1611).
AVmg.,RVmg. . Authorized Version, margin. Revised
Version, margin.
Bell. Jud. or BJ . Josephus, Jewish War (with Rome).
Bib. Sacr. . . Bibliotheca Sacra.
Bib. Theol. Lex. . Cremer. Biblico-theological Lexicon of the
New Testament.
BJ . . . Josephus, Jewish War (with Rome).
BRP . . . Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palatine.
bZ . . . Byzantinische Zeitung.
CH . . . Code of Hammurabi.
Ch. Quar. Rev. . Church Quarterly Review.
Chron. Pasch. . Chronicon Paschale.
CIG or CIGr. . Corpus Inscriptionum Gracarum.
C1L . . . Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.
CIS or CISem. . Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum.
Cod. Ham. . . Code of Hammurabi.
Cod. V.T. . . Codex or Codices Veteris Testamenti.
Cont. Ap. . . Josephus, Against Apion.
COT . . . Schrader, Cuneiform Inscriptions and
the O T, Eng. transl. by Whitehouse.
D . Deuteronomy (in its original form).
DB . . . Smith's or Hastings' Dictionary of the
Bible.
DCB . . . Wace, Dictionary of Christian Biography.
DCG . . . Hastings, Dictionary of Christ and the
Gospels.
E . . . . The Elohist Document; see HEXATECCH.
EB . . . Encyclopaedia Biblica.
EBrit. . . . Encyclopedia Britannica, 9th ed.
EM. . . . Einleitung.
Ep., Epp. . . Epistle, Epistles.
ERV . . . English (or British) Revised Version of
1881.
ERVmg. . . English (or British) Revised Version of
1881, margin.
ET . . . Expository Times.
Eth. En. . . Ethiopic Enoch.
EV or EW . English Versions of the Bible ( AV, ERV .
and ARV).
Expos. . . . Expositor.
GAP . . . F. Buhl, Geographic del alien Palastina.
GJV . . . E. SchUrer, Qeschichle des Judischen
Volkes, 3d ed.
Gr. ... Greek.
GVI . . . B. Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel.
HC . . . Holiness Code: see art. HEXATEUCH.
23.
HDB . . . Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible.
HE . . . Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica.
Heb. . . . Hebrew.
Hebr. Arch. . . Hebraische Archaologie.
HGHL . . . G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the
Holy Land.
HOP . . . SameasHGffi.
Hist. Nat. or
UN . . . Pliny, Historia Naturalis (Natural His-
tory).
HJP . . . Schurer, History of the Jewish People in
the Time of Jesus Christ, Eng. transl.
of GJV, 2d ed.
Hor. Heb. . . J. Lightfoot, Horce Hebraicce.
H. P. & M. or
HPM . . McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the
Monuments.
IGSicil. . . Inscriptions Grirca; Sicilians.
Int. Crit. Com. . International Critical Commentary.
J . The Jahvistic Document; see HEXA-
TEUCH.
J" . Jehovah.
JBL or JBLE . Journal of Biblical Literature and Ext-
getis.
JE . . . Jewish Encyclopedia.
JEDP . . . See art. HEXATEUCH, 29.
JHS . . . Journal of Hellenistic Studies.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
xzl
Jos. . . . Josephus.
Ant. . . Antiquities.
BJ . . Jewiih War.
Cont. Ap. . Against Apion.
Vit. . . Life.
JQR . . . Jewish Quarterly Review.
KAT* . . . Schroder, Die Keilinschriften und dat
Alte Testament, 3d ed.
K'thibh . . The ordinary Hebrew text of the O T
as written.
LOT . , . Driver, Introduction to the Literature of
the OT, 6th or later edd.
LTM or LTJM . Edereheim, Life and Times of Jesus the
Messiah.
LXX. . . . The Septuagint Version of the OT.
NKZ . . . Neue Kirchliche Zeitung.
NT. . . New Testament.
NTGr. . . . Novum Testamentum Gracum.
Onom. or Onom.
Sacr. . . Eusebius, Onomasticon (also Jerome's
ed. of the same).
O T . . .Old Testament.
Oif. Heb. Lex. . Oxford H ebrew Lexicon, by Briggs, Brown
& Driver.
P . ... Priest's Code; see art. HEXATEUCH,
55 21 ff.
Pal. . . . Robinson, Biblical Researches in Pales-
tine.
PC . . . . Same as P.
PEF . . . Palestine Exploration Fund.
PEFQ, PEFQS.
or PEFSt. . Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly
Statement.
PRE 3 . . . Realencyklopadie fur prolestantische The-
oloffie und Kirche, 3d ed.
Proleg. . . . Prolegomena.
Q'ri or Q'r6 . . The Hebrew text of the O T as it should
be read according to the Massoretio
scholars.
RE . . . Realencyklopadie. (Same as PRE'.)
RV . . . Revised Version. (Generally, the Ameri-
can Revised Version is intended by
this abbreviation.)
RVmg. . . Revised Version, margin.
SBOT . . . Sacred Books of the OT (.The Polychrome
Bible).
Sib. Or. . . Sibylline Oracles.
Slav. En. . . Slavonic Enoch.
SWP . . . Survey of Western Palestine.
Syr. . . . Syriac Version.
Targ. . . . Targum.
TLZ . . . Theoloffische Literatuneitung.
TR . . . Textus Receptus (of the N T).
TU . . . Texte und Untersuchungen.
ver. . . . verse.
Vit. . . . Josephus, Life.
vs. . . . verses.
vs. ... versus.
Vulg. . . . Vulgate (Jerome's ed. of the Latin
Bible, 390-405 A.D.).
WH. . . . Westcott and Hort's ed. of the N T in
Greek.
WZKM . . Wiener Zeiischrift fur die Kunde des
Morgenlandes.
ZATW . . Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wis-
senschaft.
ZDMO . . . Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenland-
ischen Gesellachaft.
ZDPV . . . Zeiischrift des Deutschen Palastina-
Vereins.
ZNTW . . Zeitschrift fiir neutestamentliche Wissen-
schaft.
ZWT . . . Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Theologie.
HELPFUL HINTS FOR THE GUIDANCE OF
THE READER
ho
any i
found instantly, .(? :
When the box-head section to which reference is made is a long one and the term referred to it is treated
Tnly there, U,l term is printed in heavy-faced type. In this way it is believed the value of the D.cUonary
as a ready-reference book will be greatly enhanced.
lation does not agree
ings given to the Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek originals.
r Han 'ase of proper names, the meanings have been given wherever they are known or can be
JS wTa fair d" probably. In a great many case, this is not possible, and conseauently no meanings
have been assigned.
for the sake of greater simplicity.
are short The indistinct shwas are indicaied by small superior letters, nearly always or ..
The following table indicates how the vowels are to be pronounced:
_ & long, as in father. _ a short, as in fat, _ a very short
_orVS ...... prey, _ e " " met. _ e
, _ or _ i ..... ' ravine, i " P m >
{or ^-6 ..... 'tone, -or__o ...... not, o
I or __ u ...... lute. " " " put|
1. , ', >, merely a breathing not a full vowel sound.
In pronouncing a transliterated Hebrew word the following general rules will be of service:
There are as many syllables as there are vowels, and every syllable must besin with a consonant (X- '
consonants).
As a rule, a consonant with the vowel following forms a syllable.
i ,w ncriir between two vowels, the first consonant unites with the preceding vowel
" tirwiraTe^uirlnted on the last syl.able, but if both vowe.s of the last two syUables are S hor t the
accent will generally be placed on the syllable next before the last.
HELPFUL HINTS FOR THE GUIDANCE OF THE READER
xxill
d and dh, k and kh, p and ph, t and Ih. But as gh does not well represent the sound of undagheshed 3, it seemed best not
to attempt to make any distinction in regard to this letter, but to allow the one letter g answer for both the hard and soft J}.
Hebrew and Arabic words are transliterated according to the following tables:
HEBREW
X- '
73 1 E m
:=b, 2- bh ...)
1 ] -n
i - g, gh
D "= s (emphat-
n - d, 1 - dh (i.e., th
ic )
as in /// . i
J!-(a gut-
n-h
tural, gasp-
T w
ing sound)
T = z
B - P, C, f] - ph
n h (i.e., a
X. V - t
guttural A)
1
tS-t (palatal <)
p-q
T- r
11 - y
C " s
2 - k, 2, Tj = kh (like a
Scotch cA)
'iff - sh
b - 1
n - 1, n - th
ARABIC
> \
d j
d O^
k ^
b t '
dh ^>
t is
i J
t O
' }
a 1=>
m (
* C
th O
c
n 0^
j (
8 ^
gh ,P
h jifc
h e
sh t^^
f
u.w )
^ j.
s C_^
k ui
i, y C_
ABBREVIATIONS OF NAMES OF THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE
AND OF THE OT APOCRYPHA
Gn Genesis
Ex Exodus
Lv Leviticus
Nu Numbers
Dt Deuteronomy
Jos Joshua
Jg Judges
Ru Ruth
IS I Samuel
II S II Samuel
IK I Kings
UK II Kings
ICh... .. I Chronicles
I. BOOKS OF THE OT
II Ch II Chronicles
Ezr Ezra
Neh Nehemiah
Est Esther
Job Job
Ps Psalms
Pr Proverbs
EC Ecclesiastes
Song Song of Solomon
Is Isaiah
Jer Jeremiah
La Lamentations
Ezk... ..Ezekiel
Dn Daniel
Hos Hosea
Jl Joel
Am Amos
Ob Obadiah
Jon Jonah
Mic Micah
Nah Nahum
Hab Habakkuk
Zeph Zephaniah
Hag Haggai
Zee Zechariah
Mai... ..Malachi
Mt Matthew
Mk Mark
Lk Luke
Jn John
Ac The Acts
Ro To the Romans
I Co I Corinthians
II Co II Corinthians
Gal... ...Galatians
2. BOOKS OF THE N T
Eph Ephesians
Ph Philippians
Col Colossians
I Th I Thessalonians
II Th II Thessalonians
I Ti I Timothy
II Ti II Timothy
Tit Titus
Phm Philemon
He To the Hebrews
Ja Epistle to James
IP I Peter
IIP II Peter
I Jn I John
II Jn II John
III Jn Ill John
Jude Jude
Rev Revelation
I Es I Esdras
II Es II Esdras
Sir Sirach.orEcclesiasticus
Bar Baruch
To Tobit
3. THE OT APOCRYPHA
Jth Judith
Three Song of the Three
Children
Sus Susanna
Bel Bel and the Dragon
Ad. Est Additions to Esther
Wis Wisdom
Pr. Man Prayer of Manasses
I Mac I Maccabees
II Mac II Maccabees
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
Throughout this book the Scientific Alphabet, prepared and promulgated by The American Philo-
logical Association, and adopted by the Standard Dictionary of the English Language, has been used to
indicate pronunciations. Where two or more pronunciations are given, the first is the one preferred by
this work. Respellings of simple words have been omitted as unnecessary.
Two pronunciations are intended by the diacritics -. and ~ below a vowel: (1) a formal pronunciation ;
(2) an approved colloquial weakening. The mark -* indicates that the colloquial weakening is toward u in
but. The mark indicates that the colloquial weakening is toward i in pity.
a
as in sofa.
a
as in arm.
as in ask.
a
as in at.
a
as in fare.
*
as in alloy.
e
e
as in pen.
as in epistle.
as in moment.
gr
as in ever.
g
as in they.
as in usage.
i
as in tin.
1
as in machine.
as in obey.
6
as in no.
e
as in not.
5
as in nor.
e
as in actor.
u
as in full.
u
as in rule.
U
as in injure.
u
as in but.
as in burn.
ai
as in pine.
au
as in out.
ei
as in oil.
iu
as in lew.
iu
as in duration.
iu
as in future.
c=k
as in cat.
ch
as in c/iip.
cw = qu
dh (th)
f
g (hard)
hw (wh)
as in queen.
as in the.
as in fancy.
as in go.
as in why.
j
as in jaw.
ng
as in sing.
3
as in sin.
sh
as in she.
th
as in thin.
z
as in zone.
zh
as in azure.
The pronunciation given immediately after the titles, when these are Hebrew proper names, is that
preferred by the Standard Dictionary. A comparison of this pronunciation with the transliteration of
these names will show the difference between the modern English pronunciation of such names and the
Hebrew pronunciation.
A STANDARD BIBLE
DICTIONARY
AARON, aiAm CP~$, 'ah&run}: Son of Amram
and Jochebed, descendunt of Levi through Koliath,
and three vears older than his brother Moses (Ex
What was done to and for Aaron was what should
be done with any high priest. The ceremonial en-
duement prescribed in Ex chs. 28. 29
ADDENDA ET COEEIGENDA
Page 98, col. 2, second paragraph, line 2, read "Lat." for
"LXX."
Page 119, col. 2, article CEDAR, line 1, read "TTN, "era."
Page 522, col. 2, line 2, read "one" instead of "two."
Page 522, col. 2, line 28 from end, read "b'rdkhah."
Page 611, col. 1, last line, read "hayyarden."
Page 612, col. 1, line 22, read "en^Nakura," and "'el-
Abyad."
Page 612, col. 1, line 23, read " 'el-Umthakkah."
Page 612, col. 2, line 18, read '"el-Akaba."
Page 613, col. 1, third paragraph, line 10, read "Mu-
tetellim."
Page 614, col. 2, second paragraph, line 11, read "Sarar."
Page 616, col. 2, last paragraph, line 11, read "Enin" for
" Dschenin."
Page 617, col. 1, first paragraph, lines 11 and 12, read
"Ras."
Page 617, col. 1, last line, read " Mukatta'."
Page 618,
Page 618,
"Ketheph."
Page 619,
Page 621,
Page 621,
Page 622,
Page 622,
Page 622,
"Rdjib."
Page 622,
Page 623,
Page 626,
Page 626,
ond "Ac."
Page 629,
Page 630,
" 'aqqo."
col. 2, first paragraph, line 13, read "Rubin."
col. 2, first paragraph, line 9 from end, read
col. 2, line 8 from end, read "Afejdmi 1 ."
col. 2, second paragraph, line 15, read "High."
col. 2, line 2 from end, read "Zedi."
col. 1, line 15, read "gabhnunnim."
col. 1, line 19 from end, read "Hamad."
col. 2, first paragraph, line 3 from end, read
col. 2, line 6 from end, read "Osha 1 ."
col. 1, line 18, read " Hammam ez-Zerkd."
col. 2, line 5, read "n'koth."
col. 2, second paragraph, line 4, omit the sec-
col. 1, line 2, for "few" read "none."
col. 1, line 11 from end, read "and" after
dactional passages connecting the l^aw ot Holiness
with its present context. In Ezk 40-48 Zadok, not
A., is the cponym of the priestly line (44 15, etc.).
(d) View of P. In P Aaron is regularly subor-
dinated to Moses. The first three simpler plagues
Aaron brings on at Moses' command; thereafter
Moses himself is the actor. In the narratives (Nu
16, 17) it is Moses in each case who vindicates him.
A. dies at Mt. Hor in the 40th year of the Exodus
(\u. 2022 ft., 33 38), because of rebellion at Meribah
(cf. Dt as above).
In Ex 2")-3() and 35-40, and in Lv and Nu Aaron's
name occurs frequently, but evidently as a con-
venient priestly symbol demonstrating the priestly
function to the people (cf. the usage in Ezk).
Lebanon. Breaking out into the plain a few miles
W. of Damascus, its waters irrigate the plain and
supply the city. It loses itself in the swampy Mead-
ow Lakes 20 m. E. of Damascus on the edge of the
desert. Its right name was probably Arnana (RV
mg. ). The modern name is Barada. See also DA-
MASCUS. E. E. N.
ABARIM, ab'a-rim (="!?2 , 'abharlm), ' those-
on-the-other-side': The name of the mountain range
in NW. part of Moab. (The term, however, ac-
cording to G. A. Smith (HGHL. p. 548; EB. 1 4) is ap-
plicable to the whole E. Jordan range.) Mt. Nebo
is the best-known summit, and Abarim is used by
metonymy for Nebo (Nu 27 12; Dt 32 49). In Jer
Abba
Abimelech
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
J. -() (" passages " AV) Abarim is a more exact
synonym of Bashan. The Hob. text of K/.k 39 11
also contains I lie word Abarim, but it is more
literally translated "they that pass by." A. C. Z.
ABBA, ab'a ('A&3u - K?8): Aramaic for 'Fa-
ther,' transliterated into Greek and thence into
English. It occurs three times in the N T (Mk 14 36;
Ro 8 15; Gal 4 6). From the fact that it is invari-
ably followed by the explanatory addition "father"
it has been argued that it had come to be regarded
as one of the proper names of God. For this there
is no direct evidence. More probably it was used as
a familiar liturgical expression, which Jesus and
Paul adopted with particular emphasis on its essen-
tial content, developing into rich suggestiveness.
A. C Z.
ABDA, ab'da (N'-?i', 'abhda'), 'servant of J'":
1. The father of Adoniram, Solomon's tribute-master
( I K 4 6). 2. The son of Shamrnua (Neh 1117, called
Obadiah in I Ch 9 16). E. E. N.
ABDEEL, ab'de-el ("-;?, 'abhd>'el), 'servant of
God': The father of Shelemiah (Jer3626).
E. E. N.
ABDI, ab'dai ("Si', 'abhdi), 'servant (of J")':
1. The father of Kishi or Kish (I Ch 6 44; II Ch
2'.i 12, or Kushaiah in I Ch 1517). 2. One of the
" sons of Elam " (Ezr 10 26). E. E. N.
ABDIEL, ab'di-el (^--,52?, 'abhdi'el), 'servant of
God': A Gadite (I Ch 5 15)! E. E. N.
ABDON, ab'den (]'~*i\ 'abhdon), 'servant' :
I. 1. One of the minor judges of Israel, son of Hillel
(Jg 12 13, 15). See also BEDAN. 2. A son of Sha-
shak (I Ch 8 23) . 3. A son of Jeiel, father of Gibeon
(I Ch 8 30, 9 36). 4. A son of Micah (II Ch 34 20,
called Achbor in II K 22 12).
II. A Levitical city in Asher (Jos 21 30) called
Ebron (Hebron AV) in 19 28. Map IV, E 6.
A. C. Z.
ABEDNEGO, a-bed'ne-go (wj "CX, 'abhedh n-go),
from Abcd-.Vebo, 'servant of Nebo': The Babylonian
name of Azariah, one of Daniel's three companions
(Dan 17, 249, etc.). E. E. N.
ABEL, e'bel (^~, hebhel, etymology doubtful,
formerly translated 'breath,' but with more proba-
bility derived from the Assyrian ablu, 'son'): Adam's
second son, murdered by Cain (Gn 4 2 ft.). In the
NT (Mt 23 35; I,k 11 51; He 11 4; I Jn 3 12) A. is pic-
tured as a martyr for a high, religious conception.
In He 1224 the blood of Jesus, which declared for-
giveness, is contrasted with Abel's, which called for
vengeance. A. S. C.
ABEL, e'bel fatt, 'abhel), 'meadow' (IIS 20
14-18): 1. See A.-BKTH-MAACAH. 2. According to
tin' Heb. text of I SO 18, followed by AV, the name
of a locality near Heth-slu-mesh. The I.XX. reads
instead "stone," which is followed by RV.
E. E. N.
ABEL - BETH - MAACAH, 6"bel-beth-me'a-ca
(~V*!3'j n*3 "(!, 'abhfl bcth hamma'ikhoK): A
northern frontier fortress, the stronghold of Sin- 1
insurrection (II S 20 14 ff.); connected in the LXX.
with Dan (IK 15 20; UK 15 29). The site is
probably Abil cl-Kamh, about 3 hours' ride W. of
Tell el-Kadi (Dan). It was besieged by Ben-hadad
(I K 15 20) and Tiglath-pileser III (II K 15 29). Map
IV, E 4. A. S. C.
ABELCHERAMIM, e"bel-ker'a-mim (=^",5 "X,
'abhel k'ramim, A.-Keramim AV), 'vineyard-
meadow': A locality in Ammon (Jg 1133). Site
unknown. A. S. C.
ABEL-MAIM, e"bel-me'im (C:i "K, abhel ma-
y~tm), 'meadow of waters': A variant, or text-cor-
ruption, for Abel-beth-maacah (II Ch 1C 4).
A. S. C.
ABEL - MEHOLAH, e"bel-me-h6'la (~rT; "X,
'abhel m'holdh), 'dance meadow': Elisha's birth-
place, near Beth-shean (Jg 7 22; I K 4 12, 19 10).
A. S. C.
ABEL-MIZRAIM, e"bcl-miz'ra-im (="V^ "K,
'abhel mitsrayim), 'meadow of Egypt': The stop-
ping-place of Jacob's funeral cortege (GnSOn).
On location, see ATAD. A. S. C.
ABEL - SHITTIM, e"bel-shit'im (u"J'i ; .j "N,
'abhfl ha-shittlm), 'acacia-meadow': A locality in
the lowlands of Moab (Nu 33 49; cf. Mic 6 5). Map
III, H5. A. S. C.
ABEZ, e'bez. See EBEZ.
ABI, a'bi ('3$, 'abhl), 'father': Compound per-
sonal names in which "Abi" forms the first element
are of two general classes: (a) In which the second
part is a noun, generally the name of a deity;
(6) in which it is an adjective or a verb. In cases
under (a) Abi is generally the predicate, as Abi-jah,
i.e., "Jan ( = Jehovah) is father." In cases under
(6) it is the subject, as Abinadab, i.e., "the father
( = God) gives." The "i" of Abi is probably not the
pronominal suffix "my," but an old ending serving
merely as a connective. See G. B. Gray, Heb. Prop.
Names, pp. 75-86). E. E. N.
ABI, e'bai (in II K 18 2). See ABIJAH, 7.
ABIA, a-bai'a, ABIAH, a-bai'a. See ABIJAH.
ABIALBON, e"bi-al'ben G'2^y-;8, 'ibhl 'albon):
One of David's heroes (II S 23 3l'. Abie'l in I Ch 11 32).
E. E. N.
ABIASAPH, a-bai'a-saf. See EBIASAPH.
ABIATHAR, a-bai'a-thar C^T?, 'ebhyathar),
'father of abundance': A son of Ahimelech, priest
at Nob. When Saul massacred Ahimelech ami
his household for harboring the fugitive David
(I S 22 11-19), A. escaped and joined David :it Kcilah,
reporting to him what S.ml had done. As he also
brought the ephod with him, David appointed him
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Abba
Abimelech
to be the priest of his company, and consulted .1"
through him (I S 30 7). Thenceforward Abiathar
remained with David, and, when the latter became
king, was associated in the priesthood with Zadok
(II S 15 '24, 29 35). He survived David, and was de-
posed and banished to Anathoth by Solomon for
abetting and assisting in Adonijah's plot to wrest
the kingdom from him (I K 1 7, 19, 25, 2 22, 26, 27).
A. C. Z.
ABIB, e'bib: The 'earing' month of the old He-
brew year. See TIME, 3.
ABIDA, a-bai'du (1T38, 'dbhldha', Abidah AV),
'the father knows': The ancestral head of a clan
of Midian (Gn 25 4; I Ch 1 33). E. E. N.
ABIDAN, ab'i-dan OT28, 'dbhldhan), 'the fa-
ther is judge': A prince of Benjamin in the Mosaic
age (Nu 1 11, 2 22, 7 00, 05, 10 24). E. E. N.
ABIEL, e'bi-el ^(T^!, 'Abhl'fl), 'father is God':
1. Grandfather of Saul and Abner (I S 9 l, 14 51).
2. One of David's heroes (I Ch 11 32, Abialbon in
II S 23 31). E. E. N.
ABIEZER, e"bi-i'zer CirlS, 'dbhl'ezer), 'the
father is help': 1. The clan of Abiezrites of Ma-
nasseh, to which Gideon belonged (JgG 11 ff., 8 2, 32).
Reckoned genealogically to Machir through Gilead
(Jos 17 2; I Ch 7 18; Nu 26 30, where the form is lezer,
lezerite [Jeezer, Jeezerite AV]). 2. An Anathoth-
ite, one of David's heroes (IIS 23 27; I Chi 128,
27 12). E. E. N.
ABIEZRITE, e"bi-ez'rait. See ABIEZER, 1.
ABIGAIL, ab'i-get (^J'58, 'dbhigayil): 1. The
wife of Nabal, later of David (I S 25 3, 42), mother
of Chileab (or Daniel, I Ch 3 1), David's second
son (II S 3 3). 2. The mother of Amasa, daughter of
Nahash (II S 17 25; Abigal RV), or of Jesse (I Ch
2 16), which is preferable. A. S. C.
ABIHAIL, ab"i-he'il (b:o*2, 'dbhihayil), 'the
father is strength': 1. The father of Zuriel(Nu3 35).
2. The wife of Abishur (ICh229). 3. A Gadite
(I Ch 5 14). 4. Niece of David, and mother-in-law
of Rehoboam (II Ch 11 18). 6. The father of
Esther (Est 2 15, 9 29). E. E. N.
ABIHU, a-bni'hu (Kl.1'58, 'Abhihu'), 'my father is
lie': Second son of Aaron (Ex 6 23; Nu 3 2, etc.).
He and his brother Nadab were with Moses on the
Mount (Ex 24 1-2, 9 ff.). Together they became
priests (Kx 28 1) and were slain for offering strange
fire (Lev 10 l ff.; Nu 3 4, 2661; ICh.242). E. E. N.
ABIHUD, a-bai'lwd (-.Vv;s, 'dbhihwlh), 'my
father is glory' : A son of Bela (I Ch 8 3) .
E. E. N.
ABIJAH, a-bai'ja (HJ3K, '";3iS, 'dbhiyah, 'dbhi-
yfiku),'J" is my father': 1. Kingof Judah, the son of
Rehoboam, and Maacah, the daughter of Absalom.
In I K I I HI. 15 1 ff., the name is spelled Abijam (an
error). During his reign of three years he waged
continual war with Jeroboam. The story in I K
produces the impression of a prolonged campaign,
while the Chronicler (II Ch 13) records only a single
decisive battle. With 400,000 troops he met Jero-
boam with 800,000 at Mt. /emaraim. He upbraided
Jeroboam and Israel for rebellion against the Davidic
dynasty, for apostasy, and t lie expulsion of the priesta
and Levites. Caught at a disadvantage, the men of
Judah prayed to Jehovah, who granted them a signal
victory. His character was not exemplary, for he
walked in the sins of his father, and his heart was not
perfect with Jehovah. 2. A son of Jeroboam I.
He died in fulfilment of Ahijah's prediction (I K 14
Iff.). 3. A son of Samuel (I 882, Abiah AV). 4. The
ancestral head of the eighth course of priests, to
which Zacharias, the father of John the Baptist,
belonged (Lk 1 5 [Abia AV]; I Ch 24 10; Neh 10 7,
124). 5. A son of Becher(ICh78,AbiahAV). 6.
The wife of Hezron (I Ch 2 24, Abiah AV). 7. The
wife of Ahaz and mother of Hezekiah (II Ch 29 l).
J. A. K.
ABIJAM, a-bai'jam. See ABIJAH, 1.
ABILENE, ab"i-li'nt ('A/SiXi^, 'A.pei\rjvq, WH.):
The tetrarchy of Lysanias (Lk 3 1) in the Anti-Leb-
anon. Abila, 18 Roman m. NE. of Damascus on
the Abanah River, was its chief city, and has been
identified with the ruins at Siik Wady Barada. Jo-
sephus (Ant. XX, 7 1) speaks of a tetrarchy of Lysa-
nias, and in XIX, 5 l of "Abila of Lysanias." See
LYSANIAS. C. S. T.
ABIMAEL, a-bim'a-el ("?8?}38, 'dbhlma'el) : One
of the descendants of Joktan (Gn 10 28). See ETH-
NOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY, 11. E. E. N.
ABIMELECH, a-bim'e-lec ($!?'?S, 'dbhlmelekh),
'my father is Melech (Molech)': 1. A Philistine king
of Gerar, a locality near Gaza. Struck by the beauty
of Sarah, and being deceived by Abraham as to her
true relationship, he took her to wife. Obedient to
a warning from God in a dream, he returned Sarah to
her husband with costly gifts, at the same time
pleading his integrity and upbraiding Abraham for
his deception (Gn 201-18, E). Later, their quar-
rel over the possession of a well was finally settled by
the making of a covenant at Beer-Sheba (Gn 21
22-34, E). A similar story combining both incidents
is related of Abimelech and Isaac (Gn 26 7-11, 26-33,
J ) . Critical scholarship looks upon the two accounts
as doublets.
2. A son of Gideon by a woman of Shechem. He
made the first attempt to found a monarchy in Is-
rael. The Shechemites made him king after he had
murdered all of Gideon's sons but Jotham. His
reign of three years ended in a revolt. Abimelech
took Shechem, and burned it with its citadel and
temple. Later, at the siege of the citadel at Thebez,
his skull was fractured by a millstone thrown from
the wall by a woman. His armor-bearer thrust him
through at his own request (Jg 8 31, ch. 9).
3. A son of Abiathar, David's priest (I Ch 18 16,
but see AHIMELECH). 4. A Philistine king (Ps 34:
title probably an error for Achish, cf. I S 21 10).
J. A. K.
Abinadab
Absalom
A STAXI>A1!I> BIBLE DICTIOXAKV
ABOTADAB, u-l,m'u-dab (-"}?!$
'my father is generous': 1. A man of Kiriath-
Jearim, to whose liouse the Ark was brought from
Beth-Shemesh (IS7l), where it remained until
David carried it to Jerusalem (II S 6 3 f. ; I Ch 13 7).
2. The second son of Jesse (I S 16 S), who followed
Saul against the Philistines (I S 17 13; I Ch 2 13). 3.
A son of Saul, perhaps also railed Islivi (IS 14 49),
slain by the Philistines in the great battle of Mt.
Gilboa (I S 31 2; I Ch 8 33, 9 39, 10 2). 4. See BEN-
ABINADAB. C. S. T.
ABINOAM,a-bin'o-<nn (=?:*;, 'ibliino'am), 'the
father is pleasantness ': Father of Barak (Jg4 6, 12,
5 1, 12). E. E. N.
ABIRAM, a-bai'rom (ST38, '(Utlnram), 'the
father is the High One': 1. A Reubenite (Nu 16
I ff.). See KOHAII. 2. Eldest sou of Hiel of Bethel
(I K 16 34). E. E. N.
ABISHAG, ab'i-shag (J^K, 'dbhisttag) : A young
Shunammite woman, nurse of David in his old
age (I K 1 3, 15). Adonijah's request for her after
David's death led to his execution (I K 2 17 ff.).
E. E. N.
ABISHAI, a-bi'shai (^38, 'ibhlshay): One of
the ruthless sons of Zeruiah. He was Joab's elder
brother, chief of staff during David's outlaw period
and the leader of the Thirty (IS 26 off.; IIS 23
18 ff.). His great exploits were the slaughter of 300
Philistines, the rescue of David from Ishbi-benob
(IIS 21 17), and the subjugation of Edom (I Ch
18 12, but cf. II S 8 13). Without the calculating
ferocity of Joab, he is consistently portrayed as the
ineiter of David to acts of fierce reprisal (I S 26 8;
II S 16 9). He disappears from history shortly after
Absalom's rebellion. A. S. C.
ABISHALOM, a-bish'a-lem. See ABSALOM.
ABISHUA, a-bish'u-a (yitf^K, 'ibhlshua'), 'the
father is wealth': 1. A priest, son of Phinehas (I Ch
4 f., 50; Ezr 7 5). 2. The ancestor of a Benjamite
clan (I Ch 8 4). E. E. N.
ABISHUR, a-bish'Or (Ttf^S, 'dbhishur), 'the
father is a wall': A son of Shammai (I Ch 2 28 f.).
E. E. N.
ABITAL, ab'i-tal (Vs'JK, 'dbhifal), 'the father is
dew': A wife of David (II S 3 4; I Ch 3 3).
E. E. N.
ABITUB, ab'i-tub p-^H, 'Mihltubli), 'the
father is good': A son of Shaharaim by Hushim
(I Ch 8 11). E. E. N.
ABIUD, a-bai'ud ('A/3.ov8): A son of Zerubbabel
(only in Mt 1 13). E. E. N.
ABJECTS (=;:, PsSolS): The RV margin
"smiters" gives better sense, but is incorrect. Per-
hap.s 'strangers' (impious Israelites) are meant. The
Hebrew term occurs only here and is of uncertain
meaning. E. E. N.
ABNER, ab'ner C^K, 'nbhiiir), 'my father is
a light': The cousin, or uncle, of Saul (I S 14 50;
I ( h S 39 ff.) and his chief of staff. After the defeat
and death of Saul at Mt. Gilboa (I S 31) Abner came
forward as the champion of Ishbosheth, Saul's son
(II S 2 8). He was defeated at the tournament and
subsequent battle of Gibeon (II S 2 12 ff.), an old
ancestral possession (I Ch 829). It was there that
he slew Asahel (IIS 2 18 IT.), and thus started the
blood-feud with the sons of Zeruiah. He was loyal
to the house of Saul until Ishbosheth took him to
task for his alleged conduct concerning Rizpah
(II S 3 7 ff.); then he plotted to turn over all Israel
to David, but Joab treacherously murdered him
before this could be accomplished, whereupon David,
not to lose his hold upon Israel, assumed the duty
of blood-revenge which was carried out by Solomon
(IK2Sf.). A. S. C.
ABOMINATION rentiers Heb. terms as follows:
(1) tofbhah, broadly that which gives offense either
to God or to men, possibly because of inherent re-
pulsiveness (e.g., Gn 46 34; Lv 18 22), or a violation
of established customs (e.g., Pr 6 16, 11 1). (2)
sli iqqiits, that which is hated as a religious offense.
The term is frequently applied in contempt of the
idols of the heathen (I K 11 5; Jer 13 27, etc.). (3)
sheqets, i.e., 'taboo,' used only in Lv 11 10-42. (4)
piggiil, sacrificial flesh which has become stale and
hence loathsome and unfit for food (Lv 7 18, etc.).
(The Greek term [used in LXX.] fidiXvypa is ge-
neric, and means approximately the same as the
English "abomination.") A. C. Z.
ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION (Ti /38-
Xuy/ia T/jr eprjp.a><rftas) only in Dn (9 27, 11 31,
12 ll; "that maketh desolate," AV; "astonisheth,"
AVmg.) and in the 'Apocalypse of Jesus' (Mt 25 15;
Mk 13 14). The latter, however, is a direct reference
to the former. The original in Dn is susceptible of
more than one rendering. It may be 'the abomi-
nation that desolates' or 'the abomination that
appals' (cf. Ox/. Heb. Lex. s.v. C"'y ). The term,
moreover, which is translated "abomination" (shiq-
quts) strictly means 'image of a false god' (cf. I K
II 5; II K 23 13). What the author of Dn had in
mind was the setting up in the Temple of a heathen
idol, the presence of which there should strike the
devout Israelite dumb with amazement and at the
same time profane the sacred precincts, and be the
signal of a terrible distress. This distress is con-
ceived of as laying waste the country ((prifiaxris,
'desolation,' Dn 9 26; Lk 21 20). The conception
of Dn seems to have created an apocalyptic figure
about which is centered all enmity against ttie true
God and His will. The figure is used under different
names in subsequent apocalyptic compositions. It is
probable that the "Man of Sin" in the 'Little Apoca-
lypse' (II Th 2 1-12) is one of these. The fact that
Jesus points to the appearance of this figure as a sign
by which His followers should recognize the definite
beginning of the final stage of the Messianic era
has led many persons to identify the abomination
of desolation with some historic person, event, or
thing, e.g., the Roman army (B. Weiss), desecration
by zealots (Bleek and Alford), a statue of Caligula,
A STANDARD BIBl,i; DICTIONARY
Abinadab
Absalom
1 he Roman standard with the figure of the eagle,
etc. But such identifications are futile, inasmuch as
apocalyptic figures are embodiments of ideas whose
concrete appearance in the form of historical facts or
personages is not necessarily bound to individuals,
but occurs with every realization of the idea. The
abomination of desolation is actualized whenever
its conception as above defined becomes an objective
fact. A. C. Z.
ABRAHAM, e'bra-ham (Err;;K, 'abhrShSm): The
meaning and derivation of the word are uncertain.
For Abram (E'58, i.e., Abiram [?]), cf. analogies
in Abimelech, etc. Abc-ramu occurs on contract-
tablets prior to Hammurabi (2250 B.C.). 'The
Exalted One is (my) father' (or 'exalted father') is a
probable translation. Abraham is perhaps an am-
plified form, and Eu^ an otherwise unused variant
of Cll (Ox/. Heb. Lex.). "Father of a multitude"
(Gn 1 7 5) is a word-play between EH and ]"?2 Jl.
A. holds a prominent place in the thought of both
the O T and the N T. His name occurs repeatedly in
the formulas of inheritance (Dt 18; II K 13 23), and in
the assertion of the continuity of the religion (Ex
3 15; I K 18 36). By the prophets he is seldom men-
tioned, perhaps never in a pre-exilic passage, but
this is hardly significant, considering the clear na-
tional consciousness. The prophets assume his
personality; he is God's "friend" (Is 41 8; cf. II Ch
20 7); he was "one" (Is 51 2; Ezk 33 24; perhaps Mai
2 15) ; Abraham and Sarah are progenitors (Is 51 2; cf.
also Is 2922, 6316; Jer 3326; Mic 720). The NT
recognizes A. as a race-father (Mt 39; Jn 8 33, 37, 39),
but it is more deeply conscious of his profound sig-
nificance as a hero of faith (He 1 1 8-1 1), his intimacy
with God (Jn 8 56), and his spiritual fatherhood (Lk
16 22; Ro4ll ff.).
The present form of the narrative is due to the
writer's desire to picture an ideal figure, embody-
ing supreme religious conceptions. The following is
the analysis: (1) Gn 12-14, A.'s character and great-
ness. (2) Gn 15-22 19, the trials through which
character was achieved. (3) Gn 23-25 8, the final
acts of a well-rounded life. The thought of the cove-
nant is ever dominant, but first is shown how exalted
the hero was. He marches across the ancient world
from the Euphrates to the Nile, his possessions in-
crease in Canaan, he is able to overthrow the army
of a world-conqueror. How did A. become so pow-
erful? The answer is not through heaping to-
gether wealth, -not through flocks and herds, not
through conquest, bin by silent communion with
God beneath the stars of heaven, by trials that
tested his patience and wrung his heart, and by a
life which found its goal not in earthly grandeur but
in God. And he leaves the scene, not as one who
has passed his prime, but as a king, who before he
lays down the scepter prepares for his own depar-
ture, and, with dignity and far-sightedness, for his
heir, and for the children who have a claim upon his
love but no share in the great promise of his line.
The offering of Isaac, the crowning test of his
faith, taught positively the need of a consummate
sacrifice for the final ratification of the covenant,
and negatively, that J" did not desire human sacri-
fice. The site could hardly have been the Temple-
mount, because (1) Jerusalem seems to have been
already occupied (Gn 14 18) and (2) is much less than
three days' journey (Gn 22 4) from Beer-sheba.
While some maintain the absolute historicity of
the entire Abrahamic narrative, others treat it as a
myth, personalized tribal history, or the outgrowth
of religious reflection. For A.'s actual existence,
the persistent national tradition is a witness. The
name is stamped too deeply upon the records to
be but a fanciful creation. On the other hand, the
narrative is so artistic as to indicate idealization.
The minute particularizations (e.g., Gn 18) seem
hardly consistent with literal history, and we should
distinguish between the present form and the orig-
inal substratum. Probably under the name of A.
are preserved traditions of great tribal movements
which began in Arabia, followed the Euphrates,
crossed to Haran, and ended for the time in Canaan.
The leader may well have been named Abraham, but
the clan was originally the concrete reality. While
his name nowhere occurs as a clan title, on an in-
scription of Shishak the "field of Abram" is men-
tioned (PEFQ, Jan., 1905, p. 7);cf. "field of Moab"
(Nu 21 20). For a theory of the two names Abram
and Abraham, see Paton, Early History oj Syria and
Palestine, pp. 25-46.
It is now the general consensus that the names of
the four kings (Gn 14) are historical, though not, all
have, with certainty, been identified. Gunkel ar-
gues for the historicity of Melchizedek also. The
forms, however, of the Elamite and Babylonian
names have suffered much in transmission. The
synchronism with Hammurabi (Amraphel) postu-
lates a date earlier than was formerly assigned to A.
The chapter forms the fitting conclusion to the pic-
ture of Abraham's greatness.
LITERATURE: Comm. on Genesis, by Delitzsch, Dillmann,
Green, Gunkel. Driver; Hommel. Anc. Heb. Trad.; Kit-
tel, Hist, of the Hebrews; Kent, Beginnings of Heb. His-
tory; Orr, Problem of the O T. A. S. C.
ABRAHAM'S BOSOM. See ESCHATOLOGY,
38.
ABRAM. See ABRAHAM.
ABRECH, e'brec $}$,'abhrekh): The Hebrew
original of "bow the knee" in Gn 41 43. The trans-
lation thus given is probably not correct. Abrech
does not correspond to any Hebrew word-form.
The most probable view is that the true reading
is abarak, a Babylonian term for a royal minister.
On account of the political predominance of Baby-
lonia, official terms in use in that country were in
vogue also in Palestine and Egypt in the days of
Joseph. J- F. McC.
ABRONAH, a-bro'nu ( n ^?2, 'abhronfih, Ebro-
nah AV): A station on the wilderness journey
(Nu 33 34 f. ). Site unknown. E. E. N.
ABSALOM, ab'sa-lem (C$$38, 'abhlshalom,
Abishalom in I K 15 2, 10), 'father of peace,' per-
haps so named as a good omen of David's growing
power: David's third son, born at Hebron of
Maacah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur (II S
Abyss
Acts of the Apostles
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
3 3). His character is delineated consistently
throughout as fierce, revengeful, and treacherous.
Evidently he inherited his traits from his mother's
wild mountain ancestry. His first outbreak follows
Amnon's outrage of Tamar (II S 13), and self-
exiled, he appears to wait in (Jeshur a vindication of
his act. Joab's ruse to bring him back (II S 14)
seems to embody an attempt to secure the abroga-
tion of the right of private blood-revenge. Absa-
lom's recall was, therefore, equivalent to a legal
enactment on the subject (II S 14 11). But his
confinement thereafter to his own quarters was an
affront which his untamed spirit could not brook,
and which precipitated the insurrection wherein he
perished (II S 18 14). The narrative (II S 13-19)
is intended to show how the folly of each of the pre-
sumptive heirs to the throne wrought their ruin
and thus cleared the path for the youthful Solomon.
Abijam (I K 15 2) and Asa (I K 15 10) were Absa-
lom's descendants through Maacah. A. S. C.
ABYSS (afivvo-ot), 'a place of great depth':
As far as known the word is found only in the Greek
of the Bible. It occurs frequently in the LXX. as the
translation of the Hebrew t'how. deep. In the N T
it is the name of Hades, the place of the dead (Ro 107;
Lk 8 3i; Rev 9 1, 2, ll, 17 8, 20 l, 3. In AV of Rev,
it is always rendered "the bottomless pit"). See
also ESCHATOLOGY, 48. A. C. Z.
ACACIA. See PALESTINE, 21.
ACCAD, ac'ad ("S, 'akkadh): One of the four
cities which, according to Gn 10 10, were the starting-
point of the dominion of Nimrod in Babylonia. In
the inscriptions the same word-form usually desig-
nates not a city but the division of the country lying
N. of the district about Babylon. The form Agade,
however, is written as the name of a very ancient
city, also in N. Babylonia, and supreme over the
whole country about 3800 B.C. This is doubtless
the same name as Accad, the g of the so-called
Accadian language being regularly represented in
proper names by k (c) in Semitic Babylonian.
'Accadian' is the name given by Sir Henry Raw-
linson to a supposed non-Semitic language, spoken
and written in many inscriptions in Babylonia, and
to the people employing it. These are, however, now
generally named "Sumerian," since the inscriptions
in question are found not in N. but in S. Babylonia,
and Simmer is supposed to be a designation of the
latter region. This is doubtful (see BABYLONIA,
9). In any case 'Accadian' is a misnomer and
should be discarded. J. F. McC.
ACCO, ac'o C':V. 'kk,->, Accho AV; in Acts 21 7
called Ptolemais; Arabic, 'akk(i): A Canaanite
city in the territory of the tribe of Ashcr, whose in-
habitants were not driven out by Israel. Fortified
and situated on the seacoast at the N. end of the
Bay of Acre, and on the mvin road along the coast,
it was important for controlling the roads inland to
the fertile plain of Esdraelon and to lower Galilee.
From the earliest times down to the Crusades its
-^ion was considered of great strategic value,
although politically it was inferior to Tyre and Sidon.
(See PALESTINE, 4.) At the close of the 3d cent.
B.C. its name was changed to Ptolemais. Map IV,
B 6. C. S. T.
ACCURSED: The RV translation of ~V^ (Dt
2123) and ^j (Is 65 20), from the root 'qiilul,
meaning 'to esteem lightly.' The AV has "ac-
cursed" in most OT passages, where the RV has
"devoted" or "devoted thing." In the place of the
AV "accursed" the RV in N T reads "anathema,"
the transliteration of the Greek word. See ANATH-
EMA, DEVOTED, also Cunsrc. C. S. T.
ACCUSATION. See SUPERSCRIPTION.
ACELDAMA. See AKELDAMA.
ACHAIA, a-ke'ya ('A^aia): The northernmost
country of the Peloponnesus, but in Homer the
country inhabited by the Aelueans, that is, all
Greece. The Romans (after 27 n.c.) adopted the
Homeric usage, and their Provincia Admin (capital,
Corinth) included all Greece along with Thessaly,
Aearnania, JStolia, Eubcea, and the Cyclades. This
is N T usage, " Gallio, Proconsul of Achaia " (Ac 18
12; cf. also 18 27; Ro 15 26, etc.). J. R. S. S.
ACHAICUS, Q-ke'i-cus ('A^micof): Mentioned in
1 Co 16 17 with Stephanas (q.v.) and Fortunatus.
From the exhortation (ver. 1C; cf. I Th 5 12) we infer
that A. and the others occupied some important po-
sition in the Corinthian Church. Their attitude of
friendliness relieved Paul's anxiety (ver. 18), partic-
ularly in view of what was lacking in the Church's
moral condition at the time (TO vpiTipov ia-ripr/fia,
ver. 17b; cf. 5 l t.). J. M. T.
ACHAN, e'can fiJJ', Tikhan, called Achar, I Ch
2 7): A member of the tribe of Judah, who appro-
priated treasure from the spoils of Jericho, thus
violating the law of the ban (her em) (see CURSE,
2), according to which spoils of war were sacred
to Jehovah. This sin brought defeat on Israel at
Ai. By lot Joshua discovered Achan to be the
offender. In the valley of Achor he and his family
were stoned to death, while all his property was
burned (Jos 7 1-26). J. A. K.
ACHAZ . See A H A z .
ACHBOR, ac'bor ("*'??, 'akhbor), 'mouse': 1.
The father of Baal-hanan, a king of Edom (Gn 36
38 f.; I Ch 1 49). 2. A courtier under Josiali and
Jehoiakim (II K 22 12-14 [but cf. II Ch 34 20]; Jer 26
22, 36 12). I!. E. N.
ACHIM, e/kim
(Mt 1 14).
An ancestor of Joseph
E. E. N.
ACHISH, e'kish (-"$, 'akhlsh): The Philistine
king of Gath who befriended David (I S 21 10 ff.)
and later gave him Ziklag. He demanded David's
aid against Saul, but yielded to the objections of
the Philistine princes (I S 27-29). He was still king
at Solomon's accession, according to I K 2 30, but
this seems improbable in view of David's conquest
of Gath and of the chronological difficulty.
' K. K. N,
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Abyss
Acts of the Apostles
ACHMETHA, ac'me-tha (N^SHS, 'ahm'tha'):
A royal city in Media where the roll was found
containing a copy of Cyrus" decree permitting the
return of the Jews (Ezr 6 2). The word is the
Aramaic equivalent of the Pers. Hagmatama or Ec-
bat ana, as the Greeks spelled it. The site of the city
mentioned in Ezra is somewhat uncertain. The old
Median Ecbatana can not easily be identified with
the beautifully situated Ecbatana, used by the Per-
sian kings as a summer residence, now called Hama-
dan; but it is probable that the latter is the city
referred to both in Ezra and in To 6 5. E. E. N.
ACHOR, e'kor, VALLEY OF (T:2 py, 'erneq
'dkhor), 'valley of trouble': The valley near Jericho
where Achan was stoned (Jos 7 24-26). Its identifi-
cation with the Wady-el-Kelt is unsatisfactory.
Jos 15 7 implies a more southern, Is 65 10 a more
spacious valley. Hos 2 15 plays on the meaning of
the term. E. E. N.
ACHSAH,ac'sa (~y?*, 'akhsah, Achsa AV), 'an-
klet': A daughter of Caleb (perhaps in reality a clan)
given to Othniel for conquering Kiriath-sepher.
The springs mentioned lay a few miles north of Debir
(Jos 15 16 ff. ; Jg 1 12 ff. ; I Ch 2 49). E. E. N.
ACHSHAPH, ac'saf (-"|$';8, 'akhshaph), 'sorcery':
A town on the border of Asher (Jos 19 25) whose
king was confederate with Jabin of Hazor against
Joshua (Jos 1 1 1, 12 20). Site unknown. E. E. N.
ACHZIB, ac'zib (2VJS, 'akhzlbh), 'winter tor-
rent' (?): 1. One of the 22 towns of the tribe of
Asher (Jos 19 29) on the seacoast S. of Tyre; the in-
habitants were not driven out by Israel (Jg 1 31).
Map IV, B 5. 2. A town in the Shephelah of Judah,
mentioned with Keilah and Mareshah (Jos 1544),
with Mareshah and A-lullam (Mic 1 14); the same as
Cozeba (ICh422) and Chezib (Gn385). Map II,
Dl. C. S. T.
ACRE. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 2.
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, THE: The book
of Acts is unique. Without it any consecutive
knowledge of the Apostolic Age could
i. Intro- not be attained, even with the aid of
ductory. the Pauline letters. With it as back-
ground, all other data fall into order
and unity in a way which speaks loudly for its his-
toric worth. As, then, our hopes of constructing
a sure picture of primitive Christianity depend
largely on Acts, it is essential to form a correct
idra as to its historicity. How far does it satisfy
modern requirements? One thing must be borne
in mind: Its author, alone of N T writers, claims
to write history (xadf^s ypa-^rai.), and to have sat-
isfied the conditions of accurate inquiry (nacnv
igpifKt) necessary to give the reader a sense of se-
curity (Iva f7Ti"/vws . . . rfjv a(T(j)a\fiav) touching
tin 1 matters of Christian faith (TOIV Tr(ir\r]po<popri-
fifviav fv rjfiiv irpayiiartav). Such is the cltiirn of the
preface to his work in two parts, of which Acts is the
second. It was meant as serious history, occa-
sioned too by the consciousness that existing narra-
tives dealing with the same class of facts were not
satisfactory in this very respect, as a basis of ra-
tional historic assurance.
But, it will be said, there is history and history.
We need to know how far Acts is an objective
record of objective facts. As to the objectivity of
its author's attitude, Ramsay is probably right in
claiming for Acts a place among histories of the first
rank, in which nothing is allowed consciously to
deflect the historian from stating things as (hey
really occurred. Only this does not mean the dead,
superficial fidelity of a photograph, giving no guid-
ance to the beholder by light and relief. Our author
gives an interpretation of the story, particularly of
its religious meaning, in order to aid one seeking for
religious truth, so far as this can find expression in
history. But this need not make him inaccurate,
or ready to suppress facts material to the line of ex-
position selected in keeping with the total effect of all
known to the writer, though much can not be brought
in for reasons of space and perspective. Whether
all that reached him as 'facts,' or even all that he
had verified for himself as such, were really objective
facts at least as we should interpret them to-day
is another question. This can not here be discussed,
save as regards the probability that our author was
himself an eye-witness of a large number of them
and these often, as Harnack points out, of the same
'supernatural' order as those which he records on
the evidence of others and in so far as we can infer
that those others were themselves eye-witnesses or
drew their impressions directly from such. Ap-
proach, however, to all such problems lies through
a consideration of the general drift of Acts, and of
its verisimilitude or otherwise. The question of its
Scope will lead on to those of its Aims, Occasion and
Provenance, Authorship, and Date. The final test
of all these will be their mutual coherence as the
simplest theory for unifying an immense complex of
phenomena, literary and historical.
Acts sets forth in orderly sequence (KaSfgqs)
how the Divine Society constituted by the Gospel
spread, in ever-widening circles, from
2. Scope its native home in Jerusalem even unto
and Plan. Rome, the distant capital of the world.
This appears from the commission (1 8)
given at the final interview between Jesus and those
who as "witnesses" were to continue His ministry,
and who, as so commissioned, were "apostles" in the
wider sense, as distinct from the Twelve (see 1 6, 14 f .,
21 ; Lk 24 33 ff., and I Co 157, rots cnrotrr6\ois iratrtv).
We gather that their horizon was still conflned to a
Messianic Kingdom for Israel (1 6); and, in fact,
down to ch. xv we find, traced with a care implying
a very primitive standpoint (for A.D. 70 effaced
such shades of distinction), the gradual steps by
which they accepted the logic of Divine facts, even
when running counter to preconceived theory, in the
annulling of Jewish restrictions upon membership in
God's Kingdom. The one secret of this triumph
of the Divine over human limitations as of all
those triumphs which constitute the moral of the
book and its high argument lay in the power of the
Holy Spirit upon and through the Lord's witnesses.
This is surely true to life. Here, too, lay the conti-
nuity between our author's two books: the same
Acts of the Apostles
A STAMiAKP BIBLE DICTIONARY
Spirit qualified (lir Master and His disciples (Lk 4 14,
24 49; Ac 1 1 f., 8, 2 33, cf. 16 7, "the spirit of Jesus")
both to do and endure; for (lie pathway of 'glory
through suffering' was God's counsel for both (Lk
24 26, 4 ; Ac 14 22, cf. 5 41). The traditional Jewish
forms of thought touching the mode of the King-
dom's consummation within the generation then
living (Lk 21 32, cf. 932; Ac 1 11, 320f.), and the
natural assumption thai .leu ish forms of worship and
ritual still held good, did not suddenly fall away.
The Gospel did not destroy save through being seen
to fulfil. These things simply faded away in the
growing light which spread from the new luminary of
the spiritual world; and the subjective power to ap-
propriate all in Him turned on the Messianic gift, the
''Spirit of the Lord'' in new form and fulness, which
constituted the New Israel out of the Old in spite of
ils wonted stiff-necked resistance to the Holy Spirit
(751). Israel was even then a " crooked generation,"
from which '"salvation" was needful (2 40, 4 12, cf.
14 26).
Accordingly the Messianic outpouring of the
Spirit at Pentecost holds the same determinative
place in Acts as in the Gospel the coming of the
Messianic consciousness to Jesus Himself unfolded
in the discourse in the synagogue at Nazareth
(3 2lb, 4 14-30). The parallel is all the closer in
that, in both cases, rejection by Judaism follows, be-
cause the conditions of the Kingdom are presented
as purely spiritual, so that birth confers nothing but
prior opportunity. Thus Acts depicts, first, the
Divine power and spirituality of life manifest in the
nucleus of the coming Kingdom, the new Ecclesia;
while Judaism passes self-judgment upon itself, step
by step, by hardness of heart to the Spirit's appeal
(chs. 3-5). Anon we are shown a certain differentia-
tion within the new Ecclesia itself, between the less
and the more progressive types those strictly "He-
brews, " and those in fuller sympathy with Israel's-
wider heritage owing to experience of the Greek
world, the "Hellenists." The spokesman of the
latter is Stephen, whose speech before the official
representatives of strict Judaism indicates the prin-
ciples at issue, and foreshadows the line of develop-
ment for the Ecclesia. Then the shaking of perse-
cution (chs. 6, 7) providentially spreads this true
seed beyond Jerusalem, in various soils more and
more remote from those heretofore held fit for the
reception of God's word. Thus the Samaritans re-
spond to Philip the Evangelist and are solemnly
adjudged of God by the Messianic gift, through the
agency of Peter and John most authoritative of
" apostles" worthy of life: an imperfect proselyte (a
eunuch) is by special Divine action admitted, less
publicly, through Philip: there follow proofs of
God's hand with His new Ecclesia, in the conversion
and parly ministry of Saul, the leader of the recent
persecution, and next in typical incidents taken from
Peter's missionary work in Judaea; and then the latter
is led to sanction the admission of a group of prose-
lytes to the spirit merely of Judaism, and not to the
letter of its requirements (through circumcision) in
sheer deference to God's manifest will in the gift of
the Spirit. This case is made the more significant by
being challenged at Jerusalem and successfully vin-
dicated by Peter, on the ground that God had acted
and could not be gainsaid. Thus "to the Gentiles
had God given repentance unto life" (11 18).
This occurred at Cscsarea, just beyond the borders
of the Holy Land of Judaea proper (from which Peter
had passed in coming from Joppa, 43, 11 5, 11; cf.
Knowling, on 8 40), and might hardly have been
tolerated nearer to Jerusalem. Further it affected
but few in the first instance, and was probably not
expected to extend very far either numerically or
locally. But in both respects God was already on
the way to transcend Jewish-Christian thought even
more signally. Yet here too progress was gradual,
and no sharp breach was actually caused with the
Palestinian Ecclesia. This, so far, had conceived of
itself as "the Ecclesia" (eVcicXi/crta, 'called sect,' usu-
ally rendered "church"), made up of "the saints"
proper (9 32, 41; cf. 9 13, 26 10; also I Co 16 1; Ro
15 25), while non-Jewish adherents were Messianic
proselytes on the skirts of Israel (as with orthodox
Judaism ). Such a conception would be helped by t he
sense that all was still provisional. "The Lord was
at hand," and He would perfect all in His Ecclesia.
But the conception was menaced as soon as mem-
bership in the Ecclesia extended far beyond Pales-
tine, and included by special Divine bounty large
masses of persons hitherto assumed to be exceptions
by special Divine bounty. This is what happened
at Antioch, which therefore is treated as the second
home of the Gospel, and then as the starting-point
of the Gentile Mission proper. But the actual ex-
tent of the fresh departure, in its beginnings, is
doubtful. According to the best MSS reading in
11 20 the "great number" who there hastened to be-
lieve were "Hellenists," and therefore Jews of a
kind, yet not of the kind which had hitherto consti-
tuted the great mass of "the Ecclesia" in the Holy
Land. So great a change in relative proportions
would in itself warrant the sending of some one to
examine matters and report; and we notice that
Barnabas, himself a Hellenist, was chosen, and not
Peter and John (as for Samaria), which would surely
have been the case if anything so revolutionary as a
preponderance of uncircumcised "Greeks" (the other
reading) had appeared at this stage even outside
Palestine.
Hort (Judaistic Christianity [1894], p. 59 f.) seems right in
insisting on the more difficult reading of BD 2 EHLP, sup-
ported by X* eua-yY<Ai<TT; see also 13 , cf. 14 ". The au-
thor's meaning seems to have been missed by the other MS
authorities, through tuking the 6 in fivav 5e Ttpes { aurwv-
KTA, as adversative to the foregoing oi per ovy tiaffiraptv*
to the undue prejudice of ^Tjfievi . . . ei ^ ft-oi'ov 'loufiaiots',
whereas it really appends a special instance as in 8 4 f -, and
elsewhere in Acts. So it is to be rendered: "Now there
were certain of them, men of Cyprus and Cyrene, such as
(oi'Tir, cf. 9 35 ) on reaching Antioch began to address the
Hellenists." It seems best, therefore, to follow X" DEHLP
al. pier. sah. cop. syr. lr . arm. oeth. col. gig. vg codd Chry.
in omitting Kai, since its presence in X* AB may well be due
to the feeling that it is needful to the antithetic relation of
ver. " to ver. M which they agree with the authorities for
*EAA>)i/as in reading into the passage.
In any case the extension to Antioch, standing
midway between the Jewish and Greek spheres, was
a momentous step; and there, we read signifi-
cantly, the disciples of Jesus first obtained the name
distinguishing them from Jews proper, "Christians."
There too begins the association of Saul with Bar-
A STAXDAlil) HII!I,I<; DICTIONARY
Acts of the Apostles
nabas, which marks the next stage of advance still
wit hout loss of touch with the old center, Judcea (11
27-30). But before leaving the fortunes of the Gos-
pel in its first home, we are shown how attempts to
harm it ever turned, by God's grace, to the confu-
sion of its foes (eh. 12): then, with a verse reestab-
lishing sequence with ch. 11, we pass on to the be-
ginnings of the real Gentile mission, with its base at
Antioch.
And now Saul who at the psychological moment
(13 9) is given his Gentile name, Paul comes out in
his true role as the main agent of *he Divine counsel
in the wider destiny of the Gospel, as surely as Peter
had been the pioneer of its more restricted scope.
The 'turning to the Gentiles' is narrated very em-
phatically in 13 46-48, while the moral of the whole
mission is pointed in 1427, "all things that God
had done with them," so showing "that he had
opened a door of faith unto the Gentiles." It was
seemingly the news of this great extension of Gentile
Christianity on principle that drove the more re-
actionary wing of the Jerusalem church (now in-
cluding Pharisees, 15 5) to action in Antioch (as also
in Galatia), where it was felt that the issue had to be
fought out (see GALATIANS, 3). With the Jeru-
salem Concordat, which settled it for the time, i.e.
as it arose in Syria and Cilicia (and Galatia), where
the Jewish element, side by side with the Gentile,
was large, the story, as so far told, reaches its natural
conclusion (15 35). Hitherto it has been treated
from the Hellenistic standpoint, from which the con-
ditions of intercourse in the Ecclesia between Jew
and Gentile, set forth in 15 20, 29, seemed to be min-
imum concessions (ravra ra evavayKts) to unity
on the part of godly Gentiles. Hereafter, however,
the horizon widens enormously; new interests and
conditions arise: the old platform becomes too nar-
row in practise, where Gentiles more and more out-
number Jewish converts in typically Gentile regions.
Antioch and its associations are largely left behind;
and the history gathers round the career of the
Apostle of the Gentiles, whose personal commission
determines his conduct in regions to which, in his
judgment, the Jerusalem compact was inapplicable.
Here space forbids any full discussion. As regards chy.
1-12 the present writer feels that neither the hypothesis of
merely oral traditions nor the usual theories
3. Sources O f written sources Aramaic (so now Har-
Ol nack) or Greek can fully meet the case.
Acts. The use of a Hellenistic or Antiochene source
would account for the bulk of these chap-
ters, but there is need also of the view broached in the com-
mentary on Acts in the Century Bible (1901), viz.. that Luke
wrote some of Acts 1-12 (or even 15 3;I ) on the basis of notes
taken down by himself from the lips of excellent infornuin Is.
and largely in their own words (which explains the distinc-
tive language and thoughts shining through the present
Lucan narrative). Probably Philip, Hellenist and Evan-
gelist, was his main oral source for such notes as to the Je-
rusalem and Judji-an church, taken during Paul's detention
in Cirsarea (cf. 21 8 '). Mark or his mother may be the
channel through whom most of ch. 12 (with its intimate
reference to Mark's home and the maid servant and the
abrupt naming of James, the Lord's brother) reached
Luke. Stephen's speech may or may not have come
through Philip; at all events it came through a Hellenist
of the same circle or type as the author of the Epistle to
the Hebrews (the affinities with which are well pointed out
by Dr. B. W. Bacon, Stephen's Speech, in Yale Biblirnl
Studiet, 1901). For Saul's history during that period, Paul
himself and Luke's own notes of Paul's defenses at Jcru-
sulfiTi and ('irsaroa (not always quite at first hnnd) would
contribute something. Other and more purely traditional
elements, e.g. the idea of Pentecost as involving foreign
tongues in contrast to Peter's speech on that occasion
may be due to Hellenists in Antioch. The Kirst Mission-
ary Journey (13-14) probably reflects the account given
by an eye-witness (Titus?) on returning to Antioch. I <.r
the latter part of Acts all is due to Luke's memory or notes,
as the case may be; nor is the absence of "we" any sure
Hisproof of his presence, as it may have merely a psycho-
logical or emotional significance.
Henceforth the moti/s underlying the narrative,
and causing selection from a larger mass of mate-
rials, become more varied. The central
4. Aims, one so far, the universal spirit of the
old religion, as of Divine origin in
spite of Jewish blindness and hardness of heart, now
as in former days (cf. Stephen's Speech) persists to
the end, with its climax at Rome (28 17-28). But
with it blends more and more another idea, its coun-
terpart, viz., the witness borne by the attitude of
typical representatives of the Gentile world, the
Roman Empire in the widest sense, that the hostility
of actual Judaism was vexatious and groundless.
Further, as far as Judaism might try to crush its
rival by suggesting that it was an element of disorder
and even of disloyalty in the Empire itself, the early
history of the Christian Church and its relations to
the Roman State, its law and order, refuted the
charges. Such troubles as had arisen were in fact
due to Jewish jealousy and misrepresentation. All
these lines of thought meet in Paul himself, both in
his outer lot and in his attitude, whether to his na-
tional religion or to Roman citizenship. To both
he was essentially loyal. This explains the long and
at first sight unduly prolix story of Paul's last visit
to Jerusalem and its issues, particularly the repeated
speeches of defense. Paul, in fact, was the em-
bodied apologia of the Church in the Roman Empire,
over against all its traducers (cf. Von Soden, Early
Christian Literature [1906], pp. 230 ff.).
The occasion of Acts, then, like that of all NT
writings, is practical. It is determined by pressing
religious needs, not by abstract or scientific interests.
It is an apology for the religion of Jesus, addressed
primarily to men of faith, yet a faith distressed both
by bitter opposition and by some perplexities of
thought, not as yet quite at home with the deeper
ideas of the new religion as one of power shown
through suffering, not through prosperity (the notion
of ancient religion generally). But while primarily
meant for actual faith, Luke's writings, perhaps
alone in the N T, look also to potential faith outside,
in 'men of good-will' who need only to know the
facts, in all the improssiveness of their true order
so that their real meaning jumps to the eye in order
to believe in the "Kingdom of God" among men.
Where, then, was such a work likely to arise?
Internal evidence suggests that the region in which
its first readers were most interested
5. Pro- was the Roman province of Asia (note
venance. references to Paul's abortive wish to
visit it and Bithynia in 16 6 f.), where
the concrete narrative becomes most detailed and the
topography most minute (18 24-21 1; contrast the
verses given to the last visit to Greece, 20 2-5). Dif-
ferences, even, and abuses among believers emerge
Acts of the Apostles
Adam
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
10
at Ephesus (18 24-19 7, John's baptism, and 20 26-36,
forecast of that church's future dangers), as nowhere
else. Observe too the calm allusiveness of the ref-
erence to "the school of Tyrannus" (TWOS was soon
added to soften it) in 10 9, as though self-explana-
tory to "Theophilus" and his circle (cf. the abrupt
reference to Alexander in 19 33); also the triviality
of the itinerary in 20 13-15, save for those familiar'
with the coast between Troas and Ephesus.
Here reference may be made to some of the most striking
of the readings in Codex Bezae, etc. A whole series of them
betray special acquaintance with Asia Minor (Ramsay) ; and
these are among the oldest of the so-called 'Western' or
ft text. But they are never more than intelligent glosses,
showing that Acts was read with more than special interest
in the region. The change in 15 20 ' 20 , where the abstinences
lose their ceremonial or Jewish reference, may also have
arisen in Asia, especially as it is already found in Irenseus.
Finally consider the correspondence between this
environment and the inottfs of Acts, as already de-
scribed: the numbers and influence of the Jews in
Asia (referred to in 21 27, 24 19 as prime causes of
Paul's arrest); the bitterness of their hostility to the
Christians both in the later Apostolic age (Rev
29f.) and in Polycarp's day; the interest for this
region of the modus Vivendi of Acts 15 20, 29, in the
light especially of Rev 2 6, 14 f., 20; and the problem
of the internal relations of Judaism and Christianity
there as late as Ignatius' day. Surely these things
constitute strong cumulative evidence for Asia, and
Ephesus in particular, as the original home of Acts.
If this be granted, it will nUl also to our evidence
for date, in so far as the tone of Acts is optimistic
touching Rome's attitude to Christians, apart from
Jewish envy and slander. It assumes
6. Date, that Rome may continue its old policy
of treating Christianity as a form, the
most legitimate form, of Israel's religion, and as
sharing its status as a religio licita, exclusive of the
forms of the Imperial cult, as of every other 'idol-
atrous' worship, yet not therefore disloyal to Rome
and Csesar. When exactly the course of events in
Asia, the center of fanatical Caesar-worship, ren-
dered such hopes untenable, it is hard to say. But
relatively early, we may be sure, apart even from
the evidence of Rev, the date of which is itself an
open question. Harnack thinks a date about 80
A.D. most probable: the present writer inclines to a
date earlier in the Vespasian era, as better suiting
the words of the Gospel (21 32, cf. 926f.) touching
the fulfilment of "all things" before the passing of
the original generation of Christ's hearers. The ex-
periences of the era of the siege and fall of Jerusalem
seem clearly implied in the wording of Luke 21; but
the "times of the Gentiles" seem only just begin-
ning to be fulfilled (21 24, 28). Still "redemption
draweth nigh," and some of Christ's generation
will see it.
The argument for a date about 100 A.D. derived from par-
allels with Josephus' Antiquities is quite "in the air" (Har-
nack, op. cit., p. 18). It does not account for the diver-
gences in the case either of Theudas (5 3a , e.g., the number
400) whatever be made of the account in Acts or of
Herod (12 20 ") On the other hand, it is unsafe to argue
from the point at which Acts ends (01-62 A.D.) ; for the nar-
rative has reached its natural climax when the Gospel is
preached by Paul in Rome. Paulus Ifomte apex evanffelii.
Nothing of equal significance could be added. The heroic
age, in which the Divine power working in Christ's wit-
nesses was most manifest, was already well-nigh over.
Finally a date between 70 and 80 A.D. best suits
the most probable theory as to authorship, viz., that
the whole work, as distinct from a sup-
7. Author- posed Travel-diary cropping out here
ship. and there between chs. 16 and 28
comes from Luke, "the beloved physi-
cian," companion and helper in the Gospel to Paul,
who is the hero of the book's most moving sections
fromch. 9 onward. Harnack has recently accepted
and restated in Lukas dcr Arzt the arguments used
by scientific defenders of the traditional authorship, 1
such as Hobart in The Medical Language oj St. Luke
(1882), and Sir J. C. Hawkins in florae Synoptics
(1899), as regards the stylistic unity of Acts gener-
ally. At present, then, as far as linguistic evidence
goes, this view may be said to hold the field. The
weakness of the counterview, which assigns Acts to
about 100 A.D., is seen in the paradox to which it is
driven, in order to account for certain Hellenistic
features in the warp and woof of the book, that its
final author was a 'Hellenistic Jew' (so Wendt and
B. W. Bacon). The form of the preface to both
works, and their whole feeling when dealing with
GrsDCO-Roman matters (cf. Ramsay), make this
most unlikely. Luke, however, though born a Gen-
tile (whether Syrian or Greek in race), would natu-
rally have much of the Hellenist in his training he
may have been a Jewish proselyte to begin with
and suits the complex conditions of the problem,
both of style and thought, completely. Early tra-
dition touching him is well summed up in the Mon-
archian Prologue to Luke's Gospel: "Luke, a Syrian
by race, an Antiochene, 2 by profession a physician,
. . . departed this life at the age of seventy-four in
Bithynia." The latter statements, in no way sus-
picious in themselves, agree well with the foregoing
theory in all respects.
One confirmation of Luke's authorship lies in the appar-
ent non-use of the Pauline letters, which any one save a
. companion of Paul's would eagerly study
o. Relation for data. Particularly striking is the case as
to the regards the Epistle to the Galatians, which
Pauline runs parallel to much in Acts, and the ab-
Letters. sence of exact harmony with which is by
some made a prime reason for denying
Lucan authorship. As this case is crucial for the histo-
ricity of Acts, we must deal with it somewhat fully, instead
of trying to discuss minor problems of like order.
Some still regard Acts 15 and Gal 2 >- 10 as both histor-
ically trustworthy versions of the same incident, in spite
of their marked differences. Such differences are, e.g. . (1)
their ostensible occasion; (2) the privacy implied in Gal
1 This is supported by very early and wide-spread evi-
dence, going back as far as Marcion (c. 140 A.D.) , for Luke's
Gospel. This is natural, if Harnack be right in saying
that a work with a Prologue must from the first have had its
author's name in the title. Evidence of the use of Acts is
probable (so HOLTZMANN) in Ignatius of Antioch and Poly-
carp of Smyrna, c. 115 A.D., and perhaps even in Clement of
Rome (xviii. 1, cf. Acts 13 22 ), c. 96 A.D.
2 Knowledge of this fact (and nothing else) is perhaps im-
plied in the early reading of D also Aug. after 11 - 7 , "and
when we were gathered together," etc. -unless we have
here secondary use of an Antiochene source underlying Acts.
Note also the intimate knowledge of the Antiochene Church
shown in Acts 1 1 28 , 13 , cf . 6 6 fin.
3 At best, Paul's account could apply only to a private con-
ference at the time of Acts 15, but not there recorded, while
yet Paul lays all the stress on it (but see GAI.ATIANS. 3).
11
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Acts of the Apostles
Adam
(where it was important for the purpose of Paul's argument
to emphasize the public vindication of his own Gospel, if
it had then occurred) ; (3) the practical conditions laid down
for keeping the two separate missions in sufficient touch
with each other ns to which Paul's language in Gal 2 10 ,
"only," etc., formally excludes any other terms than those
he specifies; (4) the clear implication both of Paul's logic
(which does not leave him free to pass over any visit be-
tween Gal 1 18 and 2 ' without explanation) and of the state-
ment that lie remained still unknown by face to the churches
of Judxa (1 22 ' ), to the effect that no visit to Jerusalem fell
between those in Gal 1 18 and 2 ', whereas Acts II 27 If - re-
cords a relief visit to Judaea after Gal I 18 ; (5) the contrast
between the attitude of Peter and yet more of Barnabas
(after his Gentile experiences in Acts 13-14) in Gal 2 " ",
with what we should gather of them in Acts 15 (esp. s - 36 ).
Those who see their way around these differences must be
allowed to take their own course ; but they can not fairly cite
Lightfoot's authority, since the 'South-Galatian' theory,
which makes Paul in Galatians address a totally different
body of readers from that contemplated by him, has become
so widely accepted, even by defenders of Acts IJ^Ga^ 1 - 10 .
This changes the whole perspective. In particular it makes
the natural assumption that Paul is defending the inde-
pendent authority of his Gospel as proved prior to his " be-
getting" his readers by its agency an assumption involved
by Lightfoot's 'North-Galatian' theory tell heavily against
Acts 15 = Gal 2 1 -' on the current theory.
Turning, then, to those who agree in regarding the forego-
ing historical equation impossible, we have two types of the-
ory. The one frankly denies any real historicity to Acts 15,
and in most cases performs a critical operation on its organic
unity, separating the conditions contemplated in 15 2 . 2 ,
cf. 21 25 , from the narrative as a whole, and relegating them
to some later occasion, real or supposed. This leaves Acts
thoroughly discredited and its Lucan authorship out of the
question. Here Harnack's present position is untenable, as
Schurer presses home in the TLZ (1906, cols. 406 f.). He
must unify his literature and historical results somehow.
The other simply challenges the traditional dogma that
Acts 15 must be meant to refer to the same visit as Gal 2
'- 10 , and sets about finding an earlier stage in the story of the
Gospel's extension in Acts with which it may be correlated.
Thus there is no reason why a private conference should not
have taken place between the Antiochene and Jerusalem
leaders touching their respective 'missions' with a view to
anticipate public difficulties such as a Paul would readily
foresee (cf. Gal 2 ! ) prior to the emergence of public occa-
sion 1 for deputation of Acts 15 2 ("and certain others").
Distinguiie tempara. As yet the problem was not one pres-
ent to the rank and file at all, only to Paul himself in the
first instance leading him up "by revelation" to make sure
of the "pillar" apostles. On this occasion these devout fol-
lowers of the finger of God (cf. Acts 1 1 ", and later 1.5 12 ->*)
felt the unity of the Divine working visible in both types of
mission, and simply requested that Paul should see to it that
he and his converts "should remember the poor" in keeping
with the best traditions of Jewish piety (cf. Acts 2 3< ") a
principle for which Paul was himself already zealous. It is
just here that the second theory divides into alternative
forms. Ramsay, followed by V. Weber and others, sees in
the wording of Gal 2 10 a reference to Paul's being in Jerusa-
lem for the very purpose of showing the Antiochene mind-
fulness of the poor saints in Jud.-r-a (Acts 11 ). But the
present writer considers this identification exegetically
forced and views that relief visit rather as an early proof 2 of
Paul's zeal for the principle expressed in Gal 2 10 . That is, it
is simplest and best to assume, as we are free to do since
the account in Acts is so far from professing to be a com-
plete narrative that the visit of Gal 2 '-' is an otherwise
unrecorded visit, preparing the way privately for that other
and public concordat which was occasioned by overt con-
1 I see no such occasion in Gal 2 < ' There is no sugges-
tion such as Paul's readers could be expected to follow, that
the "false brethren" were "brought in" at Antioch, rather
than at the private conference in Jerusalem mentioned just
before.
2 See Erpimitnr (Oct., 1899), p. 268: cf. O. Iloltzmann
inZNTW Mill I.',), pp. 102 fT. : "Hut then the journey to the
Apostolic conference and the first Collection-journey fall in
the period immediately after Acts II 2 '; one must assume
that both journeys followed one another quickly, as Gal 2 ">
lets one suppose."
troversy in Antioch some years later (but see GAI.ATIANS,
3). Thus there is no necessary clash between Acts 15 and
Gal. 2 '">; and with similar allowance for different per-
spective, we may say the same for Acts 9 and Gal 1 ',
touching Paul's movements in the first years after his con-
version.
LITERATURE: A full discussion of the literature on Acts will
be found in the last edition of Meyer's Kommenter (1899),
by Wemlt, and in Knowling's Comm. in thr Expo
Greek Test. (1900), supplemented by his Testimony nf ,S7.
Paul to Christ (1905); see also Moffatt's liislaricnl
Testament (1901), and C. Clemen, Paulus (1904), i. 162-
330. Add Harnack, Lukas der Arzt tier Verjasser des
dritten Ew.ngeliu.rn u. der Apostelgeschichte (1906) Enu
tr. (1907). J V . B.
AD AD AH, ad'a-da (~~yV, 'adh'adhah): A town
on the S. border of Judah (Jos 15 22). Probably
the Aroer (q.v.) of I S 30 28. E. E. N.
ADAH, e'dfl (rn$, 'adhah), 'beauty': 1. A wife
of Lamech (Gn4i9ff.). 2. The Hittite wife of
Esau (Gn 362 ff.). g. E. N.
ADAIAH, a-d6'ya (IT-,?., 'ddhayah), 'J" has
adorned': 1. The maternal grandfather of King
Josiah, of Bozketh in the Shephelah of Judah (II K
22 l). 2. A Levite of the sons of the Kohathites
(I Oh 6 41). 3. A Benjamite of the family of Shimei
(Shemaver.13), (ICh82l)of Jerusalem. 4. Apriest
dwelling in Jerusalem (I Ch 9 12). 6. The father of
Maaseiah (II Ch 23 l, here spelled VTJS). 6. A
man of the family of Bani of the post-exilic Jewish
community who had married a foreign wife (Ezr
10 29). 7. Another of same family and guilty of
same offense (Ezr 10 39). 8. A descendant of Perez,
son of Judah (Neh 11 5). 9. A priest, son of Jeroham,
in the post-exilic list of the inhabitants of Jerusalem;
probably the same as 4 (Neh 11 12). C. S. T.
ADALIA, ad"a-lai'a (N;
Hainan's ten sons (Est 9 8).
'tdhalya'): One of
E. E. N.
ADAM, ad'am (E~N, 'adham, from root C~iN, 'to
build,' 'produce'?): I. According to the crea-
tion story of Genesis the name of the first man of the
race. The Hebrew word used without the article is
the name of the first man (On 4 25, 5 1, 3-5; I Ch 1 1;
also Gn 2 20, 3 17, 21?); with the article, it should be
translated 'the man,' as it is in most instances in
RV, where AV has " Adam." It is used as the name
of the first man where it is necessary to distinguish
him from his descendants. In the N T the Greek
transliteration 'Afidfi is used as the name of the first
man (Jude ver. 14), who is looked upon as the father
of the whole human race, so closely connected with
all men that he involved all in his acts (Ro 5 14a; I
Co 15 45a; I Ti 2 13 f.). In Ro 5 14b (5 12 f.), I Co
15 22 Paul brings out the historical connection of
Adam with humanity, in representing him as being
the author of sin and death for all by his one act of
disobedience; in this he is a type though by con-
trast in result of Christ, who by His one act of obe-
dience is the conqueror of sin and death. In I Co
1545 Paul seems to go from the influence exerted
historically to nature, i.e., to the relation in which
they stand to humanity; Adam the first sensuous,
Adam
Adullam
A STANDARD HI BMC DICTIONARY
earthly man, Christ the second ami last, the spiritual
and heavenly man.
II. The name of a city in the Jordan valley, near
the mouth of the Jabbok, where the waters were
dammed up when Joshua led Israel into Canaan
(Jos 3 16). Map III, II 4. C. S. T.
ADAM, THE BOOKS OF: This general title is
given to a number of apocryphal and apocalyptic
productions (by Christian hands working on Jewish
originals), embodying semireligious romances in
which Adam and Eve figured as the chief characters
and the story of Gn 3 is supplemented and embel-
lished by legendary or mythical accretions. The
books are: 1. The Narrative and Citizenship of
Adam and Eve (ed. Tischendorf, 1867; also in a
Latin form, Vita Ad<e et Krcr); 2. The Mandaite
Sacred Book of Adam; 3. The Ethiopic Book of
Adam ; 4. The Syriac Treasure Care oj Adam (basei 1
upon the preceding); 6. The Syrian Testamentum
Adami (cf. Hort, in DCB). A. C. Z.
AD AMAH, ad'a-mci (<~^-,X., 'adhamah): A city
of Naphtali (Jos 19 36). The identification, Map
IV, G 7, is uncertain. E. E. N.
ADAMANT. See STONES, PRECIOUS, 3.
ADAMI-NEKEB, ad"n-mni-nek'eb Pi?|n "Xn^
'atlhanu ha-neqebh): A town on the NW. border of
Xaphtali (Jos 19 33). Its site is uncertain.
E. E. N.
ADAR. See TIME, 3, and ADDAR II.
ADBEEL, ad'l>e-el (Vsp-tf, 'adhb-'fl): A 'son' of
Ishmael (Gn 25 13; I Ch 1 29). An Arabian tribe
Idiba'U near Egypt is mentioned in the Assyrian
inscriptions. E. E. N.
ADDAN, ad'dan Q~N, 'addan): The Babylonian
home of cert ain exiles who were unable to prove their
genealogy (Ezr 2 59). Called Addon in Neh 7 61 ff.
Site unknown. E. E. N.
ADDAR, ad'dar (1~8, 'nddar): I. Ancestor of a
Benjamiteelan (ICh83). Cf. Ard in Gn 46 21; Nu
26 40. II. A town on- the S. border of Judah, site
unknown (Jos 15 3). In Nu 34 4 it is combined with
He/ron into Hazar-Addar. E. E. N.
ADDER. See PALESTINE, 26.
ADDI, ad'dui ('AfiSfi') : An ancestor of Christ (Lk
3 28). E. E. N.
ADDON. See ADDAN.
ADER. Sec EDKH.
ADIEL, e'di-el (V ,}.;, 'ddhi 'cl): 1. A Simeonite
chieftain (I Ch 4 36-40). 2. A priest (I Ch 9 12).
3. Father of Azmaveth (I Ch 27 25). E. E. N.
ADIN, i"'din (]"? , 'iiilliln ): The ancestral head
of a large post-exilic family (Ezr 2 15, 8 6; Neh 7 20,
10 16). K. K. N.
ADINA, a-dni'nn (K;'-};, &lhi,m). 'delightful':
A Reubenite chief tain in David's army (I Ch 11 42).
E. E. N.
ADINO, Q-dai'no ('J"'?., 'adhinii): IIS 23 8 reads
"Adino the Eznite" as a second name of David's
mightiest hero. I Ch 11 11 more correctly omits the
name altogether. E. E. N.
ADITHAIM, ad"i-the'im (C:?"i? : , 'wlhithuyim):
A city of Judah in the Shephelah (Jos 1536).
Site unknown. E. E. N.
ADJURE. Sec OATH.
ADLAI, ad'le-di ("H?, 'adhlay): Father of Sha-
phat (I Ch 27 29). E. E. N.
ADMAH, ad'mu (~'i~8, 'ndhmdh): One of the
cities near the Dead Sea that rebelled against
Chedorlaomer (Gn 1019, 142,8). It was destroyed
with Zeboim, Sodom and Gomorrah (Dt 29 22; Ifos
11 8). E. E. N.
ADMATHA. See PHINCES, THE SEVEN.
ADNA, ad'na (SJ~?, 'adhna'), 'pleasure': 1.
( )ne of the " sons of Pahath-moab " (Ezr 10 30).
2. A priest (Neh 12 15). E. E. N.
ADNAH, ad'na (HJ-;?, 'adhnah): 1. A Manas-
site who deserted Saul for David (I Ch 12 20).
2. A captain under Jehoshaphat (II Ch 17 14).
E. E. N.
ADONIBEZEK, a-do"nai-bi'zek (pJ?JT4|, 'adhd-
nlbezeq), 'lord of Bezek': A Canaanite king de-
feated by Judah and Simeon at Bezek. He escaped,
but was pursued, captured, and mutilated. He
died afterward in Jerusalem (Jg 1 5-7).
A. C. Z.
ADONIJAH, ad"o-nai'ja (JV^S, 'Mhomyah),
'my Lord is J"': 1. The fourth son of David. His
mot her was Haggith. Near the close of David's reign
he assumed royal state, hoping to become his father's
successor. Joab and Abiathar were his active sup-
porters. He made a feast at the Stone of Zoheleth,
near Jerusalem, and invited all the king's sons and
nobility, except Solomon and his partizans, Be-
naiah, Zadok, and Nathan. Here he disclosed his
plot for seizing the throne. At this crit ical juncture
Nathan advised Bath-sheba to remind David of his
promise to appoint Solomon as his successor. David
acted with characteristic energy, commanding Solo-
mon to ride on his own mule to Gihon, there to be
anointed by Zadok and proclaimed king under the
protection of the body-guard. A. and his guests
heard the acclamations of the populace, and Jona-
than, the son of Abiathar, informed them of
the coronation. A. took refuge at the altar, but
Solomon graciously pardoned him. Later, he
preferred a request to Solomon through Bath-sheba
for Abishag, David's concubine. As the harem of a
king belonged to his successor, Solomon rightly con-
13
A STANDARD H1BI.K DK"I '!< i.\ AKY
Adam
Adullum
sidered this an act of (reason, and hail him put to
death (I K 1 ami 2). 2. A Levite(IICh 17 8). 3.
Ancestral head of a family of Levites (Neh 10 16)
called Adonikam (q.v.) in Ezr 2 13, etc.
J. A. K.
ADONIKAM, ad"o-nui'kam (C^'S,
qam), 'the Lord is risen up': Ancestor of a large
post^exilic family (Ezr 2 13, 8 13; Neh 7 is). Called
Adonijah in Neh 10 10. E. E. N.
ADONIRAM, ad"o-nai'ram (2 V J1 J?, 'idhonlram ),
'the Lord is high' (called also Adoram and
Hadoram) : Overseer of the men forced to work on
public works under David and Solomon (II S 20 24;
I K 4 i), 5 H). He was stoned to death in N. Israel
(1 K 12 is; II Ch 10 18). E. E. N.
ADONIZEDEK, a-do"nai - zi'dek (pjV^i?,
'idhOnl tsedheq), 'lord of righteousness': King
of Jerusalem when Joshua conquered Ai; he
entered into a league with four other Canaanite
kings to fight against the inhabitants of Gibeon,
which had made peace with Israel. He was de-
feated and put to death by hanging (Jos 10 1, 3).
Perhaps the same as Adoni-bezek (Jg 1 5).
C. S. T.
ADOPTION (vlodfa-ia): A legal term appropri-
ated by theology. Its Biblical usage is limited to the
Pauline epistles (Ro 8 15, 23, 9 4; Gal 4 5; Eph 1 5).
Here it signifies the act by which the privileges of a
child of God are conferred upon the believer in Jesus
Christ. In the Roman judicial system a place was
made for a formal act of adoption. In Israelite his-
tory cases of adoption also occur. Esther was adopt-
ed by Mordecai (Est 2 7, cf. also the cases of Moses,
Ex 2 9, and of Genubath, I K 1 1 20). But no formal
act is mentioned. According to the Roman law, on
the other hand, the person to be adopted was pub-
licly sold to the prospective parent before wit-
nesses, and thenceforth became a member of the
latter's family, exactly as if he had been born into it.
The Apostle's use of the Roman legal term raises
the question whether he meant to ascribe real sig-
nificance to the act of adoption and assert that in
the dispensation of redemption there is something
corresponding to it. If not, he had in mind the
great change for the better in one who has entered
the Christian life, with a special regard to the privi-
leges thus secured him. If the act is the important
thing in the Apostle's mind, adoption is a separate
and distinct stage of redemption. If the privileges
it brings are the emphatic element, then adoption
is merely another name for regeneration, and tin-
Roman legal formula is chosen to express it because
it does vividly bring before the mind these privileges.
Of these alternatives, the latter is much more prob-
able. A. C. Z.
ADORAIM, ad"o-re'im (C^'lN', 'folhorayim):
A city of Judah fortified by Rehoboam, about 6 m.
W. of Hebron (II Ch 119). Map II, E 2.
E. E. N.
ADORAM. See ADONIRAM.
ADRAMMELECH, -dram'el-.-<: ('*--$, 'n>lh-
rammelekh): 1. One of the gods of Sepharvaiiu
(II K 17 31), or Sippar in Assyria, possibly Adar
(Adrammelech-Adar-King) ; but a god Adar is un-
known in the Assyrian pantheon. 2. One of the
two sons of Sennacherib, who murdered their father
on his return from the unsuccessful campaign
against Jerusalem (Is 3738; II K 1927; in the
latter passage, however, the word "son" does not
occur). A. C. Z.
ADRAMYTTIUM, ad"ra-mit'ti-um ('A>8papvr-
TIOV): A city of Mysia formerly situated on the sea,
but now six miles inland from the Adramyttian gulf,
surrounded by olive groves and vineyards, which,
with timber from Mt. Ida, make it prosperous. It
was founded by Adramys, son of Alyattes and
brother of Crcesus. Later, it was colonized by
Athens and under the Romans was a metropolis and
the seat of a conventus iuridicus (see ASIA MINOR,
10). It was in " a ship of Adramyttium " that
Paul sailed from Caesarea to Myra on his voyage
to Rome (Ac 27 2-5). J. R. S. S.
ADRIA, a'dri-u (Ac 2727), Gr. 'A.8pias, Lat.
Hadria, Hadriaticum mare: The name may have
been derived from the town of Adria, or Atria, near
the mouth of the Po, and was ordinarily applied to
the gulf between Italy and Illyria. But geogra-
phers contemporary with the N T extended it to in-
clude not only the Ionian Gulf but the sea bounded
by Epirus, Achaia, and Crete on the E., and Sicily
with the southern coast of Italy on the W. and NW.
Strabo, e.g. ( 123), says that the older name was
used for "part of what is now called Adrias," under
which he includes the Ionian Gulf and the Sicilian
Sea. Ptolemy distinguishes the Adriatic Sea from
the Adriatic Gulf, and Pausanias applies the name
to the sea between Sicily, Malta, and Crete. Luke
conforms to this later usage possibly, as Ramsay
suggests, following the sailor's nomenclature in
using the term "the Adria" for the sea in which
Paul's company drifted about for fourteen days,
generally in a southerly and southeasterly direction,
from Crete until they reached Melita. An opinion
that Paul was wrecked on a little island Afeleda in
the Adriatic on the Dalmatian coast is baseless.
R. A. F.
ADRIEL, e'dri-el (^"H?, 'adhri'el): A Meho-
lathite who married Saul's daughter Merab, already
promised to David (I S 18 19). His five sons were
given up to the Gibeonites (II S 21 8 [Michal here
by mistake for Merab]). E. E. N.
ADULLAM, a-dul'am (2H?., 'ddhullam): The
earliest notice concerning Adullam (Gn 38) is to the
effect that in early times clans or families of Judah
consolidated with Canaanitish clans (Adullamites)
near Adullam. The statement in Jos 12 15 that the
city and its king were conquered by Joshua is late
and conflicts with the earlier accounts of the con-
quest. From the notices in Jos 15 35; Mic 1 15; Neh
11 30, its general location is made certain (Map II, E
2). David frequently used its stronghold or citadel
as his headquarters (I S 22 l; II S 23 13, where the
Adultery
Agriculture
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTION A I; V
true reading is ' stronghold/ not " cave "; cf. ver. 14
and 517). Rehoboam strengthened its fortifica-
tions (II Ch 11 7) It was reoccupied by Jews
e:irly in post exilic times (Neh 1130). (See Ci. A.
Smith, HGIIL, p. 229.) E. E. N.
ADULTERY. See MARRIAOB AND DIVORCE,
10.
ADUMMIM, a-dum'im, THE ASCENT OF
(2"?~!. ~"i]", ma'aleh 'faihummim, thus named,
perhaps, on account of the red-colored stone in the
pass): It lay on the road most traveled between
Jerusalem and Jericho, and on the boundary-line be-
tween Judah and Benjamin (Jos 157, 18 17). On a
height NE. of the pass was the Chastel Rouge of the
Crusaders. Map II, G 1. C. S. T.
ADVERSARY: In the OT the term most
often used to designate opponent in general (tsar);
but in I S 1 6 this signifies the rival wife. In Nu 22
22; I S 29 4; II S 19 22; I K 5 4, 11 14, 23, 25, it is the
translation of the noun, and in Ps 71 13, 109 20, 29, of
the verb from the root ^JC ('satan'), meaning to
'accuse' or 'oppose.' In Job 335 it means an op-
ponent in a case at law. In the N T it often desig-
nates the general idea of opponent, but in Mt 5 25;
Lk 12 58, 18 3; I P 5 8, that of legal opponent.
C. S. T.
ADVOCATE (rrapaic\T)Tos), i.e., 'pleader' or ' in-
tercessor,' applied to Jesus only in I Jn 2 l. See
HOLY SPIRIT. E. E. N.
jENEAS, i-ne'as (AiVe'ay, Eneas AV): A para-
lytic healed by Peter (Ac 9 33-34). E. E. N.
, i'nen (AiVow, ' springs ' ) : A place near
Salim (Jn 3 23). Neither site is certainly identified.
According to Eusebius and Jerome (Onom. 245, 91;
134, 25) JEnon. was eight Roman miles S. of Beth-
shean (Scythopolis). But Conder's identification
(Tent Work*, p. 57 f.) of the " much water" (Jn
3 23) with the springs between Salim (Map III, F 3)
and 'Ainun (Map III, G 3) is more probable.
J. M. T.
AGABUS, agVbus ("Ayo,3os) : A Christian prophet
(Ac 11 27 f.) who came down to Antioch and pre-
dicted "a great famine over all the world" (proba-
bly the famine in the reign of Claudius c. 46-48 A.D. ).
In the diary source Ac 21 10 f. A. appears in Cffisarea
and predicts Paul's arrest and deliverance to the
Gentiles (see CHURCH LIFE AND ORGANIZATION,
5). J. M. T.
AGAG, e'gag (JJR, 'dgag): King of an Amalekite
tribe. Samuel commissioned Saul utterly to ex-
terminate the tribe with their king, because of past
hostility to Israel, thus put ting Agag under the ban
(herein). See CUKSE, 2. But Saul saved the
king and also much booty. Samuel, highly dis-
pleased at this disobedience, carried out the Divine
commission by hewing Agag to pieces (I S 15).
In Nu 24 7 read Og or Gog for Agag. J. A. K.
AGAR. Sec HAOAU.
AGATE. SceSTuNKs, I'KKCIOUS, 2.
AGE, AGES. See ESCHATOLOGY, 27, 45, and
APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE, 1 (6).
AGEE, e'gi (X;$, 'age'): A Hararite, father of
Shammah (II S 23 ll). E. E. N.
AGRICULTURE: There can be no doubt that
the Israelites first learned agriculture in Palestine.
According to the patriarchal legends
I. Israelites their ancestors were essentially no-
Originally madic, and became agriculturists
not Agri- only incidentally, as in the course of
culturists. their wanderings they came upon land
adapted to farming purposes (Gn 26
12, 37 7; cf. 30 14). Gn 4 20, with its peculiar appre-
ciation of the nomadic life, is not the only thing
which reminds us of the fact that the Israelites were
once nomads; the Rechabites also, who tried to re-
tain artificially the old conditions which had long
since disappeared, bear witness to the fact that the
nomadic life was for them the genuine Israelitre life
(Jer 35 7).
The nomadic situation, however, changed after
Israel had settled in the W. Jordan country. Here
the conditions demanded that they
2, Transi- take up a settled life the chief employ-
tion to ment of which was farming an art
Agriculture they learned from the Canaanites ; for
After the Canaan had been a well-cultivated
Conquest, country long before Israel settled there.
The lowlands especially had from very
ancient times been tilled, though the cultivation of
the hillsides was also old, in spite of the fact that
the house of Joseph are bidden to clear the hill-
tops of their forests (Jos 17 15-18). The importance
which agriculture had for Israel from the very be-
ginning of its settlement in Canaan is seen not only
in the close connection in which agriculture and re-
ligion stood in the earliest times, but also in the fact
that it is the background for all the legislation of
Israel even the oldest. After the tribe had by
conquest secured a place of habitation for itself,
every family probably received a certain piece of
land, which was marked off definitely, generally by
stones, the removal of which was subjected to curse
(Hos 5 10; Dt 19 14, 27 17; Pr 22 28). The land was
measured according to "acres," literally 'yokes,'
tsemer: i.e., the unit of measurement was as much
ground as one yoke of oxen could plow in a day
(I S 14 14; Is 5 10), as it is to-day with the feUtiliiii,
whose measure is the jcddan (i.e., literally, 'yoke of
oxen'). According to Lev 27 16, land was also ap-
praised at times by the quantity of seed used in
sowing (cf. I K 18 32).
In Dt 1 1 10 f., as an especial advantage over against
Egypt, the point is emphasized that Israel is not com-
pelled to irrigate the land, but that
3. The Soil. Jehovah pours out upon it rain and
dew; as in other ways the brooks,
springs, and lakes Were esteemed for their importance
with reference to fertility (Dt 8 7). There must
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Adultery
Agriculture
have been, therefore, in early times, as to-day, very
little irrigated land.
Thorough manuring of the soil was unknown. In
II K 9 37; Jer 9 22, 16 4, reference is made merely to
the excrement of animals, especially of the oxen
and asses used in plowing, which lay upon the fields;
and such passages as Dt 23 13 f.; I K 14 10; cf. Ex 29
the earlier days except with the greatest hardship
to the people but each field had its own definite
fallowing year, as was formerly the custom in Ger-
many.
In the tilling of the soil it was necessary to wait
till autumn, when the early rains, mdreh termed
early because the old civil year began in autumn
i*?-" '*.-, Vi : -"^ nll u*'jt^. . ''"*""' ^W.rA^^Ir.'.UVi.Or-VV*'^'-*"*^
f/& %&.- ' ft* < ",^ '": '-? f'^* ~f ..fm..~S i!nv-/A*lh.'iW ; 'lt 1 WfeS
A SYRIAN PEASANT PLOWING.
14, show the practise of thorough fertilization to have
been most unlikely. Moreover, manure was dried
and often used as fuel (Ezk 4 15). This custom is
still prevalent among the Jellahln of Palestine (cf.
ZDPV, IX, 29). Instead of manure the people
employed for fertilization straw and stubble, which
like thorns and thistles were burned (cf. Ex 15 7; Is
5 24, 47 14). Of significance for the fertility of the
land is the regulation in Ex 23 10 f. that farms, vine-
yards, and olive orchards were to lie fallow in the
seventh year. This hardly indicates that there was
a fixed fallowing year for the whole country a re-
quirement which could not have been carried out in
softened the ground which had grown dry and hard
as stone in the summer sun. As the soil to-day
in certain localities is worked with the mattock
(q.v.), so it was perhaps, here and
4. Tillage, there, in early times (I S 13 20; Is 7 25) ;
but the ordinary way was to use the
plow (q.v.); and very likely the practise then, as
now in Judfea, was not to plow till after the sowing.
The sower scatters the seed rather thinly over the
fields, and it is then through the plowing turned
under and covered to a depth of about three to four
inches. Furrows (Job 39 10; Ps 65 10; I S 14 14)
can not be understood of a deep trench as in Western
Agriculture
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
1C
agriculture. Tin- plow does not do much more than
break up the surface of the ground; so that it is not
sufficiently freed of weeds. For example, in the
fertile plain of Philistia there are weed-roots as thick
as one's finger, spreading out a yard or more in all
directions, and at a depth that can not be reached by
the plow. The ox was generally used to draw the
plow, the ass also being probably used on lighter
i Is US j.l) a l>\ with open front is used to-day in
Palestine (ZDl'V, IX, 38).
It is likely that the difference between winter and
Hummer seeds was recognized, as it is to-day. The
former consist of wheat and barley, the
5. Seeding, latter of millet, sesame, melons, cu-
cumbers, etc. Seeding could not be
begun until the early rains had set in, which come
^^~ -__r, .. *V^*^T V -' -"Vs^C-
THRESHING-FLOOR.
soil. The prohibition in Dt 22 10 leads to the con-
clusion that at one time both were yoked together.
A single plowing did not suffice for fallow land. Upon
the first plowing in winter there followed a second
in the spring, and a third in summer: indeed, the
careful farmer plowed in the late summer a fourth
time; cf. \Vetzstein in Delitzsch's Isaiah 2 , 389 f.
Whether harrowing was known in early times is a
question. Perhaps the word which is generally so
translated ("-') means rather a sort of plowing
(cf. IIos 10 11; Is 28 24). For leveling off the fields
toward the end of October, at first intermittently
and generally at night. Barley was sown first, fol-
lowed by the wheat. Seed was usually sown with
the hand (Mt 13 3-8); the more valuable varieties,
such as barley, wheat, and spelt, were at times laid
in the furrow by a sower who followed behind the
plowman, as is still done to-day, and then plowed
in, to protect them from the large ants of which
there are great numbers in Syria and Palestine,
and which are fond of carrying off the grain into
their holes (ZDPV, IX, 30, note). It was per-
17
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Agriculture
Imps also clone to keep the seed from drying up,
since a period of from four to five weeks of dry-
ness sometimes elapses after the sowing (ZDPV,
IX, 29 f.)-
The summer grain was sown at the end of January
Jl 1 4), and at times by hail (Ps 7847; Hag 2 17).
If the harvest-time were near, those crops which were
especially valuable were protected by watchmen (Jer
4 17); but it was permitted one who was hungry to
pick ears in passing by (cf. Dt 23 25; Mt 12 1). [On
THRESHING WITH A SLEDGE, OR Morag.
and in February. The later rain, malqiish, which
falls in March and at the beginning of April, was of
great importance for the ripening of the grain. If it
failed, or if it came too late, or if it was too scanty, the
grain did not mature properly. Another enemy of
the subject of this general paragraph see PALES-
TINE, 16-23.]
The harvest, qatsir, began in April with the cutting
of the barley, at which time lentils and fitches were
also ripe. Two or three weeks later followed the
THRESHING WITH A WAGON, OR Agalsh.
agriculture was the hot east or southeast wind (qad-
hlm , Arab, chamsin), which scorched, shiddaphon, the
ears (Gn 41 6; Dt 28 22), so that they turned yellow,
yf-raqon (Am 4 9; IKS 37). The crops were fre-
quently destroyed by grasshoppers also (Am 7 2;
harvest of wheat and spelt; but of course the har-
vest-time varied according to the climatic condi-
tions of each region. In the hot lowlands about
Jericho the barley harvest began near the first of
April; on the coast it was eight and in the moun-
Agriculture
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
18
tains fourteen days later. The grain harvest gen-
rrally lasted about seven weeks, from Passover to
Pentecost. The grain was reaped
6. Har- with the sickle, hcrmesh, mugyiil, as is
vesting, still done (Dt 16 9). The reaper, qotaer,
grasped a number of stalks with one
hand (Is 17 5; Ps 129 7) and with the other cut them
off some distance from the ground. The grain that
had been cut remained lying in swaths, 'Amir, behind
the reaper, and was bound by the sheave-binder,
mt'offfph (Jer 9 22) into sheaves, 'tilummoh (Gn 37 7),
'Smer (Lv 23 10, etc.; Gn 37 7), which were gathered
into shocks, gadhlsh (Ex 22 6). In Lv 19 9, 23 22,
every one is forbidden, in the interests of the poor,
to harvest his field to its limits. The laborers re-
fresh themselves, while harvesting, with roasted ker-
nels of grain, qoli, and bread dipped in a sour drink,
hornets (Ru 2 14).
The grain was generally threshed, dush (I Ch 21 20) ,
or habhat (Jg6 11), in the open air, however, which
was possible inasmuch as the harvest-
7. Thresh- time is free from rain (IS12ieff.).
ing and During threshing-time the harvest men
Storing, spent the night, as is still the custom,
upon the threshing-floor, in order to
guard it (Ru 3 6; Robinson, Pal. II, p. 720). The
threshing-floors, goren, were either permanent loca-
tions on mountains or hills or else placed, if possible,
upon a somewhat elevated spot. There were differ-
ent modes of threshing: cattle were driven over the
sheaves, which were piled knee-deep in layers upon
the floor, until they had trodden out the kernels of
grain with their hoofs and reduced the straw to
chaff, in which operation the ox was not to be muz-
zled (Dt 25 4; cf. I Co 9 9; I Ti 5 18); or the thresh-
ing-sledge, morag, morag hariits, or haruts (rpifio\ov,
tribulum of the ancients), was used (Am 1 3; Is 28 27;
II S 24 22). This
sledge was made
very likely, as to-
day, of wooden
planks joined to-
gether, in the un-
der side of which
were set stones
or knives (now
called naurag, cf.
ZDPV, IX, 41).
In addition there
was the thresh-
ing-wagon, 'aga-
lah, "cart wheel"
(Is 28271.), which
consisted of sev-
eral rollers run-
ning parallel, each
of which was pro-
vided with three or four iron disks, so arranged that
the disks of one roller extended into the spaces left
by the others (cf. ZDPV, IX, 44). After threshing,
the chaff, mdts, was separated from the kernels of
grain, bar, by winnowing, zarah, i.e., by throwing
the chaff and grain into the air, with a fork, mizreh
(Is 30 24), sometimes furnished with two but gen-
erally with several curved prongs. This was done
toward evening and at night (Ru 3 2) ; for the sea
wind blows from four o'clock in the afternoon till
half an hour before sunset, and carries away the
light chaff. The kernels were then sifted (Am
9 8), and thrown together into larger heaps by
means of the winnowing-shovel, rahath (Is 30 24).
In the earlier period there were no barns, strictly
speaking; the stores of grain were stowed away
in pits resembling cisterns, which were carefully
A M
A Threshing-Sledge, Showing Under Side.
Forks and Shovel Used in Winnowing.
covered up, as is still done at the present time in
Palestine (Jer 41 8). In later times storehouses
seem to have been in use (II Ch 32 28;
8. Variety Pr 3 10; Jer 50 26; Jl 1 17).
of Yield. The yield varies greatly. On soil
which has been fertilized, and which
is advantageously located, under favorable con-
ditions wheat may yield thirtyfold and barley a
hundredfold (cf. Mt 13 8). On unfertilized land, in
the plain of Es-
draelon, wheat
does not yield at
the most more
than tenfold and,
on the average,
seven to eight-
fold ; barley at
most not more
than tenfold
and, on the aver-
age, sixfold. In
the mountains
of Judah wheat
yields twofold,
barley threefold.
See further FOOD
and VINES AND
VINTAGE.
LITERATURE : Cf.
Anderlind, Ackerbau und Viehsucht in Syrien und
besonders in PalHstina, in ZDPV, IX. 1 ft. : Hermann
VoKelstein, Die Landwirtschajt in Palastina zur Zeit
der Mishnah, I Getreidebau C1894). -yy_ jf .
AGRIPPA, a-grip'a. See HEROD, 8.
AGUR, e'gar ("'.'Is', 'ai/ur): The reputed author of
the whole or part of Pr 30. Nothing is known of his
personality, but the similarity of Pr 30 1-6 to parts of
19
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Agriculture
Job favors the conjecture that ham-mas-sa' ("the
oracle," ver. 1) is the name of a region S. of Judah.
Its unique literary character makes it reasonable to
attribute the entire chapter to Agur. A. S. C.
AH, Q, AHI, d'hai (njj, *0, 'dh, '&hi), 'brother'
or 'my brother': In compound personal names Ah
or Ahi may refer (1 ) to the deity as 'brother,' or (2)
to the common human relationship. Names of class
(1) are very common, e.g., Ahijah, 'Jah (Jehovah) is
brother.' Examples of (2) are much more rare and
of more obscure meaning, e.g., Ahab ( = 'father's
brother'?). See ABI. E. E. N.
AHAB, e'hab (2808, 'ah'abh), 'father's brother':
1. The second king of the Omri dynasty and early
Israel's most conspicuous and potent ruler. Two
alliances give special interest to his reign: his own
marriage to the Phrenician princess Jezebel, and
that of their daughter Athaliah to Jehoram of Ju-
dah. Through the former he gained the support
of the richest trading people of antiquity, and by the
latter the old schism of the Hebrew people seemed
in the way of being healed. Though this hope was
doomed to disappointment, Israel and Judah were
joined by close bonds for over a century.
But the Phoenician alliance brought with it the
cult of the Tyrian Baal, an importation distasteful
to people and prophets. The local Baalim had been
regarded as legitimate, and doubtless even identified
with Jehovah, hence the people resented the intru-
sion of the strange god, whose centralized worship
threatened the existence of the local shrines. The
names of Ahab's children Ahaziah, Jehoram, Atha-
liah indicate indeed the strength of the J" religion,
but the growing syncretism aroused the prophets to
outline a purer and loftier idea of J", which domi-
nated prophetic thought from that time forth.
The gross disregard of personal rights shown in the
seizure of Naboth's vineyard (I K 21) was undoubt-
edly a potent element in the downfall of the dynasty,
while it enabled the prophets to grasp and present
the great principles of ethical monotheism.
Two important synchronisms meet us in this
period: (1) The Moabite Stone, lines 6 and 7, re-
fers to Ahab, and suggests that even in his reign
Moab began struggles for independence, which
culminated under Jehoram (see MESHA). (2)
Ahal) ascended the throne as the vassal of Da-
mascus (I K 20 4), but at the battle of Aphek he
threw off the yoke and a three years' peace fol-
lowed (I K 22 1). In this period we should prob-
ably place the invasion of Shalmaneser II., who
records that A-ha-ab-ba of Sir- a-la-ai (Israel) ap-
peared with 2,000 chariots and 10,000 soldiers at
Karkar, 854 B.C., and together with the allied Syr-
ian kings suffered a crushing defeat. The battle
must have been indecisive, however, for it was not
followed up, and Ahab's military establishment
gave him confidence to seek to wrest Ramoth-gilead
from Damascus, in which enterprise he perished (I K
22). Assuming that the battle of Karkar took place
during the Peace of Aphek, Ahab's death occurred
probably in 853 B.C.
2. A prophet, denounced by Jeremiah (Jer 29 21 f .).
A. S. C.
AHARAH. See AHIHAM.
AHARHEL, a-hQr'hel (^rpriS., 'dhdrhel): The
ancestor of certain families of Judah (I Ch 4 8).
E. E. N.
AHASAI. See AHZAI.
AHASBAI, Q-has'bai C2COS, 'd/w?6ay): The
father of Eliphalet (II S 23 34; cf. I Ch 11 35).
E. E. N.
AHASUERUS, a-haz"yu-i'rus. See ESTHEU,
11.
AHAVA, Q-he'va (SiqK, 'dhawa'): A town or
district in Babylonia used to designate a river (or
canal); also the name of the river, on the banks of
which Ezra gathered the Jews preparatory to their
return to Jerusalem (Ezr 8 15, 21, 31). C. S. T.
AHAZ, e'haz (TnX, 'ahaz), 'He (i.e., J") has
seized': 1. Son of Jotham and king of Judah, c.
735-721 B.C. (or later). See CHRONOLOGY OP
OT.
Tiglath-pileserlll. (745-727) received tribute from
Ahaz (called Ja-u-ha-zi, i.e., Joahaz) in 734 B.C. (cf.
II K 16 7). In the same year he de-
i. The As- posed and slew Pekah and thus broke
Syrian up the Syro-Ephraimitic alliance (cf.
Record. II K 15 37, 16 5). In 732 B.C. Damas-
cus fell, Rezin was slain, and Tig-
lath-pileser held a great levee as "King of kings" in
the captured city, at which Ahaz was present (ac-
cording to II K 16 10).
At Damascus Ahaz saw a great altar and ordered
Urijah to construct one like it. W. R. Smith (Rel.
Sem.* p. 487) considers this a great
2. The permanent altar-hearth, whose ritual,
Record described at length in II K 16 13 ff., was
in II Kings thereafter dominant. Possibly Is 29
1 6. echoes the struggle about the new altar
ritual, for Ariel ('altar-hearth,' or
'hearth of God') was probably the technical name
for the old brazen pillar-altar such as was displaced
by Ahaz. The dark period of invasion led to human
sacrifice and much oppression and cruelty (cf. II Ch
283).
Some of the most striking sections of Isaiah be-
long to this period. Children and babes are their
rulers, he declares, in a fierce invective
3. The against the turbulence of the state (Is
Prophetic 3 4). The Syro-Ephraimitic invasion
Record, called forth the Immanuel prophecy (Is
7 1-9 7), a declaration that God's pur-
pose to be with His people was invincible, though
princes might falter and people be recalcitrant (see
IMMANUEL). Inch. 28, dating near the fall of Sama-
ria, the drunken, scoffing, faithless politicians are
probably those who favored the Assyrian alliance
when Pekah and Rezin were threatening Jerusalem
with dynastic overthrow (cf. also Is 7 6). Ahaz's
weak, short-sighted policy can be largely ac-
counted for by his youth and inability to cope
with the deep-seated corruptions of his predecessors'
regimes.
2. A descendant of Saul (I Ch 8 35 f., 9 42).
A. S. C.
Ahaziah
Akeldama
A STAND \l!l> BIBLE DICTION All V
20
AHAZIAH, c"hu-/m'(i (~"-?, 'ah
hath grasped': 1. King of Israel (855-854), son
of Ahab and Jezebel. His character was on a
level with that of his parents. He was a devotee
of Baul ami also followed in the sin of Jerol>oani.
During his reign Mo:\b rebelled, and probably be-
came independent. Mesha says: "But I saw my
pleasure u|x>n him, and on his house, and Israel
ix-rished with an everlasting destruction" (Mesha
inscription, 1. 7. See MKSIIA). Seriously injured
by falling through :i latticework, lie sent to Kk-
ron to inquire of Baal-y.ebub. Elijah met his mes-
sengers and bade them return with the predic-
tion of the king's death (cf. ELIJAH). He made
a commercial alliance with Jehoshaphat for the
purpose of sending ships to Tarshish. The vessels
were destroyed, and the enterprise c.ime to naught
(I K '2-2 51-53; II K 1 l-is; II Ch 20 35-37).
2. King of Judah (84:5-842), son of Jehoram of
Judah, and grandson of Ahab through his mother,
Athaliah. The Chronicler speaks of him as the
youngest son, :is the Arabians hat! slain all the oth-
ers (II Ch 22 l, called Azariah in ver. 6). As an
ally, he went to war with Jehoram against the
Syrians at Ramoth-gilead. At Jehoram's assassi-
nation by Jehu, he was severely wounded, but
made his escape toMegiddo, where he died (II K 8
25-29). J. A. K.
AHBAN, Q'ban (iJOtf, '<iW><7): A son of Abishur
by Abihail (I Ch 2 29). K. E. N.
AHER, e'her (-!j8, 'ahfr): A Benjamite (I Ch
7 12; text obscure). E. E. N.
AHI, e'hai CHS., 'dhl), contraction for Ahijah:
1. A Gadite (I Ch 5 15). 2. An Asherite (I Ch 7 34).
E. E. N.
AHIAH. See AHIJAH.
AHIAM, n-lmi'um (=^n, 'Shi' am), 'mother's
brother' (?): One of David's heroes (II S 23 33; I
Ch 1 1 35). E. E. N.
AHIAN, n-hni'an ()*n8, 'ahynn), 'cousin': A
Mamissite, son of Shemida (I Ch 7 19). Possibly
the name of a town. E. E. N.
AHIEZER,e"hai-i'zerCi.i"nS,'dW'ezer),' brother
is help': 1. A prince of Dan (Nu 1 12, 225, etc.).
2. A Benjamite, chieftain of a body of archers who
deserted Saul for David (I Ch 12 3). E. E. N.
AHIHUD, Q-hai'hnd pvrnx. an d in'OK, 'dhl-
htidh), 'the brother is praise': 1. A prince of
Asher (Nu34 27). 2. A name occurring in the gene-
alogy of Benjamin; text obscure (I Ch 8 7).
E. E. N.
AHIJAH, a-hai'ja (n;nS : , Wi7i/(-(/0, 'J" is
brother': 1. A prophet of Shiloh, who incited Jero-
boam to head the revolt of N. Israel against the
house of David (I K 11 26 ff.), but afterward con-
demned him for his disloyalty to J* and foretold
the ruin of his house (I K 14). The story of Ahi-
jah's dealings with Jeroboam in the LXX. varies
considerably from that of the Massoretic Hebrew
text reproduced in our Eng. version. 2. Sec A Hi ME-
I.KCII, i. 3. Father of King Baasha (I K 15 27).
4. A son of Shisha (I K 4 3, Ahiah AV). 6. A son of
Jerahineel (I Ch 2 25). 6. One who helped Gera to
carry away captives (IChS7, Ahiah AV). 7. A
IVlonite; one of David's valiant men (IChll36).
8. According to the Heb. text a Levite, caretaker
of the sanctuary treasures under David (I Ch 26
20), but, according to LXX., instead of "Ahijah,"
we should read "their brethren." 9. One of the
signers of the covenant (Neh 10 2(i). V.. E. N.
AHIKAM, a-lmi'kam (=^"8, 'alilqam), 'the
brother riseth up': One of the trusted courtiers of
Josiah delegated to consult Huldah (II K22l4ff.).
He was a friend and protector of Jeremiah (Jer 26 24
ff.). His son Gedaliah was governor after the fall
of Jerusalem (Jer 3!) 14). K. 10. N.
AHILUD, a-hai'lud C^'OK, '&lilludh),'a. brother
is born': 1. The father of David's recorder, Jehosha-
phat (II S 8 16, 20 24; I K 4 3; I Ch 18 15). 2. The
father of Baana, one of the victualers of Solomon's
household (I K 4 12). E. E. N.
AHIMAAZ, a-him'a-az (Y^'nS., 'dhlma'ats),
'my brother is wrath': 1. A son of Zadok, David's
priest. In David's flight from Jerusalem, A. and
Jonathan were sent back to act as spies and cou-
riers. A., with his companion, was despatched by
Hushai to warn David. Eluding their pursuers,
they reached David and delivered the message
which enabled the king to escape. After the battle
with Absalom, A. desired to bear the tidings to
David. At first Joab refused, and sent a Cushite.
A. finally secured permission, outran the Cushite,
and delivered his message first (II S 15, 17, 18).
2. The father of Saul's wife, Ahinoam (I S 14 50).
3. A prefect and son-in-law of Solomon (I K 4 is).
J. A. K.
AHIMAN, Q-hai'man (J2*~8, 'dhinuin), 'my
brother is a gift': 1. One of the three sons of Anak
at Hebron, offspring of the Nephilim, and of such
gigantic stature that they terrified the spies (Nu I, 1 !
22 f.). They were conquered by Caleb (Jg 1 10, 20;
Jos 15 13 ff.). Ahiman, Sheshai. and Talmai were
most probably clan names. There may be a myth-
ological touch in the reference to the Nephilim. 2.
A Levite porter "at the king's gate eastward," who
returned from Babylon (I Ch 9 17). J. A. K.
AHIMELECH, a-him'e-lec CS"~K., 'dhimelekh),
'the king is brother': 1. The head of the priesthood
at Nob slain by Saul for assisting David (I S 21, 22).
Descended from Eli through Ahitub (I S 22 9, cf.
14 3; I Ch 24 3). His son Abiathar was priest under
David (I S 22 20, etc.). In II S 8 17, I Ch 24 6 read
"Abiathar son of Ahimelech." In I Ch 18 16 read
" Ahimelech " for " Abimelech," in 24 3, 31, "Abi-
athar" for " Ahimelech." Ahijah in IS 14 3 is
probably to be identified with Ahimelech. 2. A
Hittite in David's service (I S 26 6). E. E. N.
AHIMOTH, a-hni'meth (.Tto'ntf, 'ihimoth): A son
of Elkanah, a Levite (I Ch 6 25). (In ver. 35 and
II Ch 29 12 called Mahath.) E. E. N.
21
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Ahaziah
Akeldama
AHINADAB, a-hin'a-clab (2~J*ns, 'AhlnOdhabh),
'brother is generous': A prefect under Solomon
(I K 4 14). E. E. N.
AHINOAM, a"hin'o-am (=?i'n, 'dhind'am),
'brother is pleasantness': 1. The wife of Saul (I S 14
50). 2. A woman of Jezreel (in Jiulah, of. Jos 15
5(i), wife of David and mother of Amnon, his eldest
son (I S 25 43, 27 3, 30 5; II S 2 2, 3 2). E. E. N.
AHIO, a-hm'o (">08, 'ahyo): 1. A son of Abinadab
(II S 63f.). 2. The head of a Benjamite family
(I ChS 14). 3. A Benjamite of Gibeon (ICh.831,
!I37). E. E. N.
AHIRA, a-hai'ra (i'V'S, 'ihlra')-- A prince of
Xaphtali (Nu 1 15, 2 29, etc.). E. E. N.
AHIRAM, a-hai'ram (O^nR, 'Ahlram), 'the
brother is liigh': Ancestral head of the Ahiramites, a
clan of Benjamin (Nu 26 38; Ehi in Gn 46 21 ; Aharah
in I Ch 8 l; also cf. Aher, I Ch 7 12). E. E. N.
AHISAMACH, a-his'a-mac ("^'OS, 'd/i7w-
tnflkh), 'brother sustains': A Danite, father of Oho-
liab (Ex 31 6, 35 34, 38 23). E. E. N.
AHISHAHAR, a-hish'u-har ("n^'HR, 'thisha-
linr), 'brother is dawn': The head of a Benjamite
family (I Ch 7 10). E. E. N.
AHISHAR, a-hcii'shar C^'nR, 'ihlshUr): The
overseer of Solomon's household (I K 4 6).
E. E. N.
AHITHOPHEL, a-hith'o-fel (Vs'n'nR, 'dhltho-
phri), 'brother of foolishness': Accounted the wisest
man in Israel (II S 16 23), a counselor of David, pos-
sibly the grandfather of Bath-sheba (II S 23 34, cf. 11
3). He was a co-conspirator with Absalom (II S 15 12,
etc.). but his advice being rejected he committed
suicide, for which his name has perhaps been
.stamped with the opprobrious epithet b'n, thophel.
A. S. C.
AHITUB, a-hai'tub P'JVIK, 'dhlfSbh), 'brother
is goodness' : 1. A priest, descended from Eli, and the
father of Ahimclech (I S 14 3, 22 9). 2. The father
of David's priest Zadok (II S 8 17; I Ch 6 8, 18 16;
K*r 7 2). 3. A priest descended from Zadok (I Ch
6llf.). 4. A priest, ruler of the Temple in post-
exilic days (I Ch 9 1 1 ; Neh 1 1 1 1 ). E. E. N.
AHLAB, u'lab (:;?8. 'rthiabh): A Canaanite
town in Asher. Site unknown (Jg 1 31).
E. E. N.
AHLAI, 5'lai rS-lg, '(May): 1. A child of She-
shan; perhaps a son (I Ch 2 31), or, possibly, a daugh-
ter (ver. 34). 2. The father of Zabad (I Ch 11 41).
E. E. N.
AHOAH, a-ho'a (n % ;n, 'dhoah): The head of
the Ahohites, a Benjamite family (I Ch 8 4) to which
Zalmon (II S 23 28, Ilai in I Ch 11 29) and Dodo (I Ch
11 12, 27 4) belonged. E. E. N.
AHOLAH, AHOLIAB, AHOLIBAH, AHOLI-
BAMAH. See OHOLAH, etc.
AHUMAI, u-hu'mai ("Sing, 'dhamay): The
head of a family of Judah (I Ch4 2). E. E. N.
AHUZZAM, a-hu'zam (w;H8, 'dhuzzSm, Ahuzam
AV), 'possession' (?): A son of Ashur (I Ch4e).
E. E. N.
AHUZZATH, a-huz'ath (H-Tl^, 'dhuzzath), 'pos-
session ' : The "friend" (i.e., 'adviser') of Abimelcch,
king of Gerar (Gn 26 26). E. E. N.
AHZAI, a'zui ("W, 'ahzny, Ahasai AV): A
priest (Neh 1113); possibly = JAHZERAH (ICh9 12).
E. E. N.
AI, ai (*?, 'ay, in Hebrew always with the article;
Jos 7 2 f.; Ezr 2 28; [LXX., Tat]): An ancient royal
city of the Canaanites. situated "beside Bethaven
on the E. side of Bethel'* (Jos 7 2; Gn 12 8), destroyed
by Joshua (Jos 8 28) ; best identified with certain ob-
scure ruins just S. of the modern Der Dlwan (Map
III.F5). Hai(Gnl28, 133,AV),Aija (Neh 11 31),
and Aiath (Is 10 28) are but variant forms of the
same name. The Ai of Jer 49 3 was probably an
unknown city E. of the Jordan. G. L. R.
AIAH, e'yfl O^S, 'ayyah), 'falcon': 1. An Edom-
ite tribe (Gn 36 24, Ajah AV). 2. The father of
Rizpah (II S3 7, 218, ll). E. E. N.
AIATH, e'yath, AIJA, e-ai'ja. See Ai.
AIJALON, ai'ja-len fl^S, 'ayyalon, Ajalon AV),
'hart': 1. A broad valley NW. of Jerusalem leading
down to the seacoast plain (Jos 10 12). Map III,
E 5. 2. A town in this valley (Jos 19 42, 21 24; Jg 1
35; I S 14 31; I Ch 669,8 13; II Ch 11 10, 28 18), men-
tioned in the Amarna letters as Ailuna. Now called
Yalo. Map III, E 5. 3. A town in Zebulun, site
unknown (Jg 12 12). E. E. N.
AIJELETH HASH-SHAHAR, ai-je'leth hash-
she'har. See Music, 6.
AIN, e'in (")>', 'ayiri), 'spring': 1. A place on
NE. border of Canaan, near Riblah (Nu 34 1 1). Rob-
inson identifies it with the sources of the Orontes
River. 2. A place in the Negeb of Judah (Jos 15
32), assigned to Simeon (Jos 19 7) and apparently the
same as the Levitical city (Jos 21 16). Should per-
haps be read with Rimmon (Jos 15 32) as one word.
See EN-RIMMON. C. S. T.
AKAN, e'kan. See JAAKAN.
AKELDAMA, a-kel'da-mfl (' A.K(\&ap.ax, Acel-
dama AV): The Greek transliterates an Aramaic
word meaning 'field of sleep' (cf. Kot/ii/r^piov, ceme-
tery), and is given as the name of a piece of land
which Judas purchased with the blood-money paid
him for the betrayal of Jesus and upon which he
committed suicide (Ac 1 19). In Mt 27 7 f., it is said
that the high priests and elders purchased the field
with the money returned by the remorse-stricken
Judas, and that the field was used for the burial of
strangers, and called "the field of blood." The
place is identified with the modern Hakk-ed-Dumm,
S. of the Pool of Siloam, on a level spot, half-way up
the hill. The RV reading is based upon the assump-
Akkub
Alexandria Troas
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
22
tion that tho Akclduinarh of the Greek text is a mis-
take for 'A<tfX8n/io, the transliteration of Xt-~ ".":,
' field of blood.' A. C. Z.
AKKUB, nk'kub Pi??, 'aqqubh) : 1. A de-
srriKlant of David (I Ch 3 24). 2. The head of a
post-exilic family (I Ch9 17 -Ezr2 42; perhaps -
Neh 7 4S, 11 19, 12 25). 3. The head of a post-exilic
family of Nethinim (Ezr 2 4i). 4. One of the Le-
vitos who helped to expound the law read by Ezra
to the people (Neh 8 7). C. S. T.
AKRABBIM, ak-rab'im (="V"K*. 'aqrabbim),
'scorpions': The 'Ascent of the Scorpions' which led
up from the region about the S. end of the Dead
Sea to the highland of S. Judah (Nu 34 4; Jos 15 3,
Maaleh-acrabbim AV). Map II, F 5.
E. E. N.
ALABASTER (origin of word unknown): Min-
eral carbonate of lime. A white stone much used in
antiquity to ornament buildings and for vases and
small bottles for holding precious ointment (Lk 7 37;
Mkl43-Mt267). E. E. N.
ALAMETH, al'a-meth. See ALEMETH, I, 2.
ALAMMELECH, a-lam'e-lec- See ALLAMELECH.
ALAMOTH, al'a-moth. See PSALMS, | 2.
ALARM. See WARFABE, 4.
ALCIMUS, al'si-mus ("AXm/ior, probably the
Greek form of Eliakim): A leader of the Hellenistic
party, and opponent of Judas Maccabeus, c. 162
B.C. (I Mac 7 5). He was appointed high priest by
Demetrius I. , and a Syrian army under Bacchides was
sent to Juda;a to put him in power and take venge-
ance on Judas. Because Alcimus was of the "seed
of Aaron" (I Mac 7 14) he was accepted largely by
the ASSIDEANS (q.v.), but a treacherous murder of
sixty of them in one day caused a deep revulsion of
feeling, and after Bacchides returned to Syria, Alci-
mus was unable to maintain himself as high priest
(I Mac 7 21) and appealed to Demetrius for aid.
Judas defeated the first army sent under Nicanor,
and Alcimus fled. But a second large Syrian force
(I Mac 9 l) vanquished Judas at Eleasa (161 B.C.).
Alcimus now came to full power and a determined
policy of Hellenizing the land was carried out.
While taking down the dividing wall in the Temple,
in order to blot out the distinction between Jew and
Gentile, he was stricken with paralysis and died,
B.C. 160. J. S. R.
ALEMETH, al'e-meth (n^p, 'aZemetft): I. 1. A
descendant of Jonathan (I Ch 836, 942). 2. A de-
scendant of Becher, the Benjamite (I Ch 7 8). II.
A town in Benjamin. See ALLEMETH.
E. E. N.
ALEXANDER, al"egz-an'dgr (Gr., 'defender of
men'): 1. Alexander the Great. Alexander III.,
called 'the Great,' was born at Pella (Macedonia)
in 356 B.C., and died in Babylon in 323 B.C. Brief
as was his career, it was one of the most brilliant of
ancient history, not simply because of the irresistible
power of his military genius, but also because of the
policy which he followed in reference to his con-
quests, of bringing to them the riches and stimulus
of Greek culture. With him Hellenism virtually
began. Our interest in him in this brief article is
concerned entirely with his contact with the Jews.
The battle of Issus (333 B.C. ), in which he defeated
Darius, made him master of Asia. Soon thereafter
he went to Syria. Damascus, Sidon, Tyre, and
Gaza fell, one after another, before his victorious
forces. According to Josephus (Ant. XI 8 3), it
was while besieging Tyre that he sent to the high
priest at Jerusalem demanding auxiliaries, supplies
of provisions, and allegiance. The high priest re-
fused, and Alexander determined, after capturing
Gaza, to go to Jerusalem. The city was, of course,
in terror, and the high priest urged the people to
prayer and sacrifice for their protection. A dream
from God assured him that the city would be pro-
tected and directed him how to meet the conqueror.
In solemn procession the priests and the people met
Alexander at Scopus, and the story goes that Alexan-
der adored the name of God on the breastplate of
the high priest. When asked why he did this, he an-
owered that in a dream at Dion in Macedonia he had
seen a figure corresponding to the high priest, who
promised him success, hence none other than the
God of the Jews had been with him. Entering Jeru-
salem, he offered sacrifice, and gave the Jews the
favors which they asked. The prophecy in Daniel
shown to him by the Jews (8 21, 11 3) he interpreted
as applying to himself. The probable fact under-
lying this highly embellished story is that Alexan-
der visited Jerusalem. Alexander made Palestine
a province of Coele-syria. The Samaritans, en-
couraged by the privileges granted by Alexander to
the Jews (viz., " that they enjoy the laws of their
forefathers, and pay no tribute on the seventh year "
Ant. XI 8 5), asked also for favors, professing that
they too were Jews. Alexander promised to let
them know his decision on his return from Egypt.
While he was away they revolted against the gov-
ernor whom he had placed over them in Samaria, and
were severely punished on his return (Curtius IV.
5, 8). Shechem later became the religious capital
of the Samaritans. Alexander was favorably dis-
posed toward the Jews, giving them large privileges
in Alexandria (q.v.) and many enrolled themselves in
his army. He is expressly mentioned in I Mac 1 7,
62.
2. Alexander Balas (be'las) figures in Jewish his-
tory in the time of Jonathan Maccabeus. He was
a man of obscure origin who palmed himself off as
the son of Antiochus Epiphanes and laid claim to the
Syrian throne occupied by Demetrius Soter. His
remarkable likeness to Antiochus V., son of Antio-
chus Epiphanes, led many to believe in him, and he
was supported in his pretensions by Ptolemy Philo-
pator of Egypt, Attalus II. of Pergamum, and Aria-
rathes V. of Cappadocia; also by the Romans (Polyb.
XXXIII. 14, 16). He secured the support of Jona-
than (153 B.C.), and gave him in return high honor,
conferring upon him the title of "the high priest of
thy nation, and friend of the king" (I Mac 10 20).
Balas proved, however, totally unfit for the high posi-
tion which he had gained and after varying for-
23
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Akkub
Alexandria Troas
tunes during five years (150-145 B.C.) fled to Arabia,
where he was slain (I Mac 11 17). The general atti-
tude of the Jews toward him is given in I Mac 10 47.
3. Alexander, the son of Simon of Cyrene and
brother of Rufus (Mk 15 21).
4. Alexander, one of the kindred of the high
priest (Ac 4 6). Nothing further regarding him is
known.
6. Alexander of Ephesus, who was " brought out
of the multitude " by the Jews, to make a defense
for them (Ac 19 33). The purpose of this was most
likely to save the Jews from being mixed up with the
Christians in the vengeance of the people. He may
or may not have been the same as Alexander the
coppersmith.
6. Alexander the coppersmith (^aXvt), of
the northeastern quarter, and were granted large
privileges. Indeed, in this Hellenistic center Juda-
ism and Greek culture came into very close contact.
Owing to lack of information it is impossible to trace
the development of the city, but under the early
Ptolemies it became a noted center of commerce,
learning, and civic splendor. Its famous museum
and library were promotive of research, and made
Alexandria foremost in science. It was here that
the first endeavors were made to adjust the OT
to Greek conceptions; it was here that the Septua-
gint translation of the OT was made; it was here
that the allegorical interpretation of the Scriptures
was developed all of these being due to the close
touch of Judaism and Hellenism. In the Roman
period Alexandria was second only to Rome in im-
ALEXANDRIA
from IOOB C.tolOO A.D.
i a n Sea
Great Harbor
Anti
, .. Eunostos
_ } H aTb o r
livens Stfa
SSonnc^aCBIi
a X e Mareoti
whom it is said in II Ti 4 14 that he did Paul "much
evil."
7. Alexander, an early Christian, "who made
shipwreck concerning the faith," and whom Paul
"delivered unto Satan " (I Ti 1 19 f.). Attempts have
been made to identify 6, 6, and 7, but identification
is simply a matter of conjecture. J. S. R.
ALEXANDRIA, al"egz-an'dri-a: An ancient city,
situated 14 m. W. of the Canopic mouth of the Nile,
founded by Alexander the Great 332 B.C. It lay
on a strip of land 2 m. wide, with Lake Mareotis on
its southern side, and the sea on the northern. Run-
ning out from the mainland to an island 1 m. dis-
tant (Pharos Island) was what was called the Hep-
tastadium, an artificial mole. On either side of this
were two spacious harbors. A canal joined Lake
Mareotis with the Canopic branch of the Nile. The
city, which was regularly and beautifully built,
was divided into five districts. The Jews occupied
portance. Alexandria is not mentioned in the N T.
Tradition tells us that Mark went to Egypt and es-
tablished churches in the famous capital.
J. S. R.
ALEXANDRIA TROAS, or simply TROAS,
tro'as (Tpo>ds), originally Sigia, on the W. coast of
the Troad. Antigonus enlarged Sigia, colonized it
with people from Scepsis and elsewhere, and re-
named it Antigonia Troas. It was further embel-
lished by Lysimachus (300 B.C.), who renamed it
Alexandria Troas. A. sided with Rome against
Antiochus, and was made a Roman colony (Colo-
nia Augusta Alexandria Troas). It became one
of the most important towns in Asia. Caesar
planned to make it the seat of government, as did
Constantino at first. It was further embellished by
Augustus, Hadrian, and Herodes Atticus, who built
an aqueduct and baths, the ruins of which are still
extant, as are those of a temple, gymnasium, and
Algum-Tree
Alphabet
\ SI \\D.\HI) BIBLE DICTIONARY
24
theater, wliile the outlines of the port with quay
ami colonnade of granite columns are still ilistinot.
Many marble columns from A. now adorn the Yeni
Validd mosque in Constantinople (built 1649-87).
A. was a Christian bishopric in Byzantine times.
For Paul's connection with this city see Acts 18
8-11, 20S-12; II Co 1! in; II Ti 4 13. J. R. S. S.
ALGUM-TREE: The almug-tree. See PAI.K.S-
TIXK, 21.
ALIAH, n-loi'fl (-','"". -'il'/'-'h): A 'duke." proln
ablyaclan.of Kdom (tChlil). Alvah in (Jn.Sii 4n.
E. E. X.
ALIAN, al'i-mi (^".y.'ulyan): A S<-iritecl:m (I Ch
I 40). Alvan in Gn 36 23. !'.. 10. N.
ALIEN. See STUANGER AND SOJOUKNEH.
ALLAMMELECH, al-lam'e-lee or nl"lnni-me'-
lec (T^rtf, '<ill,inielrkh, Alaminelech A\ ): A place
in Asher (Jos 19 26). See Map IV, B 7. E. E. N.
ALLEGORY: The description of one thing un-
der the forms of another. Essentially, an allegory
is an extended metaphor. In the original text of the
Bible the word does not occur as a subst ant i ve. The
verb derived from it is \ised in (!al 4 J4 and may mean
that the affair allegorized was intended as such, or
that the interpreter is at liberty to see in it a meaning
different from that on the surface. As the object of
the Apostle in the passage in question is practical and
homiletical rather than doctrinal and pedagogical,
it is probable that he used the word to designate the
process of appropriating to a specific use by allego-
rizing what was originally intended in a different
sense. The allegorical method of interpretation was
common in Alexandria among the followers of 1'hilo,
and without committing himself to its underlying
principles the Apostle could use it in illustrating
and enforcing Gospel truth by O T utterances.
Other instances of similar allegorizing by Paul are
the use of Dt 25 4 in I Co 1 9 referring to the muzzling
of the ox employed in threshing; of Nu 14 16, 23, 30
in I Co 10 4 referring to the rock, and of Ex 34 33, 35 in
II Co 3 13. More akin to the typological use are the
references in the Epistle to the Hebrews to O T pas-
sages regarding Melchizcdek and other matters. As a
class these may be called allegories read into the O T.
Allegories designed to be such at the start are kin-
dred to parables (q.v.) and metaphors. It is im-
possible to draw the line sharply between these
similar and allied figures of speech (cf. Trench on
Parables). Nathan's story to David (II S 12 1-14)
may be construed either as a parable or as an alle-
gory. The figures of the Vine (.In 1.5 1-8). of the
l'iread of Life (Jn 6 32-42), and other kindred nar-
ratives are more clearly allegories. A. C. Z.
ALLELUIA, .d'Vlu'ya. See HALLELUJAH.
ALLEMETH, al'e-meth (.~;h', 'nllcmelh, Ale-
meth AVI: A Ix'vitieal city in Benjamin (ICh660).
Called Almon in Jos 21 18. Map II, F 1. E. E. N.
ALLON, al'nn (pS, '//,-,), ' oi ,k': I. A prince
of the tribe of Simeon (ICh4:t7). II. A city in
Kadesh Naphtali (Jos 19 33 AV), translated 'oak'
in RV. C. S. T.
ALLON BACUTH, al"on bac'uth, 'alldn bakhuth,
'oak of weeping': A place near Beth-el where
Deborah, Rebekuh's nurse, was buried (Gn 35 8).
E. E. N.
ALMIGHTY. See Goo.
ALMODAD, al-mo'dad: See ETHNOGRAPHY AND
ETHNOLOGY.
ALMON, al'men: See ALLEMETH.
ALMON-DIBLATHAIM, al"men-dib"la-the'im
(""""^r" r^t*' ''"' 6 " dibhliithaycmahy. One of
Israel's encampments in Moab, between Dibon and
the mountains of Abarim (Nu 33 46). Beth-dibla-
thaim (Jer 48 22, and Mesha-stone, line 30) may be
the same place.
ALMOND, am'und ("!]?, shaqldh [from iptf, 'to
keep watch,' or 'to be alert'], so called from its
early blossoming, as though watching for the spring;
cf. the play on the name in Jer 111): The almond, a
native of \V. Asia, was well known in Palestine and
was a delicacy much esteemed in other countries,
such as Egypt, to which it was exported from S.
Palestine (Gn43ll). The almond blossom was
imitated in the making of the golden candlestick
(Ex 25 33 ff., 37 19 ff.), each of the bowls being shaped
like its calyx (so Dillmann). In EC 12 6 the words
"the almond-tree shall blossom" seem to be, on the
whole, the correct rendering. The white (really
pink-white) blossoms are made the symbol of the
white hair of the aged man. See also PALESTINE,
21; FOOD AND FOOD UTENSILS, 5. E. E. N.
ALMS, ALMSGIVING. In the EVV this is an
exclusively N T word, being found only in Mt, Lk,
and Ac. As an English word, the term is derived
from the Greek through the Latin (fhtTjiuxrvyi), de-
emosyne, Old Eng. aelmese, alines), and is a singular
noun with a plural appearance. The essential ele-
ment of its meaning is that of gratuity bestowed as
an expression of compassion as in the presence of
God. The feeling at the root of the conception is
one which finds much encouragement in the laws and
institutions of the O T (cf. the law on gleaning, Dt 24
19-22). There is, however, a twofold development of
the thought in the O T. While on the one side the
Mosaic legislation looks upon compassion toward the
needy as a feeling to be cherished by the Israelite
in his ideal conduct, the prophets on the other side
present the case in the light of a rendering to the
needy of rights which they might justly claim. Out
of the interaction of these two sides of the develop-
ment, there arose in the intertestamental age the
idea of righteousness secured through almsgiving.
Especially were charitable deeds thought to be effi-
cacious in annulling the guilt of sin (Sir 3 14-30, 16 14)
and securing divine favor in time of danger or dis-
tress (To 14 10, ll; Sir 29 12, 40 24). The treatment
of the subject by Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount
(Mt 6 1-4) is characteristic. He does not denounce
almsgiving as futile in the search for right standing
with God, but attempts to plant it upon the right
motive of love to the heavenly Father. A. C. Z.
ALMUG-TREE. See PALESTINE, 21.
25
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Alburn-Tree
Alphabet
ALOES, al'oz, LIGN ALOES: The rendering
of two Heb. words ni^nX., 'dhuluth (Ps 45 8; Song
414) and D'^nX., 'dhalim (Nu 24 6; Pr7l7) and of
the Gr. dXoj; (Jos 19 3'J). In all but one (Nu 24 6)
of these reff. a perfume (or fragrant wood) is meant,
and in none is the common bitter aloes intended.
The two Heb. words probably refer to the same thing,
viz., the 'eaglewood' of commerce, an aromatic
Clem. Alex.) it denotes Christ as the fountain and
consummation of all things, and is common in Chris-
tian art as a monogram for the eternal Divine Son.
R. A. F.
ALPHABET: The hieroglyphic signs of Egypt
and the cuneiform characters of Babylonia had been
used in writing for centuries before the alphabet was
invented. It is first found in use among North Sera-
ipn
nmp3 . ipn . 3ip3 . IK .
icx3 . -mpV . nm:sn . TTD . ?pxi I nrr33 . 13 . ex
LINES 24 AND 25 OF THE MESHA INSCRIPTION. (For translation see MESHA.)
wood native to SE. Asia and well known to ancient
traders. When burned it yields a fragrant odor.
Most scholars consider that the text of Nu 24 6 is
corrupt, for it does not seem likely that a tree
native to far-off India could be spoken of by Balaam
so familiarly (though Post, in HDB, contends that it
may once have flourished in the tropical Jordan
valley and thinks that Song 4 14 supports this view).
Dillmann would emend to 'palms,' Cheyne and
others to 'poplars.' E. E. N.
ALOTH, e'loth. See BEALOTH.
ALPHA AND OMEGA, al'fa, o-mi'ga (ro'AA^a
nai TO *Q) : The self-designation of Jehovah (Rev 1 8,
216) and of Christ (22 13, cf . 1 17), and evidently based
on such passages as Is 41 4, 44 6, 48 12; Ps 90 2. The
itic peoples, and although it may not have originated
with them, it was developed by a Semitic people, and
became the source from which almost all systems of
alphabets can be derived. From the Tel-d-Amarna
letters, discovered in 1887-88 and dating from about
1400 B.C., it is evident that the Babylonian charac-
ters and language were then in use in Canaan. By
1000 B.C., however, they had been displaced by Sem-
itic alphabets and languages, which had developed
with the growth of the more or less independent'
national life of the various Semitic peoples. In each
people both alphabet and language, although having
an origin in common with that of all the others, be-
came changed and thus adapted to its individual
needs.
The material for the study of the development of
x. *?'*?' *
if. * <
~a~-x3 41
** v
.
In square Hebrew characters the inscription reads:
. ex . bv . y
-
by .
. ropn . 121 rrn . nn . rop^n . . .
x . vbv . tu'3i . m . ^x . ex ^nan
. 1X3 . mr . rrn '3 in . ^>x . xi
. ex .
o3xnn . exn . by ixn . n33 . n*n . nx . n
THE SILOAM INSCRIPTION. See JERUSALEM, J 34.
term, or its equivalent, was not uncommon in Rab-
binical and contemporary Greek writers. It means
' the Eternal One,' being in O T an attribute of Jeho-
vah, the source and end of existence, with whom the
writer of Revelation associates Christ in divine life-
giving power. In early Christian literature (Tert.
the Semitic alphabet is found in a few inscriptions,
principally on stones, seals, and coins.
I. Date of Perhaps the earliest inscription is that
Alphabet, on a bronze bowl of Phoenician origin.
It is dedicated to Baal-Lebanon by a
servant of Hiram, King of the Sidonians, and may
Alphabet
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
date from about 1000 B.C. From the middle of the
SUh cent, ((unoa the inscription of Mesha, King of
Mn:ili, railed tho Mrslci Stone (see illustration).
The earliest Hebrew inscription w:i.s found in the
Siloam tunnel, probably built by He/ekbh, and
therefore dating from the end of the 8th cent, (see
Seal of Hananiah, Son of Azariah.
The Hebrew inscription reads:
WlTi' p 1,V::r6 - to Hanany&hu ben 'AiaryahQ.
illustration), to which may be added inscriptions on
seals from the 4th to the 1st cent, (see illustrations),
and on coins from the Maccabean era and later (see
illustrations). The important Aramaic inscriptions
are from Zinjirli in N. Syria (8th cent.), Nerab, SE.
of Aleppo (7th cent.), and others (8th to 3d cent.
B.C.) (see cols. 6, 7, 8 of Plate). Comparison re-
Seal of Shemaiah, Sou of Azariah.
The Hebrew inscription reads:
'-; ; -""::- - to Sh'ma'yaha ben 'AzaryahO.
veals a common origin, and also a period of develop-
ment in the individual alphabets covering several
centuries, which were, however, slight. The earliest
forms of the Greek alphabet, especially where the
writing is from right to left as is the case with the
Semitic alphabet, show that these also were derived
from the same source. It is therefore evident that
the original alphabet must have come into use some
A. B.
Silver Shekel of Simon Maccabams.
The Hebrew inscription reads:
A. bXir" bpr - Shekel of Israel.
B. ,1T~J? ~?rW - Jerusalem the Holy.
Above the cup is the letter f (X), i. e., the numeral one
probably indicating the first year of Simon's reign.
centuries earlier than the dates of the inscriptions
cited, certainly by 1200 B.C.
Attempts have repeatedly been made to find the
source of the Semitic letters in the Egyptian or
Babylonian characters. J. HaleVy (Re-
2. Origin vue semUique, 1896, pp. 47-6.5: 1901,
of pp. 356-370) derives the forms directly
Alphabet, from the monumental hieroglyphs:
whereas E. de Roug6 (Memoir r si/r
I'origine fgyplienne de I'alphabet phenicien, 1874)
obtains them from the early hieratic characters,
a cursive development of the hieroglyphs. Isaac
Taylor (The Alphabet, Vol. I) accepts this view. On
the other hand, W. Deecke (ZDMO, xxxi. 102 ff.)
A. B.
Half-Shekel (Copper) of Simon Maccabeus.
The Hebrew inscription reads:
A. Sn 1O1K HOC - Fourth year : One-half (shekel).
B. ITS rbXtb - Ot the freedom (independence) of Zion.
and Hommel (Gesch. Babyloniens u. Assyriens, p.
50 ff.) contend that the forms of the Semitic alphabet
were derived from certain cuneiform characters. Fr.
Delitzsch (Die Entstehung des altesten Schrift-Sys-
tems, p. 221 ff.), however, contents himself with
the attempt to prove only a free dependence of the
Semitic letters on the Babylonian writing. Neither
Coin of John Hyrcanus.
The inscription reads: John the High Priest and the
Council of the Jews.
system can as yet be proved to be the direct source
of all the letters of the Semitic alphabet. The aero-
phonetic element of the later Egyptian characters,
however, may have suggested the alphabet to its in-
ventor, for a letter is represented in its earliest form
by the picture of the object, the name of which be-
gins with the letter represented.
Copper Coin of Herod I.
The Greek inscription: Sao-iAtajs 'HpciJou (of King Herod).
At present it is impossible to give the etymological
explanation of all signs used in the Semitic alphabet,
but several are certain: among them
3. Names are the following (consult Plate): N
and (a) 'ox -head,' Heb 'eleph; 3 (b)
Origin of 'house,' Heb.bayUh; *> (1) 'ox-goad,'
Indi- malmadh (Lidzbarski, EphemcHs, Vol.
vidual I, p. 263, gives, as the name of $>, a
Letters. Hebrew word beginning with D, pre-
fixed to a stem which begins with 7;
in use this initial D was dropped); D (m) 'water,'
mayim; y (i) 'eye,' 'ayin; B (p) 'mouth,' peh;
-\ (r) 'head,' r'osh; y (s, sh) 'row of teeth,' shen;
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Alphabet
n (t) 'sign,' taw. Noldeke
(Beitriige zur sent. Sprach-
wissenschaft, 1904, pp. 124-
136) and Lidzbarski (Ephe-
meris, Vol. II, Heft 2, 1906)
havp recently published in-
teresting contributions on
this point. A study of the
Greek names, which evi-
dently were derived from
the original Semitic forms,
may assist in this investi-
gation. The Aramaic form
of the names of the Hebrew
alphabet may point to an
Aramaic origin of the alpha-
bet. It is almost certain
that a few names were
given after the original sig-
nificance of the character
had been forgotten and
without the use of the
principle of acrophony,
further than that the
name should begin witli the
letter designated. Perhaps
certain letters were de-
veloped out of other let-
ters, as e.g., n from D, D
from T, D from n, the last-
named by enclosing the orig-
inal form, a cross, in a cir-
cle. There is, however, no
evidence to prove that the
North Semitic alphabet ever
had less than the 22 char-
acters used in the inscrip-
tions. All the letters were
originally consonants, but
', il, 1, and X came to rep-
resent vowels in Hebrew.
The Greek alphabet used
some of its forms for vowels
and added three new signs.
The phonetic demands of
the South Semitic peoples
led to the production of
many additional forms,
some at least derived from
older characters.
The names of the letters
show that the characters
were derived from parts
of the human body, from
animals, and
4. Order things with
of which they had
Letters, most to do.
The arrange-
ment of these letters in the
alphabet may have been
due in part to the tendency
to place together things re-
lated, e.g., = hand, 3 =
bent hand, J? = eye, Q =
mouth, and to other mne-
SPECIMKNS or EAHLT HKIIFIKW AND ARAMAIC ALPHABKTB.
ANCIENT HEBREW ALPHABETS.
Modern
Hebrew
a
-T
n
i
T
n
ID
j
D
3
P
17
Jl
Mc'shn
Stoue,
875 B.C
1=1
7
^
l-v-
4
w
X
Seals,
8tb-5tli cent.
B.C.
$
n
rni
o
1
T. I
t
W
Klloam,
700 B.C
J
J
J
J
2*-
t
1
X
4
Haccabean
Coins,
2a cent B.C.
C\
BB
V V
a o
W Wfc/
ARAMAIC .INSCRIPTIONS.
STRIA AND MESOPOTAMIA.
X.injirli.
8th cent.
zz
HB
ff
o
7
?f
A
w
Nerab,
7tbcent.
B.C.
/v
WH
ff
O
7
r
9
w
....
8th :)d cent.
B.C.
/> A
<\ 11
1 K
X 2 V
(^
2 *
1777
O D V
Alphabet
Altar
A .-TANDAHD HIIU.K DICTIONARY
5. Alpha-
bet Used
by the
Hebrews.
~
m
Xr
motile motives. We know the onlrrnf the Hebrew
alphal>et fnitu I hut of the Creek, from tlir nutner-
ical value of each letter, and also from the initial
letters of the verses in (lie alphabetic Psalms (111,
11-', ll'.i; 1'r lil 10 ff., and La 1).
Apart from the origin of the Semitic alphabet, the
changes in the alphabet use.l by the Hebrews are of
especial interest. The letters of the
Siioam alphabet (I'late, col. () show
a tendency to a more cursive character
than is found in the Mcsha Stone (col.
:_'); but the letters on the seals (col. 3)
ami coins (col. o) retain es.-entially the
forms of the Siioam inscription. The older Hebrew
forms were used
on the Maccabeati
coins, perhaps to
emphasize the
feeling of national
independence.
The Samaritans
continued to use
a form of the old
Hebrew alphabet
which shows its
close relation to
the original, and
proves that until
the separation of
the Jews and Sa-
maritans (about
40() B.C.) the older
form had main-
tained itself. The
accompanying illustration reproduces a few lines of
a Samaritan MS. (Dt 1 44-46) of the
Pentateuch, written in 1219 A.D., but
retaining essentially the forms used
by the earlier Samaritans. In certain
respects the Samaritan writing is more
cursive, while at the same time the characters are
more ornamental, as in a codex.
The Aramaic alphabet was undergoing a de-
velopment to the north and east of Palestine
(see Plate, cols. 6, 7, 8), and out of
7. Hebrew it developed the square letters char-
Square acteristicof the Hebrew alphabet, best
Characters, known to us from its use in the MSS.
of the O T. It was not a develop-
ment within the Hebrew alphabet; but was used by
that people, as they had adopted the earlier Aramaic
forms, familiar to them from their residence in Bab-
ylon. The Aramaic writing did not at once dis-
plai-e the' old Hebrew alphabet , but both were in use,
the Aramaic characters finally securing the prefer-
in copies of the books of the O T. Struck
(PRE^, Vol. 17) gives as explanation for this that
the Aramaic characters were considered holy, the
He-brew profane. At the time of Christ we have
evidence (Mf ."> is) that this square alphabet was in
use, for ' is the smallest letter. The changes in the
forms of the letters were largely due to the attempt
to obtain cursive forms, which were as simple as
Me and could be made without removing the
pen, and also to the .similar effort to join the letters
of words. This form of writing gave two forms for
6.
Samar-
itan
Writing,
live letters: final forms, f, t\, ], D, ); and forms
for use before other letters of a word, D; and by
beiidiiigthe perpendicular lines to the left, y, B, 3,
3. In other letters, and in a similar way, horizontal
bars have arisen out of the vertical lines of the prim-
itive forms, cf. 3, D, as well as 3, 3, D, X, of
column 1. By the opening of the upper portion of
closed loops, and the straightening of zigzags of
earlier forms, the upper bars of 3, 1, 3, D, 3, D, "I
are obtained. In order to avoid the confusion of
characters in other letters the vertical lines were
left, cf. 3 and 1. The form y results from the
opening of the upper part of the original circle,
and extending the right-hand line toward a follow-
ing letter. The
square Hebrew
characters wen;
obtained by iso-
lating each letter
from all others in
a word, and re-
taining the form
thus resulting.
This alphabet,
with slight modi-
fications, IMS
been used in all
OT manuscripts,
the oldest of
which datee from
the end of the
9th cent. A.D.
The Samaritan Script.
L I T K R A T I I : ! : :
Books cited in
text, also Lidzbarski, Handbuch der nordsemitischen
Epigraphik, 2 vols., 1896-98; JK, Vol. I; I. Taylor, in
HDB; A. A. Bevan, article Writing, in EB, and the
bibliographies in the foregoing. Q_ g T.
A.
ALPH^US, al'fe-us or al-fi'os ('AX^aior, WH
'AXi^aios) : 1. The father of the second James in the
apostolic lists (Mk 3 18; Mt 10 3; Lk 6 15; Ac 1 13),
probably the same as Clopas, husband of Mary
(Jn 19 25). For (a) both names are possible trans-
literations of the Aram, chalfphni, but cf. Zahn,
Forsch. VI, p. 343; and (6) in Mk 15 40; Mt 27 56,
the woman who corresponds to Mary, the wife of
Clopas in Jn 19 25, is called the mother of James
(Mk adds "the Less") and Joses. There is no rea-
son for the further assumption (Euscbius, HE, III,
11, 2; IV, 22, 4) that A. was a brother of Joseph,
thus making James son of A. the cousin of Jesus (see
BRETHREN OF THE LORD).
2. The father of Levi (Matthew) (Mk 2 14), but
cf. D, which reads 'idicetf^loi' (James) in place of Aevelv
(Levi). J. M. T.
ALTAR: The origin of the term altar is very
obscure. The current theory, that the altar is but a
development from the sacred stone, of
I. Semitic which the 'pillar,' the matatsfbhah. was
Altars in the later and more direct represent a-
General. tive (so e.g. Benzinger, p. 379, Nowack,
II. p. 18), is not beyond all doubt.
The ancient legislation (Ex 20 24) requiring that
altars should be of earth, or, if not. of unhewn stone
only, seems to indicate that the primitive altar often
A STA.VI)Al(l) BIHI.i; DKrriONARY
Alphabet
Altar
consisted simply of a heap of earth. In any case,
there can be no doubt that the earliest altars were
of the most simple type. The sacred stone, also,
was essentially an altar, in the sense of being a place
where some recognition of the presence of deity could
Western Side
of deity or indicated the near-by presence of
deity (cf. Gn 28 18-18). The main idea regarding an
altar was that it was the place of sacrifice (i.e.,
slaughter, since originally every slaughter was a
sacrifice) as its Heb. name mizbeah indicates. These
And Southern Longstde
T=^ En
DOLMENS (PRIMITIVE ALTARS) IN EASTERN PALESTINE.
be made (by smearing with oil, cf. Gn 28 18, or blood,
cf. IS 14 31-35). The ancient narrative in IS 14
31 ff. is instructive as to the intimate relation between
the sacred stone and the altar. Saul, horrified by
the news that the people were slaying the captured
animals and eating them "with the blood" i.e.,
without a proper sacrificial disposal of the blood
two ideas are brought together in the most an-
cient OT legislation regarding altars (E>x2024f.).
Wherever J" "recorded" His name was a legitimate
place for an altar; that is, wherever J" manifested
His presence, as by a theophany, by a dream, by
giving victory to His people, etc. Such conceptions
betray themselves in all that is said of altars in the
ALTAR op BURNT OFFERINGS (AS PORTRAYED BY EZEKIEL).
had a large stone placed before him to which the
people were ordered to bring their animals for
slaughter. This stone was both a sacred stone, set
up in commemoration of Jehovah's deliverance of
His people, and an altar a mizbeah, 'sacrifice-
(i.e., slaughter-) place.' The main idea regarding
tho sacred stone was that it either was actually the
patriarchal stories in Gn and in the stories in Jg
and I S. In all these a comparatively simple state
of society (seminomadic or undeveloped agricul-
tural) is presupposed, and all usages are correspond-
ingly simple.
Every Canaanite high place had its altar, and as
the main function of the altar was to furnish a place
Altar
Ambush
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
30
for the proper disposition of the blood (afterward,
of necessity, of the whole or parts of the body, by
burning of the sacrificial victim), remains of such
high-place altars generally show a number of cup-
like depressions on the top with one or more drains
to collect and carry off the blood (see the reports of
excavations at Gezer in PEFQ, 1902-06). For
illustrations of ancient Hebrew rock-altars see H. B.
('. nvne in Bib. World, May, 1897, and see also G. L.
Robinson's account of the Edomite high place of
Petra, ibid., Jan., 1901.
The Kingdom period with its development of city
life and the establishment of royal sanctuaries (e.g.,
at Jerusalem, Beth-el, and Samaria), with their
temples and more elaborate cultus, brought about a
corresponding development of the altar probably
with more or less extensive adoption of foreign types
(Phoenician, Assyrian, etc.). In some Canaanite
cities altars of elaborate form were in use before the
Conquest. One such was found at Taanach by
Professor Sellin (July, 1902), with ornamented cor-
ners and faces, with horns, a cup for sacrifices, etc.
(see PEFQ, Oct., 1902).
The detailed information regarding altars in the
O T concerns mainly those of the Tabernacle and the
temples of Solomon and of Ezekiel's
2. The vision. For his Temple Solomon dis-
Altars of carded David's altar and had a new
the Temple brazen altar constructed. It is prob-
and Taber- able that this altar was erected on the
nacle. site of David's sacrifice on the occasion
mentioned in II S 24 16-25 (cf. I Ch 22 1 ;
II Ch 3 l), the place now supposed to be covered by
the famous Dome of the Rock (see JERUSALEM,
4, 25). The description of this altar has been omit-
ted in I K 7 (though reminiscences occur in 8 64 and
9 25), but it can be supplied from II Ch 4 1. It was
20 cubits in length and breadth with a height of 10
cubits. Its general shape was probably like that of
the altar of Ezekiel's vision (Ezk 43 13-17). It "rose
in terraces, contracting by means of two inlets
[ledges] toward the top." It was 20 cubits square
at the base, but the altar hearth was probably not
more than 12 cubits square. By some Ezekiel's
altar is taken as an exact reproduction of Solomon's,
but the figures given in Ezk seem to make a struc-
ture 18 cubits square by 12 cubits high, instead of
20 cubits and 10 cubits (see Davidson's Com. on Ezk
in Camb. Bible). The altar was ascended by a flight
of steps on its east side. Its faces were probably
ornamented with figures of various kinds. Little
is said of its structure in detail. The material is
said to have been brass (bronze). Whether this
refers to the whole or only to its covering or plating
is not known. It had horns, apparently because
it was customary for more elaborate altars to have
such. The original significance of these is not
known. W. R. Smith (Rel. Sem., p. 436) thinks
that they were a survival of the practise of actually
placing the head (with the horns) of the sacrificial
victim on the altar and leaving them there to hang
votive offerings on, etc. The horns appear to have
been thought the most sacred part of an altar (cf.
Ex 29 12 ; Lev 16 18 ; I K 1 50). The altar was doubt-
less provided with drains, etc., but of these noth-
ing is said. Its location was "before Jehovah"
(II K 16 H), i.e., directly E. of the porch of the
Temple.
Solomon's altar was in general use for all burnt
offerings until it was displaced by the altar Aliaz
had made after a model he had seen at Damascus (II
K 16 10-lC). Both of these altars were doubtless des-
troyed at the capture of Jerusalem (586 B.C.).
In Solomon's Temple there w;is another " altar,"
that of the showbread (I K 6 20) made of cedar, over-
laid with gold. This is called a "table" in Ezk
(41 22). Something similar to this has been found
portrayed on the Assyr. monuments. (See the cut
in Benzinger, p. 387.) In K, Ch, and Ezk there is
no specific mention of an altar of incense.
When the exiles returned, one of their first acts
was to build an altar (Ezr 3 3) probably of unhewn
stones (cf. I Mac 4 47) in stricter accord with the old
law of Ex 20 25 than the altars of Solomon, Ahaz, or
Ezekiel had been. This altar was in use as the altar
of the Second Temple until it was desecrated by the
command of Antiochus Epiphanes (I Mac 1 54).
When the Jews regained possession of Jerusalem
they carefully pulled down the desecrated altar, laid
away its stone and built a new one, also of unhewn
stone (I Mac 4 44-47). It is thus seen that Ezekiel's
plan of a magnificent bronze altar was not realized.
The description of the Tabernacle in Ex 25-31 and
35-40, largely of post-exilic date, states ideals rather
than facts. It combines the conceptions of Ezekiel
with the actual practises of the post-exilic Temple in
one ideal presentation. According to this descrip-
tion the Tabernacle had three altars: (1) "The al-
tar," i.e., the altar of burnt offerings, a small port-
able structure, hollow, of wood overlaid with bronze,
5 cubits square and 3 cubits high. It was furnished
with horns and -with a bronze grating or network,
perhaps intended for carrying away the blood,
rather than for the ashes (Ex' 27 1-8). (2) The table
for the showbread (Ex 25 23-30). (3) The altar of
incense (Ex 30 1 ff.). The account of this last seems
to belong to a secondary stratum of the narrative in
Ex 25-31 and, since even Ezekiel says nothing about
such an altar, was probably added at a later time in
the post-exilic period after the altar of incense had
been added to the furniture of the Second Temple.
When that was no one can say, except that it took
place before the Maccabean period (cf. I Mac 4 49).
Of the altars of Herod's reconstructed temple little
is definitely known. See also TEMPLE, TABER-
NACLE, and SACRIFICE.
LITERATTJRK: Benzinger, Heb. Arch&ologie (1894), pp.
378 ff.; Nowack, Heb. Arcltaologie (1894), II, pp. 75-85;
Addis in EB. j? jf .
AL-TASHHETH, al-tash'heth (Al-taschith, al-
tas'kith, AV). See Music, AND MUSICAL INSTRU-
MENTS, 6.
ALUSH, e'lush (tf&& 'Slush'): An encampment
of Israel (Nu 33 13 f.). Site unknown. E. E. N.
ALVAH, al'va; ALVAN, al'van: See ALIAH,
ALIAN.
AMAD, e'mad p?SP, 'am'adh): A town of Asher
(Jos 19 26). Site uncertain. E E. N.
AMAL, e'mal (b^y, 'amal): A son of Helem, an
Asherite (I Ch 7 35). E. E. N.
31
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Altar
Ambush
AMALEK, um'a-lek (^Z, 'dmaleq): The grand-
son of Esau (Gn 36 12), whose descendants are
described in Nu24 20 as "the first of the nations,"
i.e., the most powerful. The reference in Gn 14 7 to
"all the country of the Amalekites " as smitten by
Chedorlaomer and his allies does not necessarily
carry them back in history to the days of Abraham,
but rather defines their locality in the time of the
author. They are not alluded to in the ' Table of
Nations ' (Gn 10). Geographically, they occupied
the desert region S. of Canaan, extending from
Beersheba beyond Kadesh-barnea far into the pen-
insula of Sinai and probably also into northern
Arabia. They withstood the Israelites, when the
latter under Moses migrated from Goshen to the
Promised Land, attacking them in the rear (Dt 25
17-19). At Rephidim, which is best identified with
Wady Feir&n, they were defeated by Joshua (Ex
178-16). When the spies returned they reported
that the Amalekites dwelt "in the land of the
South" (Nu 13 29). Not long after this they are
spoken of as occupying "the valley," presumably
the valley S. of the Dead Sea (Nu 14 25). Though
powerful at the time of Israel's exodus, they must
have become somewhat reduced through the seces-
sion of the Kenites and Kenizzites (cf. I S 15 6). In
the time of the Judges, however, they seem to have
possessed a foothold in Ephraim (Jg5 14, according
to the present text) and to have continued their
marauding expeditions (Jg 6 3).
Saul was commissioned to exterminate them
utterly, but he spared Agag, their king (I S 15). In
David's day Amalekite robbers made a raid upon
Ziklag and took it, but they were overtaken by
David and so completely decimated that they seem
never to have recovered (I S 30). In Hezekiah's
reign, "the remnant of the Amalekites that escaped"
were smitten by the Simeonites, who dispossessed
them of Mount Seir (I Ch 4 43). No trustworthy
data concerning them are to be found outside the
O T. Neither Assyrian nor Egyptian records allude
to them. G. L. R.
AMAM, e'mam (ES, 'dmam): A city of S. Ju-
dah (Jos 15 26). Site unknown. E. E. N.
AMANA, a-mQ'na (~^$, 'dmanah): The south-
ern portion, probably, of the Anti-Lebanon mountain
range (Song 4 8). E. E. N.
AMARIAH, am"a-rai'a (~;"SX, 'dmaryah), 'J"
hath promised': 1. A son of Meraioth and grand-
father of Zadok ( I Ch 6 7 f . ; Ezr 73). 2. The ances-
tral head of one of the subdivisions of the Kohathite
Levites (I Ch 23 19; cf. 24 23). 3. Chief priest in Je-
rusalem under Jehoshaphat (I Ch 6 11; II Ch 19 11).
4. A Levite assistant to Kore, the porter at the
east gate who was over the free-will offerings of
God, in the time of Hezekiah (II Ch 31 14 f.). 5.
Ancestor of Zephaniah, possibly son of Hezekiah,
King of Judah (Zeph 1 1). 6. One of the priests
that sealed the covenant of Nehemiah's time (Neh
10 3). 7. A Judahite who dwelt in Jerusalem (Neh
114). 8. One of the priests of Zerubbabel's band
which returned from Babylon (Neh 12 2, 13).
J. A. K.
AMASA, am'a-sa (N'lp$J>, 'dmOsH'): 1. A son of
Jethcr, an Ishmuulite, and David's sister Abigail
(I Ch 2 17; II S 17 25). Absalom appointed him
captain of his forces (II S 17 25). After David's
victory he gave Amasa the place held by his cousin
Joab (II S 19 13 ff.), probably in order to allay disaf-
fection in Judah. Very soon after this Amasa was
assassinated by Joab (II S 20 4-12; I K 2 , 32). 2. An
Ephraimite (II Ch 28 12). E. E. N.
AMASAI, Q-mas'ai ('$$$, 'dmdsay): 1. A Ko-
hathite Levite (I Ch 6 25, 35; II Ch 29 12). 2. One of
David's captains (I Ch 12 16-18, perhaps the same as
Amasa, 1). 3. A priest (I Ch 15 24). E. E. N.
AMASHSAI, Q-mash'sai ("DtfiM?, 'dmashfay,
Amashai AV): A priest (Neh 11 13), called Maasai
(ICh9l2). E. E. N.
AMASIAH, am-a-sai'fl (n;WJ|, 'dmafyOh), 'J'
bears': One of Jehoshaphat's captains (II Ch 17 16).
E. E. N.
AMAZIAH, am"a-zoi'a (V^VttK, 'dmatsy&hu), 'J'
strengthens': 1. Son of Joash and king of Judah,
c. 798-790 B.C. Though he executed his father's
murderers he refused to follow custom and spared
their children. Having reduced Edom once more
to subjection to Judah, he raslily engaged in war
with Jehoash of Israel, but was utterly defeated.
Jerusalem was captured, its walls partly demolished,
while Amaziah retained his throne only through
paying a heavy indemnity and giving hostages.
Judah was thus reduced practically to the condition
of subjection to Israel. After this, disaffection
showed itself and, like his father, Amaziah was mur-
dered by conspirators (II K 12 21, 13 12, 14 1-22; II Ch
25). Amaziah is said to have reigned twenty-nine
years (II K 14 2). It is probable that a mistake has
been made somehow and that he actually reigned but
nine years. See CHRONOLOGY OF OT (table). 2.
Priest of Beth-el under Jeroboam II., who attempted
to prevent Amos from prophesying in Israel (Am 7
10 ff.). 3. One of the descendants of Merari (I Ch
4 34). 4. A Levite (I Ch 6 45). E. E. N.
AMBASSADOR: In OT the equivalent of (1)
mtlits (II Ch 32 31). Properly, 'interpreter' (cf. Gn
42 23; Is 43 27 [RVmg.]; Job 33 23). (2) mal'ak (II
Ch352l; Is 30 4, 337; Ezk 17 is), 'One who has
been sent,' 'a messenger.' (3) ts'ir (root idea 'to
go'), ambassador in a technical sense (Is 18 2, 579;
Jer 49 14); parallel to "messenger" (Pr 13 17). In
Jos 9 4, the Heb. form is verbal, not substantive.
In N T only as a rendering of the verbal form
iv (II Co 5 20; Eph 6 20). J. M. T.
AMBER, am'bgr: This word occurs in the AV of
Ezk 1 4, 27, 8 2, as the rendering of the Heb. TOfO,
hashmal. The RV replaces it with the term "glow-
ing metal," which is as satisfactory a rendering as
can be suggested, since the meaning of the term is
uncertain. E. E. N.
AMBUSH, AMBUSHMENT. See WARFARE,
4.
Amen
Amos
A ST \.\DA1U) BIBLK DICTIONARY
32
AMEN, e"mcn' <>r ( WHS. ) ii"men': Originally a
verbal adjective meaning ' steadfast-,' it became an
adverb, 'truly,' or an interjection, 'so be it," 'so ii is.'
(1) In the OT: (a) Initially; in affirmation of a pre-
ceding statement, which the speaker solemnly makes
his own (I K 1 3d; Jer 28 6; cf. Rev 7 12, 22 20). (b)
Detached, as an oath (Nu 5 22; Dt 27 15; Neh 5 13).
(c) Liturgical; at the close of public prayer and
U'nediction (I Ch 16 36; Neh 8 6; Pa 106 48). (2) In
N'T: (n) In the Epistles, commonly a response to
public or private prayer (I Co 14 10; Rev 5 14). (b)
In Rev ;{ 14 (cf. II Co 1 20; Is 65 Hi; RVing.) it is
used as a proper name Jesus as the Word affirming
the truth of God's promises, (r) In the Gospels its
use is confined to the utterances of Jesus. Luke
usually employs instead of it the expressions "of a
truth," "truly," or " I say." Jesus uses it not as an
answer, but in strong asseveration. The truth of
His utterance must be accepted on His own testi-
mony (cf. "Yea" in Mt 119, 2ii). In John's (ios-
pel only the double term "verily, verily" (i.e.,
"amen, amen") occurs. R. A. !'.
AMETHYST. See STONES, PRECIOUS, 2.
AMI, e'mai ("?, 'aim, Amon in Neh 7 59): An-
cestral head of a family of "Solomon's servants"
(Kzr -2 57; Neh 7 59). E. E. N.
AMINADAB. See AMMINADAB.
AMITTAI, o-mit'ai (T^X, 'amittay), ' J" is truth '
(?): The father of the prophet Jonah (II K 14 25;
Jon 1 l). E. E. N.
AMMAH, am'a (~^$, 'ammah): A hill near
Giah in the wilderness of Gibeon, where Abner, sup-
porting the claims of Ishbosheth, son of Saul, was
defeateil by Joab, the leader of David's forces.
C. S. T.
AMMI-, am'mai (*"?, 'amml [or Cy, 'am, when
at the end of a word]): An element in the com-
position of proper names, which, since this word
may mean 'uncle,' 'kinsman,' or 'people,' may refer
to the divine Being (as ' uncle,' i.e., chief kinsman),
or to one's relatives or people. For illustrations see
the- significance of the various names compounded
with " ainmi " (or with the suffix "am"). Cf. G. B.
(Iray, Studies in Hebrew Proper Names, pp. 41-
60. E. E. N.
AMM1, am'mai ("?<?, 'amml), 'my people': The
designation of Israel as restored to divine favor (Hos
2 l); the opposite of Lo-ammi, "not my people "
(1 9), the symbolic name of Hosea's third child
which was indicative of the separation that had
taken place between Israel and ,1". E. E. N.
AMMIEL, am'mi-el (V"i\ 'amtm'el), 'God is
kinsman': 1. One of the spies (Nu 13 12). 2. The
father of Machir of Lo-debar (II S94f., 17 27). 3.
The father of David's wife Bathshua (I Ch 3 5), the
same as Eliam, father of Bath-sheba (II S113).
4. A Levite (I Ch 26 8). $. E. N.
AMMIHUD, am-mai'hud (-,W??. 'ammlhwlh),
'kinsman is glory': 1. The father of Klishania, prince
of Kphraim (Xu 1 10, 2 l\ etc.; ICh72B). 2. A
Siineonite (Nu3420). 3. A Naphtalite (Nu3428).
4. A Judahite, the son of Omri (I Ch 9 4). 5. For
II S 1337 see AMMIHUR. E. E. N.
AMMIHUR, am'mi-hor (lin-^y, 'ammihur, Am-
mihud AV): Father of Talmai, King of Geshur (II S
13 37). E. E. N.
AMMINADAB, a-min'a-dab (:i t j*3i', 'amminll-
ilhiihh), 'the [divine] kinsman gives': 1. The an-
crstral head of a family or clan of Judah (Nu 1 7,
2 3, etc. ; Ru 4 19 f. ; I Ch 2 10). 2. The name of one
or more Levites, descendants of Kohath (I Ch 6 22
[elsewhere called Izhar, vs. 2,18,38; Ex 6 18, etc.],
15 10 f.). A., the father of Aaron's wife (Ex 6 23), was
probably a Levite. The reference to Nahshon in
both Kx 023 and Nu 1 7, etc., may indicate some
intermarriage between Levite and Judahite fam-
ilies. E. E. N.
AMMINADIB, ci-min'a-dib (2"!}"?:', 'ammlna-
ilhtbli): A name which occurs in the AV of Song 6
12, but RV reads "my princely people." The Heb.
text is obscure and difficult. E. E. N.
AMMISHADDAI, am"mi-shad'da-ai ("uf^i',
'ammishad(lay), 'Shaddai is kinsman': Father of
Ahiezer, prince of Dan (Nu 1 12, etc.). E. E. N.
AMM1ZABAD, am-miz'a-bad ("51^1', 'ammlsui-
hhfiilh), 'kinsman has made a gift': An officer, son
of Benaiah, David's hero (I Ch 27 0). E. E. N.
AMMON, am'on fllXJ?, 'ammon; always ]'"i" 'J.5,
"children [sons] of Ammon," except in I S 11 11; Ps
837). In Assyrian inscriptions bit-ammainr. The
termination 'on' ('om'), seen also in Milcom, may
be an Ammonite linguistic peculiarity, and Ammon,
like Milcom, a qualitative designation of the god.
The Ammonites were a Hebraic people, descend-
ants of Lot through Ben-ammi (q.v.) (Gn 19 30 ff.).
Dispossessing the Zamzummim (Dt 2 20), they set-
tled E. of the Jordan. Their boundaries were indef-
inite, the Jordan was claimed as the W. border (Jg
11 13), and to the E. lay the uncharted desert.
When Israel entered Palestine the A. lived E. of the
Jabbok (Nu 21 24; Dt 3 16). Kabbah ("Rabbah of
the children of Ammon," Dt 3 n), now AmmAn, on
the Jabbok, was the capital.
The story in Gn 19 30 ff., generally assumed to be a
slur upon the origin of Ammon, is not necessarily
such. A. and Moab, both being in possession of
their lands long before the Exodus, might well call
themselves pure-blooded natives as compared with
the Hebrew immigrants. Later the story may have
become a taunt. Their language, nearly identical
with Hebrew (comp. their proper names), was a
witness to kinship.
The term "children of Ammon" suggests nomadic
characteristics, and while towns are vaguely referred
to, Rabbah is the only one named. Jg 1 1 gives the
first detailed account of their fortunes; Jephthah
repudiated their claims on Gilead and drove them E.
of the Jabbok. When they again attempted to hu-
miliate Israel, Saul defeated them (I S 11). David
was at first friendly to A., but. because of the insult to
33
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Amen
Amos
his ambassadors (II S 10 1 ff.)> besieged and captured
Rabbab, and discrowned Milcom (II S 12 30 mg.);
Jotham reduced them to tribute (II Ch 27 S). Later
we find them at times in a coalition against Babylon
(Jer 27 3), at other times tributary. They once at-
tacked Jerusalem (II K 24 2), and later exulted over
her fall (Ps 83). The prophets bitterly denounced
them (Am 1 13; Jer 49; Ezk 25 iff.; Zeph 2 8 f.). In
post-exilic days Tobiah the Ammonite (Neh 2 10)
was an opponent of Nehemiah. In 164 B.C., under
a leader, Timotheus, they were defeated by Judas
Maccabteus (I Mac 5 6-8). The name finally disap-
pears in the 3d cent. A.D.
The name of the chief deity was Milcom, from
the same root as ~Vp, 'king.' In IIS 12 30 we
should follow the RVmg. Perhaps a colossal idol-
statue stood in Kabbah.
LITERATURE: Moore on Judges in Internal. Crit. Comm.;
Driver on Genesis. J^ t Q Q
AMNO1T, am'nen 0*^8, 'amnon): 1. David's
eldest son, slain by Absalom for violating his sister
Tamar (II S 3 2, 13 1-39). 2. A descendant of Ju-
dah(ICh420). E. E. N.
AMOK, e'mek (P'">, 'amoq), 'deep': A post-exilic
priestly family (Neh 12 7, 20). E. E. N.
AMON, e'men ("~$, 'amon), 'master-workman':
1. King of Judah, son of Manasseh, and father of the
godly Josiah. Of his brief reign of two years (641-
639 B.C.) little is known. Like his father he was de-
voted to the worship of Assyrian deities. He was
assassinated by some of his courtiers, but the people
took vengeance upon his assassins. Scholars con-
nect these events with a religious struggle between
the prophetic and reactionary parties in Judah. The
former, having put the king to death, was not strong
enough to maintain its position (II K 21 18 ff.). 2.
The governor of Samaria, under Ahab (I K 22 26).
3. One of Solomon's temple slaves whose descend-
ants returned from Babylonia with Zerubbabel
(Neh 7 59). J. A. K.
AMORITE, am'o-rait (*lfc$$, 'emorl), perhaps
'mountain-dwellers' (Oxf. Heb. Lex.): The early
inhabitants of Palestine. Two strong Amorite
kingdoms confronted Israel E. of the Jordan prior
to the invasion, but they were overthrown and their
kings, Sihon and Og, slain (Dt 2 33, 3 3). But there
is evidence that the Amorites early occupied the
AV. and S. of the land as well as the E. The syno-
nymity of Amorite and Canaanite is uncertain, and
it is disputed whether the word martu in early Bab.
and Assyr. inscriptions is equivalent to A.; but in
inscriptions from Hammurabi's age onward, the two
terms are interchangeable. "Land of Amurri"
occurs on Bab. tablets as early as the 12th cent. B.C.,
and is also common in the Amarna tablets. The
name is frequent in the enumeration of nations (Ex
38, and elsewhere). The constant Hebrew tradi-
tion makes the A. the immediate predecessors of the
Hebraic and Aramean invaders (cf. Paton, Early
History of Syr. and Pal.). About 2500 B.C. a new
type of Semitic names appears in Babylonia, and
rari.'il changes are evident throughout Syria and per-
haps Egypt. A. S. C.
AMOS, c'mos (Ditty, 'amdf ), ' bearer' or ' borne' (by
God?): 1. The prophet Amos was a ndk&ih or nln-p-
herd of fine-haired sheep, a fender of
I. The sycamores, and a native of Tekoa, south
Man. of Bethlehem (Ami 1, 7 14). In the
loneliness of his native mountains, as
with Elijah (I K 19 12 ff.), (iod's voice was more
clearly heard and His words more perfectly under-
stood. So he was impelled to go to Beth-el to preach
against N. Israel his God-given message. His activ-
ity may be dated some time between B.C. 705 ami 750.
He repudiated the name nabhl', prophet (7 14), but
only because of Amaziah's implication that he proph-
esied for gain and belonged to a venal gild (7 12).
Yet he is the first of the writing prophets, the origi-
nator indeed of a new school of prophecy.
The analysis of the book, externally, is simple. We
may distinguish four sections: I. 1 2-2 16. Indict-
ment of the kindred peoples for sins
2. The against common humanity, culminating
Book. with Israel, who has broken a holier
law. II. 3 1-6 14. Oracles in which
are reiterated the folly of formalism and the futility
of national hopes, while luxury, extravagance, and
crime are rampant. To this belongs also 8 4-14,
which interrupts its present context.
III. 7 1-9 8a. Five visions of judgment with a
historical appendix. These visions are climacteric in
arrangement, though the order is broken first by
7 10-17, and second by 8 4-14. First, we have two
visions of remediable evils, 7 1-3, 4-6; then the hope-
less internal perversity, 7 7-9; and finally the im-
pending consummation, 8 1-3; with earthquake and
extermination, 9 1-4.
IV. 9 8b-l5. The Messianic future follows ver.
8a abruptly and differs in phraseology, conception,
and outlook from the rest of the prophecy. It can
hardly have been the original conclusion of Amps's
visions of judgment. The five visions seem to be the
original kernel of the book, and with them is associ-
ated the story of Amaziah's protest, and the prophet's
probable expulsion (7 12). The other sections, artis-
tically elaborated as they are, may well have been
written later by Amos and committed to posterity.
Four passages in I are of doubtful genuineness: 1 2
is probably a late addition; 1 9 f. is a doublet of 1 6 f . ;
24 f. is vague and colorless and to be rejected; while
Inf., according to some, with less reason, is post-
exilic.
Prophecy began a new era with the herdsman of
Tekoa. Whatever his predecessors may have done,
he first wrote for posterity the outlines
3. Theol- of an ethical theory of the world. The
ogy. Hebrew term 2'!I, 'good,' attained with
him a distinct moral significance (5 14;
cf. ver. 6). The essence of the Law was equity and not
sacrifice (57, ll, 22-25, 8 4-7). The Day of Jehovah
was not to be one of national aggrandizement but of
searching judgment (5 18 ff.). Above all rises the
conception of the God of Hosts transcendent in
power, inflexible in justice, whose dictates are
founded not upon arbitrary will, but upon the very
constitution of the world (77f.). It would, per-
haps, be too much to say that Amos had a system.
It would be inadequate to characterize him as a
teacher of ethical monotheism. He was one upon
Amoz
Angel
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
34
whom the reality of God had powerfully impressed
itself, and to the expression of this, monotheism was
but a corollary. If one attribute of the divine
nature appealed to him with more intensity than an-
other, this enabled him to present with startling
clearness the truths that there can be no religion
where human rights are not recognized, and that the
claims of justice between men find their original
counterpart in the nature of God Himself. In his
view of the relation of man to man in society, Amos
has not been outgrown, nor have his conceptions of
deity become antiquated.
2. An ancestor of Joseph (Lk 3 25).
I.ITKKATI-RE: W. K. Smith. The. Prophets of Isrne.t (1895);
G. A. .Smith, The liuuk <// the Tvelre 1'nnttiets (1890) in
the Kfiiiaitor'g liihlc; Driver, Joel aitil .-\7iios (1898) in
the Cambridge Bible: W. H. Harper, Anws and llosea
(1905), in the International Crit. Comm. A. S. C.
AMOZ, e'mez (V"$, 'amdts), 'strong': Father of
Isaiah (Is 1 1, etc.). E. E. N.
AMPHIPOLIS, am-fip'o-lis: A city of Thrace,
in a bend of the river Strymon (a/j.(f>t, iro\ts), and
a post on the Via Egnatia. Under the Romans it
was a free city and the capital of the province. It is
mentioned once in the N T (Ac 17 i ). J. R. S. S.
AMPLIATUS, am"pli-e'tus (' A^iaros, WH
'A^jrXiaTor, Amplias AV [am'pli-as], '\fiir\ias):
A Christian greeted in Ro 16 8 as "My beloved in the
Lord." The name, probably that of a slave, occurs
in inscriptions. Cf. C1L. 5154. J. M. T.
AMRAM, am'ram (2"^J?, 'amram): 1. Grand-
son of Levi, through Kohath, and father of Miriam,
Aaron, and Moses (Ex G 18-20; Nu 26 69). His de-
scendants were the Kohathite Levites called Am-
ramites (Nu 3 27). 2. One of the " sons of Bani "
who had taken strange wives (Ezr 10 34; cf. ver.
19). 3. See HAMBAN. E. E. N.
AMRAPHEL, am'ra-fel (7? 8 >
The king of Shinar who, with two other kings, in-
vaded Palestine some time in the 23d cent. B.C. under
the leadership of Chedorlaomer, King of Elam (Gn
14). Lately Amraphel has been identified by many
scholars with the great Hammurabi (see BABY-
LONIA, 15), who is known to have been king of
Babylon and therefore of Shinar, or Babylonia
proper, and to have thrown off the yoke of Elam
about 2250 B.C. The combination is probable but
not quite certain. An alternative hypothesis, that
the king in question was the father of Hammurabi,
has something in its favor. J. F. McC.
AMULET. See DRESS AND OKNAMENTS, 11.
AMZI, am'zai (TJS, 'amtsl): 1. A Merarite
Levite (I Ch 6 46). 2. A priest (Neh 11 10, 12).
E. E. N.
ANAB, e'nab (2ji', 'tnabh), 'grapes': A town of
Judah. c-ight m. SW. of Hebron (Jos 1121, 1550).
Map II, D 3. E. E. N.
ANAH, an'Q (.Vl' ; , 'Uriah): The ancestor of a Ho-
rite clan of the same name (Gn 36). In ver. 2 read
11 Anah the son of Zibeou the Horite" as is required
by vs. 20, 24 ft. E. E. N.
ANAHARATH, u-ne'ha-ruth (.1">;, 'aniihd-
rath): A city of Issachar (Jos 19 19). Site uncer-
tain. E. E. N.
ANAIAH, Q-nai'Q (r,;5i;, 'inayah), 'J" has an-
swered': 1. An assistant of Ezra (Neh 84). 2-
One of those that sealed the covenant (Neh
1022). E. E. N.
ANAK, e'nak, ANAKIM, an'a-kim (?;*;, 'ana,]).
The legendary ancestor of tin 1 gigantic Ana kirn of
S\V. Palestine (Nu 13 22 ft. ; Dt 2 10 f.; Jos 15 13 f.;
Jg 1 20, etc.). E. E. N.
ANAMIM. See ETHNOQKAPHY AND ETHNOL-
OOY, 11.
ANAMMELECH, a-nam'e-lee and fi"nam-me'lec
("!"", 'dnammclckh): A deity worshiped by
the inhabitants of Sepharvaim (Sippara), at times
with human sacrifice (II K 17 31). The text of tins
passage is somewhat uncertain ami A. may be a later
gloss. The name A. is explained by King (in EB)
as equivalent to Anu-malik ('Anu is the decider or
prince'), Anu being the name of one of the principal
Babylonian deities. See also SEMITIC RELIGION,
9. E. E. N.
ANAN, e'nan (%'V): One of those that sealed
the covenant (Neh 10 28). E. E. N.
AHANI, a-ne'nai or a-nfl'nt (*JJ, 'dnanl), 'my
cloud': One of the sons of Elioenai (I Ch 3 24).
E. E. N.
ANANIAH, an"a-noi'a (n;j3, 'dnanyah): 'J"
is a cloud': I. The father of Maaseiah (Neh 3 23).
II. A town in Benjamin mentioned along with Nob
and Ramah (Neh 1 1 32). Map II, F 1. A. C. Z.
ANANIAS, an"a-noi'as (Avavias, Heb. ";JM),
'J" hath been gracious': 1. A member of the early
Church, who attempted to enhance his reputation by
a show of liberality. Having sold a piece of property
he offered to the Church a part of the amount
received, pretending that he gave the whole sum.
Peter detected the deceit and its deliberate purpose
and laid bare the enormity of the sin to the guilty
conscience of A., who is represented as having died
from the shock (Ac 5 1-11). 2. A Christian disciple
living in Damascus who baptized Paul (Ac 9 10-18,
22 12-16). 3. The high priest before whom Paul was
brought by Claudius Lysias (Ac 23 1 ff. ; cf. Ac 24
1 ff.; Jos., Ant. XX, 6 2). J. M. T.
ANATH, e'nath
gar (Jg 3 31, 5 6).
j?., 'anath): Father of Sham-
E. E. N.
ANATHEMA, a-nath'e-ma. See CURSE, 3.
ANATHOTH, an'a-thoth (H'injX, 'analholh): A
name connected with that of the Semitic goddess
Anat. I. A city of Benjamin (Jos 21 18) where the
priestly family to which Abiathar belonged had its
estates (I K 2 26) and the home of two of David's
heroes (II S 23 27, Anethothite AV; I Ch 11 28, 12 3,
35
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Anathothite, Antothite AV). It was also the home
of Jeremiah where the family had property (Jer 1 1,
32 6-15). Its inhabitants once threatened the proph-
et's life (Jer 11 21-23). After the exile it was reoc-
cupiecl by the Jews (Ezr2 23; Neh 7 27, 11 32). Map
II, Fl.
II. 1. A Benjamite, the son of Becher (I Ch 7 8).
2. A leader of the men of Anathoth who sealed the
covenant (Neh 7 27, 10 19). E. E. N.
ANCHOR. See SHIPS AND NAVIGATION, 20.
ANCIENT OF DAYS: An apocalyptic name
of God, first used in its Aramaic form in Dn (7 9, 13,
22). It was chosen probably not in order to suggest
the eternity of the divine Being, but to show that
profound veneration was due Him. The figure im-
plies a strongly antliropomorphic conception and was
taken up by later apocalyptic usage (of. Ethiopic
Enoch 47 3, 48 2-c). A. C. Z.
ANCIENTS. See WISE MEN and ELDER.
ANDREW (AvSpeas, 'manly'): Son of John, of
Bethsaida Julius, brother of Simon Peter, with whom
he lived in Capernaum. He was the first called of
the disciples of Jesus, to whom lie was sent by John
the Baptist, and became one of the inner group of
four among the Twelve (Mk 13 3). In the lists he is
always next before his friend and fellow-townsman
Philip, with whom he is also associated on two im-
portant occasions in the Fourth Gospel (Jn 6 9, 12
22). After Ac 1 13 he disappears from view, but tra-
dition has it that he evangelized Seythia (becoming
thus Russia's patron saint) and was martyred in
Achaia. R. A. F.
ANDRONICUS, an"dro-nai'cus ('AvSpovixos) : A
Jew as is apparent from the term "kinsman" con-
verted before Paul, with whom he probably shared
imprisonment (Ro 1G 7). He is referred to as "of
note among the apostles," i.e., well known in the
circle of the apostles, though possibly here " apostle"
is used in the wider sense of that term (see APOSTLE).
ANEM, e'nem. See ENGANNIM. R ' A ' F-
ANER, e'ner (ID}?, 'oner): I. An Amorite prince,
with whom Abraham entered into covenant (Gn
14 13, 24). Since, however, Eschol and Mamre are
names associated with localities, it is quite likely
that the same is the case with Aner. If so, it may
be identical with Neir, a range of hills near Hebron.
II. A city west of the Jordan (I Ch 6 70). Site
unknown. A. C. Z.
ANETHOTHITE, an"e-theth'ait. See ANA-
THOTH, I.
ANGEL (Gk. ayyfXor, 'messenger,' the LXX
rendering of ~o?2, mal'akh, 'sent one'): Belief in
beings intermediate between man and God has
existed among all nations. In ancient Semitic
polytheism, this belief was associated
I. An- with the portraiture of the pantheon
gelology as a royal heavenly court in which the
in Semitic Supreme Being was the head of a family
Religion, and the master of a retinue of servants.
The sukkalli, ' angel ministers,' of prim-
itive Babylonian mythology are, however, ordi-
narily the sons of the gods whose messages they con-
vey to other gods and men (Muss-Arnolt, Concise
Diet, oj Ass. Lang., B.V.). An objective ground for
such a hierarchy of heavenly beings was furnished
by the astral theology of later times, according to
which the apparent relative size and importance
of sun, moon, and stars suggested subordination.
Even among the Hebrews echoes of an originally
astral angelology are to be found in such passages
as Isl4l2f., 2421 (cf. 271). But the Hebrews,
true to their purer revealed religious thought, elim-
inated this mythology from their doctrine of angels
and fixed mainly upon the relation of God and an-
gels in contrast with men and the work of angels as
messengers of God.
In their relation to God and in contrast with men
they are called "gods" (Ps 977), "Sons of God"
(Job 1 6, 2 1), "Sons of the Mighty" (Ps
2. In Their 29 1, 89 6), "Holy Ones " (Job 5 l ; Ps
Relation 89 5), "Watchers" (Dn 4 13, 17). They
to God. form the "host of heaven" (I K 22 19),
the "hosts" of Jehovah (Ps 103 21). It
is to be understood that these terms are not express-
ive of physical relationship, but rather descriptive
of the superior nature of these beings. They are far
above men. As such, superior and mighty, they
form the court of heaven. They are the armies of
the Most High, "the mighty in strength that fulfil
his word" (Ps 103 20), "the ten thousands of holy
ones" (Dt 33 2), who are about Him. They attend
upon Jehovah and constitute part of His royal and
judicial glory. They continually adore Him in the
heavenly sanctuary (Ps 148 2), and are the "council
of the holy ones" (Ps 89 7), i.e., are witnesses of His
counsels. In a word they form that great, glorious
company whose presence in heaven helps us to
conceive of the majesty and royal splendor of God
Himself.
As messengers of God to men they execute His
will whether it be of mercy or of judgment. They
mediate His purpose in the moral gov-
3. As Mes- ernment of the world, hence are not
sengers personified natural forces, but, from
of God the beginning, actual personal agents
to Men. who, appearing in the form of man,
carry out a divine commission which
may be a deliverance from evil (Gn 19 15), a sum-
mons to duty (Jg 6llf.), an interpretation of
special situations (Job 33 23), a prophecy (Gn 18 10),
a warning (Nu 22 31-35), or an actual judgment (II S
24 16). It was not until later times in O T history
that these angels were distinguished in moral char-
acter. At first simply the character of their mission
was noted; the bearer of it was not characterized.
All were executors of God's will. Later, however,
the conception of 'evil angels' grew up out of the
mission of destruction or judgment upon which they
came (cf. Ps 78 49) and from the desire to avoid ma-
king God the cause of moral evil. At times the provi-
dential care of God is figuratively spoken of as the
'encamping' of the angel of the Lord "round about
them that fear him" (Ps347), or as "giving his
angels charge" over one (Ps911l), but this is a
secondary use of the term angel. Primarily it de-
notes a superhuman being distinct from God serving
Him in heaven or among mon, and is not a mere
synonym of our term Providence.
Angel
Antichrist
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
36
Prominent among the descriptions of these heav-
enly beings is one, The Angel of Jehovah or the
Angel of Ci(nl, which deserves special consideration.
While any angel executing God's commands might
be so named (as in I K 195,7; II S24 16), it is more
than one of the rank and file, so to speak, who is re-
ferred to in such passages as Gn 31 11-13; Ex 32 31;
Is 63 9. This angel in speaking identifies himself with
God. The conclusion that the "angel of God is God
himself" descending into visibility or manifesting
Himself is the one generally accepted. In Is 63 9 we
read, ''In all their affliction he was afflicted and the
angel of his presence saved them." Undoubtedly
there was to those who seemed to look into the
face of J" a distinction between God Himself and
His manifestation, but the Angel of His presence
was a veritable theophany. He represented God so
fully that in dealing with him they were virtually
dealing with God. What these temporary manifes-
tations of God were in the O T, that the Logos, in a
fuller and more abiding sense, is in the N T. It is
not surprising, therefore, that they have been looked
upon as foreshadowings of the Incarnation.
Beginning with the time of the exile and in con-
sequence of the new contact with the more developed
angelology of the Persians, the Jewish
4. Exilic doctrine started upon a new course and
and Post- in later times became extreme and
exilic often fantastic. This is true especially
Angelology. of extra-Biblical Judaism. Within the
Scriptures the doctrine is indeed always
sober, but it shows marked differences from the sim-
pler doctrines of the pre-exilic period. Some of these
are undoubtedly due to the increasing emphasis
given to the transcendence of God. Angels are
assigned a diversity of different functions such as
the interpretation of visions, the protection of the
faithful, etc. To some of them names are given, as,
e.g., Gabriel and Michael. Such names are always
of Hebrew etymology and significant of the service
rendered or the character of the bearer. Gabriel
signifies 'man of God' and served Daniel as the in-
terpreter of dreams and of prophecy (Dn 8 15, 9 21).
He appears in the N T as the foreteller of the birth
of John the Baptist (Lk 1 19), and as the bearer of the
glad tidings to Mary (Lk 1 26). In the pseudepi-
graphic books he is glorified as one of the four great
angels that stand at the four sides of God's throne and
act as guardians of the four parts of the globe (Elh.
En. 91). He is sent upon special missions to the serv-
ants of God, and against their enemies. He taught
Joseph the 70 languages of the world. With him
is closely associated Michael, who ranks just above
him, but ranks with him near the throne of the
Most High. Michael has his field of activity in
heaven, while Gabriel executes God's will on earth.
Each is the guardian of one of the divisions of the
twelve tribes of Israel, of which there are four, the
other two being assigned to Uriel and Raphael.
Into many an incident of the OT tradition has read
the name of Michael as the being who warned, res-
cued, or protected. Indeed he was looked upon as
the divine advocate of the Jews, and prayers were
ottered to him. He was the greatest of the Arch-
angels, of whom there were, according to the Book of
Tobit (12 15), seven (the number is not in all texts).
This number varies in other books (cf. Eth. En. 20,
40 2, 78 1, 89 1). All these chief angels have exalted
duties. They stand by the throne of God and each
has dominion over some particular sphere. Uriel
is set over the world's luminaries, and over Sheol
(Eth. En. '21 H, '27 2,333,4); Raphael, over the spirits
of men (To 3 17); Michael, over Israel; Gabriel,
over paradise and the cherubim, etc. In the Book
of Enoch the title of Watcher is given to the
Archangels (20, 39l2f., 402, 61 12). They are the
sleepless ones who stand before the Lord and say:
"Holy, holy, holy is the lord of spirits; he filleth
the earth with spirits " (Eth. En. 39 12). This title
appears also in the Book of Jubilees (4 15). The
term is first used in Dn 4 13, 17. Jewish tradition
declares that the names of the angels came from
Babylonia.
In the N T we have substantially all the foregoing
features of the doctrine of angels, but in sober and
reserved form. "A multitude of the
5. In the heavenly host praising God" appears
N T. over the shepherds (Lk 2 13) on the
night of the nativity. Angels are min-
isters to the saints (He 1 14) and they shall accom-
pany the Son of Man at his coming (Mt 2531; II Th
1 7). Satan and his angels are spoken of in Mt
2541; Rev 127. The distinctions in the Pauline
Epistles referred to under the terms thrones or
dominions or principalities or powers (Col 1 1C)
are those of the angelic hierarchy. These distinc-
tions appear in Jewish literature of the same general
period and were probably adopted by Gnostic Ju-
ciaizers (cf. Lightfoot on Col 1 16; see also GNOSTI-
CISM). In Christ's day the Sadducees were dis-
tinguished by their denial of angels (Ac 23 8).
LITKRATURE: Schultz's O T Theology; Oehler, O T The-
ol VV- J. S. R.
ANIAM, Q-nai'om (C"}8., 'dnl'am): A Manassite
clan or family (I Ch 7 19). E. E. N.
ANIM, e'nim (2*)y, 'anlm): A town of Jud:ih
(Jos 15 50). Map II, E 3. E. E. N.
ANIMALS. See PALESTINE, 24-26.
ANISE. See PALESTINE, 23.
ANKLETS, ANKLE-CHAINS. See DRESS AND
ORNAMENTS, 11.
ANNA, an'a (*Awa): An aged prophetess, daugh-
ter of Phanuel, of the tribe of Asher, belonging to the
circle of the ' Pious ' (see SIMEON), who hailed the
babe Jesus in the Temple as the coming Redeemer
of Israel (Lk 2 36-38). R. A. F.
ANNAS, an'os ("Awas; Heb. 1)n, 'merciful,'
in Josephus'Ai/ai'or): Appointed high priest by Qui-
rinius in 6 A.D., deposed by Valerius, 15 A.D., who
later appointed Simon, a son of A. In 18 A.D. his
son-in-law Caiaphas (q.v.) was appointed to the
office (Jn 18 13; cf. Jos. Ant. XVIII, 2 2). As head of
the family A. still retained influence, which explains
why Jesus was led first to A., probably only for an
informal hearing, and then to the high priest (Jn
18 13). For the same reason A. is called the high
37
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Angel
Antichrist
priest in Ac 4 6, although the actual high priest at tho
time must have been Caiaphas, or another of A.'.s
sons, either Jonathan or Theophilus (Jos. Ant. XVIII,
4 3, 5 3). J. M. T.
ANOINT (mdshah, whence 'Messiah,' is em-
ployed both literally and figuratively; npifiv [xP'-r-
licer, xpurdr], always of God's spiritual anointing;
the other terms [sukh, a\.eltpfiv, etc.] are used only
in the physical sense): Anointing originally signified
smearing with soothing and cleansing unguents.
Pouring oil upon the head was a later, ceremonial
form.
1. Practical. The application of scented oils was
a common toilet operation (Ru 33; Ps 10415; Pr
27 9), which was
discontinued in
time of mourning
(II S 14 2; Dn 10
3;cf. Mt6l7). It
was also a mark
of welcome to an
honored guest (Ps
235; Lk746; Jn
12 3). Ointments
were frequently
applied as reme-
dies (Is 1 6; Lk 10
34; Ja5l4); but the anointing of the dead (Mk 14
8; Lk 2356) seems to have been a token of re-
spect, rather than an embalming process (cf. Jn
11 39). Oil was rubbed upon shields to make them
Anointing of a Sacred Stone
Pillar.
slippery and bright (Is 21 5; II S 1 21). See ARMS
AND Alt.MOK, 7.
2. Symbolical, as a sign of dedication, sometimes
with resulting inspiration (I S 10 1 f., 16 13). Jacob
poured oil upon the pillar at Beth-el (Gn 28 18). The
Tent and its furniture were sanctified with "holy
anointing oil" (Ex 30 22 f.). See OINTMENTS AND
PERFUMES, 1. Priests were consecrated by
anointing (Lv 8 12, 30; cf. 4 3; Ps 133 2), and the early
kings were thus designated (I S 10 l, 16 13; cf. IIS
19 10) and inaugurated (II S 2 4, 5 3; I Ch 29 22).
Later monarchs apparently were anointed only un-
der exceptional circumstances (II K 9 6, 11 12, 23 so).
3. Metaphorical, signifying divine selection for
some particular service or blessing. In this figura-
tive sense Hazael (I K 19 15; cf. II K 8 13), Cyrus
(Is 45 1), Elisha (I K 19 16; cf. 19), and the prophet-
patriarchs (I Ch 1622; cf. Gn 207) were said to be
"anointed." Thus also, Israel, or Israel's king, was
Jehovah's anointed (Hab 3 13; Ps 89 38; La 4 20), and
Christians received the unction of the Holy Spirit (II
Co 1 21; I Jn 2 20, 27). For Christ as the Anointed
One (Is 61 1 =Lk4 18; Ac 1038), see MESSIAH, 7.
See BURIAL AND BURIAL CUSTOMS, 1.
ANT. See PALESTINE, 26.
ANTELOPE. See PALESTINE, 24.
ANTHOTHIJAH, an"tho-thai'ja ( '^'irijy, 'an-
thothlyah, Antothijah AV): A Benjamite (I Ch 8
24). E. E. N.
ANTOTHITE. See ANATHOTH, I.
ANTICHRIST, THE MAN OF SIN
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
1. The Name Antichrist
2. Possible Connection with Babylo-
nian Myth
3. Antichrist in Old Testament
4. In Later Writings of the Jews
5. In Christ's Teaching
6. In Pauline Epistles
7. In the Apocalypse
8. In the Johannean Epistles
9. Present Significance of Antichrist
The actual name Antichrist is first found in the
Johannean epistles (I Jn 2 18, 22, 4 3; II Jn 7), but the
main idea underlies St. Paul's descrip-
i. The tion of the 'Man of Lawlessness' ("Man
Name Anti- of Sin" EVV) in II Th 2 1-12; while, from
Christ. the manner in which both writers refer
to this mysterious figure, it is evident
that they had in view an oral tradition current at the
time (I Jn 4 3 "ye have heard," II Th 2 6 "ye know").
Any attempt, therefore, to understand the doctrine
of Antichrist as it meets us in the N T must naturally
begin with this tradition, so far as it is now possible
to trace it.
Here, according to the latest view, we are carried
far back. Bousset, in his elaborate monograph, Der
Antichrist (189.5, Eng. transl. The Antl-
2. Possi- christ Legend, 1896), adopting and dc-
ble Con- veloping the suggestion of Gunkel in his
nection Schop/ung und Chaos (1895), would
with have us see in the Antichrist legend an
Babylonian anthropomorphic transformation of the
Myth. Babylonian Dragon Myth, according
to which the monster (Tidmat), who
had opposod the Creator at the beginning, would
again in the last days rear its head in rebellion, only,
however, to be finally crushed. It is impossible to
examine here in detail the evidence adduced in sup-
port of this position, but it seems practically certain
that this myth had reached Palestine, and may,
therefore, have had a share in familiarizing the Jews
with the idea of an arch-enemy of God, and of His
cause. Beyond this, with the data at our disposal,
we can hardly go at present, and we are on surer
ground when, for the early history of this belief, we
turn to the evidence supplied by the Scriptures
themselves.
In the O T we have ample proof of a general Jew-
ish belief in a fierce attack to be directed against
Israel in the end of the days by some hostile person
or power, while this attack is frequently
3. Anti- so described as to supply later writers
christ in with their language and imagery in
Old Tes- depicting the last attack of all against
tament. God's people. See, e.g., Psalm 88 (89),
many of whose words and phrases are
reechoed in II Th 1 and 2 (cf. Bornemann, Thess.
p. 356 f.), or the account of the fierce onslaught by
Gog from the land of Magog (Ezk 38, 39; cf. Rev
20 7 f.).
It is, however, in the Book of Daniel (168-165
B.C.) that we find the real starting-point of many of
the later descriptions of Antichrist, and especially in
Antichrist
Antioch
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
38
the picture that is there presented of Antiochus
Epiphanes. No other foreign ruler was ever regarded
by the Jews with such hatred on account both of his
personal impieties and of his bitter persecution of
their religion, anil, accordingly, he is here portrayed
as the very impersonation of all evil. Some of the
traits indeed ascribed to him are of such a character
(7 8, 11, 20, 21, 25, 1 1 30-45) that it has been thought the
writer had not so much Antiochus as the future Anti-
christ directly in view. And, though this is not exe-
getioally possible, it is easy to understand how this
description influenced the Apostolic writers in their
account of the arch-enemy of God and man (cf., e.g.,
II Th 2 4 with Dn 11 30 f. and Rev 13 1-8 with Dn
7 8, 20 f., 25, 8 24, 11 28, 30 and see Driver, Daniel, p.
xcvi f.). With the fall of Antiochus and the rise of
the Mnecalxjan kingdom, the promise of deliverance,
with which Daniel had comforted God's people dur-
ing their dark days, received its proximate fulfilment;
but, when the nation again fell under a foreign yoke,
the old fears were once more revived and received a
fresh coloring from the new powers by which the
Jewish nation now found itself opposed.
In determining the Jewish views regarding Anti-
christ during this period much difficulty is caused by
the uncertainty regarding the exact date of some of
the relative writings, and the possibility
4. In of their having received later Christian
Later interpolations. The following refer-
Writings ences, however, deserve notice:
of the Jews. In the Pharisaic Psalms of Solomon
(48-40 B.C.) Pompey, as the represent-
ative of the foreign power that had overthrown
Zion, is described as the personification of sin
(o AfiapT<>>\<jf, 2 1), and even as the dragon
(6 Spdiuav, ver. 29); while in IVEzr51-6, which,
though belonging to the last decade of the 1st cent.
A.D., is a characteristically Jewish work, after an
enumeration of the signs of the last times and the
shaking of the kingdom that is after the third power
(i.e., the power of Rome), we read of one who "shall
rule, whom they that dwell upon the earth look not
for" a mysterious being generally identified with
the future Antichrist. Compare also the description
of the destruction of the "last leader" of the enemies
of Israel in Apoc. Bar. 40 1 f., where again Pompey
may be thought of.
In none of these passages, it will be noticed, have
we more than a God-opposing being of human origin,
but it has recently been pointed out with great co-
gency by Dr. Charles (The Ascension of Isaiah, pp.
Iv ff.) that, in the interval between the O T and the
N T, a further development was given to Jewish be-
lief in Antichrist through the influence of the Beliar
myth.
In the O T "belial" is never, strictly speaking, a
proper name, but denotes 'worthlessness,' 'wick-
edness,' though, from its frequent occurrences along
with another noun in such phrases as "sons of Be-
lial" (Dt 13 13; Jg 19 22, etc., AV), the idea readily
lent itself to personification, until in the later
pseudepigraphical literature, the title regularly ap-
pears as a synonym for Satan, or one of his lieu-
tenants.
Thus in the Book of Jubilees (2d cent. B.C.) we
read, " Let Thy mercy, O Lord, be lifted up upon Thy
people, . . . and let not the spirit of Beliar rule
over them" (1 20, ed. Charles), and similar references
to Beliar as a Satanic spirit are frequent in the Testa-
ments of the Twelve Patriarchs (2d cent. B.C. in part
at least), in which see, e.g., Test. Reub. 4, 6.
The most interesting passage, however, for our
purpose is contained in the third book of the Sibylline
Oracles, in a section which in the main goes back to
the same early date, where Beliar is depicted as a
truly Satanic being, accompanied by all the signs
that are elsewhere ascribed to Antichrist (see Orac.
Sib. iii, 63 ff., ed. Rzach) . And witli this there should
also be compared Orac. Sib. ii, 167 f., where it is
stated that "Beliar will come and do many signs to
men," though here the originally Jewish origin of the
passage is by no means so certain.
In the same way it is impossible to lay too much
stress in the present connection on the speculations
of Rabbinical theology regarding the person of Anti-
christ, in view of the late date of our authorities. But
we may accept, as in the main reflecting the views
of the Jews about the beginning of the Christian era,
the conception of a powerful ruler to be born of the
tribe of Dan (cf. Gn 49 17; Dt 33 22; Jer 8 16, and see
further Friedlander, Der Antichrist in den vor-
christlichen jiidischen Quellen [1901] c, ix) and
uniting in himself all enmity against God and hatred
against God's people, but whom the Messiah will
finally slay by the breath of His lips (cf. Weber, Jiid.
Theologie [1897] p. 365).
We can at once see how readily this idea would
lend itself to the political and materialistic longings
of the Jews, and it is only, therefore,
5. In what we would expect when we find
Christ's our Lord, true to His spiritual ideals,
Teaching, saying nothing by which these expec-
tations might be encouraged, but con-
tenting Himself with warning His hearers against
false teachers, the "false Christs," and the "false
prophets" who would be ready "to lead astray, if
possible, even the elect" (Mt 2424; Mk 1322).
Even, too, when in the same discourse He seems
to refer to a single Antichrist, the reference is
veiled under the mysterious figure derived from
Daniel of the "abomination of desolation standing
(Ycrn/Korn) where he ought not" (Mk 13 14; ef Mt
24 15); while a similar reticence marks His words as
recorded in Jn 5 43, if here again, as is most probable,
He has Antichrist in view.
Slight, however, though these references in our
Lord's recorded teaching are, we can understand how
they would direct the attention of the Apostolic wri-
ters to the traditional material lying to their hands
in their treatment of this mysterious subject, and,
as a matter of fact, we have clear evidence of the use
of such material in the case of at least two of them.
Thus, apart from his direct reference to the Jewish
belief in Beliar in II Co 6 15, Paul has given us in II
Th 2 1-12 a very full description of the
6. In working of Antichrist, under the name
Pauline of the ' Man of Lawlessness,' in which
Epistles, he draws freely on the language and
imagery of the O T and on the specu-
lations of later Judaism. The following are the
leading features in his picture: (1) "The mystery
of lawlessness" is already at work, though for the
39
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Antichrist
Antioch
moment held in check by a restraining person, or
power, apparently to be identified with the power
of law or government, especially as these were em-
bodied at the time in the Roman State. (2) No
sooner, however, has this restraining power been
removed (cf. II Es 54; Apoc. Bar. 397) than a
general "apostasy" results, finding its consummation
in the 'revelation' of 'the man of lawlessness.'
(3) As 'the opposer' he "exalteth himself against
nil that is called God" (cf. Dn 11 36 f.) and actually
"sitteth in the temple of God, setting himself forth
as God" the description being again modeled on
the Danielic account (cf. Dn 8 13, 9 27, 11 31, 12 111;
while (4) the "lying wonders" by which his working
is distinguished are illustrated by Orac. Sib. iii, 64 f.;
Asc. Isaiah 45. (5) And yet, powerful as this in-
carnation of wickedness seems, the Lord Jesus at His
parousia will "slay him with the breath of his mouth,"
the words being a quotation from Is 11 4, a passage
which the Targum of Jonathan afterward applied
to the destruction of Armilus, the Jewish Antichrist,
and whose use here Paul may well have drawn from
the Jewish tradition of his time (cf. the use of the
same passage in Pss. Sol. 17 27, 39; II Es 13 10).
The whole description is thus of a very composite
character, but, at the same time, is so definite and
detailed that it is hardly to be wondered at that
there has been a constant endeavor to find its sug-
gestion in some historical personage of the writer's
own time. But, though the sacrilegious conduct of
Caligula (cf. Tacit., Hist, v, 9) may have influenced
the writer's language in ver. 4, the real roots of the
conception lie elsewhere, and it is rather, as we have
seen, in the O T and in current Jewish tradition that
its explanation is to be sought.
The same may be said, in part at least, of the
various evil powers which meet us in the Johannean
Apocalypse. The wild Beast of the
7. In Seer (Rev 13-20) vividly recalls the
the Apoca- horned wild Beast of Dn 7 and 8, and
lypse. the parallels that can be drawn be-
tween the language of John and of
Paul (of. Rev 129, 13 l f. with II Th 29f.; Rev
13 5 ff., 14 11 with II Th 2 4, 10 ff.; Rev 13 3 with II
Th 2 9 ff . ) point to similar sources as lying at the
roots of both. On the other hand, the Johannean
descriptions have a direct connection with contem-
porary secular history which was largely wanting in
the earlier picture. This is seen noticeably in the
changed attitude toward the power of Rome. So
far from this being regarded any longer as a re-
straining influence, it is rather the source from which
evil is to spring. And we can understand, there-
fore, how the city of Rome and its imperial house
supply John with many of the characteristics under
which he describes the working of Antichrist, until,
.t List, he sees all the powers of evil culminate in the
Beast of ch. 17, who, according to the interpretation
of Bousset (adopted by James in HDB), is partly
representative of an individual "who was and is
not," etc., that is, Nero redivivus', partly of a polity,
namely that of Rome.
There remain only the references in the Johannean
Epistles, in which, in keeping with the writer's main
object, the spiritual side of the conception is again
predominant. Thus, after indicating some of the
main elements in Christian truth, John passes in
I 2 18 to the conflict into which, at "a last hour,"
truth will be brought with falsehood,
8. In and in token of this points to the de-
Johannean cisive sign by which this crisis will be
Epistles, known, namely, the coming of "Anti-
christ" the absence of the article in
the original showing that the word has already
come to be used as a technical proper name. Nor
does "Antichrist" stand alone. Rather he is to !
regarded as "the personification of the principle
shown in different Antichrists" (Westcott, ad Inc.),
who, by their denial that "Jesus is the Christ,"
deny in like manner the revelation of God as Fa-
ther (2 22) and, consequently, the true union between
God and man (4 3).
It is, therefore, into a very different atmosphere
that we are introduced after the strange symbolism
of the Apocalypse, and the scenic repre-
9. Present sentation of the Pauline description.
Signifi- And one likes to think that the last
cance of word of Revelation on this mysterious
Antichrist, topic is one which leaves it open to
everyone to apply to the spiritual work-
ings of evil in his own heart, and in the world around
him, a truth which has played so large a part in the
history of God's people in the past, and which may
still pass through many varying and progressive ap-
plications before it roaches its final fulfilment in
the "dispensation of the fulness of the times" (Eph
1 10).
LITERATURE : In addition to the special literature referred
to above, mention may he made of the articles on A nti-
chrisl by Bousset in EB, by James (under the title
Man of Sin) in HDB, by Ginsburg in JE, and by
Sieffert in PltE 3 , and of the Excursuses by Bornemann
and Findlay in their Commentaries on the Thessalonian
Epistles; see also E. Wadstein, Die eschatologische Ideen-
yruppe: Anlichrist-Wellsabbat-Weltende und WeltgeriM
(1896). The argument of the foregoing paper will be
found more fully stated with the text of the passages re-
ferred to in the Additional Note on The Biblical Doctrine
of Antichrist in the present writer's commentary on The
Epistles to the Thesmlonians (1907). Q_ jj.
ANTIOCH ('Avrtnx(ia): 1. Pisidian Antioch
was so called to distinguish it from Antioch in
Syria. It was a Phrygian city situated near the
frontier of Phrygia and Pisidia (consequently called
Antiochia ad Pisidiam, i.e., A. toward Pisidia). It
is said to have been founded by a colony from Mag-
nesia on the Maeander and to have been renamed
Antiochia by Seleucus I. It was declared free by
the Romans (190 B.C.). In 39 B.C. it was given by
Antony to Amyntas, and in 25 B.C. incorporated into
the Province of Galatia. About 6 B.C. Augustus
made it a Roman colony and called it Csesarea. In
the time of Paul A. was a governmental and military
center, and the many Latin inscriptions (cf. Sterrett,
Epiqraphical Journey, pp. 127 ff.) probably belong
to this period. Later A. became the metropolis of
Pisidia. It was situated on the still traceable Royal
Road built by Augustus. It is now called Yalowadj.
At A. Paul opened his missionary labors in Asia
Minor. The church here was one of those addressed
in the Ep. to the Galatians (q.v.) (cf. Ac 13 14-51, 14
19, 21-24, 15 30, 16 4-6, 18 23).
2. Antioch on the Orontes ("the [Antioch] by
Daphne"), chief of the sixteen cities founded (301
Antiochus
Apocrypha
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
40
B.C.) by Seleucus I in honor of his father. It was
the capital of Syria, the residence of the Seleueid
kings, and famous for its beauty, luxury, palaces,
temples, and \v:is a renter of industry and commerce.
Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch (pop. 400,000) were
the three greatest eities of the Roman world. There
the Roman governors of Syria resided. It was
beautified by CiEsar, Augustus, Agrippa, Herod, Ti-
berius, Antoninus Pius, Constantino, and was a
favorite residence of Roman emperors. It had a
great library and a school of philosophy. It was des-
troyed by earthquakes ten times in the first six cen-
turies. Christians were first so called here, and A.
became the mother-city of Gentile Christianity (Ac
11 19-30, 13 1-3, 1426-152,15 30ff., etc.). According
to tradition Peter was for two years Bishop of
A., whose patriarchs therefore claimed precedence
over those of Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem,
and Alexandria. It is now called Antakia (6,000 in-
habitants). J. R. S. S.
ANTIOCHUS, an-toi'o-cus ('A.VTIOXOS, 'the op-
poser'):
Antiochus III (the Great) was on the Syrian throne
from 223-187 B.C. By his victory over the Egyptians
at Paneas in 198 B.C. Palestine came under the con-
trol of Syria, and though at first the Jews were favor-
able to the Syrian domination, a growing party in the
nation opposed the Greek influences furthered by the
Syrian monarchs. A. was succeeded by his son Se-
leucus Philopater (187-175), who reigned eleven
years with the same general conditions prevailing as
under his father. A crisis came under Antiochus IV
(Epiphanes), who succeeded his brother Seleucus in
175. He was a brilliant but moody man a strange
combination of intellectual power and moral weak-
ness. With unflagging zeal he sought to Hellenize
Palestine, and this brought on the Maccabean revolt
(see MACCABEES). At the very first he decided
against the high priest Onias III in favorof Jason, the
leader of the Hellenizing party (II Mac 4 7, 8). All
attempts of the Jews to resist his policy met with
swift censure, and twice he vented his rage uponJeru-
salem (I Mac 1 20 ff. ; II Mac 5 11 ff.). At last he de-
termined to extirpate the Jewish religion, and issued
the sweeping decree enforcing uniformity of (pagan)
worship throughout the land (I Mac 1 41). The ef-
forts to carry out this decree involved him in the
Maccabean war in which one Syrian army after an-
other was defeated by the brilliant Judas Maccabseus
(I Mac 3 10, 4 35). A., who had intrusted the subjuga-
tion of the land to his generals, was meanwhile away
in the East, where he became mad and died (104).
Antiochus V (Eupator) was only nine years old
when his father died, and Lysias, the governor of the
provinces, undertook the guardianship of the young
boy. Together they made an expedition into Judaea
and at the famous battle of Bethzacharias they de-
feated Judas Maccabaeus. The outlook for the Jews
at this time was very dark, when suddenly the war
was terminated by the attempt of Philip, foster-
brother of Antiochus IV, to secure the Syrian throne.
Hastily concluding a peace, Lysias and A. hurried
back to Antioch and suppressed Philip. In the fol-
lowing year (162) A. was betrayed into the hands of
Demetrius Soter, his cousin, and put to death.
The next Antiochus (VI), brought as a child
from Arabia by Tryphon, a Syrian general, as a
claimant to the throne, was a son of Alexander Balas,
a pretender to the throne who reigned 150-145.
Tryphon was successful and A. was crowned, but
the real power of the government was Tryphon,
who used the young king as a tool and finally had
him murdered in order to be himself made king.
During all the rivalries and intrigues of the Syrian
court up to this time, Jonathan Maccabseus (q.v. )
had been able by clever diplomacy to further the
interests of the Jews, but he fell at last a victim to
the treachery of Tryphon in 143 B.C.
In 138 Antiochus VII, a great-grandson of Anti-
ochus III (called Sidetes from the place of his edu-
cation, Side in Pamphylia), drove Tryphon out and
took the throne. To win the favor of the Jews,
former privileges were confirmed, and further con-
cessions granted, but as soon as A. felt himself secure
upon his throne he changed liis attitude and de-
manded of Simon (Jonathan's successor) the surren-
der of all the principal fortresses. On Simon's
refusal A. sent an army to enforce obedience. This
army was so disastrously defeated that A. troubled
Simon Ho further.
In the time of Hyrcanus (135) A. himself marched
upon Jerusalem. After a long siege a satisfactory
peace was arranged (Jos., Ant. XIII, 8 2-3). Sidetes
fell (128) in a battle with Arsaces, King of the Par-
thians (Jos., Ant. XIII, 8 4).
Altogether distinct from these Syrian kings is an
Antiochus mentioned in I Mac 12 16, 14 22 as father of
a certain Noumanius, one of the ambassadors sent
by Jonathan Maccabaeus to Rome. J. S. R.
ANTIPAS, an'ti-pas ('Ai/r[>]ijrar): 1. Herod
Antipas, son of Herod the Great. See HEROD, 5.
2. An early Christian martyr of Pergamum (Rev
2 13). E. E. N.
ANTIPATRIS, an-tip'a-tris ('AcrwraT/nr): A city
built by Herod the Great, named after his father
Antipater, on the main road from Coesarea to Lydda
(Ac 23 31). It was held to mark the NW. limit of
Judtea. Map I, C 7. E. E. N.
ANTONIA, an-to'ni-a: A strong fortress situ-
ated at the NW. corner of the Temple area, the
"castle" of Acts 21 34, etc. See JERUSALEM, 38,
and TEMPLE, 30. E. E. N.
ANTOTHIJAH. See ANTHOTHUAH.
ANUB, e'nub (-"3?, 'Qnubh): A Judahite person
or clan (I Ch 4 8). E. E. N.
ANVIL: The rendering of Heb. pa'am, lit.
'stroke,' in Is 41 7. The Targum renders "mallet."
The exact meaning is somewhat uncertain. See AR-
TISAN LIFE, 12. E. E. N.
APE: This animal does not belong to the fauna
of Palestine and is mentioned only in the account
of Solomon's riches, where it is said that his navy
brought apes, peacocks, etc., once every three years
(I K 10 22; II Ch 9 21). The Heb. r^p, qoph, rendered
"apes," apparently a loan-word from the Sanskrit
knpi (see Ox/. Heb. Lex.), was general in mean-
ing, so that it is impossible to determine what
41
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Antiochui
Apocrypha
species of monkey was meant. The animals \\vn>
probably purchased by Solomon's agents in S.
Arabia, though they may have been of African or
Asiatic origin. Ancient literature (Egyptian ami
Assyrian inscriptions, the Amarna letters) contains
references to apes or monkeys, showing that they
were well known and prized as curiosities.
]:. E. N.
APELLES, o-pel'liz ('Air(\\rjs): A Christian in
Rome to whom Paul sent a greeting as "the ap-
proved in Christ" (Ro 16 10). Nothing more is
known of him. E. E. N.
APHARSACHITES, APHARSATHCHITES,
a-far'sac-aits, afur-sath'caits (^'JOC^ES, 'dphar-
fathkhaye' ) : In Ezr 4 9 the term signifies, apparently,
a class of Persian officials, a meaning that suits the
other two passages also (5 6, 6 6). The different
spelling is probably due to scribal errors. E. E. N.
APHARSITES, a-fOr'saits (K^N., 'dpharsaye'):
A term of uncertain meaning, indicating probably
either a class of subordinate officials or the Persian
colonists in Syria (Ezr 4 9). E. E. N.
APHEK, e'fek (p8, 'dpheq), variant APHIK.
Three, probably four, cities whose identity is doubt-
ful: 1. Near Jezreel, whose king was slain by Joshua
(Jos 12 18; I S 29 l; I K 20 26, 30; II K 13 17). 2.
In the territory of Asher, never wrested from the
Canaanites (Jos 1930;Jg 1 31,Aphik). 3. Identified
with Afqa, NE. of Beirut (Jos 134). 4. NearMizpah
(IS4l). The first and the last are considered
identical by Robertson Smith. G. L. R.
APHEKAH, a-fi'ka (~P T ?.S, 'dpheqah): A town
of Judah apparently not far from Hebron (Jos 15
S3). E. E. N.
APHIAH, a-fai'a (n*C$, 'dphlah): One of the an-
cestors of King Saul (I S 9 l). E. E. N.
APHIK, e'fik. See APHBK.
APHRAH, af'ra. See BETH-LE-APHBAH.
APHSES, af'siz. See HAPPIZZEZ.
APOCALYPSE, a-poc'a-lips. See REVELATION,
BOOK OP.
APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE A class of
prophetic productions in which the form given to
the prophet's message is that of a vision.
i. Nature Such a form assumes the lifting of the
of Apoca- veil which hides the spiritual world,
lyptic Lit- bringing into view the realities in
erature. earthly symbols. Revelation through
dreams and visions is not uncommon in
the OT. In Jer, Ezk, and Zee there are apocalyptic
passages. In Dn the form so far predominates as to
control the whole book, thus distinguishing it as
an apocalyptic production. With the vision form,
however, apocalyptic literature developed asso-
ciated characteristics as follows: (1 ) Complicated
symbolism. (2) A dualistic view of the world, in-
volving on the one side a righteous people and on the
other a brutal opposition to God. (3) A system of
angelic mediators between God and man. (4) A
tendency to use the name of some renowned man of
piety of the earlier days as the seer of the visions
portrayed (pseudonorny). (5) An elaborate but op-
timistic eschatology. (0) Associated with eschatol-
ogy the division of the whole duration of the world's
life into ages (eons), chiefly the present age and the
coming age.
The period during which the Apocalyptic Litera-
ture had the most currency was that between 200 B.C.
and 150 to 200 A.n. During the early
2. Condi- part of this interval the conditions were
tions Favor- specially adapted to its being used as
ing Its the prophetic vehicle of address. The
Develop- people had objected to the domination
ment. of a foreign power (the Seleucid dy-
nasty of Syria). They struggled man-
fully to regain their independence, and did so at last,
but meantime they endured the stress of severe per-
secutions. The apocalyptic form of writing was
adapted to convey to them encouragement in the
form of great world pictures, showing that their op-
pressors were destined to collapse and Israel to rise
into dominion under the Messiah. These pictures
were to be understood by them, but to prove unin-
telligible to their oppressors.
The apocalypses according to dates of composition
are : (1 ) The Ethiopic Book of Enoch (first published
in modern times in 1821). (2) The
3. The Apoc- Slavonic Book of Enoch (1896). (3)
alypses. The Sybilline Oracles (1545). (4)
The Assumption of Moses (1861). (5)
Fourth Ezra or 2d Esdras (q.v.). (6) The Syriac
Book of Baruch (1866). (7) The Greek Barueh
(1886). (8) The Psalter of Solomon (1868). (9)
The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (1714).
(10) The Book of Jubilees (1859). (11) The As-
cension of Isaiah (1819). (12) The Histories of
Adam and Eve. (13) The Apocalypse of Elias
(fragm., 1886). (14) Book of Eldad and Modad
(1713). (15) Prayerof Joseph (1713). (16)Apoc-
alypse of Zephaniah (fragm., 1886).
While each of these books does not present all the
aspects of a typical apocalypse, the combination of
their characteristics groups them together as liter-
ary productions of this type
LITKRATURE: Porter, The Messages of the Apocalyptic
Writers, 1905; Charles, in HDB, and Zenos, in DCG.
A. C. Z.
APOCRYPHA OF OT AND NT: The word
'apocrypha' (dwoKpvtyos, 'hidden') passed through
several stages of meaning before it re-
i. The ceived the sense that we now give to it.
Term. At first it meant literally rolls which
were put away, because worn out or
containing faults in writing. They were thus 'with-
drawn from publicity,' 'hidden' (see OT CANON,
10, 12). Books might also become 'hidden' be-
cause they were unfit for public reading. Such,
e.g., was the story of Susannah. In this early use
of the word no other discrediting of the book as to
authorship, or teaching, was implied. A much
wider application was given to the word by early
ecclesiastical writers in denoting by it that which was
mysterious, secret, esoteric. It was thus used to
classify all such books as aimed to disclose to the
favored few 'the hidden things' of nature, of the
Apocrypha
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
43
future, of wisdom, :ul (if God. The Bonk of Enoch
and the Assumption (if Moses arc illustrations of this
kind (if literature. Their contents were reputed to
be handed down through secret tradition by the few
from those whose names are given as their authors.
In 1 1 Es 14 44-46 will be found an account of the
miraculous production of seventy esoteric books of
this kind. This meaning of the word ' apocrypha '
was restricted at first to the pseudepigraphieal
books. The claims of Gnostic leaders to the posses-
sion of just such hidden disclosures gradually added
another modification to the word 'apocrypha,'
and that was the meaning 'heretical,' and this
opened the way to the use of the word with which
we are familiar, viz.: to mark the non-canonical
books found in our English bibles between the OT
and the N T. Cyril of Jerusalem was, as far as we
know, the first who applied the name 'apocrypha '
T . -to the books which we place under this
2. List of
Q . description.
r ha The following list comprises the books
usually classed as O T Apocrypha (e.g.,
in the edition published by the Revisers in 1896):
The Song of the Three
Holy Children.
The History of Susannah.
The History of Bel and
the Dragon.
The Prayer of Manasses.
I Maccabees.
II Maccabees. .
I Esdras.
II Esdras.
Tobit.
Judith.
The Rest of Esther.
The Wisdom of Solo-
mon.
Ecclesiasticus.
Baruch. Chap. VI -
Epistle of Jeremiah.
These works may be classified as follows: I. Works
of a Historical Character: I Mac, II Mac, I Es-
dras. II. Works of a Reflective Type: Wisdom of
Solomon, Ecclesiasticus. III. Legendary Works:
Tobit, Judith, Rest of Esther, Song of the Three
Children, History of Susannah, History of Bel and
the Dragon. IV. Works of a Prophetic Type: Ba-
ruch. V. Apocalyptic Works: II Esdras. Of all
these the following were without doubt originally in
Hebrew: I Mac, Tobit, Judith, and Ecclesiasticus.
A full description of these various works will be
found under the separate titles. The purpose here
is to give only a general idea of each.
3. General / Esdras (sometimes called the Third
Character Ezra) is a revision of the canonical
of the Ezra with the following changes: Ezr
Several 47-24 is removed to an earlier place;
Books, ch. 31-56 interpolated; Neh 773-813
is added at the close. // Esdras (also
called Fourth Ezra). This work is composite.
Chs. 3-14 formed the original work and they contain
seven visions given to E/ra; the work is thus apoca-
lyptical in character. The other chapters were
added by a later hand. The whole has come down
to us in Latin, Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic, and Ar-
menian versions. The original language was Greek.
Tobit, a legendary (Hftggttdic) narrative whose scenes
are from the captivity, was written to lead the Jews
to adhere strictly to the Law. The work exists in
several versions, Aramaic, Greek, and Latin. Judith,
a narrative of the same kind as Tobit. It recounts
the bravery of Judith, a Hebrew widow, in deliver-
ing the city of Bethulia from the Assyrians under
Holofernes. The Greek text is a translation of a
Hebrew (Aramaic) original. The Rest of Esther.
These additions to the Book of Esther mention three
times the divine name in the particulars with which
they fill out the Bible story. This seems to be the
primary purpose of these additions to give distinct,
recognition to God. The original language was
Greek. The Wisdom of Solomon is a fine example
of Hellenistic literature written by an Alexandrian
Jew, and containing, besides a setting forth of the
glory and value of Wisdom, an earnest warning
against the folly of idolatry. Ecclesiasticus. This
work is of the same general character as the Wisdom
of Solomon. Its fundamental thought is Wisdom,
and it seeks to give instruction therein by a multi-
tude of rules for the regulation of life in all varieties
of experience. It was originally written in Hebrew;
a considerable portion of this Hebrew original has
been lately brought to light. Baruch. The book
in its preface (1 1-14) describes its origin, and then in
three distinct parts gives us (a) the confession of sin
and prayer of the Jews in exile (115-3 8), (b) an ad-
monition to the people to return to the fountain of
Wisdom (3 9-4 4) and (c) the promise of deliverance
(45-59). The first half of the book (11-38) was
originally Hebrew; the latter half was Greek. The
Epistle of Jeremiah, added to Baruch as a sixth
chapter, is a warning against idolatry. It purports
to be a letter from the prophet Jeremiah to the Jews
in Babylon. The Song of the Three Holy Children.
This is one of the additions found in the Greek text of
the Book of Daniel. It gives the prayer of Abed-
nego, uttered in the fiery furnace, and the song of the
three children because the prayer was heard. The
History of Susannah. This story glorifies Daniel,
who saves the beautiful Susannah from death, to
which she had been condemned under false charge of
adultery made by two elders, to save themselves
when discovered by Susannah as they were peering
at her in her bath. The History of Bel and the
Dragon. This third addition to Daniel (after ch.
12) is made up of two independent stories, both of
which show the prowess of Daniel and at the same
time set forth the worthlessness of idolatry. All
these additions to Daniel are found in the Septua-
gint, also in the version of Theodotion. The
Prayer of Manasses. This prayer, attributed to
Manesseh, King of Judah, was composed as a com-
pletion of II Ch 3.3. It is a confession of sin and a
cry for pardon. In most MSS it is in the appendix
to the Psalms. I Maccabees. A reliable history of
the period 175135 B.C. It is extant in Greek.
// Maccabees, originally written in Greek, is an
epitome of the work of Jason of Cyrene and covers
the period 175-160 B.C. The work is a mixture of
history and story told for religious edification.
A brief outline history of the posi-
4. The tion given to the OT Apocrypha by
Position the Jews, the early Christian Fathers,
Assigned and the Christian Church generally
to the will reveal their conception of its au-
Apocrypha. thority and value. It is safe to say
that, the Jews never have recognized
as belonging to the Canon of Scriptures any other
books than those which now constitute our O T. In
43
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Apocrypha
Alexandria some of the apocryphal books were read
in public, but oven here canonical authority was not
attached to them. They (the Jews) have always
recognized a difference between these works and
the OT (see OT CANON). As for the NT the
most that can be said is that there are interesting
parallels found in James and Paul with Bcclesiasticus
and the Book of Wisdom (see these titles). The
Apostles held to the same canon as their Jewish
brethren. Owing to the fact that in their Greek
bibles the early Christian writers found apocryphal
books joined with books of the Hebrew Canon, they
used them, citing them sometimes as Scriptures.
Their very connection with the canonical Scriptures
gave them honoring consideration. So Clement of
Alexandria, Tertullian, and Origen used them. At
the same time when investigation into the matter
was carried on we find emphasis placed upon the
number 22 (24) as the number of books in the He-
brew Canon. A series of writers thus support the
Jewish Canon as distinct from the Alexandrian
Melito of Sardis, Origen (despite his own habit of
citing apocryphal books), Athanasius, Cyril of Jeru-
salem, Gregory Nazianzen, and Jerome. Critical
judgment was at variance with common usage even
among scholars and for a long time the books were
cited. Eastern learned opinion excluded them
from the Canon. In the West, Jerome made the
most determined stand for the Hebrew Canon, but
the common usage of the apocryphal books, made
possible by their inclusion in the old Latin versions,
and the inconsistent practise of the Fathers left the
matter undecided. At the time of the Reformation
the question was finally settled in different ways.
The Protestant Church, following Luther's lead, gave
the position of inferior authority to the A., and from
that time the word 'apocrypha' has had the meaning
which Protestantism now gives to it. The Council of
Trent (1545) made these books of equal authority
for the Roman Catholic Church with those of the O T
proper. Coverdale was the first to translate the A.
from Greek into English. He placed them between
the O T and the N T, in which position they have
appeared in later versions. The English Church
recognizes the A. in its lessons, but only for edifica-
tion and not as authoritative in the sense that the
canonical books are. The A. have no recognition in
non-Episcopal churches.
In refusing to receive the apocryphal books as
canonical, Protestantism has by no means declared
them to be of no value. On the contrary, their
worth for certain purposes has always been recog-
nized. To the student of the centuries just prece-
ding the Incarnation, they are of deep interest as re-
flecting the life and thought of Judaism in one of its
most eventful periods.
The aim and general character of the N T Apocry-
pha are quite different from those of the A. added to
the OT. The latter seek to give the
5. The history or reflect the thought of the
Apocrypha period from which they come. The
of the N T Apocrypha, on the other hand, are
New deliberate attempts to fill in the gaps of
Testament, the N T story in the life of Jesus, to
further heretical ideas by false claims of
authority, and to amplify the prophecies of Jesus by
revelations given the Apostles. Works of this de-
scription were very numerous. They may be classi-
fied under four heads:
I. Gospels. These have as their object either
to offer a narrative which shall rival the canon-
ical Gospels or to add something to their story.
It does not fall within the scope of this article in
discuss the questions which they severally present;
rather to give a brief, concise idea of those which
were more prominent. (1) First to be noted is
The Gospel according to the Hebrews. The fragments
of this gospel have been brought together and dis-
cussed by Nicholson in his edition of it. It seems to
have existed in two forms the Nazarene and the
Ebionite, the latter being more heretical. It con-
tains additions to the canonical narrative and gives
us some new alleged sayings of Jesus.
(2) The Gospel according to the Egyptians. This
gospel shows marked Gnostic tendencies. Frag-
ments of it are found in Clement, Hippolytus, and
Epiphanius.
(3) The Gospel according to Peter. An impor-
tant fragment of this gospel was discovered in 1885.
In this work appears a strong Docetic tendency and
it shows acquaintance with all our Four Gospels.
(4) The Protevangelium of James. The narrative
of this well-known gospel extends from the birth of
Mary to the slaughter of the Innocents at Bethlehem.
This is a good sample of a supplementary gospel. Its
date is probably quite early.
(5) The Gospel of Thomas, or the Gospel of the
Infancy. This has been preserved for us in Greek,
Latin, and Syriae. It exhibits the life of Jesus from
the fifth to the twelfth year and makes Him at this
time a miracle-worker to satisfy His own whims and
ambitions. These are samples of many attempts
made to gratify curiosity by intruding upon the
silence of the Scriptures.
II. Among the Acts of Apostles we have The Acts
of Paul and Thecla. It is the story of a young
woman of Iconium who was converted by Paul and
suffered much for her faith, but was miraculously
protected. The work is preserved in a number of
versions and dates from perhaps the middle of the
second century. It is a romance inculcating conti-
nence and its rewards.
III. Epistles. Under this head we may mention
the Abgarus Letters one from the king of Edessa
to our Lord and His answer, which are quite early
and the Epistles of Paul to the Laodiceans and Alex-
andrians mentioned in the Muratorian Canon.
IV. Prominent among early apocalypses is The
Apocalypse of Peter. A large fragment of this apoc-
alypse was discovered in the same MSS containing
the Gospel of Peter (see above). It presents the Lord
complying with the request of His disciples to show
them their righteous brethren who had gone before
them into the other world. To Peter He gives a
revelation of heaven and hell, with a description of
the terrible punishment of the lost. It was written
probably early in the 2d cent, and exerted a wide in-
fluence. In the attempt to satisfy a demand for par-
ticulars not given us in our N T nearly all the Apostles
were made authors of apocryphal Gospels, while ficti-
tious Acts of the Apostles provided missionary en-
terprise for the Twelve. These are all of too late a
Apollonia
Arab
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
44
date to require attention here. It is needful only to
say a word regarding the outcome of this mass of
kpooryphal literature. It has required no such
careful discussion as did the Apocrypha of the O T
to determine its place. The love of the marvelous in
these creations of the imagination and their vivid
presentation of some special teaching made them
very popular. They have been the fruitful source
of sacred legends and ecclesiastical traditions. It
is to these books that we must look for the origin
of some of the dogmas of the Roman Catholic
Church. Because they have been thus influential,
scholarship has been deeply interested in a critical
study of them, and much light has been thrown in
recent years upon their origin, character, and worth.
LITERATURE: Commentaries on the T Apocrypha: (1) In
Lange-Schaff Series by Bissell. (2) Fritzsche und Grimm,
O T Apocrypha. See also Schurer, HJP. For the N T
Apocrypha, consult (he editions by Tischendorf and Lip-
sius. For the Gospel of Peter see the editions by Swete
and Zahn. J. S. R.
APOLLONIA, ap"el-lo'ni-a ('AffoAAow'a): A city
of Macedonia, on the celebrated Egnatian way, 30
m. W. of Amphipolis and 38 m. E. of Thessalonica
(Acts 171). Identified by Leake with the modern
Pollina. E. E. N.
APOLLOS, a-pel'es ('ATroAAoir possibly con-
tracted from "ATroAAtiwos. [So in D.]): A cultured
Jew of Alexandria, who came to Ephesus during
the interim between Paul's first and second
visits to that place (Ac 18 24-28). He is de-
scribed as "an eloquent man" and "mighty in the
Scriptures" the latter term defining the particular
field in which Ids gift specially realized itself (ver.
24). The seeming paradox that, though instructed
in the way of the Lord and able to speak and to
teach accurately the things concerning Jesus, he knew
only the baptism of John(ver. 25) is possibly explained
by saying that his knowledge of the new religion
had been confined to an information regarding the
facts of Jesus' life and teaching and did not involve
a definite course of instruction in the truths held by
the early Church (cf. Ac 21 21, 24 for the use of Karij-
Xflv in the sense of 'imparting information.' Cf.
also Zahn, Introduction, 60, n. 4). As a matter of
fact, converts were not at this early period of the
Church's life given the catechetical training which
later was given to candidates for baptism. The use
of Karrjxelv in Gal 6 6, I Co 14 19, in the sense of
'imparting instruction' refers to the teaching of full
members within the Church and does not cover such
oases as that of Apollos (or of Theophilus, Lk 1 3 f.).
In other words, in spite of pilgrims from Egypt (Ac
2 10), the news of an organized Church based on the
Pentecostal outpouring of the Spirit and involving
general charismatic gifts had not reached him, so
that he knew nothing beyond baptism as adminis-
tered by John as a symbol of reformation of life in
preparation for the Messiah. His condition was
simply a stage or so more primitive than that of the
people of Samaria before the coming to them of
Peter and John (Ac 8 14-17), though not so primitive
as that of the disciples of John referred to in 19 1-7.
Attracted by his speaking in the synagogue,
Priscilla and Aquila gave him the instruction needed
to complete his knowledge of Christian facts (Ac 18
20). I'IHIM his departure to Aehaia hi- carried with
him the warm commendation of the Kphesian
brethren (ver. 27) and coming to Corinth proved
specially helpful in controverting the Jews in their
denial of (lie Messiahship of Jesus (ver. 28). Un-
fortunately, however, his peculiar eloquence so
different from Paul's plainness of speech gave
opportunity to the partisan spirit which possessed
the Corinthian Church to form the bulk of the dis-
ciples into rival followings around these leaders'
names (I Co 3 4 ff. ; cf. 1 10-12). That Apollos was in
no way party to this rivalry is evident from the fact
that upon Paul's return to Ephesus, he is found
there with the Apostle, unwilling, even at his mag-
nanimous urging, to return to Corinth while parti-
zanship reigned in that Church (I Co 16 12).
The only other mention of him is in the brief note
of Tit 3 13, where, with "Zenas the lawyer" evi-
dently as bearers of the letter he is commended to
the brethren at Crete to be diligently cared for and
forwarded on the journey. M. W. J.
APOLLYON, a-pel'i-on ('AjroAAiW): The Greek
name of the Heb. Abaddon (q.v., Rev 9 11). Unlike
the Hebrew, which first designates a place (of de-
struction, Job 26 6, 28 22, etc.), and secondarily the
personification of that place, the Greek word, by
its etymology, refers solely to the destroyer. It
thus represents a fuller development of the concep-
tion. A. C. Z.
APOSTLE, Q-pos'l (aTToo-roAos, 'a commissioned
messenger' [cf. Jn 13 16], from airo<rrf\\fii>, 'to send
from'): A designation in the early Church of gen-
eral and not exclusive application. It was given not
only to the originally chosen disciples of Jesus (Mk
313-19 [ver. 14 Gr.]; Mt 101-4; Lk 613-16), but
also to others (e.g., James, the Lord's brother, Gal
1 19; Barnabas, Ac 14 4, 14; Androm'cus and Junias,
Ro 16 7).
Whatever natural tendency there may have been
in the first days after the Ascension to confine this
designation to the Eleven, it was offset by the au-
thority assumed by the Church in the filling, under
divine guidance, of Judas' place (Ac 1 23-26), and
whatever idea may have yet remained of restricting
this term to the sacred number of the Twelve was
removed by the divine appointment of an extra
Apostle in the person of Paul (Ac 9 15; Ro 1 1). The
way was thus opened for the application of the title
to such persons as James, who, though apparently
not commissioned to any work, was honored for
his special relationship to Jesus (Gal 1 19) and his
special witness to the Resurrection (I Co 15 7), and
Barnabas, who though not related to the Lord nor as
far as recorded a special witness to the Resurrec-
tion, was divinely set apart for significant work (Ac
13 1-3).
Through this latter application it became natural
to give the designation to those who, though not
marked by any outward sign as divinely chosen for
special work, showed their choice by their notable
performance of the work given them to do. It is
this development in the application of the term
which has led many scholars to understand Paul in
I Th 2 6 as associating Silvanus and Timothy and in
I Co 4 9, Apollos with himself as Apostles, and in I
45
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Apollonia
Arab
Co 9 5, 15 5-7, as having in mind a body of Apostles
extended beyond the Twelve (see Lightfoot, Gala-
tians, p. !)'2 f. ; Lindsay, The Church and the Ministry,
p. 79 f.)- In II Co 8 23 and Ph 2 25, however, the
word in the Greek text is used in its primitive sense
of commissioned messenger. Thus "messenger,"
RV, though "Apostle" RVmg.
Once it is used in a highly official sense of Jesus
Christ (He 3 1) where His representative relations
to God ("Apostle") and to man ("High Priest")
are combined. M. W. J.
APOTHECARY. See OINTMENTS AND PER-
FUMES, 2.
APPAIM, ap'pu-im (~*~N', 'appnylm), 'nostrils'
or 'face': A Judahitc (Jerachmeelite) person or dun
(ICh230f.). E. E. N.
APPAREL. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS.
APPHIA, ap'fi-a ('Airfftia, a Phrygian name,
indicating that the bearer was of native provincial
stock): Greeted (Phm vur. 2) as "our sister." Since
this epistle concerns one household exclusively it is
probable that A. was Philemon's wife and the mother
of Archippus. J. M. T.
APPIUS, MARKET OF ('Amriov Qopov, Appii
Forum AV): A station on the Appian Way, 43 in.
S. of Rome, at the northern terminus of the canal
through the Pontine marshes (Ac 28 15). E. E. N.
APPLE. See PALESTINE, 23.
APRON. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 1, and
HANDKERCHIEF.
AQUILA (' AKvAar): A Jew of Pontus, who mi-
grated to Rome. When Claudius banished the Jews
from that city in 49 A.D., A. with his wife, Priscilla,
went to Corinth, where they carried on their trade of
tent-making (Ac 18 1-3). Probably through Paul,
who wrought with them, they were converted to
Christianity. They accompanied the Apostle to
Ephesus (Ac 18l8f.), where, during the latter's
absence, they instructed Apollos. Their house in
Ephesus was used as a Christian assembly-place (I
Co 16 19). They are mentioned again, Ro 16 (ver. 3),
a chapter probably addressed to the Ephesian
church. But see ROMANS, 3. J. M. T.
AR (iy, 'ar), 'city' (?): A city of Moab, in one of
the upper valleys of the Arnon. The exact site is
unknown (Nu 21 15, 28; Dt 2 9, 18, 29; Is 15 1). The
same place is referred to in Jos 13 9, 16; II S 24 5.
E. E. N.
ARA, e'ra (N~K, 'dr'a): A descendant of Asher
(I Ch 7 38). E. E. N.
ARAB, ar'ab or e'rab (2^8, 'drabh): A town of
Judah (Jos 1552), to which Paarai the Arbite (II S
23 35) probably belonged. Map II, E 3. E. E. N.
ARAB (2>!, 'drabh); ARABIA: The use of
these names in the O T and the Hebrew knowledge
of the land and its people must be carefully distin-
guished. Middle and northern Arabia and the life
of its populations were practically the same for the
Hebrews as they had Ix-en from lime- inimemorial
and are still. Its steppes, deserts, and oases were
inhabited by nomads in tins steppes,
I. Intro- seminomatls around the smaller oases,
ductory. and settled townsfolk in the larger
oases, all keeping up relations with the
nomads. Thus, the life there, at the present day,
gives us a sufficiently exact idea of their life as the
Hebrews knew it. The best descriptions are in
Doughty "s Arabia Deserta, but Hogarth's Penetra-
tion o/ Arabia may also be used especially for its
elaborate bibliog.-aphy of exploration.
Except for the remotest prehistoric times, it is safe
to start with the position that Arabia was the original
home of the Semites. From it all the
2. Arabia Semitic peoples of Asia have gone out in
the Original successive waves, driven by an economic
Home of law. The population of Arabia is al-
the ways on the edge of starvation, just
Semites, larger than what the land can support.
In consequence, there is a steady over-
flowing on its borders; nomads pass over gradually
into agriculturists; Bedawin into FeUahin. The
picture in the prologue to Job is of a tribe half-way
through this process. But further, from time to
time, the pressure becomes so great that Arabia
pours out its thousands in a conquering army over
the neighboring lands. The early conquests of Islam
are one case in point; those of the Hebrews are an-
other ; there must have been many more.
We have, then, to consider the Hebrews as an Arab
clan that abandoned its original nomadic life, seized
rich lands, and turned more or less to
3. The He- a settled, agricultural existence. Yet
brews Es- this was not complete, and a yearning
sentially back to the nomadic ideal is always
Arabians, evident (cf. RECHABITES). Nomad
and farmer are a frequent contrast in
the O T, and now one, now the other is given prefer-
ence, according to the writer. A knowledge, there-
fore, of Arabian institutions and literature and of
the Arab religion and mind is of the first importance
as a guide to the genius of the Hebrews. All the
forms of Hebrew literature, except the psalm, can be
paralleled and illustrated from Arabic literature, and
all the manifestations of Hebrew religion have kin-
dred appearances in the desert. There can be best
found that common Semitic soil of ideas and emotions
from which the unique religion of the Hebrews rose.
The oldest views of the Hebrews on the Arab tribes
are given in Gn 10 (cf. ETHNOGRAPHY AND ETH-
XOLOGY, 10). Later, they speak of
4. Refer- them separately, as Ishmaelites, Midian-
ences to ites, Kedarites (q.v.). For the south
Arab Peo- Arabians, now becoming important for
pies in the the earliest history and most primitive
Bible. religion, see SABEAN. Only compara-
tively late does the name Arab appear.
Yet the evidence is that the Arabs called themselves
so from remote antiquity, and that they knew no
derivation for the name. The Hebrews, on the other
hand, connected it with the word 'drabhah, a dry,
sterile tract, and spoke of an ' Arabhi, the inhabitant
of such a tract, a nomad (Is 13 20; Jer 3 2). Whether
this is the true derivation of the name, preserved by
the Hebrews, but lost by the Arabs, we can not tell.
Arabah
Aramaic
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
it:
' Ardbhih does not seem to exist in old Arabic. In
Is 21 13 the title is probably incorrect, and in the
oracle should be read, "in the steppe" or "in the
evening." In Ezk 27 21 the Arabs ('drfibh, a collect-
ive) are a separate people besides the Kedarites; the
name is not general. In Jer 25 24 we have, "all the
kings of the Arabs ('drabh)," evidently now in a broad
racial sense. The same usage is firmly established
in II Ch (1) 14, 17 11, 21 16, 22 1, 267), and the Chron-
icler throws it back unhistorically into earlier times,
e.g., of Solomon ('. u) and Jehoshaphat (17 11). For
him, ' Arabhl is clearly an Arab, and he reckons them
with the Philistines as neighboring enemies of Israel;
once (21 16) also with the Cushites (Ethiopians).
More historical is the similar use of the term in
Xeh 2 19, 4 1,6 1. Apparently the slow appearance
of Arab, as a name in the O T, reflects the gradual
movement of Arabian tribes northward (which has
often occurred), displacing the Ishmaelites, Mid-
ianites, etc., whom the Israelites had previously
known. So a new general name for these strangers
came into use. Cf. especially Noldeke, Arabia, Ara-
bians, in EB. In Ac 2 11 "Arabians" means, prob-
ably, Nabataeans, and for Paul (Gal 1 17, 4 25), Arabia
was the country of the Nabatseans including the Sina-
itic peninsula.
LITERATURE: Doughty, Arabia Deserta, 2 vols., 1888; Ho-
garth, Penetration of Arabia. 1904; NOldeke, in EB.
1). B. M.
ARABAH, arVba (T^Z, 'drabhah): In its
broadest sense, that portion of Palestine extending
S. from the Sea of Galilee to the Red Sea, or more
accurately to the Gulf of Akabah (Dt 1 1, 3 17; II K
25 4; Jos 3 16, 1 1 2, 12 3), and embracing within it the
Dead Sea, which is sometimes called the " sea of the
Arabah " (Dt 4 49). The Hebrew name is usually
translated in the AV by "plain" or "wilderness,"
but in the RV it is treated, more correctly, as a proper
name; the article frequently accompanies it in the
original. The modern Arabs give two names to
this deep depression; that portion N. of the Dead Sea
they call el-Ghor, 'the depression,' while that S. of
the Dead Sea and extending to the Red Sea, they
designate as I I'm/;/ el-'Arabah (Dt 2 8). Both por-
tions are intensely arid and hot. More than two-
thirds of the whole stretch lies below the level of the
Mediterranean Sea. The highest point is the ridge
about opposite Mt. Hor known as er-Rishy, whose
altitude above sea-level is 723 ft. (Hull). Almost
the entire valley is bounded on both E. and W. by
high mountains which on the average are not more
than 10 m. apart. Hence the valley is usually very
narrow. Geologically, it is especially interesting be-
cause the terraces are filled with fossil shells which
afford traces of the former height of the waters of the
Dead Sea. Though barren now, the whole valley,
being composed of marl, sand, and gravel, might
become by means of proper irrigation a veritable
garden of rich productivity. See also CHAMPAIGN.
G. L. II.
ARAD, e'rad p^, 'dradh): I. A town in the
Negeb or "South" region, about 17 m. S. of Hebron.
Its king fought against the Israelites when they were
on the southern borders of Palestine (Nu 211, 33 40).
It was afterward occupied by the Kenites (Jgll6;
cf. Jos 12 14). Map II, E 4. II. A name in the gen-
ealogy of Benjamin (I Ch 8 15). E. E. N.
ARAH, e'ra (rTN, Tmilt), 'traveler': 1. One of
the sons of Ulla, an Asherite (1 Ch 7 39). 2. A clan
or family name in the list of Ezr 25= Neh 7 10.
E. E. N.
ARAM, e'ram (01$, 'dram): I. Aram, from
which our words Aramean and Aramaic are derived,
is the Hebrew name of a people and of a country
usually translated "Syrian" and "Syr-
i. Name, ia" in the English versions. The orig-
inal, however, is retained as the name
of an ancestor in Gn 10 22, 22 21, who is reckoned as
one of the sons of Shem. It appears also as the
name of the country in a few passages. " Ararn-
itess " is used as equivalent to an Aramean or Syrian
woman (ICh7l4). The adjective "Syrian" ("Syr-
iack," AV, or "Aramaic," RVmg.) is employed to
express the language of the Arameans (see ARAMAIC
LANGUAGE).
The Arameans were one of the great divisions of
the Semitic family, lying, as a whole, after the dis-
persion of the race, between the Baby-
2. Geo- lonians (and Assyrians) to the E. and
graphical the Canaanites to the W. Yet they
Distribu- were also found in large numbers as a
tion. pastoral people on both sides of the
Tigris till the latest Babylonian times.
W. of the Euphrates they do not appear in force
till after the 12th cent. B.C., though it was in this
region that they played their chief role in history.
Their historical progress may be summarized as
follows:
They were, until perhaps the 15th cent. B.C.,
wholly nomadic or seminomadic, ranging from the
lower Tigris to the middle Euphrates.
3. Charac- In or about the 15th cent, a portion
ter and of them formed a settlement near the
Influence, city of Haran in Mesopotamia and be-
came interested in trade. With the in-
creasing development of wealth and industry gener-
ally in both east and west, their trading habits
became more general till from the 9th cent, onward
they became the chief traveling merchants and nego-
tiators of Western Asia. In the 8th cent, they
are found doing business in Babylonia and Assyria
and their language is the lingua jranca of all Semitic
peoples (cf. II K 18 26). Meanwhile, with the de-
cline of the Hittite kingdoms in Syria, Arameans had
been crowding into Northern Syria and gradually
takipg the positions in Middle and Southern Syria
from which the Hittites had retired. Thus were
formed, on both sides of the river, the Aramean
communities which are referred to in the O T and of
which Damascus (q.v.) was by far the most im-
portant.
The other western districts (see below), which are
distinguished as Aramean, all lay to the S. and W. of
Damascus; but the great cities of Syria to the N.
Carchemish, Arpad, and Hamath were also Ara-
mean after the 12th cent.
(1) Aram - Naharaim is the original of the
Mesopotamia of EVV and designates (somewhat
inexactly) the country to the E. of the middle Eu-
phrates as far as the river Habor (the modern
47
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Arabah
Aramaic
Kliabour). Naharaim is generally supposed to mean
'the two rivers'; but it should probably be explained
as 'the river region.' The Priestly
4. Political Code has Paddan-Aram in the place of
Sub- Aram-Naharaim. The center of pi ^Mi-
divisions, lation and trade till long after the Chris-
tian era was the great city or district of
Haran (q.v.)- This region was of great importance in
the earliest history of Israel. Abram himself lived for
a time in Haran (Gn 1 1 31, 12 4 f. ; of. Dt 26 5). In the
same region dwelt his kindred, from among whom
both Isaac and Jacob obtained their wives. After the
patriarchal period we read that Balaam, the seer,
came from "Aram" (Nu 23 7; cf. 22 5), and not long
thereafter "Cushan-rishathaim," King of Mesopota-
mia, invaded the newly formed Hebrew community
in Palestine (Jg 3 7 ft.). According to II S 10 16 " Syr-
ians from beyond the River" came to the help of
their kindred who were involved with the Ammon-
ites in their war against David, and with them suf-
fered defeat at his hands. This was the last warlike
movement against Palestine reported of the Ara-
means to the E. of the Euphrates, though Arameans,
as was natural, formed a large element in the army
of Nebuchadrezzar (JerSoll), and, we may pre-
sume, of the earlier Assyrian invaders.
Other cities and districts settled by Arameans
were the following; those which lay in S. Syria were
ultimately absorbed in the great kingdom of Da-
mascus:
(2) Geshur. A district lying close to Bashan (Dt
3 U) which was not subdued by Israel (Jos 13 13),
but at one time took possession of some Israelitic
territory of northern Gilead (I Ch 2 23). Absalom,
whose mother, Maacah, was the daughter of Talmai,
King of Geshur, fled thither after the murder of Am-
non (II S 13 37). The reference in II S 15 8 shows it
to have been Aramean.
(3) Maacah was close to Geshur, probably to
the N., and equally independent of Israel (Dt 3 14;
Jos 13 13). The Aramean origin of its people is in-
dicated by their descent from Nahor (Gn2224).
They joined the other Arameans of the neighborhood
in assisting the Ammonites against David and shared
in then- defeat (II S 10 6-8). See Tob.
(4) Rehob or Beth-rehob, to be distinguished
from the city of the same name W. of the Jordan
which lay "toward Hamath " (Nul321). It was
a small kingdom E. of the Jordan, closely con-
nected with Zobah and sent a contingent to join
the Ammonites in their war against David (II S
106-8).
(5) Tob was an Aramean district, to which Jeph-
thah fled for refuge (Jg 113-5), and which also as-
sisted the Ammonites in their war against David,
where it was joined with Maacah as Rehob was with
Zobah. In II S 10 6-8, omit "the men" before "Tob,"
L'-IS having been written for njj in ver. 6 and re-
peated in ver. 8.
(6) Zobah, the most important of the southern
Aramean settlements after Damascus. Already in
the time of King Saul it was pressing upon the people
of Gilead, as we may infer from I S 14 47. In the
time of David it took the lead of the Arameans in
endeavoring to prevent the extension of his domin-
ion. The next year after the defeat of the Aramean
and Ammonite allies (see above), and wliile Rab-
bath-Ammon was not yet captured, Iladadezer,
King of Zobah, sent for reenforcements and defied
the advance of David, who, however, utterly de-
feated the combination. The result was the sub-
mission of all the Arameans of S. Syria (II S 8 3 fl.).
(7) Hamath, to be distinguished from "Hamath
the great" (q.v.), was a district lying on the SW.
slope of Hermon, reaching at least as far as the Jor-
dan westward, and forming the boundary of Pales-
tine and Israel to the NE. (Nu 34 8; I K 8 65; II K
14 25; Ezk 47 16; Am 6 14). In the 10th cent. B.C.
it was an Aramean kingdom whose ruler Tou, though
not joining in the league against Israel, became trib-
utary to David (II S 8 9 ff.; cf. I Ch 18 9). As the
frontier of a rival people, its control was always
aimed at by the powerful kings of Israel (II Ch 8 4;
II K 14 28). See Wincklerin KAT 3 , 182, 231 f., and
Oriental. Forschungen, III., Heft 3 (1905).
v (8) Mesopotamia is used in EVV to translate
'Aram-NaJi&raim. The word among the Greeks and
Romans stood for the whole territory lying ' between
the rivers' Euphrates and Tigris, S. of the Masius
range of mountains and N. of the Syro-Arabian
desert proper. This great region, however, is not
designated by tliis or any other single name in the
Bible (except perhaps in Ac 2 9). It is through
the influence of the LXX that the term came to be
used in the versions for the more limited area as
above described instead of Mesopotamia in the larger
sense. See the articles under that name in HDB,
EB, and EBrit.
, (9) Syria and Syrian. Syriajn the O T translates
'Aram except in the case of 'Aram-Nah&raim and
may be said to comprehend all the Aramean settle-
ments and their inhabitants W. of the Euphrates
above described. According to the common view the
word is a contraction of Assyria and was employed by
the Greeks of Asia Minor to designate the neighboring
peoples of the Assyrian Empire. It became after-
ward restricted to the empire of the Seleucidse,
formed after the death of Alexander the Great, and
in N T to the surviving portion of it which had its
capital in Antioch, and Damascus as its second
great city, and which in 65 B.C. was made a Roman
province. J. F. McC.
II. 1. A son of Kemuel, son of Nahor (Gn 22 21).
See I. 1. 2. A descendant of Asher (I Ch 7 34). 3.
ForMt I3f. and Lk 3 33 (AV) see RAM. E E N
ARAMAIC LANGUAGE: The following parts
of the OT are written in Aramaic: Gn 31 47 (the
words Y'gar sahddhutlia) ; Jer 10 11; Ezr
i. Where 4 8-6 18, 7 12-26; Dn 2 4b-7 28: there are
Spoken, also several Aramaic words cited in
the N T. Aramaic was a branch of the
Semitic languages, cognate with Hebrew, which, in
several closely allied dialects, was spoken formerly
in the countries surrounding Palestine, and ulti-
mately also in Palestine itself. The name Aramaic
is given to this group of dialects because "Aram"
commonly rendered in both AV and RV "Syria"
or "Syrians" (II S 85, etc.) was the name of the
people, spread over different localities (as "Aram
of Damascus," "Aram of Zobah," etc., II S 85, 10
8), by whom it was spoken.
Aramaic
Arba
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
48
Looking at Aramaic in general, its relationship
with Hebrew is such that a person conversant with
one can at once see that the other is
2. Relation- allied; but at the same time there .ire
ship with differences: though most of the roots
Hebrew, and grammatical forms have evidently
a common origin, the roots (or deriva-
tives) in use in one are often not in use in the other,
and there are differences sometimes in the conso-
nants, and frequently in the vowels. Thus 'he
wrote' is, in Hebrew, kathab, in Aramaic, k'thab;
'I wrote' is, in Heb., kathabti; in Aram., kitlibfth,or
(in other dialects) kethbeth or k-thabith; 'he made to
write' is, in Heb., hikhtlb; in Arnm.,hakhteb orakh-
tfb:' 1' is, in Heb., 'anl, in Aram., 'Ana', the masc. plur.
ends in Heb. in -dm, in Aram, in -in; Heb. 6 often
corresponds to Aram, a, as Heb. Id, 'not' -Aram, la,
Heb. kutheb, 'writing' -Aram, katheb, Heb. f5b,
'good' =Aram. fab: in Heb. a noun is made definite
by the article being prefixed, as '6th, 'sign.' ha-'oth,
'the sign,' but in Aram, by -a affixed, as '6th, 'sign,'
'atha, 'the sign' (cf. in the NT Abba, Beth-esda,
Gabbetha, Golgotha, Tabitha, talitha): in certain
cases, also, consonants are changed, thus 'gold' is
in Heb. zahab, in Aram, d'hab; 'three' is in Heb.
shalosh, in Aram, th'lath; Heb. 2J in certain cases
corresponds to the Aram. 3> (as Y "?,(<, 'earth'
Aram. J'lK); and in certain other cases to Aram.
tS (as Y^r, 'he counseled ' = Aram. W?*); many
words, again, correspond in the two languages, but
there are some which are in common use in Ara-
maic but are rare (usually either poetical or late)
in Heb.: thus 'to go down" is yarad in Heb., but
n'heth in Aram, (only in a few poetical passages in
Heb.), 'to go up' is 'alah in Heb., s'leq in Aram,
(only Ps 139 9 in Heb.), 'to forsake' is 'azab in
Heb., sh'baq in Aram, (and so in " sabach-thani,"
Mt 27 46 =Mk 15 34), 'lord' is 'adore in Heb., but
mare in Aram. (cf. I Co 1622, " Marana-tha," 'Our
Lord, come!').
The following are the principal types of Aramaic
known: (1) The Aramaic found on weights, and in
short inscriptions attached to contract-
3. Differ- tablets, from Nineveh, and afterward
ent Dia- from Babylon, from the reign of Sargon
lects of (722-705 B.C.) onward.
Aramaic. (2) The Aramaic of inscriptions
found at Zinjirli and Nerab, in N. Syria
near Aleppo two of the former dating from the
reign of Tiglath-pileser III (745-727 B.C.), and one
being somewhat earlier.
(3) The Aramaic spoken by settlers in Egypt,
found chiefly on papyri dating from the reign of
Xerxes (485-465 B.C.) onward. Some of the long-
est and most important of those at present known
are marriage-contracts (between Jews), containing
descriptions of house-property, etc., but there are
also others. An interesting inscription from Tf-ma
(in N. Arabia, about 250 m. SE. of Edom) presents
the same type of dialect. Aramaic inscriptions as
far as they go, of the same type from Cappadocia,
and (on coins) from Tarsus in Cilicia (c. 350 B.C.)
are also known.
(4) Biblical Aramaic (see below).
(5) Nabataean inscriptions (chiefly sepulchral).
Mainly from el-'Old, about 80 m. S. of Tema, and da-
ting from the reign of nmn (i.e., Aretas, II Co 11
32), 9 B.C. to 60 A.D., and onward, till the over-
tlirowof the Nabata;an kingdom by Trajan, 105 A.D.
These inscriptions have a considerable mixture of
Arabic idioms.
(6) Inscriptions from Palmyra, 150 m. NE. of
Damascus, in an oasis in the Syrian desert, dating
from abqut the Christian era to 270 A.D. Many of
these are inscriptions on statues erected in honor
of different magistrates, etc.; others are votive in-
scriptions; a particularly valuable one is a long
tariff, regulating the tolls payable on various kinds
of goods brought into Palmyra.
(7) Syriac, spoken in and about Edessa, 100 m.NE.
of Aleppo in W. Mesopotamia, the home of Laban,
the "Syrian" (Heb. the "Aramean"). In this are
written the Syriac version of the Gospels commonly
called the Curetonian or the Sinaitic (c. 200 A.D.),
the Peshitto version of OT and N T, and an exten-
sive Christian literature besides (3d cent. A.D. on-
ward).
(8) The Targums (Aramaic "interpretations," or
paraphrases, of the O T) of Onkelos on the Penta-
teuch, and of Jonathan on the Prophets, of Judaan
origin, but in their present form redacted in Baby-
lonia in the 5th cent. A.D., and (according to Nol-
deke, though doubted by Dalman) considerably
tinged by the Aramaic dialect spoken by the Jews in
Babylon.
(9) Galilsean Aramaic, preserved chiefly in the
Aramaic parts of the Palestinian Talmud some
dating from as early as the 3d and 4th cent. A.D. This
must have been the dialect spoken by Christ and the
Apostles.
(10) The Christian Palestinian Aramaic, spoken
in Palestine in the 5th and 6th cent. A.D., and pre-
served in a lectionary of the Gospels, and also in va-
rious fragments, chiefly Biblical.
(11) Samaritan. The Samaritan version of the
Pentateuch, liturgies, etc., dating probably from the
4th and following centuries after Christ. No. 10 has
many resemblances with No. 9 ; and No. 1 1 has some
(cf. the synopsis in Dalman Gramm. 2 , pp. 44-51).
(12) Babylonian Aramaic. The Aramaic dialect
spoken in Babylonia in the 4th to the 6th cent. A.D.
preserved in the Babylonian Talmud.
(13) ' Mandaic,' the language of the strange
Gnostic sect of Mandaeans (from Manda, ' knowl-
edge ' = yva><ri.s), half Jewish, half heathen, living in
lower Babylonia. Closely allied to No. 12.
(14) The Targums on the Hagiographa, and the
so-called 'Jerusalem' Targums on the Pentateuch.
Of later date than No. 8 (c. 5th-8th cent. A.D., or
later). The language is in the main that of No. 8;
but it exhibits some of the distinctive features of
Nos. 9 and 10 (see Dalman Gramm.'', pp. 395 ff.).
Of these dialects, Nos. 7, 12, 13 are generally
grouped as Eastern Aramaic, and are distinguished
from the others, or Western Aramaic, in particular
by the prefix of the 3d pers. masc. impf. being n
(in Nos. 12 and 13 also sometimes I) instead of y. The
dialects all resemble one another, though several of
them have scripts, representing particular phases in
the development of the Aramaic alphabet, peculiar to
themselves ; they differ also, to some extent, in vocab-
49
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Aramaic
Arba
ulary and grammatical forms. Thus, in addition to
the difference just noted, in Nos. 1, 2, 3 the relative
and demonstrative pronouns are zi, z'nB,, not, as in
the others, di, d'na: the pron. suffix of the 3d pers.
plur. is in Nos. 2, 3, 5, and Jer 10 ll-om, in Nos. 4
(Daniel) and 6, -On (Ezr has both forms). No. 2 re-
sembles Hebrew in certain features more than any of
the other dialects do (e.g., ' to sit ' is ysheb, not ylli f-h,
cf. Hob. i/ashab). The Biblical Aramaic belongs to
the West Aramaic group, of the type spoken in and
about Palestine (the relative, for instance, is di, not
zi, as in Babylon down to at least 400 B.C.): it is very
similar to that of No. 8, though in some respects of
an earlier type; it has also (in particular forms) no-
table affinities with Nos. 3, 5, 6. It was formerly
called "Chaldee," from the mistaken idea that the
language of Dn 2 4 ff. was that actually spoken by
the "Chaldeans" in Babylon. The verse Jer 10 11
has some peculiarities showing that its author must
have spoken a particular Aramaic dialect (cf. the
writer's LOT, p. 255; Xp'X also occurs in Egyptian
Aramaic, side by side with SiHX).
Aramaic was formerly used largely as the language
of commerce and diplomacy, as is shown by II K
18 26 (701 B.C.), by some of the Ara-
4. Use of maic inscriptions on coins and weights,
Aramaic in and some of those from Egypt. How
Palestine, prevalent it was in the countries around
Palestine will be apparent from the
preceding enumeration of dialects. It is not, there-
fore, surprising that it gradually made its influence
felt upon Hebrew. Aramaic words appear occasion-
ally in Heb. written c. 600 B.C. ; in Heb. writings da-
ting from the captivity and later Aramaic words and
constructions become increasingly frequent: there
are many Aramaic words, for instance, in Job, the
later Psalms, Jonah, Esther, the Heb. parts of Dan-
iel; Aramaic words, and sometimes also Aramaic con-
structions, are marked in Chronicles, Ezr, and Neh,
and especially in EC. In the end, Aramaic sup-
planted Hebrew altogether as the popular language in
Palestine; and so nearly all the Semitic words quoted
in the NT are distinctively Aramaic (e.g., Akel-
dama, Maranatha, and the forms in -a cited above).
Of course, the old view that the Jews forgot their
Hebrew in Babylonia, and spoke in 'Chaldee,' when
they returned to Palestine, must be entirely given
up: the 'Chaldee' (Aramaic) of Daniel was not
spoken in Babylonia at all; Hag., Zee, and other
post-exilic writings use Hebrew, which was still
spoken normally in Jerusalem c. 430 B.C. (Neh 13 24).
The Hebrews, after the captivity, gradually acquired
the use of Aramaic through intercourse with their
neighbors in and about Palestine.
Another error is also to be guarded against. It
does not follow because a word, otherwise unknown
in I leb. but common in Aramaic, occurs once or twice
in Heb., that therefore the passages in which it
occurs are late: some regard must be had to the
character of the word, and we must consider, for in-
stance, whether it occurs in poetry or prose, and
whether it is isolated or accompanied by other marks
of a late style. Such a word may, for example, not
have been borrowed by Heb. from Aramaic at a late
date, but have formed part of the original stock
common to both languages, though in Heb. it may
have been rare and used only in poetry. Tin -i
also reasons for thinking that the language of the N.
kingdom differed dialcctically from that of Jud:i!;;
and some Aramaic forms may be due to the fact
the writings in which they are found originated in
the N. kingdom. This has been supposed to lx: I lie
explanation of the Aramaic expressions in the Song
of Sol.; but the trend of recent opinion has been to
attribute them rather to a post-exilic date, to whirl,
indeed, viewed in the aggregate, they certainly srrm
to point.
I.ITKIIATURE: Lidzbarski, Handlruch der Northern. Epigra-
phik (1898); Cooke, North-Semitic Inscriptions (1903);
Sayce and Cowley, Aram. Papyri from Egypt (1906);
Kautzseh, Griimm. des Bibl.-Aram. (1884); Dalm-m
Gramm. des Jildisch-1'al. Aram/iisch (ed. 2, 1903), with
full introd. on the different types of Jewish Aramaic;
Noldeke, Manddische Gramm., 1875 (important for its
philol. notes), Syrische Gramm. (translated, 1904). ami
art. Aramaic Language in EB\ Levias, Gramm. of the
Aram, of the Bab. Talmud (1900); Wright, Comparative
Grammar of the Semitic Languages (1890). The first
three of these books contain numerous examples of Ara-
maic inscriptions and papyri, illustrative of dialects Nos.
1,2,3,5,6. S. R. D.
ARAMITESS, 6'ram-ait"es: An Aramean woman
(K'h7l4). See ARAM, 1. E. E. N.
ARAM-MAACAH, e'ram-ma'oeu, NAHARAIM,
ne"ha-re'im, REHOB, ri'hob, and ZOBAH, zo'ba:
See ARAM, 4.
ARAN, e'ran (p$, 'dran), 'wild goat' (?): A
Horite clan (Gn 36 28; I Ch 1 42). E. E. N.
ARARAT, a/a-rat ('J^i* 'draraf): A district
located in E. Armenia, between Lakes Van and Uru-
mia and the River Araxes. Thither the sons of Sen-
nacherib fled after killing their father (II K 19 37; Is
37 38; Armenia AV). In Jer 51 27 it occurs as the
name of a "kingdom" along with those of the Minni
and Ashkenaz, all of whom are summoned by the
prophet to fight against Babylon. The Assyrian
inscriptions, from the 9th cent. B.C. forward, fre-
quently mention the land of Urarfu, or Ararat. The
altitude of this region above the level of the Medi-
terranean Sea is between 6,000 and 7,000 ft. Noah 's
ark is said to have rested on "the mountains of Ara-
rat" (Gn84); the reference being probably to a
mountain range, rather than to any particular peak.
In the Babylonian account of the Deluge also the
impression is given that the mountain (range) of
Nisir stopped the ship. It is barely possible that
the double-peaked mountain, whose altitude is
17,260 and 13,000 ft., respectively, and which is
situated about half-way between the Black and
Caspian seas, may have been in the writer's mind.
G. L. R.
ARAUNAH, a-re'nfl RpS, 'drawnShy.The Jeb-
usite from whom David purchased the threshing-
floor over which the destroying angel seemed to be
stationed (II S24 16 ff.; I Ch 21 15 ff.; cf. II Ch 3 1).
Called Oman in I Ch 21 IS ff. E. E. N.
ARBA, Qr'ba (218, 'arba'), 'four': Only in con-
nection with Hebron as the "city of Arba." The
legendary ancestor of the Anakim near Hebron (Jos
14 15, 15 13, 21 11). See also ANAK and HEBRON.
E. E. N.
Arbathite
Ark
\ STANDAKI) 11IH1. 1C IWTKi.XAUV
ARBATHITE, Qr'Uith-uit (T;", '.irbhntln r.
A man of Beth-arabah (II S 23 31; I t'h 11 32).
ic. ic. N.
ARBITE, ilr'bait ("J'N, \irln): A man of Arab
(II S 23 35). See AHAB (-'*). E. 1C. X.
ARCHANGEL. See ANGEL, ANGELOLOGY, H.
ARCHELAUS, cVke-le'iis. See HKROD, 4.
ARCHEOLOGY. See HEBHEW ARCHEOLOGY.
ARCHER. Sec WARFARE, 4.
ARCHES. Sec TEMt>LE (of Ezekiel), 23.
ARCHEVITE, flr'ke-voit, ARCHI, Qr'kai, AR-
CHITE, ur'cait ("?">', 'tirk-'inli/r): Only in Ezr 4 9
and of uncertain meaning. Possibly a mistake in
the text for Cuthites (cf. II K 1724). Generally ta-
ken as meaning people from Ereeh (q.v.) in Baby-
lonia. E. E. N.
ARCHIPPUS, or-kip'ns ("Apxwnrof ) : A member
of the household of Philemon, probably his son (Col
4 17; Phm ver. 2). Though evidently a young man,
he held an important office in the church of Colossal
Paul calls him his "fellow-soldier" (Phm ver. 2; cf.
Ph 2 25; II Ti 2 3). He may have shared with him
in some arduous labor for the Gospel. R. A. F.
ARCHITECTURE: The practical art of build-
ing in Palestine was mainly evolved from a single
type, the rectangular, flat-roofed house of stone or
brick.
The common nomadic tent of skins or stuffs
exerted no discernible influence upon structural
forms, and the use of wood was confined to small
internal details or fittings. The house-type was de-
veloped into the dwelling or domestic house, the
palace or royal house, the temple and synagogue or
house of religious assembly, the tower or fortress,
the granary or storehouse, and the tomb or house of
the dead. Aggregations of houses in towns were
regularly encircled by protecting walls, having gate-
ways for communication and towers for defense. A
city like Jerusalem might contain special structures
for communication, like stairways or bridges, and in
connection with pools or reservoirs and in the Temple
area porticos or colonnades were built. It seems
likely that in the artistic treatment of all these types
of building there was almost nothing original to
Palestine. In cases where considerable elaboration
may be inferred, it was doubtless an imitation of
Phoenician, Egyptian, or Greek styles.
The typical house-plan was introverted, i.e., the
exterior was normally barren, broken only by the
gateway, while all rooms opened inward upon a
central court. In the palaces of Jerusalem and
Samaria there was some use of halls whose roofs
were supported by columns. In these buildings
precious materials like ivory, gold, silver, and brass
and imported woods, like cedar, were used. To
columns and walls color and carving were somewhat
applied. The successive Temples were undoubtedly
devised with an eye to beauty and impressiveness.
But aside from very general accounts (as in
I KG; IICh3; Ezk 40-44) and some scattered ref-
erences to ilct:iils, we have but meager data for
forming an architectural conception. Remains of
synagogues are found in Galilee, showing a rectan-
gular plan, some bases for pillar-supports, and slight
rarved decoration of doorways. Detached tombs
are found in some places, as a rule constructed upon
Greek or Roman plans. (See also CITY, HOUSE,
PALACE, TEMPLE, SYNAGOGUE, TOWEK, TOMB.)
W. S. P.
ARCTURUS. See ASTHONOM Y, 5 4.
ARD, Qrd (~'S, 'anl): The ancestral head of a
Hcnjamite clan. In Gn 46 21 he is counted as a
brother, in Nu 20 40 as a son of Bela. In I Cli 8 3 the
name is given as Addar. K. 1C. N.
ARDON, iir'don (!'">', 'anliin): "Son " of A.-/.U-
bah, wife of Caleb (I Ch 2 IS). Perhaps a place- or
clan-name. I \. 1C. N.
ARELI, a-ri'lcii (^8'N, 'nr'fll): Ancestral head
ofaGaditefamily (Gn 4(i in; Nu26i7). E. E. N.
AREOPAGUS, e"re-ep'a-gos: A bare rock N\V.
of the entrance to the Acropolis of Athens; called
"Aptios Ilayos ('Hill of Ares') from the near-by tem-
ples of Ares. It was generally the seat of a
criminal court with jurisdiction over murder, im-
morality, etc. The Areopagites were drawn from
the noblest-born and wealthiest citizens, all state
officials being ex-officio members. It was a self-
perpetuating, conservative, all-powerful court, prac-
tically governing Athens. Its power was modified
by Draco, but Solon extended its jurisdiction to
criminal, political, and moral cases. Under Roman
rule all its ancient powers were restored. Before
this court Paul was summoned and, at least, not
found guilty of serious offense, but rather dismissed
in contempt. One of the court, Dionysius, was con-
verted to the Christian faith (Ac 17 16-34).
J. R. S. S.
ARETAS, ar'e-tas (Apiras, more properly 'Apeffas,
transliteration of Aram. n."l~ri): The name of a
number of the Nabatsean kings (see ARAB, 4).
1. A ruler (Gr. rvpawos) of the Arabians c. lli'.t
B.C. (II Mac 5 8). 2. A king of the Arabians c. !H'>
B.C. (cf. Jos. Ant. XIII, 13 3). 3. The king men-
tioned in II Co 11 32 in connection with the escape
of Paul from Damascus. His original name was
.<neas (Jos. Ant. XVI, 9 4). In the inscriptions
and coins from his reign (cf. CIS, Pars II, Aram.
Nos. 196-217), he is frequently called "Carithath.
King of the Nabatceans, lover oj his people," in dis-
tinction from some of his predecessors who were
called "lovers of the Greeks." His reign dates
probably from about 9 B.C. to 40 A.D. (cf. CIS,
Pars II, Aram. Nos. 216, 217). There are no Dam-
ascene coins extant bearing the image or inscrip-
tion of Roman emperors between 34 and 62 A.D.,
so that Damascus may have been ceded to Aretas
during the last years of Tiberius' reign, or, more
probably, upon the accession of Caligula (37 A.D.).
This would explain the statement of II Co 11 32 that
an ethnarch of Aretas guarded the city to prevent
Paul's escape. As Aretas and Herod Antipas were
enemies, such an alliance of the former with the Jew-
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Arbathitc
Ark
ish priestly party is not unlikely (Jos. Ant. XVIII,
51,3).
LITF.RATUHE '. Consult especially Schiirer'a monograph on
the Nabata>ans in his GJV 3 , I, 726 f. (lieilaue II).
J. M. T.
ARGOB, ur'gob (-J"8, 'aryiibh): A region in
Bnshun. According to the O T, Argob was a port ion
of the conquered territory of Og, assigned to the half
tribe of Manassrh (Dt 3 4). In ver. 14 "all liashan''
is made coextensive with "the region of Argob."
Within it were situated ''GO great cities with bra-
zen walls and bars." Its western border was the
land of the Geshuritcs and the Maacathites. Dt
3 14 (cf. IK413) makes these 60 cities identical
with llavvoth-jair (tent villages of Jair),but this is
probably a gloss (cf. Driver and also Dillmann, ad
loc.). The Targum identifies A. with Trachonitis
(Tarkonfi), the el-Leja, a region 30 m. S. of Damas-
cus, and 40 in. E. of Galilee, covered with lava from
the volcanoes of the Ilauran range. It rises from 20
to 30 ft. above the level of the surrounding plain,
and its greatest length is 22 m. with a maximum
breadth of 14 in. It contains, in a good state of
preservation, many remains of towns, built of the
black basaltic rock. Similar ruins are found in the
territory to the S. and E. Archeologists are agreed
in referring all these remains to cities of the Greco-
Roman period, which may, however, have been
built upon sites previously occupied by cities of the
Mosaic age. Viewed from the plain, el-Leja looks like
a rugged coast, and "the region (lit. hcbhel; bound-
ary-line, Dt 3 4) of Argob" has been interpreted as
referring to this rough stretch of rocks. Authorities
are skeptical about this identification. Wetzstein
placed A. and the Zumleh range about 15 m. far-
ther E.; Guthe locates it between Edrei and Xawa,
E. of Jolan (ZDPV, 1890, p. 237 f.). Dillmann
fixed upon the region between Gerasa, Edrei, and
Ashtaroth on the W. and Jebel Hauran on the E.
From the evidence at our disposal, it is probable
that G. A. Smith's cautious statement, "within
Bashan lay Argob," is all that is justifiable (HGHL,
p. ool).
LITERATURE: In addition to works referred to above:
Buhl, Geogrtlfihie de,i alien I'nliistiiui', Kwing, PEFQ,
1895; De Vosiii 1 , .Si/r/e Centrale.
3. A. K.
ARIDAI, Q-rid'a-ai ('T1K, 'Hrldhay): A son of
Hainan (Est 9 9). E. E. N.
ARIDATHA, a-rid'a-tha (N.7718 : , 'Hrldhatha')-
A son of Hainan (Est 9 8). E. E. N.
ARIEH, e'ri-e (""8?, ha-'arye): The statement
(UK 15 25) is not clear. If Arieh be a man's name,
he was either one of the conspirators against Pek-
ahiah or one of his servants who fell with him. The
text may be corrupt. E. E. N.
ARIEL, e'ri-el (Vs^K, 'dn'll), 'lion of God': 1.
A Moabite (IIS 23 20). 2. One of Ezra's leading
helpers, designated more especially teachers (Ezr
8 18). 3. A mystical name of Jerusalem (Is 29 1-7).
The original text here may have read ^N^X ' (altar)
hearth of God.' A. C. Z.
ARIMATHiEA, ar"i-imi-thi'u ('Api/wtfam): '1 1,.-
home of Joseph, the counselor (Alt 2757 and ||s).
Probably the same as Ramathaiin-zoplu'm, or KH-
mah (q.v.). I ;. 10. N.
ARIOCH, ar'i-ok ("1"i8, 'aryOkh): 1. King of
Ellasar (Larsa) who served under the king of 101am,
in his campaign against Palestine c. 2200 B.C. (Gn 14
1, 9); probably identical with Kim-Kin, King of I.
whose name is also written Kri-Aku. 2. The cap
tain of the guard of Nebuchadrezzar (Dn 2 14 f., 25).
J. F. M.C.
ARISAI, a-ris'a-oi ('w"K, '&ri?ay): One of the
sons of Hainan (Est 9 9). I ;. 10. N.
ARISTARCHUS, ar"is-tar'cus ('Apla~rap X os): One
of Paul's traveling companions, a Macedonian of
Thessalonica (Ae 272). He was attacked by the
Ephesian mob (1929), but escaped death, and ac-
companied Paul to Jerusalem (20 4) and to Rome
(272). J. M. T.
ARISTOBULUS, ar"is-to-biu'las ('AptorcJ/S
1. They "who are of the household of Aristobu-
lus" are greeted by Paul in Ro 16 10. This Aris-
tobulus was probably the grandson of Herod the
Great, who lived and died at Rome and was a friend
of the Emperor Claudius. If the members of his
"household" became the property of the emperor,
they might still bear the name of their former master.
Among them were the Christians whom Paul re-
members. This is substantially the explanation of
Lightfoot. 2. The Jewish teacher of Ptolemy
Philoinetor (II Mac 1 10). J. S. R.
ARK 011, 'drdn), 'chest' or 'box.' The Ark
of the Covenant was an oblong box of acacia-
wood, two and one-half cubits long by one and one-
half deep and wide, overlaid with gold, with a rim or
molding around the top. There were golden rings at
each corner for the staves that were used for carrying
it. Covering its lid, there was a solid gold plate,
called the Mercy-seat, with two cherubim of gold at
each end (Ex 25 10-22). Some of the names of the
ark are significant. It was termed the "Ark of the
Covenant of Jehovah" (Dt 10 8), and the "Ark of
the Testimony" (Ex 25 22), because it contained the
two tables of stone on which were engraved the
words constituting the basis of the covenant be-
tween Jehovah and Israel. It led the way through
the wilderness (Nu 10 33), at the crossing of the Jor-
dan (Jos 3), and in the march around the walls of
Jericho (Jos 6). Joshua took it to Gilgal and finally
to Shiloh (Jos 18 l), where we find it in the time of
Samuel. It was captured in battle by the Philis-
tines, who were forced to return it (I S 4 1-7 1).
David removed it from Kirjath-jearim to Jerusalem
(II S 6). Solomon placed it in the Temple (I K
84ff.). Its subsequent history is unknown, unless
Jer 3 16 ff. implies its presence in Jerusalem in the
prophet's day. Shishak may have taken it. Some
critics interpret the tables of stone as two meteorites
in which the divinity of Sinai resided, and conse-
quently relies of fetish worship. This subjective
view has no support in the O T. The significance of
the ark lay in its connection with the cherubim
(q.v.); they were symbols of the presence of Je-
Arkites
Arnon
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
hovah, so where the ark rested there was a mani-
festation of the God of Israel. Ita designations
"the throne of God" (Jer3l6ff.), "His footstool"
(Ps. 99 5), and the idea that it could not be looked
into without danger of death (I S 6 19), all indicate
that it symbolized the immediate presence of the God
of Israel. To the popular mind it was a palladium
(I S 4-7). Mercy-seat (Heb. KappOreth) should be
rendered 'propitiatory,' or, more literally, 'propitia-
ting thing.' Deissmann, in his luminous article in
EB, has proved that simple 'covering,' a favorite
rendering with German writers, is wholly inadequate.
The LXX.term i\aa-njpu>v and its significance in the
ceremonies of the Day of Atonement (Lv 16) point
to it as being an instrument of propitiation.
The full description of the ark is confined to P,
but JE must have had its own account (a fragment
of which we find in Dt 10 iff.) which was omitted
by R in favor of P. J. A. K.
ARKITES, Srk'aits. See ETHNOGRAPHY AND
ETHNOLOGY, 11.
ARMAGEDDON, ur"ma-ged'en. See HAR-MA-
OEDON.
ARMENIA, ur-mi'ni-a. See ARARAT.
ARMLET. Sec DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 11.
ARMONI, ar-mo'nai ("JS'TtS, 'armoni): A son of
Rizpah, Saul's concubine, executed by order of David
to satisfy the vengeance of the Gibeonites (I S 21 8).
E. E. N.
ARMS AND ARMOR
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
I. OFFENSIVE WEAPONS
1. The Spear
2. The Sword
3. The Bow
4. The Sling
5. The Battle-ax
6. The Chariot
II. DEFENSIVE WEAPONS
7. The Shield
8. The Helmet
9. The Breastplate, or
Coat of Mail
10. Protectionfor theLegs.
I. OFFENSIVE WEAPONS: Without doubt the old-
est weapon which the Israelites brought with them
into Canaan from their nomadic life was
i. The the spear (hdmth ISlSlOf., javelin,
Spear. AV; romah Jg5s, called lance [lan-
cets AV] in I K 18 28). It consisted
of a wooden shaft (II S 21 19, 23 7) with a point of
bronze later of iron (I S 13 19), which because of its
glitter was called lahabh, or lehabhah ("head," liter-
ally'flame,' I S 177) or baraq ("glittering," literally
'lightning,' Nah 3 3). The kidhon ("javelin," Jos
8 18), which is mentioned nine times in the O T, sig-
nifies perhaps a smaller type of weapon, which prob-
ably was used mainly as a projectile, while the spear
was essentially a thrusting weapon, and maintained
its importance even alongside of the sword. The
dart, shebhef, referred to in II S 18 14, and the dart,
ma??a', and the pointed shaft, shiryah (haber-
geon AV), mentioned in Job 41 26, are probably
varieties of this kind of weapon.
The sword (dagger AV, Jg 3 16 ff.), herebh (from
harabh, 'to be sharp'), most likely did not become
Israel's chief weapon until they had settled in Pales-
tinr. The blade, lahabh (Jg322), was perhaps gen-
erally of iron (I S 13 19; Is 2 4), straight, at times two-
edged (Jg 3 16; Pr 5 4), held in a sheath,
2. The ta'ar (from 'aruh, 'to open out,' In ncc
Sword, 'that which is emptied,' IS1751; II S
20 8; nadhan, I Ch 21 27), probably of
leather from which fact the terms herlq (' to make
empty,' Ex 159; Ezk 5 2, 12) and pathah ('to open,'
Ezk 21 33) are often used for drawing the sword.
It was fastened by means of a girdle over the coat,
and probably, as in the case of the Assyrians, on the
left side (cf. Ex 32 27; I S 17 39, 25 13). It was used
both as a cutting weapon, "to smite with the sword "
(II S 12 9; "to smite with the edge of the sword," Jg
21 10), and as a thrusting weapon, "to thrust through
with the sword" (I S 31 4; II S 2 16).
Along with the sword and spear, the bow, qesheth,
was from early times the most used weapon. It was
made of elastic wood (of. II S 1 22),
3. The sometimes of bronze (II S 22 35). There
Bow. were probably different sizes. The
small bow was strung most likely with
the hand (cf. II K 13 10); the usual way was to place
the foot upon the bow (cf. Ps 7 12, "he hath bent his
bow," lit. 'trodden his bow," from darak, 'to
tread') that is to say, one end of the bow was
placed upon the earth and held fast with the foot,
while the other was bent down with the hand. The
bowstring was made of the intestines of oxen or
camels; the arrows, hitstsim, of reed or light wood.
Arrow-heads were at first probably of stone, later of
bronze and iron. They were sharpened (cf. Is 49 2),
also poisoned (cf. Ps 120 4) and provided with barbs
(Job 6 4), and in time of siege were wound with tow
and pitch, and ignited (cf. Ps. 7 13). The quiver,
'ashpah (Job 39, 23, etc.), or t'll (Gn 27 3), in which
the arrows were kept, was carried by the foot-soldier
on the back, or at the left side; the chariot-warrior
had it fastened at the side of the chariot. On the
march the bow was probably carried in a leather
covering, which, however, enclosed perhaps only tin-
middle portion of the bow (cf. Hab 3 9).
From earliest times the sling, qela', was used by
the Israelites, not only in warfare (II Ch 26 14; cf.
Jg 20 16), but also as a weapon of the
4. The shepherd (I S 17 40) and of the hunter
Sling. (Job 41 20), as was the case with the
Assyrians, Egyptians, and Persians.
It consisted of a leather thong, or was woven from
rushes, or hair, or the sinews of animals. It was
made wider in the middle than at the ends and con-
tained a hollow place (kaph hnqqcla', I S 25 29) in
which to set the stone. The slinger grasped the sling
by both ends and whirled it in a circle about his heai 1
several times, and then hurled the shot by letting go
of one end of the sling. The missile was generally
a smooth, rounded stone (I S 17 40; Zee 9 15). The
Benjamites are said to have been especially cele-
brated as slingers (Jg 20 16).
The maul or war-club, mcphits (Pr 25 18), or bat-
tle-ax, mappets (Jer 51 20), was of no great impor-
tance among the Israelites. The battle-
5. The ax referred to in the marginal reading
Battle-Ax, of Ps 35 3 corresponds probably to the
crdyapts of the Persians (Herod. I, 214).
The chariot, rekebh (Jos 114) and merkabhah (Ex
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Arkitea
Arnon
Hittite War Chariot, Containing Three Soldiers, One of Whom Carries the
Small Shield.
15 4), with which the Israelites had long been ac-
quainted through the Egyptians and Canaanites,
was first introduced in the time of
6. The Solomon. Even David disabled all the
Chariot, chariot-horses which had been captured
(II S 8 4). In the time of Solomon
the number of chariot-horses is said to have been
four thousand (I K 10 26). The chariots were prob-
ably two-wheeled and open behind similar to those
of the Egyptians
and Assyrians.
They were most
likely made of
fig-wood. They
were not pro-
vided with
scythe-blades
a type of chariot
which was first
introduced by
the Persians
but were over-
laid with iron or
bronze (cf. Jg 4
3). Probably
three persons
usually stood in
the chariot
the chariot-
driver, the warrior, and the shield-bearer, shallsh =
'the third man' [?] as among the Assyrians, Hit-
titcs, and others; whereas among the Egyptians only
two occupied the chariot. According to I K 10 29
a chariot imported from Egypt cost, in the days of
Solomon, 600 shekels (about $360), a horse 150
shekels (about $90).
II. DEFENSIVE WEAPONS: The shield was of
two sizes: (a) the small shield, rnagen = acrtris (II S
1 21), often called buckler, which was also borne by
bowmen (I Ch 5 18; II Ch 14 8) ; (b) the
7. The large shield, tsinnah (I S 17 7) = Bvpcos,
Shield, the Homeric O-OKOS, which covered the
greater part of the warrior's body. We
do not know the form of these shields; probably there
were several forms -as among the Egyptians and
Assyrians ; in the Roman period the Jews are said to
have used the oval shield. The material was either
wood or wickerwork, covered with leather, or thick
leather arranged in layers. The latter was treated
with oil to make it pliable, more durable, and
capable of resisting moisture (II SI 21; Is 21 5).
Sometimes the shields were studded with bosses
of bronze (Job 15 26). We are to understand the
shields mentioned in I K 14 26 ff. as probably of this
sort. With such shields Rehoboam replaced the
gold-decorated shields of Solomon which had been
seized by Shishak (I K 10 ;6ff., 14 25 f.) and used
them in solemn processions to the House of God (I
K 14 27 f.). On the march the shield was probably
carried, as among the Greeks, slung from the shoul-
der by a strap, and provided with a cover, which was
removed before battle (Is 22 6). In battle it was
carried on the left arm.
The helmet, qobha' or kSbha', in early times was.
used only by prominent persons, as kings, com-
manders of armies, and similar officers. I S 17 38
mentions helmets of bronze; among the Egyptians
leather helmets also were used. Perhaps the Israel-
ites were acquainted with helmets of
8. The this substantial sort made of leather
Helmet, and protected with bronze or iron
(cf. II Ch 26 14). Possibly the round
caps which are found on the Assyrian monuments
most nearly resemble those of the Israelites; see
also the representations on the temple walls at
Karnak.
The cuirass,
or breastplate,
shirydn (Is 59
17;cf. Eph6l4),
was evidently
not very com-
mon (I S 17 38
["coatofmail"];
I K 22 34 ["ar-
mor"]; Jer464,
51 3 [brigandine
AV]). I S 17
shows acquaint-
ance with a coat
of mail, shirydn
qasqassim, o f
bronze. Among
the Assyrians, as
among the Is-
raelites, only kings and the principal chariot-warriors
wore the long coats of mail reaching to the ankles or
to the knees ; on the other hand , the com-
Q. The mon soldier protected the upper part of
Breastplate his body by means of bands or sleeve-
or Coat of less jackets of felt, linen, or leather.
Mail. Often these jackets were strengthened
with plates of iron, or studded with iron
or bronze bosses. Perhaps something of this sort is
meant in II Ch 26 14, where reference is made to the
preparing of coats of mail for the common soldiery.
Greaves of bronze, mitshah, are mentioned only
in the case of Goliath (I S176).
10. Pro- Military boots, f'dn, are mentioned
tection for only in Is 9 5 (cf. margin). We know
the Legs, nothing more about them. Probably
neither greaves nor boots were widely
used among the Israelites. W. N.
ARMY. See WARFARE, 3-5.
ARNAN, Qr'nan (}F&, 'arnan): One of the de-
scendants of David (I Ch 3 21). E. E. N.
ARNI (Apvei): The NT equivalent of the OT
Ram in the genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3 33, Aram AV).
E. E. N.
ARNON,ar'nen (1^~8, 'arndn) : Ariverof Moab,
formed by the union of many smaller streams spoken
of as the "valleys" of the Arnon (Nu 21 14). It
flows through a deep trench into the Dead Sea and is
one of the three principal watercourses E. of the
Jordan. It is first mentioned in Nu 21 13 as forming
the boundary between the Moabites, and the Amor-
ites who had robbed them of their territory N.
of the river. It was considered, theoretically, as
marking the boundary between Moab and the E.
Arod
Artisan Life
\ ST \\DARI) 1UBLE DICTlnNAliV
.Ionian possessions of Israel, but tlir Moabites were
actually in possession of a large district N. of the
Arnon. See MOAB ami MKSHA, STONE OF.
E. E. N.
AROD, ar'od (~'~8, 'drfx/h): The ancestral head
of one of the Arodites, a clan of Gad (On 46 16;
Nu 26 17). E. E. N.
AROER, a-m'er ("?''" 'ArO'lr): The name of
three cities: 1. On the N. bank of the Arnon, the
modern 'Ara'ir, built by the children of Gad (Nu
32 34), and subsequently assigned to the tribe of
Reuben, marking the S. boundary of Israelitic ter-
ritory E. of the Jordan (Dt 2 36, 312; UK 10 33)
(Map II, J 3). 2. A city of Judah (I S 30 28), prob-
ably the same as the modern 'Ard'ra, about 12 m.
SE. of Becrsheba, Map II, D 5. Possibly the Ada-
dah (q.v. ) of Jos 15 22 is a corrupt ion of Aroer. 3. E.
of Kabbah in Ammon, belonging to Gad (Jos 13 25;
Jg 11 33). The allusion to "the cities of Aroer" in Is
17 2 is both difficult and doubtful. The LXX. reads
"abandoned forever." A reference to one of these
cities is found in the gentilic name Aroerite (I Ch
11 44). G. L. R.
ARPACHSHAD, ar-pac'shad, ARPHAXAD, fir-
fax'ad. See ETHNOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY,
11.
ARPAD, ar'pad, ARPHAD, ar'fad P?"8, 'ar-
pa<lh): A city mentioned in the OT always with
some reference to its overthrow by Assyria (II K 18 34,
19 13 -Is 36 19, 37 13; Is 10 ; Jer 49 23). It lay about
13 m. N. of Aleppo and was once the capital of a
prosperous Aramean kingdom; several times con-
quered by the Assyrians and finally made into an
Assyrian province by Tiglath-pileser III in 740 B.C.
E. E. N.
ARRAY. See WARFARE, 4.
ARROW. See ARMS AND ARMOR, 3.
ARROW SNAKE. See PALESTINE, 26.
ART: In contrast with what was true of the
great nations on either side of them, the people of
Palestine seem to have had but very meager interest
in the arts of design. In their pottery, their textile
fabrics, anil in some architectural fittings there are
traces of attention to form, color, and decorative
treatment. But the rigorous religious ban upon
the making of 'graven images' (Ex 20 4) was in
later times so interpreted as effectually to repress
both sculpture and painting as fine arts. The only
striking exception was the cherubim, said to have
been used in the Tabernacle and the Temple (Ex
26 l; I K 6 23-35, etc.). Though the representation
of plant-forms was unrestricted, yet little of it is
recorded, and this is altogether confined to archi-
tectural ornament. (On the art of building, see
ARCHITECTURE and the references there; for the
particulars regarding the building of dwellings, see
HOUSE; concerning the literary fine arts, see Music
and POETRY.) W. S. P.
ARTAXERXES, Qr"tax-<;rc'si/ (Xrfi'n^-S, ',,r-
tahshast'): A name (Old Persian, Artakhshatra,
'great kingdom') borne by three kings of Persia.
The one referred to in the Bible is A. Longimanus
(465-425 B.C.), third son of Xerxes (Ahasuerus). It
was he who granted the request of his cup-bearer
Nehemiah to visit Jerusalem and rebuild its walls,
appointing him at the same time governor of the
district (Nell 2 1 ff., 5 14). He also (probably later)
patronized the migration of Ezra and his companions
to Jerusalem, and provided supplies for them from
the Syrian satrapy (Ezr7). The mention of his
name in Ezr 4 7 is, along with the whole section vs.
6-23, at best a gross anachronism, to be referred to
the time of the rebuilding of the walls, and in 6 14 it is
simply interpolated. J. F. McC.
ARTEMAS, ar'te-mas ('ApT(fias): A compan-
ion of Paul (Tit 3 12) of whom nothing else is cer-
tainly known. E. E. N.
ARTILLERY : In A V of I S 20 40 this term means
simply weapons, as in RV. E. E. N.
ARTISAN LIFE
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
1. In General
I. CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIP-
MENT OP HOUSES
2. Tent-making
3. Masonwork
4. Mason's Tools; Mortar
5. Carpenter
6. Carpenter's Tools
7. Potter
8. The Potter's Wheel
9. Pottery
II. METAL WORK
10. Smiths
(a) Coppersmith
(b) Goldsmith
III. OTHER INDUSTRIES
11. Spinning
12. Weaving
13. A Fuller's Work
14. Needlework: Em-
broidery
15. Dyeing
16. Tanning
Artisan industry in Biblical Palestine was mainly
concerned with the construction and furnishing of
the house and with the manufacture
I. In Gen- and care of personal apparel and arti-
eral. cles of adornment. Neither the O T,
however, nor the NT employs a com-
mon term to designate all its different forms. The
nearest approach to a group designation of the arti-
san industries is that in the word "trade," rt^vrj
(Ac 19 25, craft AV; also "art," Ac 17 20; craftsman,
Tixvirr)!, Ac 1924,38, harash, Dt 2715; rendered
smith in Is 13 19). The Hebrew term, however, in-
cludes only those arts which are concerned with the
carving of wood and metal: (1) lifirash 'ets, "car-
penter"; (2) harash n'hdsheth, "coppersmith"; (3)
tiarash barzd, "blacksmith"; (4) harash 'cbhcn,
"stone-mason."
1. CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT OF HOUSES:
The antiquity of the tent as a shelter from unpropi-
tious weather is beyond dispute. An an-
2. Tent- cient tradition traces it back to the very
making, origin of the human race (Gn 4 20). It
survived to the latest Biblical genera-
tion. Paul, Aquila, and Priscilla were tent-makers
(Ac 183). Just how the art of tent-making was
practised is learned from data outside the Bible. In
the most ancient times the materials used wen- the
skins of animals (Ex 35 23). Later tents were con-
structed out of a special kind of cloth woven
from goat's or camel's hair. The colors brown and
black seem to have been preferred for this purpose
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Arod
Artisan Life
(Song 15). The tends made in apnstolic times were
of Cilician cloth and used in the Roman army. The
cloth was woven to the required width, stitched to-
gether and provided with cords and loops and spread
over poles about 6 ft. in height and securely fastened
to the ground by tent-pins. (See HOUSEH, I, 1
and 2.)
The work of the mason (oftener in KV "builder,"
baiuih, I K518; Ex 3 10; Neh 4 5) in Palestine was
diverse according to the material he had
3. Mason- to use. For very ordinary puqioses
work. (houses for the poor) sun-burnt brick
similar to that used in Egypt was con-
sidered satisfactory. The frailty of such structures,
however, and their liability to the vicissitudes of
weather and to attack on the part of robbers (Mt 6 19,
724f.), rendered them less desirable for those who
could afford better ones (Job 4 19). Public build-
ings, such as the Temple, the royal palace, and many
private houses were constructed of stone. It is to
those who prepared the stone for such structures
that the name mason is more specifically given (hd-
rash 'ebhen, 'cutterof stone,' IIS 5 11; called "en-
graver in stone," Ex 28 n; hdrash qlr, IChl4l;
yiiilhar, 'maker of a wall,' II K 12 12, and hotscbh,
I Ch 22 2; or 'hewer,' IKS 15). Engraving, Ex 28
11, 21, etc., is literally the 'opening' of the stone.
Of the implements used in masonwork occasional
mention is made of the hammer (maqqebheth, I K
6 7), which, however, may be also the
4. Mason's tool used in the quarry in cutting the
Tools ; Mor- stone from its native rock (paftlsh,
tar. Is 417; Jer 2329). The plumb-line
C&nakh, Am 7 7 f.) and plummet (mish-
qoleth, II K 21 13; 'ebhen ha-b'dhll, Zee 4 10) were
evidently employed in securing straight vertical
lines, and the "measuring-line [rod]" (middah, Jer
31 39; Ezk 40 5; Zee 2 1) for the laying out of ground-
plans. The stones built into walls were held to-
gether by mortar (morter AV, homer = bitumen, in
Gnll3). But by mortar is meant probably also
something more than the equivalent to modern ce-
ment, namely, the plaster used to smooth the interior
of the walls of houses (Nah 3 14; Lv 14 42 f.). For this
purpose clay or lime and sand mixed with straw is
known to serve at the present day in the construc-
tion of Oriental houses. (On 21, see also HOUSE.)
Closely associated with the mason in the building
of houses was the carpenter (hdrash 'its, II S 5 11 ; II
K 22 6, T(KT<av, Mt 13 55). Carpenters
5. Carpen- assisted in building and repairing the
ter. Temple, I K 6 ff. ; II K 12 1 1, 22 6. But
the carpenter's art was oftener devoted
to the manufacture of the furniture of the house
and of wooden agricultural implements. The
range of his productions was therefore very wide,
including articles of the crudest form, benches, tables,
plows, and yokes (cf . Justin Martyr, Dial. c. Trypho.
88) as well as the nicest finished carvings, inlaid
work, and veneering (mi/jla'cith, IK618; pitfuhe,
I K 6 29). In the latter type of carpentry, the finer
woods often formed the materials (cedar, fir, and
olive), and opened the way for the development of
taste ami the be<;innings of the fine arts.
liesides the ax and hammer and measuring-line,
mentioned as used by the mason, suitable forms of
which were also used by the carpenter, the saw, the
plane, the pencil, scredh, mg. "redocher " (RV Oxf.
He. Lex. "stylus," Is 44 13), and compasses are dis-
tinctly alluded to. In finer carpentry the Israelites
were dependent not only in the earlier
6. The periods (I K 5 6h), but also as late as
Carpen- the date of Ezra (3 7) on the Phceni-
ter's Tools, eians for the best results. As far as
Palestine is concerned no great devel-
opment took place even to the latest day; and the
work done by Joseph, the husband of Mary (Mt
13 55), and by Jesus (Mk6 3), both called carpenters,
was of the general type above described. In any
case the occupation did not lead to the expectation
of a high degree of culture or intellectual training.
Next in importance to wooden furniture in the
house were earthen vessels (Lv 6 28, 11 33). These
were naturally numerous and of many
7. Potter, kinds and imply the existence of a large
industry. Potters were numerous
enough to organize into gilds (ICh423). The
name given to the potter (yHtser, Jer 18 2; I Ch 4 23;
Kipapfiis, Mt 27 7) also indicates that liis art was
looked upon as preeminently calling into activity
creative skill. Allusions are abundant to the pot-
ter's work in its various phases of progress. He
takes the clay furnished in the soil and treads it with
his feet (Is 41 25; cf. also Wis 15 7); he kneads it with
his hands like dough, puts it upon the wheel (Jer 18
3) and fashions out of it vessels according to his
pleasure. Even God's sovereignty is compared with
the potter's power to make out of the same clay
some vessels unto honor and some unto dishonor (Jer
18 C; Ro 9 21). When the form of the product is
satisfactory to him the potter fixes it permanently
by firing the clay. The process of glazing was also
evidently familiar (Pr 2623; Jer 192; Sir 3829 ff.).
The chief implement of the potter was his wheel,
or rather wheels (Jer 183," frames or seats, " A Vmg.).
These were circular slabs of wood so
8. The arranged that they could be made to
Potter's revolve in opposite directions. The
Wheel. potter controlled their motions by his
feet, thus leaving his hands free to do
the shaping of the clay, while the wheels were chan-
ging the face presented to him.
It is natural to suppose that such a necessary
industry as that of the potter should have had a con-
siderable history even in the simple
9. Pottery, conditions of Palestinian life. This as-
sumption is borne out by the results of
excavations on the site of the ancient Lachish
(Tell-el-Hesy), under the direction of Prof. Flinders
Petrie and Dr. F. J. Bliss in 1890-93 (cf. Petrie,
Tell-el-Hesy, 1901; Bliss, Mounds of Many Cities,
1894). These of late have been enriched by other
excavations at Tell-Zakarya, Tett-es-Safi, and Tett-
ej-Judeideh, especially under Stewart Macalister, at
Gezer (PEFQ, 1899-1900). From the discoveries
made in these places and some in Jerusalem (Bliss
and Dickie, Excav. in Jerus., 1898), it appears that
the history of pottery must be traced back to as
early a date as the 18th cent. B.C. Its first stage of
development has been called the Earlier Pre-Israel-
ite (Amorite). Bowls and jars, which Petrie thinks
show the influence of Libyan art, have been identified
Artisan Life
Asa
A STANDARD BIRI.K DICTIONARY
50
with this type. The second is the later Pro-Isra-
elite (Phoenician) and shows traces of Phoenician
influence. Its products are dated as between 1400
mid 1000 B.C. The third stage, called the Jewish
([better] Israelite), includes specimens of productions
of the years 1000 to 300. At the latter date the art
fell under the influence of Greek models and was
assimilated to the Greco-Roman type. For pottery
ons of war, such as swords and spears made of iron,
must have been early resorted to. In the later
portion of the period of Judges it was one of the con-
ditions which the victorious Philistines imposed upon
Israel, that no blacksmith should be allowed to ply
his trade in their territory, "lest the Hebrews make
them swords and spears" (I S 13 19).
The use of copper was probably developed in the
THE POTTER AT WORK.
as emblematic of frailty, cf. Is 29 16, 30 14, 41 25; Jer
19 l ff. It was into a piece of pottery that Jeremiah
(32 14) placed a deed of purchase.
II. METAL WORK: The working of metals is
traced back to Tubal Cain (Gn 4 22). Among the Ca-
naanites, it appears to have been com-
10. Smiths, mon in the period of the Judges ("they
had chariots of iron," Jg 1 19). From
there the Israelites may have learned the elements of
work in metals. The materials most commonly
used are gold, silver, copper, and iron (see METALS).
Of the method of working the lower metals nothing
is learned directly from the text of the O T and little
from without. The term forger used in Gn 4 22 ("in-
structor of every artificer," AV and RVmg., "whet-
ter," AVmg.) is in reality too obscure to serve as a
basis for investigation. The manufacture of weap-
Orient even earlier than that of iron. For practical
purposes, however, it was commonly used with some
alloy of tin or zinc (brass, bronze,
10 (a). Cop- n'hosheth, Job 282; Ezk 22l8ff.).
persmith. Brass is enumerated with gold and sil-
ver as if regarded one of the precious
metals (II S 8,10; Ezr 827; "copper" AV, "yel-
low brass" AVmg.); but it is not probable that
such enumeration indicates any great scarcity,
since copper-mines are known to have existed at
Sinai from the 3d dynasty of Egypt downward
(Petrie, Researches in Sinai, 1006). Moreover, the
list of articles manufactured from this metal is long,
including household utensils such as pots and pans
and other implements necessary in the construction
of furniture (cf. Ex 25 ff.; see TEMPLE. 18, 19);
also weapons of war such as shields, greaves,
1. Zir, l:trL'f \vaUT-jar.
2. ///.V//N/// /,.;'..//, Iar-_'f u al.-i -jar.
'.<,. ilishshi froWrt, large water-jar.
4. II i*ti.*fi.' .///.;/>, medium water-jar.
5. Mwihlns, ilnnkiiiL'-iiiiiLV
G. Jnrr:i.j:ii I'll ranynm ".-H'-i.
POTTBHT.
7. Jurril, girl's jar for i-anyiMi; \v:iti-r.
8. Dorak, cimlinK-jar.
9. 'Asli'ui', Hat drinking-flaak.
10. /'wi/;. ilriiikiiiK-jar with spout.
1 1. A" /'/'' l>it/unl<'i' , t\vo-li:tnilh''l pol.
1L>. Kiilri , i'iiokiim-|)"t.
14. .TabAkh, small brazier.
l.'i. it,',.ilnt 1 1 lini,li. milk-jug.
Hi. N//'/7'f. diinkinff-bottle.
17. /ilnlitjf, ili>li for fating.
15. H:'lnt tHuMl, milk-jug.
rmmi Hi- ^nvi.i DITMM i-i..!i C-..I1...-H..11 I" iirir..r.i T tortwl Bmli
57
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Artisan Life
Asa
javelins, and helmets (IS 175 ff.; IIS2235). InNT
times the mention of Alexander the Coppersmith (II
Ti 4 14) indicates the specialization of work in this
metal. (See also METALS.)
Gold and silver were imported into Palestine by
Solomon from Ophir (I K 9 20-28). But the art of
working them was introduced from
10 (b). Phoenicia. The accomplished gold-
Goldsmith, smith, refiner ('founder,' tsorcph, Jg
17 4), was one who knew how to sepa-
rate the pure metal from its alloy (Is 1 25) by melting
the ore in the refining pot (Pr 17 3) to purify it of
its dross (Pr 25 4, 26 27), and to fashion it into use-
ful and ornamental articles. The various ways of
working the precious metal are beating ("turned
work" RV, Ex 2518,31) with the hammer (ham-
mering), plating, overlaying (Ex 25 11, tsaph&h;
cf. also I K620ff.), soldering, debheq, Is 417,
"the goldsmith and he that smootheth with the
hammer, him that smiteth the anvil, saying of the
soldering [''sodering" AV], it is good." Casting,
i.e., forming into a given shape by pouring into a
mold the heated liquid, is also implied in such ex-
pressions as "molten image" (Nu 33 52; Hos 13 2;
cf. the distinction between "graven image" and
"molten image," Nah 1 14; II Ch 34 3, 4). Finally
gold was beaten into very thin plates, which were cut
into strips, or threads, and these again used in em-
broidering garments or woven into cloth (Ex 39 3,
286). (See also METALS.)
III. OTHER INDUSTRIES: Of the industries
which center about the manufacture of clothing, the
first in point of order is that of spinning.
11. Spin- The materials used were goat's hair,
ning. wool, and flax; but the process is that
familiar elsewhere in the world and the
implement the spindle, or distaff (Pr 31 19). Like-
wise, as among other people, this was work usually
done by women at home rather than in public shops
by men (Ex 35 25 f.).
Cloth for use in making garments was imported
from Egypt and Damascus (linen from the former,
damask from the latter, Ezk 27 7, 18;
12. Weav- II Ch 1 16). Babylon too had a repu-
ing. tation for work of superior quality in
this class. But Israel was not desti-
tute of its home productions. The Egyptian monu-
ments present the art of weaving with somewhat
crude implements. In Palestine these must have
been still more primitive. The shuttle is, how-
ever, especially mentioned (Job 7 6). The weaver's
beam (IS 17 7; IIS21 19), to which Goliath's spear
is compared in size, was the heavy post of the frame
to which the warp of the prospective cloth was fitted
in. Cloth was woven in lengths suited for one gar-
ment, not in large pieces from which parts might
be cut off according to need. When it is said that
Samuel's mother annually made him a robe it is
meant that she wove a single piece as above de-
scribed (IS 2 19). See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 4.
The fuller (kobhe?, II K 18 17; Is 7 3,
13. Fuller's 36 2, yvafaiis, Mk 9 3) took charge of
Work. the cleaning and bleaching of cloth.
He washed the material with a prepa-
ration of lye, beat or rubbed it and dried it in the
sun. For this purpose he must own or have use of an
open tract of land ("fuller's field"; cf. Is 7 3). From
samples of fulling work found in Egyptian graves it
is gathered that the art was highly developed,
Of the sewing of garments or the modern tailor's
art nothing is said in Scripture. Sewing (t&phar)
was probably limited to the repairing
14. Needle- (patching) of worn-out or torn ap-
Work : Em- parel (Ec 3 7; Mk 2 21) and the stitching
broidery, of one piece to another in case more
than one was to be used in making a
garment (Ezk 13 18; Gn 3 7). Needlework (ma'&slh
roqem, Ex 2636,2710, etc., "work of the embroid-
erer" RV; riqmah Jg 530; Ps 45 14, "broidered
work" RV) is rather the working in for ornamental
purposes of figures in colored thread or of silver and
gold strands on a background of woven cloth.
The art of dyeing must have been known in Israel;
but the only clear mention of it has reference to the
coloring of the skins of animals (Ex
15. Dyeing. 255, 2614). In AV "dyed attire"
(Ezk 23 15) is a mistranslation for
"flowing turban" (so RV). The "dyed garments"
of the conquering hero in Is 6.3 1 are more literally
his clothes steeped red in the blood of the foes he had
slain (so RVmg. "crimsoned").
The production of leather from the hides of ani-
mals was certainly a common industry in O T times,
but the only leather articles explicitly
16. Tan- mentioned are girdles (II K 1 8; cf. also
ning. Mt 3 4). To these sandals and thongs
must be added (Mk 6 9; Ac 12 8). In
the N T the employment appears distinctly in (he
well-known but unique case of " Simon a tanner "
(Ac 9 43, 10 6).
LITERATURE : Delitzsch, Jewish Artisan Life, etc. (Eng.
transl. 1883); S. Meyer, Arbeit u. Handwerk im Talmud
(1878): Benziger, Hebr. Arch. (1894), pp. 213 ff.. 224 ff.;
Nowack, Hebr. Arch. (1894) I, 239 ff., 251 ff., 265 ff.
A. C. Z.
ARTS, MAGICAL: Ac 19 19, Curious AV. See
MAGIC AND DIVINATION, 9.
ARUBBOTH, a-rub'both (H'r^K, 'drubboth): One
of Solomon's provision districts, probably including
much of W. Judah (I K 4 10). E. E. N.
ARTTMAH, a-ru'ma (H^IIIJ, 'arumah): A town
near Shechem (Jg 9 41). Map III, F 4. E. E. N.
ARVAD, Qr'vad (1J18, 'arwadh): A Phoenician
city on the Med. coast 125 m. N. of Tyre. The
inhabitants (Arvadites, Gn 10 18) are described in
Ezk 27 8, 11 as skilful seamen as well as good soldiers.
The city was in existence as late as the Maccabean
age (Aradus, I Mac 15 23). A. C. Z.
ARZA, Qr'za (S5T58, 'artsa'): Palace-overseer of
Elah, King of Israel (I K 16 9). Possibly an accom-
plice in the murder of the king which took place in
his house. E. E. N.
ASA, e'sa (XCX, 'a?a'): 1. Third king of Judah
(c. 917-876 B.C.), son of Maacah and brother of
Abijah. His reforming energy was great, and by
bringing sacred articles from other shrines to Jeru-
salem (I K 15 15) he enhanced the Temple's preemi-
nence. Fearing Baasha's blockade (I K 15 17 f.), he
purchased Aramean aid, thereby incurring prophetic
Asahel
Ashtaroth
\ STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
58
censure (II Ch 167), and bequeathing to his suc-
cessors a heritage of war. His defensive works were
long remembered (Jer 41 0). The Chronicler alone
records the invasion of Zenih (q.v.), the Ethiopian
(II('hl49), and perhaps implies a resort to the
Black Art in his final illness (II Ch 16 12). 2. A son
of Elkanah (see I Ch 9 1C). A. S. C.
ASAHEL, as'a-hel (^y;;, 'dsd'el), 'God does':
1. A son of Zeruiah, David's sister (I Ch 2 16).
With his brothers Joab and Abishai he was among
the earliest and most valiant of David's follow-
ers (IIS2324; I Chi 126). A. was especially re-
nowned for his fleetncss (II S2 18). The statement
in I Ch 27 7 that he was the "fourth captain for
the fourth month" in David's army is a mistake,
since A. was slain by Abner before David had organ-
ized his larger army. The death of A. at the hands
of Abner (II S 2 18-23) was an act of self-defense on
Abner's part, but was nevertheless avenged later by
Joab (II S 3 27-30). 2. A Levite under Jehoshaphat
(IIChl7s). 3. A Levite under Hezekiah (II Ch
31 13). 4. Father of Jonathan (Ezr 10 15).
E. E. N.
ASAIAH, Q-se'yfl (";'yi;, 'dsayah): '}" has made
(or done)': 1. A trusted servant of King Josiah
(Asahiah AV, II K 22 12, 14 = II Ch 34 20). 2. A Le-
vite (IChGSO, also 15 6 and 11?). 3. The ancestral
head of a branch of the Simeonites (I Ch 4 36-43).
4. A Shilonite (I Ch 9 5 - Maaseiah, Neh 11 S?).
ASAPH, e'saf : A Levite repeatedly named by the
later historians (Ezr 2 41, 310; Neh 7 44, 11 17, 22,
12 35, 46; I Ch 6 39, 9 15, 15 17, 19, 16 5, 7, 37, 25 1, 2, 6,
9 [26 1 ?] ; II Ch 5 12, 20 14, 29 13, 30, 35 15) as originally
one of the leaders of the Temple psalmody and the
founder of a family or gild of singers. His name
appears in the captions of twelve Psalms (50, 7383).
It is not clear what relation this shadowy personage
bears to the other Asaphs named (under Hezekiah,
II K 18, 18, 37; Is 36 3, 22, and after the Exile, Neh
2 8). The word (", 'asaph) means " collector" and
may be a title. See PSALMS AND Music.
W. S. P.
ASAREL, as'ci-rcl (Vs-'~H. 'dsar'fl, Asareel AV,
a-sfi're-el): An individual or clan (probably Caleb-
ite) of Judah (I Ch 4 16). E. E. N.
ASARELAH, as"n-ri'la. See ASHARELAH.
ASCALON. See ASHKELON.
ASCENT: A word applied to a natural ascent
as from a valley to a hill or mountain (e.g., Nu 34 4;
Jos 10 10; II S 15 30, etc.). In I K 10 5 - II Ch !) 4
we should probably read "the burnt offerings
which he offered" (RVing.). See also JERUSALEM,
23. E. E. N.
ASCENTS, SONGS OF. See PSALMS, 4.
ASENATH, as'e-nath (r^S, 'asnath): The Egyp-
tian wife of Joseph (Gn 4 1 45, 50, 46 20) ; the daughter
of the priest of On (Heliopolis). Her name is usually
explained as standing for Nes-\eith, i.e., who be-
longs to NYith, the goddess of Sais. J. F. McC.
ASER, e'ser ('Ao-ijp): The AV form in the N T for
Asher (q.v.) (Lk 2 36; Rev 7 a).
ASH. See PALESTINE, 21.
ASHAN, e'shan ("y7, '*/<;,), 'smoke': A Levit-
ical city (still unidentified) in western Judah (Jos
15 42; I Ch 6 59, called Ain in Jos 21 16). Bor-Ashan
(Chor-Ashan AV, I S 30 30) probably indicates the
same place. E. E. N.
ASHARELAH, ash"a-ri'la ("^N'tX., 'ishar'flfih,
Asarelah AV, as"a-ri'la): An 'Asaphite' musician
(I('h252). Called Jesharelah in ver. 14.
E. E. N.
ASHBEA, iish'be-a (1'?'^, 'tmhbe'a): The place
or family name of a Judahite family, weavers of fine
linen (ICh42l). E. E. N.
ASHBEL, ash'bel (b3ft<, 'ashbrl): The ancestral
head of the Ashbelites, a clan of Benjamin (Gn 46
21; Nu2638; IChSi). E. E. N.
ASHDOD, ash'ded (TT;-S, 'ashdodh): The mod-
ern Esdwl, located 3 m. from the sea almost mid-
way between Joppa and Gaza (Map I, B 8). It
was one of the five famous cities of the Philistines,
and the residence of Anakim (Jos 11 22). The city
was assigned to Judah (Jos 15 46 f.), but was prob-
ably not occupied until King Uzziah broke down its
walls (II Ch266). Thither the captured Ark of
God was carried by the Philistines and placed in
the temple of Dagon (I S5 l). About 760 B.C. the
prophet Amos denounced its inhabitants (1 8), and
in 711 B.C. the Assyrian tartan, or general, of Sargon
fought successfully against it (Is 20 1). According
to Herodotus (ii. 157), Psammetichus, King of Egypt,
besieged it for 29 years (c. 630 B.C.), only a remnant
surviving (Jer 25 20). When Nehemiah, in 445 B.C.,
attempted to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, the Ash-
dodites were among those who opposed him (Xeh
4 7f.). Both Judas Maccaba5us (c. 165 B.C.) and
his brother Jonathan (c. 148) sacked the city (I Mae
5 68, 10 84). It is mentioned once in the N T by
its Greek name Azotus in connection with Philip
(Ac 8 40). G. L. R.
ASHDOTH-PISGAH, ash"deth-piz'ga. See Pis-
OAH.
ASHER Pi'IJ, 'fisher), popularly taken to mean
'happy,' though possibly an old deity name: A
son of Zilpah, Leah's handmaid, and one of the tri-
bal ancestors of Israel (Gn30i2f.). See TRIBES, 4.
ASHERAH, a-shi'ra. See SEMITIC RELIGION,
111.
ASHES. See MOURNING CUSTOMS. 2.
lin^S, '<i.ihhur, Ashur AV):
father" of Tekoa (I Ch 2 24,
E. E. N.
See SEMITIC RELIGION,
ASHHUR, ash'ur
A Calebite (clan?),
45).
ASHIMA, a-shai'ma.
12.
ASHKELON, ash'ke-len (i*rX, 'ashq'lon): The
modern 'Askelnn, 12 m. N. of Gaza on the seacoast
(.Icr 47 7), was one of the five principal cities of the
Philistines (Map I, B 9). The city was luiilt on a
rocky amphitheater overlooking the sea. Extensive
59
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Ahtaroth
ruins of the town remain. It was the seat of the
worship of the fish goddess Derceto, with temple and
lake E. of the city. Judah is said to have captured
it (Jg 1 18; cf., however, the LXX reading; also Jos
13 3), but the Philistines still occupied it in the days
of Samson (Jg 14 19), of Samuel (I 86 17), and of
David (II S 1 20). Three prophets predicted its
overthrow (Jer 47 5; Zeph 2 4; Zee 9 5). It was cap-
tured twice by Jonathan the Maccabee (I Mac 10 86,
ASHRIEL, ash'ri-el. See ASRIKI*
ASHTAROTH, ash'ta-reth (nvi^J?, 'ashtOroth):
The plural form of the name of the goddess Ash tore th.
This is found as the name of a city (Jos 9 10, 12 4, 13
12, 31; I Ch 6 71) taken by Israel, before the passage
of the Jordan, from Og, King of Bashan. It is possi-
ble, but not probable, that the same city is meant
by Ashteroth-Karnaim (Gn 14 5), an abode of the
CAPTURE OF THE CASTLE OP ASHKKLON BY RAMEBES II.
11 60), by the Crusaders, and by Saladin. Herod
the Great was born there, and built it up (Jos. Wars,
1,2111). Its name seems to have been derived
from a characteristic product, a kind of onion, which
grew there, called shallot, or escallot, whence Ash-
kelon. Its inhabitants were called Ashkelonites
(Jos 133, Eshkalonites AV). G. L. R.
ASHKENAZ, ash'ke-naz. See ETHNOGRAPHY
AND ETHNOLOGY, 11.
ASHNAH, ash'na (H^rtf, 'ashnah): The name of
two cities in Judah (Jos 1.5 33, 43), not yet identi-
fied. E. E. N.
ASHPENAZ, ash'pe-naz (?i5!y8, 'ashp'nitz):
Chief of the eunuchs of Nebuchadrezzar (Dan
1 3). E. E. N.
Rephaim at the time of the invasion of Palestine by
Chedorlaomer of Elam and his vassals. Eusebius
and Jerome speak of two places bearing the latter
name, five Roman miles apart, in the Decapoh's.
One of these may be the modern Tell Ashtarah, 21
m. E. of the Lake of Galilee (see Map I, H 4). There
is also a Tell Ashari, 5 m. to the N. of the former.
Other sites have also been suggested for one or the
other. It is not known what sense was borne by
Karnaim as an epithet of Ashtaroth (of which Ash-
teroth is merely the construct form), nor is it clear
what was the force here of the plural form of the
name of the goddess. Similar place-names have
been found in Egyptian lists relating to Palestine
and in the Amarna tablets. Be-eshterah, probably
for Beth-eshterah, is mentioned in Jos 21 27 as a Levit-
ical city, and apparently as equivalent to Ashtaroth
Aahterathite
Asia Minor
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
60
of I Ch 6 71. The coincidence of the form with Tell
Ashtarah (see above) is worthy of attention.
J. F. McC.
ASHTERATHITE, ash'tg-rath-oit (VT/Tf ? 'ash-
frdlln), 'man of Ashteroth': The gentilic of Ash-
toreth, the home of Uzzia, one of David's heroes (I
Ch 11 44). E. E. N.
ASHTEROTH-KARNAIM, ash'te-reth-kflr-nS'-
im. See ASHTAROTH.
ASHTORETH, ash'to-reth. See SEMITIC RE-
LIGION, 14.
ASHUR, ash'Or. See ASHHUR.
ASHURITES, ash'Or-aits ("jl^, 'Ushuri): In
IIS29 the Massoretic text reads "Ashurites" in
the enumeration of districts subject to Ishbosheth.
This is perhaps a textual error for "Geshurites" (so
Vulg. and Syr.), the Aramean people N. of Gilead,
or, more probably, for " Asherites" (so the Targum),
i.e., the Israelites N. of the plain of Esdraelon. In
Ezk276 the AV rendering "company of Ashurites"
is wrong. The correct Heb. reading bith'ashshunm
means "in boxwood" (or some similar wood), as in
RV. E. E. N.
ASHVATH, ash'vath (njp, 'ashwath): A de-
scendant of Asher (I Ch 7 33).
ASIA. See ASIA MINOR, 2.
ASIA MINOR
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
1. General Introductory
Description
2. Asia
3. Bithynia
4. Cappadocia
5. Cilicia
6. Galatia
7. Lycaonia
8. Lycia
9. Lydia
10. Mysia
11. Pamphylia
12. Phrygia
13. Pisidia
14. Pontus
The meeting-place of the nations, and the scene
of great struggles between the East and the West,
was inhabited in prehistoric times by
I. General the Hittites, whose descendants were
Introduc- later known by the Greeks as "White
toryDe- Syrians." The Hittites have left traces
scription. of cities, palaces, rock-sculptures from
Pteria to Carchemish. They had a
system of writing and worshiped the Asiatic god-
dess or patroness of sexual instinct. True marriage
was unknown, girls gained dowries by prostitution,
which was a religious exercise and respectable. De-
scent was reckoned from the mother. The Hittites
built roads, and their road-system was inherited by
the Persians (see the 'royal road,' under Lycaonia,
| 7, below). The Phrygians and Bithynians began
to invade A. M. in the second half of the second mil-
lennium B.C. The Phrygians settled first in Troas,
then advanced to the Smyrna region, then to the
interior, where Midas-town became the capital.
Here are found indelible traces of Phrygian art and
civilization, in the rock-cut city and tombs of the
kings (Midas, Gordius) who greatly impressed the
Greeks. The invasions of the Cimmerians (8th and
7th cent. ) crushed the Phrygians. The Lydian king-
dom, which became independent of Phrygia about
716 B.C., and lasted to about 546 B.C., was in con-
stant intercourse with the Greeks. The Lydians
were great traders and amassed fabulous wealth
(Lydia, 9, below). Greek colonies, founded every-
where along the Asiatic seaboard (8th cent)., brought
Greek civilization to A. M., which sent back litera-
ture (Homer, Epos), art, and philosophy to Greece.
The colonies, weakened by luxury and intermarriage
with Asiatics, were conquered by Croesus (568 B.C.),
then, along with Lydia, by the Persians (546 B.C.).
Unassimilated by the Persians, they remained Greek
with Greek governors under Persian satraps. The
Ionian Revolt (500 B.C.) proved unsuccessful, but,
owing to the intervention of Athens, brought about
the Persian wars. Alexander destroyed the Persian
Empire (333-331 B.C.), and under his successors
A. M. was the scene of struggles for supremacy. The
kingdom of Pergamum, founded in 283 B.C., was
celebrated for its art and letters, great library, and
the invention of parchment. Its ruins are magnifi-
cent. Attalus III bequeathed the kingdom to the
Romans (133 B.C.). The Gauls under Brennus in-
vaded Greece and A. M. (to Syria), but were defeated
by Attalus I (230 B.C.) and settled in Galatia (below,
6). Seleucid kings founded many cities in A. M.
Their power was broken in 191 B.C. when A. M.
passed under Roman control (Asia, 2, below). The
Mithridatic wars by Lucullus (74-71 B.C.) and the
conquest of the Armenians and Cilician pirates by
Pompey (67 B.C.) completed the conquest by Rome.
The Roman provinces were: Asia, Cilicia, Lycia-
Pamphylia, Bithynia-Pontus, Galatia, and Cappa-
docia. Christianity spread with amazing rapidity
in Central 'A. M., and fixed the general use of the
Greek language.
The Roman Provincia Asia (Ac 16 6, 19 10, 22, 26;
I Co 16 19, etc.), organized after the death of Attalus
III of Pergamum in 133 B.C., com-
2. Asia, prised Mysia, Lydia (probably Caria
also), and the islands of the seaboard
including Astypalaea and Amorgos. Phrygia Major,
temporarily annexed in 116 B.C., was not perma-
nently incorporated until 49 B.C. Sulla reorganized
the province in 84 B.C. (the Sullan Era) ; In imperial
times A. belonged to the Senate, which elected as
annual governor a consularis with the title of pro-
consul (residence at first Pergamum, then Ephcsus),
under whom were three legati and one qiuzstor. The
kingdom of Attalus had included many free cities
(exempted from taxation). The Romans reduced
the number gradually under varying pretexts, until
Ilium alone preserved libertas and immunitas, i.e.,
the jus Italicum. A. was divided into nine judicial
districts (conventus): Laodicea ad Lycum, Syn-
nada, Apamea, Alabanda, Sardis, Smyrna, Ephesus,
Adramyttium, and Pergamum, though courts were
occasionally held elsewhere. A. was further divided
(144 B.C.) into 44 regianes (city districts), responsi-
ble for the taxes (a tenth in kind, exclusive of
customs duties and taxes on pasture-lands), which
were farmed out to Roman knights, until Caesar intro-
duced a fixed tax, less than a third of the former tax,
but producing 16,000 talents annually. Under the
61
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Aabterathite
Asia Minor
emperors each city paid a stipulated tax based on the
size and productivity of its district. The procurator
Augusti Provincia- Aniin was the tax commissioner
for the whole province; in each city he was repre-
sented by an exactor republican, to whom ten citizens
were personally responsible for the city's taxes.
The cities of A. retained their native institutions
(usually timocratical). But only citizens had a
voice in the eKK\r/<riai and magistrates alone might
introduce bills. The annually elected /SovXij, or coun-
cil, survived. The ytpovtrla, or Senate, had no po-
litical significance.. The \ayurrai (chosen by the
emperor) had charge of the city's finances. The
governor appointed the policemen, from a list sub-
mitted by the jSovXg. Tribal unions (xoivd) for the
worship of the tribal god flourished everywhere; the
KOIVOV 'Atrias (Commune Asia') instituted games and
cared especially for the worship of Roma and AUQUS-
tux: its delegates met yearly, wherever there were
provincial temples, to offer prayers for the emperor,
the Senate, and the Roman people, and to deliberate
on matters affecting the whole province; it might
criticize the proconsul and appeal to Rome ; its presi-
dent (called ap%ifp(i>s '\crias because of the pre-
dominating cult character of the KOIVOV 'Atrlat in
the imperial state religion) alone originated bills.
The games held on these occasions were also called
KOIVOV 'A<rlas, These unions ceased to exist when
Diocletian (297 A.D.) divided A. into seven prov-
inces. The Srifiot were individual cities, while an
f 9ms was a union of cities.
A. suffered greatly during the civil wars, especially
at the hands of Antony, but recovered rapidly and
was immensely wealthy during the first two cen-
turies of our era. Her woolen industries and dyeing
establishments (rugs and seamless garments) were
famous, as also were her banks (cf. Rev. 13).
The boundaries of Bithynia (Ac 167; I Pll)
varied much from time to time, but roughly speaking
it was separated from Asia on the S.
3. Bi- by the Rliyndacus and Sangarius, from
thynia. Pontus on the E. by the Parthenius.
In general mountainous, it has several
broad plains and one large river (Sangarius). It
still abounds in forests. In the Argonaut myth
B. is inhabited by Bebrycians, who were dis-
placed and absorbed by Thynian and Bithynian
Thracians at a time unknown to history. The Thra-
cians crossed the Bosporus gradually and maintained
their language and customs in their new home. The
name Bithynii, alone used in historical times, is an
expansion of Thynii. The Bithynians appear occa-
sionally in early history as an independent, warlike,
inhospitable people. In Persian times they were
still under native chieftains, whose power grew grad-
ually after the death of Alexander, when Zipoetes
defeated Lysimachus (297 B.C.) and Antiochus
(280 B.C.). His son, Nicomedes I, hired Gallic
mercenaries, subdued all Bithynia, founded Nico-
media (264 B.C.), and extended his kingdom. His
son Ziaelas and his grandson Prusias I continued his
policy. Prusias sided with Rome against Antiochus,
but Rome failed to confirm him in his possessions.
In the consequent war Hannibal led the Bithynian
troops, but had to surrender Phrygia Epictetus.
Prusias II, a weakling, was humbled by Rome, and
conquered by Attalus II, who placed Nicomedes II
on the throne. His son, Nicomedes III, was rein-
stated by the Romans, to whom he bequeathed his
kingdom in 74 B.C.
Besides Priapus, the native god of the Bebrycians,
the Bithynians worshiped Zeus on mountain-tops
under the name of Papas, the Phrygian Attis, Ares,
and the Thracian Bendis. B. was organized as a
Roman province (65 B.C.) by M. luncus, governor
of Asia, but after the annihilation of Mithridatcs by
Pompey (66 B.C.) Pontus was annexed to B. (Pon-
tus et Bithynia, 62 B.C.). B. belonged to the Senate,
and was governed in imperial times by a proconsul
of pretorian rank. Both B. and Pontus retained
their KOIVO, presided over by the dp^upevs Hovrov
and the apxitptiis Bti&vvias. The native legis-
lative bodies fiov\al, exfcXijaiaj, apxovra, remained in
power under the Romans, who, however, gave them
a timocratical character (Asia, 2, above).
Cappadocia, an Old Persian word katpa-tuka ('land
of Tucha'), applied by Persians to the country NE.
of the Taurus to the Euxine and from
4. Cappa- Lake Tatta to the Euphrates. The As-
docia. Syrians called all C. Tabal. The inhabi-
tants were also called Syrians, or White
Syrians, as contradistinguished from the darker-
hued natives of Syria (perhaps a folk-etymology).
The Cappadocians were Aryans, though probably
there were Semitic settlements in C. The country
was partially conquered by the Assyrians, probably
by Tiglath-pileser I (1115-1100 B.C.), certainly by
Shalmaneser II (859-825 B.C.), Sargon (722-705
B.C.), and Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.). The Per-
sians divided C. into two satrapies, which ultimately
became kingdoms: Cappadocia ad Taurum and Cap-
padocia ad Pontum (later simply Pontus). The An-
titaurus and the canon of the Sarus divide C. into
two halves: in the western half Mt. Arga;us rises to a
height of 13,100 ft., in Strabo's time a smoldering,
but now extinct, volcano. The whole surrounding
country is volcanic. There are deep beds of pumice-
stone overlain by lava, worn by erosion into lofty
cones (excavated into dwellings; the canon bluffs
are also excavated into thousands of chambers).
Many of these cones have Doric facades (temples),
while others display Byzantine architecture
(churches). The inhabitants are still troglodytes.
The whole region has but little water and few trees
(though it is the home of the apricot), and was always
thinly populated. In earliest times Tyana was the
chief city of western C. The plains of Tyana and the
Halys region are famous for fat-tailed sheep and for
horses (light roadsters, race-horses in Byzantine
times). Mazaca, residence of the Cappadocian
kings, later named Eusebia, was refounded by
Claudius and renamed Caesarea (still Kaisariye).
C. became a Roman frontier province in 1 7 A. D. and
was united with Armenia Minor in 72. Caesarea was
captured by Sapor in 268 A.D. It then contained
400,000 inhabitants, many of whom were massacred.
It was always prosperous, because it lay on the an-
cient and modern trade-routes. It became Christian
at an early period (I P 1 1). To the Church C. fur-
nished Gregory of Nazianzus and St. Basil. N.
of the Halys lies Pteria, a Hittite capital, on the
Persian royal road from Sardis to Susa. Here are
Asia Minor
A STAMiMM) 1UBLK DKTHiXMJV
great rock sculptures. Pteria was supplanted later
by Taviuiii. a trade-emporium and renter of the
Roman road-system. The eastern half of ('. was
known as Melitene, whose earliest capital, also
Melitcne (Assyrian, Melittu) on the Euphrates, was
the center of an Assyrian and Roman road-system.
The later capital of the Cappadocian priest-kings
was at Comana Aurea, in a narrow gorge. It was
tin' seat of the impure worship of the great Asiatic
goddess of fertility, here known as Ma. Six thou-
sand htcrixlinili served in her temple, practically as
religious prostitutes and suffered no disgrace by
such service.
By Cilicia was usually meant a country in south-
eastern Asia Minor, bounded on the E. by the Ama-
nus range, on the N. and the W. by the
5. Cilicia. Taurus range (Lycaonia, Isauria); but
in earliest times C. (Assyrian, Khilaku)
lay N. of the Taurus range, extending N. to beyond
the Halys River (Pteria) and E. to the Euphrates
(Melitene). Cilicia proper ('The Plain') was always
intensely fertile, populous, and wealthy. It is well
watered by the rivers Sarus, Pyramus, and Cydnus.
The coast is marshy. The climate is intensely hot in
summer, very malarious, and deadly to travelers.
The vegetation is rank (cotton, sugar-cane, tobacco,
dyestuffs, sesame, wheat, barley), with semitropical
trees (myrtle, oleander, fig, palm, orange, lemon,
citron). The marshes pasture great herds of cattle
and sheep. Western C., because mountainous, was
called 'Rugged Cilicia' (Tpa^fta, Tpaxa>Ts). Its
chief river is the Calycadnus, where the Emperor
BarbsroBsa was drowned.
C. (Assyrian, Que) was conquered by Assyria in
834 B.C. At that time Tarsus (Assyrian, Tarzi)
was its capital. Que was invaded by people from
Khilaku, who changed the name of the country from
Que to Cilicia, after their own name. C. became
an independent kingdom in 607 B.C., under native
princes, and was not conquered by the Persians till
c. 400 B.C. After experiencing many vicissitudes
C. became, with Lycia, a Roman province, 100 B.C.
It was reorganized by Pompey, 66 B.C., after his
defeat of Mithridates, and the pirates whom he set-
tled at Soli (Pompeiopolis). In 22 B.C. it became an
imperial province. Rugged Cilicia was long inde-
pendent, under native kings, whose residence was at
Olba. In 137 A.D., it formed one province, with
Lycaonia and Isauria, but was finally constituted a
province restricted to its natural limits by Vespa-
sian, with Tarsus as capital. C. is difficult of access
by land: on the N. the Cilician gates (a narrow crev-
asse-like cleft in Taurus 83 m. long) constitute a
dangerous, easily defended passage; on the E. are
the Syro-Cilician gates and the Amanic gates, less
difficult than the Cilician gates. Under Seleucid
kings many Greeks settled in Tarsus, which became
a center of trade and the seat of a school of philos-
ophy. (See TARSUS.)
The Gauls, or Celts, appeared on the Adriatic
coast about 300 B.C., and from 280 B.C. distracted
the Roman world under Belgius and
6. Galatia. Brennus. After the repulse of Brennus
at Thermopylae-Delphi, remnants of
the mutinous army under Lutarius and Leonnorius
crossed the Hellespont (278 B.C.) at the invitation of
Nicomedes I (278-250 B.C.; seeBithynia, 3, above),
helped him subdue Hithynia, then settled in Lydia,
Mysia, and Phrygia, whence they harassed west-
ern Asia Minor as far as Syria, which paid them trib-
ute. They were defeated by Aiitiochus I (281-261
B.C.) in one great battle (hence his title Soter, 'Sa-
vior' [f'fXa<raf]). They were afterward defeated by
Attalus I (about 235 B.C.), who confined them to a
part of Phrygia (from I'esMims to Tavium), thence-
forth known as (lalatia (from rXXot, TaXdroi)-
They were divided into three tribes: Tolistobogii (in
the Pessinus region), Tectosages (in the Ancyra re-
gion), Trocmi (in the Tavium region); each tribe
was subdivided into four tctrarchies; the twelve
tetrarclis were controlled by a Council of 300 to
judge cases of murder. This pasture-region famous
for its Angora goats and cats suited the Gallic pas-
toral nomads, who prospered, and, though defeated,
were independent and continued to be troublesome.
They became amalgamated with natives, and adopt-
ed the Greek language so rapidly though still speak-
ing Celtic in the time of Jerome that the Romans
called them Gallo-Graci. They fought with Antio-
ehus the Great against Rome and after his defeat (180
B.C.) they were conquered by Manlius, who placed
them under the suzerainty of Pergamum (q.v.). In
65 B.C. the tetrarch Deiotarus, Cicero's friend, was
aided by Pompey in return for services rendered
against Mithridates in suppressing the other eleven
tetrarchs; Pompey made Deiotarus king of G. He
died about 40 B.C., when Antony made Amyntas,
secretary and general of Deiotarus, king of G., Pi-
sidia, and parts of Lycaonia and Pamphylia in 36 B.C.
Amyntas annexed Derbe in 35 B.C. At his death
(25 B.C.) G. became a Roman province, with Ancyra
as the residence of the pretorian legate. This Pro-
vincia Galatia comprised G. proper (the kingdom of
Amyntas), and included portions of Phrygia, Lyca-
onia (Iconium, Lystra, Derbe), Isauria, and western
Pisidia to the Pamphylian frontier! Further terri-
tory was annexed to the Provincia Galatia from time
to time: the principality of Deiotarus Philadelphus
(western Paphlagonia) in 7 B.C., Sebastopolis in 2
B.C., Comana Pontica (Pontus Galaticus) in 35 A.D.
All this was the country known by Paul as Gtilatia
(see GALATIANS, EP. TO THE, 4). Pontus Pole-
moniacus was annexed in 63 A.D., Cappadoeia and
Armenia Minor in 72 A.D. About 72 A.D. the Pisid-
ian part of G. was given by Vespasian to Lycia-
Pamphylia, under a pretorian legate, while the
governor of G. was a consular legate. Trajan
(106) divided it into two provinces: (1) G. proper,
Paphlagonia, Lycaonia, and parts of Phrygia, and
Pisidia united under a pretorian legate. (2) Cappa-
doeia, Armenia Minor, Pontus (Galaticus, Polemoni-
acus, Cappadocius) under a consular legate. In 137
A.D. Lycaonia and Isauria were transferred to
Provincia Cilicia. Between 386 A.D. and 395 A.D.
Theodosius divided G. into Prima (capital, Ancyra)
and Secunda, or Salutaris (capital, Pessinus). G. is
now famous for its mohair. The inhabitants still
bear traces in their blue eyes and red hair of their
Celtic descent.
Lycaonia was situated on a high table-land (3,000
ft.) N. of the Taurus range. Its boundaries fluc-
tuated from time to time according to its varying
(Ci
A STANDARD BIHLK 1 >HTI< i\ \I!V
Ar,i;i Minor
political fortunes, but, in general L. was bounded by
Cappadocia, Phrygi:i, I'isidia, Isauria, and C'ilicia.
The northern part, in wliich Iconiuni is
7. Lycaonia. situated , is a vast, treeless, waterless
(wells reach water at a depth of 20-30
ft.) plain or steppe (frequent mirages); the rivers
that flow into this great land-loeked basin disap-
pear gradually and completely; the soil contains
much salt and in places is semi-barren, but in gen-
eral suitable lor pasturing vast herds of fat-tailed
sheep, of which Amyntas, King of Galatia (30-2.)
B.C.), had 300 herds. The Lycaonians were wild,
warlike border-men, who maintained their inde-
pendence in Persian times, but were conquered by
the Macedonians. Their ethnical affinities are un-
known. Luke's mention of the "speech of Lycao-
nia'' (Ac 14 11) means only that they did not speak
< heck in his day, and does not prove that the Lyca-
onians were neither Semitic nor Indo-European, as
has been assumed.
L. belonged to the Seleucids till 190 B.C., when it
was given to Pergamum. In 39 B.C. Polemon was
made king of L. and of a part of Cilicia by Antony,
but was transferred to the kingdom of Pontus in 38
B.C. In 35 B.C. Amyntas, King of Galatia ( 6,
above) defeated Antipater Derbetes, robber prince of
southern L. (see DERBE), and annexed his princi-
pality to Galatia. After the death of Amyntas (25
B.C.), most of L. passed with the kingdom of Ga-
latia into Roman hands, and along with Galatia
proper, parts of Phrygia, and western Pisidia to the
Pamphylian frontier, formed the Provincia Galatia
(see Galatia, 6, above).
The chief cities of L. were Iconium, Lystra, Derbe,
Laodicea Combusts, Laranda, Parlais. The whole
region S. of Iconium abounds in Christian inscrip-
tions and ruins of Christian churches. The Hittite
road from Pteria, via the Cilician Gates, to Tarsus
(the entire Hittite road -system: Sardis - Pteria-
Cilician Gates-Susa was known to Herodotus as the
"Royal Road") left L. to one side, though much of
her exports passed through the Cilician Gates. But
other roads led through the Tarsus passes direct
from L. to the seaboard at Anemurium, Celenderis,
Seleueia, along which the wheat, wool, and salt, the
chief products of L., were transported to the sea.
Said Pasha's new road to Seleueia follows the line of
one of these roads. Salt is made by crudest proc-
esses from the water of Lake Tatta (Tuz Giiil) in
sufficient quantities to supply all interior Asia
Minor.
Lycia (Ac 27 5) was bounded by Caria, Phrygia,
Pisidia, Pamphylia, and the sea. The country is
very mountainous, Mts. Cragus and
8. Lycia. Massacytus being over 10,000 ft. high,
Mt. Solyma (the 'ladder'), between
L. and Pamphylia, 8,000 ft. The views from such
alpine higlilands are the finest in Asia Minor.
The mountain valleys are fertile. There is only one
broad valley, that of the Xanthus, distinguished
for its fertility and its many cities. The ancient
name of L. was Milyas, which persisted only in the
northern highlands.
The first inhabitants of L., known as Solymi, who
were conquered by the Tramili (Tremil<r, Termilce),
were famed among the Greeks as builders of Cyclo-
pean walls in ( irceee; I hey have left proof of their cun-
ning in sculptures and rock-cut tombs which imitate
wood construction. The only mention of writing by
Homer is in connection with Bellerophon and L. The
numerous inscriptions in the Lycian language are
written in an alphabet, peculiar to L., but bused on
the Doric alphabet. Not any of them are very old
and they do not settle the nationality of the Lycians,
though they prove them to have been Aryans. It is
not known why the < .reeks called this |>eople Lycians
(Lcka in the Egyptian inscriptions). In Homer Lyc-
ians (Sarpedon, Glaucus) appear as allies of the Tro-
jans. The Lycians defended their freedom success-
fully against Cro2sus, but were conquered by the
Persians under Harpagus after a heroic resistance,
when the Xanthians cremated themselves and their
property rather than surrender. The Lycians joined
the Ionian revolt, were conquered, and became a Per-
sian satrapy. They sent 50 ships to Xerxes' fleet,
then joined the Athenian maritime league. They
readily submitted to Alexander. For a time they
belonged nominally to the Seleucids of Syria, but
practically from Alexander to 189 B.C. L. was an in-
dependent confederation of 23 republics (70 cities ), at
whose head stood the Lyciarch, assisted by a general
assembly, held at Xanthus, in which the six chief
cities (Xanthus, Patara, Pinara, Olympus, Myra,
Tlos) had two votes each. The internal affairs of
each city were managed by a council and general
assembly (see 2, above). In 189 B.C. L. was
given to Rhodes by the Romans, though it con-
tinued practically free. It is uncertain when L. be-
came a Roman province. It espoused the cause
of Caesar and was conquered by Brutus, when the
inhabitants of Xanthus again cremated themselves.
L. was given freedom by Antony, but in 43 A.D. it
was again a Roman province, under a legate ; about
72 A.D. Vespasian added Pamphylia to L., thus in-
stituting the Provincia Lycia-Pamphylia, under a
pretorian legate, which also included the western
end of Pisidia, that hitherto belonged to Galatia
(see 6, above). In Roman times L. had become
thoroughly Hellenized in speech and manners, and
her people were very prosperous, as the remains of
magnificent theaters and other buildings attest.
Lydia was named from Lydus, son of the sun-god
Attys. ' In Assyrian the Lydians were called Luddi
(660 B.C.). The earliest Greek name
9. Lydia. was Mreonia (in Homer, who calls its
capital Hyde, afterward Sardis). The
Greeks assigned two dynasties to L. in mythical
times: Attyadse and Sandonida;, or Heraclida'.
The Attyadae were descendants of Attys. Eusebius
says that Sardis was taken by the Cimmerians 1078
B.C., but as the Cimmerians did not appear till
about 670 B.C., the Cimmerians of Eusebius were
probably Hittites. With the decay of the Hittite
Empire the second mythical Lydian dynasty came
into power, the Sandonidce, so called because they
were descendants of the god Sandon. The founder
was Ninus, evidently a myth, because the Assyrians
never crossed the Halys River prior to the times of
Asshurbanipal; the same dynasty was called Herac-
lida (from Heracles and Omphale) by the Greeks.
It reigned for about 450 years, and was supplanted
by the Mermnada in the person of Gyges about 690
Asia Minor
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
64
B.C. Henceforth the name L. wu uied exohnively,
and the term Ma-onia was restricted to the "burnt"
(volcanic) region of the upper Ilennus. During
Gyges' reign the Cimmerian invasion took plaer.
Asshurbanipal aided Gyges (lilil) n.r.) and therefore
claimed suzerainty over L. Gyges was slain by the
Cimmerians (652 B.C.). Ardys, Gyges' son, was
tributary to Assyria. Alyattes (fourth Mermnad,
612-503 B.C.) expelled the Cimmerians, destroyed
the Phrygian Kmpire, and took the Greek cities of
the seaboard, allowing them to retain their native
institutions, though they paid tribute. He made L.
great and wealthy. Alyattes' son Creesus con-
quered all Asia Minor \V. of the llalys River (ex-
cept Lycia). He became famous for his wealth (his
gifts to Delphi alone aggregated $6,000,000). After
ruling 15 years, he was conquered by Cyrus (546
B.C.), who annexed L. to Persia, when Sardis became
the western capital of the Persian Empire. The
Lydians, who hitherto had been brave and warlike,
were made effeminate by the Persians. They were
natural merchants, devoted themselves to commerce,
and became business mediaries between Asia and
Greece. The ' Lydian market' was famous and fol-
lowed every army. They manufactured costly gar-
ments, rugs (Giordiz, Ushak), dyed woolen stuffs
(madder, Turkey red), cast bronze, and were the first
to coin money by stamping a rude ingot of electrum,
which Crcesus replaced by gold and silver. They were
musicians, and also kept the first inns. They grad-
ually lost their nationality and adopted the Greek
language. They inherited from the Hittitcs the
nature-worship of Cybele (also called Ma and the
Ephesian Diana [q.v.]) and the sun-god Attys, the
sun-husband of Cybele (Semitic Tammuz = Greek
Adonis), who mutilated himself and was therefore
served by eunuch priests. His death by a boar
meant that summer was slain by the boar-tusk of
winter.
Mt. Tmolus (6,000 ft. high) divides L. into two
regions. Famous fertile plains are the Cilbian,
Caystrian, and Hyrcanian. The rivers are the Ca-
ystrus, Hermus (tributaries Cyllus, Cogamus, Pac-
tolus). The Gygcean lake was noted; on its bank
were the earliest settlements of the Lydians, who
after their removal to Hyde-Sardis retained it as the
great national cemetery, whose pyramidal grave
monuments are still extant, among them the tomb
of Alyattes (200 ft. high, 381 yards in diameter).
After Alexander's death L. passed first to Antig-
onus (about 320 B.C.). Later, Achaeus was King
of Sardis (about 218 B.C.) until defeated by An-
tiochus (214 B.C.). In 189 B.C. L. was given by the
Romans to Eumenes, and at the death of Attalus
III of Pergamum (133 B.C.) it passed to Rome and
was incorporated into the Provinda Asia. The
plains of L. are very fertile. In ancient times they
produced wine and saffron. At present tobacco,
cotton, famous melons, and Tchaoosh grapes are
grown.
The chief cities of L. were Sardis (the capital and
the terminus of the Persian 'Royal Road'), Philadel-
phia, Thyatira, Magnesia ad Sipylum, Hypa-pa.
L. was Christianized at an early period as a result of
the labors of Paul and his companions.
Mysia, a country in the northwestern corner of
Asia Minor, whose boundaries fluctuated from time
to time, but, loosely speaking, was bounded by
Lydia (Mt. Temnus), Phrygia, and
10. Mysia. Bithynia (Mt. Olympus, 6,000 ft.). It
was divided into Troas (probably the
first settlement of the Thracian Briges, or Phryg-
ians, on Asiatic soil), Phrygia Parvaon the Propon-
tis (so named because subject to Plirygia when the
Greeks were founding colonies), .<Eolis (Greek colo-
nists), Teuthrania (Pergamum region), and M.
proper, which in Lydian and Persian times was con-
fined to the interior. The appellation Mysia was
not applied to all this territory until Pergamenian
and Roman times. The Mysians maintained their
tribal independence under the Persian kings, though
they were never really an independent nation. Their
origin is not positively known, but they are thought
to have been akin to the Lydians and Carians.
Their language was a combination of Phrygian and
Lydian. They appear first as allies of Troy. They
were conquered successively by Crossus, by the Per-
sians (nominally), and by Alexander, after whose
death M. passed to the Seleucids till 189 B.C., when
it was given by the Romans to Eumenes, King of
Pergamum. When in 133 B.C. Attalus III be-
queathed his kingdom to Rome M. became a part of
the Provinda Asia ( 2, above).
The interior of M. is a table-land, stepped by
mountains running E. and W. It was once covered
by forests, and had but few cities, but the whole sea-
board was dotted with cities colonized by Greeks
from EUca in ^Eolis to Cyzicus. The most impor-
tant city of the interior was Pergamum ; among those
on the coast were Cyzicus (on the Propontis, founded
by Miletus), Lampacus, Abydus, Alexandria Troas,
Assos, Adramyttium (now 6 m. inland), Myrina,
lira. The most famous mountains were Ida (5,750
ft.) in Troas, and Olympus (7,600 ft.). The largest
rivers were the Rhyndacus and Macestus, but the
most famous were the Scamander, Simoeis, Grani-
cus, Caicus. The inhabitants of M. were Phrygians,
Trojans, jEolian Greeks, and Mysians proper in the
interior: the latter were a pastoral folk, who played
but a small role in history.
Pamphylia, a name applied originally to the level
coastal plain lying between Lycia and Cilicia, S. of the
Taurus Mountains (Pisidia). The plain
11. Pam- is a chalky soil, being a deposit made
phylia. by rivers, with carbonate of lime,
which here, as in many places in Asia
Minor and Greece, is rapidly discharged, forming
land. The plain is about 75 in. long by 30 m. wii'e.
At an early period Greek colonies were founded at
Olbia (afterward Attalia) and Side, whose sphere of
influence was extended inland to Perga, Sillenus, and
Aspendus. The Pamphylians were never independ-
ent and never made their mark in history; they seem
to have been an admixture of aborigines (probably
of the same stock as the Cilicians ) and Greek colonist s ;
their language and institutions also were partly Greek,
partly barbarian. P. shared the varying fortunes of
Asia Minor; conquered by Alyattes, King of Lydia
(612-563), then successively by Persians, Macedo-
nians, Seleucids. After the defeat of Antiochus III
(190 B.C.) P. was presented by the Romans to At-
talus II, King of Pergamum, who made Attalia
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Alia Minor
(formerly Olbia) the capital of P. It passed, by
the will of Attalus III (133 B.C.), to Rome, but it
is not known just when P. was united with Cilicia
into a Roman province; it is known, however, that
Cicero was governor of Cilicia-Pamphylia-Cyprus.
For a short time P. was a part of the kingdom of
Amyntas of (ialatia (36-25 B.C.). It formed a proc-
uratorial province from 25 to 50 A.D. In 74 A.D.
Vespasian united Lycia and P. into one province, to
which ho addod the western end of Pisidia, the moun-
tainous country hitherto belonging to Galatia. Both
Cilicians and Pamphylians were notorious pirates,
whose chief center and slave-market was at Side.
These pirates were suppressed by Pompey (67 B.C.)
anil settled at Soli (Pompeiopolis) in Cilician terri-
tory. The chief cities were Olbia (Attalia), Side,
Perga, Sillenus, Aspcndus (excellent theater). Fa-
mous rivers were the Eurymedon (the scene of
Cimon's naval battle), the Cestrus (whose ultimate
source is the Egherdir lake, whose water flows under
the Taurus Mountains, and rises as the Cestrus, a
fact discovered by the present writer), Melas, Catar-
rhactes (or Duden Su, 'sinking river' it sinks twice,
a phenomenon common in Asia Minor and Greece).
In winter the Circassians now bring herds of horses
from mountains of Paphlagonia to pasture in plains
of Pamphylia. In summer the climate is deadly,
giving rise to pernicious fever.
The original boundaries of Phrygia were vague, but
in prehistoric times it included the whole western in-
terior of Asia Minor, extending through
12. Propontis to the Hellespont (Phrygia.
Phrygia. Parva). The Greeks considered the
Phrygians the primeval people, who
spoke the original language of man, while her kings
were peers of gods (Tantalus). The Phrygian king-
dom supplanted a part of the Hittite Empire (the
Hittite road, afterward the 'Royal Road' of the Per-
sians, passed near 'Midas-town'). P. was an inde-
pendent kingdom for a long time under Midas-
Gordius. The Cimmerians, 680-670 B.C. (Midas
committed suicide) held P. for about 80 years.
They were expelled by Alyattes (590-585 B.C.), who
annexed P. to Lydia, when the Halys became the
boundary between Lydia and Media (585 B.C.).
After the fall of Sardis (546 B.C.) P. was incor-
porated into the Persian Empire. After its con-
quest by Alexander it fell to Antigonus. After the
battle of Ipsus (301 B.C.), it belonged to the Seleu-
cids of Syria. The quartering of Gauls in P. by At-
talus I brought ruin to the country (see 6, above).
The western part of P. was annexed to Pergamum
in 189 (Phrygia Epictetus). It passed, by the will
of Attalus III (133), to Rome, and was incorporated
(120, after the death of Mithridates) into the prov-
ince of Asia ( 2, above).
The Phrygians were akin to the Greeks, who
thought them akin to the Armenians. They prob-
ably came from Europe via the Hellespont to Asia
Minor, though some may have come overland via
Armenia-Cappadocia. They were most famous in
prehistoric times (Homer, Troas, Sipylus, Sinope)
and made a tremendous impression on the Greek
mind (cf. Midas, Gordius, Marsyas, Olympus, the
flute). Their religion, too, had a great influence on
the Greeks; their chief deities were Cybele (Motor
Kubile [Phrygian designation of Cybele], the 'Asiatic-
Mother,' associated with the nature-worship of pro-
creative power in animals and plants) and hi.-r son-
husband the sun-god Sabazius-AUys (i.e., Tammuz,
the Greek Adonis). The sun-god slain by a boar rep-
resents summer slain by winter. Therefore, his au-
tumnal festivals were sad, accompanied by orgiastic
rites and self-mutilations, while in his spring festivals
frenzied joy prevailed at the reappearance of the god,
expressed by orgiastic dances, bacchanalian wander-
ings in forest to the music of the flute which was
therefore banished by Plato and Aristotle from their
republics. There was no real marriage, only tem-
porary unions. Women gained dowries by prosti-
tution before the deity, without losing caste, there-
fore descent was reckoned from the mother. These
orgiastic, obscene rites were adopted by and main-
tained a hold on common Greeks and Romans till a
late period. Meantime P. was converted to Chris-
tianity at an early period (entirely Christian by 300)
and abandoned what she had passed on to the Greco-
Romans. But their early training in mysticism
bore fruits in Montanism, which was strenuously
opposed by Abercius, the great Phrygian saint (a
real personage).
P. is a high plateau, given chiefly to agriculture
(now wheat and opium) and sheep. The Phrygians
invented not only the flute but farming implements
and wagons. Industries also flourished; especially
embroideries, rugs (still made in the Giordiz-Ushak
region). A rug-pattern appears on the tomb of
Midas. Monuments of Phrygian art are abundant at
'Midas-town,' on the tombs of the kings, on the
Acropolis, and at the fortified town hewn in the
rock (Pidgmish Kale, 'digged castle'). They used
the Greek alphabet, but the inscriptions are not fully
deciphered.
Pisidia was a district of southern Asia Minor. Its
boundaries fluctuated much at different times, es-
pecially in the western end. Loosely
13. Pisidia. speaking, it was bounded by Isauria,
Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lycia, Caria, and
Phrygia. The nationality of the Pisidians (first
mentioned by Xenophon) is uncertain. Some re-
gard them as Milyans (see Lycia, 8, above), others
as Solymi, but Strabo says that the language of the
Pisidians was distinct from that of the Solymi and
Lydians. They were brave, wild, lawless, liberty-
loving border-men, who made frequent predatory
incursions into neighboring territory. Though under
the Persians they nominally belonged to the Lydian
satrapy, they were never really conquered. They
offered a stubborn resistance to Alexander and con-
tinued to be governed by native dynasts, even when
nominally a part of a Roman province. Indeed, up
to 189 B.C. part of the western end of P. formed a
separate principality (capital Cibyra). It belonged
nominally to the Seleucids till 189 (the eastern end
till 102). Under the Pergamenian kings it was
united with Pamphylia. In 36 B.C. Antony made
Amyntas (former secretary and general of Deiotarus)
king of Galatia, western Pisidia, and parts of Lyca-
onia and Pamphylia. At the death of Amyntas (25
B.C.) his kingdom (including western P.) became a
Roman province with Ancyra as the residence of a
pretorian legate. In 44 A.D. the western end of P.
Asia Minor
Assyria
\ STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
was added to Phryiria a.s part, of Asia ( 2, above),
and in 72 A.D. to Lyeia-Pamphylia. (See also Gala-
tia, 6, above.)
In northern P. lies Lake Egherdir (30 m. long,
3,000 ft. above the sea), whose waters sink under the
Taurus Mts. and rise beneath Baulo as the Oestrus.
Other important rivers rising in P. and flowing
through deep narrow valleys are: the Catarrhactes
(Duden Su), the Eurymedon, and the Melas. P. is
a rugged, impassable, alpine country containing the
highest, peaks of the Taurus range with thrilling
scenery, and a salubrious climate on its elevated
table-lands. The memory of Paul's visit (see AN-
TIOCH, 1) is still preserved in a village named Baulo
(corruption of Paulus), on a lofty plateau above the
source of the Oestrus. The name was given to the
place probably because Paul rested some time in the
invigorating climate of Baulo, with its sublime views
(to cure malaria, the "thorn in the flesh"? See
also PAUL, 1). P., strangely enough, had many
important wealthy cities. The chief ones were: An-
tioch (q.v.), Sagalassus (on an elevated plateau at
the foot of an overhanging mountain), Crenma (on
very top of a lofty, inaccessible crag ; streets still clear
and distinct), Termessus, Selge, and Pednelissus (a
fortress on the Lycian frontier).
Educated Pisidians adopted the Greek language,
while the peasantry clung to the native tongue and
had but a smattering of Greek. P. contains many
magnificent ruins and Greek and Latin inscriptions,
chiefly of the Roman period.
Pontus means 'sea.' It is not an ethnic but a ter-
ritorial designation, applied after Alexander to the
country lying between the River Halys
14. Pontus. and Colchis, part of which originally be-
longed to Cappadocia (first known as
Cappadocia ad Pontum, i.e., 'toward the sea,' and
then simply Pontus for short); while the rest re-
mained independent under native dynasts. From
the 4th cent. B.C. P. was nominally Persian, one of
whose satraps, Ariobarzanes, assumed the title of
king, but the real importance of P. begins with the
kings of Persian stock named Mithridates. Mithri-
dates I (337) was expelled from Bithynia and killed
by Antigonus (302). Mithridates II (302-266)
extended his kingdom from Amastris-Ancyra to
the Tibareni. Mithridates III was busied in fighting
the invading Gauls (see Galatia and Phrygia, 6
and 12, above). Mithridates IV annexed Sinope.
Mithridates V (Euergetes), 156-121, rendered aid to
Rome in the third Punic war and received in return
a part of Phrygia. Mithridates VI (Eupator), the
Great, 12163, reigned over a kingdom which in-
cluded most of Asia Minor and extended around the
Black Sea to the Cimmarian Bosporus (Tauric Cher-
sonesus). Defeated and driven out of P. by Pompey
in 66, he retreated to Tauric Chersonesus, where, be-
sieged by his son Pharnaces, he committed suicide
(63 B.C.), which ended the kingdom of P. Nicomedes
III of Bithynia bequeathed his kingdom to Rome
(74 B.C.), and after the annihilation of Mithridates
(66) P. was annexed to Bithynia (62), and the com-
bined province was known as Bithynia et Pontus (a
senatorial province in 27 B.C.). The rest of Mithri-
dates' kingdom was given to native dynasts, and
Deiotarus (see Galatia, 6, above) received the west-
ern interior between the Iris and Halys rivers (Pon-
tus Galaticus). Pontux Polcmoniacus got its name
because it was given by Antony (36 B.C.) to Polemon
Kusesebcs of Laodlcca ad Lycum, part of whose king-
dom went with his widow Pythodoris (granddaugh-
ter of Antony) to Archelaus of Cappadocia (thence-
forth known as Pontus Cappodocius). Polemon II
inherited the throne of Pontus Polemoniacus, but
ceded the kingdom to Nero 63 A.D., when P. became
a separate province, but in 111 A.D. Pliny was con-
sular legate with proconsular power in Bithynia et
Pontus.
The people of P. were rude, warlike, barbarous,
and known in earliest, times by Greeks as "White
Syrians" (see Cappadocia, 4, above). In the 7th
and 6th cent. Greek colonies were established on the
coast, at Sinope, Amisus, Side, Themiscyra, Cerasus
('Cherry'), and Trapezus. The mountainous coun-
try is intersected by fertile plains of the Iris, Lycus,
and Thermodon rivers, in which were many native
cities: Amasia (in the Iris valley) was the birthplace
of Strabo, and capital of Mithridates VI and from 7
B.C. the resilience of the Roman governor. Comana
(in the Iris valley, called Pontica, to distinguish it
from Comana Aurea; see Cappadocia, 4, above)
was a seat of the worship of Ma, and the residence of
independent priest-kings (cf. the Amazon myth).
J. R. S. S.
ASIARCH, e'shi-arc ('Ao-iapx 1 ;*) : Brandis has
proved erroneous the identification (Marquardt,
Lightfoot, Ramsay) with the dp^iepfir 'Aerial and
has shown that the Asiarchs were not officials,
but delegates of individual cities to the provincial
congress (KOIVOV 'A<rias, Commune Asice; see ASIA
MINOR, 2). Therefore there might be several
at the same time in the same city ("chiefs of Asia,"
Acts 19 31 ; see Strabo, xiv, 649). The dignity could
be held along with a civil or religious office. It was
held for one year, not for life. The institution ceased
to exist at the end of the 3d cent., along with the
KOIVOV 'Atrias, when Diocletian divided the Provin-
cia Asia into seven provinces. The dignity was
much sought for and was perpetuated on coins and
inscriptions. Only the wealthy were eligible, for
besides other expenses Asiarchs had to institute
games and gladiatorial contests. J. R. S. S.
ASIEL, e'si-el (^*TS?2, 'dsi'el), 'God is [my] ma-
ker': A Simeonite "prince" (I Ch 4 35). E. E. N.
ASKELON, as'ke-len. See ASHKELON.
ASMOD-S5US, as"mo-dl'0s: An evil spirit men-
tioned in To 37 ff. See DEMONOLOGT, 3.
ASNAH, as'na (~JCS, 'asnah), 'thornbush': The
ancestral head of one of the families of the Nethinirn
(Ezr250). E. E. N.
ASNAPPER, as-nap'gr- See OSNAPPEB.
ASP. See PALESTINE, 26.
ASPATHA, as-pe'tha (S??C8, 'aspatha'): One of
Hainan's ten sons (Est 9 7).
E. E. N.
ASRIEL, as'ri-el ("]'?8, 'asrt'el): The ancestor
of the Manassite clan of Asrielites in Gilcad (Nu 26
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Alia Minor
Asiyria
31; Jos 172). The variant genealogical notice in
I Ch 7 14 (Ashriel AV) is probably a scribal error.
E. E. N.
ASS : The ass was domesticated very early and is
mentioned in the earliest literature of the O T as an
animal with which the Hebrews were well acquainted
and used extensively. The ox and the ass were the
two animals that the ordinary Israelite, as a farmer,
would be most likely to have (Ex 20 17, etc.). The
horse came into use in Israel at a comparatively late
period and then only as an animal for riding or for
war, not as a work-animal (of. the figures for the two
animals at the Return, Ezr 2 68 f.). The ass, on the
other hand, was used both for riding and for work.
The O T distinguishes between (1) the h&mor, the
male animal, the ordinary beast of burden (cf. Gn
42 26 ff., 49 14, etc.), also used for riding, frequently
by women (cf. Ex 4 20; Jos 15 18; I S 25 23). (2) The
'filliBn, the she-ass, a favorite for riding (Nu 22 21 ff.;
II K 4 22) ; white (or nearly so) she-asses were consid-
ered especially valuable (Jg 5 10). (3) The 'aylr or
ass's colt, i.e., probably a young in distinction from
an old, worn-out animal, finds frequent mention (Jg
10 4; Is 30 6, 24; ef. Mk 11 2 and ||; Jn 12 15). The
possessor of large herds of asses was a rich man (cf.
Gn 12 16, 32 15; Job 1 3, etc.).
The wild ass, pcre' and 'arodh, which goes in herds,
but also loves solitude (Hos 8 9), untamable, rejoi-
cing in its freedom (Job 39 S), is at home only in the
desert (Job 245; Jer 224). See also PALESTINE,
24. E. E. N.
ASSASSINS ("murderers" AV): The RV so ren-
ders trueaptoi, Sicarii (derived from sica, a curved
sword, small enough to be carried under the cloak),
meaning strictly 'daggermen.' They were a semi-
political party and were called "assassins" from
their promptly resorting to murder to accomplish
their ends. A band of such men led by the " Egyp-
tian" into the desert is referred to in Ac 21 38.
A. C. Z.
ASSEMBLY: I. In OT: (1) mOedh, an 'appointed'
meeting (I's 74 4; La 1 18, 2 6). (2) mOshabh, 'seat'
(Ps 107 32). (3) miqrn', 'convocation' (Is 1 13,48).
(4) fddh, 'circle of intimate friends' (Jer 6 11, 15 17).
(5) 'MAdA, an 'appointed' gathering (the "congrega-
tion" of Israel) ; in RV only in Pr 5 14. (6) 'dtscreth,
a 'compulsory' meeting, generally rendered "solemn
assembly" (Lv 23 3fi, etc.). (7) qahal, the ' assembly'
of Is. as a theocratic unit, frequently used with 6;
nearly always rendered "assembly" in RV (Kx 12 6,
163, etc.)- A derived word, q'hitlah, is used in Dt 33
4;Neh57.
II. In N T: (1) tVucXiprto, the concourse in the the-
ater (Ac 19 32, 41; cf. vcr. 39). (2) trvvaytay^, 'syna-
gogue,' i.e., church meeting (Ja 2 2). (3) iravriyvpis,
a 'whole assembly' (Heb 12 23). E. 11. X.
ASSHUR, ash'ur. See ASSYRIA, 1,2.
ASSHURIM, a-shu'rim. See ETHNOGRAPHY AND
ETHNOLOGY, 11.
ASSID^ANS, as"i-di'anz. See PHARISEES, 3.
ASSIR, as'er ("5X. Wir), 'captive': 1. The
name of two Levites (Ex 6 24 - I Ch 6 22 and I Cli
23,37). 2. InlChS 17, AV (asonof Jeconiah). But
RV has the more correct reading, "Jeconiah the
captive." I :. i:. \.
ASSOS, as'os ("Ao-o-os, Ac 20 13 f.): A town sit-
uated on a lofty hill on the southern coast of the
Troad. Its ruins are extensive. The docks at Con-
stantinople were constructed from its ancient build-
ings. The mole is still extant. Excavations have
been conducted here by the American Archeological
Institute. It is now called Bekhram, from a Byzan-
tine officer, Machram. J. R. S. S.
1. The Name
2. Earliest History
3. Nineveh and Its Group of Cities
4. National Character
5. Purity of Race
6. Periods of History
I. PERIOD OF DEPENDENCY
7. Dependence on Babylonia
ASSYRIA
ANALYSIS OP CONTENTS
II. STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY
8. Rivalry with Babylonia
9. First Contact with Israel
10. Attempts on the Weatland
III. ASSYRIA SUPREME IN SOUTHWEST
ASIA
11. Reorganization of the Em-
pire
12. Achievements of Tiglath-pileser III
13. The Work Done by Sargon
14. Sennacherib
15. The Acme of Power
16. Fall of Assyria
17. Importance of Assyrian Monu-
ments
18. Art and Religion
Assyria is the Gr. form of Heb. "fl8, Asshur,
which designates in O T, for the most part, the As-
syrian land and people, and also the
i. The extension of the kingdom as embracing
Name. the whole Assyrian Empire. In some
later writings, the empires succeeding
the Assyrian are referred to by the same name, e.g.,
the later Babylonian (Lam 5 6) and the Persian
(Kzr 6 22), the reason being that Assyria was the
original comprehensive type, and therefore a natural
representative of a great Asiatic empire.
Asshur was first of all the name of the patron
god of a community of Babylonian emigrants, who
named after him their first permanent settlement,
founded on the right bank of the Tigris, north of
its junction with the lower Zab. This city remained
for a time the principal seat of the new nation and
was always the chief frontier station toward the
south, the lower Zab being normally
2. Earliest the border of Assyria proper. Gradu-
History. ally the colonists moved northward ,
and passing the upper Zab they estab-
lished several fortresses between that river, the Tigris
itself, and the Zagros chain of mountains to the north.
The chief of these walled cities were
3. Nineveh Calah and Nineveh, which formed the
and Its center of the kingdom. This historical
Group of process is outlined in Gn 10 10, where
Cities. Nimrod (ef. ver. 9) represents the
eponymous founder (Mic 5 6) of Baby-
lonian and Assyrian civilization and history. "Out
of that land he went forth into Assyria, and built
Assyria
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
68
Nineveh mid Rehoboth-Ir and Calah and Kescn be-
tweeu Nineveh ami Calah." In this list Rehoboth-
Ir is probably a .suburb of Nineveh, and the site of
Rescii is unknown. No mention is mudc of the city
of Asslmr in the () T, perhaps because it had ceased
lo have any importance by the time when the He-
brew traditions took shape.
The Assyrians, as contrasted with the Babylonians,
were a more hardy, warlike, independent people,
with less general intellectual talent and
4. National enterprise, but with more political
Character, genius than the Babylonian or indeed
than any other branch of the Semitic
race. Their territory, being almost entirely moun-
tainous or rugged, though fertile, was not, upon
the whole, as productive as the Babylonian. The
struggle for existence was made keener by attacks
from robber bands of the northern and eastern
mountains. Wars on a larger scale with the (!ute
and the Kasshites, or Cosseans, of the S. and K.,
and with many tribes and nations of the N., such as
the Kurds, who still control the same region as of
old, trained them for systematic military operations
and gave these Romans of the East a discipline un-
precedented among Oriental peoples.
The Assyrians, in contrast with the Babylonians,
represented also the idea of Semitic independence
and exclusiveness. Their emigration
5. Purity was made either before or at the time of
of Race, the subjugation of Babylonia by the
Elamites. They successfully resisted
the attacks of the Cosseans, who later ruled in Baby-
lon for nearly six centuries. Then- religion, though
essentially Baby-
lonian, was less adul-
terated with foreign
elements. Their an-
cestors in N. Baby-
lonia were of that
genuine Semitic
stock which has left
no trace of 'Sume-
rian' influence either
politically or in its
oldest literary monu-
ments. Finally, the
numerous sculptured
representations of
Assyrian faces bear
an unmistakable
Semitic stamp.
The history of
Assyria may be divided into three periods marked
respectively: (1) by dependence upon Babylonia,
6 Periods ^ by a long stru &g le for supremacy,
of History ^ ^ *^ e a " ammen *' an ^ mainte-
" nance of preeminent dominion.
I. PERIOD OP DEPENDENCY. The first period
may be regarded also as a section of Babylonian
history, for not only Assyria but the
7. Depend- whole region W. to the Mediterranean
ence on was during most of the time under the
Babylonia, control of Babylonia. The relations of
friendship with the parent country were
undisturbed, as far as we know, during the centuries
between the founding of the colony, perhaps about
Head of an Assyrian.
2300 n.c.. and t lie era of the collapse of the old Baby-
lonian world-empire, about 1050 B.C., when Baby-
lonia proper came under the control of the non-Sem-
itic Cosseans. During this period the supreme rulers
wen? not 'kings.' but 'regents of the god Asshur.'
Such an appellation implies semi-independence of
Babylonia, which was wisely permitted under the
regime of Hammurabi and his successors. Complete
independence and the assumption of kingship on the
part, of the rulers probably came at last without any
violent break.
II. STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY. The second
period (c. 1650-745 B.C.) shows Assyria as a rival of
Babylonia and an increasingly aggres-
8. Rivalry si ve power generally. The Cossean dom-
with ination in Babylonia gave the Assyr-
Babylonia. ians the opportunity and justification
for proclaiming themselves heirs of the
old Babylonian dominion, and the great rulers of As-
syria speak of themselves frequently as successors of
the famous kings of the oldest dynasties of Babylonia.
The inheritance naturally included the right first of
all to the Mesopotamian territory through which
passed the highways of western traffic. This was se-
cured after several centuries of bitter conflict with the
growing Aramean settlements E. of the Euphrates.
Assyria on the whole became continually stronger and
Babylonia continually weaker. Already in the 12th
cent. B.C., under the great Tiglath-pileser I, Assyria
had, in addition to Mesopotamia, subdued the most
formidable nations or the northern and northwestern
highlands as far as Cappadocia, and Assyrian armies
had overrun Syria as far as the Phoenician coast-line.
But these efforts could not be repeated; and it was
not till the 10th cent, that they were systematically
resumed. Meanwhile the Arameans had founded
their great settlements W. of the Euphrates, and
Palestine had come largely under the control of the
Hebrews, while both Assyria and Babylonia were
enfeebled and inactive.
It was in consequence of another revival of As-
syrian power and aggression that Israel first came in
contact with the empire of the Tigris
9. First in 854 B.C. The situation created in
Contact that year was typical. Shalmaneser
with II (860-824 B.C.), whose annals are
Israel. engraved on the famous black obelisk
in the British Museum, was now king of
Assyria. He was repeating and extending the con-
quests of his father, the warlike and cruel Asshur-
nasirpal (885-860 B.C.). He was approaching
Hamath from the N., and a combination of twelve of
the western states was formed against him. The
lead was taken by Ben-hadad II, the king of Da-
mascus, by this time the most powerful nation on
the Mediterranean coast-land. Damascus was also
normally a bitter enemy of northern Israel ; but just
in that year the peace of Aphek (I K 20 36) had been
concluded, and Israel under Ahab is mentioned by
Shalmaneser as contributing a strong contingent
to the defensive force. Other peoples represented
were Ammonites and Arabians from E. of Palestine.
The battle which ensued was indecisive, but Shal-
maneser was interrupted in his march of conquest.
As a result of subsequent campaigns the Assyrians
succeeded in breaking the leadership of Damascus
60
A STANDARD BI1U.K DKTIOXARY
Assyria
in the W., so that in 842 Jehu, the usurping king of
Israel, found it to his interest to send gifts to Shal-
inancser and thus become an Assyrian
10. At- vassal. Assyria, however, was over-
tempts on straining herself, and Damascus had
the West- a reprieve from attack for forty years,
land. during which time the Syrians were
able to exert their strength, especially
under Hazael, against both Israel and Judah. But
the Aramean capital was at last taken in 797, and
never again became the seat of a first-class power.
The strength of Assyria, however, became exhausted
by strenuous attempts at extension in all directions,
and for nearly half a century it hail enough to do to
maintain its hold even upon Mesopotamia.
III. ASSYRIA SUPREME IN SOUTHWEST ASIA.
A series of insurrections in several important cen-
ters was ended in 745 B.C. by the ac-
ii. Reor- cession to the throne of the most origi-
ganization nal and far-seeing of Assyrian rulers,
of the Tiglath-pileser III (q.v.), also known
Empire, in the Bible by his Babylonian name of
Pul (II K 15 19). His policy was to put
all troublesome states under direct Assyrian adminis-
tration, and to hold the tributaries under a rigid
system of probation whereby sedition or intrigue
with outside peoples was punished with heavy fines
and increase of tribute. Such penalties were usu-
ally so severe that insurrection was resorted to for
relief, and direct annexation was the almost invari-
able reprisal. Thus the work of empire-building
was reduced to a system for the first time in the
world's history. His military policy was to keep in
check the northern and eastern mountain tribes by
occupying their territory, a process which involved
terrible and frequent wars; to make Assyrian prov-
inces of the recalcitrant states ; to make tributaries of
the rest by virtue of his rightful prerogative, since all
of them had at one time or another become vassals
or wards of Assyria; to bring Babylonia under As-
syrian control; and to make Nineveh the capital of
the Semitic world.
By 738 B.C. all northern and middle Syria had been
made an integral part of the Assyrian realm. In
that year Menahem of Israel bought off
12. Achieve- Tiglath-pileser with an immense sum of
ments of money (II K 15 17-20). In 734 the As-
Tiglath- Syrians returned to Palestine, where the
pileser III. new king Pekah had formed an alliance
against the invaders and attempted to
coerce Ahaz of Judah into joining the combination
(Is ch. 7). Ahaz sought Assyrian protection. Tig-
lath-pileser, within the next two years, dethroned
Pekah and put him to death, made a province of
Israel N. of the plain of Jezreel, took the city of Da-
mascus, extorted enormous tribute from the Phoe-
nician seaports, and appointed his own creatures to
rule over the Philistine cities (II K 15 29 fT.).
Hoshea, who was placed over the dismembered
kingdom of Israel, kept up tribute-paying till the
death of the great Assyrian, but he revolted at the
instigation of the Egyptian princes of the Delta in
724, the third year of Shalmaneser IV. Samaria
was at once invaded and was taken at the close of
722. The principal inhabitants were deported to
distant provinces of the empire (II K 17). The fall
of Samaria coincided with Die death of Shalmaneser
and thi' accession of Sargon, the founder of tin
and greatest Assyrian dynasty.
The reign of Sargon (722-705 H.C.) was almost as
important as that of Tigl:ith-pili-ser, since he con-
solidalcd and confirmed the work of
13. The the latter. During his reign the em-
Work pire assumed permanent shape and
Done by substantive existence. The west was
Sargon. carefully watched, and the way to
Egypt prepared and guarded. A re-
bellion in Ashdod was put down in 711 (cf. Is 20),
and Judah, now a recognized vassal state, was
warned against intriguing with Egypt and the Phi-
listines. More important was the work accom-
plished in Babylonia. There the priesthood of
Babylon had been favorable to Assyrian interven-
tion under Tiglath-pileser. But a formidable rival
had arisen in the south, by the Gulf, where the Chal-
dean chiefs were asserting their claims against all in-
truders (see BABYLONIA, 19). The famous Mero-
dach-baladan (q.v.) had, in fact, made himself
king of Babylon, and it was not until the twelfth
year of Sargon that he was dislodged. Sargon then
made himself regent of the country under the gods of
Babylon.
On the death of Sargon and the accession of his
son Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.) a great revolt was
set on foot. It was headed by Heze-
14. Sen- kiah of Judah in the west with the coop-
nacherib. eration of the Philistines and the back-
ing of Egypt. In 701 Sennacherib
invaded the country. The allies of Hezekiah were
defeated, Judah itself ravaged up to the gates of
Jerusalem, and many of its inhabitants carried into
exile, while the capital was saved only after a ter-
rible plague had decimated the Assyrian army when
about to invade Egypt (II K 18 13-19 37).
Politically this disaster to Assyria was only a mi-
nor incident, and Judah remained a vassal of As-
syria until the fall of Nineveh. Esar-
15. The haddon (681-668), the best of the
Acme of Assyrian kings, enlarged the empire by
Power, the annexation of Egypt. Asshur-
banipal (668-626) put down revolt in
Egypt, but had to relinquish its sovereignty in
or about 645 B.C. A great rebellion in Baby-
lonia, headed by Asshurbanipal's brother as vice-
roy, was put down with terrible severity, and Elam,
which had long opposed the Assyrian advances in
Babylonia, was finally conquered.
This rounded out the achievements of Assyrian
empire-building. But the majestic structure soon
began to fall apart through internal
16. Fall strain and the assaults of the Scythians
of Assyria, of the north ; and at last its corner-
stone, the mighty fortress of Nineveh,
was stormed by the soldiers of the new and virile
empire of the Medes (607 B.C.). Their allies, the
Chaldeans, who had already thrown off the Assyr-
ian yoke, succeeded to the headship of the Semitic
world and to the providential mission which Assyria
had unconsciously fulfilled.
The resurrected monuments of Assyria, abundant
and varied as they are, are perhaps of less impor-
tance to the student of civilization than the vast
Assyria
Astronomy
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
70
and ever-inrriMMiii; array of Babylonian antiquities.
They do, however, supply great defects and gaps
in the Babylonian records, partly be-
17. Im- cause the longer-lived nation had little
portance of taste for the chronicling of political
Assyrian and military events, and partly be-
Monu- cause much of the best Assyrian litera-
ments. ture consists of transcripts of invaluable
Babylonian documents whose originals
have not yet been found. On the other hand, the
Assyrian inscriptions, and especially the royal annals,
are the most valuable material illustrative of the
O T which antiquity has yielded up. By means of
them we have obtained a reliable framework for
Biblical chronology during the most important
period of Hebrew history, and the history itself dur-
ing the same period has been rearranged, read-
justed, and made organically intelligible. More
important still is the commentary upon O T proph-
ecy which they afford. For example, the records of
Assyrian warfare explain and vindicate the most
powerful exposure and arraignment of imperialistic
aggression ever made, and at the same time help us
to understand, better perhaps than any modern in-
stances, the other declaration of prophecy, that
vainglorious national ambition and even interna-
tional strife have a providential mission of chasten-
ing and humiliation. Perhaps most important of
all is that we are now shown by the Assyrian annals
how prophecy itself was conditioned by and shaped
in accordance with the successive movements of
Assyria upon the western lands, and the complica-
tions that resulted therefrom.
The Assyrian people in the arts of architecture
and sculpture alone excelled the contemporary
Babylonians. Of more importance to
18. Art and us is their religion, not only because it
Religion, affected the worship of Israel (II K 23
11 f. ; cf. IClOff.), but also because it
stands in such close causal relation with the political
and military system of the Assyrians themselves.
Just because the empire of the Tigris was a concen-
trated unit, ever striving to realize itself in action,
the cult of Asshur, the patron god of the Assyrians,
became more and more emphasized, as contrasted
with that of the other gods whom they worshiped
in common with the Babylonians, their political and
military rivals. It is true that the foundation of
their religious system was of Babylonian origin, and
certain of the gods, such as the theoretical supreme
triad, Anu, Bel, and Ea, Shamash the sun-god, Sin
the moon-god, Adad the thunder-god, and Ishtar the
deification of the female principle, were retained and
honored. But their own deity, Asshur, who was not
in the Babylonian pantheon, came to be looked on as
tlio potential possessor of all the moral attributes of
the other divinities. Thus there was in Assyria a
stronger tendency toward monotheism than in the
parent state, even when Marduk (or Merodach), the
god of the city of Babylon, became supreme in Baby-
lonia, the chief distinction being that while Marduk
was recognized as specially the patron of the capital
city, Asshur was always the god of the whole state
and indeed of the whole empire. Asshur was also
first and foremost a war-god, because war was the
most genuine and spontaneous expression of the na-
tional religion. Thus it happened that when Assyria
passed away as an empire the cult of Asshur was
ipso facto extinguished, while Marduk of Babylon
survived the political destruction of Semitism under
Cyrus and the Persians.
LITERATURE: For the history and civilization: Hommel,
Geschiehte Babyloniens und Assyriens, 1885-88; Tiele,
Babylonisch-Assyrischc Geschichle, 1886-88; Winckler,
Geschiehte Babylon-tens und Assyriens, 1892; Rogers, Hit-
lory of Babylonia and Assyria, 1900; for relations to the
Bible :Schrader. Die Kci/imti-hrillcn ttndtlasalte Testament
(2ded. 1883, Engl.tr. by Whitehouse, is referred toas COT;
3d ed., a new work, by Winckler and Zimmern, 1903) ;
McCurdy, History, Prophecy, and the Monuments, 1894-
1901 (containing also a connected political history of the
ancient Semites) ; -Price, The Monuments and the Old Tes-
tament, 1900; Pinches, The Old Testament in the Light of
the Records of Assyria and Babylonia, 1902; Delitzsch,
Babel und Bibel, 1903. For the general subject the best
resume's are Murison, Babylonia and Assyria (Bible Class
Primers), 1900, and the articles on "Assyria" and "Baby-
lonia" in EB by King; and for the religion, Jastrow, Ke-
ligion of Babylonia and Assyria, 1898.
J. F. McC.
ASTRONOMY AND ASTROLOGY
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
1. Scope and Nature
2. The Sun and Moon
3. The Stars
4. Constellations
5. Star of Bethlehem
6. Figurative Usage
7. Religious Interest
8. Star-Worship
9. Astrology
In the current cosmology of Biblical times, the
earth is not a part of the starry universe, but a flat
surface, on which the heavens rest like
I. Scope an inverted bowl. Astronomy does
and not therefore include an account of the
Nature, earth, but only of the heavenly bodies.
These were thought to be fixed in the
firmament, not absolutely, for they move along cer-
tain paths in definite periods (Jos 1012; Is 388),
and can be detached thence and fall (Mt 2429;
Rev 9 1). The whole view is not animated by
scientific interest and therefore can not be called
a theory. It takes cognizance of those facts only
which have practical bearings. This is true both
of the O T and the N T. Winckler's theory, that
the Semitic peoples, including the Hebrews, con-
ceived of the world and human history as con-
stituted upon and ruled by principles resident in
the heavenly bodies (see Winckler, Himmels und
Weltenbild der Babylonier, 1901; Die Babylonische
Weltschopfung, 1906) finds no support in Biblical
data.
The sun (shemesh, ijXios) is the most splendid
of God's works (Ps 19 S-7). Its course is continuous
and includes a section under the earth
2. The Sun traversed at night (Ec 1 5). It. is the
and Moon, source of heat and light for the earth.
Its darkening is the sign and expression
of great calamities. Hence, "the sun shall be dark-
ened at midday " may describe the occurrence of an
eclipse, always an occasion of superstitious dread
among unscientific peoples (Is 13 10; Jl 2 10; Am 8 9;
Mt2429; Mk 1324; Rev G 12). The moon (i/r,/..
poet., I'bhSnah, trf\^vn) is the substitute of the sun
for the night period (Gn 1 16; Ps 121 6, 1369)
Eclipses of the moon may be alluded to in the ex-
71
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Assyria
Astronomy
prrxsion ''the moon turned into blood" (J1231;
Rev 6 12).
Of the stars (kokhabhlm, aa-rtpes) as objects of
interest in themselves, no account is made. In
a small number of allusions, how-
3. The ever, it is possible to detect current
Stars. astronomical notions. The whole of
the starry firmament as a body is called
"the host of heaven" (Gn 21), though that phrase
does not always convey the same meaning (I K 22 19 ;
II Ch 18 18). Of individual stars, including planets,
Venus is mentioned under the name "Day Star"
("Lucifer, son of the morning" AV, Is 1412).
Saturn appears under the name of Chiun (Am 5 20;
AV and ERV, but ARV,"the shrine"). But the fact
that the star is alluded to as an object of worship
renders the reference to Saturn quite probable (cf.
also Ac 7 43, "Rephan," probably Saturn).
The grouping of the stars into constellations
appears in general (Is 13 10), and in the mention of
individual constellations as follows:
4. Constel- (1 ) Orion (h?ll, Am 5 8), which, ac-
lations. cording to the Semitic conception,
represents a slow-witted giant chained
to the skies; hence the question in Job 38 31, "Canst
thou loose the bands of Orion?" suggesting the im-
potence of man as compared with the omnipotence
of God (cf. also Job 9 9). (2) The Great Bear
('ash, Job 9 9, 38 32, Arcturus AV). In the latter
passage the sons of the Bear ("the train" RV) are
the three stars in the tail of the constellation. By
some, however, this constellation is identified with
the Pleiades, which is compared to a hen with her
brood. Schiapparelli argues convincingly (Astr. in
O T, 1905, p. 54 ff.) for the Hyades. (3) The Plei-
ades (klmah, Job 99) is identified by its desig-
nation as a compact group. From this view we get
the expression in Job 38 31, "Canst thou bind the
cluster ('chain' RVmg.) of the Pleiades?" making
the parallelism of the clauses perfect. (4) Mazzaroth
(Job 38 32). This seems to be not a constellation
(Corona Borealis, Hyades) nor the circle of the zodiac
(Job 38 32; AVmg. and RVmg.), with its twelve
signs, but the planet Venus or the planets collectively
(so II K 23 5, but mg. " the twelve signs"). (.5) The
Chambers of the South (hculhre theman, Job 9 9),
probably some constellation of the Southern hemi-
sphere. (6) The Swift Serpent (nahash barlah,
Job 26 13). There is some uncertainty as to whether
this phrase designates a constellation. It is certainly
the name of a celestial phenomenon, and, if a constel-
lation, it is probably the Dragon located between the
Great and the Little Bear. (7) In Job 37 9, though
EVV read "north," and mg. "scattering winds,"
there is reason to believe that the Hebrew m-zarlm
designates the two constellations of the northern
skies, the Great and the Little Bear (cf. Schiap-
parelli, p. 67 ff.).
5. Star The Star of Bethlehem (Mt 2 2 ff.)
of Bethle- has been sometimes interpreted as a
hem. conjunction of planets (Kepler; cf.
Munter, Stern d. Weisen, 1827), but
was more probably either a comet or a meteor.
Metaphorically, a star stands for a guide because
stars are so often taken as guides in travel at night,
and such expressions as "sun of righteousness"
(Mai 42), "the bright, morning star" (Rev 22 18)
are self-explanatory. The apocalyptic use of astro-
nomical facts includes such instances
6. Figura- as the "seven stars" (Rev 1 16 ff.),
tive Usage, symbols of the protecting spirit of the
Seven Churches; the great star Worm-
wood (Rev 8 10 f.), symbol of distress, and the moon
subjected to the Church (Rev 12 1) with others less
clear.
That astronomy is in the Bible geocentric has al-
ready been intimated. It might better be called
theocentric. It views the material
7. Relig- heavens as the handiwork of God and
ious Inter- the instrument of His pleasure in min-
est. istering to men. He rrcntcd them in
the beginning (Gn 1 1, 14 f.) in order to
be the means of lighting the earth and marking the
beginnings and endings of the seasons. They im-
press the mind by their multitude (Gn 155), their
brilliancy, their elevation above the earth (Pr 25 3;
Jer 31 37; Job 22 12). Poetically, they are conceived
as personal beings, declaring the glory of God (Ps
148 3-5). They sing together for joy and in many
other ways praise their Creator (Job 38 7).
This is in contrast with the ideas of the other
peoples of Biblical lands. These in most cases
worshiped the heavenly bodies. The
8. Star- contrast is all the more significant be-
Worship. cause it is certain that the cosmological
and astronomical ideas of the Hebrews
are vitally connected with those of Babylonia. The
faithful Israelite was taught that the heavenly
bodies as creatures could receive no homage from
men; but lest he should be too dull to perceive
that their creaturehood precluded their being wor-
shiped, he was explicitly forbidden to offer it (Dt
4 19). Violations of this law were severely de-
nounced by the prophets and prophetic writers (Jer
1913; Ezk 810; Zee 1 4f.; cf. also Ac 743, quoted
from Am 5 28, "star of the god Rephan").
Astrology is the art of interpreting the motions of
the heavenly bodies as portents of future events.
It was practised probably among the
9. Astrol- majority, if not all, of the nations
ogy. mentioned in the Bible; but like star-
worship it found no favorable soil in
Israel. Astrologers are spoken of as altogether out-
side of Israel. In Is 47 13 Babylon is challenged to
save herself from the doom merited by her sin and
invited to resort "to the astrologers ('dividers of the
heavens' RVmg.), the star-gazers, and monthly prog-
nosticators. " All these terms appear to be syn-
onymous and, as the words which follow indicate,
are different names of men who professed to foretell
the future by observing the stars. Jeremiah (10 2)
counsels Judah not to be "dismayed at the signs
of the heavens." Astrologers are named also in
Dn 1 20, 22 AV, but RV renders more correctly
"enchanters." The Hebrew word for astrologers
(hobhre shamayim, 'dividers of the heavens ') sug-
gests the method employed, which was the section-
ing of the firmament and assigning a particular
meaning to each section according to its relation to
the object sought to be foreshadowed.
LITERATURE: Schiapparelli, Astron. in O T (1906); M. A.
Stern, Die Slernbilder in Hiob 38". A. C. Z.
Asuppim
Atonement
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
73
ASUPPIM, d-sup'im (="5^, 'afuppim): In
I Ch 26 15, 17, AV, this word occurs as a proper
noun, but it is given more correctly in RV as "store-
house." E. E. N.
ASYNCRITUS, a-sin'cri-tus ('A<nWpiTor): A
Christian mentioned in Ro 16 14, to whom Paul sends
a salutation. ' M- T.
ATAD, e'tad (~y$v> ha'af&dh): "The[thrcshing]-
floor of Atad" (Gn 50 11 f.). Apart from the state-
ment that it lay "beyond (i.e., E. of) the Jordan"
no information is given of its locution. But this is
more likely a later addition, since to go from Egypt
to Hebron one has no cause to cross the Jordan.
E. E. N.
ATARAH, at'u-ra (~~V*!> 'tyarah): One of the
wives of Jerahmeel, perhaps a clan-name (I Ch 2 26).
E. E. N.
ATAROTH, at'a-roth (M'-y;;, 'itarSlh): 1. A
city of Moab, occupied by Gad (Nu 32 3, 34 and Stone
of Mesha, line 10). Map II, J 2. 2. A town on
the S. border of Ephraim (Jos 16 5, in 16 2 A. Addar).
Map III, E 5. 3. A town on the NE. border of
Ephraim (Jos 16 7). Site unknown. 4. Atroth-beth-
Joab, a locality belonging to the Calebites (I Ch 2 54).
6. A troth - Shophan, a town of Gad (Nu3235).
Site unknown. E. E. N.
ATER, e'ter C 1 ^, 'afer): 1. The ancestral head
of the 'sons' of Ater of Hezekiah, one of the large
families of returned exiles (Ezr 2 16; Neh 7 21, 10 17).
2. The ancestor of a family of gate-keepers (Ezr
2 42; Neh 7 45). E. E. N.
ATHACH, e'thac (T2, 'tthakh): A place in S.
Judah not yet identified (I S 30 30). E. E. N.
ATHAIAH, a-the'ya (~;?S, 'dthayah): A Ju-
dahite, the son of Uzziah (Neh 114). E. E. N.
ATHALIAH, ath"a-lai'a On^SX, ' Othalya.hu) ,' 3"
is great': 1. A daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, and
wife of Jehoram, King of Judah. She introduced the
worship of the Phoenician Baal into Judah. After
the death of her son Ahaziah (q.v.) she usurped the
throne, securing her position by murdering all the
seed-royal except Joash, the infant son of Ahaziah,
who was kept hidden in the Temple, under the tutel-
age of the priests, for six years. Finally Jehoiada,
the high priest, taking advantage of the change of
the palace guards on a Sabbath, assisted by the
guards, proclaimed Joash king and put Athaliah to
death (II Kill ff.). 2. A Benjamite who dwelt in
Jerusalem (see I Ch 8 26 and cf. ver. 28). 3. The
father of Jeshaiah who went up with Ezra from
Babylon (Ezr 8 7). J. A. K.
ATHARIM, ath'a-rim (="?S, 'dtharlm): The
only occurrence of this word (Nu 21 1) seems to
imply that it was a place-name. Its use with the
article, "the way of [the] Atharim," lias led some to
think of it as an appellative, e.g., "the way of the
spies," AV (which rests on a wrong reading), or the
'caravan way' (Dillmann). Both the meaning of the
word and the site remain uncertain. E. E. N.
ATHENS ('fidrjvai): The capital of Attica, first
called Cecropia from Cecrops (autochthonous
founder). Theseus (semimythical) united the out-
lying denies (Panathenaea). The Acropolis was the
seat of worship of Athene and the kings. After
Codrus the kings were replaced by archons chosen
from the family of Codrus, elected for life (1068-752
B.C.); then the archonship was open to Eupatrids
chosen for ten years (752-682 B.C.). Later, there
were nine annual archons chosen from the Eupa-
trids. The chief archon (eponymos) gave the name
to the year; the second (basileus) was chief priest;
the third (polemarchos) commanded the forces; the
other six were thesmothctce (legislators ). The Areopa-
gus was supreme in religious matters. Draco codified
the laws in 621 B.C., and Solon instituted the timoc-
racy in 594; 6,000 judges, chosen by lot, controlled
the officials, and a council of 400 aided the archons,
whose presidents were called prytanes. Pisistratus
the tyrant (561 B.C.) embellished A., patronized
literature and art, built the altar of the Twelve Gods
(center of the state), Enneacrounos, began the Olym-
pieum, finished the old Hecatompedon and other
buildings. Clisthenes reorganized the tribes in 508
B.C. A. sent twenty ships against Darius in 498 and
defeated the Persians at Marat hon in 490. Xerxes de-
stroyed A., but was defeated in 480 by Themistocles.
As head of the confederacy in 474 under Pericles, A.
enjoyed her 'golden age,' when the Parthenon, Pro-
pytea, Erechtheum, and Odeum were built. In spite
of the eloquence of Demosthenes, the liberties of
Greece were crushed at Cheronsea in 338 B.C. A.
was the great home of literature, art, and science and
taught the world everything worth knowing except
the science of government and religion. Paul's
work in A. (Ac 17 16-34) appears not to have been
very significant. J. R- S. S.
ATHLAI, ath'la-ai C/?2, 'athlaij): An Israelite
who had taken a foreign wife whom Ezra induced
him to divorce (Ezr 1028). E. E. N.
ATONEMENT: This word does not occur in the
RV of the N T and in the AV only at Ro 5 11. In
the O T it is often used to translate Hob. kaphar (see
PROPITIATION). The English word simply means
to make two people 'at one' who have been sepa-
rated. In theological discussion it is applied to the
means by which reconciliation between man and God
has actually been brought about (see RECONCILIA-
TION). The N T asserts that the person and work
of Christ, especially His sacrifice on the Cross (see
SACRIFICE), was that means (Mk 1045, 1424; Jn3
Hi., 10 15; Ac 3 26, 4 12; Ro 3 21-26, 8 3 f. ; He 9 14; IP
3 18; I Jn 4 10). The new fact this consciousness
of reconciliation with the living and holy God un-
doubtedly implies the forgiveness of sins. No other
religion has ever offered this as something within
reach of all men, not even the OT. It is the sub-
stance of the Gospel, the essence of Christian expe-
rience, the life of the Church. It was, as a mere
matter of history, produced by Jesus Christ : it is
to-day sustained by faith in His name, and so
spreads over the world.
No one doubts that the N T connects this new life
with the sacrifice of Christ. The problem before the
theologian is a triple one: (1) How does the NT
73
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Asuppim
Atonement
describe this connection between the Cross and the
forgiveness of sins? (2) What are the principles by
which theology can explain that connection in the
light of tho.se descriptions? (3) What authority
has this whole view over the modern mind and will?
The following classification of passages, not ex-
haustive, indicates the cliief methods of descri-
bing the relation of Christ's sacrifice to
I. N T forgiveness. Some passages belong to
Material, more than one group.
(a) The general idea that Christ
suffered for or in behalf of persons: I Th 5 9f. : Gal
220; IICoSHf.; Ro56-ll; I P 3 18; He29;Jn3
14-17, 10 15, 12 32 (.; I Jn 3 16. (6) The special idea
that His death was related in some way to our sins:
Ro 4 25, 5 8; I Co 15 3; Gal 1 4, 3 13; I P 2 24; He 9 28.
(c) Sacrificial allusions, in which Christ's death is
likened to that of the animals sacrificed under OT
laws, and generally connected directly with sins: Mt
2628; Ro 324-26, 59, 83; II Co 5 21 (cf. Lev 4 21
LXX); Eph 2 13; I PI 19; He 727, 9-10; Jn 129;
IJn 1 7, 2 2, 4 10; Rev 1 5 f., 7 14. (d) Terms imply-
ing purchase or ransom: Mk 10 45; I Th 1 10; Ro 3 24;
I Co 6 20; Eph 1 7; I Ti 2 5, 6; Tit 2 14; He 9 15; Rev
5 '9.
For many centuries little attention was given
by theology to the problems involved here. The
crude notion, founded on passages un-
2. Theories der (d), that a payment was made to
of the devil for man's release was never se-
Atonement. riously worked out and perished as soon
as the subject was earnestly consid-
ered. In the course of discussion, since Anselm
(1033-1109) definitely opened the problem, two
main classes of opinion have emerged: (a) Those,
called moral or subjective theories, which hold that
our dread and selfishness were the only obstacles to
reconciliation, and that Christ so manifested the
righteousness and love of God that men's hearts are
won to faith and obedience, (b) Those, called ob-
jective, or vicarious, or expiatory, which maintain
that in sin there lay an obstacle to God's offer of
mercy, that this obstacle was removed by the
sacrificial death of the God-man. Of course within
these two main groups there are many varieties of
opinions; and of some theories there is dispute as
to whether they belong more properly to (a) or to
(b). (For one of the best classifications of Atone-
ment Theories see Introduction to Dr. Simon's The
Redemption of Man; cf. Stevens, The Christian
Doctrine oj Salvation, Pt. II.)
Two extremes in each direction may well be con-
demned at once. On one side the notion that the
sufferings freely assumed by Christ and inflicted by
God form a quantitative equivalent over against
those due from man as penalty for sin, and that men
are saved by consenting to that transaction; on the
other side the notion that Christ's holy life and mar-
tyr death as of other prophets, but more power-
fully and widely stimulates the acts of repentance
and faith. The former is too shallow in its view of
the problem of forgiveness for God and the latter
too shallow in its view of the problem of repent-
ance for man.
An unhelpful distinction has lately been drawn
between ethical and forensic theories. The only
complete opposition to 'ethical' is 'mechanical.'
Punishment, substitution, vindication of righteous-
ness, etc., are ethical facts even when expressed in
terms of forensic procedure. On the other hand
'ethics' is in danger, if it be maintained that (.
love does not reckon with law, that God's holy char-
acter is not involved in the forgiveness of sin.
All truly Christian theories agree in the following
points: (a) God, the eternal Father in His holy
love, is the source of salvation, the sender of the Son.
(6) Christ in His sinless life, His complete self-sacri-
fice, has revealed God's holy love, (c) The con-
templation of Christ in life and death moves the
human heart to repentance and faith, hope and love.
But the objective, vicarious theories recognize in
the Scripture account elements of vital importance
which must be added to these. The unique empha-
sis on His Cross is due to unique values in His self-
sacrifice. Hence the following additional points are
to be noted: (d) The sinless Son of God did actually
experience the various results of sin in (1 ) the oppo-
sition and hatred of men; (2) His deep sorrow over
human wo; (3) His submission to death; (4) the
mysterious and awful clouding of the Father's face,
both in His various temptations partially (Mt 4 1-11;
Jn 12 27 ff. ; Mk 14 32-39), and on the Cross (Mk 15 34).
(e) This phase of His experience (even His death)
was not an incident in His calling as the revealer of
God, but the crowning work to which He had been
appointed by the Father (Mk 10 45, 14 24, 36; Jn 3
14-16, 10 17, 18, 27, 15 13; Ro 3 25 f., 58, 83; II Co
5 21; Coll 12-14, 20; He 5 5, 10; I P 1 17-21; IJn 4 9, 10)
and the ground of reconciliation on which pardon is
offered. (/) The necessity for this is found in that the
righteousness of God must be vindicated in the very
act of offering His mercy. The vindication is no
mere formality, nor does it consist in setting so
much suffering as equivalent of so much penalty.
It consists in fulfilling the righteousness which man
had broken, and in doing so at all costs to God
Himself in Christ His Son. To be utterly righteous
among men and for men Christ must die. In a
world of sin nothing short of that would be complete.
But to do this was to manifest the supreme holiness
of God's will, (g) This necessity existed on man's
side also. In every covenant the conscience of each
side judges for both sides. Man can not accept sin-
cerely a pardon whose righteousness is not as com-
pletely assured as its love. That which breaks the
heart of the penitent is not only the sight of God's
love, but of that love in all its stern righteousness a
love that sacrifices all not merely for mercy but also
for righteousness. The death on the Cross is there-
fore an act of God in which He dealt with the race as
a whole, with the general and eternal principles of a
righteous mercy, of a holy love. On that objective
basis the message, the call comes to each soul.
On these grounds the various NT forms of de-
scribing the work of Christ are interpretable without
prevarication, and an objective atonement is as di-
rectly applicable and potent to-day as in any past
generation.
LITERATDRE: (1) For Scripture material in addition to
works in Biblical theology, T. J. Crawford, The Doctrine
of Holy Scripture Respecting the Atonement (1871);
R. W. Dale, The Atonement (1880); A. Ritschl, Recht-
Atonement
Azubah
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
ftrtigiing und \'crsi>hnung,Vo\. II (1870-74); W. P. Du
Bose. The Sotcriologv o! the N T (1892); A. Seeberg, Der
Tod Chritsti, vie. (1895); J. Denney, The Death ot Christ
as Interpreted by the N T (1902). (2) For history of dis-
cussion, besides li;-i.ti u-> of the Church and of doctrm<\
A. Hit.-rlil. NfM. u. Vers., Vol. I (translated by John S.
Black. 1872); Geo. B. Stevens, The Christian Doctrine of
Salvation. Ft. II. (3) For direct discussion, besides
those described in the histories above named, the follow-
ing recent works: J. McLeod Campbell. The Nature <if
the Atonement. 5th ed. (1878); R. C. Moberly. Atonement
and Personality; D. W. Simon, Reconciliation by Incarna-
tion ; J. Scott Lidgett, The Spiritual Principle of the Atone-
ment. By various writers: The Atonement in Modern
Beliffious Thought; W. L. Walker, The Cross and the
Kingdom; J. Denney, The Atonement and the Modern-
Mind. (4) The larner works on systematic theology
usually roiitnin a review of (1), (2), as well as (3) see
Charles Hodge, Dorner, Kaftan, Gretillat, F. A. B.
Nitisch. W. D. M.
ATONEMENT, DAY OF. See FASTS AND
FEASTS, 9.
ATROTH-BETH-JOAB, at'reth - beth - j6'ab,
ATROTH-SHOPHAN, -sho'fon. See ATAROTH.
ATTAI, at'a-ai ("P3?, 'attay): 1. A descendant of
Jerachmeel (I Ch 2 35-30). 2. A Gadite (IChl211).
3. A son of Rehoboam (II Ch 11 20). E. E. N.
ATTALIA, Qt"Q-ll'a ('ArraXf.a): A city on the
coast of Pamphylia, founded by Attalus II on the
site of Olbia (159-138 B.C.), the metropolis of Pam-
phylia. It was an important seaport. Its ruins
include a gate of Hadrian and a tower of the Em-
press Julia. J. R. S. S.
ATTIRE. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS.
AUGURY. See MAGIC AND DIVINATION, 3.
AUGUSTAN BAND ((nrtlpa Se^ao-rij): Prob-
ably the special title of one of the five cohorts of
provincial troops stationed in Csesarea (Ac 27 1;
cf. Jos. Ant. XX, 87; CIL VI, No. 3,508). The
Italian Band (Ac 10 l) consisted of native Italian
troops (CIL III, Suppl. No. 13,483a). As the
presence of the latter in Syria is not attested before
69 A.D. (Arch. Epig. Mittheilungen XVII, 218), the
author of Ac may be guilty of an anachronism in
10 1. J. M. T.
AUGUSTUS, originally Caius Octavius, renamed
Cains Julius Cizsar Octavianus when adopted
by Ca;sar (47 B.C.), born 63 B.C., was the son of
Caius Octavius and Attia (niece of Csesar). He was
a student in Apollonia when Cassar was killed (44).
Though Caesar's heir, his property was refused him by
Antony. He defeated Antony (Mutina 43); became
consul in 43; and forming a triumvirate (with An-
tony and Lepidus), defeated Brutus and Cassius at
Philippi (42). In the distribution of provinces A.
received Italy, and Antony Asia. He defeated
Lepidus (36) and Antony at Actium (31). He was
now master of the Roman Empire. He organized a
standing army of 25 legions (300,000 men). Though
opposed to wars of conquest, he conquered Spain
(27-19), the Parthians (20), and the Germans
(16-9). His stepsons (mother Livia) were Tiberius
and Drusus. He adopted Tiberius (4 A.D.) and
died in 14 A.D., at the age of 76, having reigned 44
years. A. was cautious, mild, just, and forbearing;
founded colonies, built roads, enacted laws in the
interest of religion and morality. His autobiogra-
phy is given on the Monuincntum Ancyranum. On
the decree (Lk 2 l) see CHRONOLOGY OF N T, 1.
J. R. S. S.
AUL. See AWL.
AVA, e'va, AVIM, S'vim, AVITE, e'vait. See
AVVA, etc.
AVEN, 6'ven (})$, 'awen), 'trouble/ 'wickedness':
1. An Egyptian city (Ezk 30 17). Since the LXX
reads Heliopolis ('city of the Sun,' i.e., On), Ezokicl
probably wrote "X (On, cf. Gn 41 45, 50), which was
changed to Avon perhaps because of the meaning of
the word Aven. 2. In HoslOS (cf. ver. 5) "high
places of Aven" means probably 'high places of
idolatry' though many take it to refer to Bethel.
3. In Am 15" Valley of Aven " may indicate some
place in Syria not yet identified, or the name of a
deity. E. E. N.
AVENGER OF BLOOD. See BLOOD, AVEN-
GER OF.
AVITH, e'vith (H'W, ( &wlth~): An ancient capital
of Edom (Gn 36 35; I Ch 1 46). Site unknown.
E. E. N.
AVVA, av'va (X1J? ; HI?, 'awwah): A city some-
where in the Assyrian Empire whence colonists
(Avvites) were imported to Samaria (II K 17 24,
31, called Ivvah [Ivah AY] in II K 18 34, 19 13; Is
37 13). E. E. N.
AVVIM, av'vim, AVVITES, av'vaits (C'l?, 'aw-
wlm}: 1. An ancient people dispossessed of their
territory by the Caphtorim (Dt 2 23). In Jos 13 3
they are counted with the Philistines. 2. The Av-
vim (i.e., 'the ruins'), a place of Benjamin (Jos
18 23). Site unknown. E. E. N.
AWL (y5T32, martse'a, from J?X^!, rats'a. 'to
pierce'): A small boring instrument (Ex 210; Dt
15 17, aul AV). E. E. N
AWNING. See SHIPS AND NAVIGATION, 2.
AX, AXE. See ARTISAN LIFE, 6.
AZAL, e'zal. See AZEL II.
AZALIAH, az"a-lai'u (W^SJ?, 'dtsalyahu): The
father of Shaphan the scribe of Josiah, King of
Judah (II K 22 3; II Ch 34 8). E. E. N.
AZANIAH, az"a-nai'a (~
father of Jeshua (Neh 10 9).
'dzanyah): The
E. E. N.
AZAREL, az'a-rel (^IS, 'dzar'el, Azareel, Aza-
rael, AV), 'God helps': 1. One of David's followers
(IChl26). 2. A musician (I Ch 25 18, Uzziel in
ver. 4). 3. One of the sons of Jeroham, a prince of
the Danites under David (I Ch2722). 4. One of
the "sons of Bani" who had taken a foreign wife (Ezr
10 41). 6. A priest who dwelt in Jerusalem (Neh 11
13, 12 36). E. E. N.
AZARIAH, az"a-rai'a (!~;1U?., 'dzaryahu), '}"
hath helped': 1. KingofJudah. See UZZIAH. 2. A
75
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Atonement
Azubah
son of the Kohathites, an ancestor of the prophet
Samuel (ICh 6 36). 3. AsonofZadok, priest under
Solomon (I K42;cf. ICh69). 4. Sonof Nathan, an
officer at Solomon's court (I K 4 5). 6. A prophet,
sou of Oded, who met Asa returning from the defeat
of Zerah, the Ethiopian, and exhorted him to perse-
vere in his religious reforms (II Ch 15 1-8). 6. A son
of Jehoshaphat, massacred by his brother Jehoram
(II Ch 21 2 ff.). 7. The father of Amariah, high priest
under Jehoshaphat (I Ch 6 10; Ezr 7 3). 8. A son of
Jehoram (II Ch 22 6). But see AHAZIAH, 2. 9.
Two captains who assisted Jehoiada (II Ch 23 1 ff.).
10. A high priest, who withstood Uzziah's attempt
to desecrate the altar of incense (II Ch 2617, 20). 11.
An elder of Ephraim, who rebuked Pekah for taking
Judtean captives in the Syro-Ephraimitish war (II Ch
28 12 ff.). 12. Two Levites, active under Hezekiah
(II Ch 29 12). 13. Chief priest under Hezekiah (II
Ch 31 13). 14. A son of Hilkiah, and grandfather of
Ezra (I Ch 6 13; Ezr 7 1). 15. A Judsean leader who
opposed Jeremiah's counsels (Jer432). 16. Two
persons in the genealogy of Judah (I Ch 2 8, 38 f.).
17. A common name among the exiles who returned
(Neh 3 23, 7 7, 8 7, 10 2, 12 33). 18. The Hebrew
name of Abednego (q.v.) (Dn 1 6). J. A. K.
AZAZ, e'zaz (H?, 'azaz): A Reubenite, the son
of Shema (or Shemaiah) (I Ch 5 8). E. E. N.
AZAZEL, a-ze'zel (^IKJJJ, 'dza'zel), Scapegoat
AV, 'removal' RVmg. (Lv 16 8, 10, 26): A name used
in connection with one of the goats selected for the
service of the Day of Atonement (Lv 23 26 ff.). It-
is not, however, the name of the goat, for that was
entitled " unto Azazel " just as the other goat was en-
titled " unto Jehovah." Azazel must, therefore, be
the name either of the act of sending the goat away
into the wilderness or, preferably, of the person to
whom it was sent, possibly a demon in the wilderness.
Apart from this ceremony, however, it is not easy to
trace the existence of belief in such a person among
the Israelites, though it was common enough among
other peoples (Wellhausen, Reste Arab. Heid., pp.
135-140). In Israel it survived as a shadowy vestige
of primitive Semitic demonology and was used to
express the thought that sin belongs to a power or
principle hostile to J" and its complete purgation
must include its being sent back to its source.
A. C. Z.
AZAZIAH, az"a-zai'a (^}'S, 'dzazyahu), 'J"
is strong': 1. A musician (I Ch 1521). 2. The father
of Hoshea, prince of Ephraim, in the reign of David
(I Ch 27 20). 3. A Levite overseer of the tithes un-
der Hezekiah (II Ch 31 13). E. E. N.
AZBUK, az'buk (pl2JS, 'azbuq): The father of
Nehemiah, ruler of part of Beth-zur, who assisted
in rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem (Neh 3 16).
E. E. N.
AZEKAH, a-zi'ka (n^TJ|, 'dzeqah): A town in
NW. Judah. It is mentioned with Makkedah (Jos
10 10 f.) as a place to which Joshua pursued the
Canaanites at the battle of Gibeon. It is also men-
tioned with Socoh (Jos 15 35; IS 17l), but these
references are not clear enough to identify the site,
which remains uncertain. A. was fortified by Ilehc-
IMKUII (IlChllo), besieged by Nebuchadrezzar
(Jer 34 7), and reoccupied by the Jews after the
Exile (Neh 11 30). E. E. N.
AZEL, e'zel ("$$, 'atscl): A descendant of Jona-
than, son of Saul (I Ch 8 37 f., 9 43 f.). E. K. N.
AZEM, e'zem. See EZEM.
AZGAD, az'gad p;tj?, 'azgadh), 'Gad is strong,'
or 'fate is strong': The ancestral head of a large
family of post-exilic Jews (Ezr 2 12 = Neh 7 17; Ezr
8 12 = Neh 10 15). E. E. N.
AZIEL, e'zi-el (V?J?, 'tel'tl), 'God is (my)
strength': A Levite who played the psaltery and
who was chosen by David to play before the ark
(I Ch 15 20, Jaaziel in ver. 18). E. E. N.
AZIZA, a-zai'za (XJ'IK, 'Hzlza'), 'strong': One
of the "sons of Zattu" who had taken a strange
wife (Ezr 10 27). E. E. N.
AZMAVETH, az-me'veth (rtyptJ?, 'azmaweth),
'death is strong': I. 1. One of David's heroes (II S
23 31; I Ch 11 33). 2. A descendant of Saul (1 Ch
8 36, 9 42). 3. Apparently the father of certain fol-
lowers of David (I Ch 12 3). It is likely, however,
that a place-name is here used genealogically. See
II, below. 4. One of David's treasurers (I Ch 27 25).
II. The home of a colony of returned exiles (Ezr
2 24; Neh 12 29), called Beth Azmaveth in Neh 7 28.
It lay a little N. of Anathoth, Map II, F 1.
E. E. N.
AZMON, az'me-n (]to22 , 'atsmSn): A town on the
S. border of Judah (Nu 34 4 f. ; Jos 15 4) called Ezem
(Azem AV) in Jos 1529, 193; I Ch 429. Site un-
known. E. E. N.
AZNOTH-TABOR, az"neth-t6'bSr (Tin
'aznoth tabhor), 'ears of Tabor': A place, probably
hills, near Mt. Tabor on the border of Naphtali (Jos
19 34). E. E. N.
AZOR, e'zor ('Af<p): One of Christ's ancestors;
son of Eliakim (Mt 1 13). E. E. N.
AZOTUS, Q-zo'tus. See ASHDOD.
AZRIEL, az'ri-el (VS'I'.S, 'azri'el), 'God is (my)
help": 1. A chieftain of the half tribe of ManassehE.
of Jordan (I Ch 5 24). 2. The official head of the
tribe of Naphtali under David (I Ch 27 19). 3. The
father of Seraiah (Jer 36 26). E. E. N.
AZRIKAM, az-roi'kam (=^"!U', 'azriqam): 1. A
descendant of David (I Ch 3 23). 2. A descendant
of Saul (I Ch 8 38, 9 44). 3. A Levite (I Ch 9 14; Neh
11 15). 4. An officer of Ahaz (II Ch 28 7).
E. E. N.
AZUBAH, a-zu'ba (<i;it;J, 'fcubhah), 'forsaken':!.
The wife of Caleb (I Ch 2 18 f . ). If A. is a place-name,
it may indicate that it was once occupied by Caleb-
ites and afterward deserted. 2. The mother of King
Jehoshaphat (I K 22 42; II Ch 20 31). E. E. N.
Azur
Babylon
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
76
AZUR, e'zOr. See AZZUR.
AZZAH, az'za. See GAZA.
AZZAN, uz'zun Cjii', 'azzan), 'strong': The
father of Paltiel, prince of Issachar (Nu 34 26).
E. E. N.
AZZUR, az'zur (~VS, 'azzur, 'helped 1 : 1. The
father of Ilaiianiah, the prophet of Gibeon (Jer28 1,
Azur AV). 2. The father of Jaazaniah, a prince of
i he people (K/.k 11 l, Azur AV, same as 1 [?]). 3.
One of the signers of the covenant (Neh 10 17).
E. E. N.
B
BAAL, be'al or bQ'ql. I. Significance of the
term: The word Ba'al (???) occurs many times in
the Heb. OT with various meanings. 1. In the
sense of ' master ' or ' owner,' as in Ex 21 28, 34; Jg
1922; Is 16 8. 2. In the sense of ' husband, 'as in Ex
21 3; II S 11 26; see esp. Hos 2 16. 3. To denote the
inhabitants or men of a town, as in Jg 9 2 f. 4. To
denote one who is skilled in some practise or inti-
mately connected with some particular thing (cf.
RVmg. at Gn 37 19). 6. As the name of the Sem-
itic deity Baal (see SEMITIC RELIGION, 15).
6. In compound personal or place-names. In per-
sonal names Baal referred to the deity. Such
compounds were very common among the Phosni-
cians and Canaanites. In Israelitic personal names
compounded with Baal the term was used as the
equivalent of Jehovah i.e., Jehovah was called
Baal. He was -the maker, owner, lord. In later
times (after the 8th cent.) such compounds were
viewed with disfavor. Place-names compounded
with Baal are ancient and in such "Baal" stood
for the local deity. II. 1. A Reubenite (I Ch 5 5).
2. A Benjamite (I Ch 8 30=9 36). III. A town in
the S. of Judah, called Bealoth (Jos 15 24), als >
Baalath-beer in the list of the cities of Simeon
(Jos 19 8), where it seems to be identified with
Raman of the South. Aside from the fact that it
was somewhere on the border of Simeon's territory
(ICh433) its site is altogether unknown.
E. E. N.
BAALAH, be'a-la (nVj;2, ba'dlah): 1. A city on
the N. border of Judah (Jos 15 9 f.; I Ch 13 6), also
called Baale-judah (II S 6 2), Kiriathbaal (Jos 15
60), and Kiriath-jearim (q.v.). 2. A city in the S.
of Judah (Jos 15 29), also called Balah (Jos 19 3) and
Bilhah (I Ch 4 29), and counted as belonging to Sim-
eon. Site unknown. 3. A range of hills between
Ekron and Jabneel (Jos 15 ll). For general location
see Map III, C 5. E. E. N.
BAALAH, be'a-la, BAALATH, be'al-ath: Vari-
ant forms of Baal. See BAAL, III.
BAALATH-BEER, be'ol-ath-bi'er. See BAAL, III.
BAAL-BERITH, -bi'rith (rn? bsi, ba'al b'rith),
'Baal of the covenant': The name of the Canaan-
ite deity of Shechem (Jg 8 33, 9 4), called Elberith
in 9 46. What the 'covenant' referred to in the
name was is uncertain. There is no evidence
that it was a covenant between the original (Ca-
naanite) inhabitants of Shechem and the Israelites.
This Baal had a temple at Shechem which, like most
pagan temples, served as the treasury of the com-
munity. E. E. N.
BAALE-JUDAH, be'al-i-ju'da. See BAALAH, I.
BAAL-GAD, -gad (" "?>'2, ba'al gadh), 'Baal of
good fortune': A place in the valley of Lebanon (Jos
11 17, 12 7), "under Mt. Hermon" (13 5). In these
passages it marks the N. limit of Israel's conquest of
Canaan. Though often identified with Dan (Ba-
nios) its site is uncertain. E. E. N.
BAAL-HAMON, -he/mon fi^H bl>2, ba'al
hamdn): A place mentioned in Song 8 11. The
location is unknown. E. E. N.
BAAL-HANAN, -he'nan ()Jn b'jl, ba'al hanan),
'Baal was gracious': comp. the Carthaginian name
Hannibal. 1. The seventh king of Edom (Gn 36 38 f.
= I Ch 1 49 f.). 2. An official under David (I Ch 27
28). E. E. N.
BAAL-HAZOR, -he'zor (TiSn Vl'2, ba'al hatsor):
A town in Ephraim, where Absalom had a sheep-
range (II S 13 23). Probably the hilltop Tett 'Asur.
Map III, F 5. E. E. N.
BAAL-HERMON, -her'men flftnn Vi'2, ba'al
herman): A town or place near Mt. Hermon (Jg3 3;
I Ch 5 23). Perhaps the same as Baal-Gad (cf. Jos
135). E. E. N.
BAALI, be'al-ai: Used as an appellation of S'' in
Hos 2 16. See BAAL, I, 2. E. E. N.
BAALIM, be'al-im. See SEMITIC RELIGION, 15.
BAALIS, be'al-is (C-Vi'2, ba''tt?): A king of the
Ammonites (Jer 40 14). E. E. N.
BAAL-MEON, -mi'on G<r: u i'2, ba'al m-'ore),'The
Baal of Meon' ('the dwelling'?) : A prominent town of
Moab (cf. Ezk 25 9), assigned to Reuben (Nu 32 38;
I Ch 5 8 ; Jos 13 17, where it is called Beth-baal-meon).
It is called Beth-meon in Jer 48 23 and Beon in Nu
32 3. In the inscription of Mesha (q.v.) it is called
Beth-baal-meon and represented as "built" (cf. Nu
32 38), i.e., 'built up' or 'fortified' by Mesha. Map
II, J 1. E. E. N.
BAAL-PEOR, -pi'er (Itti? b?2, ba'al p-'or), 'The
Baal of Peor': The god who was worshiped at the
Moabite town, or place, Peor (cf. Nu 23 28). The
deity was probably Chemosh, the national deity of
the Moabites. During Israel's sojourn in Moabite
territory, the Israelites were drawn away by Moabite
women to the corrupt worship of the deity (Nu 25 3;
Dt 4 3; Ps 106 28; Hos 9 10). See also PEOR.
E. E. N.
BAAL-PERAZIM, -pe-re'zim (C-S'r"^ 1 '?. ba'al
p*ratsim), 'Baal of [the deeds of] breaking through':
77
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Azur
Babylon
The scene of one of David's victories over the Philis-
tines (II S 5 20; I Ch 14 11). The name is significant
of the use by the Israelites of Baal Jehovah. Is
28 21 refers probably to this event. The site is un-
known. E. E. N.
BAAL-SHALISHA, be/'al-shal'i-sha
ba'al shfillshah): A place in Ephraim (II K 4 42). Map
III, E 4. Perhaps identical with Shalisha (q.v.)
(I S 9 14). E. E. N.
BAAL-TAMAR, -te'mar ("^ Vl'2), 'Baal of the
palm': A place near Gibeali (Jg 20 33), not yet
identified. E. E. N.
BAAL-ZEBUB, -zi'bub. See BEELZEBUB.
ollicrrs of Ishbosheth, son of Saul, who murdered
him and were executed by David's order (II S 4 2 ff.).
3. The ancestral head of a family of returned
Exiles (Ezr 2 2; Neh 7 7, 10 27). I :. K. N.
BAARA, be'a-ra (N'i'2, ba'&rH'): One of the
wives of Shiihuniim, the Benjamite (IChSS).
E. E. N.
BAASEIAH, be"cH3t'ya (n;tj;2, ba'&slyHh): A
Gershonite Levite, ancestor of Asaph (ICh640).
E. E. N.
BAASHA, be'a-sha (K*?2, ba'-shQ.'): The third
king of Israel, who gained the throne by assassinating
vwst L'42 from ftzris
PLAN
of the Ru-ins of
BABYLON
Sftiffgs <*?*?". type 1 "* a "<* fifecAts
roumh^s
// v ^
PLAN OF THE RUINS OF BABYLON.
BAAL-ZEPHON, -zi'fen
'the Baal of Zephon ' : A place near which the Israel-
ites encamped before crossing the Red Sea (Ex 14 2,
9; Xu 33 7). The site is unknown. E. E. N.
BAANA, be'a-na (KJg3, &a'<5rea'): 1. The name
of two of Solomon's officials (I K 4 12, 16). 2. The
father of Zadok, one of those who "builded the wall"
of Jerusalem in Nehemiah's time (Neh 3 4).
E. E. N.
BAANAH, be'a-na (njl'2, ba'&nah): 1. A Netoph-
athite, the father of Heleb (or Heled), one of David's
warriors (II S 23 29 = I Ch 11 30). 2. One of the two
Nadab. His reign of 24 years was spent in continual
warfare with Asa, who forced him to give up Ramah
by forming an alliance with Ben-hadad (I K 15 16 ff.,
16 l ff.; Jer 41 9). J. A. K.
BABEL, be'bel (^3?, babhel): The Hebrew
form of Babylon; used in the EVV only in Gn 10 10,
119. See BABYLONIA, 2, 25. J. F. McC.
BABYLON, bab'i-hm (V??, babhel): The city of
Babylon, as it preceded the making of the kingdom
of Babylonia (see BABYLONIA, 16), so also long
survived its extinction. It undoubtedly owed its
rise at some unknown early period to the develop-
Babylon
Babylonia
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
78
ment of trade with the western oases and along the
great western canal (Pallakopas) on which lay the
sister city Borsippa, 7 m. to the SW.
I. Origin. Tlu 1 native name Babil meant 'gate of
God.' The form Babbil (Babel) might
also in Babylonian mean confusion' (cf. Gnll 9);
but perhaps both of these words are folk-etymologies.
The city lay mainly on the left bank of the Euphra-
as is indicated by the three great mounds along
with lesser ruins. It was not until the new empire
(see BABYLONIA, 21) that the opposite settlement
on the right bank was built up on a large scale.
As in all other Babylonian cities it was the relig-
ious institutions that chiefly promoted the develop-
ment of Babylon. In the hands of the
2. Influence priesthood were ample lands held in fee
of simple or by mortgage, and great prop-
Religion, erties accruing therefrom as well as
from separate loans and investments.
The priests also were the teachers of youth and the
promoters of learning and research, controlling the
schools, workshops, and observatories which were
connected with the temples. The temple-buildings
themselves were as imposing as the royal palaces
and more numerous. Chief among these in Baby-
lon was E-sagila ('the lofty house') sacred to Bel-
Merodach (see BABYLONIA, 16, and SEMITIC
RELIGION, 16, 25), now lying under the most
southerly of the three mounds that occupy the site
of the city proper. This, and "not the somewhat
smaller temple of Nebo in Borsippa, marked by the
better-preserved lofty ruin Birs Nimrud, was the
original of the 'Tower of Babel' (cf. Gn 11 1-9).
Babylon owed most of its prosperity
3. The and opulence to its two greatest kings.
Babylon Hammurabi (c. 2200 B.C.; see BABY-
of Nebu- LONIA, 16) made it not only the
chadrezzar. political and business but also the
religious center in place of Nippur, and
E-sagila became henceforth the pride and inspiration
of true Babylonians. As enlarged and beautified by
Neliuchadrezzar (605-561 B.C.; see BABYLONIA,
21 ), the city was surrounded by a wall of over 50 m.
in circuit, the largest structure of antiquity. This
was protected by a broad moat with enclosing walls
of its own and pierced by a hundred gates of bronze.
A space of 4,000 cubits intervened between it and
the ramparts, within which was a moat guarding the
inner wall. In the city proper the streets were at
right angles to one another, as in our modern towns,
ami a canal ran through it from N. to S. parallel to
the Euphrates. The temple of Merodach, like the
other great Babylonian sanctuaries, was of two main
parts. There was the temple proper, having a vesti-
bule, a long inner court, and an oracle entered once
a year to learn the will of Merodach. Attached to
it was a ziggurat or 'high tower,' 600 ft. square at
the base, divided into seven stages, for the sun,
moon, and five planets.
Under Cyrus (538-529 B.C.) Babylon was made
one of the Persian capitals. It revolted twice against
Darius Hystaspis (521 and 514 B.C.)
4. Decline and each time was besieged, taken, and
of severely punished. Its religion, how-
Babylon, ever, was encouraged by the Persian
rulers. Under the Seleucida; it was de-
spoiled in favor of Seleucia, which was made their
eastern capital. Parthian misgovernment and neg-
lect of agriculture completed its decay, though its
worship and even its written language survived ti".
within a generation of the Christian era. In the N T
Babylon is referred to directly only in passages
reminiscent of the OT (e.g., Ac 7 43). The other
uses of the name are metaphorical, one instance (I P
5 13) referring to the city of Rome, and the others
(Rev 14 8, etc.) to the Roman world-power as op-
posed to Christianity. In N T times and later there
was no Christian community in Babylon. After the
Parthian regime there was a mere village of Babil;
and the town of Hillah, 3 m. to the S., has long been
the only center of any permanent settlement.
J. F. McC.
INTRODUCTORY
1. Importance of Babylonia
I. NAME AND FEATURES
2. Name
3. Limits of Country
4. Soil and Products
5. River and Canal System
II. DIVISIONS
6. Determined by Waterways
7. Southern Cities
INTRODUCTORY: Babylonia is, upon the whole,
the most important to the Biblical student of all
countries except Palestine. In it is
i. Impor- laid the scene of the creation of man-
tance of kind, of the earliest history of the race,
Babylonia, and of the ancestors of Israel. It was
also the land where in exile Israel was
purified and reformed. It was the source and
nursery of ancient wisdom and knowledge, the pio-
neer of civilization in Western Asia, the proprietor
and educator of Syria and Palestine for thousands
of years before Israel became a nation. Its literature
BABYLONIA
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
8. Middle Cities
9. Northern Cities
III. HISTORY
10. Region of Earliest Civili-
zation
11. Progress of Culture
12. Earliest Type of Culture
13. Predominance of Central
Babylonia
14. Northern and Southern Dynasties
15. Rule of the Elamites
16. Babylon and Babylonia
17. The Cossean Dynasty
18. Native Rule Resumed
19. Chaldeans and Assyrians
20. Assyrian Rule and Ruin
21. New Babylonian Empire
22. Decline and Fall
23. Continued Importance
profoundly influenced the form and even the con-
tents of the early portions of the Bible, and it is one
of the main problems of archeology to discover to
what extent the religious institutions of Israel were
tinctured with Babylonian elements.
1. NAME AND FEATURES: The country known
as Babylonia was so called by the Greeks and Ro-
mans, who named it from its capital city
2. Name. Babylon (q.v.), the Greek and the Latin
form of the native Babil. The Hebrew
^P', Babel, which is an exact equivalent of the
latter, is used in the O T for both the city and the
79
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Babylon
Babylonia
country, and therefore the modern versions also use
Babylon in both senses. After the city of Babylon
had been established and recognized as the capital,
the kingship of Babylon implied sovereignty over
the whole country as though it were a city-state, so
that in an important sense Babylon really stood for
Babylonia.
Babylonia properly embraced all the alluvial land
lying between and beside the lower Euphrates and
Tigris. This included the territory
3. Limits varying greatly in breadth, stretching
of the from Hit on the Euphrates southeast-
Country, ward to the Persian Gulf. The length
of the country thus defined was consid-
erably less in ancient times than it is at present ; for
the detritus brought down by the great rivers from
the Armenian mountains and mingling with the
desert sands has long been gaining upon the sea. In
the time of the earliest known Babylonian kingdom
the seashore was at least 150 m. farther to the NW.
than it is at present, and the Euphrates and Tigris
flowed into the gulf by separate mouths.
The most striking feature of the soil of Babylonia
is the absence of metals and stone of any kind. In
ancient times the land, except where
4. Soil the sand predominated close to the sea-
and shore, was everywhere very fertile. Its
Products, present condition of desolation simply
implies a lack of proper care, skill, and
industry. The inhabitants in the earliest historic
ages drew off the superfluous water into canals and
reservoirs, and in the months when the soil was dry-
est it was constantly and systematically irrigated.
Its productiveness was enormous, especially in
wheat, with other cereals, and dates. A very large
variety of herbs also was cultivated in gardens.
The general aspect of the country was determined
by this level alluvial soil, intersected by innumerable
canals, which in the northern part of
5. River the country above Babylon formed a
and perfect network. South of this system
Canal a long waterway, originally a separate
System, branch of the Euphrates, now known
as the Shatt-en-Nil, ran a course almost
parallel to the main stream. From it were deflected
several canals in its downward course. The Tigris
from Bagdad southward ran nearly parallel to the
Euphrates, till opposite Babylon it began to diverge
rapidly and ran an easterly course. At its point of
farthest removal, over 100 m. from the Euphrates, it
was in its turn relieved of redundant water by a
great canal, the Shatt-el-Hai, running nearly due
S. across to the lowest stretch of the Euphrates.
Lesser watercourses also formed a portion of this
third system.
II. DIVISIONS: These waterways and canals de-
termined the location of the chief settlements
which developed into cities or city-
6. Divi- states; and the three main systems
sions De- above indicated gave rise respective-
termined ly to three well-marked divisions of
by Water- the whole country into what we may
ways. designate North, Central, and South
Babylonia.
Nearly all the many important cities of Baby-
lonia were situated between the Euphrates and
Tigris. An exception was Ur in South Babylonia,
the city of the moon-god, which lay on the right
bank of the Euphrates. E. of Ur and
7. Southern close to the old mouth of the Euphrates
Cities. was Eridu, the most southerly city of
all Babylonia. To the NVV. of Ur was
Erech, the sacred city of Ishtar. E. of Erech was
Larsa (the O T Ellasar), and farther to the NE. La-
gash, the modern Tello. Still farther N. were Iain,
and Adab, the modern Bismya. There does not
seem to have been any general native designation for
the territory embraced by these southern cities.
The middle group of ancient cities begins on the 8.
with Nippur (the modern Nufiar) in the geographical
center of old Babylonia. Of the other
8. Middle cities the most important in later times
Cities. was Babylon. Borsippa, the seat of
the prophet-god Nebo, lay 35 m. NW.
of Nippur and 7 m. SW. of Babylon, on the right
bank of the Euphrates; 15 m. NE. of Babylon, and
half-way to the Tigris, was Cutha, the modern Tell-
Ibrahim, the seat of Nergal, the god of the dead and
the underworld. In that same group lay the im-
portant cities of Kish and Isban, whose sites, how-
ever, are still uncertain. This group of cities from
Nippur to Cutha probably represented the very an-
cient kingdom of Shumer (Shinar).
Proceeding northward we come to the series of
numerous canals running across to the Tigris. On
the northern border of these was Sippar
9. Northern (the modern ruin Abu-Habba), a very
Cities. ancient seat of the sun-god, as Larsa
was in the south. Near it, and prob-
ably to the S., was the still more ancient Agade or
Akkad which gave its name to North Babylonia.
This designation was preserved to the latest Baby-
lonian times, while the combination 'Shumer and
Akkad' seems to have originally designated North
and Middle Babylonia, and not the whole of Baby-
lonia as is generally assumed.
III. HISTORY: The development of early Baby-
lonian civilization was necessarily slow, and a great
antiquity is to be assigned to its begin-
10. Region nings. But it is probable that in no
of Earliest region of the world can the conditions
Civilization, of the first steps in human culture be
so easily inferred. The starting-point
must be assumed to have been not the south but the
central region of Babylonia. It was riparian and not
maritime soil that furnished the occasions of the de-
cisive beginnings of agriculture, and in the most an-
cient times the rivers could have played no part in
the historical lower Babylonia. In those days also
the desert had more numerous and larger oases than
those which have been known to later times, and the
inhabitants of one or more of these, perhaps not far
W. of Babylon, became accustomed to observe that
vegetables and cereals grew luxuriantly in small
areas in the neighborhood of the overflow of the
three-branched Euphrates.
The natural impulse to repeat and multiply the
favorable conditions thus noted led by degrees to
systematic drainage, irrigation, sowing, and plant-
ing. Then fixed settlements were made; private
property in land was conceded; fields and gardens
were set apart in allotments, making earth-measur-
Babylonia
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
80
ing or 'geometry' and mensuration a matter of
gradual invention and development. When stand-
ards of measurement had been adopted
1 1 . Prog- they were transferred to products of the
ress of soil and other articles of value, whence
Culture, arose a system of weights as well as
measures. From the beginning religion
played a leading part in tribal and family affairs. In
Babylonia it was largely astral and solar, and hence
measurement of the sky and its divisions went hand
in hand with measurement of the earth, while tem-
ple-building employed incessantly all the arts of
primitive science. Perhaps most of the first work-
ing tools were modified weapons; but vessels of
various sorts were readily made from the unsur-
passed potter's clay that abounded everywhere;
while cement was furnished by the bitumen that
here and there welled from the soil. The use of the
hand in thus modeling objects of utility led to skilled
labor and the making of objects of primitive art.
With the growth of agriculture and the increase of
town life came exchange and trade, and therewith
and thereafter the use of marks or rudimentary
writing for record and reference. Such were the es-
sential foundations of Babylonian culture, and, it
may be added, the principal elements of the deriva-
tive science of Babylonia, which found its way to
other peoples and regions in very early days along
with many mythological and religious conceptions
and traditions.
To what race the people belonged who chiefly con-
tributed to this momentous development it is very
difficult to determine. The written
12. Earli- and monumental records for many
est Type hundreds of the earliest years point to a
of Culture, mixture of races. The final determin-
ing element was Semitic, akin to the
Aramean, the Canaanite, and the Arabian. But the
cuneiform system of writing, the chief factor in the
final stage of cultural evolution, gives much striking
evidence in the names and values of its many char-
acters of a non-Semitic origin; and a vast number of
inscriptions, especially in the south, which are partly
ideographic and partly phonetic, at first sight point
the same way. The non-Semitic language, supposed
to be thus indicated, and its speakers and writers,
have been designated 'Sumerian.' The term is a
misnomer (cf. 8, 9); but the theory as a whole is
now accepted by most scholars.
A fixed point in the chronology is afforded by the
date of one of the very ancient dynasties, that of
Sargon, of Agade or Akkad ( 9), about
13. Pre- 3800 B.C. The recent researches on
dominance the site of Nippur, along with excava-
of Central tions made at Tello, the ancient Lagash
Babylonia, in South Babylonia, make it probable
that at a date preceding 4500 B.C. Nip-
pur was an important political and religious center.
The earliest rulers mentioned were apparently not
kings of Nippur, but had made that city their relig-
ious capital and En-lil (the Semitic Bel) the great
object of their reverence. For example, the king of
the city of Kish ( 8), when victorious over his foes,
made acknowledgment in the temple at Nippur.
Kish also allied itself with another city-state, Isban,
apparently situated in the same central region. Aft-
erward Isban secured control of the whole of Baby-
lonia, and its successful king, Lugalzaggisi, even
dominated all the country W. to the Mediterranean.
He in his turn also recorded his thanks and homage
in the temple at Nippur.
The leading place seems to have passed next to
South Babylonia. Lagash ( 7) became supreme
over South and Central Babylonia not
14. North- later than 4000 B.C., and a series of en-
ern and ergetic rulers laid there the foundation
Southern of a great empire. Before 3800, how-
Dynasties, ever, the Semites of the north attained
to power, and for a time eclipsed the
splendor of the southern rulers. Inscriptions found
in various regions show that Semitic communities to
the NE. (cf. 15) were civilized and in close contact
with those in Babylonia. Of the latter Akkad came
to the front under Sargon I, who brought under his
dominion the whole of Babylonia and the western
lands as far as the island of Cyprus. His son, Narani-
Sin, inherited his power and ambition. The building
up of Sippar ( 9) was one of his projects, and in view
of the extent of his dominions he assumed the title of
"king of the four quarters of the world." Soon after
his death the hegemony returned to Lagash, whose
rulers are found not only asserting a wide-spread
authority, but promoting architecture, sculpture,
and other arts of civilization. Abundant inscrip-
tions attest the energy and resources of this dynasty.
But the leadership passed at length from its hands
to the ancient city of Ur about 3000 B.C. Its rulers,
by adding to their own proper title that of "king of
Shumer and Akkad, "showed it to be their purpose
to unify the whole of Babylonia. This dynasty was
followed (c. 2500) by one whose capital was Isin; but
Ur not long after regained the supremacy, after
which Larsa ( 7, c. 2400) took the lead.
The hegemony of Larsa was ere long interrupted
by an invasion of the Elamites (c. 2300), which ended
in their complete subjugation of Baby-
1 5. Rule Ionia, Larsa naturally being made their
of the capital. From Gn 14 we learn that
Elamites. these Elamites (under King Chedor-
laomer) as rulers of Babylonia con-
tinued its role of suzerainty over the 'westland.'
The expeditions there described had as their object
to secure control of the trade route from Damascus
to the peninsula of Sinai (cf. vs. 5-7), which in
those early days was even more important than it is
at present. From the same secondary source we
are informed that the sovereignty of Babylon in-
cluded that of the northeastern country as well
("Goiim," "nations," AV, Gn 14 1 - the Bab. Gute).
The Elamitic yoke was thrown off by Hammu-
rabi, King of Babylon, probably the "Amraphel,
King of Shinar" (Shumer or Central
16. Baby- Babylonia) of Gn 14, who at the
Ion and same time united all Babylonia under
Babylonia, one administration. Babylon, which
thenceforth became the undisputed
capital of the whole of Babylonia and the leading
city of Western Asia, was not by any means a new
city at this era, though its earliest history is as yet
obscure. The dynasty to which Hammurabi be-
longed, though known as 'the first," was not native
but Arabian, and he was the fourth of the line. He
81
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Babylonia
was the real founder of the Babylonian type of na-
tionality, and one of Jie world's greatest men. His
work was cpoch-mak ig in religion, civic administra-
tion, provincial organization, legislation, irrigation,
and national defense. His paternal care extended to
hundreds of cities and towns from the Persian Gulf
to the Mediterranean coastland. Among his chief
monuments were his temples and palaces, his great
canals, his legislative code, and the city of Baby-
lon itself, of which he was the virtual creator, which
he made the successor of Nippur as the center of
Semitic religion and culture, and whose patron god
Merodaeh was invested with the prerogatives and
attributes of Bel himself and even with his name (cf.
Is 46 1). This first dynasty of Babylon lasted till
about 2100 B.C. The second dynasty ran till near
1700 B.C. Little is known of it, but it must have
been active all over the western country, for the
Amarna letters of the next period show that Baby-
lonian influence had permeated the life and thought
of Palestine and Syria for hundreds of years before
their date (1450-1400 B.C.).
The rulers of this second dynasty, especially
toward the close, had to suffer from inroads of
Elamites and Cosseans, the latter of
17. The whom succeeded in obtaining control
Cossean of Babylon about 1700 B.C. Their
Dynasty, rule was long and on the whole not
very prosperous. Their influence was
mainly political. They conformed to the religion of
Babylonia, and in their measure they were molded
by its civilization. They were not devoid of enter-
prise and daring, but they lacked culture and re-
sources. Their empire was contracted by other
causes also. Assyria was becoming continually
stronger, and was barring the way to the west. Meso-
potamia became a bone of contention between the
two nations, and their rivalry resulted in the loss of
the 'westland 1 altogether. This was also the period
of the expansion of Egypt. By 1000, when the
Asiatic Hyksos were expelled from that country,
no Semitic force was strong enough to keep the
Egyptians from successfully invading Palestine and
Syria. They were succeeded there by Hittites and
Arameans, and finally Assyrians and not Babylo-
nians resumed the empire of the west. Meanwhile
the two powers were engaged in frequent warfare
with occasional treaties of peace; and both of them
cultivated friendship with Egypt in the 16th and
17th centuries while it was a power in Asiatic affairs.
The Cossean intruders were finally expelled by
Nebuchadrezzar I, an early member of the 4th
dynasty, about 1130 B.C. He made
1 8. Native a desperate effort to reclaim Syria, but
Rule had to succumb to the superior power
Resumed, of Assyria. Not long after his time
Babylon itself was captured by the
Assyrians, but not permanently held. Peaceful rela-
tions seem to have been maintained for many years
thereafter. The next dynasty is called that of the
'Sea-land,' which was probably the result of the
first effort of the Chaldeans to assert themselves on
a national scale. The 5th, 6th, and 7th dynasties,
regarding which little is known, were of short dura-
tion. The 7th had at least one Elamitic ruler. After
1000 B.C., the native kings were again in power.
With the revival of Assyrian aggression on a world-
conquering scale Babylonia gradually took an in-
ferior place, but it was not till the era of Tinlath-
pileser III that Assyria gained a permanent footing
in the mother-country. Early in the reign of N'a-
Ixmassar (747-733), the first king of the Canon of
Ptolemy, the Assyrians occupied Akkad, and in 7i".i
Babylon itself was taken by Tiglath-pileser, who as-
sumed the throne under the name of Pulu (the "Pul"
of II K 15 19).
The chief obstacle to the progress of the Assyrians
was presented by the Chaldeans from the shores of
the Persian Gulf, who had now begun
19. Chal- systematic plans for gaining possession
deans and of Babylon ( 18). Their aims seem
Assyrians, not to have been purely ambitious.
They wished to maintain a native
Babylonian dynasty, while the all-powerful priestly
party in Babylon was quite willing to tolerate As-
syrian rule for the sake of its protection and better
chances of settled government. Merodach-baladan
II was the leading spirit of the first great struggle.
He was three times in possession of the capital and
for two periods actual king. For thirty years he
kept intriguing, fighting, or actually reigning in
Babylon. It was in 704 that he sent the embassy to
Hezekiah of Judah seeking help in organizing a gen-
eral revolt against Sennacherib (cf. II K 20 12; Is 39
1). He finally disappeared, embarking in his flight
for the eastern shore of the Persian Gulf. Native
opposition to the Assyrians was still maintained till
in 690 Sennacherib captured and destroyed Babylon
itself, turning the Euphrates over its site. During
these struggles the Elamites rendered faithful and
substantial assistance to the Chaldeans.
Babylon was restored (680 B.C.) by the good
Assyrian king, Esarhaddon, who forebore to assume
the title of "King of Babylon" and
20. Assyr- called himself "viceregent of Merc-
ian Rule dach." Under his regime Babylonia
and Ruin, was prosperous and happy. After his
early death Asshurbanipal became King
of Assyria and his brother viceroy of Babylon. For
fifteen years the brothers kept on good terms, and
when a combination of Chaldeans, Elamites, and
Arameans of the Tigris pasture-lands was made
against Assyria, Babylon held aloof. But the vice-
roy took part in an insurrection which began in
652 and extended through the whole breadth of the
empire. The chief cities of North and Central Baby-
lonia were besieged and yielded only to starvation.
Babylon was the last to be taken, and the viceroy
immolated himself in the flames of his palace (648).
During the rest of his life, till 626, Asshurbanipal
reigned as "king" over Babylon. Within the next
three years (648-645) Elam also was finally sub-
dued, and Susa captured and destroyed.
Yet, after all, the successor of Asshurbanipal in
Babylon was a Chaldean, Nabopalassar (625-605),
who threw off the yoke of the hated
21. New Assyrian, and founded the new Baby-
Babylonian Ionia. As Assyria declined and shrank
Empire, in dimensions the Chaldean regime was
being constantly strengthened. Nabo-
palassar allied himself with the rising power of the
Medes, and after the fall of Nineveh (607 B.C.) the
Babylonia
Banner
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
82
whole Assyrian Empire \V. and S. of the mountains
foil to him. His son, Nebuchadrezzar, completed
the reduction of Syria and Palestine, which had fallen
under the dominion of Egypt, by driving out Pha-
raoh Xeeho alter the battle of Carcliemish (005 B.C.).
He became king upon the death of his father (luring
this campaign. Only the western districts furnished
serious trouble to him. Jerusalem rebelled twice
and was finally destroyed in 586. Tyre withstood
a siege of thirteen years, since the besiegers lacked a
competent navy. But Egypt was overrun and for a
time, it would seem, occupied by the Babylonians.
Throughout the ruleof Nebuohadrexzarpeaoe reigned
between his empire and .Media, which extended itself
mainly westward. His career as a ruler was long
and successful. While his outlying dominions were
generally peaceful and contented, Babylonia itself
prospered beyond precedent. Waste lands were re-
claimed; irrigation was extended; new settlements
were formed; commerce, industry, learning, re-
search, architecture, and above all temple-building
were promoted; and the city of Babylon became
more than ever the metropolis of Asia.
The glory of the Chaldean regime was of short
duration. Nebuchadrezzar died in 562. His suc-
cessors were all incompetent. The
22. Decline fourth and last, Nabonidus, a usurper
and Fall. (555) and a religious and antiquarian
enthusiast, was distasteful to his own
people. Cyrus the Great, in 539 B.C., added the
Babylonian to the other empires which he had
acquired and consolidated with magical ease and
celerity. A midsummer campaign of less than a
week ended in the surrender of the capital, after
which the whole Semitic world came under Persian
control. Babylon henceforth had no higher rank
than a province.
But its importance for Biblical history did not
thereby cease; rather it Bet itself in a new relation.
It was because Babylonia was a prov-
23. Con- ince of Persia that the restoration of
tinued Im- Jerusalem and the return of the Baby-
portance of Ionian exiles were made possible and
Babylonia, the maintenance of the precarious set-
tlements in Palestine secured. Even
Persian modes of thought had only a slight influence
on the latest canonical writings. Of Judaism Baby-
lonia was the center and focus for over a thousand
years. After the fall of Jerusalem (70 A.D.), Baby-
lonia took the place of Palestine as a seat of Jewish
schools and the interpretation of the Law. Under
the Parthian, the Sassanid, and even the Moham-
medan rulers, the Jewish scholars and teachers of
Babylon still held a leading place, and it was not till
the Mongolians and Turks converted the country
into a desert that it ceased to be a nursery of Ju-
daism.
LITERATURE : See the list of works appended to ASSYRIA.
For recent explorations see Peters. Nippur, New York,
1897; Hilprecht, Recent Research in Bible Lands. 1896;
and reports of excavations by the German expedition
under Koldewey on the site of Babylon and by the Uni-
versity of Chicago's expedition at Bismya.
J. F. McC.
BABYLONISH GARMENT (properly, "mantle of
Shinar," Jos 7 21 mg.): If the reading were correct,
this would be a sample of the excellent and costly em-
broidered robes of various patterns which are fre-
quently mentioned in the Inscriptions, and of their
widespread export from the place of manufacture.
It is probable, however, that instead of "Shinar" we
should read se'ar, 'hair.' J. F. McC.
BACA, be'ca, VALLEY OF (S:;n p^i', ' cmeq
habbakha', Ps. 84 6, Valley of Weeping RV; "bal-
sam-trees," RVmg.): Whether there was a real
valley bearing the name Baca is not clear. The
context in Ps 84 clearly shows that the .phrase is
used as emblematic of the hard experiences of life
which faithfulness and constancy in devotion to
God may transform into sources of joy. A. C. Z.
BACHRITE, bac'rait. See BECHEK.
BACK: Used of God in an anthropomorphic
sense (Ex 33 23; Is 38 17).
BADGER, BADGERS' SKINS. See SEALSKIN.
BAG: The rendering of (1) h&rif (II K 5 23), a
bag of skin, here one large enough to hold a talent of
silver. A smaller variety is mentioned in Is 3 22
('satchel" RV, "crisping pin" AV); (2) kJs, a bag
or purse in which was carried money (Is 46 6; Pr 1 14
["purse"], 16 11; Is 46 6), or weights for the balance
(Dt 25 13; Mic 6 11) ; (3) k'll, lit. any sort of receptacle
or instrument, used of the shepherd's bag in I S 17
40, 49; (4) ts'ror, from tsarar, 'to bind' (cf. the vb. in
11 K 12 10), a "bundle" (Gn 42 35) or bag (Job 14 17;
Pr 7 20; Hag 1 6). (5) fiaXAvriov, "purse" RV
(Lk 12 33), the same as (2), above. The term yXmo-o-o-
Kop.ov in Jn 12 6, 13 29 means a small box (RVmg.)
rather than a bag. E. E. N.
BAGGAGE: RV for "carriages" A V (I S 1722;
Is 10 28; Ac 21 15), and for "stuff," AV and ERV (I
S 10 22, 25 13, 30 24). In every case but Ac 21 15 it
means the impedimenta of an army. E. E. N.
BAHARUMITE, ba-he'rum-ait : In I Ch 11 33
we read "Azmaveth, the Baharumite," but in the
parallel passage (II S 2331), "the Barhumite," the
"h" and " r" being transposed. The former is prob-
ably the more correct. See BAHURIM. G. L. R.
BAHURIM, ba-hu'rim (='--;, bahunm): A
place in Benjamin on the way from Jerusalem to the
Jordan (II S 3 16, 16 5). B. was the home of Shimei,
who cursed David on his flight from Absalom (II S
16 5, 19 16 ff. ; I K 2 8). Here also Ahimaaz and Jon-
iithan concealed themselves when acting as David's
spies (II S 17 18). Site unknown. E. E. N.
BAJITH. See BAVITH.
BAKBAKKAR, bak-bak'Qr Ci^r?, baqbaqqar):
The head of a Levite family (I Ch 9 15). E. E. N.
BAKBUK, bak'buk (^^,bagbuq): The founder
of a family of Nethinim who returned from Babylon
with Zerubbabel (Ezr 2 51 ; Neh 7 53). E. E. N.
BAKBUKIAH, bak"bu-kai'fl (^2J?2, baqbuq.
yah): A name occurring three times in Neh (11 17,
12 9, 25), all the references being perhaps to one indi-
vidual, a Levite of the "sons of Asaph."
E. E. N.
83
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Babylonia
Banner
BAKE, BAKER, BAKING. See FOOD AND FOOD
UTENSILS, 2, 11.
BAKEMEATS. See FOOD AND FOOD UTENSILS,
11.
BALAAM, be'lam (=^5, Warn): The son of
Beor and a magician (enchanter) of Pethor, on the
bunks of the River Euphrates (Nu 22 5; but accord-
ing to another reading he was of the b'nc 'ainmii
[by omission of a final n for b'ne 'ammon, 'sons
of Ammon'], hence an Ammonite). As the nar-
rative stands in Nu 22 3-24 25 [JE] it presents in
the character of B. the incongruous, though not nec-
essarily contradictory qualities of a heathen sooth-
sayer (24 l) and those of a man touched by the
spirit of J". The incongruity is removed when the
narrative is analyzed and its separate portions re-
ferred to the documents from which they were
drawn. But the analysis is not an easy one (cf.
Kent, Beginnings of Hebrew History, 233-239;
Addis, The Documents of the Hex., 1, 175-184);
and the story as it stands has a distinct function and
spiritual value. It presents the heathen occultist as
coming under the power of the spirit of J" and re-
vealing the irresistible nature of this force. Balaam
was summoned by Balak, King of Moab, just after
the defeat of the Amorites by the hosts of Israel, and
bribed to curse the victorious invaders, but is led
first by the miracle of the speaking ass, and after-
ward directly, to bless them. In four poetically
constructed oracles (Nu 23 7-10 [E], 19-24 [E], 24 3-9
[J], 16-24 [J]), he foreshadows the uniqueness of J"'s
people, their strength, the beauty and fruitfulness of
their land, their glorious victories, and finally the
great king ("Star") who shall create an empire out
of Moab, Edom, Amalek, and Kain. After this B.
is for a time lost sight of, and when he reappears, it is
as the corrupter of Israel. Through the means of
Midianite women he lures many to idolatry and is
slain with others for this sin (Nu 31 8, 16 [P]). In the
O T B. stands for the unavailing curse of the heathen
enchanter (Dt 23 5; Jos 24 9; Mic 65; Neh 13 2) ; in the
. N T he is the type of the tempter to idolatry, espe-
cially that form of it in which lust plays a large part
(II P 2 15; Jude ver. 11; Rev 2 14); cf. Gray on Num-
bers, chs. 22-24, in Int. Crit. Com., 1903.
A. C. Z.
BALAC, be'lac. See BALAK.
BALADAN, bal'a-dan. See MERODACH-BALA-
DAN.
BALAH, be'la (D^3, balah): A town in SW. Pales-
tine (Jos 19 3), Bilhah in ICh429. Site unknown.
Perhaps the same as Baalah. E. E. N.
BALAK, bc'lak (^?, balag; Balac, Rev 2 14, AV):
King of Moab in Moses' day (Nu 22-23) and famous
for his connection with Balaam (q.v.). E. E. N.
BALANCE. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 4.
BALD LOCUST. See PALESTINE, 26, and LO-
CUSTS.
BALDNESS: As to location, the OT contrasts
baldness of the forehead (gabbahath, only Lv 13 41 ff.)
with baldness of the crown (qorhah', cf. the proper
names Korah, Kareah). As to origin, baldness was
either natural or artificial. The former, which i.s
seldom mentioned, was believed to result from
hard labor (Ezk 29 18), as well as disease (Is 3 17, 24),
and was perhaps considered a reproach (II K 2 23).
Baldness was not itself unclean, but apparently
aroused suspicions of some unclean skin-disease (Lv
13 40 ff.). See DISEASE AND MEDICINE, I (1).
Artificial baldness, produced by clipping or sha-
ving (cf. Ezk 5 l) is frequently mentioned. The an-
cient belief that the hair was a seat of the vitality
(cf. Jg 16 17) caused the ceremonial shaving of tin:
head to be regarded as a sacrifice to a deity or to the
dead ; hence this was a sign of mourning forbidden to
the Israelites (Dt 14 1 ; Lv 21 5). It seems, however,
to have been common in pre-exilic times (Is 22 12;
Am 8 10, etc.; cf. Job 1 20); and baldness is therefore
used figuratively for mourning (Jer 48 37; Ezk 7 18,
etc.). See MOURNING AND MOURNING CUSTOMS,
4. The Arabian practise of shaving all the head
except a circular patch in the middle (Jer 9 26, 25 23)
was likewise prohibited (Lvl927, 21 S) on account
of its connection with heathen worship. At the ex-
piration of the Nazirite's vow, the shaven hair was
offered as a sacrifice to J" (Nu 6 18; cf. Ac 18 18, 21
24). See NAZIRITE. Paul says that "it is a shame
to a woman to be shorn or shaven" (I Co 1 1 6). See
HAIR; SHAVING. L. G. L.
BALM. See DISEASE AND MEDICINE, IV (1),
and PALESTINE, 21.
BAMAH, be'ma (nJ, bamah), 'high place': In
Ezk 20 29 the word is used with reference to a sup-
posed derivation from ba', 'to come' ('go'), and mah,
'what.' Hence, 'What . . . whereunto go ye?'
with evident contempt for it. This allusion to its
etymology makes the word a quasi-proper noun as
rendered in EVV. A. C. Z.
BAMOTH, be'meth (ntoj, bamoth),'h\gh places':
A town of Moab, probably the same as Bamoth
Baal (Jos 13 17) and the Beth Bamoth of the stone
of Mesha (line 27). It was one of the last stations
on Israel's march through Moab before the final en-
campment near Pisgah (Nu 21 191.). The identifi-
cation, Map II, J 1, is uncertain. E. E. N.
BAND: Often used in OT and NT for divisions
of an army (cf. II S 4 2; II K 6 23; Job 1 17; Mt 27 27).
See WARFARE, 4; also BEAUTY AND BANDS.
BANI, be'nai C3?, bani): 1. One of David's heroes
(II S 23 36 - Mibhar, I Ch 1 1 38). 2. A Merarite (I
Ch646). 3. A Judahite, descendant of Pharez (I Ch
94). 4. "Sons of Bani," a post-exilic family (Ezr
2 10, 1029, 34ff. = BinnuiinNeh7l5. 6. Name of one
or more Levites (Neh 3 17, 8 7, 9 4, 5, 10 13, 11 22). 6.
A term used for one of the divisions of the post-exilic
community (Neh 10 14); cf. 4. E. E. N.
BANK. See TRADE AND COMMERCE, 3.
BANNER : Banners or standards were used in an-
cient armies very much in the same way as they are
to-day. (1) The most common word for standard
is n? (of uncertain root significance); cf. Ex 17 15
(ni$$i = 'my banner'); Jer 46, 51 12, often rendered
ensign (e.g., Is 5 26, 31 9). (2) Another word is degel
('that which is seen'), confined to Nu 1 52, 2 2 ff., 10
Banner
Barachias
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
84
14 ff., and Song 24,64, 10. In Nu (if the text be
correct) it is implied that each tribe had its special
standard. 3. 'Oth, 'sign,' is used for banner or
MUitary Standard with the Image of the God Asshur.
ensign in Nu22; Ps744. One form of Assyrian
banner is shown in the accompanying illustration.
There were many other forms. E. E. N.
BANQUET. See MEALS, 3.
BAPTISM, BAPTIZE GSdnrurpo, Pam-ifav):
The words used to designate the rite characteristic
of John the Baptist's ministry (Mk 14,9 and ||s;
614,24, 11 30 and ||s; Lk 729; Ac 1 5,22, 1037, 1324,
18 25, 19 3f.), as also the rite imposed from the begin-
ning upon converts to the Early Church's preaching
of Jesus Christ (Ac 2 38, 41, 8 12-16, 36, 38, 9 is [with
22 16], 10 47 {., 16 15, 33, 18 8, 19 3-5; cf. also I Co 1
13-l7;Eph45;IP321).
The call of the Baptist was not only to moral puri-
fication, but to this as leading to an entirely new
condition of life to be established in
the Messianic kingdom which he an-
nounced (Mt 3 2 f . ). As administered
by the Baptist, therefore, this rite
symbolized the candidate's repentance
in preparation for this coming kingdom (Mt 3 6-12
and ||s; Lk 3 10-17) and consequently in its form
must have been influenced largely by the O T puri-
fication rites, especially as these were involved in
the rite of initiating proselytes into Israel (cf.
i. In
John's
Ministry.
Srhurer, HJP, Eng. trans. II (2), 319-324; cf.
also Edersheim, Lije of Jesus, I, 272-274).
The baptism of Jesus (Mk 1 9-ll and ||s) was in
accord with this idea; for while with the people gener-
ally this rite signified their moral attitude of recep-
tivity toward the coming Messianic work, with
Jesus it was a testimony to His moral attitude of
consecration toward His own work. Consequently
the statement of Jesus in Matthew's narrative that
in this baptism both John and Himself would be
fulfilling all righteousness (3 15) refers simply to the
carrying out, in this ceremony, of the form thus
ollered for expressing this relation of consecration
to the great work of whose commission to His hands
He had become conscious. The term "righteous-
ness" (SiKatoa-vvr;) is thus taken in its natural O T
sense of living up to the divinely prescribed forms of
relationship between God and man the only sense
in which the Baptist is likely to have understood it
in connection with the question of the debated ad-
ministration of the rite to Jesus (very much as Jesus
uses it later in speaking of the Baptist's ministry,
Mt 21 32). The Baptist was to live up to these
forms by administering this rite to Jesus as publicly
consecrating Him to His work; Jesus was to live up
to them by submitting to this rite as publicly
announcing His consecration.
This view of Jesus' baptism is confirmed not only
by the supernatural incidents following it, whose
evident intent was to express approval of the conse-
cration involved in the act (Mk llflf. and ||s), but by
the subsequent fact that the Messianic spirit, with
which this Divine approval had then and there en-
dowed Him, was the Spirit by which He was led
immediately into the Wilderness for the testing of
the consecration He had publicly confessed. (For
other views see JESUS CHRIST, 5.)
The general statement in Jn 3 22-26, that Jesus
administered the rite of baptism, is corrected later
by the Evangelist to the effect that
2. In "Jesus himself baptized not, but his
Jesus' disciples" (4 If.). This is not con-
Ministry, tradicted by the Synoptists; so we
gain the impression that, while bap-
tism may have been an accompaniment of Jesus'
ministry, it was not administered personally by Him.
That it should have been such an accompaniment
we can easily understand -at least in the early part
of His work, when John's disciples were coming
over into His following and His work was being
done in the neighborhood of John's. If the Baptist
had felt it necessary by this rite to commit his dis-
ciples publicly to their attitude toward the Messianic
work, these disciples may well have felt the need of
committing in a similar way those who came directly
into contact with this work in the person of the
Master.
The fact, however, that with His actual presence
among them the time had passed for organizing a
following in preparation for His work and the fact
that the time had not yet come for organizing any
following in the carrying of it on in the world, made
needless during Jesus' ministry any rite of baptism.
The call which He made was for personal relation-
ship to Himself (Mk 1 15), which seemed all the
public announcement necessary in the personal
85
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Burner
Baracblai
following of Himself in the daily ministry of His
actual work.
It is clear, therefore, that the administration of
this rite by His disciples in the early part of His
ministry was simply temporary and did not belong
vitally to tin' work He was carrying on. His state-
ment that He 'had a baptism to be baptized with
and would be straitened until it was accomplished'
(Lk 12 50) and His question to the ambitious dis-
ciples 'whether they were able to drink the cup that
He was to drink, or to be baptized with the bap-
tism with which He was to be baptized' (Mk 10 38 f.),
are manifestly figurative expressions based on the
fact of the consecration involved in His baptism at
the beginning of His work and drawn out by the fact
that this consecration was now, as His passion ap-
proached, coming to its supreme and final test.
After His resurrection, as He unfolded to His dis-
ciples the work which lay before them (Lk 24 46-49),
His commission of them to "make disciples of all
nations and to baptize them " (whether the longer
Trinitarian formula be understood as having been
used by Jesus [Mt 28 19] or the simpler one, current
in the Early Church [Ac 8 16, 10 48, 195, 22 16], cf.
article "Baptism" in EH) is obviously a recognition on
His part of the fact that, with the withdrawal of His
personal presence, there would arise the need of an
organized following of His disciples and of a gather-
ing into its membership, through such an initiatory
rite as had been used by John in the following he had
brought together in preparation for His coming.
In view of this commission it is not surprising to
notice at the very beginning of the Church's life in
Jerusalem the appearance of this con-
3. In the dition of membership in the following
Ministry of of the disciples (Ac 2 38, 41); nor is it
the Early in any way unnatural that realizing,
Church, as the disciples must have done, that the
rite was of the same initiatory character
as that administered by John, it was connected in
the apostolic preaching with the requirement of re-
pentance rather than with that of faith (Ac 2 38).
In fact, the emphasis upon repentance in the early
preaching of the Church was part of the strictly Jew-
ish conceptions with which the Church's life began
(Ac 5 31) and which were recognized by Christ Him-
self in His final words to the disciples (Lk 24 44-47).
It was only with the growth and development of the
Church's consciousness of the personal relations to
Jesus in the matter of salvation that the emphasis
came to be placed upon faith (Ac 10 43, 13 39, 26 18)
as Christ Himself had placed it in His ministry
(Mk 5 34 and ||s, 9 23 ; Mt 8 10-13, 9 28 f ., 15 28; Lk 7 so),
and faith came to have baptism connected with it
in the entrance into the disciples' brotherhood (Ac
1043-48, 1117, 1630-33, 188, 193-5; cf. the transi-
tional phases in Ac 8 12 f., 36-38, and notice the inter-
pretation placed upon 9 18 by Paul in his later state-
ment of 22 16; cf. also Eph 4 5; I Co 1 13-15).
It is in this close connection of the rite with per-
sonal relations to Jesus Christ that we are to under-
stand Paul's figurative references to baptism (Gal
3 27; Col 2 12; Ro63f.; I Co 12 13; cf. also I Co 10 2).
The reference in I Co 15 29 is most obscure. (For
various views see Expos. Greek Test., ad loc.)
The reference to "baptisms" in He 62 (where
is used instead of jSaTrrto-^a ) is doubtless to
the various ceremonial washings for purification,
either of the person, as He 9 10 (cf. Lk 1 1 38), or of
things, as Mk 7 4.
That the rite had no high sacramentarian value in
the Early Church is evident from the secondary
importance attached to it in his ministry by Paul
(I Co 1 14 ff.) as well as from the spiritual emphasis
placed upon it in his Epistle by Peter (I P 3 21).
We have no record in the N T of the baptism of
infants; but the fact that the question as to when
entrance into the Church took place must have early
come to the front in a community so accustomed to
theocratic ideas as the Jewish-Christian Church in
Jerusalem, and the parallelism between baptism and
circumcision as initiatory rites gives significance to
such statements of household baptism as we have in
Ac 16 15, 31-33; I Co 1 16 (cf. Ropes, Apostolic Age,
p. 198). As to the form of baptism it is clear that
in so far as the rite of John's ministry was derived
from purification and initiatory ceremonies it was
administered in running water, with a partial or
entire submergence of the body; and further that in
so far as the rite of the Early Church was a reproduc-
tion of John's, it was administered after the same
general form. At the same time the fact that in
Jewish lustrations immersion of the whole body was
often symbolized by an ablution of a part, as in the
washing of the hands before meals (cf. Lk 1 1 38, where
fiairrifciv is used), opened the way for an early modi-
fication of the form in the direction of affusion and
sprinkling (cf. Didache, ch. vii, and the representa-
tions in Studio Bibl. et Eccles., vol. v., pt. iv.)
LITERATURE: Schurer, History of the Jewish People,
1896 2 ; Ederaheim, Life and Times of Jesus the Mettxiiih.
n. d.; Lambert, The Sacraments in the New Testament,
1903'- M. W. J.
BAPTIST. See JOHN THE BAPTIST.
BAR. See HOUSE, 6 (1).
BAR- : In proper names compounded with Bar-,
seven instances of which occur in the N T, this ele-
ment signifies 'son' (Aramaic "!2, bar = Heb. 1.?, ben),
e.g., Bar-Jonah, son of Jonah (Mt 16 17). E. E. N.
BARABBAS, bar-ab'os (Bopa^Sj) : The prisoner
released at the instigation of the chief priests by Pi-
late according to a customary but otherwise unknown
act of clemency at Passover (Mk 15 7f. and ||s). He
was a notable criminal in Jerusalem imprisoned with
accomplices for robbery, sedition, and murder. The
name Barabbas ('son of the Father') probably in
the sense of 'Teacher' is not unknown, there being
two rabbis with this surname mentioned in the Tal-
mud. The reading "Jesus Barabbas" for his full
name in Mt 27 16 f., found by Origen in many MSS.,
and still extant in some cursives and in the Sinaitic-
Syriac and Armenian versions, is doubtless due to an
early scribal error. R. A. F.
BARACHEL, ba-re'kel (^S?!?, barakh'el), 'God
blesses': The symbolic name of Elihu's father (Job
32 2, 6). E. E. N.
BARACHIAH, bar"a-coi'Q. See BEBECHIAH.
BARACHIAS, bar"a-cai'as. See ZACHARIAH.
Barak
Baruch, Books of
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
8G
BARAK, bur'ak (P,?, bUraq), 'lightning': A
hero who shares with Deborah the credit of the vic-
tory over Sisera and the Canaanites' (Jg 4 c, 5 12).
He was a native of Kedesh-Xaphtali, anil is usually
reckoned among the judges of Israel in succession to
Oihniel and Ehud. In He 11 32 his name occurs
aiming those who achieved great things through
faith. A. C. Z.
BARBARIAN. See GENTILE.
BARBER : Mentioned in the O T only in Ezk 5 l,
showing, however, the existence of professional bar-
bers. "Temple barbers' are mentioned on Phoenician
inscriptions. Compare the frequent references to
shaving in the O T (cf. also Is 7 20). See RAZOR.
E. E. N.
BAREFOOT : The removal of the sandals was in-
dicative of awe or reverence, of profound emotion,
or was a symbolic act. When one was on especially
holy ground or felt himself in the immediate pres-
ence of Deity, it was incumbent on him to take off
his shoes (Ex 3 5; Jos 5 12). The underlying reason
for this wide-spread custom is not certainly known
(cf. Dillmann on Ex 3 5). The removal of the san-
dals in experiences of great sorrow and humiliation,
or as symbolic of such, is illustrated in the case of
David (II S 15 30) and Isaiah (Is 20 2-4). The hu-
miliation of the condition of being unshod is well
illustrated in a detail of the peculiar law of levirate
marriage (Dt259f.; cf. Ruth47f.). See BURIAL
AND BURIAL CUSTOMS, 7; also MOURNING CUS-
TOMS, 4. E. E. N.
BARHUMITE, bar-hu'mait. See BAHARUMITE.
BARIAH, ba-rai'a (Q^bariah): One of the later
descendants of David (I Ch 3 22). E. E. N.
BAR- JESUS, bar-ji'zus (BapiTjo-oCs, 'son of Jesus') :
A Jewish magician and false prophet attached to the
court of Sergius Paulus when the latter was pro-
consul of Cyprus. For interference with Paul's
work B. is represented as stricken with temporary
blindness (Ac 13 6-12). In ver. 8 B. is called Elymas,
which may be a second magical name assumed by
the same person (but see Dalman, Aram Gr., p. 162),
possibly to be connected with the Aram, root C-^N,
'strong.' 'O ftdyor (ver. 8) is not necessarily an exact
translation of the word, but may be a general de-
scription of its meaning. A similar title seems to
have been borne by Simon Magus (q.v.) (Ac89f.).
For later legends concerning B. see Lipsius-Bonnet,
Apoc. Apgesch., II, p. 299 f. J. M. T.
BAR- JONAH, bar-jo'na (Bar-jona AV). See PE-
TE K.
BARKOS, bar'kes (C'p-.S, barqdf): The ancestor
of a family of Nethinim (Ezr 2 53; Neh 7 55).
E. E. N.
BARLEY. See AGRICULTURE, 4 and 5, FOOD,
1, and PALESTINE, 23.
BARLEY HARVEST. See TIME, 4.
BARN. See AGRICULTURE, 6.
BARNABAS, bur'nu-bas (Bapvafias [Bapvapas
U7/]): The surname given by the Apostles to the
Cyprian-Levite Joseph ami interpreted by the
author of Acts as meaning "Son of exhortation"
(Ac 4 30).
Considerable difficulty exists in tracing the etymology of
the name. Of the several suggestions perhaps the most
likely is that of Deismann (Bibelettulien, pp. 175-178 [Eng.
tr., pp. 187 f., 307-310]), who considers Bapi<ad; the Jewish
(I ized form of Bapx<6oOc, a personal Semitic name re-
cently discovered in Asia Minor inscriptions, and meaning
'Son of Nebo.'
If this be correct, then, being thus an old theophoric
name whose heathen origin had been disguised, either it was
borne by Joseph prior to his conversion, its Christian inter-
pretation (uiot irapo*A>j<7fi) being alone due to the Apostles,
or else it was given Joseph by the Apostles at his conversion
on the basis of its popular interpretation, its heathen origin
being unknown. The latter could very easily have been
the case. Nebo being the herald of the gods, the popular
idea of Barnabas as a 'Son of proclamation,' or 'exhorta-
tion/ would be natural.
This interpretation was evidently suggested by
the special gifts of exhortation which B. displayed
(cf. Ac 11 23) and which belonged to him as a NT
prophet (cf. Ac 15 32 with 13 l).
He first appears as a generous contributor to the
community of goods in the Jerusalem Church (Ac
4 36f.), of which circle, through the fact of his aunt's
home being in the city (cf. Ac 11 12 with Col 4 10),
he was at the time doubtless a resident member.
Among the discipleship here he was of sufficient rep-
utation to become sponsor for Saul upon his first
visit after his conversion (Ac 9 26 f.) which seem-
ingly implies a previous acquaintance, possibly in
Tarsus, an inference which is confirmed by the fact
that when later B. was delegated by the Mother
Church to investigate the mission activity in An-
tioch, he brought Saul from Tarsus to the service of
the newly established work and labored with him in
it for a year (Ac 11 21-26).
Here also he seems to have come into prominence.
With Saul he was appointed to carry up to Jerusa-
lem the contributions of the brethren in Judaea (Ac 1 1
27-30), and upon their return, as the foremost prophet
and teacher in the community, he was sent out with
Saul on the first extended mission of the Christian
Church (Ac 13 1). Through the importance and effi-
ciency of his service he came to be designated an
"apostle" (Ac 14 4, 14) in that broader usage of the
word to which the Church grew in virtue of its wi-
dened work and life (see APOSTLE). He was sym-
pathetically committed to Paul's liberal views, en-
tering with him into the controversy which arose at
Antioch upon the close of the first mission tour (Ac
15 If.) and standing with him in the subsequent
Council at Jerusalem for the admission of the Gen-
tiles into the Church (Ac 15 4, 12; Gal 2 3-5). At the
same time, with most of the other leaders, he ap-
peared unable to carry his convictions to their log-
ical conclusions (cf. Gal 2 11-13).
Owing to a dispute over the taking with them of
his cousin, John Mark, he did not accompany Paul
on his second mission tour, but returned with Mark
to his native place, Cyprus (Ac 1536-40), where we
lose sight of him, except for such evidence as may be
contained in I Co 9 6 that he continued in his mis-
sionary work, declining, like Paul, to impose himself
A STANDARD BIBLK DICTIONARY
Barak
Baruch, Booki of
upon the support of the churches. From the Apos-
tle's references to him in his subsequent correspond-
ence with the churches (Gal 2 1, 5, 9, 13; I Co 9 6; Col
4 10) there is nothing to show that the relations be-
tween them continued strained ; rather the contrary.
Tertullian and others in the Western Church held
B. as author of the Epistle to the Hebrews (q.v.).
The Sinaitic MS. contains, at the close of the NT
writings, an Epistle under his name; there is an
apocryphal Acts of Barnabas and there are obscure
references (e.g., in the Decretum of Pope Gelasius,
l!i A.D.) to a Gospel ascribed to him. M. W. J.
BARREL: The AV rendering of kadh in I K 17
12-16, 18 33 ("jar" RV). In the latter passage a large
earthen water-jar is meant. In the former, the kadh
may have been of earthenware, or, as is common
among Palestinian peasants to-day, made of a mix-
ture of clay, dung, and straw, perhaps divided into
two compartments. See plate of POTTERY, fig. 1.
E. E. N.
BARREN. See MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE.
BARSABBAS, bar'sab-bas (BafxraftScts, Barsabas
AV): 1. Joseph. Surnamed Justus, was "put for-
ward" with Matthias as the successor of Judas (Ac
1 23). In the post-apostolic literature he is reckoned
among the 'Seventy' (Chron. Pasch., ed. Bonn, I,
400), and several apocryphal tales concerning him
are extant (cf. Eus. HE, III, 39, 9; Lipsius-Bonnet,
Apoc. Apostelgesch., I, pp. 108, 116). J. M. T.
2. Judas (Ac 15 22, 27, 32). A leading prophet of
the Jerusalem Church, who accompanied Silas with
the decree of the Council to Antioch, and afterward
returned to Jerusalem. Nothing more is known of
him. Barsabbas being a patronymic, he may have
been a brother of Joseph Barsabbas (Ac 1 23).
R. A. F.
BARTHOLOMEW, bur-thel'o-miu
'son of Talmai'): One of the twelve Apostles and
mentioned in all four of the lists (Mk 3 18; Mt 103;
Lk 6 14; Ac 1 13). Concerning B. there is no trust-
worthy tradition. For his supposed identification
with Nathanael see NATHANAEL. J. M. T.
BARTDVLiEUS, bar"ti-mi'us (Ba/m/iatos, "son
of Timaeus," perhaps equivalent to Aram, bar-
tiitii, 'son of Timi'): A blind man restored to sight
by Jesus near Jericho (Mk 10 46-52 and ||s). In Mt
and Lk no name appears, and it is possible that
Bartimjeus was inserted in Mk for the sake of vivid-
(cf. JAIRUS). J. M. T.
BARUCH, be'rac ("T^, barukh), 'blessed': 1. Son
of Neriah, said by Josephus (Ant. X, 9 l) to have
come of a very illustrious family, one of Jeremiah's
associates, first mentioned as his trusted friend (Jer
32 12), and later as his secretary and agent (Jer 36 4).
Jeremiah dictated his oracles to B., who read them to
the people. These prophecies roused the wrath of
Jehoiakim, who commanded the arrest of B., and
also burned the roll written by him. B., however,
rewrote the oracles. After the murder of Gedaliah,
he was accused by the leaders of unduly influencing
Jeremiah to dissuade the people from leaving Judeea
(Jer 43 3). Together with Jeremiah he was taken
into Egypt. Here all authentic records ulioul him
erase. According to one tradition, lie died in Egypt
at the same time with Jeremiah. According to an-
other, he survived the prophet and went to Babylon,
where he died twelve years alter the fall of Jci
lem (574 B.C.). 2. The son of Zabbai (Zaccai
RVing.) who repaired the wall of Jerusalem (
3 20). 3. One of those who sealed the covenant in
Nehemiah's time (Neh 10 6); possibly the same as 2.
4. The son of Col-hozeh, a descendant of Perez (Xeh
115). A. C. Z.
BARUCH, BOOKS OF: I. The Apocryphon:
The Greek Book of Baruch is based upon tin-
tradition which represents Baruch (he
I. Con- son of Neriah as spending the last
tents. portion of liis life in Babylon (see
BARUCH 1). The book purports to be
a treatise addressed by him to the exiles and con-
sists of an introduction and three sections. In the
first section (1 15-3 8) the exiled Israelites are
furnished with a form of confession of sin to
which is appended a prayer for the return of the
divine good pleasure toward them. In the second
section (3 9-4 7) the praises of Wisdom are sung in
words that recall the panegyrics of Job 28 and 38, and
the Book of Proverbs. In the third section (4 8-5 9)
words of encouragement and comfort are addressed
to the exiles similar to the expressions of the Deu-
tero- Isaiah.
These three sections bear the marks of different
ages and environments. (1) The form of con-
fession of sin (1 15-3 8) is of the same
2. Dates of class as Ezr9(M5 and Dn93-9; but
Its Parts, while it is evidently of later origin
than the former, it is earlier than the
Daniel passage. It was therefore produced probably
about 300 B.C. (2) The section which eulogizes
Wisdom (3 9-4 7) betrays the effect of a long-stand-
ing contact with the Gentile world, and can best be
accounted for upon the view that it originated in the
first half of the 1st cent. A.D. (3) The last sec-
tion (4 8-5 9) must be, from its dependence on the
Psalter of Solomon, dated at the earliest after the
fall of Jerusalem (70 A.D.) and may be a product of
the last years of the 1st cent. The introduction (cf.
1 1-15) is a redactorial addition embodying the tradi-
tion of Baruch's activity in Babylon and therefore
the latest of all the parts of the book.
These differences of setting correspond with a
marked difference in language as between the first
and the last two sections. The last two
3. Original are purer and more choice in particular
Languages, words and expressions, thus pointing to
the conclusion that they were originally
composed in Greek. As to the original language of
the first section, the evitlence is not so clear, but the
probability is that it was composed in Hebrew.
As far as the ascription to Baruch is concerned, his
known intimacy with Jeremiah and his
4. Ascrip- concern in the events attendant on the
tion to deportation to Babylon are sufficient to
Baruch. account for the use of his name. The
bookhas been known continuously from
its first appearance an 1 early secured a place among
the Apocrypha of th" O T.
Baruch, Books of
Beam
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
88
n. The Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch: This is
an apocryphon discovered and published in :i Latin
translation in I860, and later in a more
1. The primitive Syriac text in 1871. Its con-
Book, tents consist of a purely apocalyptic
section (from which the whole takes its
name), and a letter purporting to be written by
Baruch to the nine and a half tribes of Israel de-
ported into Assyria at the time of the fall of Samaria
(722 B.C.). The first of these parts consists of a
series of seven sections of which the first gives a
sketch of the circumstances in which Baruch saw his
visions. It was at the time of the fall of Jerusalem
into the hands of the Chaldeans. Jeremiah, by
Divine command, went to Babylon with the captives,
while Baruch stayed amid the ruins of Jerusalem.
What he saw in the visions there together with the
conversations which he held with heavenly person-
ages are narrated in detail in the next six chapters.
The sum and substance of these is that while Israel
may suffer for a time, the Messiah will soon appear,
and bring to naught the counsels of his enemies.
The letter to the nine and a half tribes is designed
to encourage and strengthen the people in the time
of their distress. It represents their condition as
fully known to God, and their sufferings intended for
their own good.
The author of the book was evidently a Jew, and
wrote some time between the middle of the first
Christian century and before the opcn-
2. The ing of the second, or approximately
Author, about the year 100. The original Ian-
Date, and guage of the document was probably
Original Hebrew. Its relations to 4th Ezra (II
Language. Esdras) have roused the keenest inter-
est. Both books seem to issue from
the same conditions, are designed to meet the same
need, and contain the same type of thought. They
have been called the 'twin Apocalypses.' The
Syriac text of the book may be found in Ceriani's
Monumenta Sacra, V, II (1871). An English trans-
lation with introduction and notes was published by
Charles (The Apocalypse of Baruch, 1896) and a
German translation by Rotlistein in Kautzsch's
Pseudepigrapha (1900).
III. The Greek Apocalypse of Baruch: A book
containing a report of a visit by Baruch to the
seven heavens was mentioned by Ori-
i. The gen in his treatise De Principiis, but
Discovery nothing further was known of it until
of the it was discovered in 1896 by Rev. E.
Book. Cuthbert Butler in a Greek MS. in the
British Museum (subsequently pub-
lished by Prof. M. R. James in the Cambridge
Texts and Studies, Vol. V, 1897, No. 1, pp. 84-
94). Almost at the same time a Slavonic trans-
lation of the production in an abridged form was
made known by Bonwetsch. These two versions
are related to each other as the longer and shorter
recensions of the same writing. Neither one,
however, is probably the full text of the Apoc-
alypse known to and mentioned by Origen.
In that work Baruch is reported to have de-
scribed seven heavens, whereas in the Greek
Apocalypse he is represented as visiting five,
and in the Slavonic only two.
The relation of the work to the Syriac Baruch is
probably explained by referring to 76 3 f. of that
work. Here (!o<l promises to give
2. Criti- Baruch after the lapse of 40 days a
cism. further revelation regarding the world
of material elements, including the
cycle of the earth, the summits of the mountains, the
depths of the valleys and of the seas, and the number
of the rivers. The fulfilment of this promise is not
recorded in what follows, and the Greek Apocalypse
was composed to show that it was fulfilled and how
it was fulfilled. A German translation of the work
is given in Kautzsch's Pseudepigrapha (1900). The
Greek text is to be found in James's edition above
alluded to. A. C. Z.
BARZILLAI, bar-zil'Q-ai (*$]'$, barzillay): 1.
An aged and wealthy Gileadite of Rogelim who
substantially befriended David when he fled from
Absalom (II S 17 27). As he was returning to Jeru-
salem, David invited B. to spend the rest of his days
with him at the capital, but B. refused, asking, how-
ever, favors for his servant (or sons? II S 19 31-39 ; cf.
I K 2 7). 2. The father of Adriel (II S 21 8). 3.
The ancestor of a family of priests who married a
daughter of 1 (supra), but whose descendants could
not prove their genealogy (Ezr 2 61 ; Neh 7 63).
E. E. N.
BASE. See TEMPLE, 18.
BASEMATH, bas'e-math (H2P3, bas'math,
Bashemath AV): 1. One of the wives of Esau,
daughter of Elon the Hittite (Gn 26 34), but in 36 3
the daughter of Ishmael (cf. 28 9, where Mahalath
may = Basemath). 2. A daughter of Solomon (IK
4 15, Basmath AV). E. E. N.
BASHAN, bfi'shan (]$1, bashan), in Heb. usu-
ally with the definite article prefixed: The broad,
rolling, fertile region E. of the Lake of Gennesaret,
extending, roughly, from Gilead on the S. to Hermon
on the N. Map I, GH 4, 5. To-day it is one of the
granaries of Palestine. In ancient times the region
was celebrated for its oaks (Is 2 13; Zee 112; Ezk
27 6) and fine cattle (cf. Ps 22 12; Am 4 1). Its gen-
eral altitude is about 2,000 feet above sea-level. In
the NE. portion there is a peculiar, pear-shaped
region, known to the Arabs as the Leja, which is
literally a 'petrified ocean' of basaltic lava. This
district is not improbably identified with "the region
of Argob," which the Israelites wrested from Og, to-
gether with its "threescore cities" all fortified with
high walls, gates, and bars (Nu2l33ff.; Dt34f.).
This whole region was assigned to the half tribe of
Manasseh (Dt 3 13, 4 43; Jos 13 29 f.). Edrei, Ash-
taroth, Golan, and Salechah were its chief cities (Dt
1 4, 3 l, 10, 4 43). Solomon taxed Bashan (I K 4 13).
ll:i/-ael put an end to the Heb. supremacy over it (II
K 10 33). Tiglath-pileser seems to have carried its
inhabitants into captivity (II K 15 29). Under Tra-
jan (106 A.D.) it was incorporated into the province
of Arabia. To-day it is inhabited by a fierce, warlike
sect, the Druses. G. L. R.
BASHAN-HAWOTH-JAIR, -he"vath-je'ir. See
HAVVOTH-JAIR.
BASILISK. See PALESTINE, 26.
89
A STANDARD BIBUC DICTIONARY
Baruch, Booki of
Beam
BASIN (or BASON) and BOWL are the English
renderings of eight Hebrew words. According to
modern usage a bo wl is deeper or rounder than a basin
and is used chiefly for food or drink; but it is difficult
to preserve (his distinction in naming ancient ves-
sels whose size and shape are largely a matter of con-
jecture.
Basins are most frequently mentioned in connec-
tion with the sacrificial ritual, beginning in Egypt
(Ex 12 22) and Sinai (Ex M 6). Among the furni-
ture of the Tent were bowls of gold (Ex 37 16) and
basins of "brass" (Ex 38 3). Solomon's Temple
contained basins of gold (I K 7 50), "brass" (I K
7 45), and silver (I Ch 28 17), which were carried away
by the Chaldeans (II K25 14 f.; Jer 52 IS!.), but re-
turned by Cyrus (Ezr 1 7 ff.). For basins as offerings
Bee Nu 7 passim; Neh 7 70 (cf Ezr 8 27).
Bowls for wine (Jer 35 5, "pots," AV; Am 6 6) or
ordinary household use (Jg 5 25, "dish," 6 38; II S
17 28) were doubtless common. Among bowl-shaped
objects were the reservoirs of lamps (Zee 4 2 f.; cf. EC
12 6), the rounded capitals of pillars (I K 7 41 =11 Ch
4 12), and the "cups" of the golden candlestick (Ex
25 31).
The viirrrjp used by Jesus (Jn 13 5) was probably
a large foot-basin, provided for the purpose. $10X77
(AV "vial") is correctly rendered "bowl" by ARV in
Rev (58, etc.). See also CUP, and LAVER, and
TEMPLE, 18. L. G. L.
BASKET: The uses of the various "baskets" of
the O T are more evident than their form and mate-
rial. The dudh ., used for figs (Jer 24 2), as well as clay
or bricks (Ps 81 6), was probably a large, shallow
basket, such as was used by masons in ancient
Egypt. The sal or 'plaited' basket used for carry-
ing bread (Gn 40 16; Ex 29 3) or meat (Jg 6 19) was
apparently smaller, and dish-shaped. The tene'
was large and deep, shaped like an inverted cone (cf.
LXX. KaproAXos), and is mentioned only in connec-
tion with products of the soil (Dt 26 2, 28 5). The
k'lubh (Am 8 1) seems to have been a coarsely woven
cage-like receptacle with a lid.
The N T Kfyivos (Mk 6 43, 8 19 and ||s) was a stout
wicker hand-basket, often carried by the Jews when
traveling, in order to avoid buying food from
Gentiles. Apparently each of the Twelve (cf. Mt 14
20) disciples had one. The <nrvpis (Mk 8 8, 20 and ||s)
was a larger flexible provision-basket of plaited ropes
or reeds. The basket in which Paul was let down
was probably a large rope hamper. It is called
both a trtrvpls (Ac 9 25) and a trapyavrj (II Co 11 33),
the latter word denoting especially the 'plaited'
structure. See plate of HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II.
Figs. 2, 3, 4, 6. L. G. L.
BASTARD. See MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE.
BAT. See PALESTINE, 24.
BATH. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 3.
BATH-: The element Bath- in compound proper
names means daughter. It occurs in only two or
three instances in the O T. E. E. N.
BATH, BATHING. See PURIFICATION, 2.
BATH-RABBIM, bath"-rab'im (B^TTO, bath-
rabblm,) 'daughter of multitudes': The name of a
gate of Hcshbon (Song 7 4). Nothing furth.
known of it. For a bold conjecture, see ('heyiie
in KH. K. K. N.
BATH-SHEBA, bath"-shi'lm (ritT:, balh-she-
bha'), 'daughter of Sheba': The wife of Uriah
the Hittite, who committed adultery with David
and after Uriah's death became one of David's wives.
She was a woman of beauty and energy. Her first
child after her union with D. died, but she later be-
came the mother of other sons including Solomon (cf .
I Ch 3 5). She retained her influence over D. until
his death, and doubtless it was she who was chiefly
instrumental in D.'s choice of Solomon as his succes-
sor (IIS 11 2ff., 1224f.;IKl n-219).
In II S 11 3 her father's name is given as Eliam,
but in I Ch 3 5 she is called Bath-shua, the daughter
of Ammiel (only a variant form of Eliam). Ahitho-
phel, D.'s counselor, may have been the grand-
father of B. (cf. II S 23 34). E. E. N.
BATH-SHUA, -shu'a. See BATH-SHEBA.
BATTERING-RAM. See BESIEGE.
BATTLE. See WARFARE, 4.
BATTLE-AX. See ARMS AND ARMOR, 5.
BATTLEMENT: On the use of this term in
Jer 5 10 AV compare the RV rendering. See also
HOUSE, 6 (d).
BAVVAI, bav'a-oi ("13, bawmy, Bavai AV),(Neh
3 18). See BINNUI.
BAY. See COLORS, 2.
BAYITH, bfl'yith, Bajith, be'jith: This word
is treated as a proper name in the EV of Is 15 2.
If a proper noun the RV margin is the more cor-
rect reading. But bayith (H'S) may be only a
textual error for bath (.12), 'daughter,' and in that
case we should read 'The daughter of Dibon is gone
up to the high places.' E. E. N.
BAY TREE (Ps3735 AV): In RV the correct
reading is given: "a green tree in its native soil."
LXX. reads: "like the cedars of Lebanon."
E. E. N.
BAZLITH, baz'lith (.T^>S2, batslUh), and BAZ-
LUTH (.-n?y2, batsluth): The ancestor of a family
of Nethinim (Ezr 2 52; Neh 7 54). E. E. N.
BDELLIUM. See STONES, PRECIOUS, | 3.
BEALIAH, bi"a-loi'a ('"^l*?, b>'alyah), 'Jehovah
is Baal (Lord)': One of David's soldiers (I Ch
125). E. E. N.
BEALOTH, be-e'leth (.11^3, fr'Sloth): A town
in the "South" (Jos 15 24). Perhaps the same
as Baalath-beer. See BAAL, III. E. E. N.
BEAM (Socrfr): One of the main timbers of a
building. The term is used figuratively in Mt 73;
Lk 6 41 f. in contrast to mote (q.v.) in order vividly
to suggest the inconsistency of criticizing the minor
faults of others when our own are so much more con-
spicuous. J. M. T.
Beans
Bela
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
90
BEANS. See PALESTINE, 23, and FOOD, 3.
BEAR. See PALESTINE, 24.
BEARD: The Israelite was accustomed to wear
a full beard which was to be shaved only in ex-
ceptional cases, as that of a leper (Lv 14 9), or of
extreme mourning (Jer 41 5), although this was con-
trary to the stricter spirit of the law (cf. Lv 19 27,
21 5), which viewed such defacements as heathenish.
To compel one to cut off his beard was thus to inflict
upon him an insulting disgrace (II S 10 4 f.). See
also MOURNING CUSTOMS, 4. E. E. N.
BEAST: In EVV this term designates: 1. A
brute animal, as distinguished from man (Ezk
14 13). 2. A quadruped, as distinguished from other
living creatures (Gn 6 7). 3. A wild, as distin-
guished from a domesticated, animal (Job 5 22 f.; Ps
79 2). 4. An apocalyptic symbol of brute force, as
eet over against the divine power, or distinguished
from humanity (Dn 7 3; Rev 4 6 ST., AV; but RV
"living creatures"). A. C. Z.
BEATEN GOLD. See METALS, 1.
BEATEN OIL. See OIL.
BEATING. See CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS,
3 (b).
BEAUTIFUL GATE. See TEMPLE, 32.
BEAUTY AND BANDS: Two terms used sym-
bolically in Zee, 11 4-14 (better rendered, "grace and
union"), signifying God's gracious purpose toward
His people which they stubbornly opposed.
E. E. N.
BEBAI, bi'ba-ai CJ2, bebhay): 1. The ancestral
head of a large post-exilic family (Ezr2 11; Neh
7 16, 8 11, 10 28). 2. One of this family (Neh 10 15).
E. E. N.
BECHER, bi'ker (IJ?, bekher): 1. The ances-
tral head of one of the clans of Benjamin (Gn
46 21; I Ch 76-8). 2. The ancestral head of the
Becherites, a clan or family of Ephraim. But in
I Ch 7 20 we read Bered, which may be the correct
form, or there may have been some genealogical
confusion, owing to the contiguity of the territory
of the two tribes Benjamin and Ephraim.
E. E. N.
BECORATH, be-co'rath (ni'33, b-khfrath, Be-
chorath AV): An ancestor of Saul (I S 9 1).
E. E. N.
BED, BEDSTEAD (Couch in RV of I Ch5l;
Kst 1 6, 7 8; Job 17 13; Ps 41 3; Pr 7 16): Inthesimpler
conditions of life reflected in the Bible it was custom-
ary to sleep in one's ordinary clothing, using the
outer garment or cloak for a covering (Ex 22 27). In
more advanced conditions, an ordinary rug or mat
was used as a bed. Later, a mattress either took the
place of the mat or was used with it, and together
with a pillow and a simple coverlet or quilt for cold
nights made up the bed furniture of a common indi-
vidual. The mattress was rolled up and put away
for the day within a closet. But bedsteads must
have been used occasionally, as maybe inferred from
the fact that the sarcophagus of Og, King of Boshan,
is called his "bedstead" (Dt 3 11). But more usually
such bedsteads were made of lighter material and
more easily movable. The place of a bedstead was
sometimes taken by the raised platform or immov-
able divan along the walls of a room (mitfah,Gi\ 47 31 :
UK 4 10; mifhkabh, Song 3 1). This was covered
with cushions and used as a sofa during the day.
More elaborate and ornamented bedsteads are
mentioned in Am 6 4, 3 15 ("beds of ivory") and Est
1 6 ("couches ... of gold and silver"). These
were used by the wealthy, and offered an oppor- '
tunity for indulging the love of display and luxury.
Such bedsteads were further furnished with pillars
and a canopy like those of palanquins (Song 3 10;
Est 1 6). A. C. Z.
BEDAD, bt'dad (113, b<dhadh): The father of
Hadad, King of Edom (Gn 36 35; I Ch 1 40).
E. E. N.
SEDAN, bi'dan (p?, b>dhan}: 1. Referred to in
I S 12 ll as one of the early deliverers of Israel. The
text is probably wrong. LXX. and Syriac rend
Barak, but perhaps the original reading was Abdon;
cf. Jg 12 13 ff. 2. The head of a Manassite family (I
Ch 7 17). E. E. N.
BEDCHAMBER. See HOUSE, 1 and 6 (h).
BEDEIAH, be-di'ya (~V1|, bedhyah}: One of the
"sons of Bani" who had taken a foreign wife (K/r
10 35). E. E. N.
BEE. See PALESTINE, 26.
BEELIADA, bi"e-lai'a-da (^?3, b''elyOdha'),
'Baal [in sense of Jehovah] knows': A son of David
(I Ch 14 7), called Eliada in II S 5 16 and I Ch 3 8.
E. E. N.
BEELZEBUB, be-el'ze-bub : 1. The Hel>.
212T 7P3, ba'al z-bhubh, Baalzebub, 'the god of flies,'
worshiped by the Philistines of Ekron (II K 1 21.. n,
16). It is not clear whether this Baalzebub was re-
garded as a special divinity, sender of flies, or the sun
as the healer of disease through his piercing rays. 2.
The Greek form of the same is BfeAfe/3oiiA(Beelzebul,
so also AVmg. and RVmg., Mt 10 25, 12 24, 27; Mk 3
22; Lk 11 15 f.). Jerome calls him the "Chief of the
devils"; Cheyne renders "Lord of the Mansion,"
i.e., of the nether world; Lightfoot, "Lord of Dung."
A. C. Z.
BEER, bi'er (183, b-'er): 1. A place where the
Israelites made a station during the wilderness
journey (Nu 21 16), also called Beer-elim, ' well of
terebinths' (Is 15 8). 2. The place where Jotham
took refuge from his brother Abimelech (Jg92l).
Both sites unknown. A. C. Z.
BEER-, bt'er- (-!3, &'), 'a well': On account
of the necessity of a constant water-supply, sites
of towns were often chosen because of nearness to a
well or wells, and named accordingly, as Beer-elim,
Beer-lahai-roi, Beer-sheba, Beeroth (plural of
beer). A. C. Z.
91
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Bii.in.;
Belt
BEERA, bi'gr-a (*"*<?, b-'SrO.'), 'well': A son
of Zophar of the tribe of Asher (I Ch 7 37).
E. E. N.
BEERAH, bi'er-a (rv$2, b-'erah), 'well': A
Reubenite "prince," carried away captive by Tig-
lath-pileser III (I Ch 5 6). E. E. N.
BEER-ELIM, bi"gr-i'lim (C^'fct 9, b-'lr 'aim),
'well of [sacred] trees': According to the common
IIi-l>. text, 'well of mighty ones,' Is 158. Site un-
known. E. E. N.
BEERI, be-i'rai ("18?, b-'cri): 1. A Hittite,
father of Judith, one of Esau's wives (Gn 26 34). 2.
The father of the prophet Hosea (Hos 1 1).
E. E. N.
BEER-LAHAI-ROI, bi"er-la-hai'-roi" ("tf'l n^
"S^, b''irlnh<iy ro'i): The well (probably not far
from Kadesh) near which Hagar had her theoph-
any (Gn 16 7-14) and where Isaac lived for some
time (Gn 24 62, 25 ll). The interpretation of the
name given in RVmg., "the well of the living one
who seeth me," is not entirely satisfactory. The
Ileb. expression offers difficulties of interpretation
which have not yet been cleared up. In the con-
text (Gn 16 12 f.) the emphasis is on God's 'seeing,'
but nothing is said that explains lahay, taken to
mean 'living one.' The same Heb. letters would
ordinarily be taken to mean 'jaw bone' (cf. Jg 15
17 ff.), but this does not explain ro'i, 'who seeth me.'
Many scholars think that ro'i stood originally for the
name of some animal. In that case the whole name
must be considered a place-name much older (and
no longer understood) than the origin of the story
in Gn 16, which simply gives it an interpretation.
See Comm. on Gen., esp. Driver (p. 183, note) and
Gunkel, ad loc. E. E. N.
BEEROTH, be-i'reth (!Ti{<3, b-'eroth), 'wells': 1.
A Canaanite city once leagued with Gibeon and
included with it in the treaty between Israel and the
(iibeonites (Jos 9 17). It was in the territory as-
signed to Benjamin (Jos 18 25; II S 4 2). After the
Exile it was again occupied by the Jews (Ezr 2 25;
Neh 7 29). Its inhabitants were called Beerothites
(II S 4 2, 23 27; I Ch 11 39). Map III, F 5.
E. E. N.
BEEROTH BENE JAAKAN, bi'ne je'a-kan. See
JAAKAN.
BEER-SHEBA (i'2? IS?, b>'er shebha'): The resi-
dence of the patriarchs (Gn 21 31, 26 23, 28 10); the
name signifying 'well of seven' (Gn21 30f.), or 'well
of oath' (26 31-33), or, as Strabo states it (xvi. 4, 24),
"seven wells" (cf. Kiriath-arba, 'fourfold city'). It
is pretty safely identified with the modern Blr'es-
seba, 28 m. SW. from Hebron. Map II, C 4. The
neighboring district was called the Wilderness of
Beer-sheba (Gn 21 14). Being situated on the S.
border of t lie country, the expression naturally arose
"from Dan to Beer-sheba" (Jg 20 1 ; I S 3 20), which is
used conversely by the chronicler "from Beer-sheba
to Dan" (I Ch 21 2; II Ch 30 5). It was a city of
Simeon (Jos 19 2). Samuel's sons became judges at
Beer-sheba (I S82); Elijah fled to Horcb via Beer-
sheba (I K 19 3). The mother of King Joash was
born there (II K 12 1). In the days of Amos there
was at Beer-sheba an important sanctuary (Am 5 5.
8 14). G. L. It.
BEESHTERAH, be-esh'te-ra (rr??;?;, b''eshf-
rfili) (called Ashtaroth in I Ch67l; possibly an ab-
breviation for Beth- Ashtaroth, 'house of A.'): A
city in Bashan (Jos 21 27). See ASHTAROTH.
E. E. N.
BEETLE. See PALESTINE, 26.
BEGGAR: The Mosaic legislation was designed
to prevent the formation of a beggar class among the
Hebrews (cf. Dt 15 4, 7, 9, 11; Ex 23 11). Accordingly,
though such a class is common enough in the Orient,
there is no mention of beggars in the O T (except in
I S 2 8, AV for the Heb. ebhyon, 'poor'). The term
'poor,' however, may often mean such destitute per-
sons as were dependent upon the bounty of their
more prosperous brethren for their means of daily
subsistence (Ps 41 1, 82 4). Likewise in the N T the
term "beggar" (Lk 1620,22) represents the Greek
'poor.' See also ALMS. A. C. Z.
BEGOTTEN. See ONLY-BEGOTTEN.
BEHEAD. See CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS,
3 (a).
BEHEMOTH, bi'he-meth (flittrQ, b'hemdth),
apparently an intensive plural, from b'hfin/ili.
'beast' (so Cheyne, EB), hence 'colossal !>east': A
monstrous beast, used as an illustration of the Divine
creative power in Job 40l5ff. The details of the
description fit the hippopotamus more nearly than
they do any other animal. But the description
(like that of 'Leviathan,' ch. 41) goes beyond the
bounds of nature into the mythological realm, bor-
rowing details from Egyptian or Babylonian mythol-
ogy, simply to make the impression more forcible
and show how God is absolutely supreme over all
beings, natural or supernatural. Possibly there is
a similar instance in Is 30 6 ("beasts" Behemoth?).
(See Gunkel, Schopfun-g und Chaos, p. 64 f., and
Cheyne in EB.) See PALESTINE, 24. E. E. N.
BEKA, BEKAH, bi'ka. See WEIGHTS AND
MEASURES, 4.
BEL. See SEMITIC RELIGION, 16.
BEL AND THE DRAGON. See DANIEL, ADDI-
TIONS TO.
BELA, bf'la (3^2., bela'): I. 1. A king of Edom,
the first in the list given in Gn 36 32 ff. He is called
the "son of Beor," which has led many scholars
to identify him with Balaam, son of Beor (Nu
22 5 ff.), but this is very uncertain. 2. The ances-
tral head of one of the clans of Benjamin, the Be-
laites (Gn 4621; Nu 2638ff.; I Ch 76f., 8 iff.). 3.
The ancestral head of one of the clans of Reuben
(I Ch 5 8-10).
II. A city near the Dead Sea, one of the five at-
tacked by Chedorlaomer (Gn 14 2, 8), identical with
Zoar. E. E. N.
Belial
Bemice
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
93
BELIAL, bi'li-al (V?"':;, Mn/a',,1), h'li, 'not,' and
;/"'"/ [in Hiphil], 'profit'): Primarily 'unprofitable.'
From this neutral sense, however, the term soon
passed into the more positive one of 'wickedness.'
It is used in the O T almost invariably in connection
with some prefixed word, such as "son," "daughter,"
"children," "man," and designates a very wicked
character (Dt 13 13; Jg 19 22; I S 1 16, 10 27, 25 25, etc.
AV). In the apocalyptic literature Belial is person-
ified and identified with the genius of all evil, Satan.
By a change in the last sound of the word it was
made into Beliar, ' Lord of the Forest' (II Co 6 15).
A. C. Z.
BELLOWS. See ARTISAN LIFE, 10-12, and
METALS, 1.
BELLS: Mentioned in Scripture only in the fol-
lowing instances: 1. The golden bells (pa'amoinni,
fr. pa' am, 'to strike') which alternated with the
pomegranates upon the skirts of the high priest's
robe (Ex 2833f., 3925f.). 2. The bells used on
horses were called m'tsilloth, fr. tsalal, 'to clang'
(Zee 14 20). L. G. L.
BELSHAZZAR, bel-shaz'ar (I'SXS, belsha'-
tstsar): The last Chaldean king of Babylon, according
to Dn 5; but prince-regent and son of Nabonidus, the
last king, according to the Babylonian inscriptions.
His name appears in his father's and other records
as Bel-shar-uzur ('may Bel protect the king'). He
was commander of at least a portion of the army in
its final stand against Cyrus in 538 B.C. His rela-
tion to Nebuchadrezzar was simply that of successor
in power and not 'son,' as Dn 5 18 implies. His
death described in Dn 5 may have been narrated in
portions of Nabonidus's annals that have been lost.
Whatever view we may take of the Book of Daniel it
may be affirmed with confidence that B. is a histor-
ical character, that he was the son of Nabonidus,
and that he occupied a prominent place in the gov-
ernment of Babylonia just before it fell into the
hands of Cyrus. I. M. P.
BELTESHAZZAR, bel"te-shaz'ar (.'V^*'^.
belf'sha'tstsar, Babyl. Balaf-sharugur, 'guard the life
of the king'): The Babylonian name given to Daniel
(Dn 1 7, 2 20, etc.). E. E. N.
BEMOAN. See MOURNING AND MOURNINO
CUSTOMS, 5.
BEN fl3, ben): ALevite (ICh 15 18). The read-
ing is probably corrupt; comp. ver. 20. E. E. N.
BEN- (*): In compound proper names means
'son' (i.e., 'son of). The plural is b'ne ('sons of).
E. E. N.
BEN-ABINADAB, ben"-a-bin'a-dab (:-^38-|2,
ben-'dbhincidhabh), 'son of Abinadab': An official un-
der Solomon (I K 4 11). E. E. N.
BENAIAH, be-ne'ya (V^, n *Jf. b*nayah), ']"
lias built': 1. Ason of Jehoiada, of priestly family (I
Ch 27 5), commander of David's body-guard, reck-
oned among the heroes (II S 23 22) with a name 'like
the three' (cf. Smith in Int. Crit. Com.), a man of
prowess and the victor over both Moabite and Egyp-
ti:m champions. In David's later years his star was
in the ascendant, while between the lines appears the
story of a bitter rivalry with Joab. When the lat-
ter's shrewdness forsook him, and Adonijah's coup
failed, Benaiah's loyalty was rewarded by the chief
command, and he became his rival's executioner (I
K 2 28-35). 2. A Pirathonite, another of the thirty
heroes (II S2330). 3. A Simeonite prince (I Ch
4 36). 4. A Levite of the second degree who played
" with psalteries set to Alamoth" in the time of David
(I Ch 15 18-20). 6. One of the priests who "did blow
the trumpets before the ark of God" (I Ch 15 24).
6. A forefather of Jahaziel (II Ch 20 14). 7. A Le-
vite overseer of the Temple in Hezekiah's time (II
Ch 31 13). 8. The father of Pelatiah, a "prince of
the people" (Ezk 11 1-13). 9-12. Names of four
Israelites who married foreign wives (Ezr 10 25 ff.).
A. S. C.
BEN AMMI, ben am'ai. See AMMON, AMMON-
ITE.
BENCH. See SHIPS and NAVIGATION.
BEN-DEKER, ben-di'ker n*"^, ben dheger),
'son of Deker' (Dekar AV): An official under Solo-
mon (I K 4 9). E. E. N.
BENE-BERAK, ben"e-W'rak (p:5"rf5 b'ne
bheraq), 'sons of lightning' (i.e., of a storm-god?):
A city of Dan (Jos 19 45), Map III, C 4.
E. E. N.
BENEFACTOR: The translation of fiepye'rqs (m)
(Lk 22 25), a title frequently assumed by rulers in
antiquity; e.g., Ptolemy Euergetes, i.e., Ptolemy the
Benefactor. E. E. N.
BENE-JAAKAN, bi"ne-je'a-kan. See JAAKAN.
BEN-GEBER, -ge'ber (^.rip, ben gebher), 'son
of Geber": One of Solomon's officials (I K 4 13).
E. E. N.
BEN-HADAD, ben"he'dad (Tin;;, ben h&dhadh),
'son of Hadad": The name Ben-hadad is the
Heb. form of the name Dadda-'idri or Adad-'idri
( =Hadad-ezer, II S 8 3) found in the Assyr. inscrip-
tions as the name of the king of Damascus contem-
porary with Ahab. The god Hadad (or Adad, the
same as Ramman or Rimmon) was a weather- or
storm-god, widely worshiped in SW. Asia and, ap-
parently, the national god of Damascus. Adad-
'idri means 'Adad is my help.'
The O T speaks of three kings of Damascus with
this name: 1. The son of Tabrimmon, who was
hired by Asa of Judah to attack the NE. frontiers
of Israel (I K 15 18 ff.; II Ch 102ff.). 2. The son of
the preceding and the contemporary of Ahab of Is-
rael, wit h whom he was frequently at, war. He was
an able, energetic king, who waged a long and fairly
successful struggle against Shalmaneser II of Assyria
(860-824), who has left a record of a great defeat
inflicted on B. and a number of confederates (in-
cluding Ahab) at Karkar in 854. This victory was
really indecisive, for Shalmaneser did not take
Damascus and undertook several other campaigns
against B. without attaining any permanent ad-
vantage. This B. was succeeded by Hazael (who
93
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Bernice
perhaps murdered him; cf. II K 8 15), about 844 (I K
20, L'J; II K 5, 6 24-7 20, 8 7-15). Many scholars con-
sider 1 and 2 to be identical. 3. The son and suc-
cessor of Hazael. He is called Mart in the Assyr.
inscriptions. He was conquered by R:iiiunan Nirari
III of Assyria, c. 803. This event broke the power
of Damascus and gave Israel a chance to recover
from the crushing defeats inflicted by Hazael (II K
13 3-5, 24). E. E. N.
BENHAIL, -he'il (Vn-^, ben kayO), 'son of
strength': A prince of Judah, one of the company
of "teachers" appointed by Jehoshaphat (II Ch
177). E. E. N.
BEN-HANAN, -he'nan GJn-^, ben hanan), 'son
of the gracious one': A Judahite, the son of Shimon
(I Ch 4 20). E. E. N.
BEN-HESED, -hi'sed (~y~"i?> ben hesedh), 'son
of Hesed': One of Solomon's officials (I K4 10).
E. E. N.
BEN-HUR, -hur' C""]*, ben hur), 'son of Hur':
One of Solomon's officials (I K 4 8). E. E. N.
BENINU, be-nai'nu O^J?, b-nlnu): ALevite who
sealed the covenant (Neh 10 13). E. E. N.
BENJAMIN, ben'ja-min (f S"}?, binyamin), 'son
of the right hand': I. 1. Ason of Jacob (see TRIBES,
f 4). 2. A Benjamite, the son of Bilhan (I Ch 7 10).
3. One of the "sons of Harim" (Ezrl032; Neh
323, 12 34).
II. The tribal name Benjamin was naturally ap-
plied to the territory occupied by the tribe. This
territory is denned in Jos 18 11-20, and included the
towns enumerated in the immediately following par-
agraph (vs. 21-28). It is not clear whether Bethel and
Jerusalem were within it. The site of Jerusalem
was just on the border between Benjamin and Judah,
and, ideally considered, might have belonged to the
former during the earlier days when it was still a
Jebusite city. There are evidences, however, that
at the time of the Exile it was quite firmly fixed in
possession of the larger tribe (Jer 37 12).
As to Bethel, after the destruction following the
accession of Rehoboam, it is found within the bor-
ders of Ephraim and was made by Jeroboam one of
the two shrines of the northern kingdom (I K 12 32).
In Jos 18 32, however, it is said to belong to Benja-
min. It is possible that part of Benjamin joined in
the revolt against Rehoboam. It has been held that
such was the case upon the basis of I K 12 20 ("There
was none that followed the house of David but the
tribe of Judah only"). But against this stand a
series of explicit statements (I K 12 21, 23; II Ch 11 10,
12, 23, 14 8, 15 2, 9, etc.), and the fact that even in N T
times Benjamin was regarded as a portion of the
Jewish commonwealth. Paul belonged to this tribe.
III. One of the gates of Jerusalem, Jer 20 2, 37 13,
387; Zee 13 14 f.; see JERUSALEM, 32. A. C. Z.
BENO, bi'no (^?, b'no): A son of Merari (I Ch
2426f.). E. E. N.
BENONI, ben-o'ni: Another name for Benjamin.
SeeTKiBEs, 3.
BEN-ZOHETH, ben-zO'heth (Hnil-jJ, bemiheth),
'son of Zoheth': A son of Ishi, a man of Judah
(I Ch 4 20). E. E. N.
BEON, Wen. See BAAL-MEON.
BEOR, bi'er (-if?, b-'6r): 1. The father of Bela,
the first king of Edom (Gn 36 32). 2. The father of
the seer Balaam (Nu 22 8, etc.). Some would iden-
tify him with 1. E. E. N.
BERA, bi'ra (1"_;, beray): King of Sodom (Gn
14 2). E. E. N.
BERACAH, ber'a-ca (HJ";?, b-rakhah, Berachah,
ber'a-cu, AV): I. A Benjamite who came to David
at Ziklag (I Ch 12 3). II. A valley where an army
invading Judah in the days of Jehoshaphat was
destroyed (II Ch2026). Perhaps the modern ruins
Berektit indicate the locality. Map II, E 2.
E. E. N.
BERACHIAH, ber"a-cai'a. See BERECHIAH.
BERAIAH, ber"a-ai'a (~;X;5, b-ra'yah), ' 3" cre-
ates': A Benjamite, one of the sons of Shimei (I Ch
821). E. E. N.
BEREA, be-ri'a. See BEROJA.
BERECHIAH, ber"e-cai'a (~;5"1.2, berekhyah),']"
blesses' : 1. The father of Zechariah the prophet (Zee
1 l, 7). (In some editions of AV called Barachiah.)
2. The father of Asaph the singer (I Ch 6 39, 15 17).
3. A Levite doorkeeper for the ark (I Ch 15 23). 4.
A chief of the Ephraimites (II Ch 28 12). 6. A post-
exilic Levite (ICh9 16). 6. The father of Meshul-
lam (Neh 3 4, 30, 6 18). 7. One of the sons of Zerub-
babel (I Ch 3 20). E. E. N.
BERED, bi'red ("H.?, beredh): 1. A place in the
wilderness S. of Beersheba (Gn 16 7, 14). Site un-
known. 2. See BECKER, 2. E. E. N.
BERI, bi'rai ("13, ben): The head of a family of
Asher (I Ch 7 36). With this family the Berites
(II S 20 14) had nothing to do. Perhaps the original
reading was Bichrites (see BECKER, 2).
E. E. N.
BERIAH, be-rai'a (~?"!?, b-rl'ah): 1. One of the
sons of Asher who migrated to Egypt with Jacob
(Gn 46 17) and therefore the designation of one of the
clans of the tribe of Asher, the Beriites (Nu 26 44 f.).
2. The designation of an Ephraimitic clan with a
Benjamite intermixture. According to 1 Ch 7 21 ff.
Ezer and Elead, sons of Ephraim, lost their lives in a
cattle raid against Gath. After a period of mourn-
ing, their father, Ephraim, begat another son, Be-
riah. In I Ch 8 13 Beriah and Shema are two Benja-
mites who put the men of Gath to flight. Scholars
interpret these names in the tribal sense, B. being a
clan composed of individuals from two tribes. 3. A
son of Shimei, the Gershonite (ICh23 10).
J. A. K.
BERNICE, bgr-nai'sfe (BepviV?/): Daughter of
Herod Agrippa I and sister of Herod Agrippa II.
She was thrice married. At-the time of Paul's trial
before Festus (Ac 25 13 ff.), she had recently left her
Berodach-Baladan
Beth-Gilgal
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
third husband, Polemon, King of Pontus. During
the war with Rome (66-70) she became the mistress
of Titus and afterward lived with him at Rome.
Public policy alone prevented him from acknowl-
edging her to be his wife. See Jos. Antiq. (passim)
and Schiirer IMP I. 19 (supplement).
E. E. N.
BERODACH-BALADAN, be-r5"dac-bal'u-dan :
A king of Babylon (II K2012; Is 390- See MERO-
DACH-BALADAN.
BERCEA, be-ri'a (Ripoia): A city of Macedonia in
the province of Emathia, at the foot of Mt. Bermius,
founded byTheron (Beron)
or by Beroea, daughter of
Beros. It was the scene
of the defeat of Demetrius
by Pyrrhus (288 B.C.).
After the battle of Pydna
(168 B.C.) it was the
first city to surrender
to the Romans. Pom-
pey was quartered
in 49 B.C. B. was
the most populous
city in Mace-
donia in the
1st cent. A.D.
Paul preached
here with
some success
to the Jewish
colony on his
second mis-
sionary jour-
ney (Ac 17 10,
13). B. was des-
troyed by an
earthquake in
900 A.D. The
modern name
is Verria.
J. R. S. S.
Siege of Lachish by Sennacherib.
BEROTHAH, be-ro'tha
berothah): A
place on the (ideal) N. border of the Holy Land (Ezk
47 16). Site unknown. E. E. N.
BEROTHAI, be-ro'thai ('D^S, berothay): A
city belonging to Hadadezer, King of Zobah, con-
quered by David (II S 8 S). It is identified by some
with Bereitan, a little S. of Baalbek. E. E. N.
BEROTHITE, bi'ro-thait (*Cn3, berothl): Na-
harai the Berothite (I Ch 11 39) was probably a man
of Beeroth (q.v.). E. E. N.
BERYL. See STONES, PRECIOUS, 2.
BESAI, bJ'sai CSS, bcsay): The ancestral head of
a Nethinim family (Ezr 2 49, Neh 7 82). E. E. N.
BESIEGE: The offensive wars in which the Is-
raelites were engaged were usually of short duration
and probably did not involve any long or elaborate
siege-operations. Though we read of sieges (e.g.,
in Jg 9 46-52; II S 20 15; I K 15 27) these were little
more than the brief investment of a town by the
blockading army. The methods for destroying the
wall, etc., were of the simplest kind. It was other-
wise with the operations of the Egyptian and Assyr-
ian armies. These were provided with scaling-lad-
ders, with protected cars which could be pushed close
to the walls (as depicted on their wall inscriptions),
with battering-rams (Ezk 21 22, the covering of
which is perhaps meant by mantelet, Nali 2 5), etc.
Later kings of Judah sought to provide themselves
with like engines of warfare (II Ch 26 15). Natu-
rally, with this development of offensive methods
there went a corresponding development of defen-
sive works. Walls were made stronger,
furnished with bulwarks or outer walls,
etc. By the Romans the science of
siege-operations was carried to a high
state of perfection (cf. Josephus' de-
scriptions in BJ , passim). E. E. N.
BESODEIAH, bes"o-di'ya (ny]t3,
b'fodhyah), 'in the secret of J" ' (?): The
father of Meshullam (Neh 3 6).
E. E. N.
BESOM, bl'zom: An old English
word meaning a broorn. The Heb.
term mat'tite'm Is 14 23
is rare, but means
probably some kind of
sweeping in-
strument.
E. E. N.
B E S O R ,
bi'ser (-V-;,
b'sor): A wady
or brook men-
tioned in IS 30
9, 10, 21. Prob-
ably the Wady
esh Sheriah, a
tributary of
Wady Ghus-
E. E. N.
seh, Map II, B 3.
BESTEAD, be-sted', for early Eng. bested, i.e.,
'placed' (Is 8 21 AV). The RV reads "sore dis-
tressed." The Heb. (~r"2) has reference to being
in great difficulty or hardship. E. E. N.
BETAH, bi'ta. See TEBAH.
BETEN, bi'ten ("sJ3, beten), 'a hollow': A town
on the border of Asher (Jos 19 25), site unknown
(perhaps el Baneh, Map I, E 4). E. E. N.
BETH- (rrj, beth-), 'house of: In compound
place-names Beth- means 'place of,' 'abode of,'
'temple of,' 'house of,' etc. E. E. N.
BETH-ABARA, beth"-ab'o-ra. See BETHANY, 2.
BETH-ANATH, beth" - e'nath (DJJ?. '2, beth-
dnath), 'temple of Anath': An old Cnnaanitish for
ress later occupied by Naphtali (Jos 19 38; Jg 1 33)
Though mentioned in Egyptian lists, its exact sit
is uncertain. E. E. N.
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Berodach-Baladan
Beth-Gilgal
BETH-ANOTH, beth"-e'noth (r^i' '2, beth-
dnoth): A town of Judah (Jos 1559). Probably the
modern Beit 'AinUn, Map II, E 2. E. E. N.
BETHANY, beth'a-ni (Bij&wia): 1. Bethany near
Jerusalem, now called el'Azariyeh from Lazarus,
the place of Jesus' arrival on His last journey to Je-
rusalem (Mk 11 l; Mt 21 l; Lk 19 29; Jn 12 l); also
the place of His ascension (Lk 24 50). Map II, F 1.
2. Bethany beyond Jordan (Jn 1 28, early changed
in some MSS. to Bethabara, so AV). One of the
places where John baptized (cf. also Jn 3 23). The
site of this second Bethany is uncertain. J. M. T.
BETH-ARABAH, beth"-ar'a-ba (H^n '2, bUh
ha-'&rabhah), 'the house of (or in) the Arabah':
A town on the NE. border of Judah. Site unknown
(Jos 15 6, 61); Jos 18 22 may refer to a different
place. E. E. N.
BETH-ARAM, -e'ram. See BETH-HARAN.
BETH-ARBEL, beth"-ar'bel (bxjns '2, beth
'arbc'l), 'house of Arbel': In Hos 10 14 we read "as
Shalman destroyed Beth-arbel in the day of battle."
Many conjectures have been advanced to explain
this statement, as e.g., that Shalman = Shalmaneser
II, King of Assyria, and Beth-arbel = Arbela (Irbid in
Gilead, Map I, G 5), but none of them rests on
certain grounds. E. E. N.
BETH-AVEN, -e'ven (]'% '2, beth 'awen): A
place E. of Bethel near Ai (Jos 7 2; I S 13 J, 14 23).
Near it was a "wilderness" (Jos 18 12). The exact
site is unknown. According to the pointing of the
present Heb. text beth 'awen means 'house of wick-
edness," but the original pronunciation may have
been beth 'on (so LXX. [B] in Jos 18 12). It was easy
to transform b.'on into 6. 'awen and use this as a con-
temptuous designation for Bethel ('house of God'),
the seat of corrupt worship, as seems to have been
done by Hosea (4 15, 5 8, 10 5). E. E. N.
BETH-AZMAVETH, -az-me'veth. See AZMA-
VETH.
BETH-BAAL-MEON, -be"ol-mi'en. See BAAL-
MEON.
BETH-BARAH,-be'ra (rri2'2, beth-barah): The
exact situation is unknown, unless the original
spelling was Beth-'dbharah, 'house (place) of the
ford ' (Jg 7 24). See BETH-ABARAH. E. E. N.
BETH-BIRI, -bi'rai ("X^2 '2, beth bir'l), B.
birei AV: A place in Simeon (I Ch 4 31), called
Beth-lebaoth in Jos 19 6 and Lebaoth in Jos 15 32.
Site unknown. E. E. N.
BETH-CAR, -car" (~? '2, beth fcar): A place,
possibly a height, marking the limit of a pursuit of
the Philistines by Israel (I S 7 11). Site unknown.
E. E. N.
BETH-DAGON, -de'gen (pl T '2, beth dagSn),
'house of Dagon': 1. A town of Judah (Jos 15 41).
Map III, C 5. 2. A town on the border of Asher
(Jos 19 27). The identification, Map IV, B 6, is
somewhat uncertain. Both places were doubtless
once seats of Dagon-worship. E. E. N.
BETH-DIBLATHAIM, -dib"la-tlu-'im. See AL-
MON-DIBLATHAIM.
BETHEL (V&T2., bfth'-d), 'house of God': A
locality 12 m. N. of Jerusalem on the way to She-
chem. Two accounts are given of the origin of tlic
name. According to one, Jacob fleeing from Esau
to Paddan-aram became aware through a dream of
God's special presence at the place, and called it "the
house of God" (Gn 28 19 [J]); according to the sec-
ond, on his return from Paddan-aram he received
the assurance of a blessing from God at that spot,
" and set up a pillar in the place where he spoke with
him, a pillar of stone, and poured out a drink-offer-
ing thereon and poured oil thereon, and .Jacob called
the name of the place where God spake with him
Bethel" (Gn35l4f. [P]). Originally, the name
probably belonged more narrowly to a high place or
shrine in the vicinity of Luz. Later, it passed on to
the neighboring city with its adjacent country (Jg
1 23). In Jos 1822 it is reckoned among the cities
of Benjamin; but from Jg 1 22-25 it appears that
"the house of Joseph" secured possession of it by
treachery, and in Jos 8 17 its capture is associated
with that of Ai. In I Ch 7 28 it is mentioned among
the possessions of Ephraim. When Jeroboam led
the ten tribes to break away from Rehoboam, Bethel
became the most prominent shrine in the new king-
dom. To this end its history contributed materially,
for even before the days of Jacob, Abraham had built
an altar at the place (Gn 12 8, 13 3-6), and Jacob's ex-
perience gave it a permanent name for sacredness
(Gn 28 18-22, 31 13, 35 15). To the prophets Bethel
became a symbol of the idolatrous worship of the
northern tribes which was evidently thoroughly
organized with its own priesthood and ritual. In
modern geography, Bethel is to be identified with
Beitin. Map III, F 5. (Cf. for fuller history G. A.
Smith, HGHL, p. 250 ff.) A. C. Z.
BETH-EMEK, -1'mek (p)JJ?H '2, beth ha-'emeq),
'house (place) of the valley': A place on the border
of Asher (Jos 19 27). Possibly the modern 'AmkS,
Map IV, B 6. E. E. N'.
BETHER, bi'ther 03?, bether): In Song 2 17 we
read " the mountains of Bether." The name may be
only figurative, 'mountains of divisions or separa-
tions.' But a Bether is mentioned in LXX. of Jos
15 19 probably the modern Bittlr on a hill about 6
m. SW. of Jerusalem. Map II, E 1. E. E. N.
BETHESDA, be-thez'da. See JERUSALEM, 12.
BETH-EZEL,-i'zel (^>'8n '^bethha'etsel^'pl&ce
near by': A place in the Shephelah (Mic 1 11). Site
unknown. E. E. N.
BETH-GADER, -ge'de.r (11J '2, beth gadher): A
place inhabited by a Calebite clan (I Ch 2 51),
otherwise unknown. E. E. N.
BETH-GAMUL, -ge'mul (bltt? '2, beth-gamul): A
town of Moab (Jer 48 23), probably between Kiriat-
haim and Beth-mcon. E. E. N
BETH-GILGAL, -gil'gal (^"?J3 '2, beth haggilgal),
'house of Gilgal,' so AV (Neh 12 29). Same as
GILQAL (q.v.). A. C. Z.
Beth-Haccherem
Bethul
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
<JG
BETH-HACCHEREM, -hac'k.j-rnu ("." '~,bith
liiil.L-i i-i in, Beth-Haccerem AV), 'place of the vine-
yard': A place iii Juilali (Jer 6 1; Neh3l4). Site
unknown. I'.. tt. N.
BETH-HARAN, -he'ran (]" '-, Inh-haran): A
city E. of Jordan in (lie territory of Gad (Nu '.'<- 86,
called B.-Haran in Jos 13 27 [B.-Aram AV]), iden-
tified by some as Tel Rtaiuili, Map II, H 1, by
others as Beit Hnrran. At the latter place Herod
built the palace in which he celebrated his birth-
day (Alt 140-12). A. C. Z.
BETH-HOGLAH, -hog'la (H",- ':, btth-haglah):
A town of Benjamin, near the NE. border of Jiulah,
not far from the Dead Sea (Jos 15 6, 18 19, 21).
Map II, III. E. E. N.
BETH-HORON, -ho'ron (frh '", btlh huron),
'house of a hollow,' perhaps from a bowl-shaped
valley in the vicinity: Two neighboring places
(II Ch 8 5) about 3 in. apart, distinguished
from each other as the "upper" (Jos 165) and
"nether" (Jos 16 3) Beth-horon. They were both
on the boundary between Ephraim and Benjamin
to the W. of the watershed of the hill-country (Jos
lOlOf.). Map III, E 5. Josephus (BJ. II, 19 8)
places the region on the way from Jerusalem to An-
tipatris and Ca;sarea. The importance of B. in his-
tory lies chiefly in the availability of the spot as a
fortified strategic point (Jth 4 4). Solomon evidently
appreciated this fact when he "built" it (I K 9 17;
II Ch 8 5); so did the Ephraimitess Sheerah, whose
interest and authority, however, are very obscure
(I Ch 7 24). In the Maccabean period, Jonathan
used the spot in a similar way (I Mac 9 50). Beth-
Horon was also invested with a sacred character
as a Levite city (Jos 21 22; I Ch6C8). In modern
times the two Beth-Horons are known as Beit-Ur el
Foqa and Beit-Ur et-Tahla respectively, two villages
with some old ruins (cf. G. A. Smith, HOHL, pp. 254,
290). A. C. Z.
BETH-JESHIMOTH, -jesh'i-meth (n^';";- O,
beth ha-y*shlmoth) : A town in the territory of Moab,
in the region where Israel encamped (Nu 33 49). It
was assigned to Reuben (Jos 12 3, 13 20), but after-
ward reocccupied by the Moabites (Ezk 25 9).
Map II, H 1. E. E. N.
BETH-LE-APHRAH, -le-af'ra (~~ T f ?^ '2, bcth
l r 'aphrah), 'house of Aphrah' (so AV): A town near
the western border of Judah (Mic 1 10). Site un-
known. E. E. N.
BETH-LEBAOTH, -Ie-b6'eth (H^ 'Z, beth
I'bha'oth), 'place of lions': A town of Simeon (Jos
19 6), also called Lebaoth (Jos 15 32) and Beth-biri
(I Ch 4 31). Site unknown. E. E. N.
BETHLEHEM, beth'le-hem (E-VvTJ, bcth le-
hem), 'house of bread': 1. A city of Judah, called at
times Beth-lehem-judah (Jgl77ff., 19 Iff.; Ru 1
If.; I S 17 12; cf. Mt 2 1, 5f.), to distinguish it from
the city of similar name in Zebulun (see 2), the
modern village of Beit Lahm ('house of flesh'), 5 m.
SSW. of Jerusalem (Map II, F 1), situated in a re-
gion which was, and still is, one of the most fertile
in Judaea, though, singularly enough, unsupplied with
springs of water.
If the I. XX. text nf Jos 15 59 is genuine, (lie name
occurs in the list of the cities of Judah. The first
reasonably assured mention of the place, however, is
in the David narrative, where it is spoken of as the
home of his father, Jesse, the Bethlemite (I S 16 1,
17 12, 15, 58) and his own city (I S 20 6, 28), the scene
of his anointing (I S 164ff.), and from the well at
whose gate he longed for a draft of water (II S 23
14 ff.). If the gloss of Gn 35 19 and 48 7 is correct, it
is mentioned under the name of Ephrath (cf. I S
17 12; Ru 1 2, where inhabitants of B. are called
Ephrathites), which is given in its longer form
Ephrathah (Ephratah AV; cf. also Ru 4 ll; I Ch
2 50, 4 4; Ps 132 (i), as part of the accepted name of
the place by Alicah (5 2; cf. the later documents Ru
4 11 [also 1 2]; I S 17 12; Ps 132 6. [In the pa.ssage I
Ch 2l9ff. Ephrath is considered as the district in
which B. lay]). It is the scene of the story of Ruth
(1 19, etc.); the place of the family sepulcher of Asa-
hel, brother of Joab and Abishai (II S 2 32); the
home of Elhanan, one of David's mighty men (II S
23 34). It was fortified by Rehoboam (II Ch 11 6).
It was near B. that the Jews, who in 586 B.C. fled to
Egypt, found a wayside refuge (Jer 41 17), and the site
itself was repeopled by the "Children of Bethlehem"
after the return from Babylon (Ezr 2 21 |] Neh 7 26).
Its special distinction came from its prophetic
assignment as the home of the coining Messianic
King (Mic 5 2). In fulfilment of this prophecy it
appears in the Mt narrative as the birthplace of
Jesus (2 1-18). In the N T it is still distinguished as
the Judaean B. (Mt 21, 5f.), and as the "City of
David" (Lk 2 4; cf. Jn 7 42). As such it was recog-
nized in the Roman administration of the land;
since the fact that Jesus was born in the place was
due solely to the coining there at that time of Joseph
and Mary to be registered as "of the house and family
of David" under the Syrian census of Quirinius,
c. 6 B.C. (Lk 2 1-7). The statement of Luke
(2 7) that, because of the lack of room in the inn, or
khan, Mary laid the infant in a manger is confirmed
by the early tradition that makes Him to have been
born in a cave (Justin Martyr, 140-150 A.D., Dial c.
Tryph. 78) and by the ancient practise of using the
limestone caves of the hill-country of Judaea as shel-
ters for cattle. The modern Church of the Nativity
is built over a group of caves, some one of which
may have been the historic cave of the nativity.
2. A city of Zebulun (Jos 19 15), the modern insig-
nificant village of Beit Lahm, 7 m. NW. of Nazareth
(Map IV, C 7), generally held to have been the home
and burial-place of Ibzan, who judged Israel seven
years (Jg 12 8, 10).
LITERATURE: Sanday, Sacred Sites of the Gospels (1903);
Ramsay, Was Christ Born in Bethlehem"! (1898); Smith,
HGHL;Pn\merinZDPV,xvii;SWP,H, iii. , T
M. VV. J.
BETH-MAACAH, -me'a-ca (~^ '2, bcth ma'dk-
hah, Beth-Maachah AV): The district where the
town Abel was situated. "Abel of Beth-maacah"
should be read in II S 20 14. This Abel was attacked
by Ben-hadad I (I K1520) c. 900 B.C. Its people
were borne away by Tiglath-pileser III (II K 15 29)
c. 734 B.C. It was an old city, famous for its circle of
97
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Beth-Haccherem
Bethul
"wise" men and women (II S 20 18). The fertil-
ity of the site is indicated in its alternate name
Abel-maim, 'meadow of waters' (II Ch 16 4). Its
situation was strong and advantageous.' Map IV,
E 4. E. E. N.
BETH-MARCABOTH, -mflr'ca-beth (nl3?1 '3,
bethmarkabhoth), 'place of chariots': A town of Sim-
eon not far from Ziklag mentioned along with Hazar-
susah in Jos 19 5; ICh43l. The parallel passage
(Jos 15 31) has Madmannah (q.v.) and Sansannah
(q.v.) as the names of the places. Since B.-Marca-
both 'place of chariots,' and Hazar-susah =
'place of horses,' it is not impossible that the places
had some connection with the trade in horses men-
tioned in I K 10 28 f . ; cf. 9 19. E. E. N.
BETH-MEON, -mi'en. See BETH-BAAI^MEON.
BETH-MERHAK, -mer'hak (pni.^n '3,bethham-
merhdq), 'the house afar off,' 'the far house' (II S
1.57; cf. AV): Apparently the name of a house or
station near Jerusalem, between the city and the
Kedron. E. E. N.
BETH-NIMRAH, -nim'rS (H^J '3, beth nim-
rah) : A town of Moab, in the region assigned to Gad.
It was further built up and fortified by the Gadites
(Nu 32 36; Jos 13 27). It is called Nimrah in Nu
32 3. Map III, H 5. E. E. N.
BETH-PAZZEZ, -paz'ez (YB 'l,bethpatsets): A
town on the border of Issachar (Jos 19 21). Site
unknown. E. E. N.
BETH-PELET, -pi'let (!S^5 '3, beth pelef),
'house of escape': A town in Judah (Jos 15 27, Beth-
palet A V) reoccupied in post-exilic times (Neh 1126,
Beth-pheletAV). Site unknown. E. E. N.
BETH-PEOR, -pi'or (Tij?5 '3, beth p''or), 'house
of Peor,' possibly 'house of Baal-Peor,' i.e., a shrine
where Baal-Peor was worshiped: A city of Moab,
not far from Mount Pisgah, the place where Is-
rael listened to the farewell discourses of Moses (Dt
3 29, 4 46) and the neighborhood in which Moses was
buried (Dt 34 6). In the assignment of territory E.
of the Jordan it fell to the lot of Reuben. Regard-
ing its more definite identification in modern geog-
raphy, there is great uncertainty (cf. Conder, PEFQ,
1882, p. 85 f.). Map II, HI. A. C. Z.
BETHPHAGE, beth'fa-ji (Bij^ayij), 'house of
figs' (Mt21 1 and ||s): A place on the Mt. of Olives,
near Bethany. Site unknown. E. E. N.
BETH-RAPHA,-re'fa(NfJ '3, beth-rapha'): Prob-
ably a place-name in the genealogy of Chelub
(Caleb) (I Ch 4 12). E. E. N.
BETH-REHOB, -ri'heb (3lrn '3, beth r-hobh): A
district of Syria, not far from Dan (Jg 18 28; II
S 10 6). Its exact limits are not known. The city
of Dan was situated in the "valley of Beth-rehob"
(Jg 18 28). Syrians of B. were involved in war with
David (IIS106ff.). See also REHOB. E. E. N.
BETHSAIDA, beth-se'i-da (Bij&raiSd), 'house of
the fishers': According to Josephus (BJ. Ill, 10 7;
cf. Vit. 72; Ant. XVIII, 2 l), a town situated 120
furlongs S. of Lake Semechonitis (McrOm, Jos 114),
the site of the modern et-Tell. Map IV, E 6. Early
in the reign of Philip the Tctrarch B. was advanced
to the rank of a city and named Julian in honor of
Julia, the daughter of Augustus (Ant. XVIII, 2 1).
B. was the home of some of Jesus' disciples, Philip,
Andrew, Peter (Jn 1 44, 12 21), and was denounced
by Jesus for its unbelief (Mt 1 1 21 and ||). Jesus and
His disciples withdrew to B. in order to escape Herod
(Lk 9 10) and to avoid the multitudes (Mk 6 45, 8 22).
The N T passages do not require the assumption of
a second B. on the W. side of the lake (so Ewing,
HBD, I, 282). When Jesus set out from Galilee His
destination was B. Julias (Lk 9 10). But this not
agreeing with tptipov TOWOV (Mk 6 31, 32), it is possible
that Mark omitted the name in this passage, insert-
ing it at the end of the accounts of the feeding of the
multitude (Mk 6 45, 8 22). For the later history of B.
cf. Schurer, HJP, II, i, p. 136. J. M. T.
BETHSHATC, -shan 0$ '3, beth shun), so in IS
31 10, 12; II S 21 12; elsewhere Beth-shean, fttf'3,
beth sh''&n), 'house of safety': A city in the posses-
sion of the western half of Manasseh about 4 m. W.
of the Jordan, and 12m. S. of the Sea of Galilee,
Map III, G 2. It is generally mentioned as a land-
mark (I K 4 12), except that in the collapse of the
cause of Israel it seems to have been the first and
easiest accessible place for the Philistines to cele-
brate their victory (I S 31 10). Its modern name is
Beisan. It had an important history in post-
biblical times, for which see G. A. Smith, HGHL,
pp. 357 ff. A. C. Z.
BETH-SHEMESH, -shi'mesh (SOT '3, beth
shemesh), 'house of the sun': 1. A town on the bor-
der of Judah (Jos 15 10) counted as a priestly city
(Jos 21 16). Here, in the field of Joshua the Beth-
shemite, the Ark rested on its return from the Phi-
listines, but was not allowed to remain (IS69JF.).
Here Amaziah of Judah was defeated by Jehoash of
Israel (II K 14 ll ff.). Later, in the days of Ahaz, it
was taken by the Philistines (II Ch 28 18). It was
probably an ancient seat of sun-worship. Map II,
D 1. 2. A town of Naphtali (Jos 19 38; Jg 1 33).
Site unknown. 3. A town on the border of Issachar
(Jos 19 22). Site unknown. 4. A city of Egypt,
probably On (Heliopolis). E. E. N.
BETH-SHITTAH, -shit'a (T^tf '3, beth-shiff&h),
'place of acacias': A place to which the Midianites
were pursued (Jg 7 22). The ordinary identification
with Shutia (Map IV, D 8) is not entirely satisfac-
tory. E. E. N.
BETH-TAPPUAH, -tap'pu-3 (01EJ3 '3, beth-tap-
pftah), 'place of apples' (?): A town of Judah (Jos
1553), connected possibly with the family named
Tappuah (I Ch2 43), Map II, E 2. E. E. N.
BETHUEL, be-thu'el (VjjTl?, b>thu'el). I. A
son of Nahor, Abraham's brother and the father of
Rebekah, Isaac's wife, and of Laban (Gn 22 22 f., 24
15, etc., 25 20, 28 2, 5). II. See BETHUL. E. E. N.
BETHUL, beth'ul (H"l3, b'lhul) : A town in the S.
of Judah (Jos 194) called Bethuel (I Ch430) and
Chesil (Jos 1530). Site unknown. E. E. N.
Beth-Zur
Bible
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
08
BETH-ZUR, -zOr" (US ':, bfth tar), 'house of
rock,' or Zur may be the name of a deity: A town
of Juduh (Jos 15 58; I Ch 2 45), strongly situated,
commanding tine road between Hebron and Jerusa-
lem (Map II, E 2) and fortified by Rehoboam (II
Chi 17). It was occupied by a post-exilic colony
(Neh 3 10) anil was the scene of several conflicts in
the Maceabean war (I Mac 4 19, etc.). E. E. N.
BETONIM,bet'o-nim (2'j'Jp, b-tOnlm), 'pistachio
nuts': A place on the border of Gad (Jos 13 26).
Site unknown. E. E. N.
BETROTH. See MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE.
BEULAH, biu'la, 'married': The reference in Is
62 4 is to the old Semitic idea that a deity stood in
closest relation to the land in which he was wor-
shiped, i.e., he owned it, controlled it, gave fertility
to it, etc. The prophet here uses the term, but not
in its old purely physical sense. E. E. N.
BEWAIL. See MOURNING CUSTOMS, 5.
BEWITCH. See MAGIC AND DIVINATION.
BEWRAY: An old English word meaning 'to
disclose,' found in the AV of Is 16 3; Pr 29 24, 27
is; Mt 26 73. The Heb. of Pr 27 16 is altogether ob-
scure. E. E. N.
BEYOND THE JORDAN: When this phrase oc-
curs in the reported speeches of Moses it denotes
the W. side of the river (Dt 3 20, etc.), but when used
by the author who reports them, the E. side (Dt 1 1,
5, etc. Cf. also Gn 50 10). A. C. Z.
BEZAI, bi'za-ai (*XS, betsay): The ancestral head
of a large post-exilic family (Ezr 2 17; Neh 7 23,
10 18). E. E. N.
BEZALEL, bez'a-lel (Sp, b'tsal'el, Bezaleel
AV), 'in the shadow of God': 1. The son of Uri,
the son of Hur, who was divinely called to be the
chief artificer of the Tent and its furnishings (Ex
31-39; I Ch 2 20; II Ch 1 5). 2. One of the "sons
of Pahathmoab" who had taken foreign wives (Ezr
10 30). L. G. L.
BEZEK, bi'zek (p.J3, bezeq): 1. A town ruled
over by Adonibezek, captured by Judah and Simeon
in their invasion of Canaan (Jg 1 4f.). It could not
have been far from Jerusalem (cf. ver. 7), but its site
is unknown. To identify it with the following with-
out distorting the whole narrative is impossible. 2.
The place where Saul rallied the Israelites before
marching to the relief of Jabesh-gilead (I S 11 8).
Map III, G 2. E. E. N.
BEZER, bi'zgr (1*2, betser), 'fortress': I. The
head of a family of Asher (I Ch 7 37). II. A city of
refuge, also one of the Levitical cities in the tribe of
Reuben, Dt 4 43; Jos 20 8, 21 36; I Ch 6 78). It was
"in the wilderness in the plain (mishor, here 'upland
plain')." Of the same place Mesha says (Mesha
stone, line 27) :" I built B., for ruins had it become. "
Site unknown. E. E. N.
BIBLE
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
1. Name and Names 5. The Gradual Growth of
2. The Bible a Collection of the O T (A Brief His-
Books of Various Dates torical Sketch of the
and by Many Writers Literature of the O T)
3. The Original Language 6. The Growth of the N T
and Text of the Bible 7. The Permanent Signifi-
4. The Relation of the Bible cance of the Bible
to Life and History 8. Modern Biblical Study
The word Bible is from the Gr. j3i'/3Xo?, (lie
inner layers of the papyrus-plant used in making
the paper of which books, |3i/3X<H, were
i. Name manufactured. The dim. j3i/3Xioi/ was
and Names, especially used of a 'book' as a part or
division of a larger work. The pi.
TO. fiip\ia, 'the books,' was applied to the Scriptures
in consequence of their supreme importance. This
Greek plural passed over into the Latin as a singular
biblia, whence the English word ' Bible.' The oldest
name among the Jews for their Scriptures was "the
books" (Dn 9 2) or, for the legal part, the "book of
the law" or "book of Moses" (Neh 9 3, 13 l). In
NT times the Jews were accustomed to say 'the
writings' (Heb. k'thubhlm; Gr. ypafpai, Lat. Scri/>-
turce), or, in case of quotation, etc., 'Scripture'
(f) ypafj)!); Lat. Scriptura), which term passed
over into Christian usage and has maintained itself
until the present day.
The term Testament is from the Lat testamentum,
'will,' the LXX. rendering of the Gr. SiafJijKi; (cf. also
Mt2628, etc.), which, however, neither in the LXX.
nor in the N T, means ' will' but (as e.g., in II Co 3 4)
'covenant.' It was easy, however, to take Smf9>jic<j
in the sense of a testamentary document and use it
of the Scriptures of the old and new covenants, and
in ecclesiastical literature from the 2d cent, this is
a common designation of the Scriptures. For the
names applied by the Jews to the various parts of
the O T see OLD AND NEW TESTAMENT CANON.
The Protestant Bible in common use is a collection
of sixty-six books. Of these thirty-nine originally
constituted the Jewish Scriptures and
2. The make up the O T. The remaining
Bible a twenty-seven originated in Christian
Collection circles in the Apostolic Age. In the
of Books Roman Catholic Church the O T part
of Various consists of forty-six books (the seven
Dates and Apocryphal books Tobit, Judith, Wis-
by Many dom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, I and II
Writers. Maccabees being counted as Scripture)
plus the so-called Additions to Esther
and Daniel.
The material in the Bible was composed at differ-
ent times during a period of more than a thousand
years from the foundation of the Hebrew nation
by Moses (c. 1200 B.C.) to about the end of the 1st
cent. A.D. The number of writers whose work is
preserved in the Bible is unknown. A large number
of the OT books and some of the N T are anonymous.
The range and variety of subjects are indicative of a
corresponding variety and number of authors. The
poet, the historian, and the philosopher (' wise man'),
the priest, the prophet, and the apostle, the king and
the statesman, the popular story-teller, the serious
legislator, the antiquarian delighting in genealogy
and statistics, the zealous reformer, the faithful
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Beth-Zur
Bible
teacher, the seer, all these and others, even the
Divine Son of Man Himself, find their words or work
represented in the Bible.
It is also a world of varied thought and culture
that is reflected in the Biblical material. In one
part we are face to face with the primitive simplicity
of the Semitic nomad; in another we are in touch
with the rich culture of the ancient Babylonian
civilization ; again we share the experiences incident
to the predominantly agricultural type of life of the
ancient Hebrew commonwealth; at first we witness
the crude and petty warfare between clans or tribes,
then the larger struggles of Israel with her near
neighbors; next we hear the measured tread of
Assyria's victorious armies, creators of the first world
monarchy; then, in succession, it is the Babylonian,
the Persian, the Greek, and finally the Roman em-
pires that form the background of the Biblical his-
tory.
The original languages of the Biblical books were
Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. Nearly all the O T
was composed in Hebrew, the language
3. The spoken by Israel in Canaan before the
Original Exile, but after the Return gradually
Language giving way as the speech of common
and Text intercourse to the Aramaic, then the
of the lingua franca of all SW. Asia. Parts
Bible. of Daniel and Ezra and one verse in
Jer (10 11) are in Aramaic. There is
also an Aramaic coloring to many expressions scat-
tered through the O T. A dialect of Aramaic
was the vernacular of Palestine in N T times, and it
is probable that Jesus' teachings were spoken by
Him in Aramaic and later rendered into Greek by
the teachers of the early Apostolic Church (see
ARAMAIC LANGUAGE). Apart from this Aramaic
basis of the Gospels, especially the first three and of
some material in Acts, the N T was composed en-
tirely in Greek, the Greek of ordinary intercourse
in the Hellenistic world (see HELLENISTIC AND
BIBLICAL GREEK).
The text of the Bible has doubtless had a very
checkered history. Nothing is known of the means
taken to preserve the text of the O T autographs.
It is probable that much editorial work was done by
exilic and post-exilic scholars on the material in their
hands, and we do not know when the text came to be
so carefully guarded that no more changes were pos-
sible. The Greek translation of the O T, the Septua-
gint (LXX., begun c. 250 B.C., and perhaps com-
pleted by 150 B.C.), shows that in many places the
text before the translators differed from the Hebrew
text current to-day (see GREEK VERSIONS OP THE
O T). The great Hexapla of Origen, c. 225 A.D. (a
six-column edition of the O T, one column giving the
Hebrew text), and the Latin Vulgate of Jerome (390-
405 A.D.), who made use of the Hebrew, also furnish
valuable testimony to the ancient Hebrew text.
Finally, the Massoretes (Jewish scholars who were
careful students of the text, 3d to 10th cent. A.D.)
settled upon a uniform text which is that repre-
sented in practically all Hebrew MSS. extant.
The text of the N T has had a corresponding
history. The autographs, written on papyrus, were
perishable and soon disappeared. The first copying
was of an unregulated and perhaps at times careless
character. With the growth of (ho Church in num-
bers and culture more attention came to be paid to
the copying of the text. At last, mainly through tin:
influence of the first printed editions, one type of
text, unfortunately very corrupt, the so-called Text us
Receptus, became dominant. Only within the lust
half-century have more critical and therefore correct
texts become available. (For a full discussion see
TEXT OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.)
Since the Biblical material was produced under
such a variety of circumstances, by so many different
authors, and its composition covered such a long
period of time, it is evident that the collection in its
present form has a complicated history behind it.
The O T was already complete before a word of the
N T was written. But neither collection was the
work of a single age or made at the dictation of
any external authority. For full discussion of the
formal steps that led to the final results in both
cases see the articles on O T and N T Canon.
Others of a less formal but fundamental nature will
find mention below.
From what has been said in 2 it is evident that
the Bible material, in the process of its composition,
sustained a most intimate relation to
4. The life and that progressive development
Relation of of man we call history. This is of
the Bible fundamental importance to a true
to Life and understanding of the Bible and appre-
History. ciation of its value. The Bible, both
as a whole and as to its separate parts,
was in the first instance a result, not a cause, a prod-
uct of something that was actual in life and history
before a written record of it was made.
The O T is the product of something that was in
actual existence in Israel before it found expression
in writing. Israel and Israel's religion came first,
and it was because there was an Israel with such a
religion that a literature like that of the O T was a
possibility. The O T is the product of Israel's vital
religion and is a competent witness to the vitality
and divine character of that religion. While it is
true that the older parts of the O T, once written,
had an influence on subsequent stages of Israel's
religious development, the important fact remains
that, the strong vital, progressive religion of Israel
is the foundation of the written material we have in
the O T.
The same general fact is true of the N T. Jesus
lived and taught and died and rose and was present
by His Spirit in His Church before a book of the N T
was written. The earliest N T book was probably a
letter of an Apostle to recently planted churches,
giving needed advice on matters of pressing impor-
tance. It was within a church, alive, vigorous, pro-
gressive, and withal not free from faults, that our
N T literature originated, and almost without excep-
tion do the N T books show themselves to be prod-
ucts of what was already at hand in the possession
of the Church at large or in the hearts of the chosen
few whose understanding of the common faith was
most profound.
Nothing can be further from the truth, then, than
to say that the religion of Israel or Christianity are
'book-religions.' In both the book is the product,
not the cause; in both the religion was in existence
Bible
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
100
and in a strong vital touch with life and history
before the book appeared; in both the book is tin-
expression of and witness to the strength and vigor
as well as character of the religion. How different
in these respects the Bible is from other sacred
books is as evident as is the related fact, the differ-
ence' between the religions of other sacred books
and the religion that produced the Bible.
Israel, both as a nation and as a nation with a
peculiar religion, was the creation of God through
Moses. He consolidated the tribes
5. The into a national unity the basis of which
Gradual was a religion the religion of Jehovah,
Growth of the God of Israel. This religion was
the O T. essentially spiritual and ethical in
character, simple in its mode of worship
and capable of being expressed in comparatively few
fundamental propositions. Because of its essential
reality and inherent vitality, in virtue of its Divine
origin, the apprehension and appreciation on Israel's
part of the true character and significance of her
religion were capable of great expansion. It was
both possible and necessary for her to grow into an
ever-deepening and widening knowledge of its theo-
logical and ethical principles. As time went on, and
environment changed; as new modes of life were
adopted, new conceptions of the world both of
nations and of ideas were forced on Israel's mind;
as great national crises were met and bitter experi-
ences endured, Israel was called upon to meet such
circumstances and adjust herself to them in the light
of her religion. In the course of this long process
the O T originated and gradually grew into a distinct
body of literature. To say that the O T represents
Israel's national literature may be too sweeping a
statement. It probably comprehends the most of
the religious part of Israel's literature. It is likely
that much old Hebrew literature perished with the
fall of Samaria in 721 B.C. and of Jerusalem in 586
B.C. Only that which was religious in character
was preserved of the pre-exilic literature, and in
exilic and post-exilic days those who produced liter-
ature in Israel were mainly interested in religion.
There is no very early evidence that Moses wrote
more than the statements of the fundamental prin-
ciples of Israel's religious constitution. The cove-
nant terms (Ex 34 10-27), the Decalogue (Ex 20 2-17),
and certain directions as to the attitude of Israel
toward the Canaanite cultus (Ex 20 22-26, 23 20-33 ||
34 10-17) 'are all that can be safely affirmed as in-
cluded by both J and E in the written material of the
Mosaic Age. In addition, according to E, an ancient
code (Ex 21 1-23 9 in the main) was drawn up by
Moses. The Mosaic era and the era of the Con-
quest and Settlement in Canaan were not conducive
to the production of literature, though rich in deeds
of courage and faith. These deeds became the sub-
ject of popular story and song (oral, not written), the
latter especially being generally inspired by strong
religious feeling.
Under David, Israel became supreme in Canaan
and under the Kingdom conditions were more favor-
able to the development of literature. History was
written first on a small scale, then on a larger. At
last the great 'prophetic' histories, J and E (in
which popular tradition was used and its religious
significance pointed out), were completed (see
HEXATEUCH). Legal material, in the form of
codes of smaller or larger compass, was written at
the great sanctuaries, of which the one at Jerusalem
was of chief importance, while poetry, probably
almost exclusively religious, was constantly being
produced. In the 9th cent. B.C., Elijah did his
great work for Israel's religion, but he committed
none of his teachings to writing. Later a history of
his and Elisha's work was written which was em-
bodied in part by the author of Kings in his large
history. In the 8th cent. Israel was face to face wit h
a most serious religious crisis. The old barriers of
comparative isolation were broken down. Before
the rapidly growing power of the Assyrian Empire
the smaller nationalities lost their individual exist-
ence, while their religions were either destroyed or
amalgamated into the great Assyro-Babylonian
pantheon. Such changes threatened the religion of
Jehovah with destruction. It was saved, under God,
by the prophets, the exponents in new and trying
situations of the true character of Israel's religion, a
task involving instruction along theological, ethical,
political, and Messianic lines. From Amos (c. 760
B.C.) to the Exile (536 B.C.) the messages of proph-
ecy, though in most cases originally spoken dis-
courses (cf. Jer 36 2), came to be committed to
writing. Whether this was done by the prophets
themselves or by their disciples we do not know.
No pre-exilic prophet systematically arranged anil
published his prophecies in a complete edition. The
prophetic oracles were more probably gathered up
by disciples into smaller or larger collections which
were later made up into the books we have at
present.
In the 7th cent., when the light of the true religion
of Jehovah was almost extinct, Deuteronomy was
written as a statement of the original Mosaic consti-
tution interpreted in the light of the teachings of
prophecy (Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah). The lit-
erary form chosen was that of a hortatory address
by Moses, followed by a code in which much an-
cient material is preserved and (partially) adjusted
to new and changed conditions (see DEUTERON-
OMY). Through the discovery of this book and
the Reform of Josiah (621 B.C.) based upon it, Israel
(Judah) came to have for the first time a written
religious constitution. The Holiness Code (Lev
1726) was also a contemporary attempt to codify
the main principles of life (for an Israelite) from the
point of view of 'holiness to Jehovah.' During this
period, under the influence of the teachings of Deu-
teronomy, the series of historical narratives (Judges,
Samuel-Kings) was completed (apart from post-
exilic revision). In these, history is almost entirely
subordinated to religion. The events simply fur-
nished the occasion for the religious lessons of the
history. During the latter part of Josiah's reign
and the whole of the reigns of his sons and successors,
Jeremiah was opposing in vain the formalism and
essential irreligiousness that affected all ranks of
society. In the reign of Jehoiakim (608-597) Jere-
miah revised and published his earlier oral dis-
courses with additions (Jer 36). His later proph-
ecies (just before and after the Exile, 586 B.C.)
were probably taken down and preserved by his
101
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
secretary Barurh anil through him <>r others at last
transmitted to the faithful workers in Babylonia.
Among the Exiles the already existing literature
was carefully preserved, studied, and edited. New
messages were delivered to them by Ezekiel (597-
570) and by 'second' Isaiah (Is 40-66), messages
looking to the new era which these gifted seers
taught was sure to come for Israel. The exilic
scholars gave much attention to the Law with a view
to making it the perfect standard for Israel as the one
people of Jehovah. This revision and perfecting of
the Law were incomplete at the time of the Return in
536 B.C. The returned Exiles organized themselves
mainly on the basis of the Deuteronomic Code.
Their efforts to rebuild the Temple were encouraged
by the prophetic messages of Haggai and Zechariah,
who addressed themselves directly to the situation.
But the tendency of post-exilic Judaism was toward
a reduction of religion to formally denned practise.
The 'scribe' (generally of priestly descent) rather
than the prophet was now the main religious force.
At last Ezra succeeded in having his edition of the
Law recognized by the public assembly (c. 444 B.C.).
If this was not the canonization of the Penta-
teuch in its present form, it was at least the great
step toward such canonization which must have fol-
lowed in a comparatively short time.
When this was done the remaining literature,
historical, prophetic, and poetical, while highly
honored and esteemed, was still an unclosed collec-
tion. The later minor prophets and the great his-
torical work, Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah, were as yet
unwritten. At last probably before 200 B.C. it
was felt that no more prophetic voices were to be
heard and the prophetic succession was considered
closed. This, of course, led to the separation of the
prophetic writings as a group next to the Law
sacred and authoritative, into which no recent liter-
ature could gain admission.
In the stress and discouragement of the persecu-
tion by Antiochus Epiphanes, c. 168-105 B.C., the
Book of Daniel, the one apocalypse of the O T, was
written to stay and cheer those whose faith was wa-
vering, by teaching that the Kingdom of God is
supreme in spite of all appearances to the contrary,
and must triumph in the end. This book came too
late to be included in the prophetic canon and thus
took its place with the 'other books' (such as the
Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Chronicles, etc.), not
yet canonized but highly esteemed and considered
as of a somewhat different character from other
writings (as, e.g., The Book of Ecclesiasticus). Of
the books of this division, Job, Proverbs, and Psalms
reflect three distinct types of religious experience.
In Job a great problem is dealt with. In Proverbs
the maxims of practical life are given, while in the
I'salms all phases of religious feeling find expression.
Il is probable that by 100 B.C. the Jews of Palestine
had come to a general understanding as to the char-
acter and value of these 'other books' and that this
third division of the Canon was closed, practically at
least, about that time. The Judaism of Alexandria
was inclined to a less rigid view and looked upon cer-
tain other late books (now called the Apocrypha)
as of a sacred or semi-sacred character. (For the
whole subject see O T and N T CANON.)
It was the larger (Alexandrian) Canon that at first
circulated in the Gentile-Christian world (as the lan-
guage of this was Greek, not Hebrew). But quite
early (from c. 175 A.D. on) the Eastern (Greek)
churches came to feel that the only true O T Canon
was the Hebrew (Palestinian). In the Western
(Latin) churches the Apocrypha continued in gen-
eral use in spite of protests from men like Jerome
and at last its use was made binding by the Council of
Trent (1546). (See APOCRYPHA.)
The O T was the Bible of the Jews in N T times
and it was the Scripture of Jesus and His Aposllrs.
Jesus, so far as we know, wrote nothing
6. The and in His work He constantly referred
Growth to the O T as the Scripture fulfilled in
of the N T. Him. To Him, what He taught and
what He did and what was to follow as
the result of His coming were, all in all, the ' fulfil-
ment" of the OT. In other words, the essential
religious truths of the O T were the truths on which
Jesus built in His work as the founder of Christian-
ity. The real religion of the O T passed over into
Christianity. Jesus succeeded in implanting this
truth into the hearts of His disciples, although it took
time and discipline, even after His resurrection, to
get them to see it clearly. The life and work of
Jesus are the real fulfilment of the O T, and the N T
is the record of Jesus' life and work. Familiar as
we are apt to be with the N T, it is easy to fail to see
the real order of development of the N T literature
and its necessary connection with the progress of
Christianity in the Apostolic Age. Because the
Gospels and Acts stand first in the lists of the N T
Books, it is easy to get the impression that Christi-
anity began with these documents. Christianity
began with the Gospel, not with the Gospels, and,
after the Resurrection, with the work of the Apostles,
not with the Acts of the Apostles. Jesus proclaimed
a Gospel of which He Himself was the incarnation.
He impressed upon a chosen few, who proved fit to
receive it, the fundamental truths of that Gospel
and, what is perhaps still more important, He im-
planted in their souls a knowledge of Himself which
was doubtless the most powerful and permanent
influence that ever touched their lives. They simply
became different men under the tutelage of Jesus.
It was not a reasoned-out, intellectual process they
went through, but a complete moral and spiritual
transformation. They saw life, duty, and destiny
in a new light, and the central figure and influence in
their new world was Jesus Himself. Deep into their
hearts and memories His words and deeds penetrated
to be brought out and told and partially recorded in
days to come. But as yet nothing was written of
all this; it was living in the life experience of living
men and women. And Jesus left matters thus, know-
ing as only He could know that the future was
assured.
Under the inspiration of Pentecost the Apostolic
preaching of Christianity began. Preaching, oral
'proclamation, persuasion, not literature, were the
means used, and so it continued for decades.
Multitudes were converted, a brotherhood was
formed, a new type of life manifested itself, all cen-
tering about a definite belief in Jesus. The move-
ment spread from Jerusalem outward into all Pal-
Bible
Bilhan
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
103
estine. Persecution only increased its vigorous
growth. It reached Antioch, the great metropolis
of Western Asia. Paul was converted, the Gospel
was carried into the Gentile world, the First Mis-
sionary Journey was completed, and the Council of
Jerusalem had met to discuss the question whether
the Gospel was something independent of or subsid-
iary to the old dispensation all before a single book
(except possibly the Epistle of James) of the N T
had Keen written.
This undeniable fact is of sufficient importance to
be most carefully considered by all who wish to have
a correct view of the nature of the N T. That the
Founder of Christianity did His own work and that
His followers organized His Church and carried it
on through a vigorous, even remarkable, growth for
twenty years before any of the N T books were pro-
duced is conclusive proof that there is something
more fundamental to Christianity than even the N T.
It is just here that the real significance of the N T
must be sought in the relation the NT writings
bear to that more fundamental something that the
Christian Church possessed before it possessed these
writings. That fundamental something was the
Apostolic Church's conception of Jesus Christ, and
this consisted (1) of the knowledge that Church pos-
sessed of Jesus' person, teaching, and work, and (2)
of the Apostolic interpretation of the significance
of Jesus' person, teaching, and work for the life and
destiny of man. In the NT writings we find the
Apostolic Church's conception of Jesus Christ set
forth, not in any formal sense, as in official docu-
ments of the Church, but in a no less real sense.
These writings originated as special occasions de-
manded, each being called forth by some particular
circumstance or reasons affecting only a limited
circle. This is true even of the Gospels. They all
deal with living issues, and reflect the actual faith or
knowledge of their writers and (in most instances)
readers.
The first documents of Christianity were Apostolic
letters, one from the Jewish-Christian Church to
scattered communities in Palestine and Syria (Epis-
tle of James, c. 50 A.D. ?), the others from Paul to the
Thessalonians (c. 50-51 A.D.). Before the year 64
Paul had written all his Epistles (except the Pas-
torals). It was in the decade from 60-70 that the
Synoptic Gospel traditions took definite shape (the
Logia and Mark both before 70, the Gospel of Mat-
thew probably later). To the same decade the Epis-
tle to the Hebrews belongs, addressed to Jewish
Christians to explain difficulties easily likely to
trouble such readers, also I Peter. To the next two
decades (70-90) probably belong the later writings
of the N T (Gospel of Luke, Acts, II Peter, Jude,
the Johannine literature). All these were scattered
over a wide area, not at once brought together, the
very existence of many being probably unknown out-
side of a limited circle. For the steps by which they
became collected into our N T see NEW TESTAMENT
CANON.
It was in such a way that the Bible arose, the lit-
erature of a living, divinely inspired and guided relig-
ious development. It was a development that went
hand in hand with historical movements, with en-
larging intellectual comprehension, with profound
experiences of sorrow as well as of joy, until the
"fulness of time" came. Because the Bible arose
thus its significance and value must be
7. The permanent. The older view of strictly
Permanent verbal inspiration is indeed artificial
Signifi- and untenable, but its real import
cance of remains intact. The inspiration of
the Bible, the Bible may be, at places, not far
from the letter, but in most cases it is
in the vital religion behind the letter. It is thus
easily seen how mistakes as to fact may be found in
the Bible, yet its essential value remain. Criticism,
in its search for the facts as to the origin, composi-
tion, authorship, integrity, etc., of the various books,
is both necessary and, when rightly conducted,
helpful (see 8, below). The results of all such
research only bring us closer to the truths that the
Bible, and the Bible alone, contains the truths of
God's revelation of Himself and of His will, in the
history and life of Israel first, but fully set forth in
Jesus Christ, whom we can know through the Gos-
pels and the interpretation given in the documents
of the Apostolic Age. E. E. N.
Criticism is that branch of Biblical study which
aims to ascertain with as much precision as possible
the facts regarding the origins and
8. Modern original forms of the books of the
Biblical Bible. So far as it deals with the ques-
Stucly. tion of the original text, it is called
the Lower or Textual Criticism, and is
properly treated in the articles on the Text. So
far as it concerns the origin, i.e., authorship, date,
integrity, literary form, purpose, etc., of the sepa-
rate books, it is called Higher Criticism, and the
results of its application will be found in the articles
on the separate books or parts of the Bible.
The Higher Criticism, so called, is a comparatively
recent branch of study. There were indeed questions
raised and hints thrown out regarding a method of
inquiry analogous to it even as early as the Middle
Ages. Spinoza is supposed to have put forth certain
suggestions which, if pressed, must have led to the
use of such a method of study. But it is generally
admitted that the first to resort to this method was
the physician Astruc (Conjectures sur les Mfmoires,
etc., 1753). He called attention to the use of the
names Jehovah and Elohim in successive sections of
Gn, and from this fact drew the inference that in the
composition of the book Moses had incorporated
older documents, each characterized by the use of
one of these names.
But this use of the divine name was only one of
several features distinguishing the sections (docu-
ments) in which they occurred. These were next
examined, and their significance developed into the
so-called Documentary and Fragmentary theories
of the Pentateuch, put forth by men like Eichhorn,
J. D. Michaelis, and Geddes. (Eichhorn was the
first to use the phrase "higher criticism" as the name
of the new method of study. )
Other material for investigation in a similar way
was soon brought into view by De Wette and Ewald.
This consisted in the mass of historical data fur-
nished by the O T books themselves. From an ex-
amination of this historical material, De Wette was
enabled to propound the theory that Gn was tho
toa
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Bible
Lillian
work of a writer who found an Elohistic document
and used this as a nucleus for the addition of mate-
rial from Jehovistic and other sources. This was the
Supplement theory (or in the form in which Ewald
put it, the Crystallization hypothesis). Meanwhile,
what was being done in Gn and the Pentateuch be-
gan to be extended to the other books of the O T.
But there remained still another class of facts
available for criticism, those, namely, which were to
be found in the flow of thought. This was arranged
in the order of a hypothetical development. The
meaning of the facts in this sphere was partially
shown by Vatke and George quite early (1835); but
it was not fully worked out into a complete theory
until Kuenen (1805), Graf (18GG), and Wellhausen
(1872) fully presented their conception of it, and
made it clear how revolutionary the results would
prove (see HEXATEUCH).
The development of the critical method, as above
summarily sketched, made clear its necessity, its
nature, and its danger. Its necessity was seen to lie
in the fact that the truth with reference to many
phases of real importance regarding the origin of the
books of the Bible had been lost or obscured in the
course of the ages since their first composition. This
led naturally to their being ascribed to others than
their real authors, or else their being left anonymous.
The original purpose also and the literary form of
some of them were forgotten and other designs and
forms were attributed to them. Some books of
poetry were read as if they were prose, some para-
bolic or allegorical books were taken as accurate
history. All this had to be rectified, and the new
method was seen to be helpful in rectifying it.
The nature of the method also became clearly
apparent. It is a method which depends upon the
observation of internal marks, mainly of three
classes, i.e. (1) literary, (2) historical, and (3) such
as pertain to the content of thought. The literary
marks are those characteristics of style, including the
choice of words, the construction of phrases, and the
infusion of a tone and spirit into a writing, through
which the author reveals his personality. The his-
torical marks are the signs of age, place, and environ-
ment which unconsciously betray a forgery or a
misplaced production and furnish the ground for as-
signing it to its true place ; or if it is genuine, of verify-
ing its genuineness and dispelling suspicion about it.
The marks drawn from the content of thought are
those considerations which fix a certain relationship
of succession and development of ideas from one
book, or one part of a book, to others. To these
should be added also such considerations as grow
from the relation of the content of the O T books to
the religious ideas of contemporary and neighboring
nations.
The main danger in the use of the critical method
in the O T is that of giving too free a range to sub-
jective considerations. In each one of the fields
within which the materials for critical examination
lie, there is the possibility of reading much more or
much less than the facts warrant. The personal
equation is, therefore, paramount. Philosophical
presuppositions either for or against what is usually
called the supernatural element inevitably enter
into the processes and appear in the conclusions of
critics, and extreme and sometimes startling views
are often propounded in the name of criticism.
As against this danger, two counterbalancing fac-
tors may be named: (l)That extreme subjectivism
on one side corrects extreme subjectivism on the
other. For the student who is approaching the crit-
ical method and critical results with intelligence .ui<l
impartiality, the philosophical bias of one school will
nullify the philosophical bias of the other, leaving
him in possession of the essential facts. (2) While
each part of the method may be used with too much
subjectivity and become untrustworthy, there is a
cumulative effect from the use of all which is in the
main trustworthy.
LITERATURE: Zenoj, Elements of Higher Criticism (1805);
McFadyen, Old Testament Criticism and the Christian
Church (1903); Briggs, The Study of Holy Scripture
(1899); Nash, History of the Higher Criticism of the
ff T (1900); J. A. Smith, Mod. Criticism and the Read-
ing of the OT (1901); Ryle, On Holy Scripture and
Criticism (1904). A. C. Z.
BIBLICAL GREEK. See HELLENISTIC AND
BIBLICAL GREEK.
BICHRI, bic'rai (")?3, bikhrl): Sheba, who re-
volted from David (II 820 iff.), is called "son" of
Bichri, i.e., he was of the clan of Becher of Ben-
jamin. See BECHEH. E. E. N.
BID. See MARIUAQE AND DIVORCE.
BIDKAR, bid'kflr (1R1?, bulhqar): Captain of
Jehu's chariot, i.e., his aide (II K 9 25). E. E. N.
BIER. See BDRIAL AND BURIAL CUSTOMS, 4.
BIGTHA, big'tha (*!?, bigtha"). See CHAMBER-
LAINS, THE SEVEN.
BIGTHAN, big'than; BIGTHANA, big-the'na
(]riJ3 ,Nj!s!53, bigthan, bigthana'): One of the cham-
berlains of Ahasuerus who kept the door of the
palace (Est 2 21, 6 2). E. E. N.
BIGVAI, bigVa-oi (1J?, bigway): 1. One of the
leaders of the Return (Ezr 2 2; Neh 7 7). 2. The an-
cestor of a large post-exilic family (Ezr 2 14,8 14;
Neh 7 19), possibly the same as 1. 3. A representa-
tive of this family (Neh 10 61). E. E. N.
BILDAD, bil'dad (Tib?, bildadh), 'Bel loves'
(?): One of Job's friends (Job 2 11, etc.), called "the
Shuhite," i.e., of the line of Shuah, son of Abraham
(Gn 25 2, 6). E. E. N.
BILEAM, bil'g-am. See IBLEAM.
BILGAH, bil'ga (."$?, bilgSh): The ancestral
head of the fifteenth course of priests (I Ch 24 14;
Neh 10 8 [Bilgai], 12 5, 18). E. E. N.
BILHAH, bil'hd ("'?)?, bilhah): I. The hand-
maid of Rachel and mother of Dan and Naphtali
(Gn 29 29, 30 3-7, 35 22, etc.). See TRIBES, 2, 3.
II. A town in Simeon. See BAALAH, 2. E. E. N.
BILHAN, bil'han (in 1 ??, bilhan): 1. AHoriteclan
(Gn 36 27; I Ch 1 42). See HORITES. 2. A Benjamite
clan (I Ch 7 10). E. E. N.
Bill
Bohan
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
104
BILL. See MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE, and
TllADE AND COMMEHCE, 3.
BILSHAN, bil'shan (}$1, bilshdn): One of the
leaders of the Return (Ezr 2 2; Neh 7 7). E. E. N.
BIMHAL, bim'hal (Vn?P5, bimhal): One of the
descendants of Asher and a son of Japhlet (I Ch
733). E. E. N.
BINEA, bin'g-a (N???, bin'a'): Son of Moza and a
descendant of Jonathan (I Ch 8 37, 9 43). E. E. N.
BINNUI, bin'na-ai ("i:?, Wnnfl), 'building': The
ancestral head of the "sons of Binnui," one of the
great post-exilic families (Neh 7 15; Bani in Ezr 2 10).
To this family most of the following individuals
probably belonged: (a) The Levite (Ezr 8 33; Neh 12
8); perhaps the same person is called Bunni (Neh
9 4) and Bani (Neh 8 7). (fc) One of the "sons of
Pahath-moab" and (c) "one of the sons of Bani,"
both of whom had taken foreign wives (Ezr 10 30, 38).
(d) A Levite, the son of Henadad, who helped in re-
pairing the wall (Neh 3 24, 10 9; the same as Bavai
of 3 18?). E. E. N.
BIRDS. See PALESTINE, 25.
BIRSHA, bir'sha
Gomorrah (Gn 14 2).
&$, birsha'): King of
E. E. N.
BIRTH, BIRTHDAY, BIRTHRIGHT. See
FAMILY AND FAMILY LAW, 6, 8.
BIRZAITH, bir-ze'ith; BIRZAVITH, -vith
(H';'.; or ri*'i~i2,birzawUhorbirzayUh): Aplace(?)
in Asher (I Ch 7 31). Site unknown. E. E. N.
BISHLAM, bish'lam (2^
official (Ezr 4 7).
"5, bishlam): A Persian
E. E. N.
BISHOP, BISHOPRIC. See CHURCH, 8.
BIT, BRIDLE: These words, as used in EV,
indicate three different objects: (1) The bridle (me-
theg, xaXiKor), which includes the curb or bit, is
mentioned as part of the harness of the horse (Ps 32
9, "bit"; Rev 14 20) and ass (Pr 26 3). It is used fig-
uratively for restraint (II K 19 28 = Is 37 29; Jas 1 26,
32f., of the tongue) and for the authority of the
mother-city (II S 8 l). (2) The re?en is a halter (EV
"bridle") and is used metaphorically for restraint of
the actions (Job 30 ll; Is 30 28). The "double bri-
dle" (Job 41 13, AV) of Leviathan seems to refer to
his upper and lower jaws (so ARV). (3) The mah-
fOm was a muzzle, intended to prevent the animal
from biting (Ps 39 l; cf. ARVmg.). See plate of
ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL, Fig. 5. L. G. L.
BITHIAH, bith'i-a (irn?, bithyah): A daughter
of Pharaoh whom Mered, a descendant of Judah,
married (I Ch 4 18). The statement is a peculiar one
and difficult of explanation. E. E. N.
BITHRON, bith'ren fl*1!??, bithron), 'the gorge':
A wady through which Abner fled from the Jordan
to Mahanaim (II S 2 29). Perhaps the Wady 'Ajlun,
Map III, H 3. E. E. N.
BITHYNIA, bi-thin'i-o. See ASIA MINOR, 3.
BITTER HERBS: One of the elements of the
Passover meal (Ex 128; Nu 9 11). The herbs used
were watercress, lettuce, endive, and chicory. They
were either mixed or used separately. Regarding
their significance different views are held, some
alleging that they symbolized the sufferings of the
people in Egypt, while others hold that like the pro-
hibition of leaven they were the sign of the haste in
which the Exodus took place. A. C. Z.
BITTERN: The A V rendering of "!Ej?, qippSdh
(Is 14 23, 34 ll;Zeph2l4). The meaning of the Heb.
is not known. RV renders "porcupine." Chcyne
(EB, s.v.) favors bittern. Socin, in Guthe's Bibel-
worterbuch, thinks some kind of lizard is meant.
See PALESTINE, 25, 26. E. E. N.
BITTER WATER. See DISEASE AND MEDI-
CINE, 7(12); CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS, 3 (b).
BIZIOTHIAH, biz"i-o-thoi'a (r^"??, bizySth-
yah; Bizjothjah, biz-jeth'jfl, AV): The reading
found in the Heb. of Jos 15 28, but in LXX. and at
Neh 11 27 we read "and the towns thereof" ( - Heb.
~'r^;i), which is probably the true text.
E. E. N.
BIZTHA, biz'tha. See CHAMBERLAINS, THE
SEVEN.
BLACK. See COLORS, 1.
BLAIN. See DISEASE AND MEDICINE, 5 (9).
BLASPHEMY. See CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS,
2 (c).
BLAST: The rendering of n'shamah, 'breath,' as
in II S22 16; Ps 18 15, where it is followed immedi-
ately by ruah,' wind, 'and of rwa/^inExlSS; II K 197,
etc. In all cases it refers to a manifestation of God's
power, either in the physical world by wind or storm,
or by a plague (Is 37 7), except in Is 25 4, where it
refers to human violence. E.. E. N.
BLASTUS, blgs'tus (BXaoror): The chamberlain
of Herod Agrippa I (Ac 12 20), through whose inter-
vention certain men from Tyre and Sidon secured an
audience with the king. No mention is made of
Blastus in Josephus' account of the death of Herod
(Ant. XIX, 82). See HEROD AGRIPPA I.
J. M. T.
BLEMISH. See SACRIFICE AND OFFERINGS.
5.
BLESS, BLESSING. See TERMS OF BLESSING
AND REPROACH.
BLINDNESS. See DISEASE AND MEDICINE,
5(5).
BLOOD: The important meaning attached to
blood in the Oriental world was determined by the
notion that the life principle either is
I. Signif- the blood itself or has its residence in
icance the blood (Lv 17 ll). Just how such a
notion might originate it is not difficult
to understand when one considers that after the
blood is allowed to run out of the body the life of the
105
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Bill
Boluii
body is extinguished. This is true of both man and
the lower animals (( !n 9 4).
From this notion are deducible the prescriptions
as to the treatment of the blood: (1) Blood was
not to be made an article of food (Lv
2. Legis- 720f.; Dt 12 16). This law is applied
lation to all blood, not simply to that of ani-
About mals slain for sacrificial purposes. (2)
Blood. The tabooing of the blood of sacrificial
victims (I S 14 32). (3) The presenta-
tion of the blood of an innocent victim at the altar of
Jehovah as pure life to cover the offending life of the
offerer (Lv 1 S, etc. See also SACRIFICE). (4) The
value of blood as means of ceremonial cleansing, as
in the case of purification from leprosy (Lv 14 5-7).
(5) The law of blood revenge, i.e., a life for a life
(On 9 6; Dt 19 6), and (6) the use of blood as a means
of establishing a covenant (Ex 24 6). Cf. Trumbull,
Threshold Covenant. See SACRIFICE AND OFFER-
INGS, 16. A. C. Z.
BLOOD, AVENGER OF (go'el hod-dam, Nu 35
19): The next of kin whose duty it became to visit
vengeance for the violent death of those related to
him. The duty was based on the theory that the
family, tribe, and clan constituted sacred units.
When the blood of a member of one of these units
was shed, atonement was required either through the
death of the shedder of the blood or through that of
some member of the unit to which the offender be-
longed (II S 21 1-14; Jg 8 18-21). The earlier law
made no distinction between intentional murder and
undesigned homicide (Gn 9 6). The later legislation
(Nu 35 9 ff. ) was a great improvement over the earlier
in that it distinguished in this particular and soft-
ened the asperities of natural feeling, placing safe-
guards about the whole practise and thus preventing
injustice and cruelty. A. C. Z.
BLOODGUILTINESS. See BLOOD, 2 (S), and
BLOOD, AVENGER OF.
BLOOD, ISSUE OF. See DISEASE AND MEDI-
CINE, 5 (7).
BLOODY FLUX. See DISEASE AND MEDICINE,
5 (2).
BLOODY SWEAT: Taken literally this would
mean the oozing of the blood through the pores
of the skin, together with the perspiration. That
under intense excitement such as was experienced
by Jesus (Lk2244) perspiration sometimes breaks
into bloody sweat is a well-known fact in medical
science. But it is by no means certain that the text
of Lk is pure (cf. Westcott and Hort, The N T in
Greek, Vol. II, App. p. 64 ff.) or that the statement
was intended as a literal one (cf. Plummer on Lk in
Int. Crit. Com. 1896). A. C. Z.
BLUE. See COLORS, 2.
BOANERGES, b6"a-ne.r'jtz (Boav qpyt s ) : A sur-
name given by Jesus to James and John (Mk 3 17),
interpreted by Mark to mean "Sons of thunder"
(Yioi Bpoirijf). The nearest known Aram, equiva-
lent is b"ne regez (see Dalman, Aram. Gr.*, p.
144), which, however, means 'sons of wrath," not
'sons of thunder.' Mark's interpretation is perhaps
a reminiscence of the tradition in Lk 9 54. For an
explanation of B. as equivalent to the Dioscuri, or
Heavenly Twins, see J. Rendel Harris, Expo. Feb..
1907. J. M. T.
BOAR. See PALESTINE, 24.
BOAT. See SHIPS AND NAVIGATION, 1.
BOAZ, bo'az Qy'},b6'az), 'swiftness' (soOxf.Heb.
Lex.): A prominent citizen of Bethlehem, kinsman
of Naomi (Ru2lff.). Upon the return of Naomi
from Moab with Ruth, her daughter-in-law, Boaz
was led to take the latter under his protection by
purchasing the right of redemption from the next of
kin. And as this right included according to the
Law that of levirate marriage (Dt 25 5 ff . ), Boaz took
Ruth as his wife, and from this marriage sprang
Obed, the grandfather of David (Ru42l f.). The
importance of Boaz in history is accordingly in the
main genealogical (cf. Mt 1 5; Lk 3 22, Booz AV).
For the pillar called Boaz at the vestibule of Solo-
mon's Temple, see TEMPLE, 14. A. C. Z.
*
BOCHERU, bo'ke-rfl or bek'e-ru (1153, bokh'ru):
A Benjamite of the stock of Saul through Jonathan
(I Ch 8 38, 944). E. E. N.
BOCHIM, bo'kim (0*52, bokhim), 'weepers': A
place where the Israelites were reproved by an
angel (Jg2l, 5). In 21 LXX. reads "Bethel,"
which is probably the true reading. In that case
"Bochim" would be a place in or very near Bethel.
See ALLON-BACUTH (cf. Moore on Judges, in Int.
Crit. Com.). E. E. N.
BODY: The earliest Biblical usage has no fixed
name for the human body as a living organism. A
series of terms is used which designate it from some
portion or peculiarity, such as 'belly,' beten (Mic 6 7;
Job 19 17), which is quite uniformly, however, a syno-
nym of 'womb'; also 'bowels,' me'im (Song 5 14, 15
4); 'back,' gew, gewah, gwiyyah (Is 51 23; Job 20 25;
I S31 10; also gabh, Job 13 12, AV); 'bone/ 'etsem (Ex
24 10, AV); 'thigh,' yarek (Jg 8 30); 'flesh,' basar (Is
10 18); also she'er (Pr 5 ll); 'breath,' nephesh (Lv 21
11); 'carcass,' n'bhelah (Dt 21 23), together with an
occasional metaphorical expression such as "house
of clay" (Job 4 19). The later usage added to these
guphah, 'back' (I Ch 1012), geshem, 'material' (Dn
3 27), and nidhneh, 'sheath' (Dn 7 15). In the N T
the single term <ro>/ia is comprehensively used (except
in Ac 19 12, where \puis is found). In Paul's concep-
tion of the spiritual body, there is a hypothetical
counterpart of the animal organism with which the
spirit of man is always found associated on earth.
Such a hypothetical being, whatever its true nature,
removes a difficulty in the way of belief in the resur-
rection (I Co 15 44). See also MAN, DOCTRINE OF,
6, 7. A. C. Z.
BODY OF CHRIST. See KINGDOM OF GOD, 8,
and CHURCH, 4.
BOHAN, bo'han 0~3, bshan), 'thumb': "The
stone of Bohan, son of Reuben," was a landmark on
the NE. boundary of Judah (Jos 15 6, 18 17). No
mention is made of B. in the genealogies of Reuben.
The stone may have had the appearance of a great
thumb. E. E. N.
Books and Writing
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
IOC
BOIL. See DISEASE AND MEDICINE, u (9), and
SACRIFICE AND OFFERINGS, 16.
BOLLED: The English word "boiled" (Ex 9 31)
means 'swollen,' as pods are by seed. But the Heb.
terra, gibh'61, is more correctly rendered by the
ARV" in bloom." E. E. N.
BOLSTER: The translation in AV of a Heb.
term (m'ra'&shoth) meaning 'at the head of or 'near
the head' (I S 19 13 ff., 26 7 ff.). K. K. N.
BOLT. See HOUSE, 6 (l).
BOND : Besides having its more common meaning
of a fetter or chain (Jer 27 2; Ac 26 29; Eph 6 20) or of
a pledge in connection with an oath or vow (Nu 30 2),
the word stands in EV for (1) mu$ar, the bond of a
king (Job 12 18), i.e., the obligation imposed by the
authority of a king; (2) ma$oreth, the bond of the
covenant (Ezk 20 37), i.e., the relation of the theo-
cratic community; (3) o-uvSeer/ioy, "the bond of in-
iquity," "the bond of peace," "the bond of perfect-
ness" (Ac 8 23; Eph 4 3; Col 3 14), i.e., the fellowship
created by the acceptance of these as ideals of con-
duct. In I Co 12 13, etc., it is used to render SoGXot,
'slave,' or 'bond servant." See also SLAVERY, 1,
and TRADE AND COMMERCE, 3. A. C. Z.
BONDAGE, BONDMAID, BONDMAN, etc. See
SLAVERY, 1.
BONES, DISEASES OF. See DISEASE AND
MEDICINE, 5 (i).
BONNET. See DRESS AND ORNAMENT, 8.
BOOK OF LIFE. See LIFE, BOOK OF.
BOOK OF THE WARS OF JEHOVAH. See
WARS OF JEHOVAH, BOOK OF.
BOOKS AND WRITING: In the earliest times
leaves, bark, hides, and for certain sacred purposes
linen, were used as materials on which
i. Book to write, but in historical times papyrus
Materials, and parchment were the only materials
Wax of importance for writings intended to
Tablets, be permanent. For writings not in-
tended to be permanent wax tablets
were used (cf. Is 8 l; Hab 2 2; Lk 1 63). They were
made of wood and resembled our double slates,
and like our slates the surfaces intended to re-
ceive the writing were sunken panels, whose raised
edges served to protect the writing from defacement
when the tablets were closed. The sunken surfaces
were covered with a thin layer of red or black wax,
in which the letters were scratched (hence they were
called \apaKrrjpts, from xapawiiv, 'to engrave")
with a sharp-pointed stylus (ypa<pic) made of bone,
ivory, or metal. When the tablet had been filled
with writing and was to be used again, the wax was
smoothed down by the upper part of the stylus,
which was purposely fashioned broad and flat. Pa-
pyrus and, after its invention, parchment were too
costly to be used in schools or in every-day business
life, and therefore wooden wax tablets were kept at
hand and used as the depository of memoranda of
every kind, such as stray thoughts, verses, outlines
of speeches or arguments, contracts, bills, day-books,
notes to friends and sweethearts, invitations, etc.
Single tablets do not appear, because the writing
could not be protected from defacement, but double
tablets (diptychs) were in the hands of every one,
and in paintings and reliefs, letters and oracular ut-
terances are always depicted as diptychs, but trip-
tychs, tetraptychs, pentaptychs, and polyptychs were
common. Double tablets were fastened together by
hinges of string or metal, but often, especially in the
case of polyptychs, holes were bored in the center of
the panels ; a string was then passed through the hole
and tied. If the diptych or polyptych were to be
sent as a letter, the ends of the string were sealed,
among the Greeks, with sealing-clay, but among the
Romans with wax. The tablets were often supplied
with handles by which to carry them or to hang
them up. Wax tablets were used even as late as the
time of Christ for contracts, bonds, and receipts, and
from Pompeii we have 126 such tablets which were
the property of a banker in 54 B.C. Every scratch
made in the wax is distinct and undefaced after
more than 1 ,900 years.
But for documents of length and those intended to
be permanent, such as long letters and books, wax
tablets were not only too cumbersome
2. Papyrus but too perishable. In earliest times
Paper. books were written on hides, tanned
Rolls. and untanned (8i<f>depa, membrana),
which were both cumbersome and
costly. Hides were supplanted by papyrus paper,
which was invented and manufactured in Egypt.
Papyrus paper was made of the inner lining of the
papyrus-reed. Long and necessarily narrow strips
were placed side by side on a level surface and then
crossed at right angles by other similar narrow
strips. Sheets thus manufactured were first soaked
in mucilaginous water, and then pressed and dried.
A multitude of such sheets were cemented together
into a roll (or "scroll," Is 3 44; Rev 6 14), i.e., one
continuous sheet of any desired length.
In antiquity the word book (/3i'/3Xor, liber) did
not mean either a volume or a subdivision of a work,
but referred solely to papyrus, the material on which
the book was written, for |3u/3Xor was the name ap-
plied to the papyrus-plant, and later on the word,
with a slight change, was transferred from the
material to the matter written on the material. The
long strip of papyrus paper on which a book had
been written was rolled together beginning with the
end of the book. The resulting roll was called
icuXii/Spos rofios, volumen. As one began to read
such a roll, the first column of reading-matter was
on the left of the reader, whose right hand unrolled
the unread part, while his left hand rolled up the
read part in a direction the reverse of that of the
original roll. When the book had been read, the
student seized the two ends of the umbilicus (see
below) with both hands and rolled the whole volume
back again into its original form. The rolls were
often very large; some found in recent years in
Egypt consist of sheets 42 meters long. It is reck-
oned that the history of Thucydides (23,144 lines)
would require a sheet of papyrus 81 meters long,
that the Odyssey would require one 42 meters long,
that the Iliad and Odyssey which we know were
written on one sheet in antiquity would require a
107
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Boil
Books and Writing
sheet 90 meters long. Such an unwieldy roll could
not be held in the hands and be unrolled and re-
rolled as read, bul could be read only when lying on a
table. The writing on the papyrus sheet was not
done in unbroken lines extending from one end of the
sheet to the other, but in narrow parallel columns
perpendicular to the length of the sheet. It was
therefore difficult to consult a book, especially if
the desired passage was toward the end of a papyrus
sheet 45 or 90 meters long. This fact supplies one
reason for the inaccurate quotations of the ancients,
who usually quoted from memory, not verbatim.
Callimachus, one of the Alexandrian librarians, was
therefore justified in his famous saying, that "a big
book is an awful nuisance," to abate which he took
steps to reduce the size of books or rolls to certain
limits. So that for poetry, novels, letters, etc., small
and easily handled rolls of about 1,000 lines were
used (cf. a 'book' of Homer). Larger rolls, aver-
aging 1,500-2,000 lines, were used for prose litera-
ture and scientific writings, though some rolls con-
tained 4,000 lines of prose writing. The size of a
book was reckoned by lines, not by pages. Poetry
fell naturally into lines, and the dactylic hexameter
practically fixed the length of the line at 35 letters
or 16 syllables. Every column on the papyrus
sheet had the same number of lines, so that an author
could easily calculate the length of the papyrus
sheet needed for his book. The price of books varied
in accordance with the number of lines they con-
tained, because the copiers of books were paid by the
line. Diocletian fixed the wage of the copier at 40
denarii for each 100 lines, less than 25 cents. Many
publishers used their slaves as copiers, and the slaves
received merely food and clothes as pay. The work
of the ancient authors, such as the Iliad, the Odyssey,
the Anabasis, Herodotus, etc., were not divided by
their authors into what we call 'books.' They
quoted, the Iliad for instance, by ballads or episodes,
and the quotation was merely a general reference.
The division into 'books' was made by the Alexan-
drian librarians after the time of Callimachus to avoid
the nuisance of the big work, and to make it easier
to consult works, so that the ' books ' with which
we are familiar referred to that part of a work con-
tained in a single roll in the libraries of Alexandria.
The Iliad and the Odyssey were divided into 24
'books' solely because there were 24 letters in the
Greek alphabet, so that 'Iliad A' meant 'Roll A of
the Iliad.'
Writing was done only on one side of the papyrus
sheet; the lines were unnumbered; there were no
paragraphs, no punctuation, no accents in classical
times. When the roll had received the writing, it
was soaked in cedar-oil to protect it from moths and
bookworms; this soaking gave the roll a yellow
tinge; the ends of the roll were polished with pumice-
stone and colored, chiefly black. A round stick
called op<f>a\6s, umbilicus, was fastened to the
papyrus sheet at the end of the volume ; the volume
was rolled round this stick, from right to left. The
ends of these sticks were often even with the edges
of the roll, but they often protruded from both ends
and served as handles (cornua) by which to roll and
unroll I he volume (see above). All the rolls belong-
ing to a given work (24 for the Iliad, 7 for the Anab-
asis) were placed together in a case (capsa) UMially
of leather, made to fit them. The title of the whole
work was on the capsa. A statement of the con-
tents of each roll was made on a slip of leather or
deep-red parchment, after the invention of the latter.
It was called the O-ITTV^OV, lilulus, index, and it waa
fastened to the umbilicus of each roll. Thus any
'book' could be found easily.
Papyrus was always the favorite material for
letters intended to be despatched to a distance. The
papyrus letter was either folded or rolled; it was tied
in the center and the ends of the string were scaled.
Such papyrus letters have been found in recent
years in Egypt; the strings are still intact and the
addresses still undefaced.
Owing to the non-existence of a postal service in
antiquity, letters of private persons were forwarded
only as opportunity offered through
3. Parch- traveling friends, merchants, or cap-
ment and tains of ships. Governments and kings
Codices, forwarded their letters by special cour-
iers, and rich individuals utilized their
slaves as couriers and private secretaries (see Ram-
say's Letters to the Seven Churches, pp. 1-14).
Great libraries arose at aU the capitals of the Hel-
lenistic kingdoms. The most important were those
of Alexandria and Pergamum. Owing to the jeal-
ousy and fear felt by the librarians of Alexandria,
lest the library of Pergamum should surpass that
of Alexandria, the Egyptian Government forbade
the exportation of papyrus. The expectation was
that, if deprived of the material on which books were
written, the library of Pergamum and those of all
the rest of the world could no longer add books to
their collections. This corner on the book manu-
facture led to the discovery at Pergamum of a new
process of tanning sheepskins. The skins thus
tanned were called itcpyafirjvr] \apra, Pergamenian
paper, a term which was soon shortened to irtpyafirivi),
which in turn was corrupted into the English parch-
ment (the German Pergament is nearer the original).
Parchment was not only much cheaper than papy-
rus paper, but books made of it were far less cum-
bersome and more easily consulted, for parchment
was too thick and heavy to be used in a roll, and it
was thick and heavy enough to permit writing on
both sides. The roll was therefore abandoned ; the
new parchment codex consisted of single leaves
bound together practically as in our books to-day.
The parchment codices were employed chiefly for
works of great length, but they did not become
common until the 3d cent. A.D., and indeed the
papyrus roll maintained itself until the 5th cent.
A.D. Papyrus itself was sometimes employed in the
codex form.
The ink used in writing both on papyrus and
parchment was called "writing black" (jiAnv
ypa<t>ueov). It was made chiefly of
4. Ink, pine-soot mixed with gum arabic and
etc. then dissolved in water. Sepia, the
secretion of the cuttlefish our India,
Chinese, or Japanese ink was also used, though not
extensively. Ink prepared from the galls of the
gall-oak was used at a later period for writing on
parchment. Red ink, made from red chalk, cinna-
bar, or red lead, was used for illuminating initial
Books and Writing
Brethren of the Lord
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
108
letters, but in Byzantine times the use of red ink was
limited to the Emperor.
The inkstand (or inkhorn, Ezk92ff.) sometimes
double, for red and black ink was usually u tall
cylinder. Sometimes the inkstand had a double
metallic cover, each being supplied with holes,
which when adjusted directly over each other per-
mitted the dipping of the pen into the ink; the lower
cover was fixed, and the top cover, which was mov-
able, served by a mere turn to close or open the ink-
stand.
The Greeks used a reed pen (xoXa/ior ypa<j)tKot; cf.
Jer 8 8), as do the Orientals to this day. The best
reeds for pens grew in Egypt. They were shaped
with a knife and split at the point, as were the goose-
quill pens of our recent ancestors, and for that pur-
pose a knife (07*1X17, scalprum librarium, 'penknife';
cf. Jer 36 23) for shaping and splitting the reeds is
always seen in pictures of the writer's outfit. Goose-
quill pens were not used. Iron pens (cf. Job 19 24;
Jer 171) were used by the Romans of a late period,
but pen and penholder formed one piece.
The reed pens, styluses, knives, drawing-pens,
compasses, chalk-holders, etc., were kept in a case
(6i)Ktf, calanaria). Sponges for cleaning the pens
and for erasing miswritten words from papyrus and
parchment, and a ruler (icavaii) for drawing lines
which are visible in most MSS. also belonged on the
writer's table. The lines were drawn with a circular
sheet of lead. Sharp-pointed compasses (with a
ring attachment to keep the spread of the compass
fixed) were used for fixing the distances between the
lines. The holes made by the compass-points are
still visible in MSS. Other adjuncts were: a whet-
stone for sharpening the knife and a pumice-stone
for sharpening the point of the reed pen and for
smoothing both papyrus and parchment.
J. R. S. S.
BOOTH: In the climate of Biblical lands, the
booth or bower (sukkcih), constructed in the form
A ' Booth ' or ' Lodge ' in a Vineyard.
of a tent from branches of trees, is a very conve-
nient refuge from the heat of the sun by day and a
comfort al ile place for sleep at night. It was used
for the accommodation of both men and bea.sts (Gn
3317; Job 27 is; Jon 4s). Essentially the same
thing is meant by the term 'lodge' in Is 18. Cf.
also VINES AND VINTAGE, 1. A. C. Z.
BOOTHS, FEAST OF. See FASTS AND FEASTS,
8.
BOOTY. See WARFARE, 5.
BOOZ, bo'ez. See BOAZ.
BOR-ASHAN, ber"-ash'an. See ASHAN.
BORDER: (1) The word g'bhul, used in most of
the geographical notices of the O T, means 'bound-
ary' or 'limit.' Sometimes other terms as g'll/ah,
'circuit' (Jos 132, etc.), yarkhuh, 'side' (Gn 4913),
qetsor qatseh, 'end' or'extremity' (II K 19 23; Ex 16
35, etc.), saphah, 'lip' (Jg 7 22), totsaoth, 'outgoings'
(I Ch 5 16) are used. Yadh, 'hand' (II S 8 3; I Ch
7 29) means dominion or power. In Jos 11 2 "bor-
ders of Dor" means the high land, near Carmel, be-
longing to Dor. In the N T ra opia (Mk 7 24; cf. Mt
4 13) means 'boundary' or 'frontier.' (2) The word
is used also of the hem or edge (Heb. kanaph, ' wing')
of a garment (Nu 15 38; cf. Kpda-ireSov, Mt 23 5, etc.),
of the enclosing edge, misgereth, of a table or
other structure (Ex 25 25; I K 7 28, etc.). In Ex
137; Dtl98; Song 111; Is 26 15, the RV corrects
the AV. E. E. N.
BORROWING. See TRADE AND COMMERCE,
3, 5.
BOSCATH, bes'cath. See BOZKATH.
BOSOR, bo'sor (BorAp): In IIP 2 15, the Greek
form of Beor (q.v.).
BOSS. See ARMS AND ARMOR, 7.
BOTCH. See DISEASE AND MEDICINE, 5(9).
BOTTLE: (1) The&og&ug or'gurgler' (I K 14 3;
Jer 19 1, 10) was an earthenware bottle or cruse. (2)
The nebhel sometimes denoted a breakable jar (Is 22
24, 30 14; Jer 13 12, 48 12; La 4 2). (3) In all other in-
stances (except Hos 7 5; Hab 2 15, where the meaning
of the Heb. is 'heat 'or 'rage'; cf. RV) the "bottle" of
AV ('obh, hcmeth, nodh, do-Kos) is a vessel made of
goatskin, and is usually so translated by ARV or
ARVmg. (e.g., Job 32 19; Gn 21 14; Mt 9 17). Glass
bottles are not mentioned in the Bible. See also
FLAGON, PITCHER, CRUSE, and plate of HOUSE-
HOLD UTENSILS, II. L. G. L.
BOTTOMLESS PIT. See ESCHATOLOGY, 48.
BOUND, BOUNDS. See COSMOGONY, 3.
BOW: Metaphorically, the word is used to sig-
nify the military power or prestige of a nation or
people; cf. Gn 49 24; Jer 49 35; Hos 1 5. In the same
way it is symbolical of God's power and wrath in
action against His enemies; cf. Ps 7 12; La 2 4. See
also AKMOR, 3. As used in Gn 9 13 ff., see RAIN-
BOW. E. E. N.
BOWELS. See MAN, DOCTRINE OF, 8 (2).
HKIN- r-i-i:Nsn.s.
1. Jerdbktiubt, bread-bai;.
2. Jernh I;, i, ml,. Hour-sack.
3. Mijrulx, snial] liM>ail-ii)! "I' :-!ii'liln-nl.
4. Hum, rea|)iii(t-apron.
.">. Se'fn, Mater-skin for woman.
li. Kirln-, waler-skin for man.
(Fn.II! th- MM-i :l IMvNm. I Vii, n (',,11,., .[inn it, llar.fnril Tliv,.!,^ i,-al >riiiin. l r> .
7. Jtmli klintiz. brca(l-l);i.L r .
S. ./' nit) khuhz, hrcad-liair.
!l. />' ///. \v:)T('[-btii'k<'T.
ID. ./'/vi/ khuhz. bic;i(|-b;ii:.
11. Jcrnb khlihz, bread-lia-j:.
109
A STANDARD HIBLE DICTIONARY
Books and Writing
Brethren of the Lord
BOWL. See BASIN.
BOX, BOX-TREE. See PALESTINE, 21.
BOZEZ, bo'zez (yjfS, bstscts): A high rock in
the pass of Mirhnmsh (I S 14 4). The name is
thought by some to mean 'shining' and in con-
sequence this rock is located on the N. or sunny side
of the pass, a little E. of Michmash. E. E. N.
BOZKATH, bez'kath (.lp_2|2, botsqath, Boscath
AV): A town in the lowlands of Judah (Jos 15 39;
II K 22 1). Site unknown. E. E. N.
BOZRAH, bez'ra (HIM, htsrOh), 'fortress':
1. The capital of Edom (Gn 36 33; Is 34 6, 63 1; Jer
49 13; Am 1 12), located by modern explorers at el
Buscira, about 50 m. SE. of the Dead Sea (Robin-
son, Expl. III. p. 125; Buhl, Edomiter, p. 37). Z. A
city in Moab (Jer 48 24), probably the same as Bezer
-(Dt 4 43). It was the city of refuge for the Reuben-
ites (Jos 20 8). King Mesha claims to have fortified
it (cf. MESHA, Stone of, line 17). A. C. Z.
BRACELET. See DRESS AND ORNAMENT, 11.
BRAMBLE. See PALESTINE, 21.
BRANCH (n:_:.y, tscmah): A designation of the
Messiah first used as such by Jeremiah (23 5, 33 15),
although it had been employed in an impersonal
sense as early as by Isaiah (4 2). It was taken up
later by Zechariah (3 8, 6 12) and more definitely
identified with the ideal king of Israel. Its selection
was made at a time when the house of David viewed
as a tree was in a decaying condition, showing signs
of a speedy and complete collapse. In the prophetic
vision the dying away of the tree was not to be
its final disappearance. A new branch, shoot, or
sprout (netser) would issue from its trunk in the per-
son of the Messiah (Is 11 1). A. C. Z.
BRAND. See FIREBRAND, and CRIMES AND
PUNISHMENTS, 3 (b).
BRASS. See METALS, 3.
BRAZEN SEA. See TEMPLE, 13.
BRAZEN SERPENT. See SERPENT.
BREACH : (1 ) The rendering of bedheq, a rent or
break especially in a wall (II K 12 6-12, 22 5). (2) Of
baq'a and derivatives, meaning 'to cleave' (Is 7 6,
22 9; Ezk 26 10). (3) Of parats (vb.) and perets (n.),
'to break, "a breaking,' especially associated with the
idea of violence (II S 5 20, 6 8, etc., very frequent).
(4) Of shebher, a breaking or crushing that has
serious results (Lev 24 20, etc.). In Jg 5 17 both
"breaches" AV and "creeks" RV are open to ob-
jection. Moore (Int. Crit. Com.) renders "landing-
places." On Nu 14 34 AV cf. RVmg. for the true
sense. In Am 6 ll the Heb. r'jfjzm means 'ruins,'
rather than "breaches." E. E N.
BREAD. See FOOD, 2.
BREAD, BREAKING OF. See CHURCH, 2.
BREAST. See SACRIFICE AND OFFERINGS,
10,11.
BREASTPLATE. Set- ARMS AND ARMOR, 0,
and STONES. PRECIOUS, 2.
BREATH. See MAN, DOCTRINE OF, 2, 6.
BREECHES. See PRIESTHOOD, 9b.
BRETHREN OF THE LORD, THE (o, 1 <J8
i-oO Kvpiov): A term used by Paul in I Co 9 i (ef. also
(!al 1 is) to designate the brethren of Jesus who arc
referred to in the Gospels (Mk 3 31 ff. and ||s; Mt 13 M;
Jn 2 12, 7 3, 5, 10), and whose names are given as
James, Joses (Joseph, Mt 13 5fi), Judas, and Simon.
As to the specific relationship which theysust:iinc-<l
to Jesus there has been question since the early ages
of the Church, the discussion formulating itself
finally into three theories, termed by Light f< ml
(Com. on Galatians, p. 242), after the names of their
foremost supporters, the Epiphanian, the Helvidian,
and the Hieronymian.
The Epiphanian theory holds that the brethren of
Jesus were children of Joseph by a former wife; the
Helvidian, that they were children of Joseph and
Mary, born after Jesus; the Hieronymian, that they
were children of Mary, the wife of Alpheus (Clopas)
and sister of the Virgin.
Of these the first two alone occupied the thought
of the Church up to the 4th cent., the former being
by far the more prevailing view. In that century
Jerome, in controverting Helvidius' claim for a re-
lationship of full brotherhood, suggested the novel
idea that the relationship was one not of brother-
hood, but of cousinship; so that, as he boasted, there
was preserved a virginity not only to Mary but to
Joseph also.
Modern scholarship has discarded the theory of
Jerome, as in fact without the backing of any tradi-
tion, confessedly motived in the interests of a dis-
tinctive dogma, and wholly without Biblical support.
Serious consideration is given to the first two theo-
ries alone and both of these claim abundant and
scholarly following.
It will be sufficient, therefore, if the main argu-
ments of these two views be presented.
I. ARGUMENT FOR THE EPIPHANIAN VIEW: (1)
Mary's reply to the angel's announcement that she
should conceive and bring forth a son (rrat ?<rrcu
TOVTO, fTTfl Sv8pa ov ytvKKrKo ; "How shall this be,
seeing that I know not a man," Lk 1 34) implies that
she understood the angel to mean that the child
was to be born in the natural way, and that she was
conscious of some obstacle to such an event. Mary
could not have meant that she did not yet know a
man, for the angel was aware of this when he spoke,
and her statement would have been no demurrer
to his announcement, as her betrothal would have
given her every reason to believe it would be ful-
filled. It can only mean, therefore, that with Jo-
seph's consent she had devoted herself to a life of
virginity even in marriage. This renders impossible
that the brethren of Jesus were later children of her
own. (2) The brethren of Jesus conduct them-
selves toward him with a spirit of superiority natural
to older brothers. They presume to control His
conduct (Mk 3 21 with 31 and |js) and advise him in a
faultfinding way (Jn 72ff.). This would, however,
make it impossible for them to be Mary's children.
Brethren of the Lord
Burden
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
110
(3) At the Cross Jesus commits His mother to the
care of his cousin John (Jn H)26f.), which would he
more natural on His part if His brethren were not
Mary's own children than if they were. (4) Besides
these evidences from the Gospel narrative ilsclf (a)
it is likely that Joseph out of reverence for Mary as
the mother of God would have refrained from mari-
tal intercourse with her alter the birth of Jesus: and
(6) the general acceptance of virginity as an ideal
state renders it probable that such a woman as Mary
would have preserved her virgin life throughout her
marriage. (5) The most ancient tradition of the
Church particularly that of Palestine (Hegesippus,
a nat ive of Palest ine,c. IGOx.D.) supports this view,
and the most reliable of the old apocryphal narra-
tives (Gospel of Peter, Protevangdium of James)
and the earliest versions (Curetonian Syriac, Pesh-
itto, Thebaic) seem to confirm it.
II. AUGUMENT FOR THE HELVIDIAN VlEW: (1)
Jesus is called Mary's "first-born son" (irparoToKov,
Lk 2 7), the natural implication of which is that she
had other children later. (2) In Mt 1 24 f. it is stated
that Joseph at the bidding of the angel recognized
his relationship to Mary and took her to be his wife,
"and knew her not till she had brought forth a son"
(leal OVK (ytvaxrKfv avTtjV ta>s [^] fTftcrv viov),
which clearly implies that he did know her after-
ward. (3) In confirmation of these specific points
are the facts (a) that the natural and unconstrained
meaning of brethren (d8(\<f>ot) is in the direction of
full brotherhood especially since in the Epiphanian
view they would not be blood relations of Jesus at all ;
and (6) that these brethren not only lived under the
same roof with Mary, but are found in her company
wherever she went (Mk 3 31 ff. and ||s; Jn 212; Ac
1 14), which would be most natural, if they were her
children as well as Joseph's. (4) Though no sup-
port for this view is to be found in the Palestinian
tradition of the Church, it is maintained by a scholar
like Tertullian (160-220 A.D.), whose known advo-
cacy of asceticism makes such an admission on his
part highly significant.
In examining the above argument (I) it is clear
that the traditional support of the two views is after
all about equal. Hegesippus and Tertullian were
not far from contemporaries; and though Hegesip-
pus, being from Palestine, is more strictly a local
witness, Tertullian, being pronouncedly ascetic, is an
unwilling witness. The fact that the Hegesippian
view was more widely accepted in the Church is after
all largely accounted for by that instinctive sentiment
which in every age of the Church has tended to pre-
serve a peculiar holiness for the mother of our Lord.
It is this prevalent view that finds its way into the
apocryphal Gospels and the early versions; so that
their testimony is not in any strict sense of the
word independent. (II) It is further obvious that
the argument of Joseph's probable marital relations
to Mary after the birth of Jesus is the product of this
reverent sentiment of the Church and not of any
facts, which are confessedly absent; while the state-
ment of the "general acceptance of virginity as an
ideal state" is based upon a wholly wrong view of
marriage itself, which, from all we know of the He-
brew domestic life, was not the view that either
Joseph or Mary is likely to have entertained. As a
matter of fact, such determination of the question as
may be possible lies in the interpretation of the state-
ments of Scripture.
As to these, (1) it may be at once admitted that
not much is to be determined by the usage of the
term a8c\<f>ol. It is used for relationships outside of
full brotherhood (e.g., of first cousins, I Ch 23 21 f. ; of
first cousins once removed, Lv 10 4; of nephews, Gn
14 14 ff., 29 15) and, though its N T use doubtless is
less elastic than its LXX. use, it might easily be used
of those who are brothers by less than full blood re-
lationship. If Joseph could be spoken of by Mary
herself as Jesus' father, the sons of Joseph could be
spoken of by others as His brethren. (2) It may
also be admitted that the fact that the brethren of
Jesus are found constantly in the company of Mary
is not necessarily determinative as to their relation-
ship to her. Assuming, as there is every reason to
do, that Joseph was no longer living, that Jesus was
busied with the affairs of His public ministry, and
that the sisters were settled in Nazareth in homes
of their own (cf. Mk 6 3 and ||), it was but natural
that the brethren, whether Mary's own sons or not,
should consider themselves responsible for her care.
(3) It is evident, consequently, that Jesus' com-
mittal of His mother at the Cross to the care of His
cousin John throws no light upon the relationship of
the brethren to Mary; for, in view of their close and
constant companionship with Mary, Jesus' action
is difficult to understand, whether they were her
own sons or not. It must have been due to some
motive not clear from the record. (4) There is
more significance in the claim that the brethren con-
ducted themselves toward Jesus in the superior
spirit of older brothers. This would seem to find
support in the incidents of Mk 3 21, 31 ff. and Jn 7 2 ff.
In fact, however, it does only when these incidents
are wrongly understood. The reason for the at-
tempt in the earlier part of His ministry to control
His actions (Mk 3) was a simple failure as yet to
understand the spirit of His mission, and was com-
mon to the mother and the brothers and sisters
alike; while the spirit of the suggestion of the breth-
ren, toward the close of His ministry (Jn 7), is far
moreadesireto have Him come to public recognition
by the authorities at Jerusalem, now that the popu-
lar favor in Galilee had been lost, than a contemp-
tuous scorn of His claims. Indeed, it is quite im-
possible to understand the brethren's final belie
in these claims after the resurrection save as we
recognize a growing appreciation of them as Jesus'
ministry drew toward its close. In neither incident
is there anything to necessitate the brothers' being
older than Jesus. (5) The statements of most im-
portance in determining the question are naturally
those which record Mary's assertion of her virginity
(Lk 1 34), which speak of the marital relations be-
tween Joseph ami Mary (Mt 1 24 f.), and which refe
to Jesus as Mary's first-born son (Lk 2 7).
It must be acknowledged that the natural im-
pression created by these passages is that Jesus wa
but the first of Mary's children. Admitting, how-
ever, the interpretation placed by the Epiphania
view upon Mary's reply to the angel and accepting
further the technical meaning of "first born" (Ex
34 19 ff.), which, it is urged by this view, does not in
Ill
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Brethren of the Lord
Burden
ply the birth of subsequent offspring, it is significant
that the Gospel of Luke, which records these two
statements, most open to ascetic interpretation, was
written much later than the Gospel of Matthew and
might be supposed to reflect the growth in the Church
of later ideas. The earlier Gospel of Matthew,
which reflects most strongly the Jewish ideas of the
early Church, is the Gospel whose nativity state-
ments convey most simply and most strongly the
impression that, supernaturally conceived though
He was, Jesus was but the first of Mary's children
and that the brethren of Jesus were such in the full
sense of the word.
LITERATURE: For the Hieronymian view, see Jerome adv.
Ilelridium; Mill, The Accounts of Our Lord's Brethren,
1843 ; Schegg, Jakobus der Briidcr des Herrn, 1883. For
the Epiphanian, Bee Epiphanius, adv. Hcereses, iii. 2;
Lightfoot, Com. on Oalatians, 1865, pp. 241-275; Harris
in DCG. For the Helvidian, see Mayor, Com. on Ep. of
St. James, 1897, pp. v ff., and art. in HDD ; Zahn, Forsch.
z. Gesch. d.NT Kanons. VI, 1900, pp. 227-363; Patrick,
James, the Lord's Brother, 1906, pp. 4 ff. ; Sieffert, art. Ja-
kobus, and Zockler, art. Maria, in PHE 3 ', Schmiedel, art.
Clopas in EB. M. W. J.
BRIBERY. See CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS,
2(b).
BRICK, BRICK-KILN: Brickmaking was
well understood among the Israelites, since their
houses of the more common sort were often con-
structed of bricks (see HOUSE, 4), though the
references to such are very few in the O T (II S 12 31,
Is 9 10). The art of brickmaking was highly de-
veloped in Babylonia (cf. Gn 113) and in Egypt (cf.
Ex 1 14, 5 7-19). From the Egyptian inscriptions
and illustrations on the walls of temples, tombs, etc.,
a very complete knowledge of the ancient process of
brickmaking can be gained. The details agree quite
closely with those in Ex 5 7 ff. On Jer 43 9 cf. RV
for the correct reading. E. E. N.
BRIDE, BRIDEGROOM, BRIDE-CHAMBER.
See MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE.
BRIDLE. See BIT AND BRIDLE.
BRIERS. See THORNS AND THISTLES.
BRIGANDINE, brig'an-dm or -dain. See ARMS
AND ARMOR, 9.
BRIMSTONE: The Heb. term gophnth, 'sul-
fur,' is of uncertain derivation. Many connect it
with kopher, 'bitumen,' of which there is an abun-
dance in the Jordan Valley and near the Dead Sea.
The 'raining' of brimstone (Gn 1924, etc.) refers
perhaps to combustion of sulfur or petroleum from
sulfur or petroleum springs which thus could be
used as illustrations of the Divine judgment, espe-
cially under the influence of the story in Gn 19.
(Cf. Dt 29 23; Is 30 33, etc., and in NT Rev 14 10,
19 20, etc.) E. E. N.
BROAD PLACE. See CITY, 3.
BROAD WALL. See JERUSALEM, 38.
BROID, breid, BROIDER, brei'der: The word
riqmah, so rendered in Ezk chs. 16, 26, and 27, means
'variegated' and indicates that the garments were of
variegated colors, not that they were embroidered.
In Ex 28 4 tashbets and in I Ti 2 9 irXc'y/ta are ren-
dered in AV "broidered," but cf. RV for a more cor-
rect translation. E. E. N.
BROOCH. See DRESS AND ORNAMENT, 10.
BROOK: With only a few exceptions the Heb.
word rendered " brook" is nalial, which means either
the valley or ravine in which water is found (cf. Gn
26 19; Nu 21 IS; Job 30 6) or the brook itself. Nahal
is the word used for the streams that run only a part
of the year, drying up in the summer-time, while
nahar is the proper word for the larger permanent
river. But this distinction is not always observed.
BROOM. See JUNIPER.
BROTH. See FOOD, 10.
BROTHER. See FAMILY AND FAMILY LIFE,
1, 8, and CHURCH, 2.
BROWN. See COLORS, 1.
BRUISE. See FOOD, 1.
BRUIT, brat (from the Fr. bruire, 'to make a
noise'): The word means rumor or report (Jer 10
22; Nah 3 19; cf. RV). E. E. N.
BUCKET rt?, d'll, from nbl, 'to draw'): A
vessel for drawing water, usually of earthenware.
The word is used in O T only figuratively (Nu
24 7; Is 40 is). E. E. N.
BUCKLER. See ARMS AND ARMOR, 7.
BUKKI, buk'ai ("^\, buqqi), short for Bukkiah:
1. A priest in lineal descent from Aaron according
to I Ch 6 5, 51; Ezr 74. 2. A Danite (Nu 34 22).
E. E. N.
BUKKIAH, bnk-kai'fl (T^buqqlijah): A mu-
sician, 'son' of Heman (I Ch 25 4, 13). E. E. N.
BUL, bul: The Heb. term for the eighth month of
the old agricultural year (I K 6 38). See TIME, 3.
BULL, BULLOCK, WILD BULL. See PALES-
TINE, 24.
BULRUSH. See REED.
BULWARK: The rendering of (1) ^n, hel (Is
26 l), properly the lesser wall before the main wall,
elsewhere often rendered "rampart" RV ("trench"'
AV). (2) T&?p, matsddh, 'fortification' (Ec 9 14).
(3) )'}?, mOtsor, a besieger's wall (Dt 20 20). (4)
Of ~:?, pinnah, 'corner' (II Ch 26 is A V, "battle-
ments" RV). See also BESIEGE, and CITY, 3.
E. E. N.
BUNAH, bQ'nfl (HJ13, bKn&h), 'intelligence': A
'son' of Jerahmeel (I Ch 2 25). E. E. N.
BUNNI, bun'nai ('i^, bunnl): A personal name
occurring three times in Neh. The same person may
be referred to in 9 4 and 10 15, while 11 is seems to
refer to a man belonging to an earlier generation.
It is possible that in 9 4 and 10 15 we have only a
scribal error (dittography) for Bani. E. E. N.
BURDEN. See PROPHEC Y, 9.
Burial
Byword
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
BURIAL AND BURIAL CUSTOMS
ANALYSIS or CONTENTS
III. PLACE OF BURIAL
5. The Grave
6. Sanctity of the
Grave
IV. MOURNING
7. Customs
8. Their Signifi-
cance
I. PREPARATORY TO BUR-
IAL
1. Preparation of the
Body
II. BURIAL
2. Interment Cere-
monies
3. Importance of
Burial
4. Mode of Burial
I. PREPARATORY TO BURIAL: Customs and
usages connected with death clearly reach back into
remote antiquity, and show the family
i. Prepara- to have been even then a social-religious
tion of the unit. When death occurred, it was a
Body. duty to close the eyes (Gn 46 4), prob-
ably also the mouth of the person. It
is true this is distinctly mentioned only in the Mishna
(cf. Tract. Shabbath 23 5 codified about 200 A.D.),
but the custom certainly antedates this tractate.
Kissing the dead (Gn 50 l) was probably exceptional.
The body was washed (Ac 9 37) and anointed (Mk
16 l ; Lk 24 I ; Jn 12 7, 19 40). It was wrapped in a
white linen sheet (Mk 15 46 and ||s), the hands and
feet being bound (Jn 19 40) with grave-bands (RVmg. ;
Gr. Kftpiai) and the face with a napkin (<rov8dpiov,
'kerchief'), Jn 11 44. How ancient these customs
were it is not possible to determine.
II. BURIAL: The Israelites did not embalm their
dead (cf. Gn 50 2 f., 26). From I S 28 14; Is 14 9 ff. ;
Ezk 32 27, we must conclude that in the
2. Inter- ancient period the dead were buried
ment Cere- with the garments they had worn while
monies, living. According to Jer 34 5; II Ch 16
14, 2119 (cf. Jos. BJ. 1, 33 9), spices were
burned beside the bodies of prominent men. Later i t
was the custom to bury together with the dead ob-
jects which had been used by them during life, e.g.,
inkhorns, pens, writing-tablets, keys, etc. Herod
furnished Aristobulus his funeral spices and other
articles (Jos. Ant. XV, 3 4). Probably this custom
goes back to older times (cf. Jos. Ant. XIII, 8 4; XVI,
7 1). Cremation was not practised in Israel (cf.
Comm. on I S 31 12 ; Am 6 10) ; the usage was rather to
bury the dead, while cremation, e.g., of criminals (Lv
20 14, 21 9; Jos 7 25; cf. Dt 21 23), appears as a disgrace
added to the penalty of death (Mishna, Tract. Aboda
Zara I, 3 rejects cremation as heathen practise. Cf.
Tac. Hist. V, 5 4).
Not to be buried was considered by the Israelites,
as by other peoples of antiquity, a frightful fate
which one wished visited only on his
3. Impor- worst enemies (Am 2 1; cf. Is 33 12; Jer
tance of 16 4; Ezk 29 5; II K 9 10). This is to
Burial. be explained from the beh'ef that the
spirits of the unburied dead were obliged
to drift about restlessly. Even in Sheol the lot of
the unburied is lamentable. They must shift about
uneasily in nooks and corners (Ezk 32
4. Mode 23; Is 14 15, etc.).
of Burial. In all probability burying came usu-
ally on the very day of death, as at pres-
ent in the Orient. Of coffins the Israelites knew as
little as the ancient Arabs (II K 13 21). The body
was carried on a litter or bier (miffah II S 3 31; cf. Lk
7 14), and was followed by mourners who chanted
lamentations.
III. PLACE OP BURIAL: In view of the belief
that family unity survived death we can under-
stand the importance attached to the
5. The custom of placing bodies in a house-
Grave, hold grave; it was thus that con-
nection with the family was preserved
after death (cf. Gn 15 15, 25 8, 17, 35 29, etc.). It is
obvious that in ancient times these household graves
were located upon land belonging to the family and
in proximity to the house (cf. Gn 23; I S25 l); ac-
cordingly the tombs of the kings down to Ahaz are
found in the citadel, later in the "garden of Uzza,"
which in any case is to be sought for in the vicinity
(cf. Ezk 43 7). Preferably such graves were local c< I
under shade-trees (sacred trees, Gn 35 8; I S 31 13), or
in gardens (II K 21 18, 26). Gradually the habit pre-
vailed of placing them outside of inhabited districts
and of making use of clefts and of caves, in which the
country abounded. For the most part, however, the
graves were excavated and the effort was made to
place them on the rocky hillsides and often on heights
difficult of access (Is 22 16; UK 23 16); but in view of
the dangers from beasts of prey, their openings were
closed with heavy stones. The sepulcher was always
strictly regarded as family property, hi which no
stranger should be laid. Only in later times, as older
views were relaxed, did strangers, in exceptional cir-
cumstances, find burial in them (II Ch 24 16; Mt 27
60). For the destitute (II K 23 6; Jer 26 23) and for
pilgrims (Mt 27 7) there were common, i.e., public
cemeteries, where criminals also were interred (Jer
26 23; Is 53 9; I K 13 22).
Inasmuch as the graves of ancestors were in earlier
times places of worship (shrines), and as such, holy
ground, it is easy to understand that
6. Sanctity over the tomb of Rachel a matstscbhah
of the ("pillar") was raised (Gn 35 20). It ap-
Grave. pears probable that the sacredness of
some shrines rests upon the fact that
they were burial-places of heroes (cf. Hebron, Gn
23,259,4931; Shechem, Jos 24 32; Kadesh-barnea,
Nu 20 1). The tomb of Deborah was under a sacred
tree near Bethel (Gn 35 8). In later times sepulchers
as a whole were regarded as unclean, because asso-
ciated with another worship i.e., the worship of
the spirits of the departed as contrary to the worship
of Jehovah, and the custom arose of whitewashing
the stones which covered them in order to render
them distinguishable from afar and keep passers-by
from ceremonial pollution (Mt 23 27).
IV. MOURNING: Upon the news of the death of
a relative it was customary to rend the clothes (II S
1 11) and gird oneself with the mourning garment
(cf. II S 3 31 f.), which originally was probably noth-
ing but a loin-cloth. Among the Ara-
7. Customs bians the custom prevailed of going
of about naked as a sign of mourning.
Mourning. Whether this was practised in Israel
is doubtful (Mic 1 8; Is 20 2 f . are not
clear evidences of such a usage). But it was cus-
tomary to go bareheaded and barefoot (Ezk 24 17;
II S 15 30), to sprinkle dust and ashes on the head
(Jos 76; II S 1 2), to cover the head, or at least the
beard (Ezk 24 17; Jer 14 3; II S1530), or to place
113
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Burial
Byword
the hand on the head (II S 13 18 f.), and to sit in
dust and ashes (Jer 6 20; Job 2 8). In addition,
various disfigurements and mutilations were self-
inflicted. The head was shaved (Jer 16 6, 47 5); the
beard was cut off, or at least clipped (Jer 41 5, 48 37;
Is 152; Lv 1927); gashes were made on the whole
body, or at least on the hand (Jer 16 6, 41 5,
etc.). It was quite usual upon the occurrence of a
death to follow the wide-spread custom of holding a
funeral repast (Hos 9 4; II S 3 35; Jer 16 7 f.; Ezk 24
17, 22). In addition there were separate offerings of
food and drink which were placed upon the grave
(Dt 26 H). From To 4 18 and Sir 30 18 f., we learn
that this custom continued until quite late. Wide-
spread was also the custom, while the women of the
house were sitting upon the earth weeping, for pro-
fessional female mourners to come and chant peculiar
rhythmic lamentations beginning with 'ekh or 'ekhah.
Evidently this custom of funereal lamentation was a
religious usage regulated by nearness of relationship
(cf. Zee 12 10 ff.). See also MOURNING CUSTOMS, 5.
How these different customs are to be accounted
for is a much-debated problem, which has not yet
been brought to a definite solution.
8. Signifi- Particularly, it is in no way certain that
cance of all these customs can be traced back
These to one original idea and practise.
Customs. Some may possibly be conceived as ex-
pressions of the vivid sense of grief
peculiar to the Oriental ; but the attempt to say this
of all, as Kamphausen and others have done, has
failed. As far as one class of these customs is con-
cerned, it is not to be disputed that they probably
were connected with the worship of the deceased,
once prevalent also in Israel. This in no way means
that the Israelites in all ages were conscious of such
connection. It is much more likely that in this case,
as in many others, such customs continued even
when the original idea from which they sprang had
long since disappeared.
LITERATURE: Fr. Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode, etc.,
1892; Joh. Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelenkult, 1898;
C. Grilneisen, Der Ahnenkultus und die Urreliyion Israels,
1900. W. N.
BURNING. See CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS,
3 (a): BURIAL AND BURIAL CUSTOMS, 2;
MOURNING AND MOURNING CUSTOMS, 6; SACRI-
FICE AND OFFERINGS, 6 ff., 16, and DISEASE
AND MEDICINE, 5 (3).
BURNT OFFERING. See SACRIFICE AND OF-
FERINGS, 6.
BURY, BURYING-PLACE. Sec BURIAL AND
BURIAL CUSTOMS, 2-6.
BUSH, THE BURNING: The instrument of a
theophany in the experience of Moses (Ex 3 2 f. ; Dt
33 16; Lk 20 37; Ac 7 30, 35). The ' natural mecha-
nism of the phenomenon may have been electrical
(W. Robertson Smith, Kel. Sem.' p. 193 f. ). The im-
portant feature of it is the revelation of God through
it to Moses. The effort to identify the species of t he
bush (Heb. pneh) with the seneh, a thorny shrub, is
not altogether successful. A. C. Z.
BUSHEL. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 3.
BUSINESS: This term is used in EV in a vari-
ety of senses, corresponding to the different original
Heb. and Gr. terms. (1) As the rendering of d&b-
har, 'word,' often used in the more general sense of
'matter,' 'affair,' like the Gr. \ayos (Dt 245;
Jos 2 14, etc.). (2) Of m'la'kh&h, 'work,' i.e., 'occu-
pation' (Gn 39 ll; cf. RV; I Ch 26 30, etc.). (3) Of
'inyan, 'travail,' or labor (Ec 53, 816). Most of
the other cases need no comment. On Lk 2 49; Ro
12 11 (both AV) cf. RV for the correct rendering.
E. E. N.
BUTLER. See CUPBEARER.
BUTTER. See FOOD, 6.
BUY. See TRADE AND COMMERCE, 3.
BUZ, buz (112, buz): 1. The name of a region (Jer
25 23) probably somewhere in N. Arabia, possibly
the Basu of the Assyrian inscriptions. The inhabi-
tants were called Buzites (Job 32 2, 6). 2. 'Son'
of Nahor, who (as a tribe or clan?) may have lived
in Buz (Gn 22 21). 3. A descendant of the tribe of
Gad (I Ch 5 14). E. E. N.
BUZI, biu'zai (TQ, bUzl): The father of the
prophet Ezekiel (Ezk 1 3). E. E. N.
BYPATH, BYWAY. See ROADS.
BYWORD: (1) In Job 30 9 the Heb. millsh
means 'word.' (2) In Job 17 6; Ps 44 14 mashal, the
ordinary word for 'proverb,' means a saying of more
than ordinary significance (in a good or evil sense).
(3) In Dt 28 37; I K 9 7; II Ch 7 20 sh-nlnah from sha-
nan, 'to sharpen,' means a 'sharp' saying, i.e., one
with a 'sting' to it. See TERMS OF BLESSING AND
REPROACH. E. E. N.
Cab
Calf, Golden
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
114
CAB. See WKIC: IITS AND MEASURES, 3.
CABBON, cab'lmn (',':;, kabbdn): A town of
Judah near Eglon (Jos 15 40), site unknown.
E. E. N.
CABINS : This term occurs only in Jer 37 16 (AV),
for which RV has, more correctly, "cells."
E. E. N.
CABUL, ke'bul (Vi:j, kabhul): A town on the
border of Asher (Jos 19 27), Map IV, C 6. In I K
9 13 it is said that Hiram called the 20 cities in
Galilee given him by Solomon "the land of Cabul,"
indicative in some way of his dissatisfaction. The
meaning of the term is unknown. E. E. N.
CAESAR AUGUSTUS. See AUGUSTUS.
C^SAREA, ses"a-ri'a: A city on the coast of
Palestine (Map I, C 5). The ancient name of
the place, Strato's Tower (Jos. Ant. XIII, 12 2),
may have been derived from the name of one of the
Sidonian kings (cf. CIGr. 87). The city became a
O indium Wells
Plan of Cajsarea.
part of the domain of Herod the Great, who rebuilt
both city and harbor on a magnificent scale (Jos.
BJ. I, 21 5-8), naming the city Kato-dpfta and the
harbor Aifii}v 2eaoror in honor of Augustus.
After the deposition of Archelaus in 6 A.D., it be-
came the residence of the Roman procurators (cf. Ac
2323, 251). J. M. T.
C^ESAREA PHILIPPI, fi-lip'ai (Map IV, F 4):
The site, near one of the sources of the Jordan, is
probably the same as that of Baal Gad (Jos 11
17) and Baal Hermon (Jg 3 3), so called because it
was one of the early seats of Canaanitic worship.
Tinier Greek domination city and district were
called Paneas (Jos. Ant. XVIII, 2 1, Havias, Pliny
Hist. Nat. V, 18, Paneas), from a grotto dedicated
to the god Pan (TO Tlavtiov Jos. Ant. XV, 10 3).
The tetrarch Philip enlarged the city and called it
Csesarea in honor of Augustus (Jos. BJ. II, 9 1).
In the N T (Mt 16 13; Mk 827) and Josephus (BJ.
III, 9 7; Vita, 13) it is known as Csrearea Philippi, '
distinguish it from Csesarea on the const. I'ndr
Agrippa II the city was called Neronias, but afte
the 4th cent, only the old name Paneas occurs,
still preserved in the modern Arabic name of th
place, Banias. J. M. T.
CESAR'S HOUSEHOLD (oi rf/s icai'o-apo
oiKias): A group of Christians mentioned only
Ph 4 22, where greetings are sent from them to th
Church in Philippi. Since domus (oixia) is
classically to include the dependents as well as th
immediate members of the household (Cic. ad At
IV, 12), it is not necessary to assume that the con
verts to whom Paul here refers were of distinguishe
rank (ef. Dissertation by Lightfoot; in Ep. to the
Phil., p. 169 f.). See also PRETORIUM. J. M. T.
CAIAPHAS, kc'a-fas or cai'a-fas (Kaid<j>as):
The high priest before whom Jesus was tried (Jn
18 14 f.). His original name was Joseph (Jos. Ar,
XVIII, 2 2), and he was the son-in-law of Anna
(Jn 18 13). He became high priest not late
than 18 A.D. (Ant. XVIII, 22), and retained his
office until about 36 A.D. (Ant. XVIII, 2 2, 4 3).
His adroitness and capacity for intrigue are well illu
trated in Jn 11 49 f. He naturally presided at tli
session of the Sanhedrin at which Jesus' arrest wa
planned (Mt 26 3), and after His condemnation
was his official duty as head of the nation to delive
Him to Pilate with the request for His execution
(Mt 26 57 f. ; Jn 18 24, 28; cf. Jos. Ant. XX, 10, end;
Contra Apwnem, II, 23; Schiirer, HJP, II, i, 182
199). J. M. T.
CAIN, ken ("p_, qayin), 'smith,' 'artificer':
The eldest son of Adam and Eve (Gn 4 1 ff.). In the
ancient story of Gn 4 by a popular etymologica
word-play the name is made to mean 'acquired' or
'possession.' The material in Gn 4 1-24 is not all of
the same character. The Cain of vs. 12 ff. (a "fug
tive" and a "wanderer") is not the Cain of vs. 16 ff.
(a city builder and head, after Adam, of one of th
great genealogical lines of descent). The story in
vs. 2-15 probably reflects some ancient struggle or
antipathy between two different types (or tribes) <
men (see ABEL). That in ver. 16 ff. is an ancient at
tempt at tracing the development of civilization by
connecting the discovery of the different arts wit
certain legendary heroes. The two stories later 1
came connected, perhaps through the ancient song <
Lamech (q.v.) which may have been originally en
115
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Cab
Calf, Golden
tirely independent of both (cf. ver. 15 with ver. 24).
The "sign" put upon Cain is thought by some to
have been the totem sign of the clan or tribe of Cain.
II. A town in Juciali (Jos 15 57). See KAIN.
E. E. N.
CAIN AN, ke'nan (}??.., qenan): 1. Son of Enosh.
See KENAN. 2. Son of Arphaxad (Lk 3 30). In the
Heb. text of Gn 10 24, 11 12, there is no mention
of Cainan. Luke has followed the LXX., where the
name was probably interpolated to make 10 terms
in the genealogy. E. E. N.
CAKE. See FOOD, 2, and SACRIFICE AND OF-
FERINGS, 12.
CALAH, ke'la (PI^J, kelah, Assyrian kalhu,
ktilalt): One of the chief cities (next to Asshur and
Nineveh) in Assyria, said in Gn 10 11 to have been
built by Nimrod. It acquired importance under
Shalmaneser I in the 14th cent. B.C. The period of
its greatest glory was during the reigns of Assur-
nazirpal and Shalmaneser II (885-824 B.C.). Many
of the inscriptions of these kings have been discov-
ered on its site, which is identified by Layard and G.
Smith with the mound Nimrud, about 20 m. SE.
of Nineveh {Kuyunjik). It was the first of these
kings (Assurnazirpal) who built and fortified the
town, adorned it with a palace, constructed a canal,
and induced many to take up their residence in
the city. A. C. Z.
CALAMUS. See OINTMENTS AND PERFUMES,
1 (3), and PALESTINE, 23.
CALCOL, cal'cel (^3, kalkol, Chalcol AV):
Son of Zerah, son of Judah, according to I Ch 2 6,
but in I K 4 31, a famous wise man, son of Mahol.
E. E. N.
CALDRON, coTclrun: In Job 41 20 the RV render-
ing "rushes" is correct. The other words rendered
" caldron " ("pots" in RV in Jer 52 18 (.), all refer
to earthenware vessels, but it is now impossible to
ascertain how they differed from one another.
E. E. N.
CALEB, ke'leb ($, kalebh), 'dog': 1. One of the
twelve spies; son of Jephunneh, of the tribe of Judah
(Nu 13 6, 34 19). With Joshua he advised an im-
mediate advance into Canaan. For his faith shown
in this attitude, he was rewarded with long life, and
entered into the possession of his share of the land
allotted to Judah. From Jos 146, 14, it appears that
Caleb was not a natural descendant of Judah but a
Kenizzite adopted into the tribe, within which his
name became the eponym of a subdivision (cf. I S
252, the kalibbl [Calebite], "of the house of Caleb"
EV). The name of Caleb is also given in the variant
form of Chelubai (I Ch29, 18), brother of Jerah-
meel. In Chronicles he is designated not as the son
of Jephunneh but of Hezron, a remoter ancestor, i.e.,
a Hezronite. 2. Son of Hur and grandson of the
preceding (I Ch 2 50). A. C. Z.
CALEB-EPHRATHAH, ke"leb-ef'ra-tha (tt*S$
2.?f, kalebh 'ephrathah): According to the com-
mon text (cf . I Ch 2 24) this term is a place-name.
But the Heb. is confused and the true reading prob-
ably was "and after Hezron was dead Caleb went in
unto Ephrath(ah), the wife of his father Hezron, and
she bare," etc. See Kittel in Handkom. E. E. N.
CALF. See SACRIFICE AND OFFERING, 5, and
FOOD, 10.
CALF, GOLDEN, and CALF IMAGES: 1. The
account in Ex 32: This narrative is the result of
combining two distinct accounts (J and E), neith'-r
of which is now preserved intact (see HEXATEUCH,
12-18).
In J's account (vs. 7 and [s] 9-14, 25-29) emphasis
is laid on the mutinous disorder in the camp and
on the loyalty of the Levites. E gives a detailed
account of the making of the calf (vs. 1-6), of Moses'
surprise as he enters the camp (15-18), and of his
wrath and rebuke of Aaron (19-24). Ver. 8 may
be editorial; consequently it is uncertain whether
J's original narrative said anything about a calf. It
is in E that we get the fullest description of the apos-
tasy as consisting in making a calf to symbolize J*
and in worshiping Him by this means. Since E
was probably written in northern Israel, this is what
might be expected, as calf-worship was practised in
the northern kingdom.
There is nothing improbable in the story that the
Israelites in the desert fell into this sin. The prohi-
bition of metal images as symbols of deity was one of
the fundamental principles of Moses' teaching (see
DECALOGUE), while the temptation to symbolize
their deity under the form of a young bull, for such is
the meaning of "calf" here, was one that might have
presented itself very easily to the Israelites even in
the desert, not because of their knowledge of the
Egyptian animal-worship (which was of a very dif-
ferent type), but simply because of the wide-spread
use of the bull as a symbol of deity throughout the
Semitic world. The kernel of E's account may then
be considered historical, although the narrative it-
self may well be colored by details drawn from the
writer's personal knowledge of calf-worship in N.
Israel. It is probable that the bull was a symbol of
strength, possibly also of generative power.
2. The bull-worship introduced by Jeroboam I
(I K 1228-30): Jeroboam's motive in this was po-
litical rather than religious. He was not introducing
a new deity, since his proclamation in ver. 28 evi-
dently refers to J". Theplural ("thesebe thy gods")
is remarkable, but is more natural here than at
Ex 32 4, 8, which therefore is suspected of having
been edited under the influence of I K 12 28. On
the other hand, in the [[ in Neh 9 18 the singular is
found, which after all may be the original reading.
Furthermore, Jeroboam was not guilty of making
a complete innovation; for the worship of J" by
means of images was practised before his time
(cf. e.g., Jg 17 4, 18 17, 30-31). Nevertheless, it was a
step downward, tending to obliterate the essential
distinction between the religion of J" and common
Semitic religion. The severe judgment pronounced
upon Jeroboam expresses the view of the deutero-
nomic author of Kings (see HEXATEUCH, 19, and
KINGS, BOOKS OF). It is the view of a later time,
after the prophetic polemic (Amos, Hosea, Isaiah,
Micah) had aroused and enlightened the conscience
as to the true character of such worship.
Calling
Cappadocia
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
110
3. Subsequent history of calf-worsliip in Israel:
Jeroboam I set up this worship at two old and im-
portant sanctuaries, Bethel in the S. and Dan in
t he N. There is no evidence that calf images existed
;ii any other N. Israelite sanctuary, while Jurlah
seems to have been free from the practise at least
in nny officially recognized form. The early oppo-
sition to it in Israel seems to have quieted down.
Elijah and Elisha made no protest against it, though
they can not have approved it. It survived the de-
struction of the Baal-worship by Jehu and possibly
then took on new strength. Amos' attitude to-
ward it is not explicitly noted, but Hosea vehe-
mently opposed it (cf. 85-6 where "Samaria"
means not the city, but the realm and 13 2). It
maintained its hold until the fall of N. Israel in 721.
(See also SEMITIC RELIGION, 17.)
LITERATURE : Besides Comtn. on Exodus and Kings, see
Bacon, Triple Tradition of the Exodus (1894) ; Histories of
Israel, by Kittel, Stade, Wade, etc., and the important
discussion by Baudissin in PKE 3 , vol. 9, pp. 704-713.
E. E. N.
CALLING (K\TI<TIS): The primary significance of
the Greek word is 'invitation.' Sometimes the ob-
ject or design of the invitation is explicitly stated
(I Th 2 12, "unto his own kingdom and glory"; Col
315, "to peace"; IP29, "his marvelous light").
The word is also used without such definition of the
object. In that case it signifies God's invitation of
men to accept the redemption He offers through
Christ (Ro 8 28, 11 29; Ph 3 14). This calling is asso-
ciated with God's eternal purpose, but is also repre-
sented as involving the response of acceptance by
man as a necessary condition of its completeness. A
difference may be noted between the Pauline and the
Synoptic usage. According to the latter it is com-
plete, irrespective of the response of man (Mt 20 16,
but text doubtful). A. C. Z.
CALNEH, cal'ne (3, kalneh, Am 6 2, also
Calno, 1^3 Is 10 9): A city in Syria (probably
the Kul-imu of the cuneiform inscriptions (cf.
Schrader, COT, II, p. 143). It was captured in 738
by Tiglath-pileser III. Calneh in Gn 10 10 is also
identified by Delitzsch (Wo Lag d. Parad., p. 226)
with Kul-unu', but it is probably a textual corrup-
tion for Calbeh, Kuttaba, one of the most important
early Babylonian cities. A. C. Z.
CALVARY. See JERUSALEM, 45.
CALVES OF LIPS: InHosl42 we read: "We
render as bullocks (the offering of) our lips"; but
the LXX. evidently read a text equivalent to "fruits
of our lips." If EV be correct, the phrase means:
'that which proceeds from the lips' as an expression
of heart devotion in lieu of animal sacrifice.
A. C. Z.
CAMEL (^5, gamal): The camel is referred to
in the OT most frequently as in use in the no-
madic stage of civilization, as by the patriarchs
(Gnl216, etc.), the Midianites (Jg 6 5-8 21), Job
(Job 1 3, 42 12), the people of Kedar (Jer 49 29), etc.
Its use in caravans is referred to in I K 10 2; Ezr 2 67.
David is said to have had a herd of camels (I Ch 27
30). Possibly the same thing is to be inferred as to
the Pharaoh from Ex 9 3. At the same time it must
have been a more or less common possession of many
in Palestine (cf. I S 15 3; I Ch 12 40; and the prohibi-
tion of the camel as food in Lv 11 4, Dt 147). The
camel was used mainly as a beast of burden (cf. II
K89), or for riding, especially on long journeys and
over desert country (cf. Gn246l; IS 30 17, etc.).
Its milk was also used (Gn 32 15). The structure
of its feet, its capacity for going without water for a
long period as much as a week and its ability to
subsist on almost any sort of pasturage, even this-
tles, fit it preeminently for hard service on the
hot, dry, and barren desert. Its wool is woven
into coarse cloth much used by the Bcdawin (cf.
II K 1 8, RVmg. and Mt 3 4). The camel, while
generally patient and serviceable, is often vindic-
tive and savage. The word translated "drome-
dary" (Is 60 6; Jer 2 23) should be rendered "young
camel." E. E. N.
CAMEL'S HAIR. See CAMEL and DRESS AND
OliNAMENT, 9.
CAMON, ke'imrn. See KAMON.
CAMP: The word mahdneh, rendered "camp,"
means the place where the tent is pitched and thus in-
dicates the encampment, or resting-place, of the t ril ><
or clan, and has no necessary connection with war-
fare. Throughout the Hexateuch it is generally
used of Israel, whether stationary or on the march,
as dweEing together in tents. In the subsequent
O T books (except Psalms) it always refers to a mili-
tary camp. See also WARFARE, 3. E. E. N.
CAMPHIRE, cam'fair: Only in Song 1 14, 4 13 AV.
See PALESTINE, 23.
CANA, ke'na (Kavd): A village of Galilee referred
to several times in the Gospel of John (2 1, 11, 4 46,
21 2). Since Jesus,' mother and apparently His en-
tire family were at the wedding-feast (Jn 2 2, 12),
Cana was probably not far from Nazareth, while t he-
fact that Jesus "went down" (212) from Cana to
Capernaum would imply that it was among the
hills. This agrees somewhat better with the mod-
ern Khurbet Kanah (Map IV, C 7), on a ridge above
the plain of el Buffauf, than with Kejr Kenna (Map
IV, D 7), although the latter is much nearer Naza-
reth. Khurbet Kanah is also to be preferred on
philological grounds (cf. Jos 16 8, LXX., where, as
the Heb. nahul qanah is evidently the original of the
Gr. XeX-Kava, Kai/a is the equivalent of Qanah).
The hints in Josephus (cf. Vita, 16 with 40), and the
traditions of the crusaders favor the same identifi-
cation (see Conder, Tent Work in Pal., p. 79 f.).
J. M. T.
CANAAN, ke'nan (|J>J?, k'na'an). I. The son
of Ham in the ethnological (really geographical)
lists in Gn 9 and 10. It is possible that Canaan and
Cain may be but two varieties of the same ethnolog-
ical-geographical tradition (see ETHNOGRAPHY AND
ETHNOLOGY, 10 f.). II. One of the old designa-
tions for Palestine, the land of the Canaanites whom
the Israelites dispossessed. This term can be traced
as far back as the Egyptian inscriptions of c. 1800
B.C. in which it is used for the coastland between
117
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Egypt and Asia Minor. It appears also in the
Aimirnu letters of c. 1400 B.C.. as a. designation of JM-
estinc. The etymology and earliest history of tin-
name are unknown. Phoenician traditions show that
the Plurnicia us t hemsel vt-s were known as Canaanites
Some hold that the name originally belonged to a
region of Babylonia and was carried west by the
Semitic emigrants who settled on the Mediterranean
coast 3000-2000 B.C. The OT uses the word Ca-
naanite sometimes in a wider, sometimes in a nar-
rower sense. In Gn 12 o, 24 3, 37; Jos 3 10, it includes
the whole pre-Israelite population, even those E. of
the Jordan. In other passages the Canaanites are
spoken of as but one of six or seven different peoples
dispossessed by Israel (Ex 3 8, etc.). The "land of
generally refers to the whole W. Jordan land.
Canaanite and Amorite are often used synony-
mously. In Is 23 8, Hos 12 7, the Heb. word ren-
dered "trafficker" is Canaan, the word having be-
come the equivalent of 'merchant,' because of the
mercantile activity of the Canaanites, especially the
Phoenicians. See ETHNOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY
6.
The Canaanites were of Semitic stock, like the
icenicians to the N., and were but a part of the large
Semitic group (Phenicians, Amorites, Canaanites)
whose ancestors migrated west from NE Arabia
3000-2000 B.C. Their language (the ' lip' of Canaan
18), the same as that spoken in Phoenicia Moab
etc., was adopted by the Israelite invaders and is the
Hebrew of the O T. They were well acquainted with
Babylonian culture long before they were conquered
by Israel. They were made subject to Egypt c 1500
B.C. and continued under Egyptian suzerainty until
c. 1300 B.C., when Egypt's hold gradually relaxed.
1 lie Canaanites lacked organization. Each city held
If aloof from the rest, jealous of its own independ-
ence and thus fell more easily into the hands of the
Invading Israelites. The majority of the Canaanites
were probably not exterminated, but gradually ab-
sorbed into Israel, which eventually contained a
large Canaanite admixture. It was the presence of
the Canaanites among the Israelites and their close
itimacy with them that rendered the religious
lem in Israel so serious and difficult. They
taught their conquerors agriculture and many other
useful arts and also led them to adopt many of their
religious practises. The ultimate triumph of Israel
speaks loudly for the strength and vitality of Israel's
own rehgion. (See Paton, Early History of Syria
and Palestine.) See also TRADE AND COMMERCE,
E. E. N.
CANAN^AN, ke"na-ni'an (Kawwalor, perhaps
more correctly Kawaios = Aram, qannai 'a zeal-
ous one,' of which the Gr. equivalent was fnXcor^
zealot.' Some MSS. have Kan-V = Canaanite
so AV): A title borne by the Simon mentioned
toward the end of the lists of the Apostles (Mk 3 18;
) 4). In Lk 6 15, Ac 1 13 the Greek form 'zealot'
i used The Zealots were the party headed by
s of Gamala in opposition to the census under
Qmrinius (q.v.), in 6 A.D. (cf. Jos. Ant. XVIII
11, 6). They were intensely nationalistic in their"
aims and during the civil war committed many ex-
cesses (Jos. BJ. IV, 5 1-3). See also Schurer, IIJP
Galling
OappadocU
Mathcws> The
, can ' da ; 8 (KaWtd*,): According to
26 f. the queen of the K.hiopian.s, w | lllw . treas-
urer was baptized by Phili,,. I, i.s p,,.s,il,|,. ,, mt L
name was a dynastic title rather than u persona"
name (cf. Pliny, HN. VI, p. 35). J. M T
CANDLE. See LAMP.
CANDLESTICK: In Mt 5 ,5, Mk 4 , Lk 8 10,
U 33 for "candlestick" (AV) the RV r,ad.s "lamp "
u! 6 ^ P 'i M ' r ther occurren <** ^ TEMPLE,
16, 23, and TABERNACLE, 3. | ; ( .; N
CANE. See PALESTINE, 21, and SWEET CANE.
CANKER. See DISEASE, 5 (9).
CANKER-WORM. See LOCUST.
CANNEH, can'e <n, kanneh): A place in Syria,
mentioned with Haran and Eden (Ezk 27 23). Site
E. E. N.
CANON. See OLD TESTAMENT AND NEW TES-
TAMENT CANON.
CANOPY: In the ERV of Is 45 for AV "de-
fense." The ARV reads "covering," the primary
meaning of the Heb. term (n*n, huppah).
E. E. N
CANTICLES. See SONO OP SONGS.
AND MEDICINE,
CAPERNAUM, ca-per'na-um apva, i.e.
Kaphar-Nahum, 'village of Nahum'): A city of
Galilee where Peter and Andrew had taken up
their residence before Jesus called them to be Hb
disciples (Mk 1 16-21; Jn 1 44). Jesus Himself made
it the headquarters of His ministry in Galilee
after His rejection at Nazareth (Mt 413; Mk 2l)
That it was a town of considerable size in the days of
Jesus there can be no doubt whatever. It contained
the office of a tax-collector (Mk 2 14), a representa-
tive of the king, Herod Antipas (Jn 4 47 mg.), and
a military station whose commander had built a
synagogue for the people (Mt 8 5-13; Lk 7 l-io) Its
present site is a matter of dispute. The view that
J ell-Hum is the ancient Capernaum is supported by
a tradition going back to the 4th cent., as well
as by the excavation of the ruins of a synagogue
there. Further, the last syllable of the name (Hum )
seems to be a remnant of Kaphar-Nahum. In favor
of Kahn-Minyeh the facts are cited that Capernaum
must have belonged to the Plain of Gennesaret (Jn
6 1-21), that a place of such size and importance must
have been on a highroad, and that the name Min-
yeh is a remnant of the ancient designation of Chris-
tians as Minim, ' heretics.' See Map IV E 6 (Cf
G. A. Smith, HOHL, p. 456.) ' A. C. Z.
CAPHTOR, caf'ter; CAPHTORIM. See ETH-
NOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY, 11.
CAPITAL. See TEMPLE, 14.
CAPPADOCIA, cap"a-d6'shi-a. See ASIA MI-
NOR, 4.
Captain
Centurion
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
118
CAPTAIN: This term is used somewhat loosely in
tin- Kng. Bible (especially the AV) as the rendering
of nineteen different Heb. and Gr. words, only one
of which, xiAi'opxor, 'chiliarch,' was specifically a
designation of a particular military rank. Most of
the others are terms expressive of leadership, but not
technical terms for specific grades or ranks in a mili-
tary organization. In some instances the more cor-
rect RV rendering is altogether different from the
AV, e.g., "friends," Jer 13 21, "marshal," Jer 51 27,
Nali 3 17, "battering-ram," Ezk 21 22. In other
cases, the substitutions of "prince" (ISO 16, etc.),
"governor" (Jer 51 23; etc.), "chief," or "chief men"
(Jos 10 24; I Ch 11 15, etc.) are not significant. Cf.
also the RV in I K 4 19; I Ch 11 11, 12 18; He 2 10 for
improvements in translation. In the O T the most
frequently used term is "ty, sar, a term that could
be used for almost any kind of military leadership.
Chief captain is used in the N T to render x^ a PX f t
the technical Gr. term for the commander of a
cohort, i.e., one-tenth of a legion, for which the Latin
term was 'tribune.' In Ac the usage of this term is
perfectly regular, but in the Gospels (Mk 6 21; Jn
18 12) and in Rev 6 15, 19 is, it is used to designate
any high military rank. See also WARFARE.
E. E. N.
CAPTIVITY. See ISRAEL.
CARAVAN. See TRADE AND COMMERCE, 2, 3.
CARBUNCLE. See STONES, PRECIOUS.
CARCAS, cur'cas. See CHAMBERLAINS, THE
SEVEN.
CARCASS. See DEFILEMENT under PURIFICA-
TION.
CARCHEMISH , cur'ke-mish (ST S? , kark-mlsh ) :
A city of ancient times on the W. bank of the Eu-
phrates River, identified with the modern Jerobis in
upper Syria. It dates from about 2200 B.C., and
was for long centuries a Hittite capital and head-
quarters of commercial and military activity. Though
it paid tribute to several Assyrian kings, beginning
with Shalmaneser II about 858 B.C., it was not com-
pletely overcome and defeated until the disastrous
assault of Sargon II in 717 B.C. (cf. Is 109).
Henceforth it declined, and became merely an As-
syrian dependency. It was the scene of Nebuchad-
rezzar's great victory over Pharaoh Necho (Jer 46 2;
II Ch 35 20). I. M. P.
CAREAH, cu-ri'a. See KAREAH.
CARITES, car'i-tlz: The RV rendering of a Heb.
word (karl) of uncertain meaning (II K 11 4, 19).
The AV has "captains." It was evidently the desig-
nation of a body of troops, but whether a proper
name or a mere appellation is uncertain. E. E. N.
CARMEL (V?J-p, karmel), 'garden,' 'vineyard':
1. The name of a mountain situated between the
plain of Esdraelon and the Mediterranean Sea,
so called because of its thickly wooded aspect,
which was even more striking in ancient times than
it is at the present day (Map IV, A 7). From the
single peak, however, the name passed to the range
of hills associated with it, thus designating the moun-
tainous territory more than 20 m. in length, and from
3 to 8 m. in breadth to the W. and NW. of Esdrae-
lon. In history Carmel became noted for the con-
test between Elijah and the Baal prophets (I K 18).
It was also famed in literary composition for natural
beauty (Song 7 5; Is 35 2). Together with Sharon,
Lebanon, and Bashan it is one of the points of Pales-
tine which especially show God's favor to Israel in
bestowing such a country upon it (Jer 50 !9;Mic7i4).
Its devastation is, therefore, a sign of the decided
displeasure of J" (Is 339; Jer 426; Am 12; Nah
1 4). In post-biblical times Carmel continued to be
a site of note both among the heathen and among
Christians (cf. Jambl. Vita Pythag. 8 15; Tacit. Hist.
2 78; Sueton. Vesp. 5), serving finally as the site of a
renowned monastery (the Carmelite).
2. A town in the hill-country of Judsea (Jos 15 53).
The residence of Abigail, wife of Nabal, who after her
husband's death was taken by David as one of his
wives (I S 30 5). Abigail is accordingly called "the
Carmelite." This Carmel was also the scene of
other incidents in the lives of Saul and David (I S
15 12, 252). Its modern name is Karmal, and its
exact location 8 m. SE. of Hebron. Map II, E 3.
A. C. Z.
CARMI, cur'mai CS"!5, karml): 1. Father of
Achan and head of a family of Judah (Jos 7 1, 18;
I Ch 2 7). 2. Head of one of the clans of Reuben
(Gn 469; Nu 266, etc.). While it is possible that
in I Ch4l Carmi is a textual error for Caleb, it is
also possible that the text is correct, the reference
being to the preceding. E. E. N.
CARNALLY. See CRIMES and PUNISHMENTS,
2(c).
CARPENTER. See ARTISAN LIFE, 5.
CARPET : The term occurs in the RV of Jg
5 10 for AV "in judgment," and of Pr 31 22 for the
AV "coverings." The two different Hebrew words
(middln and marbhaddim) are of uncertain mean-
ing, but each indicates a covering of some sort.
E. E. N.
CARPUS, cur'pus (Kdptros): A friend of Paul's,
probably a resident of Troas (II Ti 4 13). Later
legend made him one of the seventy disciples of
Jesus. E. E. N.
CARRIAGE: This term occurs five times in the
AV, and in each case the RV substitutes a more cor-
rect rendering; in Jg 18 21 "goods"; in I S 17 '22; Is
10 28; Ac 21 15 "baggage"; in Is 46 1, "the things that
ye carried about." E. E. N.
CARSHENA, cfir'she-na (Est 1 14). See PRINCES,
THE SEVEN.
CART (T^Ji;, 'agalah, from 'agal, 'to be round,'
'to roll'): The cart or wagon of the Hebrews was
probably a somewhat rude and clumsy affair. It
was two-wheeled, the wheels being of wood, and
was furnished with a tongue or pole, as it was drawn
by two oxen yoked side by side. The accompanying
cut of a modern Syrian cart probably well represents
119
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Captain
Centurion
those used in ancient times. In Is 28 27 f. the refer-
ence is to the 'rollers' of the threshing-sledge (see
ft.
An Ox-Cart, as Seen in Palestine To-Day.
AGRICULTURE, 6). For "wagons" in Ezk 23 24
AV, the RV renders correctly "chariots."
E. E. N.
CARVING. See ARTISAN LIFE, 5.
CASEMENT. See HOUSE, 6 (j).
CASIPHIA, cQ-sif'i-a (X;;C?, kasiphya'): A
"place" (in Babylonia) which was the home of a
colony of Levites and Nethinim (Ezr 8 15-20). Its
site is unknown. E. E. N.
CASLUHIM, cas'lu-him. See ETHNOGRAPHY
AND ETHNOLOGY, 11.
CASSIA, cash'ia. See OINTMENTS AND PER-
FUMES, 1, and PALESTINE, 23.
CAST. See ARTISAN LIFE, 10, 11, and
METALS.
CASTANET. See Music, 3 (1), (c).
CASTAWAY: In Co 9 27 d8oKi/*or, "a castaway"
AV, is rightly changed in RV to "rejected." The
Gr. word means 'not approved,' 'unable to stand
the test.' E. E. N.
CASTLE. See CITY, 2, FORT, and JERU-
SALEM, 38.
CASTOR AND POLLUX, cas'ter, pol'ux. See
TWIN BROTHERS and SHIPS AND NAVIGATION.
CATERPILLAR. See PALESTINE, 26.
CATHOLIC EPISTLES: A term applied to the
Epistles of James, Peter, John, and Jude. Since
no one of these seven epistles is addressed to a spe-
cifically named church or individual, and all (except
II and III Jn) deal with general rather than merely
local or individual questions, they easily came to be
considered by the early Fathers as addressed to the
Church at large, i.e., the catholic (or universal)
Church. The AV expresses this idea by the word
"general" in the titles of Ja, I P, II P, I Jn, and
Jude, which is the translation of iratfoXiKij, found
in many late MSS. With the early MSS. the RV
omits it. E. E. N.
CATTLE. See NOMADIC AND PASTORAL LIFE
and SACRIFICE AND OFFERINGS.
CAUDA, co'da. See CLAUDA.
CAUL: The sacrificial term (Ex 29 13, etc.). (1)
The Heb. (tTlJV, 'the excess' or 'that which is
left over") seems to mean the fatty mass near the
opening of the liver (cf. Dill, on Lv 3 4). (2) In
Hos 13 8 (Heb. Ttelp, "enclosure") it means either the
pericardium or the breast as a whole. (3) For Is 3
18 see DHESS AND ORNAMENTS, 11. See SACRI-
FICE AND OFFERINGS, 10. E. E. N.
CAUSE. See LAW AND LEGAL PRACTISE, 4.
CAUSEWAY. See ROADS.
CAVE: In the hilly regions of Palestine caves
are very numerous. The O T contains many refer-
ences to them as places of temporary abode (Gn 19
30), of refuge from invaders (Jg 6 2; I S 13 6, etc.), or
from pursuers (Jos 10 16; I S 22 1, etc.), and as burial-
places (Gn 239ff.; cf. Jn 11 38). The Horites (Gn
14 6, 3620ff.) were probably cave-dwellers, as the
word Horite is from hor (one of the O T words for
cave). E. E. N.
CEDAR (3$;$, 'erets): The cedar so often re-
ferred to in the O T is always the cedar of Lebanon
with the possible exception of Nu 24 6 (where the
text may be corrupt). These cedars were famed
throughout all SW. Asia. The lumber made from
them, because of its size, durability, and fragrance,
was used by the kings of Assyria and other countries
for the decoration of their palaces, etc. The various
notices of the use of cedar in Israel (Lv 4 14; II S 5 11;
I K 5 8, 6 9, 7 2; Song 1 17; Jer 22 14, etc.) illustrate
its use in other countries. The tree itself was con-
sidered the most beautiful and majestic of trees and
was easily made the symbol of strength, glory, and
regal power (Ps 92 12; Ezk 31 3, etc.). The cedars
now extant on Lebanon are probably only stunted
and scattered remains of once large and magnificent
forests. See also PALESTINE, 21. E. E. N.
CEDRON, si'dren. See JERUSALEM, 5.
CEILING. See HOUSE, 5 and 6 (a).
CELLAR : In I Ch 27 27 f., the word rrilVX ('otse-
roth, plur. of 'olsar, rendered "cellars") means merely
storehouses or rooms, where wine and oil were
stored. In Lk 1 1 33 (RV) the Gr. icpwmj means
literally 'a hidden place,' i.e., anything similar to
a vault, crypt, or cellar. E. E. N.
CENCHREA, sen-cri'a (Kevxpda): A harbor of
Corinth on the Saronic gulf and a town of some size
(Ac 18 18; Ro 16 1) . It contained temples of Aphro-
dite and Artemis, a bronze statue of Poseidon, sanc-
tuaries of Asclepius and Isis, also the Baths of Helen.
The mole is still visible. J. R. S. S.
CENSER. See TEMPLE, 19.
CENTURION (eKaTovTapxif [and -ot], 'ruler of a
hundred,' and Kcrrvpiaiv [ - Lat. centurw]): The
commander of a 'century,' i.e., a hundred men, the
sixtieth part of a legion, in the Roman army. The
centurion mentioned in Mt 8 5-13; Lk 7 2-6 ( -Jn 4
46 ff?) belonged probably to the small military force
of Herod Antipas, organized on the Roman model.
In all other cases a Roman officer is meant.
E. E. N.
I
Cephas
Cherethites
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
120
CEPHAS, si'fus. Soc PETEK.
CERTIFY: The words rendered certify" mean:
in IIS 15 28 'to announce or toll '; in Ezr 4 14, 1,
5 10, 7 24 'to let one know.' In Est 2 22 the RV ren-
ders, much more correctly, "told," and in Gal 1 11
"make known." E. E. N.
CHAFF: The translation of: (1) mdts, always
correctly rendered "chaff" in both RV and AV.
(2)hishash, "dry grass" (Is524AV, 33 ll). (3) 'fir,
Dn235. (4) 3 X vpov (Mt3 12; Lk3 17). InJer23
28 the RV "straw" is more correct. E. E. N.
CHAINS: These were either voluntarily worn
for purposes of personal embellishment or imposed
from without as means of preventing movement.
(1 ) Of ornamental chains the most typical are those
referred to in the stories of Joseph and Daniel (Gn
41 42; Dn 57, etc.)- See also DRESS AND ORNA-
MENTS, 11. (2) Of restraining chains those worn
by Paul are the best example (Ac 28 20; II Til 16;
but of. also Ac 12 7). In this case for a clearer
understanding it must be borne in mind that the
prisoner was fastened by the wrist through a chain
to a guarding soldier, whose wrist was also attached
to the other end of the chain. A. C. Z.
CHALCEDONY, cal - sed ' o - ni. See STONES,
PRECIOUS, 3.
CHALCOL, cal'cel. See CALCOL.
CHALDEA, cal-di'a, CHALDEANS: The Heb.
term kasdlm (Gn 11 31, etc.) corresponds phonet-
ically to the form kaldu found on the Assyrian in-
scriptions. The Chaldeans were a Semitic people
who pressed into Babylonia from the S. (c. 12th
cent. B.C.), and occupied the whole seacoast region
of S. Babylonia. They were not without political
ambition and from this time on more than one Baby-
lonian king was of Chaldean origin. The capital
city of the Kaldu was Bit Yakin. The Assyrians
found in the Kaldu most determined opponents of
their supremacy in Babylonia (see MERODACH-
BALADAN). Finally, the Chaldean Nabopolassar,
c. 626 B.C., on the eve of the downfall of Nineveh,
established himself on the throne of Babylon, thereby
founding the new Babylonian or Chaldean kingdom
of which his son Nebuchadrezzar was the greatest
ruler (see BABYLONIA, 18-22). For Chaldeans
in another sense see MAGIC AND DIVINATION, 7,
and WISE MEN, 1. E. E. N.
CHALKSTONES: In Is 27 9 the word is used as
a symbol of brittleness. The altars of idols were to
be as easily destroyed as if made of chalkstones.
A. C. Z.
CHAMBER. See HOUSE, 5, 6, and TEMPLE,
11,20,21.
CHAMBERLAIN (II K 23 11): The chamberlain
occupied a position of trust involving political
duty, which was, therefore, somewhat more impor-
tant than that of the steward. Here the Heb. saris,
'eunuch,' is not to be taken strictly in its literal
sense. On Ro 16 23, see ERASTUS. A. C. Z.
CHAMBERLAINS, THE SEVEN: The term
"chamberlain" (II K23 11; Est 1 10 ff.) is a somewhat
euphemistic rendering of C"f, farts, 'eunuch.'
The same idea is contained in the phrase eVi KIHTIU-
vns, 'over the sleeping-room,' applied to Blastus (Ac
12 20). It was the custom for kings to have eunuchs
supervise the affairs of their harems. The seven
eunuchs of Xerxes, according to Est 1 10 ff., were
Mehuman, Biztha, Harbona, Bigtha, Abagtha,
Zethar, and Carcas. Others, however, are also
mentioned, as Hegai (2 3), Bigthan and Teresh (2 21,
6 2) and Hatach (4 5). To what extent these per-
sons are historical is unknown. See ESTHER, BOOK
OF. E. E. N.
CHAMELEON, ca-mi'le-on. See PALESTINE,
26.
CHAMOIS, sham'i or sham'we. See PALES-
TINE, 24.
CHAMPAIGN, sham-pen': In Dt 11 30 ("Arabah,"
RV) the original means a low-lying, open plain.
A. C. Z.
CHAMPION: In I S 17 51 this word renders
gibbor, 'mighty man.' In I S 17 4, 23, it is a good
translation of the Heb. C^3,1"B"i<, 'man of the
middle places,' i.e., the man who stands between
two armies to decide the case of one against the
other. E. E. N.
CHANAAN, ke'nan (Xavdav): The AV spelling
for Canaan (q.v.) in Ac 7 11, 13 19. E. E. N.
CHANCELLOR: The title of Rehum, Ezr 4 8-17.
The exact significance of the Aram. DJrV'^y?, 'mas-
ter of discernment,' is obscure. Most modern schol-
ars take it in the sense of 'chief official' (see RE-
HUM). E. E. N.
CHANGE OF RAIMENT. See DRESS AND
ORNAMENT, 5.
CHANGER. See TRADE AND COMMERCE, 3.
CHANT. See Music, 5.
CHAPEL: The AV rendering of miqdash, ' sanc-
tuary,' in Am 7 13. E. E. N.
CHAPITER. See TEMPLE, 14.
CHAPLET. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 1 11.
CHAPMAN. See TRADE AND COMMERCE, 3.
CHAPT (Jer. 144, AV; "cracked," RV): The
Heb. term hattah means 'broken, "terrified," or 'dis-
mayed.' E. E. N.
CHARASHIM, car'a-shim. See GE-HARASHIM.
CHARGER. See PLATTER.
CHARIOT. See WARFARE, 4, and ARMS AND
ARMOR, 6.
CHARIOT HORSE. See ARMS AND ARMOR,
6, and HORSE.
CHARITY : The AV rendering in about 28 pas-
sages in Paul's Epistles, the Catholic Epistles, and
Revelation of the very frequent Gr. aydm), 'love,'
in the sense of 'Christian love for one's fellow men.'
"Charity," without doubt, crept into the Eng. Bible
131
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
used the Latin Vulgate, in which caritas was often
from to render dydwij. Caritas, however, means
'dearness,' 'high esteem,' rather than 'love' in the
broad sense of the Gr. dydnrj- consequently charity
should not be used to render dydirrj, since, in the
modern English, it is not synonymous with love.
See also LOVE. S. D.
CHARM, CHARMER. See MAGIC AND DIVI-
NATION, 3.
CHARRAN, car'an (Xappdv, Acts 7 2, 4): The AV
spelling for Haran (q.v.).
CHASTE (Ayvot, 'unsullied'): Used to indicate
inward, personal purity which shrinks from con-
tamination or pollution, consequently free (1) from
imperfection generally (I P32); (2) from carnality
(II Co 11 2, "pure" RV; Tit 2 5). S. D.
CHASTEN, CHASTENING; CORRECT, COR-
RECTION: The Heb. verb yasar is used of pun-
ishment (Pr 7 22), of chastisement inflicted by love
(Pr 3 11), 'especially of discipline of children by
parents (Ps 50 17) and is often joined with yakhah,
a milder word (IIS 7 14; Ps6l; Pr3 12). IntheOT
the idea of chastisement is inseparable from the fact
of sin. From being an indication of God's anger,
suffering, especially through the experience of exile,
came to be regarded as purposeful chastisement at
tin 1 hand of a righteous and merciful God, and in Is
53 5 even vicarious.
In the N T much of the mystery of suffering is re-
moved by the death of Christ, but for its remedial
value as chastisement see I Co 5 5, 11 32; II Co 69;
I Ti 1 20. Chastisement as the discipline of sons
issuing in peace, righteousness, and holiness is
beautifully described in He 12 5-12 (cf. Rev 3 19).
In II Ti 3 16 correction means 'restoration.'
R. A. F.
CHEBAR, ki'bflr (IJp, k-bhar): A river by which
Ezekiel and the exiles dwelt in Babylonia (Ezk 1
1, 3, 3 IS, etc.), now identified by Clay as a canal,
Kabaru, just E. of the ancient site of Nippur.
I. M. P.
CHECKER- WORK. See TEMPLE, 14.
CHEDORLAOMER, ked"er-la-6'mer (Tj'^'TTP,
k'tlhar la'omer): A king of Elam in the 23d
cent. B.C. who also held sway over Babylonia. He
was the leader of the two expeditions against Pales-
tine mentioned in Gn 14. Such expeditions were
frequent in that remote age, being made by the Bab-
ylonians to the Mediterranean coast, and in connec-
tion with their trade and colonizing in that region.
When Elam became suzerain of Babylonia, as it did
a few years before this date, it continued the Baby-
lonian state policy, foreign as well as domestic. The
disaster to the second expedition, mentioned in the
Biblical narrative, did not permanently affect the
Babylonian control of the West-land, which was con-
tinued to the 18th or 17th cent. B.C. The dominion
of Elam in Babylonia was itself soon brought to an
end by the great Hammurabi, the Amraphel of the
Biblical story, who expelled the foreigners, perhaps
during the lifetime of Chedorlaomer himself, about
2250 B.C. The name Chedorlaomer has not yet
been discovered in the cuneiform inscriptions, to
which we owe the supplementary details of the Htory
in Genesis; but the two elements, in the forms Kudur
and Lagarnar, are well attested as Elamitic words.
J. F. McC.
CHEESE. See FOOD, 6.
CHELAL, ki'lal $>3, k'lal): One of the "sons
of Pahath-moab" who married a foreign wife (Kzr
10 30). E. E. N.
CHELLUH, kel'Q. See CHELUHI.
CHELUB, ki'lub (2^5, k-labh, another form of
Caleb): 1. The ancestral head of a clan of Judah,
possibly a place-name (ICh4 11). 2. The father of
Ezri, one of David's officers (I Ch 27 26).
E. E. N.
CHELUBAI, ke-lu'bai. See CALEB.
CHELUHI, ke-lu'hai ('Hlbp, k'luhl, Chelluh, AV):
One of the "sons of Bani" who had taken a foreign
wife (Ezr 10 35). E. E. N.
CHEMARIM, kem'a-rim. See PRIESTHOOD, 2
CHEMOSH, ki'mesh (ttftej, k-mdsh): The na-
tional deity of the Moabites. See SEMITIC RE-
LIGION, 18.
CHENAANAH, ke-ne'a-na (HJM5, k-na'inah):
1. Father of the court prophet Zedekiah (I K 22 11,
24; II Ch 18 10, 23). 2. Head of a Benjamite family
(ICh7lO). E. E. N.
CHENANI, ke-ne'nai ("JJ5, k-nanl): One of the
assistants at the reading of the Law (Neh 9 4).
E. E. N.
CHENANIAH, ken"a-nai'a (^M?, kvuinyahu),
'J" establishes ': 1. A prominent Levite musician
(I Ch 15 22, 27). 2. One of David's officers (I Ch
26 29). E. E. N.
CHEPHAR-AMMONI, ki"fflr - am'en - ai
Jfisyjl, k'phar ha'ammonl, Chephar - Hammoni,
AV), 'village of the Ammonites': A town^of Ben-
jamin (Jos 1824), perhaps the mod. Ke/r And, Map
III, F 5. E. E. N.
CHEPHIRAH, ke-fai'ra (H75J, k-phlrah): One
of the cities of the Gibeonites (Jos 9 17), later as-
signed to Benjamin (Jos 18 26) and reoccupied after
the Exile (Ezr 2 25; Neh 7 29), Map II, E 1.
E. E. N.
CHERAN, ki'ran (]?, k-ran): A Horite clan (?)
(Gn 36 26; I Chi 41). E. E. N.
CHERETHITES, kerVthaits (t^.?, k-rethi): The
name of a people in the S. of Philistia, perhaps a
division of the Philistines themselves (I S 30 14; Ezk
25 16; Zeph 2 5). That the word has anything to
do with Crete is doubtful. The Cherethites and
Pelethites are frequently mentioned as composing
David's body-guard (II S 8 18, 15 16, etc.). The word
Pelethite (T 1 !??, p'ttthl) is probably but a variant
form of 'Philistines.' Thus David's guard was re-
cruited largely from the Philistines. E. E. N.
Cherith
Chosen
A STANDARD HIBLE DICTIONARY
123
CHERITH, ki'rith (."I.?, kvlth): The torrent-
valley or wady where .Elijah sojourned for a while
(IK 17 3-5). The statement that it was "before,"
i.e., E. of the Jordan, is indefinite and the site
remains uncertain. E. E. N.
CHERUB (211;, k-rHbh, pi. CHERUBIM) : The
Hebrew conception of the cherubim varied at differ-
ent periods of history. In the O T they are referred
to in four connections. After the expulsion of Adam
and Eve from the Garden of Eden, they appear as
guardians of the tree of life (Gn 3 24 J ). A different
version of this story is alluded to by Ezekiel (28 14,
16): a cherub expels the Prince of Tyre from Eden,
the Garden of God. In the Tabernacle there were
two golden cherubim at each end of the propitiatory
or mercy seat (see ARK). Figures of cherubim were
embroidered on the curtains and the other hangings
of this sanctuary (Ex 25 18, 26 1, 31 P; cf. He 9 5).
In Solomon's Temple two huge cherubic figures of
olive-wood overlaid with gold stood in the Holy of
Holies. Their outstretched wings overshadowed
the ark (I K 6 23-28). Cherubim, sculptured in bas-
relief and alternating with palm-trees, ran in a frieze
round the wall of the Temple, and decorated the base
of the great sea, the capitals, and doors (I K 6 29, 32,
35). They were figures connected with religious
symbolism; they acted as bearers of Deity, and were
consequently emblematic of Jehovah's presence.
Cf. the phrase "Thou that sittest above the cheru-
bim" (Ps 80 l). In the Holy of Holies they were
guardians of the ark and its treasures, as well as
symbols of God's presence, and consequently em-
blematic of His unapproachability. We have a
similar conception of the cherubim in the living
creatures of Ezekiel's vision (Ezk 1; cf. 10 2). These
composite figures, each with four wings and four
faces man, lion, ox, and eagle carry the firmament
which supports the throne of Jehovah. In discussing
the origin and significance of the cherubim, a crucial
passage is Ps 18 10 (cf. IIS 22 11). The poet de-
scribes the descent of Jehovah on the lowering thun-
der clouds: " He rode upon a cherub, and did fly; Yea,
he soared upon the wings of the wind." The func-
tion of the cherub in this passage is similar to that of
the symbolic figures in the sanctuary and the living
creatures in prophetic vision. But we also have
here a hint of their origin. Primarily they were a
personification of the storm cloud or wind, and this
poetic passage has preserved this ancient popular
conception of the cherubim. Three theories have
been held in regard to the form and nature of the
cherubim: (1) That they were real existences,
(2) that they were mythological beings, (3) that
they were mere symbols. The view that they were
supernatural spiritual essences is now generally
discarded, although it was long dominant in the
Church. The facts point to a combination of the
symbolic and mythical theories as the true view.
The religious imagination of the Hebrews, working
on mythological figures which they had in com-
mon with their neighbors, produced these symbolic
forms. To them they were not mere allegories, but
hail a real existence. As to their actual shape and
form there is considerable uncertainty. They were
winged and composite, and consequently have been
compared to the colossi at the entrances to Baby-
lonian temples and palaces. These often had a
man's head, a lion's body, and eagle's wings; sonic-
times they were winged bulls with human heads.
Cheyne thinks they were more like the Hittite griffins
in figure, and had a similar function as guardians of
sacred things. In later Jewish theology they are
one of the three highest classes of angels, and are
evidently the original of the four living creatures of
the Apocalypse (Rev 4 6-8).
LITERATURE: Commentaries on Genesis by Driver, Dill-
mann, and Delitzsch; on Isaiah by Cheyne; Schultz,
O T Theology, II, 229 ft. j ^ ^
CHERUB, ki'rub (311?, kvubh): A Babylonian
locality where a colony of exiles lived (Ezr 2 59;
Neh76l). J. A. K.
CHESALON, kes'a-len CpVy?, k'salon): A town
on the boundary-line between Judah and Benja-
min (Jos 15 10), between Kirjath Jearim and Beth
Shemesh, modern Kesla, 10 m. W. of Jerusalem.
Map II, El. -A. C. Z.
CHESED, ki'sed (IS.?, kesedh): A 'son'of Nahor
(Gn 22 22). Probably the name of an Aramcan
clan. E. E. N.
CHESIL, ki'sil (^tpj, fc. 9 ): A town of Judah
(Jos 15 30) called Bethul in 19 4. See also BETHUL.
E. E. N.
CHEST: In II K 12 9f.; II Ch 24 8 ft., the Pleb.
'aron means simply a box or chest suitable for the
purpose mentioned. In Ezk 27 24 the term g'na-
zlm is of doubtful meaning. There is no sound basis
for the rendering "chest." Rich garments or cloths
may be meant. E. E. N.
CHESTNUT. See PLANE-TREE and PALES-
TINE, 21.
CHESULLOTH, ke-sul'eth (n^C?, k-suUdth): A
town of Issachar (Jos 19 18), probably the same as
Chisloth-Tabor (Jos 19 12), the mod. Iksal, Map IV,
C 7. E. E. N.
CHEZIB, ki'zib. See ACHZIB 2.
CHIDON, cai'den. See NACHON.
CHIEF: The rendering of a number of Heb. and
Gr. terms, all of which express the idea of head-
ship, but generally in a somewhat loose and non-
technical sense. The most commonly used term is
rxi, ro'sh, 'head.' In Nu 25l4f., Jos 2214, the
Heb. is 'abh, 'father,' and RV renders "fathers'
house." For other cases needing special mention
see CHIEF MEN. See also FAMILY AND FAMILY
LAW, 4, and WARFARE, 1. E. E. N.
CHIEF MEN: A term used in the N T to render
two Gr. words. (1) ot irpOrroi. (a) In Mk 6 21
("chief estates" AV) it refers to the leading provin-
cials of Galilee, who doubtless formed the unofficial
retainers of Herod's court. These, with the chief
civil dignitaries (fuyitrravfs) and the chief military
officers (xMapxot), constituted the invited guests at
the feast. (6) In Ac 13 50 it refers to the board of
magistrates of the city, (c) In Ac 28 7 it is used in
123
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Oherith
Chosen
the singular ("chief man"). It is not clear whether
it refers to Publius as the procurator of the island
an official assigned to Malta under the Empire (OIL,
x, 7494), or as the actual Governor of the island
(C1L, x, 6785), or whether it was simply a title of
compliment (C1G, 5754 - Kaibel, IGSicil. 601). (d)
In Lk 19 47 it is rendered "the principal men ["chief"
AV] (of the people)," in Ac 25 2 "the principal men
["chief" AV] (of the Jews)," and in Ac 28 17 "the
chief (of the Jews)." In the first passage it is seem-
ingly unofficial and has reference to the socially
prominent laymen among the people, who were sym-
pathetic with the "chief priests and the scribes" in
their hostility to Jesus. In the second passage it is
probably official and refers to the Sadducean leaders
in the Sanhedrin (cf. v. 15, 24, 23 14). In the third
passage it is more general and includes doubtless the
elders (irpecrfivTcpoi) and chiefs (lipxovrfs) of the con-
gregation, and the synagogue rulers (dpxtfvvaytayoi)
of the various communities into which the Jews in
Rome were divided (cf. Schurer, HJP. II, ii. 31).
(2) i)yovp.fvoi, which in Ac 15 22 refers to Judas
Barsabbas (q.v.) and Silas (q.v.) in a wholly unoffi-
cial sense, simply as men prominent in the Christian
community for their work and counsel and instruc-
tion (cf. v. 32) and so preeminently fitted to accom-
pany Paul and Barnabas on their return mission to
the brethren in Antioch. M. W. J.
CHILD, CHILDREN. See FAMILY AND FAMILY
LAW, 6.
CHILDBEARING, CHILDLESS. See FAMILY
AND FAMILY LAW, 5, 6.
CHILDREN OF THE BRIDECHAMBER. See
MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE.
CHILDREN OF THE EAST. See EAST.
CHILEAB, kil'e-ab (2^5, kil'abh): According
to the Heb. text' of II S 3 3, a son of David by Abi-
gail. In I Ch 3 l he is called Daniel. The LXX.
of II S 3 3 reads AaXouia, which may imperfectly
represent the original name, but this can not now be
recovered. E. E. N.
CHILION, kil'i-en flV^S, kilyon): Chilion and
Mahlon were sons of Elimelech and Naomi (Ru 1 2).
They married two Moabite women, Orpah and Ruth,
Chilion being the husband of Orpah, and both died in
the land of Moab (Ru 4 10, 1 5). The names Chilion,
'wasting,' and Mahlon, 'sickness,' are significant
possibly of artificial elements in the story.
E. E. N.
CHILMAD, kil'mad ("1^9, kilmadh): A place
mentioned in Ezk 27 23 along with Sheba, Assyria,
etc. The identification is doubtful. Some, follow-
ing the Talmud, would read "TJ?"^, 'all the Medes,'
or 'all Media,' but this is only a conjecture.
E. E. N.
CHIMHAM, kim'ham (ST?5, kimham): The son
(probably) of Barzillai of Gilead who was given a
place at David's court in return for kindness shown
to the king (II 81937-40; I K 2 7). Geruth-Chim-
ham, 'the habitation of Chimham' (Jer 41 17; cf.
RVmg. ) near Betlilehem, may refer to a lodging-place
or inn erected by this person. Another well-sup-
ported reading is "sheepfolds of Chimham."
E. E. N.
CHIMNEY. See HOUSE, 6 (j)-
CHINNERETH, kin'e.-reth (P^?, kinnereth);
CHINNEROTH, -roth (H'n^?, kinrOth); CINNE-
ROTH, sin'e-roth: 1. The name of a town (Jos 19
35) extended also apparently to a district (I K 15
20). The name is old, being found on the Egyptian
list of towns captured by Thotmes III (16th cent.
B.C.), the form there being Kinneroth. Its signifi-
cance is a matter of dispute, also its relation to the
name Gennesaret. It was located probably in the
plain of Gennesaret. 2. For the Sea of C. (Jos
112, etc.), see GALILEE, SEA OP. E. E. N.
CHIOS, ki'os or cai'os (Xior): A mountainous
island, off the Asiatic seaboard (Ac 20 15). It
joined Cyrus in 546 B.C., but fought the Persians in
480. It became independent in 355 and later fa-
vored Rome. It has now about 100,000 inhabitants
and a considerable commerce in blue marble, anti-
mony, ocher, silk, mastic, fruits, and brandy.
J. R. S. S.
CHIRP (occurs only in Is 8 19, " peep," AV).
See MAGIC AND DIVINATION, 3.
CHISLEV, CHISLEU, kisliu. See TIME, 3.
CHISLON, kis'lon (]^C5, kiflon): The father of
Elidad (Nu342l). E. E. N.
CHISLOTH-TABOR, kis"leth-te'bor. See CHE-
SULLOTH.
CHITHLISH, kith'lish (tf^rc, Kithlish, AV): A
town of Judah, in the Shephelah (Jos 15 40). Site
unknown. E. E. N.
CHITTIM, kit'im. See KITTIM.
CHIUN, cai'on: A deity mentioned in Am 526.
See SEMITIC RELIGION, 19.
CHLOE, clo'e (XXdq): Paul was informed of the
conditions in the church at Corinth by "them which
are of the household of Chloe" (I Co 1 11 ). It is un-
known whether this woman had her home in Ephe-
sus or in Corinth and nothing whatever is known of
her relation to the church. E. E. N.
CHOR-ASHAN, c8r"-ash'an. See ASHAN.
CHORAZIN, co-re'zin (Xopafelv): One of the
cities condemned by Jesus for its unreceptivity to
His works (Mtll 21; Lk 1013). The site is not
identified with absolute certainty, but is probably
the modern Keraseh, N. of Tell Hum (Map IV,
E6). J. M. T.
CHOSEN: The word is sometimes used in the
general sense of 'choice,' 'superior' (cf. Ex 14 7, "six
hundred chosen chariots," or Jg20 15, "seven hun-
dred chosen men"). In a more restricted and quasi-
technical sense, it is applied to believers, and denotes
from the Divine point of view their distinctive char-
acter. "Ye are a chosen generation" (I P29; cf.
Chozeba
Chronicles, Books of
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
124
also Rev 17 14). In a still more restricted sense, it
is applied to the people of God as a whole (I Ch 16 13,
"children of Jacob, his chosen ones"; of. also Ps 105
6; Is 43 20). See also ELECTION. A. C. Z.
CHOZEBA, co-zf'ba. See ACHZIB, 2.
CHRIST. See JESUS CHRIST and MESSIAH.
CHRISTIAN: The name applied to the followers
of Christ by the heathen populace of Antioch (Ac
11 26; cf. Tac. Anna!. XV, 44) a city famous, as was
Alexandria, for its habit of nicknames. The reason
for its giving was not simply the extended size and
the organized form which the disciples had assumed,
but the preponderating Gentile element which in
that city had entered its membership and which
marked it as distinctly different from Judaism.
As an adjective derived from a personal name its
ending (-tavos) is Latin and not Greek (cf. Zahn, In-
troductwn, 40, n. 10; Blass, NTGr., 27. 4). If its
primary form was Chrestianos (Xprjartai'dr), as we
might be led to suppose from Suetonius (Claud. 25;
cf. Kaibel, IGSicU. 78, 754; C1L. X, 7173; also
codex N, in all the N T passages, and the possible
word-play in I P 2 3), then there was a mild contempt
intended in its giving, Chrestos (Xpi/o-Tos) signifying
a 'worthy fellow.' It is in this spirit that the name
is used by Agrippa in his reply to Paul's impassioned
appeal (Ac 26 28), whether the form he actually used
was Chrestianos, or Christianas which came to be
adopted by the disciples and which consistently is
used in the N T.
In I P 4 16 the name is used from the point of view
of the hostile heathen world, and indicates a date for
the Epistle when the followers of Christ were con-
demned if they confessed to being Christians (cf.
Ramsay, Church in Rom. Empire, Index [s.v.], and
see PETER, FIRST EPISTLE OP).
The references in Ac 5 41 and Ja 2 7 are not to the
appellative, Christian, but to the personal name,
Christ. M. W. J.
CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF: The Books of
Chronicles, together with those of Ezra and Nehe-
miah, are the compilation of an author
I. Con- whose name has not been handed down
tents. to us, but who may be conveniently
termed the 'Chronicler,' and who
wrote probably not before 300 B.C. The books em-
brace the period from Adam to the edict of Cyrus
permitting the exiles to return to Judah, 537 B.C.:
they thus cover substantially the same period as the
other great series of historical books, Gn to II K
(from the Creation to 561 B.C.); but they are writ-
ten from a very different point of view, and with a
much more limited aim. Their main object, viz., is
to give a history of Judah, with special reference to
the institutions connected with the Temple; and
whatever has no bearing upon one or the other of
these subjects is either passed over rapidly or
omitted altogether. The author begins (after the
manner of the later Semitic historians) with Adam;
but I: 1 consists merely of genealogies, excerpted
from Gn, leading up (ver. 34) to Esau and Jacob ; 2 l f.
enumerates the sons of Jacob ; and the rest of ch. 2 is
devoted to statistical particulars (genealogies of
clans and clan settlements) of the tribe of Judah, as
ch. 3 is devoted to the descendants of David. In
1 : 48, dealing from the same point of view with the
other tribes, the priestly tribe of Levi is treated at
greatest length (1:6). 1:9 1-34 is on the post-exilic
residents in Jerusalem and certain arrangements
relating to the Temple. Tin- introduction (1 : 1 1-9 34)
ended, the history proper begins. The account of
Saul is limited to his genealogy (I: 9 35-44) and the
narrative of his death (1: 10). The history of David
begins with his election as king over all Israel at
Hebron: all events in his reign of a personal or
private character (e.g., the revolt of Absalom) are
omitted; on the other hand, the arrangements for a
temple attributed to him are narrated at consider-
able length (1:22-29). After the division of the
kingdom the history of Judah occupies almost en-
tirely the compiler's attention, the N. kingdom being
referred to only where absolutely necessary. The
writer dwells throughout with the greatest satisfac-
tion upon the ecclesiastical aspects of the history.
The same interest is not less apparent in Ezr, Neh;
and hence the entire work (Ch, Ezr, Neh) has been
not inaptly termed by Reuss the "Ecclesiastical
Chronicle of Jerusalem." The compiler, it is often
supposed, was a Levite, perhaps in particular a
member of the Temple choir.
The basis of the Chronicles consists of a series of
excerpts from the earlier historical books (Gn to
II K; I: 9 3-17a is also from Neh 11 4-
2. Charac- 19a), with which is combined much
ter of entirely new matter. These excerpts
Contents, are not made throughout upon the
same scale. In the preliminary chap-
ters (1: 1-9) they are often condensed, and consist
chiefly of genealogical notices; in I: 1011: 36 (which
is parallel to I S 31-11 K 25) passages are, as a rule,
transferred in extenso with but slight variations of
expression ; not infrequently, however, the excerpted
narratives are expanded, sometimes remarkably,
by the insertion either of single verses or clauses, or
of longer passages, as the case may be. It is im-
possible to give here a list of all the Chronicler's ad-
ditions; the following are, however, the principal
longer passages: I: 12, 21 20b-29 (dealing mostly
with David's preparations for a temple, and organi-
zation of the Levites, etc.), 11:115-23, 121, 2b-9a
(inserted between I K 14 25 and 26), 13 3-22, 14 3-15
15, 16 7-10, 17 lb-19, 19 1-20 30, 21 2-4, 10b-19, 24 15-22,
255-10, 12-16, 265-20 (to "because"), 274-6, 285-15,
17-20, 293-3121 (Hezckiah's passover, etc.), 322-8,
25-29, 331 lb-19 (Manasseh's captivity, repentance,
and restoration), 34 3-7, 35 lb-17 (Josiah's passover),
21-23 (inserted between II K 23 29 and 30).
The reader who desires properly to understand the
method and point of view of the Chronicler should
mark in his RV by underlining in the case of sim-
ple words or verses, and by drawing a line along the
margin in the case of longer passages these and (lie
other passages peculiar to him. He will then soon
discover that they have a character of their own,
in language and expression, not less than in subject-
matter, which differentiates them materially from the
parts transferred unaltered from Samuel or Kings.
Thus (1) they often comprise statistical matter,
genealogies, lists of names, etc. (e.g., most of I: 2-9,
12, 154-10, 259-31, etc.).
125
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Choxeba
Chronicles, Books of
(2) Very frequently they relate to the organiza-
tion of public worship, or describe religious cere-
monies, especially with reference to the part taken
in them by Levites and singers, as 1: 13 1-5, 15 1-28,
16 4-42 (where the older narrative of the transference
of the ark to the city of David has been enlarged,
or, MS in 15 25-28 -II S 6 12b-15 altered, from this point
of view) and most of I: 22-29, II: 8 13-15, 20 14, 19, 21,
28, 29 3-31 21, 35 lb-17.
(3) In many cases they have a didactic aim: in
particular they show a tendency to refer events to
their moral causes, to represent, for instance, a great
calamity as a punishment for wickedness, and a great
deliverance as the reward of piety; notice, for exam-
ple, II: 12 1, 2b-8 (the cause of Shishak's invasion),
13 18, 17 10, 21 JOb, 22 7, 24 23-24, 26 5, 16-20 (only the
fact of Uzziah's leprosy is narrated in UK 15 5),
27 6, 32 25 f., 33 11-13, 35 21-23; and in speeches put
into the mouths of various prophets, II: 12 5-8, 13
4-12, 16 7-10, 19 2-3, 20 14-17, 37a, 21 12-15, and else-
where. Attention should also be directed to the
short insertions introduced often into the narratives
excerpted from Samuel or Kings for the purpose of
supplementing them from the points of view just in-
dicated. Comp., for instance, the notes of this kind
on ritual, or the parts taken by Levites, singers, etc.,
in II: 5 llb-13a (inserted in the middle of I K 8 10),
6 13, 7 1-3, 6, 23 2, 4, 6a (and much besides in this ch.,
altered from II Kll), 34 12b-13; and the explana-
tions, or reflections, in I: 10 13 f. (the cause of Saul's
death), 21 6f., 29f. (justifying David's sacrifice on
Zion), II: 1 3b-6a (legalizing the worship at the high
place of Gibeon), 8 lib, 12 12, 14, 16 12b, 18 Sib, 22
3b, 4b, 24 25 (middle), 25 20b, 27a.
One main source of the Chronicler has been suffi-
ciently indicated, viz., the earlier historical books
from Gn to II Kings (especially I Sam-
3. Sources II Kings). What, however, were the
Used by sources from which the additional mat-
the Com- ter contained in Ch was derived? The
piler. notices contained in 1 : 19 were derived,
it is natural to think, from genealogical
and other tribal records (cf. 1: 5 17, 9 l). But from
the time of David onward the Chronicler, like the
compiler of Kings, refers, as a rule, at the end
of each reign, to some definite source where further
particulars are to be found. The source most fre-
quently cited is the "book of the kings of Judah
and Israel" (or "of Israel and Judah"), II: 16 11,
277, etc.; elsewhere (where this book is not men-
tioned) he refers to some special authority bearing
the name of a prophet (I: 29 29, II: 9 29, 12 15, 13 22,
20 34, 26 22, 32 32, 33 19) ; once (II: 24 27) he cites the
"Commentary (midhrash) of the Book of the
Kings" (cf. II: 13 22, the "Commentary (midhrash)
of the prophet Iddo"). That the first of these
books is not the canonical Book of Kings is ap-
parent from its being cited for particulars which
this does not contain (as II: 277,33 18): inasmuch,
moreover, as the prophetic histories just mentioned
are never cited with the "Book of the Kings of
Judah and Israel" (though this must have extended
at least from Asa, II: 16 11, to Jehoiakim, II: 36 8),
and as two of these histories are stated to have
formed part of that book (II: 20 34, 32 32), it is gen-
erally supposed that they were not independent
works written by the prophets in question, but sec-
tions of the great "Book of the l\ingn" relating to
them, and hence familiarly cited under their iinmea.
Whether the "Commentary of the Book of the
Kings" (11:24 27) is another name for the "Book of
the Kings of Judah and Israel" is uncertain; but
in any case the name is significant; for 'niidhrash'
(common in postbiblical Hebrew) means a didactic
or homiletic exposition, or an edifying religious
story (such as To or Sus): the 'midhrash' here re-
ferred to will thus have been a post-exilic work in-
tended to develop the moral or religious lessons de-
ducible from the history of the kings. Now this is
just the leading motive in many of the narratives
peculiar to Chronicles, wliich have been apparently
derived by the compiler from the "Book of the
Kings"; the last-named work, therefore, even if
not (as many scholars suppose) identical with the
"Commentary of the Book of the Kings," will have-
been similar in character and tendency. The "Com-
mentary of the Prophet Iddo" will have been
either a particular section of the same work or a
separate work of the same kind, in wliich Iddo was
the prominent figure.
Much of the additional matter peculiar to Chroni-
cles can not be historical. In some cases the figures
are incredibly high; in others the scale
4. Histor- or character of the occurrence is such
ical Value, that, had they really happened pre-
cisely as described, it is difficult to
think that they would have been passed by in Sam-
uel and Kings; while as regards the speeches as-
signed to historical characters, and the motives at-
tributed to them, these are nearly always conceived
largely from a point of view very different from that
which prevails in the earlier narratives, and agreeing
closely with the compiler's. The compiler lived in
an age, two centuries or more after the return from
Babylon, when new religious interests and a new
type of piety had been developed, and asserted
themselves strongly. The Chronicler reflects faith-
fully the spirit of his age. A new mode of viewing
the past history of his nation began to prevail: pre-
exilic Judah was pictured as already in possession of
the institutions, and governed by the ideas and prin-
ciples, which were in force at a later day; the em-
pire of David and his successors was projected on a
magnified scale: the past, in a word, was idealized,
and its history, where necessary, rewritten accord-
ingly. Thus the Levitical organization of the com-
piler's own time, especially the three choirs, are rep-
resented as established by David : the ritual of the
Priests' Code is duly observed under the early kings:
religious ceremonies, including even some not men-
tioned in Samuel and Kings at all, are described with
an abundance of detail suggested evidently by the
usage of the compiler's own day; David amasses for
the Temple enormous treasures (I 22 14) ; and his suc-
cessors have the command of large armies, and are
victorious against forces even larger than their own
(e.g., II 13 3, 17, 14 8, 9, 17 14-19). There is doubt-
less a genuine historical nucleus at the basis of many
of these representations; but it has been expanded
by the Chronicler and thrown by him into a form
adapted to describe past events as he conceived
they must really have happened, and to inculcate
Chronicles, Books of
Chronology
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
126
the lessons which ho understood the history to teach.
There is thus nothing improbable in the statement
that David collected materials for a temple; but the
details in I : -2, L".i must be greatly exaggerated. The
narrative in II S Oof the removal of the ark to Zion
makes no mention of Levites as present on the occa-
sion; but in 1:13, 15-16 (see above) the Chronicler
introduces many additions with the object of making
good the omission, and in 16 8-36 places in David's
mouth a Psalm composed of parts of three post-
exilic Psalms (105 1-15, 96 l-13a, 106 1, 47, 48). In
I K 8 3 the ark is borne by priests; but in II Ch 5 4
"Levites" is substituted to make the usage conform
to the later Levitical law; I K 8 66 is similarly
altered in II Ch 7 9 f. to harmonize with the custom
of the Second Temple. In II Kll Jehoiada's as-
sistants in the deposition of Athaliah are the foreign
body-guard; in II Ch 23 they are Levites, in ac-
cordance with Inter usage, which did not allow aliens
to approach so near to the holy things; a series of
deliberate alterations has been made in the older
narrative, and a new coloring given to the entire
occurrence. In 11:23-16 the correspondence be-
tween Hiram and Solomon (I K 5 2-9) has been re-
written by the Chronicler in his own style. Other
similar instances could be quoted. It is also hardly
open to doubt that both the speeches attributed to
various prophets, and the representations of the his-
tory itself, are in many cases strongly colored by the
compiler's theory of the prompt and direct punish-
ment of sin and reward of virtue (comp. above, 3,
and the short insertions quoted just afterward).
The Chronicler supplies evidence of the highest value
for the ideas and institutions of the age in which he
himself lived; but his representations of the past
must be accepted with great caution and discrimi-
nation. He is not, however, on that account to be
regarded as a falsifier of history; on the contrary, he
is a man of deep moral earnestness, and a pleasing
and doubtless also a characteristic example of the
type of godliness prevalent in Israel at his time; he
simply viewed the past as his contemporaries viewed
it, and described it accordingly.
The Hebrew style of the Chronicler is peculiar: it
is marked by many mannerisms (some of which are
perceptible even in a translation), and
5. Lin- also by the occurrence in it of numer-
guistic Pe- ous words and expressions which are
culiarities. not only peculiar, but distinctively late
(see particulars in HDB I, 389 ff., or
Driver, IDT, p. 535 ff.). This fact is of impor-
tance; for it is conclusive evidence that no part of
the additions can be an excerpt from the autographs
of any pre-exilic writing; if such autographs were ac-
cessible to the compiler, the information derived from
them must have been entirely recast by him and pre-
sented in his own fashion. The speeches contained
in the additions form no exception to what has been
said: these also, even the shortest, are shown, by their
close similarities in both thought and expression to
the post-exilic narratives peculiar to the Chronicles,
to be one and all the Chronicler's own composition.
LITERATURE: The standard commentary is still that of
Bertheau (1873), to be supplemented, where necessary,
by BenzinEer (1901) and Kittel (1902). The Eng.
reader may consult W. K. Barnes' Comm. in the Cambr.
Bible; W. H. Bennett's vol. in the Expositor's Bible,
though not a continuous commentary, contains much
that is suggestive and useful, especially on the aims and
method of the Chronicler. g t ft j)
CHRONOLOGY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT
I. THE FKAMEWOBK OF CONTEMPOKAKY
HISTORY.
An outline of the relevant political events of the
Roman Empire and its dependencies within which
Christianity arose will serve as a setting for the
chronology of the Apostolic Age.
Augustus, 30 B.C.-14 A.D.
Tiberius his colleague,
with power over
armies and prov-
inces, probably 12
A.D.
Tiberius, 14-37.
Caligula, 37-41.
Claudius, 41-54.
Expulsion of Jews
from Rome, some
time between 45
and 54.
Nero, 54-68.
Rome burned 19 July,
64, followed by
persecution of
Christians cliiefly
in Rome.
Galba, Otho, Vitellius,
68-69.
Vespasian, 69-79.
Titus, 79-81.
Domitian, 81-96.
Persecution of Chris-
tians.
Nerva, 96-98.
Trajan, 98-117.
Herod the Great, king of
Palestine, 37-4 B.C.
Temple begun at Jeru-
salem, probably
in Jan. or Dec.,
20-19 B.C.
Sons of Herod.
(1) Archclaus, eth-
narch of Judaea
and Samaria 4
B.C., banished 6
A.D.
(2) Antipas, tetrarch
of Galilee and Pe-
rsea 4 B.C.-39 A.D.
(3) Philip, tetrarch of
Trachonitis, etc.,
4 B.C.-34 A.D.
Judaea under procura-
tors, 6-41 A.D.
Pontius Pilate, 26-36.
Aretas probably suze-
rain of Damas-
cus for a short
time after 37.
Herod Agrippa I (Ac
12) after a life of
adventure, King of
the territory of his
grandfather, Herod
I, 37^14 (including
Judtea 4144).
Judsea under procura-
tors from 44.
Revolt of Theudas be-
tween 44 and 48.
Famine in Juda;a
46 (?).
Herod Agrippa II (Ac
25 26), King of
Chalcis and parts
of Galilee and Pe-
rsea, 50-100.
Outbreak of Jewish
War 66.
Fall of Jerusalem, Sept.,
70.
127
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Chronicles, Books of
Chronology
II. THE LIFE OF JESUS CHHIST.
With no direct evidence from secular history for
the life of Jesus, and only indirect and elusive evi-
dence from the Gospels, it is impossible
i. Birth to obtain other than approximate re-
and Open- suits as to the Gospel chronology,
ing of (a) At first sight Lk 2 1-5 seems to
Jesus' supply a fixed point ; but unfortunately
Ministry, scholars are not agreed as to the histor-
ical value of these statements, though
Professor Ramsay's researches have strongly height-
ened the probability that Luke used reliable infor-
mation as to the main facts. Jesus was born in
Bethlehem, it would appear, during a periodical im-
perial census, held by the dependent King Herod
("a procurator with the title of king") in accord-
ance with the custom of his Jewish subjects. It
may have been carried out in Palestine about 5 or 6
B.C.
(b) According to Mt 2 1, 16, Jesus was born some
time during the last two years of the reign of Herod
the Great, so that the earliest date would be 6 B.C.
Very little can be inferred from the star seen by the
wise men, though a bright constellation, supposed to
havo followed on the conjunction of the planets
Jupiter and Saturn, B.C. 7, is held by some to sup-
port 5 or 6 B.C. as the date of the birth.
(c) In Lk 31,23 two difficulties emerge first,
from what point did Luke calculate the fifteenth
year of Tiberius? Second, what is implied in "about
thirty years of age"? According as they compute
the reign from the coregency, or the death of Au-
gustus, or accept different systems for reckoning the
imperial year, scholars arrive at dates ranging from
26 to 29 A.D. Most admit that "about" thirty
might mean a year or two either way, so that even
6 B.C. would not necessarily be excluded as too early
for the birth.
(d) John 2 20. The Temple was begun probably
in Dec. or Jan., 20-19 B.C. But was the 46th year
completed at the time of this Passover? With our
present information the year 27 A.D. seems to suit
this statement best, though some leading scholars
estimate 28 A.D. But as we can not tell how near
Jesus was to thirty, no certain inference can be
drawn from this as to His birth.
It would appear on the whole that 5 to 6 B.C. sat-
isfies the various data for the year of our Lord's
birth. Nothing at all can be gathered with cer-
tainty as to the season of the year.
There is an early tradition still accepted by a few
scholars that the ministry lasted for one year, but
though this seems at first sight to agree
2. Dura- with the Synoptic narrative, it does not
tion of the fit the facts. The details of His work
Ministry, as recorded and the impression pro-
duced by Jesus throughout Palestine
would lead us to expect a longer period than one
yi j ::r. The SynopticGospels themselves demand more
than one year. For though even Mk does not afford
a certain chronological scheme for the life of Christ,
it is probable that the references to the ripe wheat
(April to June) in 2 23, and to the green grass (early
spring) in 6 39, represent a year of ministry; and Lk
i 13 34 involves several visits to Jerusalem. In the
fourth Gospel there are three Passovers 2 13, 4 (so
true reading), 18 28. We have, therefore, good rea-
son to assume that the ministry lasted at least be-
tween two and three years.
The events of Jesus' life may be arranged chron-
ologically as follows:
(a) Birth of Jesus 5 or 6 B.C.
3. Results (b) Baptism (Lk 3 1), 15th year of
for the Life Tiberius, 27 or 28 A.D.
of Jesus. (c) Earlier Ministry in Judiea, Jeru-
salem, and Samaria, Jn 1 191 42. With
a Passover in Jerusalem (Jn 2 13), 27 or 28.
(d) Public Ministry in Galilee. This opened
after John was cast into prison (Mk 1 14), though
Jesus had probably taught in Galilee even before
that event (Jn2l2) perhaps May of 27 or 28 (Jn
4 35-38?).
To it belong (1) The visit to Jerusalem to an un-
known feast (Jn 5 1) Tabernacles in Octobeij (?).
(2) Journeyings to Phoenicia, the Decapolis,
Ca;sarea Philippi (Mk 7 25-9 30) during early sum-
mer of 28 or 29.
(3) The close of the public Galilean Ministry
perhaps late summer of 28 or 29 (Mk 9 30 ; cf . Jn 7 1 f . ).
(e) Itinerant teaching in Samaria, Persea, and
Judrea (chiefly in Lk 9 51 to 18) autumn and winter
of 28-29 or 29-30, including visits to Jerusalem
and neighborhood. (1) Tabernacles (Jn 7), Oc-
tober. (2) Dedication (Jn 10), December. (3) Rais-
ing of Lazarus at Bethany (Jn 11), early spring of
29 or 30.
(f) Last week in Jerusalem anil environs from
Friday evening of the arrival in Bethany until the
next Friday afternoon Passover of 29 or 30. On
the whole, the evidence of the Jewish calendar, which,
however, is uncertain, points to 30 A.D.
(g) The day of Jesus' death. An unsolved prob-
lem. It was a Friday (Mt 27 62, 28 1; Mkl542;
Lk 23 54; Jn 19 31), but the Synoptic Gospels seem to
say Friday the 15th Nisan, after Jesus had eaten the
regular Passover (Mkl4l2; Lk 227); John (131,
18 28, 19 14, 31, 42) seems to imply that Jesus died on
the afternoon of the 14th Nisan. Some try to recon-
cile John with the Synoptists (Edersheim, LTJM II,
p. 490 ff. ); others, with better reason, hold that even
the Synoptists, by their account of the arrest, trial,
and death of Jesus (Mk 14 If., 48, 151, 11,21, 46), afford
evidence of the superior testimony of John, inasmuch
as the Passover would have been profaned by any
work except what was necessary for preparing food.
If the year was 29, the crucifixion took place prob-
ably toward the end of March ; if 30, early in April.
III. THE APOSTOLIC AGE. From 29 or 30 to circa
100 A.D.
The crucial date for the chronology of the Apos-
tolic Age is the trial of Paul by Felix and Festus (Ac
2424,251). The ordinarily accepted
4. Acces- date for the accession of Festus is 60,
sion of though some incline to 59, others to 61.
Festus. But of late a few eminent scholars, re-
turning to the date in the Chronicle of
Eusebius, have placed it in the year Oct., 55-Oct.,
56. However, the opinion prevails strongly that,
Eusebius is in error, and that even Josephus and
Chronology
Church Life
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
128
Tacitvis arc mistaken in their references to Felix
ami his brother Pallas. We start then from (ill us
bring approximately correct, :tml with Ac 13-25
for our guide arrive at the following tentative
scheme.
The Missionary Journeys of Paul can be dated as
follows:
(a) First Missionary Journey (Ac 13, 14) to Cy-
prus and S. Galatia, 47-49 or 50; followed by
the Council at Jerusalem (Ac 15), 50
5. Mission- or 51.
ary Jour- (b) Second Missionary Journey (Ac
neys. 15 36-18 22). S. Galatia revisited, Mac-
edonia, Athens, Corinth (1J years, Ac
1811), Antioch; spring of 51 to spring of 54. Paul
arrived in Corinth shortly after the expulsion of the
Jews from Rome (182); but unfortunately the date
of this expulsion can not be fixed, nor that of the
proconsulship of Gallio (18 12), except that it can
not have been before 50.
(c) Third Missionary Journey (Ac 18 23-21 30).
S. Galatia, Ephesus, Corinth, Jerusalem ; spring of 55
(or possibly summer of 54) to spring of 58. Ephesus
2i years (Ac 18 23, 19 1-20 l); summer of 55 to
late autumn of 57. Corinth (3 months) and journey
via Philippi to Jerusalem (Ac 20 3-21 16); winter of
57-58 to Pentecost of 58.
(d) Two years' imprisonment (Ac 21 17), May of 58
to spring of 60.
Galatians 1 ll-2 10 is the second source for our
chronology. The visit of Paul to Jerusalem in Ac
15 is almost certainly to be identified
6. Paul's with the second visit of Galatians (2 1;
Conversion, cf. 1 18), which was 17 years after his
conversion (with much less probabil-
ity some count it 14 years). So the conversion of
Saul of Tarsus may be placed, after making allow-
ance for partial years, in 34 A.D. From Ac 8 1, 9 1
we judge that Stephen's martyrdom must be put
very shortly before this. We thus gain the follow-
ing results for the Apostolic Age as a whole:
(a) Life of the Church within Jeru-
7. Results salem and in Juda?a (Ac 1-7), 29 (or
for 30) to 34 A.D. Conversion of Saul,
Apostolic 34 A.D.
Age. (b) Extension through Palestine.
Antioch a new center (Ac 8-12), 34
to 46 A.D. First visit of Saul to Jerusalem (Ac
9 26; Gal 1 18; II Co 11 32), probably in 37. James,
son of Zebedee, killed by Herod (Ac 12 2), 44.
Visit of Barnabas and Saul to Judaea and Jeru-
salem with famine funds. Possibly Saul did not
go to the capital.
(c) The missionary activity of the Apostle Paul
(after his earlier work in Syria and Cilicia, Gal 1 21-
23) narrated in Ac 13-21 16 47 to 58 A.D. (for
details see above, 5). In this period are to be
placed the two earliest groups of the extant letters of
Paul: (1) I and II Thessalonians, written shortly
after his first arrival in Corinth, 52. (2) Galatians,
probably during his first sojourn in Corinth, 53-54
(see, however, GALATIANS, Ep. TO THE, 5); I and
II Corinthians, and other lost correspondence with
Corinth, from Ephesus, 56-57; Romans, shortly
before final departure from Corinth, winter or
spring of 58.
(d) Paul the prisoner:
(1 ) In Cirsarea (Ac 24 24-27), May of 58 to 60 A.D.
(2) Voyage to Rome and two years in Rome (Ac 27,
28), spring of 61 to 63 A.D. During his Roman im-
prisonment Paul wrote Ephesians, Colossians, Phi-
lippians, and Philemon. Many scholars infer from
Ac 20 25, 38 that his hope of acquittal (Ph 1 25) was
not fulfilled and that he was martyred at this
time. But the testimony of Clement of Rome,
that he died after having reached "the boundary
of the West" i.e., probably Spain (cf. Ro 1524,
28) and the impossibility of placing the Pastoral
Epistles in their present form within the period
of Acts, are in favor of the view that Paul did not
die until after a second imprisonment, perhaps in
65, though some good authorities place his death in
66 or 67.
(e) A persistent and thoroughly credible tradi-
tion is that Peter also died as a martyr in Rome
under Nero, perhaps in 64 or 65, shortly before
which the first epistle may well have been written
(see PETER, FIRST EP. OF, 3); and Josephus
states that James, the brother of Jesus, was put to
death by the high priest after the death of Porcius
Festus in 62. Some place the Epistle of James prior
to the time when the controversy between Paul and
the Jewish Christians became acute, i.e., before 50.
Others put it about 60. Of those who hold that it
was not written by James, the Lord's brother, most
place it outside the limits of the Apostolic Age (see
JAMES, EP. OF, 2 b).
(f) Though the great movements of Church life, at
least as known to history, were toward the West after
the middle of the first century, so that the churches
in Rome and other places rapidly rose into promi-
nence, the fall of Jerusalem in 70 A.D. left profound
and enduring effects on Christian history. Before
this date the earliest sources of the Synoptic Gospels
were put into writing, and during the next decade
our present Gospels probably took their present form.
Acts follows Luke, and Hebrews may be placed
within a few years of the fall of Jerusalem (see also
special articles on these books).
(g) Ephesus becomes a center of influence during
the last quarter of the century, and there is a strongly
authenticated tradition, though discarded by some
eminent scholars to-day, that John the Apostle pre-
sided over this church and died there at a great age
under Trajan, i.e., not before 98 A.D. The Johan-
nine literature, including the Apocalypse, is to be
assigned to the last decade of the first century.
Though serious difficulties surround the Epistles of
II Peter and Jude, there is no inherent reason
against placing them within the Apostolic Age (see
also the articles on all these books).
LITERATURE: For the enormous literature of this subject a
general reference must be made to articles in the larger
encyclopedias: in PRE 3 , Jesus Ghristus by Zoekler, and
Paulus by Zahn; Chronology by C. H. Turner, HDB.
(the best conservative statement), and by v. Soden in EB.
(hinhly critical). See also Schurer, History of the. Jewish
People in the Time of Christ (1890); Harnack, Chronoloffie
der altfhrist. Litteratur (1897); Ramsay, Was Christ Born
at Bethlehem,? (1898), and St. Paul the Traveler and Koman
Citizen (1897); Zahn, Introduction to the N. T. (1907). all
representative recent works. In James Moffatt's Historical
N. T. (1901) there are very complete and useful tables rind
summaries of recent opinions. J, A. F.
129
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Chronology
Church Life
CHRONOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT:
While the OT contains a great many chrono-
logical notices, as a whole it has no chronolog-
ical system. A chronological system requires some
fixed event or point of time from which all dates
may be reckoned. No such event finds mention
in the OT, although a limited use is made of
several different eras. In the Pentateuch many
events are dated according to the year of life of the
person concerned, and the life-periods of a long suc-
cession of individuals are parts of an era computed
from the creation of Adam. But this mode of reck-
oning ends with Jacob. All such dates, moreover,
belong to the late P element of the Pentateuch and
are entirely absent from the earlier J and E docu-
ments (see HEXATEUCH), which gave only the
vaguest sort of dates and had no chronological
system whatever.
An attempt seems to have been made at one time
to use the Exodus as a starting-point for chronology.
The notices Gn 15 13, Ex 12 40, and I K 6 1 seem to
belong to calculations connected with such an era.
But there is no evidence that this system was gener-
ally used. The chronological figures of the Book of
Judges give no satisfactory results, partly because
they probably rest primarily on vague tradition,
partly because they belong to events that were in
many cases contemporaneous, not successive (as
they are viewed in the book), and partly because
they are open to the suspicion that they have been
manipulated to work out an ideal scheme of 12 X 40
- 480 years from the Exodus to the Temple (cf.
IKGl).
With the Books of Kings definite chronological
data begin. These are not connected with an era
but with the regnal years of the kings of Judah and
Israel. During the period of the divided monarchy,
we have two sets of figures in the Books of Kings.
One is a synchronistic scheme in which the acces-
sions of the kings in Israel are dated according to
the regnal years of the kings in Judah and vice versa.
The other is an independent set of figures for each
reign. There can be no doubt that the latter is the
oMer and more trustworthy on the whole and was the
b:isi.s of the synchronism, although the results ob-
tained from the two systems do not agree, indicating
probably that all the figures have not been trans-
mitted correctly.
With II K 24 12 we have the beginning of dating
events by the regnal year of the great kings whose
sway was supreme over SW. Asia, thus connecting
the Biblical chronology directly with that of the
larger world of events outside of Palestine. From
tin- Mxile on most of the OT dates are of this char-
acter (except in Ezekiel).
Fortunately, connection can be made between
many events of the O T history and the exact chron-
ological records of Assyria. The correctness of the
rian figures, at least for c. 900-62.5 B.C., can not
be doubted, as they are well substantiated and pre-
sent a practically unbroken record. Thus the earli-
est fixed date of O T history is given us by the in-
scription of Shulmaneser II of Assyria (860-824) to
tin; effect that in 854 Ahab of Israel was one of the
confederates defeated by him at Karkar. The same
monarch records that Jehu of Israel paid him tribute
in 842. Since the reigns of Ahnziuh and Jchoram,
sons and successors of Ahab, are given as 2 and 12
years respectively, it is evident the date 842 must
belong very near the beginning of the reign of Jehu
(Jehoram's successor) and 854 very near the end
of Ahab's reign. Since the 2 years of Amaziah may
mean really but parts of two successive years and
the 12 of Jehoram but 10 full years plus part of
two others, the figures 2 + 12 may represent no
more than 1 + 10 1 - 12. 854 B.C., then,
may be taken as the date of the close of Ahab's
reign and 842 as that of the accession of Jehu. < >n
the basis of these dates, using the figures for the
regnal years of the kings as substantially correct
(only subtracting about one year from each reign
for the overlapping period which otherwise would
be counted twice), we can get approximately correct
dates back to Saul's reign.
For the period beyond Saul no exact dates can be
given. The Exodus and the conquest of Canaan
can be given general dates in view of the ascertained
facts that Egypt was supreme in Palestine from
Thotmes III to the end of the reign of Rameses II
(except during one short interval) or, in round num-
bers, from 1500-1250 B.C. The conquest of Canaan
by Israel must have taken place after this supremacy
came to an end, especially since there is no trace, in
Israel's tradition of the conquest, of any conflict
with Egyptian forces in Canaan.
For the Patriarchal Age dates are impossible, as
the early traditions were entirely without figures.
Only in the case of Abram (contemporary with Am-
raphel -Hammurabi?) can a possible date be sug-
gested.
The table on pages 130 and 131 presents either
generally accepted results or, where no general agree-
ment has been reached, results that appear to com-
mend themselves as reliable. E. E. N.
CHRYSOLITE. See STONES, PRECIOUS.
CHRYSOPRASE. See STONES, PRECIOUS.
CHUB. See CUB.
CHUN. See CUN.
CHURCHES, ROBBERS OF. See TEMPLES,
ROBBERS OF.
CHURCHES, THE SEVEN. See REVELATION,
BOOK OP.
CHURCH LIFE AND ORGANIZATION: The
Christian Church, in the proper sense of the word,
did not exist in the lifetime of Jesus.
i. Church Though the choice of the Twelve, and the
Not Organ- references to a church, or new Israel, of
ized by His own (Mt 16 18), and to a temple not
Jesus. made with hands (Mk 14 58), may be
pointed to as evidence that He had in
view the formation of a separate society, He gives no
rules for its constitution or organization. It is vain
to seek such either in Mtl6l8ff. or in Mtl815ff.
Even the ordinance of baptism is not connected in
the N T with the historical but with the risen Jesus.
and though we accept as historical the command to
repeat the Last Supper (Lk 22 19), nothing is said as
to the way in which obedience to it was to be ren-
(Continued on page 132.)
Chronology of the
Old Testament
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
130
KMical
Other Etcnts
2250. Abraham?
Israel in Egypt.
1300. The Oppression of Israel in Egypt.
1250. The Exodus. Moses.
1200. The Conquest of Canaan.
1200-1050. Period of the "Judges."
1050-1010. Samuel and Saul.
1010. David King of Judah.
1003. David King of all Israel.
971. Solomon.
967. Temple begun (I K 6 ' ").
960. Temple finished (I K 6 38 ).
931. Division of the Kingdom.
4000-3000. High state of civilization in both Egypt and
Babylonia,
c. 2250. Babylon becomes chief city of Babylonia under
Hammurabi,
c. 1900. The beginnings of Assyria (cf. Gn 10 8 ')
c. 1800. The Hyksos control lower Egypt.
1500. Conquest of Palestine, etc., by Thotmes III of Egypt.
c. 1400. Decline of Egypt's power in Palestine. The
Chabiri (Arameans, e.g., Edomites, Moabites.
etc., threatening the land).
.350-1250. Revival of Egypt's power in Palestine under the
19th Dynasty.
Syria (Damascus)
Judah
931. Rehoboam.
915. Abijah.
913. Asa.
873. Jehoshaphat.
849. Jehoram
842. Athaliah
841. Ahaziah.
837. Joash.
931. Jeroboam I.
910. Nadab.
909. Baasha.
887. Elah.
$85. Omri. Moab conquered
874. Ahab.
(Elijah.)
854. Ahab at Karkar.
853. Ahaziah.
852. Jehoram. Mesha of
Moab revolts.
(Elisha.)
842. Jehu. Pays tribute to
Shalmaneser II, 842.
Israel brought very
low (II K 13).
815. Jehoahaz.
798. Amaziah.
c. 790. Uzziah.
c. 750. Jotham (coregent ?).
c. 740. Jotham.
(Isaiah.)
734. Ahaz. Appeal to As-
syria (II K 16 s ")
Israel
c. 950. Rezon I.
? Hezion.
? Tabrimmon.
c. 900. Ben-hadad I.
870. Ben-hadad II.
854. Confederacy headed by
Ben-hadad II vs. As-
syria defeated at Kar-
kar, 854.
844. Hazael.
Israel suffers great re-
verses in war with
Hazael.
812. Ben-hadad III.
799. Jehoash.
Israel.
Revival of
Phoenicia
c. 1000. Abibaal.
969 (?). Hiram.
935. Baalbazer.
918. Abdashtart.
900. Ashtart.
888. Astharymos.
879. Phelles
878. Ithobaal (father of Jeze-
bel).
865. Baalazar.
848. Metten.
820-774. Pygmalion.
814. Carthage founded.
A ssyria
812. Ramman Nirari III.
806-803. Western campaigns.
784. Jeroboam II (Amos c
760; Hosea c. 750-
730).
745. Zechariah.
Shallum.
744. Menahem.
738. Menahem pays Assyria
Indemnity(IIK15""-).
735. Pekahiah.
734. Pekah. Coalition of
Pekah and Rezin
against Ahaz (cf. Is
7-9).
732. Hoshea.
797. Syria conquered by Ramman Nirari III.
c. 770? Tabeel (Tab Rimmon 7) .
740. Rezon II.
745. Tiglath-pileser III.
732. Damascus taken by Tiglath-pileser III. End of this
Syrian Kingdom,
131 A STANDARD MULE DICTIONARY Chronology of the
Old Testament
Judah Israel
Assyria
(Micah.) 722 Fall of Samaria.
End of the Kingdom o
Israel.
719. Hozekiah.
727. Sl,aliiiHn.-s,. r IV.
722. Sargon.
705. Sennacherib.
681. Esarhaddon.
668. Assurbanipal.
626. Death of Assurbanipal, rapid decline of Assyria.
606. Capture of Nineveh by the Medes. End nf (he- Assyr-
ian Empire.
605. Pharaoh Necho conquered by Nebuchadrezzar.
1 701. Sennacherib's campaign against Judah.
li'JO. Manasseh. Religious decline in Judah.
1 650. Deuteronomy written.
\ mon.
t..v Josiah. (Zephaniah.)
021. Josiah's Reform, centralization of worship in Jerusalem
(Jeremiah. Habakkuk, Nahum.)
1 608. Josiah slain by Pharaoh Necho (of Egypt).
f'tOX 005. Judah under Egypt. Jehoiakim made king by
Necho.
97. Jehoiachin.
597. Nebuchadrezzar takes Jerusalem. Jehoiachin anc
many others taken captive (1st Captivity). (Eze-
kiel.) Zedekiah made king.
88. Zedekiah revolts. Nebuchadrezzar lays siege.
586. Fall of Jerusalem. 2d Captivity. Exile. (Obadiah.)
Chaldean Empire
605. Nebuchadrezzar king of Babylon. Head of the new
Chaldean Empire.
Babylon becomes a magnificent metropolis.
586-573. Siege of Tyre by Nebuchadrezzar (Ezk. 29 " ".).
561. Evil-merodach. Releases Zedekiah from prison.
359. Nergal Sharezer.
558. Cyrus I becomes king of Persia.
555. Nabonidus (last king of Babylon).
550. Cyrus conquers the Medes.
539. Cyrus takes Babylon.
Period of the Exile
Ezekiel prophesies until c. 570.
>50. The prophet of Is 40-55 (and other prophecies in 56-66?)
546. Cyrus conquers Croesus of Lydia.
Post-exilic Period
Persian Empire
>38-536. Edict of Cyrus permitting the Return, and the
Return under Zerubbabel and Joshua.
20. (Haggai. Zechariah 1-8.)
516. Completion and dedication of the 2d Temple. (Malachi.)
58. Ezra goes to Jerusalem with his law-book and with a
number of colonists.
45. Nehemiah appointed governor. Jerusalem walled and
fortified.
44. The Law made the constitution of the colony.
132. Nehemiah's 2d visit. Origin of the Samaritan Sect.
(Jonah.)
50. Many Jews transported to Hyrcania. (Joel.) Samari-
tan temple on Mt. Gerizim
!32. Jews subject to Alexander the Great.
538. Cyrus at head of the Persian Empire.
529. Cambyses.
522. Revolt of Gaumata (Pseudo-Smerdis).
521. Darius I (Hystaspis). Organizer of the Persian Empire.
490. Marathon.
485. Xerxes I (Ahasuerus).
480. Salami*.
465. Artaxerxes I (Longimanus).
;23. Darius II (Nothus).
:04. Artaxerxes II (Mnemon).
359. Artaxerxes III (Ochus).
336. Darius III (Codomannus).
33-331. Persian Empire conquered by Alexander the Great.
Greek Period
2-323. Alexander organizing his empire, etc. 332. Alexandria founded.
3-301. Strife between Alexander's successors.
:23-197. Palestine under the control of Egypt (Ptolemies). High priest at head of the Jewish community in Palestine.
Large and growing colony of Jews in Alexandria.
Beginning of the Greek version of O T, the LXX.
'17 142. Palestine under the control of Syria (Seleucids). Hellenizing tendencies in Judaism.
Antiochus IV (Epiphanes) king of Syria. Attempt to Hellenize Judaism.
The decree prohibiting the Jewish religion in Palestine. Jerusalem plundered, Temple desecrated. The revolt
under the Maccabees.
68-142. The war with Syria for independence.
66. The Book of Daniel.
Independence secured.
42-63. Independence of .hi. tea under the Hasmonean (Maccabean) Dynasty.
Pompey takes Jerusalem. Jews become subject to Rome. k. & N.
I
Church Life
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIO\.M:V
132
dered. The life and Organisation of tho Church lire-
visible only after the Insurrection and tlie Pente-
costal gift of the Spirit. They are in fact the free
products of these great events.
The earliest picture of church life is given in Ac
2 42: 'They waited assiduously on the teaching of
the apostles and the fellowship, on the
2. Earliest breaking of the bread, and the pray-
Apostolic ers.' In these four particulars Luke
Church has given us the notes of the Church
Life. in its first days. The Apostles had a
unique place in it by virtue of their
unique relation to Jesus. They wore the Church's
teachers. In other respects "unlearned and igno-
rant men" (Ac 4 13), there was one thing they knew
better than others: they knew Jesus, and could
bear witness to Him (Ac 1 8). To this devotion to
the teaching (doctrine AV) of the Apostles we in-
directly owe the knowledge of Jesus preserved in
the Synoptic Gospels. But the Church was devoted
also to the fellowship, the Koiviavla. Its members
had a profound sense of their unity. They were
much together. None of them said any of the
things he had was his own.
There was no compulsory communism (Ac 5 4),
but an immense generosity which commanded es-
teem, as in the case of Barnabas. Out of common
funds voluntarily given distribution was made to
every one according as he had need (Ac 4 35). A
spontaneous and genuine attempt was made to real-
ize brotherhood, or the oneness of the children of
God. Besides the apostolic teaching and the fellow-
ship, a characteristic of the Church was the breaking
of the bread. This was done daily? (Ac 2 46),
and house by house, and is interpreted by the phrase
/j.(Tf\upl3avov Tpo(f>rjs, "they took their food." If
it was sacramental, it was a sacramental meal, and
not a sacrament in the modern sense, which excludes
the idea of taking bodily nourishment. It is not
"the daily ministration" of Ac 6 1 which is in view
this last is rather akin to a food dispensary for
those distressed by poverty but a sacred meal
shared in by all Christians, like that described in I
Co 11 18 ff., and under the title dydmu ('feasts of
charity,' "love-feasts"), in Jude ver. 12. What we
speak of as the Lord's Supper was always connected
in the beginning with these love-feasts. It may
have been identical with them, or have had a specific
place at the beginning, or end, or even in the course
of the meal; but it was only the emergence on heathen
soil of such disorders as are referred to by Jude and
Paul which led to its being decisively separated, and
made, in short, in the strict sense, a sacrament (I
Co 11 34). If the love-feasts express vividly the
fraternal gladness of the Christian life, the prayers
to which the Church was devoted bring out its sense
of access to God. The definite article shows that
stated prayers are meant, perhaps those in the tem-
ple at fixed hours (Ac 3 1). Prayer became a new
thing when it became prayer in the name of Jenus,
and in the primitive Church the life of prayer re-
ceived a mighty impulse.
There is no trace at this stage of any organization
in the Church. The Apostles were its natural and
inevitable, rather than its official, leaders, and not
only witnessed to Jesus but had the management
of the common funds (Ac 4 35, 37, 5 1 ff.). Tin-
nificance of the number twelve for the new Israel
was recognized by the choice of Matthias to replace
Judas (Ac 1 15 ff.). The members of the ( 'hurch were
all baptized in the name of Jesus Christ for remission
of sins, and baptism coincided normally with re-
eri\ ing the Holy Spirit (Ac 2 38). All who were of
the Church were in this sense inspired. They are
spoken of as "those who believed" (Ac 2 44) faith
in Jesus Christ, or in God through Him, being the
characteristic act and power of the new life (Ac
3 1C). In relation to one another they are dSf\<f>oi,
brothers; in relation to Jesus they are padrjTai,
disciples. This last word (the fem. fiadrjTpia, Ac
9 30) is found only in Ac and in the Gospels. Though
it signifies not merely a pupil but an adherent, it
seems to have been felt unequal to the truth; .!
was more than a teacher, the Christian owed more to
Him than a pupil to his master, and in the Epistles
the word disappears.
The first, indication of officials and organization is
given in Ac 6: the appointment of the Seven. There
is no hint of a constitution Divinely
3. Extent fixed beforehand, and now put in effect.
of Organi- A new need emerges in the Church's
zation in life, and reasonable steps are taken to
the meet it. Neither is there any idea
Jerusalem that all office in the Church is implicit
Church, in the apostolic position, and that the
Apostles here delegate part of their
authority to what may therefore be called an apos-
tolic ministry. The very reverse is the case. The
Apostles say: 'This daily ministration, this -serving qS
tables, is not our business; it is not meet that we
should leave the word of God to attend to it ;
out qualified men whose business it is, and we
entrust it to them" (Ac 6 l-G). This was done,
is an irrelevant question to ask whether the Se\
were deacons. To be a deacon is to have a cert a
office, but these men were not invested with an i
isting office, they were appointed to a function. It
is equally irrelevant to ask whether the Seven were
elders, though, when elders first appear in the Jeru-
salem Church (Ac 11 30), it is in connection with the
same work, the relief of the poor. The task may have
been merely a temporary one, and some of the Seven
at least ceased to be local officials as deacons in the
technical sense must be and like Philip the Evan-
gelist did distinguished service for the Church in
other ways, and in places far from Jerusalem (Ac
8 5, 20, 40, 21 8). If it is an anachronism to call the
Seven deacons, it is an additional anachronism to
speak of the prayer and imposition of hands as their
ordination (see 8, below). To lay on hands in
prayer was a spontaneous gesture which needed
no interpretation; here, it signified, is (lie point on
which all our desires are concentrated; here we de-
sire God's gifts to descend. The key to it is to be
found in Mk 10 10 where Jesus blessed the chil
"laying his hands upon them"; it is a movement of
affection, impressive no doubt and significant, but
not in any dogmatic sense. For the rest, we learn
little about the organization of the Church in Jeru-
salem or in Palestine.
We come across elders without warning in Ac
11 30. It was so natural for any Jewish socict
L33
A STANDARD WI5LK DKTIONAKY
Church Life
rule itself by E'JjTJ that the historian takes their
\iMcnce for granted. It is clear from Ac 15 2, 4, 6,
jj, Hi 4, where they are mentioned in connection with
lie Apostles, that they had an important place in
he administration of the Church (see 8, below).
'The whole Church" indeed is associated with both
n Ae 15 22, but the Apostles and elders took the lead
n guiding its deliberations, and formulating and
arrv'ing into effect its decisions. In all these pas-
sages the Apostles are no doubt the Twelve. Ac-
cording to the representation in Ac they exercised a
general supervision over the spread of Christianity,
Hid maintained in this way the sense of unity in the
'luircli. Thus when Philip preached in Samaria,
hey sent Peter and John down from Jerusalem to
ceep the work in contact with the center. The
irayers of the two Apostles, accompanied with the
ayingon of their hands, procured for the Samaritans
wlii) had been baptized the gift of the Holy Spirit
[Ac 8 14). As the gift here spoken of is a sensible
n ii' -it fell upon them; i.e., there was an ecstatic
)urst of glossolalia or prophecy it is not what is
it her asked or expected in the modern sacrament of
confirmation, when a bishop lays his hands on the
and to speak of what happened here as
malogous to confirmation is one anachronism more.
The extent to which the life of the Church was con-
sciously under Divine guidance is shown especially
n the stories of Philip and Peter in Ac 8 26, 29, 39,
.0 3, 10, 19. Every step in its expansion is super-
laturally guarded and sanctioned, and it is by the
ministry of its inspired men "by the exhortation
of the Holy Spirit," Ac 9 31 that it is multiplied,
'rayer and the ministry of the word are the main
duties of the Twelve (Ac 6 4), but there is no trace
of official preachers.
Prophets are mentioned, several by name (Aga-
ms, Ac 1 1 27, 15 32). Any one might speak the word
who had the spiritual gift to do so (84, 11 19). It
VMS in point of fact unofficial preachers to whom the
.lospel owed its diffusion, and in the most important
cases, like Samaria (Ac 8 5ff.) and Antioch (Ac 11 22),
the Apostles and the mother-Church supervised and
ipproved as they could. Life was abundant, free,
nspired, but though conscious of its unity and with
in instinct for its preservation it neither was nor
could be organized in legal forms. At the same time,
the most singular phenomenon in the life of the
Church at this period is the kind of ascendency which
came to belong to James, the Lord's brother.
We have the first hint of this in Ac 12 17; it is
conspicuous in Ac 15, 21, and Gal 2. It rested no
doubt in part on the special appearance of the risen
Savior to him (I Co 15 7), in part on his natural
p-lation to Jesus (cf. the later case of his kinsman
Symeon as given by Euseb. HE. Ill, 11), and in part
ni t he congeniality of his ideas of religion to the mass
of Jewish believers. But even if he was counted an
apostle (Gal 1 19), his ascendency was personal, not
"Bcial, and however it may suggest what was later
own as episcopal, James is never in the NT
oken of as a bishop.
A more varied scene meets us when we pass to the
urch in the Gentile world. The casual indications
Ac are lost in the abundant information of the
tie Epistles. Some are more occasional, deal-
ing with things as they are in existing coiiuum
e.g., I Co; others more doririnal, dealing win.
ideal of the Church and ite life and
4. Paul's ministries, e.g., Kph. Only we must
Ideas of remember that in Paul the real ami
the Church, the ideal do not so much contrast as
interpret, and Interpenetrate eoeb other.
The actual community of believers in Corinth is the
Church of (iod in that city; the apostle describes it as
trtajia Xpurrov, Christ's body (I Co 12 27); anil the
ideal and eternal Church of Kph 1 2.'i, "his body, the
fulness of him that fillelh all in all," i.s actually
represented in the local churches to which Paul
sends this circular letter.
The life of the Church is one, because it is the life
of one Spirit in it, and thic vital unity, or unity of the
Spirit (Eph 4 3), is the only unity in which Paul is
concerned. When he says there i.s one body, In-
the word body in the organic or physiological sense;
the Church is one body because one life pervades it
and unites its members; it is not one corporation, in
the sense of the law; or one organization, with a legal
constitution to depart from which is schism or deal 1 1.
True Christians are one in Christ, or in the one spirit
which all have drunk (I Co 12 13), or in the common
life of love by which they are all animated; they
have one Lord, one faith, one baptism; but it is an-
other matter to say that they form one visible or-
ganization or corporation throughout the world.
This was not the case.
To get a fairly proportioned look at the life, or-
ganization, and ministries of the apostolic Churches,
we must start with the Pauline con-
5. The ception of the <r<a/j.a XpioroC, " the body
Church a of Christ" which, as has been pointed
Living out, is applied both to the local (I Co
Body. 12 27) and to the universal Church (Kph
1 23; Col 1 24). Every Christian is a
member of the body of Christ, and every member
has its function in the body. That function is the
HiaKovia or ministry which it can render to the
whole; and the primary truth about Christian min-
istries is that ministry is not official, but a function
of membership in the body. Every member min-
isters, in virtue of its membership, and at bottom
there is no other ministry possible. The peculiar
mode in which, or the particular extent to which,
the life of the whole or if we prefer to say so, the
Spirit functions in the individual, determines his
ministry, and nothing else can determine it (cf. Eph
47-16).
No office can bring or impart a gift for ministry;
it is the divinely given spiritual gift which marks a
man for this or that office. This is why the minis-
tries which exist in the apostolic Church arc traced to
God as their source (I Co 12 28), specifically to Christ
as the head of the body (Eph 411). The most
elaborate passage upon them is I Co 12-14, and it is a
striking fact that neither there nor throughout the
Epistle do we meet the idea of official ministry at all.
"God hath set some in the church, first apostles, sec-
ondly prophets, thirdly teachers, then miracles,
then gifts of healing, helps, governments, divers
kinds of tongues" (I Co 12 28). Both earlier (ver. 10)
and later (ver. 30) Paul mentions in the same
way "discernings of spirits" and interpretations of
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A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
134
tongues. A close parallel to this is found in Ro
12 3-8. There also ministry is conceived as the ex-
ercise of a spiritual gift (^dpia-pa). Every mem-
ber of the Church has such a gift; the gifts differ ac-
t-on ling to the grace that has been given to each.
Different men are spiritually qualified that is,
qualified by a special grace and gift of God to
prophesy, to teach, to rule, to give, to show mercy,
or in a special sense (ver. 7) "to minister" i.e., in all
probability, to do some lowly practical service for the
Church. God gives to each as He will, but also, as
Jesus says in the parable (Mt 25 15), to each accord-
ing to his several ability. Every member is a min-
ister to the Church, and the laws of the ministry (as
explained in Ro 12; I Co 12-13) are the same for all.
The first is humility; it is only with what we have
received that we can minister, and therefore gifts
are never to be used for vainglory. The second is
love; nothing that we have received is for ourselves
alone; the manifestation of the Spirit is given to
every man irpos TO <rv/j.<pfpov in the interest of the
whole.
In the list in I Co 12 28 God's gifts first take the
form of gifted men apostles, prophets, teachers.
These gifted or inspired men were min-
6. The isters of the Church universal. They
More Im- were not elected by local churches, they
portant filled no office in them, they did not
Ministries, necessarily remain in one place; indeed
the apostle of necessity did not. Their
gift had to be self-attesting; the spiritual power
which accompanied the exercise of it was the only
guaranty it had. Besides the stricter sense of the
word apostle, according to which it includes only
Paul and the Twelve, there was a larger sense in
which it presumably included all who had seen the
Lord and exercised the vocation of bearing witness to
His resurrection without restriction to one place (see
I Co 15 5, with ver. 7; Ro 16 7). The apostle, in the
sense in which Paul vindicates the title for himself,
was the main witness to Jesus and the supreme au-
thority for the Gospel. See also APOSTLE. The
prophet was a man who had more than the common
Christian inspiration, whose xapioyio, "gift," is
highly estimated by Paul, and who spoke edification,
exhortation, and consolation in the Church (I Co
14 3). The Divine impulse in him was not such as to
carry him irresistibly away; " the spirits of the proph-
ets are subject to the prophets" (ver. 32). Though
inspired, however, the prophet was not infallible, and
when two or three had spoken in the Church, the
time for discernment came. It is clear from Paul
that discrimination was needed, but not very clear
how it was achieved. We read of a dogmatic test of
inspired utterances inspiration is genuine, if it goes
to exalt Jesus (I Co 12 3); we read of discernments
of spirits as a separate ^apto-fta (I Co 12 10) that
is, there were men who had, so to speak, a Divine in-
stinct in this region, and could tell in a way passing
analysis whether a fervent utterance really was of
God; we read again of appeals to the whole Church
(I Co 14 29 ol uXXot ?) not to despise prophecies, or
pour cold water on the heart which was spiritually
aglow, but to prove all such fervid words, and hold
fast what was good (I Th 5 19 ff. ) as though the com-
mon sense of the Christian community had more of
God in it than the most fervent single heart. Proph-
ets no doubt spoke often of things to come, es-
pecially of the glory to be revealed (I Co 2 9 ff. ; Kpli
1 17 f.; Rev passim), and may sometimes have let
imagination run wild; sometimes, as in the case of
Agabus (Ac 11 27, 21 10), and the others through
whom the Holy Spirit bore witness to Paul in every
city that bonds and affliction awaited him in Je-
rusalem, they concerned themselves with a nearer
future.
Here also they had to be subject to criticism,
all events Paul could appeal from the spirit speakin
without through the prophet to the same spirit
speaking with a higher authority within, and,
spite of prophetic warnings, go on to Jerusalem
die, if need should be, for the name of the Lord Jesu
About the teachers it is not easy to say much.
Ac 13 1 they are combined, as in I Co 12 28, with th
prophets; in Eph 4 11 they are more closely cor
nected, perhaps to some extent identified, with th
pastors. Probably teachers had the special x a
fMTa called in I Co 12 8 "the word of wisdom" i
"the word of knowledge"; and, though the gift of
teaching, or the right to teach, was not at first con
nected with any office (see I Co 14 26, " When ye con
together, every one hath a Si8a^^ " a lesson
teach), it would be an advantage in many way
when once offices did come into being, to have then
filled, other things being equal, with men who eoul.l
also render the Church this sen-ice. "Wisdom'
always teleological; if the teacher had "the word <
wisdom," he could exhibit the chief end of tl
Christian life, be an expounder of Christian ethic;
"Knowledge"is more abstract; if he had "the wor
of knowledge," he could interpret Christianity as :
system of truth, be an expounder of Christian the
ology. There are indications in the N T that th
ministry tempted the fluent and the vain (Ja 3 l )
One other inspired minister is mentioned in Eph 4 1 1,
the evangelist, and two representatives of this eh
are named in the N T, Philip (Ac 21 8) and Timothy
(II Ti 4 5). The name implies that the man preached
the Gospel, and so does all we know of Philip's
career. Perhaps the disappearance of the name in
later times is due to the fact that all wandering
preachers, after the death of the Twelve,
counted "apostles" in the wider sense (see HDB.
s.v. Evangelist).
The other inspired ministries are of minor impor-
tance. Paul describes them by abstract nouns in the
plural number Swdpfis, ^apiar/tara
7. The lafidrwv, dwtXiJ^i^fts, Kvf$(pi>t]<rfis, yffl
Less Im- y\a>o-<ra>v. It is as though the person
portant here were of less significance compared
Ministries, with the function. What Sucdfieir,
"miracles," were as distinct from
gifts of healing, we can not tell. Perhaps the
particular kind of healings distinguished as exor-
cisms is meant. The word dvn\r)fi\lffis, helps,
suggests the practical "ministry" of Ro 12 7 such
work as came later to be assigned to the official
deacon; and Kvf$(pvfi<rfis, governments, "wise
counsels" mg. suggests such a function of guid-
ance or administration as came later to be assigned
to the official elder. But neither in Ro nor in I Co is
there any trace of officials. Such gifts are freely
135
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Church Life
given by God, and spontaneously exercised by those
who have them; the house of Stephanas (I Co 16 15)
were not in office, but set themselves to minister unto
the saints. All Christians were called to put their
Xapia-fiara into the common stock, and no official
organization canceled freedom or, as Paul says,
"quenched the spirit."
The last gift specified in I Co 12 is kinds of
tongues (ver. 28), or "speaking with tongues" (ver.
30), or "with a tongue" (14 2). It is frequently com-
bined with prophecy, from the day of Pentecost on-
ward, as one of the most characteristic of spiritual
gifts (Ac 2 4-11, 10 46; I Co 13 1, 14 2). Paul himself
possessed it in a conspicuous degree (I Co 14 18), and
thanked God for it, but he ranked it as the lowest of
spiritual gifts. It is his account of it in I Co 14, and
not the idealized or transfigured one in Ac 2, on which
we must base our conception of it. It had nothing to
do with foreign languages. It was an emotional, not
a linguistic, gift; the man who spoke with a tongue
spoke out of an emotional rapture; he was carried
out of himself by the intensity of his feeling a feel-
ing stimulated, we must assume, by the great reali-
ties with which he was brought into contact in the
Gospel and in this rapt condition he gave vent to
inarticulate, unintelligible sounds. His "spirit" was
active in this as we might say now, his religious
nature was engaged in it; but his vovs, his under-
standing, was not. There might be some one present
in the assemblies who could interpret this over-
whelming emotion better than the man who was sub-
ject to it: if so, to speak in a tongue might be allowed
in church; otherwise, the gift must be exercised (we
should rather say indulged) in private. It is clear
from Ac 2 11, 10 46; I Co 14 16, that, in its general
character, speaking with tongues was an ecstasy of
praise, a thanksgiving to which Amen was the nat-
ural sequel, a magnifying of God and His mighty
works of redemption. But as a sort of spiritual in-
toxication its dangers were evident, and Paul warns
against them. Partly they lay in the temptation to
indulge what is only valuable when controlled; partly
in the tendency to vanity, making a display of one's
spiritual ecstasies; partly also in the inevitableness
of reaction, and the mysterious connection of sen-
sual with spiritual susceptibilities. On all grounds
Paul discouraged speaking with tongues in favor of
the intelligible and self-controlling gift of prophecy
by which one could build up not only himself but
also the Church (I Co 14 3), and in course of time it
died out.
The ministry which is a function of membership
and which depends on the free exercise of spiritual
gifts, though it is the vital and funda-
8. Organi- mental one on which the being of the
zation Church depends, is not the only one.
of Local No society can live and act without
Churches, some kind of organization, some kind
of official ministers who act as its rep-
resentatives, and the beginnings of such a min-
istry can be traced in the N T. We have seen
that there were elders in the church at Jerusalem,
and in Ac 14 23 we read that Paul and Barnabas
appointed elders in every church founded during
their first journey. On the mode of appointment,
Luke is not quite explicit (see Ramsay, St. Paul
the Traveler, pp. 120 ff.). No doubt the Apos-
tles described the kind of men wanted, the; Church
would choose them, and they were introduced to
their work with fasting and prayer. Laving on of
hands is not mentioned, but is probably to be taken
for granted. The duties of elders are not defined,
and can only be inferred indirectly. It is clear from
Ac 20 28, compared with 20 17, that they were mainly
pastoral that is, duties of moral supervision. The
elders of Kphesus are exhorted to take heed to the
flock of God in which the Holy Spirit has in.-idr
them bishops (iirla-iunroi, overseers mg.), and to
shepherd the Church of God. So in I P ."> I, IVter
exhorts the elders among his readers, as himself an
elder, to shepherd the flock of God, exercising the
oversight (firto-Kowovirrcs; some authorities omit
this word). Cf. also IP225, "the shepherd and
bishop" of your souls. It is hardly possible to say
that the antecedents of the name Trpftrfivrfpos,
"elder," were Hebrew, and those of eirio-Kcmos,
"bishop," Greek. There are Jewish antecedents for
the latter also (see Concordance to LXX. s.v.).
The facts justify us in saying that elder is a title of
dignity, and bishop is a corresponding title of func-
tion. The persons were the same. In every church
there were several men who had the rank of elders
and the duty of bishops that is, "oversight" (of.
Tit 1 5-7). Pastor is a more pictorial name for the
same persons at the same task. Moral supervision
and discipline were their preeminent concern.
The edifying of the Church by teaching, prophe-
sying, praise, and public worship generally, belonged
to the apostles, prophets, and teachers who might
visit it, or to the free exercise of their spiritual gifts
by the members generally. No doubt, however,
men would often be chosen as elders or bishops on
the ground of their possessing other gifts useful to
the Church, and, as the enthusiastic inspiration
waned, the conduct of the public worship and espe-
cially the administration of the sacraments (in
which the Church must act through authorized rep-
resentatives, if all is to be done decorously and in
order) would fall into their hands. Thus we see
pastors bracketed with teachers, and contrasted with
the non-local ministry of apostles, prophets, and
evangelists in Eph 4 11. Elders who labor in the
word and in teaching (as well as in their more proper
function of moral oversight) are to be reckoned
worthy of double honor (I Ti 5 17) ; when the Pastoral
Epistles were written it was even one of the qualifica-
tions of a bishop that he should be MOKTIKOS, "apt to
teach" (I Ti 2 2). The whole body of elders in a
church was called the irpKr^vrtpiov, "the presby-
tery" (I Ti 4 14). At Lystra it joined with Paul in
laying hands on Timothy, when he was set apart as
an evangelist. The gift of God given in this ordina-
tion (I Ti 4 16; II Ti 1 6) can not be interpreted
rationally apart from Timothy's experience at the
time. It must be a greater degree of humility, of
conscientiousness, or courage, or love, fitting him
better for his task, and coming to him naturally, by
the grace of God, in that solemn hour. Probably in
many cases, as well as that of Timothy, there were
"prophecies leading the way to" the men to be
chosen ; that is, inspired voices naming fit persons for
any particular task (I Ti 1 18; Ac 13 2); but, though
Church Life
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A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
136
they were appointed because they were fit, such per-
sons got a new degree of lit ness through the experi-
ences connected with their appointment and insti-
tution to office. In the later N T books (Ph 1 1; I
Ti 3 1-13), we find side by side with bishops a subor-
dinate set of officers called technically SiaKovoi,
deacons. This word is applicable to every min-
ister of the Church from the apostle down, but in its
special sense, in which it is used of women as well as
men (Ro 16 1; I Ti 3 11), it indicates a class of officers
who seem to have had duties connected with the
Church's charities, its care of the poor, strangers,
etc. Their qualifications are all those of character
and common sense; nothing is said of teaching. Men
like Timothy at Ephesus or Titus in Crete were not
church officers, but apostolic delegates ; they do not
represent the organization of the Church, but help us
to see how the organizing was attended to. The
development of the monarchical episcopate, as dis-
tinctive from the collective oversight just explained,
lies beyond the limits of the N T.
The variety of gifts, functions, and offices in the
N T church is only the foil to its essential unity. It
is expounded in Ro 12; I Co 12; and
9. Essen- Eph 4 in relation to that unity. The
tial Unity great conception of the body of Christ
of Church, underlies it everywhere. The sense of
this comes out in numberless ways: in
the fact that early Christian literature is mainly
epistolary, in the salutations of the churches to each
other tlirough the Apostles (Ro 16 16; I P 5 13; He
13 24), in the holy kiss, or kiss of love, which became
a regular part of the church service (Ro 16 16; I Co
16 20; II Co 13 12; I Th 5 26; I P 5 14), in the collec-
tions which they made for each other's help in times
of distress (for Paul's great collection in all Gentile
churches for the poor saints at Jerusalem cf. Ac
24 17; I Co 16 1-4; II Co 8, 9; Gal 2 10; Ro 15 25-31),
and even linguistically in the multiplication of com-
pounds with o-vv. Of these the commonest arc
(TWfpyos, variously rendered in AV fellow helper,
-laborer, -worker, and work-fellow ; a-vvaTpaTKarrjs,
fellow soldier, the Christian ministry being con-
ceived as a campaign (Ph 2 25; Phm2); o-uvat^aX-
<aros, fellow prisoner in war, the same figure con-
tinued (Col 410; Phm 23; Ro 167); a-vvSov\os,
fellow slave (Col 1 7, 4 7). Yoke-fellow (ovvfryos )
and fellow elder (o-wirpfo-pvrfpos) each occurs once
(Ph 4 3; I P 5 1). More significant still are onWca^a,
<rvvK\ipov6na, and trw/ie'ro^a (Eph 3 6). J. D.
LITERATURE: The best books are Hort's Christian Ecclesia,
1897; Hatch, The Organisation of the Early Christian
Churches, 1881; Harnack, Die Lehre aer Zwdlf Apostel,
1884, in Vol. 2 of the Texle und Unlersuchungen; Gore,
The Ministry in the Christian Church 3 , 1893; Lindsay,
The Church and the Ministry in the Early Centuries, 1903;
E. von Dobschutz. Die Urchristlichen Gemeinden, 1902
(translated under the title Christian Life in the Primitive
Church, 1904).
CHUZAS, chu'zas (Xoufar, Chuza AV): The stew-
ard (fTTiVpoTror) of Herod (probably H. Antipas) (Lk
8 3). As general manager of Herod's estates and
household (cf. Plummer, Int. Crit. Com., ad loc.) he
was probably a man of rank and means. E. E. N.
CIELING. See CEILING.
CILICIA. See ASIA MINOR, 5.
CINNAMON. See OINTMENTS AND
1, and I'ALESTINE, 23.
CIRCLE. See COSMOGONY, 3.
CIRCUIT. See COSMOGONY, 3.
CIRCUMCISION: The cutting off of the fore-
skin (praputium). Among the Hebrews, the Law
required (lie submission to the rite by all the male
members of the community on the eighth day after
birth (Lvl23; Gn2l4[Pj). In later Judaism, the
Law was so strictly interpreted that even the Sab-
bath might be disregarded for the sake of conform-
ing to the time limit prescribed by it (Shabb. 19 2 ff. ;
Jn 7 22). The person whose duty it was to perform
the rite was primitively the father of the child (Gn
1723); but in exceptional cases in earlier days
women were known to have administered it (Kx
4 25), and in later times it became more and more
common either to call in a physician (Jos. Ant.\\,
2 4) or to relegate the duty altogether to a special
official (the Mehol), as at the present day. Besides
the male children of the household, it appears from
Gnl722ff. that slaves also were circumcised; and
according to the law of Ex 12 48 (P) also strangers
who wished to participate in the Passover. The
practise was not peculiar to the Hebrews. Among
the Egyptians there is no doubt that some (Ebers
Aegypt u.d. Buck. d. Mas., 1,278, 283), and if Herodo-
tus was correctly informed, all persons were circum-
cised (Herod. II, 36; cf. also Pliilo 2. 210,ed. Mangey;
Erman Egypt, p. 32 f., 539). The Semitic peoples
generally do not seem to have practised the rite.
The Assyrians, Babylonians, Edomitcs, and Mo:
were uncircumcised. The reproach of uncircumci-
sion, however, is especially held up against the Phi-
listines; from which it has been inferred that the
Canaanites practised the rite. Among extra-biblical
peoples the primary and original aim of the rite was
that of a sacrifice designed to secure fertility: but
among the Hebrews from the earh'est days the idea
of purification appears to have supplanted this con-
ception. The ceremony indicated the casting off of
uncleanness as a preparation for entrance into the
privileges of membership in Israel. In the N T, with
its transfer of emphasis from the external and formal
to the inner and spiritual side of things, it was first
declared unnecessary for Gentile converts to the
Gospel to be circumcised (Ac 15 28), and afterward
the rite was set aside even by Jewish Christians. In
the Pauline Epistles it serves as the basis of a figure
signifying the casting off of the uncleanness of sin
(Gal 2 7 f.; Eph 2 11). A. C. Z.
CIS, sis. See KISH.
CISTERN: The character of the land-surface of
most of Palestine is such that the rain penetrates but
a little way and is soon drained off from the
hillsides through the numerous ravines and water-
courses. Recourse must be had, therefore, to arti-
ficial means for collecting and holding the water, and
cisterns have been numerous and much used in Pal-
estine ever since it has been inhabited. Every well-
ordered house had a cistern in its court (see HOUSE,
6 (f); FOOD AND FOOD UTENSILS, 12). The RV
uses "cistern" for "well" AV in Dt 6 11 (mg.); I S
19 22 (mg.); II Ch 26 10; Neh 9 25, and for "pit" AV
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A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
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City
in Is 30 14 and Jer 14 3. See PALESTINE, 19, 20,
and also Libbey and Hoskins, The Jordan Valley and
Petra, Vol. I, p. 245 f. E. E. N.
CITIZENSHIP: The civic side of community
life is almost never referred to in the O T. This was
partly because the basis of Israel's social organiza-
tion was the clan or tribe rather than the city,
partly because of the emphasis laid on the religious
organization of Israel, rendering city and state sec-
ondary features in social life and the congregation or
theocratic kingdom primary, and partly because of
the life of the people which was mainly agricultural
during the greatest part of its history. The good
citizen was the faithful Israelite and the lawless a
"son [man] of Belial" (Jg 19 22; I K 21 10 AV). With
the admission of Greek ideas secular relations were
distinctly recognized (II Mac 5 8, 14 8). In the NT
the figure of the state is so prominent that even the
religious community is at times symbolized by it
("commonwealth of Israel," Eph 2 12). Likewise
the privileges of the spiritual community are figured
under the conception of citizenship (iro\tTvp.a, Phil
320; butAV conversation, and RVmg. "common-
wealth"). In fact, citizenship is the type of the whole
sphere of conduct both social and moral (cf. II Co 1 12,
"behave ourselves" RV, "conversation" AV, and
Eph 2 3, " live" RV). For this figure the conception
of the kingdom of heaven furnished proper founda-
tion ("fellow citizen," Eph 2 19). Of citizenship in the
literal sense mention is made but once (Ac 22 25, 28,
freedom AV). See also ROMAN. A. C. Z.
CITY: The beginnings of city building are re-
ferred by Israelitic legend to the earliest period of
human history, and are associated not
1. Age of with nomadic (Abel), but with agricul-
Israelitic tural (Cain) life. As a matter of fact,
Cities. most of the cities of the Israelites were
originally Canaanite, and came into
the hands of the Israelites only as the result of a
rather long development. For as the Israelites
reached Palestinian territory, they succeeded in
Btablishing themselves first in the open places and
especially in the mountain districts; but as nomads
they could not at first secure possession of the for-
tified cities. In course of time, however, these
Canaanite cities were subdued and to them were
added also others distinctively Israelite.
Many of the names of cities are characteristic, and
give us the points of view which were determinative
in the selection of localities. (1 ) Names
2. Signif- like Ramah, Mizpah, Geba, etc. (all
icance from roots signifying elevation) indi-
of City cate that a mountain or a hill site was
Names, preferred, evidently because it could
be easily defended against assault. (2)
Kii-gedi, En-gannin (En - 'spring'), Beer-sheeba
(I'.eer - 'well'), etc., indicate the importance of the
nearness of a spring, astream, etc. (3) Designations
such as Jearim ('forest'), Kerem ('vineyard'),
AW (' meadow' ), etc., show that the location of these
ri t i es was marked by such natural features. Cities in
valleys, such as Hebron, constituted an exception,
since cities usually were built on the slope of a hill
the citadel, or castle, perched on the summit always
offering a sure refuge and one difficult to capture.
Villages and hamlets (hatser, pertedth, kHph&r,
kopher) on one side, and cities ('lr, poet, kiryath) on
the other, are clearly distinguished in the O T.
The hatsirlm are open localities without walls (Lv
2531); also the '&ri perHzoth (Est9l9) arc desig-
nated as places without walls, without
3. Distinc- gates and enclosures (Kzk .'i8 n), for
tion Be- which latter kdpher is the characteristic
tween name. The city ( l lr), on the contrary,
"City" and was surrounded by a wall, sometimes
"Village." also by a moat (Dn 9 25, "wall " AV),
and even by a second smaller wall in the
nature of a rampart (II S 20 15, trench AV; I K
21 23) ('lr hSmah), and had a citadel (migdnl), the
gates of which were closed during the night (Jos
2 5, 7), and in later times on the Sabbath (Neh 13 19).
Such cities were called fortified (II Ch 11 10, etc.,
fenced AV). The gates were provided with
bronze or iron bars and bolts (Dt 3 5; Jg 16 3; Neh
3 6, lock, AV), and were built with chambers over-
head (II S 18 24 ff.). From the roof of the struc-
ture (II S 18 24), or from a tower by the gate (II
K 9 17), a watchman looked out in order to announce
approaching danger (Jer 6 17). Near the gates
within the city were to be found open places (broad
places, broad ways, r'hoboth, streets, AV Jer 5, Am
5 10), the centers of communal life. Here contracts
were entered into (Dt 25 7; Ru 4 l f., 11; Gn 23 10, 18),
assemblies for judicial or deliberative purposes were
held (Am 5 12, 15; Is 29 21), buying and selling took
place (IIK71; cf. market-place, Mt 20 3), and
public announcements were made (Jer 17 19). Here
was the center of social intercourse in general (Gn
19l; Ps 69 12). Here strangers who had no friend
in the city passed the night (Gn 19 2 ff. ; Jg 19 15).
The plan and construction of cities were not in
ancient times essentially different from those of the
Orient of to-day. As walled cities win
4. Principal used more or less as strongholds, it was
Features of advantage not to extend the walls too
of a City, far from the center. In consequence,
there was a tendency to contract cities
into as small a space as possible. The streets
(hutsoth) were as narrow as they are to-day (cf. Jos.
Ant. XX, 53; BJ. II, 149, 155; VI, 8s). For the
most part they ran through the city in circuitous
courses, so that a straight one was quite the
exception (Ac 9 11). In cities which were built on
steep hillsides, the roofs of the lower houses served
as the street for the higher ones, as at the present
day. The streets were not paved. It is in the days
of Herod Agrippa II that we first hear of the paving
of the streets of Jerusalem with white stones (Jos.
Ant. XX, 97). This was, however, after the
principal street of Antioch had been paved with
stone slabs at the expense of Herod the Great (Jos.
Ant. XVI, 53; BJ. I, 21 ll). Street-cleaning was
as unusual in ancient times as it is to-day. Gar-
bage was thrown out of the houses and left to be dis-
posed of by the dogs that roamed at will about the
city (Ex 22 31 ; Ps 59 6, 14 f.). There was also no such
thing as the lighting of the streets. The only care of
them that is referred to is that by night-watchmen
(Song 3 3, 5 7; Is 21 11; Ps 127 1, 130 o). The custom
practised even to-day of establishing bazaar-streets
(shuq; cf. sh'waqim, I K 20 34; EC 12 4; SongS 2)
.
City, Fenced
Collection
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
138
tl in which artisans or merchants of the
wune class ply their t null's is traceable to ancient
1 of a bakers' street in ,ler 37 21, of a
goldsmitlis' quarter and a quarter of spice-merchants
I f., of a fish-gale in 1 ( li I n. \i-li .'f n, and
of a valley of craftsmen in Neh 11 35. Josephus
mentions the quarters of wool-merchants, of smiths,
and of cloth-dealers (H.f. V, 8 1). To provide an
adequate supply of water was frequently a matter of
great difficulty. It was necessary at times to con-
struct ri>trrns or aqueduct*. Jerusalem, for ex-
ample, had quite early in its history a conduit, whieli
was later iiu|>roved' (Is 7 3, 22 9, 11). See JERU-
SALEM, J 13, :il.
As to the administration of the affairs of cities,
we know but little. In the days of the Deuteron-
omist there is evidence of elders and
5. City along with them judges (Dt 16 18 ft., 19
Govern- 12, etc.). Probably the former were
ment. the heads of the most influential fam-
ilies. Over Samaria we find a gov-
ernor (I K 22 26). In fact, Jerusalem must have had
several high officials (II K 23 8, etc.). This ancient
Jewish administration of cities by elders and others
was preserved in the specifically Jewish territory
down to the days of the Hcrods, while other cities
adopted a Hellenistic policy (cf. also TOWN CLERK,
and TREASURER, and CITY, RULERS OF).
W. N.
CITY, FENCED. See CITT, 3.
CITY, ROYAL. See RABBAH.
CITY, RULERS OF (no\trdpxa, 'politarchs,' Ac
176): Civil magistrates of a Greek city as contra-
distinguished from Roman officials. The term poli-
tareh is self-explanatory, but it was confined to
Macedonia and the sphere of Macedonian influence.
Luke's use of the unusual title is confirmed by an
inscription on an arch in Thessalonica mentioning
n nitrates as politarchs. They are mentioned also
in seventeen other inscriptions. In Ac 16 19 " rulers"
are 'archons,' the ordinary title of the magistrates
reek city. J. R. S. S.
CITY OF DAVID. Sec JERUSALEM, 15.
CITY OF DESTRUCTION: The similarity of
htrcf (""."), 'destruction.' to //in x (""), 'sun, 'ap-
parently caused confusion in Is 19 18. Many MSS.
and several versions read "City of the Sun, "which,
as indicating Heliopolis, may well have been the
original reading. The LXX. reads "city of right-
eousness." E. E. X.
CITY OF PALM-TREES. See JEIUCHO.
CITY OF SALT (n^n vy, ,> ham-melah): A
town of Jiidah in the wilderness (Jos 15 62). The
identification with the ruin Tell el Milh (Map II,
E 4) is unsatisfactory. E. E. N.
CITY OF WATERS. Sec RABBAH.
CLASPS. See TABERNACLE, 3.
CLAUDA (KXaCJa), more correctly Gaudos, now
diirilhir. A small treeless island S. of Crete, with no
safe anchorage on its 10. side (Ac 27 16). Its present
population numbers but 70 families. J. R. S. S.
CLAUDIA (KXavSia): Probably a Roman Chris-
tian (II Til-'l), perhaps a freedwoman of the
Claudian gens. She figures in later tradition as the
mother or wife of Linus mentioned in the same pas-
i,l p. Const. VII, 46). J. M. T.
CLAUDIUS (KXav8iosA.cn 28, 182): The fourth
Roman emperor (41-54), son of Drusus (son of
Livia) and Antonia. He was nephew of Tiberius
and grandson of Mark Antony. Being feeble-
minded, he was not educated for the throne. He
was proclaimed emperor by the Pretorian guards
in 41. C. was a harmless, well-intentioned man,
but was induced to bloodshed by his favorites Nar-
cissus, Pallas, and his wife Messalina. Messalina
was executed in 49 and C. married Agrippina (his
niece), disinheriting his own son Britannicus and
adopting Nero (Agrippina's son). He was poisoned
by Agrippina in 54.
The relations of Claudius to Agrippa, to whose
political energies he largely owed his advancement
to the throne (cf. Jos. Ant. XIX, 4 5), were most
friendly throughout his reign and led him not only to
bestow upon this Jewish prince pecidiar honors and
an extension of his Palestinian domain (cf. Dio Cas-
sius, LX, 8; Jos. Ant. XX, 7 1, 1 3), but to grant to the
Jews in general throughout the Empire the right of
religious worship, warning them at the same time to
use it peacefully (cf. Jos. Ant. XIX, 52f.). This
grant naturally did not imply a love of the Jewish
people as such; so that, if the warning attached to it
was not heeded, restrictive measures against them on
the Emperor's part can easily be understood. In the
line of such restriction is to be interpreted the state-
ment of their expulsion from Rome referred to in
Ac 18 2 (cf. Suet. Claud. 25) whether the expulsion
of the entire Jewish community actually occurred,
which seems doubtful (note the silence of Tacitus
and Josephus regarding it), or was merely attempted
and found impracticable (cf. Suet. Tiber. 36), or was
not an expulsion at all but only a prohibition of
tumultuous assemblages of the general Jewish popu-
lace, apart from their ordinary religious services, the
right to which they still possessed (cf. Dio Cassius,
LX, 6 6). In any case the action of the Emperor
would cause many of them to leave the city and ac-
count for the presence of Aquila and Priscilla in
Corinth when Paul arrived there; since the date of
the 'edict,' while not possible of accurate determina-
tion, is quite likely to have been between 50 and 52
(cf. Schurer, HJP. II, ii. 31, n. 69; Zahn, Intro,!..
part XI, Chron. Survey; Ramsay, Paid, p. 254;
Knowling on Acts in Expos. Greek Testament).
J. R. S. S. and M. W. J.
CLAUDIUS LYSIAS: The military tribune ( X i\t-
"PX OS > "chief captain") holding the chief com-
mand in Jerusalem, who rescued Paul from the mob
and sent him to Csesarea to Felix (Ac 21 31-23).
He had under him a cohort of Roman auxiliaries,
about 1,000 strong, which upon the occasion of the
Jewish festivals was always held in readiness in their
headquarters in the castle of Antonia, which was
connected by stairs with the Temple court. Lysias
had bought his Roman citizenship at a high price,
and had probably taken the cognomen Claudius from
the Emperor, whose wife and court drove a flourish-
130
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
City, Fenced
Collection
ing trade in such sales. Paul's inherited citizenship
greatly impressed Lysias. R. A. F.
CLAY: This term renders (1) homer, from a root
moaning 'red' (Is 45 9, etc.); (2) fit, 'mud,' 'slirne,'
etc. (Ps 40 2; Is 41 25); (3) Mfaph, 'pottery' (i.e.,
made of potters' elay) (Dn 2 33-45); (4) ir^Xor,
either 'mud' made of soil and spittle (Jn 96ff.) or
clay proper (Ro 9 21). The rendering "clay ground"
(I K 7 46; II Ch 4 17) is uncertain, and the AV "clay"
of Ilab 2 6 is corrected into "pledge" by the RV.
In the low lands of Palestine clay is abundant and its
use for brick, mortar, and pottery was common in
O T times. In Job 4 19, etc., the word is used figura-
tively for the flesh (as made from earth) and in Is
64 8, etc. , it represents human subjection to the divine
sovereignty. E. E. N.
CLEAN, CLEANNESS, CLEANSE. See PURI-
FICATION, J 1, 2.
CLEMENT (KAij/ivr): A fellow worker with
Paul at Philippi (Ph 4 3). There is nothing to jus-
tify his traditional identification with Clement of
Rome. E. E. N.
CLEOPAS (K\* OTTOS): One of the early dis-
ciples, mentioned only in Lk 24 18. Not to be con-
fused with Cleophas. E. E. N.
CLEOPHAS. See CLOPAS.
CLOAK, CLOKE. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS,
3.
CLOPAS (KAwTraj, Cleophas AV): Mentioned
only in Jn 19 25 as the husband of a certain Mary,
thought by many to be the sister of Jesus' mother.
See MARY. E. E. N.
CLOSET. See HOUSE, 6 (h).
CLOTH, CLOTHES, CLOTHING. See BURIAL,
| 1, and DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 5.
CLOUD : The cloud is of frequent occurrence in
figurative speech. (1) Its darkness serves as the
image of mystery (Ps972; Job 3 5), especially the
profound mystery of the creation (Job 38 9). (2)
Its distance from the earth is made to represent the
unattainable (Is 14 14; Ps 108 4; Job 20 6). (3) Its
chnngeableness is the image of the transitory, espe-
cially of short life (Job 7 9, 30 15; Hos 6 4). (4) But
the most suggestive use of the figure is in connection
with the divine presence. Not only is Jehovah said
to ride upon the cloud (Is 191; Nah 1 3), but He
makes a special cloud the sign of His presence (Ex
1321, etc.), both in the guiding of the Israelites
toward Canaan and in the dedication of the Temple
(I KSlOf.; IICh5l3f.). A. C. Z.
CLOUT: In Jer38llf. "clouts" means 'rags,'
or 'ragged cast-off clothes.' In Jos 9 5 it means
'patched' and has been so translated by the RV.
Here the references is to patched shoes. E. E. N.
CLUB. See ARMS AND ARMOR, 5.
CNIDUS, noi'dus (Kw'Sor Ac 27 7): The capital
of the Dorian Hexapolis in Caria. It lay on a small
island (Triopium), connected by a causeway with the
mainland. It had two harbors and contained a
li-mple of the Cnidian Aphrodite (by Praxiteles).
(lames in honor of the Triopian Apollo were cele-
brated conjointly with Rhodes and Cos.
J. R. S. S.
COAL: The following words, wrongly translated
"coal" in AV, are correctly rendered in ARV or
ARVmg. : resheph (Song 8 6; Hab 3 5), a poetic word
for 'flame'; retseph (I K 19 6) or rilspah (Is 6 6), a
heated stone; sh'hor (La 4 8), 'blackness.'
Mineral coal is not found in Palestine, and the de-
posits in Lebanon have been little mined. The
words properly rendered "coal" in EV refer either
to charcoal (peham, 'black'; Is 44 12, 54 16, and es-
pecially Pr 26 21), or, more broadly, to live embers of
any kind (gaheleth), including glowing charcoal.
The latter is the common Heb. term (Ps 1204; Is
44 19; Ezk 24 ll). It is written more fully "coals of
fire" (e.g., Pr 25 22 =Ro 12 20 &v6paKcs irvpos), and
is frequently used metaphorically (II S 14 7; Ps 18 8).
The N T avdpaiua (Jn 18 18, 21 9) was, of course, a
fire of charcoal. See also BRASIER, HEARTH,
CHIMNEY. L. G. L.
COAST: A term frequently used in the AV, but
largely displaced by other more correct terms in
the RV. (1) In the many cases where the Heb.
is g'bhvl, the RV reads "border(s)" instead of
"coast(s)." (2) In the other instances "coast(s)"
AV is displaced in RV by "regions" (Jl 3 4) "shore"
(Jos 9 l), "side" (Nu 13 29, 34 3; Jg 11 26), "height"
(Jos 12 33), "whole number" (Jg 182), "among them"
(Ezk 33 2), "end" (Nu 34 3), "parts" (Mt 15 21, 16
13), "borders" (Mk 5 17, 7 31, 10 1; Ac 13 50), "places
on the coast" (Ac 27 2), and "country" (Ac 26 20).
E. E. N.
COAT. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 2.
COAT OF MAIL. See ARMS AND ARMOR, 9.
COCK. See PALESTINE, 25.
COCKATRICE. See PALESTINE, 26.
COCK CROWING. See TIME, 1.
COCKLE. See PALESTINE, 23.
CO3LE-SYRIA, sf'le-sir'i-a (KoiXj; Supi'a), 'hol-
low Syria' : A term of frequent occurrence in the O T
Apocrypha. Strictly considered, it was the desig-
nation of that part of Syria that lay between the
Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges, but it was often
used to cover all the Syrian possessions from the
Lebanons S. as far as Egypt. E. E. N.
COFFIN: Used only in Gn 50 26. The Heb. word
'{iron means literally a 'chest' or 'box, 'but is used
here evidently in the sense of 'mummy-case.' See also
BURIAL AND BURIAL CUSTOMS, 4. E. E. N.
COIN. See MONEY.
COL-HOZEH, col-ho'ze (njn-^f, kol-hozeh), 'he
sees all' (?): A Jew of Nehemiah's day (Neh 3 15,
US). E. E. N.
COLLAR, COLLARS (Jg8 26). See DRESS AND
ORNAMENTS, 11.
COLLECTION. See TAX, and CHURCH, 9.
A STANDAliD ItlliLE DKTK i.VARY
140
COLLEGE. See JERUSALEM, 36.
COLLOP: An old Knglish word meaning 'sli<'-
meat' ni:i.l<- tender l>y In-ating (see Skeat's Diet.).
: only in .lot. !">-'". where \l\ read- "tat,"
n U tin- meaning !' lli' 1 Hob. ' ''' N.
COLONY (from tin 1 Latin rolonus, 'fanner'):
S-nlers sent to foreign parts to establish trading-
iii:itiiiiis generally retained their native institutions
anil llirir allegiance to the mother country. The
;v successful colonists (Asia Minor.
Black Sea, lower Italy [Magna Gnrcia], southern
l-'rancc. Spain, northern Africa), and Alexander
colnni/.ed many cities from Egypt to Bactria. Hume
established military colonies (of invalid soldiers)
e\, rywhcre, of \vhicli Philippi (Ac 16 12) was an
instance. Roman colonists as such enjoyed certain
well-defined privileges which were not granted to
ordinary provincials. J. H. S. S.
COLORS: Both the OT and the NT illustrate
the general fact that ancient literature knows little
of the modern > ^s to color-effects and their
subtle gradations. Most of the references are casual
and involve merely primary distinctions. The only
passages where colors are emphasized arc the ac-
count of the materials and vestments of the Taber-
nacle and Temple (i:\ 25-28, 35-39; Nu 4, 15; II
<'li 12-3), the diagnosis of leprosy (Lv 13-14), and
tin- apocalyptic visions of 'horses' (Zee 1, 6; Rev
0, 111).
White is the symbol of purity, as shown in com-
parisons with snow (Ps 51 7; Is 1 18), in the vesture
of angelic beings and of the redeemed
I. White (Dn 7 9, 12 10; Mt 17 2; Mk 9 3; Lk 9 2!);
and Black. Mt 28 3; Mk 16 S; Jn 20 12; Ac 1 10; Rev
3 4, 6, 18, 4 4, 6 11, 7 9, 13, 14, 19 8, 14), in
the mystic "stone" with the "new name" and the
heavenly "throne" (Rev 2 17,20 11). It was also the
color of nobility and elegance (Est 8 15; EC 9 8; La
17; .Ig~>10; ef. Rev 19 11, 14). From it came the
name "Ix-banon" the 'white' mountain. Refer-
ence is made to the whiteness of the skin, the teeth,
and the hair (Song 5 !0; On 49 12; Mt 5 3C), of wool
(Kzk 27 18; Rev 1 14), of milk (La 4 7), of alabaster
or marble (Kst 1 6; Song 5 IS), of ripe wheat-fields
(Jn 4 35), of bread (Cn -111 ifi), of walls (Mt 23 27; Ac
23 3), and of blinding heat (Is IS 4). Whiteness of
the skin and hair was a symptom of leprosy (Kx
4 a; Lv 13-14; Nu 12 10; II K 5 27, etc.), as paleness
was of fear (Is 2(122). Doubtless 'white' often
means 'gray' or 'light brown,' as in the description
of garments of linen or byssus.
Black, or some dark hue, is the symbol of disaster
or mourning, :w in the visage of the overwhelmed
(Job 3(1 30; Jcr 8 21; La 4 8, 5 10; Jl 2 6; Nah 2 10)
or the irirh of the sorrowing (Job 30 28; Ps 42 9; Jer
I 1 -'. etc.). Hut swarthy skin or hair was a sign of
_' 1 .If., ."> 1O, as of Ethiopians and other
Africans. The blackness of night or tempi
I (I K 1845; Job 3 5; Is 50 3; Jer 4 28; lie 12 is;
.bide 1:1, etc.), of the raven (Song "> lO, of ice on the
us (Job 6 16), and of porphyry or dark marble
I i.). lilack hairs are mentioned in testing the
li'p'T (Lv 13), and the visions include black horses
(Zee (1. Hev (1). Brown '.n 30 :i:'-40 AV) is prop-
erly black asinRV. The "black marble" referred
to 'in Kst 1 (i (cf. margin "stone of blue color") was
probably a drab slate or marble.
Bright red, "scarlet," or "crimson," a color ob-
tained from the kermes-worm or cochineal, and a
richer "purple" from a mollusk, were
2. Scarlet, the badges of royalty, or at least of
Purple, wealth. The two often occur to-
and Other gether (Ex 25-28, 35-36, 38-39; Xu
Reds. 48,13; II Ch 27,14, 314; Pr 3l2lf.;
Rev 17 3f., 18 12, 10), but also the for-
mer alone (Gn 38 28, 30; Lv 14 ; Nu 19 6; Jos 2 is, 21 ;
II S 1 24; Song 43; Is 1 18; Jer 4 30; La 4 5; Nah 2 3;
Mt 2728; He 919), and the latter alone (Jg82C;
Kst 1 c, 8 15; Song 3 10, 7 5; Jer 10 9; Ezk 27 7, 1C; Dn
5 7, 16, 29; Mk 15 17, 20; Jn 19 2, 5; Lk 16 19). Lydia
was a dealer in purple (Ac 16 14).
It is likely that the term rendered 'blue' was
some variety of purple. It occurs only with dyed
stuffs (Ex 25-28, 35-36, 38-39; Nu 4, 1538; II Ch
2 7, 14, 3 14; Est 1 6, 8 15; Jer 10 9; Ezk 23 6, 27 7, 24).
Ruddiness, such as that of a clayey soil, is often
indicated, as of the flesh (Gn 25 25; I S 16 12, 17 42;
Song 5 10; La 4 7), a sore (Lv 13), the lips (Song 4 3),
animals (Nu 192; Zee 1,6; Rev 6,12 3), wine (Ps
758; Pr 2331; Is 272), pottage (Gn 2530), dyed
leather or cloth (Ex 25 5, 26 14, 35 7, 23, 36 19, 39 34; Is
63 2), painted wood (Jer 22 14; Ezk 23 14; Nah 2 3), a
kind of stone (Est 1 6, sardius and ruby?), and the
fiery twilight sky (Mt 16 2-3). The word for the 'red'
eyes of the drunkard (Gn 49 12; Pr2329) probably
means 'unclear' or 'darkened.' The term bay
a bright red (Zee 6 3, 7 AV) is properly rendered
"strong" in RV.
Green is naturally often indicated as the attribute
of vegetation in all its forms (as Ps528; Jer 17 8;
Hos 14 8; Rev 9 4, etc.). In one description of dyed
stuffs (Est 1 6) the word rendered
3. Green "green" may mean simply a special
and kind of linen. A greenish color occurs
Yellow. in the test for leprosy (Lv 13 49, 14 37),
and also a glistening yellow (Lv 13 30-
30); the former of these two words is also used with
gold (Ps 68 13).
In the disposition of the precious stones in the
high priest's breastplate (Ex 28 17-20, 39 10-13: K/k
28 13) and in the foundations of the heavenly Jeru-
salem (Rev 21 19-20) there was probably an inten-
tional color-scheme. W. S. P.
COLOSSI, co-los'e (KoAooW): A city of Phryijin
l'i i mtitma, situated on the S. bank of the Lycus, on
rising ground in the open plain (10 m. from Laodieea,
13 m. from Hierapolis). See Map of the Pauline
World. The acropolis was on the N. bank. Though
now quite deserted, Colosste was the great city of
Phrygia when visited by Xerxes (481) and Cyrus
the Younger (401). It lay on the main trade-
route from the seaboard to the East. It was ruined
by the change of the road-system and the establish-
ment of Laodieea. C. was famous for its wool of
violet hue (colossinus). Philemon, Onesimus, Ar-
chippus, and Epaphras, the probable founder of the
Church at C., all lived here (see COLOSSIANS and
PIIII.KMO.N'). The "worship of angels." against
which Paul preached (Col 2 is), was perpetuated in
Ill
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
College
Colossians
the great and pretentious church of Michael tho
Archistrategus, which was destroyed by the Turks
(l-Jth cent.). J. R. S. S.
COLQSSIANS, co-los'ianz, EPISTLE TO THE:
One of the letters of Paul written during his first
imprisonment at Rome. From the be-
1. Intro- ginning of a critical study of this Epistle
ductory. (Mayerhoff, 1838) it has been recog-
nized that it presents a troublesome
problem and that this problem gathers about the
errors which it discusses and seeks to counteract.
The Tubingen School (1845) held these errors to be
characterized by the Gnosticism of the 2d cent, and
consequently denied the authorship of the Epistle
to Paul. Tliis was modified later (Holtzmann, 1872)
to the effect that there was an element of asceticism
in the errors which might well have belonged to the
Apostolic Age, so that a portion of the letter may
have come from Paul. At present the almost uni-
versal acceptance of the Epistle as Paul's is due to
the conviction that whatever these errors may be
they lack the developed philosophical character that
would place them later than his day and conse-
quently offer no hindrance to assigning the letter in
its entirety to him.
In view of these facts there is a peculiar interest
attaching to the thought of the Epistle. After the
usual epistolary greeting (llf.) and
2. Con- the customary Pauline thanksgiving
tents. for the readers' spiritual condition
(1 3-8), the main message of the letter
(1 94 6) begins. It is based upon what the Apostle
has heard of their Christian life, his personal interest
in which keeps him constantly in prayer that it may
be divinely nourished in the direction of an increas-
ing spiritual intelligence and a consequent fruitful
activity and faithful endurance on the readers'
part (1 9-ll), recognizing the fact that the life they
have is due to God's work of salvation through
Christ (1 12-14), who is supreme in His place over the
Church and the World (1 15-20); so that if their sal-
vation is fully to realize itself in their lives, it will be
dependent simply upon the stability of their faith
in Him and the firmness of their hold upon the
hope which He has assured to them in the Gospel
(1 21-23).
After a word as to his ministrant relations to this
>1 and its bearings upon his service to the
Church at large and the circle of individual churches
to which his readers belong (1 24-2 2), the Apostle
returns to this theme of Christ, whose supreme suffi-
ciency for all their living makes it needless that they
should subject themselves to the delusive persua-
i"ss of teachers who would substitute human
philosophy for the teaching which He has given
them (2 3-15), and impose an unnecessary ceremonial
and a false worship and an arbitrary asceticism upon
their living (2 16-23). On the contrary, his plea is
that they give themselves to a spirituality of living
1 on their life with Christ, the reality of which
should be a compelling force to a new character and
conduct on their part (3 5-11).
After a consequent general exhortation in the
direction of positive graces (3 12-17) and some spe-
cific exhortations within their household relations
(318-41), and their relations among the uncon-
verted (45f.), the message ends, and with a short
personal conclusion (4 7-18) the letter is brought to
its close.
A survey of these contents makes clear that the
Apostle is dealing in only a general way with the
errors which have invaded the Colossian
3. Char- Church. He has not denned them
acter of either to his readers or to himself, and
the Errors, has not opposed them with anything
more than general truths.
On a more specific study of the Epistle, however,
there are discernible certain characteristics of the
situation with which the Apostle had to deal. (1 )
The errors were evidently not so developed as to
have caused separation from the Church (2 18 f.),
though they appear to have had with their teachers
a constructive form and to have been propagated in
a dogmatic way (2 3 f., 8, 16, 18 f.). (2) They came
from teachers who were Jews and Jews of a Judaistic
type (2 8, ll, 14, 16, 20-22; cf. Gal 43 9 f.). (3) At the
same time the insistence upon a regulation of drink,
as well as of food, and on the other hand the absence
of any antithesis between faith and works, or any
insistence of their legalism as necessary to salvation,
mark them as of an essentially different type from
those which we find in the neighboring province of
Galatia. (4) As to what this type could be it is
most difficult, if not impossible, to determine, (a)
Such passages as 2 20-23, which characterize their reg-
ulations as an ascetic severity toward the body, and
2 18, which shows them as given to angel-worship,
suggest the influence of Essenism, and yet their as-
ceticism is evidently not practised as an end in itself,
as it was with the Essenes, while their angel-worship
was accompanied by visions which were foreign to
the Essenic cult. Certainly, many things which
characterized Essenism are absent here. (6) The
presence in such passages as 2 2f., 9f., 18 f., of char-
acteristic Gnostic terms and the opposition which
such passages as 1 15-20, 2 6, 9-11, 15, 19 furnish to the
known Gnostic subordination of Christ and the re-
moval of union with Him suggest the influence of
Gnosticism, though some of these terms are present
in other of the Apostle's letters, where Gnosticism
can not possibly have come into consideration.
From all this it is clear that an exact identifying
of these errors with any known system of teaching
in the Apostolic or post-apostolic time
4. Histor- is out of the question. At the same
ical Loca- time, the fact that Gnosticism had no
tion of the definite origin in any specific school,
Errors. but grew up in an eclectic way through
the mingling of Jewish, Oriental, Greek,
and Evangelic elements within the Church, makes
it specially significant that this letter is addressed
to a region of Asia Minor which had been colonized
under Antiochus Epiphanes with Jews from Baby-
lonia, a great center of theosophical mysticism, who
would be peculiarly liable to such speculative va-
garies as we find embodied in these errors. At all
events.it is evident that the vague and indeterminate
character of the Epistle's errors show them to be-
long to an early rather than to a late time; while their
distinctively Jewish elements place them quite nat-
urally within the missionary horizon of Paul.
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Comforter
Conscience
-
lii-i letter shows the development of Paul's niin-
iMrv condition.*! l,y tin- region of country in which
it was carried on. In this region o
5. Bearing Western Asia Minor, missioni/.ed largely
of the uiiiU-r his leadership during his three
Epistle years' stay in Ephesus, he had been
on the uroughtfacetofacewithspeculativedif-
Work of tin ill it* such as had not come before
Paul. him in any other of his fields of work.
His approach to them consequently is
not that of an experienced disputant, but that of a
man of practical spiritual ministry, hesitant through
his ignorance of the technical elements involved and
yrt m.-istnit U-cause of his instinctive appreciation
lit their n-lations to and their influence upon the fun-
damental truths of the Gospel which he preached.
Colossians thus stands apart from the four mam
Epistles of Paul and from his letters to the Thessa-
lonians as born of the speculative necessities of his
work.
LITERATURE: The best critical material will be found in
the N T Introduction* of Julicher (1904) and Zahn (1907)
anil in the prolegomena to the Commentaries of Peake
(Bxpot. Greek Tet., 1903). Abbot (Internal. Crit. Corn.,
1897). Haupt (Meyer", Exeget.-Krit. Kom. fift. d. N T,
1897) Ewald (Zakn-Kom. z. N T, 1905); Lightfoot 8
(1886) ami KH>per (1882). Haupt and Kliipper are
especially thorough in their exegesis of the Epistle.
For specific discussion of the critical problems consult
Holumann. Kritik der Epheser und Koloserbriefe (1872)
and the articles on the Epistle in the Bible Dictionaries
of Smith 2 , Hastings, and Cheyne. See also GNOSTICISM.
M. W. J.
COMFORTER. See HOLY SPIRIT, 2, a.
COMING OF THE LORD. See ESCHATOLOG T,
34-36, 41,48.
COMMANDMENT: All but three of the OT
words rendered ''commandment" (and these three
derived from the same root) signify primarily 'that
which is uttered or spoken.' The idea of authority is
read into these terms from the character or office of
the person who makes the utterance. A command-
ment is, therefore, in the Biblical sense of the term,
the word of one who has a right to be obeyed. In
the N T the conception of authority has crystallized
in the terms used. A. C. Z.
COMMANDMENTS, THE TEN. See DECA-
LOC.
COMMENTARY ("'"!'?, midhrash, from da-
rash, 'to inquire,' 'investigate'): In II Ch 13 22 a
reference is made to the "commentary" ("story"
AV) of the prophet Iddo and in 24 27 to the "com-
mentary" ("story" AV) of the "book of the Kings."
The Heb. term means "didactic or homiletic exposi-
tion," or "an edifying religious story" (Driver).
Some such works are referred to by the Chronicler
as among his sources. See CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF.
E. E. N.
COMMERCE. See TRADE AND COMMERCE.
COMMON: The Biblical conception of what is
common included: (1) The broad and general idea
(if the ordinary as distinguished from the excep-
tional (.ler '_'(> 23 ; Lv427; Ezk2342; AcSlsAV; I Co
10 13 AV, etc.); (2) the conception of that which
belongs to all as a general characteristic (Tit 14; Jude
er. a) or that in which all participate (Ac 2 44); and
3) the notion of ceremonial uncleanness, in which
sense the word is used in I S 21 4 f. ; Jer 31 5 RVmg. ;
Ac 10 14, 28). A-. C- Z.
COMMONWEALTH. See CITIZENSHIP.
COMMUNICATE, COMMUNICATION: These
words are employed: (1) In their original though
now rather obsolete English meaning of 'making
common,' i.e., of sharing, dividing, taking another as
one's partner, having fellowship with in temporal
goods (Gal 6 6), afflictions (Ph 4 14 AV), nc<
ies (Ro 12 13), giving and receiving (Ph4l5AV),
or of Christian fellowship generally (I Ti 6 18; Finn
5 AV; He 13 16). (2) In the usual modern sense of
sharing or imparting information, knowledge, etc.,
jy speech, hence meaning 'word,' 'speech,' 'dis-
course' (II S3 17; IIK9H AV; Mt537 AV; Lk
24 17; Gal 2 2 AV; Eph 4 29 AV). In I Co 15 33 the
3r. 6fu\ia probably means 'conversations,' 'dis-
putings' rather than "companionship" (ARV). In
bol 3 8 by al(rxpo\oyia abusive as well as obscene
speech is intended.
COMMUNION. See LORD'S SUPPER and HOLY
SPIRIT, 2, b.
COMPANION: This word is the rendering of
nine Hebrew terms and one (four AV) Greek. Five
of the Hebrew originals indicate general community
of interest and enterprise (of. Ezr 4 7 ff . ; Is 1 '.
Mai 2 14), whereas the other four convey the idea
of delight in personal association (cf. Ex 32 27; ,lg
14llff.; Prl320). In the NT the Greek terms
signify simple association or partnership in a com-
mon work or cause (cf . Ac 19 29; also in AV Ph 2 25;
He 10 33; Rev 1 9). A. C. Z.
COMPANY. See TRADE AND COMMERCE. 3.
COMPASS. See COSMOGONY, 3.
COMPOUND. See OINTMENTS AND PERFUMES,
2.
CONANIAH, cen"a-nai'a (W^J?, kananyahu):
1. A tithe supervisor in the days of Hezekiah (II
Ch31 12f.; Cononiah AV). 2. A prominent Levite
who lived in the reign of Josiah (II Ch 35 9).
A. C. Z.
CONCISION: A term which occurs but once in
the Bible, Ph 3 2, where it renders the Gr. KO.TO.TOW
('incision') a word not found at all in the LXX.
nor in prechristian Gr. in this connection. It is a
paronomasia evidently used here by Paul to char-
acterize as nothing less than the flesh-cutting for-
bidden in the Law (Lv 21 5; cf. I K 18 28), the circum-
cision which was wholly ceremonial and lacked all
regard for its spiritual significance. The term
be distinguished from the yet stronger expression
iaroKvnrw ('to cut off') in Gal 5 12, where the
reference is to the prohibition of Dt 23 1. See Ciu-
CUMCISION. M. W. J.
CONCUBINE. See MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE,
and FAMILY AND FAMILY LAW. 4, 5.
113
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Comforter
Conscience
CONDEMN, CONDEMNATION: The render-in?;
of a group of NT Gr. words, the chief element in
which is made up of Kplvfiv, with its compound (xara-
Kpiveiv) and its derivatives ([itpl<ns AV], Kardicpuns,
Kplpa, KaraKptfia, avTOKaraKpiTos). In some pas-
sages the meaning is confined to human action
and refers (1) to one's judgment against another
([KaraKpiveiv] Jn8 10 f.; Ro834; [xaTaKpuris] II Co 73;
[K/)('H I Ti 3 6). In Ro 2 1, 14 23 ("damned" AV),
where xpivtiv is the original, there seems to be in-
cluded also the element of one's judgment against
himself (cf. ver. 22 AV); or (2) to the judgment into
which another's conduct is brought by one's own
good life ([KaTcuepiveiv] Mt 1241 and ||; He 117).
In the great majority of passages, however, the
meaning is distinctively that of the Divine judgment
against sin ([xplvfiv] Ja 5 7 AV; Jn 3 17f. AV; [K<IT<I-
Kpivfiv] Ro 8 3; [KaraKpuris] II P 2 6; I Co 11 32; II
Co 3 9; [K/M>O] Mk 12 40 and ||; Ja 3 AV; I Co 11 34
AV; Ro 3 8; [KaraKptfjia] Ro 5 16, 18, 8 1). In Jn 3
17-19, 5 24 (where only the AV renders Kplveiv and
Kpla-ts by "condemn" and "condemnation") there
is meant the judgment brought by men upon them-
selves because of their rejection of Christ. Parallel
with this is Tit 3 11 (avTOKaraKptrot) , where the refer-
ence is to the judgment brought upon oneself by
persistency in evil. In Ac 13 27 (KpLveiv); Lk 24 20
(Kpifia) ; Mt 27 3; Mk 10 33 and ||s, 14 64 (KaraKpivdv),
the reference is to the sentence of a court, expressing
the general judgment of the people; in Lk2340
(icpifia) to the sentence of a court, resulting in con-
demnation to death.
The rest of the group consists of the compounds
KaraSiKaffLV, KarayiyviacrKfiv, and aKaTayvtacrras. In
all but one of the passages where these words occur
the meaning is confined to human judgment. Twice
it is the censorious judgment against one's fellow
man ([icaraSiKaffii/] Mt 12 7; Lk 6 37); twice it is the
self-judgment which comes from the condemning
character of one's own conduct ([Karayiyvoxriceiv] Gal
2 ll; I Jn 3 20 f.); once it is the sentence of a secular
court as an instrument of oppression ([KaraSiKafeii/]
Ja 5 6). Once only is the meaning that of Divine
judgment against evil ([(caraSiicdffif] Mt 12 37).
There are two passages (I Ti 5 12 [icpi'/ja]; Tit 2 8
[aKUTayvtatrros]) where the reference seems to be to
a judgment implying more or less of ecclesiastical
oversight and review. See also JUSTIFICATION.
M. W. J.
CONDUIT. See JERUSALEM, 13, 34.
CONEY. See PALESTINE, 24.
CONFECTION, CONFECTIONERY. See OINT-
MENTS AND PERFUMES, 2.
CONFEDERACY, CONFEDERATE. See CON-
SPIRACY.
CONFESS, CONFESSION (6>oXoyfi [t^o^oXo-
yfiv], 6/ioXo-yi'a): A term which in the N T has
several varieties of meaning. (1) 'To concede,'
'allow' (Jnl20; Ac 24 14; He 11 13). (2) 'To ac-
knowledge one's sins' 'confess' in the narrower
sense (Mt 3 6; Mk 1 5; Ac 19 18; Ja5 16; I Jn 1 9). (3)
'To openly acknowledge' or profess one's faith in
anything (Ac 23 8 [cf. Gr. of Tit 1 16]), especially in
Jesus as the Messiah, Son of God, etc. (Mtl032a;
Lk 12 8a; Jn922, 1242; RolOO; II Co 9 13; Ph2 n;
ITi6l2f.; He 3 1,4 14, 1023; IJn223, 4 2 f., 15; II
Jn 7). Also of Jesus' acknowledging His own in
the judgment (Mtl032b; Lkl28b; Rev36[cf. Gr.
of Mt 7 23]). In the papyri 6/ioXoyfix is the offi-
cial formula for publicly acknowledging a contract,
sale, receipt, etc.; cf. also Mt 14 7; Ac 7 17, where it is
used in the sense of a public assurance or promise.
(4) Of thankfully and worshipfully acknowledging
God, so 'to praise' Him (Ro 14 11, 159 [both cited
from LXX.]; He 13 15). See SACRIFICE AND OFFER-
INGS, 8, 16. S. D.
CONFISCATE, CONFISCATION. See CRIMES
AND PUNISHMENTS, 3 (c).
CONFORM, CONFORMED : The translation of
the Gr. <rip.p,op<j>os (Ro 829; Ph 321 RV); of
the ptcpl. (rvfjtpop<pi6fifvos (Ph 3 10) ; and of <ruv
o-xwun-ffro-dtu (Ro 12 2, "fashioned" RV; cf. Gr.
of I P 1 14). It is evident that in the N T the com-
pounds <rvnfiop<pos and <rvp.fiop(piffiv place the em-
phasis on the internal (moral and intellectual)
aspects, while o-uwr^/iaTifetv refers primarily to the
external (physical and formal) relations.
E. E. N.
CONGREGATION: Predominantly an O T word.
In the N T found only in Ac 13 43 AV ("synagogue"
RV). The AV uses the term as the translation of a
variety of Hebrew words in all of which the notion
of meeting is primary. The RV has properly sub-
stituted in all cases which designate the place of the
meeting of God with (he people in the person of their
representative Mosos (Ex 27 21, etc.) the more ac-
curate form Tent of Meeting. Another change in-
troduced in RV, in the interest of greater clearness
and uniformity, is the substitution of assembly for
"congregation" wherever the theocratical convoca-
tion of the people is meant, as when the original Heb.
is qahal (Lv4 14). The term "congregation" (in the
RV) is thus almost limited to the designation of the
stated meetings of the people for the transaction
of political or legislative business. The distinction
can not be pressed too closely, but in general it will
hold true. The word is preeminently a 'priestly'
one, confined almost entirely to the priestly elements
of the Hexateuch and to Chronicles Ezra Nehemiah.
See also ASSEMBLY (51 and (7). A. C. Z.
CONIAH, co-nai'a. See JEHOIACHIN.
CONSCIENCE: This word is not used in the OT,
(butcf.Ec 1020[LXX.J and, in theApoc.,Wis 17 ll).
In the N T it is used mainly in the Pauline Epistles;
twice in Paul's speeches in Acts (23 1, 24 16). Else-
where it appears only in Hebrews, and in I Peter.
Outside its Biblical visages the Greek word (trvvctSij-
a-is) had not yet obtained the fuller meaning given to
it in the N T. It was used somewhat vaguely for the
consciousness with which a man views his completed
act, especially for the feeling aroused as he recalls and
contemplates a wrong deed (Cremer's Lexicon and P.
Ewald ). In the N T a distinct development is found.
In Ro 2 14 f., Paul finds a double proof that the
law of God is real for the heathen world, first in
the very character of their works which imply the
Conscience
OonTVution
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
144
powiT of making moral distinctions; and, second,
in u twofoltl inner movement described in two
independent clauses in the passage.
i. Pauline The second clause is not explanatory
Usage. of the first. Their "thoughts" in
mutual intercourse (Xoyr/ioi) are not
identical with their "conscience." The latter is
private conscience ami individual; the former are
social. The occurrence of mvfi&i<rif here premip-
poaea a well-known meaning which may be found
elsewhere. It appears clearly in the two passages in
Acte, where Paul, reviewing his past, expresses his
consciousness of having always tried to preserve his
sense of integrity before God. At this point the
N T agrees with extrabiblical usage, except that
the religious reference is present. But that is the
new element which makes a great change ultimately
in tin- idea of "conscience." In the remaining pas-
sages of Romans (91, 13 5) the meaning is the same.
In fact, it will be found that, as its fundamental
meaning. Paul uses the word for that sense of integ-
rity, or of righteous standing before God (or Christ),
which accompanies the moral and religious conduct
of the believer. All other new meanings of the
word grow out of consideration of that function of
human Christian consciousness.
The passage where "conscience" occurs most often
(I Co 8-10) illustrates the manner in which the con-
ception grew as soon as the fact began to live in the
Christian environment. In the presence of a dif-
ficult practical problem conscience appears as a
complex fact. (1) The Christian man who recog-
nizes God's relation to all things and the nothingness
of idols knows that the consecration of food to idols
means nothing. He is, therefore, free to eat what-
ever is set before him. His knowledge of the facts
becomes the ground of his integrity before God
when he partakes. His conscience is clear and sound.
(2) But he recognizes also that his action affects
other consciences, of which in this regard there are
two classes, (a) The weak conscience of a brother
"used until now to the idol" (8 7). This man can
not rid himself of the feeling that in eating meat he
continues a former heathen practise. He eats "as
of a thing sacrificed to an idol." He therefore eats
with a "weak conscience," because of an unclear
judgment of the facts, and therefore with a " defiled"
(8 7) or "wounded" (8 12) conscience that is, with a
lack of conscious integrity before God. Now Paul
will not despise his ignorance nor merely pity his
confused judgment; he will reverence his conscience.
For while the conscience is ignorant, lacking knowl-
edge (8 7), yet it is conscience, which if it be forced
by example instead of being set free by insight is
wounded, and he perishes (8 10 f.). (6) The igno-
rant conscience of the heathen man (10 27a). If the
( 'hristian man purchase his food in the open market
lie mut do BO in his own freedom ignoring the cer-
emonial connection between meat and idol-worship
(lOZif.). But as soon as the relation becomes
pcnional, the problem is changed. If a heathen host
(!() :?) win meat before you without remark, your
own conscience is free. But as soon as any one
(rtt 10 28) calls attention to the connection of the
meat with idol-worship, the feast becomes a sacred
meal, a heathen sacrament. That makes abstinence
a duty, but only for the sake of the other's con-
science. To him your partaking now would be a
denial of the very thing which you know, that this
consecration of the meat is nothing. From this it
is clear that the oft-quoted verse (I Co 8 13) does
not mean that Paul practised or enjoined permanent
abstinence from meat. The abstaining conscience
must keep its own dignity and rights by making ab-
stinence wholly relative to the good of others, and
must not erect its act into a new law of permanent
and universal authority. There is a dangerous tend-
ency in the 'weak' conscience to become censo-
rious (Ro 14 3b, lOa) and in the strong and free con-
science to become contemptuous (Ro 14 3a, lOb),
and against both the Apostle utters urgent warn-
ings. The guiding principle in this passage (I Co
8-10) is the same as in Ro 14, although in the latter
for "knowledge" the Apostle substitutes the word
"faith" (14 12). In both passages the awful signifi-
cance of conscience appears in this that, if a man
eat who feels or thinks that it may be against, the
honor of Christ to do so, he thereby abdicates his
own judgment and acts outside of faith. And whoso
does this is 'destroyed' (Ro 14 15b) and 'per-
ishes' (I Co 8 11). And in both passages the man
who by his example deliberately exerts that com-
pulsion on him is held responsible for the disaster.
In II Co "conscience" is applied not to his own ap-
proval of his conduct, but to its approval by others
(42,5ll). This is a new and most important
step in the growth of the general conception. And
yet it comes naturally through the intensely
social Christian spirit. For it is the same inner
power in virtue of which I appraise my own con-
duct and that of others, and I must do both "in
Christ."
In the Pastoral Epistles conscience is named six
times; in three cases (ITi 1 5, 19, 3 9) with "faith"
or "heart," as if it had begun to define itself before
Christian eyes as a fundamental element or faculty
of human nature. In Tit 1 15 it can be, along with
the "mind," defiled. And in I Ti 4 2 it is said that
certain who fall away from the faith are "branded
in their own conscience as with a hot iron." This
does not mean that they lose the power of making
moral distinctions, a quite un-Pauline idea; but that
they suffer the intolerable shame of their defection.
It is the intense pain of ineradicable guilt which is
theirs.
The three passages in I Peter in which "con-
science" occurs yield the same meaning as the
Pauline. In the first two (2 19, 3 16)
2. The the general context is similar. The
Petrine believer is amid hostile critics and even
Usage. persecutors. His strength and peace
must be found in the possession of "a
good conscience" which must be the inner sense of
"a good manner of life in Christ" (3 10). The word
is used in a startling way, however, when (2 19) the
author speaks of the (rvifi'Sijo-is tot), which is vari-
ously translated. Is it "conscience toward God,"
or, as Canon Bigg prefers, "consciousness of God"?
The phrase was apparently so constructed because
the writer saw that there is no consciousness of God,
in the Christian sense, without a good conscience
toward God. It marks the dawn of the great idea
1 15
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTION A It Y
Conscience
Conversation
that conscience is the voice of God in us. But here
il means that in the sense of uprightness bcl'mv
Him a man already possesses Him. The very diffi-
cult passage which almost immediately follows (3
20 f.) repeats the word in a sentence that is gram-
matically dark. The baptized man is saved 'into
God,' as the eight souls into the ark. But this
baptism is not concerned with the outward man,
"the flesh," but with the inner man. In the bap-
tismal rite "the good conscience" is the matter of
inquiry, the decisive fact.
In four out of the five places where "conscience" is
named in the Epistle to the Hebrews the general
topic is the subjective effect of the
3. Usage atonement of Christ. Whatever effect
in the the gifts and sacrifices, the blood-shed-
Epistle ding, under the old covenant produced,
to the they did not reach the conscience.
Hebrews. The worshiper remained in that re-
gard unperfect (99); he still had the
conscience of sins (102) or dead works (9 14). But
the blood of Christ does "cleanse conscience from
dead works to serve the living God," and men may
have their '' hearts sprinkled from an evil conscience,"
so that they can "draw near with a true heart in ful-
ness of faith" (10 22). It is evident that in all these
passages the good conscience is regarded as the sense
of righteousness before God (cf. 13 18). Our sense
of guilt prevents all approach to God; and that is
removed only by the blood of Christ. His work of
sacrifice has made it possible for men to enter the
holy presence of God with bold hearts and confident
prayer that is, with clear consciences. The con-
science is that in us on which forgiveness through
atonement operates.
It is evident that in the N T we have no clearly
defined doctrine or theory of conscience, nor even a
description of it. Like other Greek
4. The words a-vveiSr/ins was passing into a
Philosophy new world, to describe great facts
of Con- which were now more clearly perceived
science, than was possible for prechristian
eyes. Some of these may be stated
here. (1) The feeling of guilt or of joyous confi-
dence before God, as in Hebrews, is the deepest fact
in human religious experience. The work of Christ
deals with that, and it is called "conscience." (2)
The believer's feeling of personal integrity and sin-
cerity in conduct before God and man, as in Acts,
Romans, Corinthians, is traced to the same inner
seat of authority. (3) But this feeling is so closely
allied with and dependent upon 'knowledge' or
intelligent 'faith' (I Co, I Ti) that the conscience
is seen to be a moral scrutinizer of all human con-
duct. (4) As thus conceived conscience is the
supreme, the most sacred fact in human nature, to
preserve which is essential and to destroy which
can only be the doom of the individual. There can
be little doubt that N T writers, by their emphasis
upon this phase of human nature, by making it so
concrete, and by attaching to it the very highest and
most solemn significance in relation to the final
destiny of man, presented fresh material and a new
stimulus to ethical inquiry. It may be added with
some confidence that no theory of conscience can hold
its own which takes no account of those aspects of it
which are set before us in these brief but momentous
N T discussions.
LITERATURE: P. Ewald, De vocis ii.|.. .,,.,,. VI < /,.
texlate, 1883; W. Herrmann, Ktlrik, 3 1004; Martenwrn,
Christian Kthics (Individual), Translation. 1884, 338 IT. ;
H. Schultz, Grundruus d. Kvang. Kthik, 1891; Nownmn
Smyth, Christian Ethics, 1802; T. li. Strong, C'lu
Ethics, 1890; B. Weiss, Bib. Theol. ot N T, Translation,
1803, 1, p. 476", II, pp. 39-41, 128; U. IS. Stevens, Thcal.
of N T 454-456. \y ). Jfl.
CONSECRATE: This term is the correct render-
ing of the Heb. 2?Tp T , qadhesli, (and cognate words),
signifying 'to be holy,' i.e., 'separate' from that which
is common or profane (sec HOLY). But there are a
number of passages where the Heb. or Gr. terms
are not adequately represented by the Eng. word
"consecrate." In Mic 4 13, "devote," in Nu 6 7, 9, 12,
"separate," "separation," in He 10 20, "dedicate,"
and in He 7 28, "perfected," all RV, are more correct
renderings. In the majority of instances, however,
where "consecrate" (and consecration) occur,
they render a peculiar Ileb. expression meaning lit-
erally ' to fill the hand,' or ' filling' with 'hand' under-
stood (cf. Ex 32 29; Jg 17 5, 12 for passages where the
force of the literal expression can still be discerned).
The expression goes back probably to a remote an-
tiquity when the priests' hands were "filled" with
the offerings, etc., from which he derived his income.
See PRIESTHOOD, 2a. E. E. N.
CONSOLATION (n-apdfcXijo-w): The "consolation
of Israel" (Lk 2 25) was an expression derived
pro! mbly from Is 40 1 (LXX. ). The comfort or con-
solation there predicted was popularly understood
in later times as referring to the Messianic age
rather than to the return from the Exile. The "con-
solation of Israel" was consequently the time when
the promises of the prophets would be fulfilled and
all especially the lowly would rejoice in the rule
of righteousness and peace. E. E. N.
CONSPIRE, CONSPIRACY : The only instance
where the term "conspiracy" calls for comment is Is
8 12, where AV reads confederacy. Here the term
qesher refers probably to the coalition of N. Israel
and Damascus against Judah which was filling all
minds with apprehension (cf. 7 1-2). E. E. N.
CONSTELLATION. See ASTRONOMY, 4.
CONSULT. See MAGIC AND DIVINATION, 3,
and COUNCIL, COUNSEL.
CONSUMMATION. See ESCHATOLOGY, 45.
CONSUMPTION. See DISEASE AND MEDICINE,
5 (3).
CONTRIBUTION. See CHURCH, 9.
CONTROVERSY: The Heb. word 3"!, nbh,
often translated "controversy," means 'a case or
suit at law' (Dtl78; II S 152). In the prophets
the term is frequently used for Jehovah's 'case'
against Israel. Once (Is 34 8) for the 'case' of Zion
against Edom. E. E. N.
CONVERSATION: This word is frequently used
in the AV to render various terms signifying 'be-
Conversion
Connthi.it::,
A STAM'AKU 1UHLE DICTIONARY
146
havior' or 'manner of life.' These or equivalent BX-
preK .. : therefor.-, bren substituted in the
KV In I'll :< -' ill- 1 ( 'r- ' ffoAi>fu/i, 'citiMuahip
E. E. N.
CONVERSION, CONVERT: The RV retains
vert" only iii I's'-l i:< """I Ja5l9f. The He-
brew ami (ire-k originals are almost uniformly
lated i<> turn. 1 They an- applied to inanimate
objects or to the movements of living things (cf. Jos
19 is; IIS 23 10; Ru 1 16; Mk 5 30, 833; Lk239;
Jnl'l :o: 11 I'l! --'>. They are most significantly
appli.-d both in the OT uml the N T to that act in
which the soul turns from unbelief or sin to God.
I'aul uses iwurrpiifHiv indeed of turning away from
the true Gospel (Gal 4 9), and there are two other
natural uses (Lk 22 32; cf. 17 4; Ja5 19 f.). But the
generally uses it, sometimes in close union with
repentance, ' quasi-technically for the great crises
when men respond to God's work of redemption
in Christ (IThl'Jf.), and His call through the
preaching of the Gospel (Ac 11 20 f., 26 17-20).
W. D. M.
CONVOCATION. See FASTS AND FEASTS, 1,
and AS^KMBLY.
COOK, COOKING. See FOOD AND FOOD UTEN-
niia, 11.
COOL: As a noun in Gn 3 8 (Heb. ruah, 'wind,'
'breeze') it is evidently used to indicate the time of
day when a breeze is apt to arise as the heat declines
to its lowest degree before sunset. It was in the cool
of the early evening that the Orientals usually roused
themselves from their midday rest. A. C. Z.
COOS, co'es. See Cos.
COPING. See TEMPLE, 10.
COPPER. See METALS, 3.
COPPERSMITH. See ARTISAN LIFE, 11.
COR. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 3.
CORAL: The rendering, which is not entirely
e-Ttain, of the Heb. ra'moth (Job 28 18; Ezk 27 16).
In Pr 247 the same word is rendered "too high."
Coral abounds in the Mediterranean Sea, and the va-
riety thought to be referred to is the red coral.
E. E. N.
CORBAN. See SACRIFICE AND OFFERINGS, 17.
CORD : The only instance of the occurrence of this
word in the Bible that calls for special comment is in
Job 30 10, where, however, the sense is obscure, and
the text uncertain. See Davidson, ad loc., in Camb,
Bible. E. E. N.
CORE. See KOKAH.
CORIANDER SEED. See MANNA.
CORINTH (Kopivtios): The capital of Corinthia.
Its location was incomparable strategically and com-
iii'-rrially, iw it commanded the sole land route by the
natural bridge; IM-IWIM-II the continent and Pelopon-
nesun, and was supplied with deep-water harbors
(Lechffium, Ccnchrese) on both sides of the Isth-
mus (3i m. wide). Thessalian Minyans settled
here c. 1350 B.C. and founded 'E$iV><' (later Kopiv-
6os) on a plateau at the northern foot of the lofty
(1,750 ft.) and impregnable Acro-Corinthus, which
served as a stronghold and as the site of the temple
of Poseidon (the natural patron-god of a seafaring
people). The purple-fish of Greek waters early
attracted Phoenicians to Corinth. These brought
with them their traditions and gods (especially
Axtiirte-Aphrodite, whose worship was impure (cf.
the hierodouli of Cappadocia, q.v.). The Phoe-
nieian sun-god Melkarth supplanted Poseidon on
Acro-Corinthus, which became sacred to Melkarth
(as Helius) conjointly with Astarte (Aphrodite),
while the worship of Poseidon was relegated to
the Isthmus. They introduced also many manu-
factures, which made Corinth the center of indus-
trial art at an early period (purple dye, artistic
weaving, cloths, rugs, bronze objects, tables, coffers,
armor, and pottery). Later, emigrants from Attica
became supreme. These probably changed tin-
name to Corinth. They glorified the games in honor
of Poseidon at the Isthmus, and opened them to
other states.
The Dorian conquest, which occurred under Alet >-s
(c. 1074 B.C.), brought a Dorian element to Corinth.
C. was now ruled by Heraclid kings (Bacchiada;) till
748, when kings were superseded by prytanes chosen
annually from 200 Bacchiad families. The Dorian
conquest did not make Corinth really Dorian; she
detested Dorian exclusiveness and remained lux-
urious, immoral, and commercial. A new era of
prosperity was introduced by Cypselus (of Eolian
stock), who expelled the Bacchiadae and reintroduced
the monarchy 657-629 B.C. Under Periander (629-
585) and Psammetichus (585-582) triremes were in-
vented, and a series of trading-stations (colonies)
were established in the W. and N., and relations with
Miletus, Mitylene, Lydia, and Egypt were cultivated.
The Cypselids were succeeded by the old Dorian
conservative aristocracy, under which Corinth be-
came famous for her wealth, luxury, extravagance,
and licentiousness (abounding in hetoeroe, and relig-
ious prostitutes). Hence the proverb, "I do not
advise every man to visit Corinth." Not only Cor-
inth's position between two seas, but the difficulty of
circumnavigating Peloponnesus, and the easy trans-
fer of wares and even ships by a wooden railway
(Si'oAKor) across the Isthmus made C. the meeting-
place of Occident and Orient, and a commercial and
banking center. Being a commercial city, C. was
lukewarm in the Persian wars. Later, because of her
jealousy of the growing commerce of Athens, C. sided
with Sparta, and incited that city to the Peloponne-
sian War (431), but in 395-387 she joined Athens,
Thebes, and Argos in the Corinthian War against
Sparta. Philip and Alexander were proclaimed
leaders of the Greeks at the Isthmian Games (in
338 and 336). A Macedonian garrison held the Acro-
Corinthus (335-243), and though expelled during the
existence of the Achean League (243-222) (headed by
Aratus) it was later restored (222-199). Corinth and
Greece were declared free by Rome at the Games of
196. But it later became the head of a new Achean
League, and at the command of the Roman Senate
was totally destroyed by Mummius in 146. The
147
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Conversion
Corinthians
inhabitants were slaughtered or enslaved and the
statues, pictures, and furniture sent to Rome. The
place was uninhabited for 100 years, ami the site was
cursed and given to Sicyon for the maintenance of the
Isthmian Games. Cii'sar in 1 1 n.c. removed the curse
and refounded the city as a Roman colony (Colonia
Laus Julia Corinthus). The new city was confined
to the northern plateau: temples and public build-
ings were reconstructed. As the political capital of
Aehaia and residence of the proconsul during the
following 100 years C. regained her former magnifi-
cence, luxury, and immorality. It is this Graco-
Kdinan city which Pausanias describes, and it was in
this city that Paul lived and wrought, and it was
this atmosphere that made possible the excesses re-
proved by him (cf. Ac 18 5-17, 20 2 f.; I and II Co;
see also COKINTHIANS, EP. TO). C. maintained its
existence until 1858, when it was annihilated by an
earthquake. Since 1896 the site has been gradually
bought and excavated by the American School at
Athens.
In earliest times Corinth patronized literature,
but materialism gained the day and consequently
Corinth has no place in literature, though she pro-
duced many statesmen. In art she is famous for her
early school of painting and for the Corinthian order
of architecture. The colonies of C. were Syracuse,
Solium, Ambracia, Anactorium, Leucas, Corcyra,
Epidamnus, Apollonia, and Potida;a. The results
of American excavations have been disappointing,
as nothing of prime importance has been found.
J. R. S. S.
CORINTHIANS, EPISTLES TO THE
ANALYSIS OP CONTENTS
1. Review of Criticism
2. Date of I Corinthians
3. Condition of Church
4. Early Correspondence
5. Oral Information of the
Situation
6. Motive and Contents of
I Corinthians
7. Date of II Corinthians
8. Condition of Church
9. Sorrowful Visit
10. Painful Letter
11. II Corinthians a Com-
posite Epistle
12. Bearing of Epistles on
Paul's Work
These letters belong to a group of Paul's Epistles
(Corinthians, Galatians, and Romans), whose au-
thorship, apart from certain sporadic
I. Criti- attacks, conspicuous by their failure
cism of the (Evanson, 1792; Bruno Bauer, 1852;
Epistles. Dutch Critical School, 1882), has
never been questioned. In fact, this
group has been made by such radical critics as the
Tubingen School (1845) the standard of Pauline lit-
erature, over against which the remainder of the
canonical Epistles bearing his name were shown, to
their satisfaction, to be pious forgeries.
As a consequence, the chief matters of interest in
these letters center, not in their authorship, but in
the conditions of church life in the Apostolic Age and
in the relations to that life borne by the work and
the personality of Paul.
It is evident from 16 8 f. that I Corinthians was
written from Ephesus shortly before Pentecost. As
to what year, it is plain that it could not have been
that of Paul's first visit to the city, on his return
from his second mission tour (Ac 1819, 52 A.D.),
since the Kpistlr was written after Apollos had been
preaching in Corinth (1 12, 16 12), which was sub-
sequent to this time (Ac 18 24-19 i).
2. Date of It must have been some year during
I Corin- the longer stay in Ephesus on his third
thians. mission tour (53-56 A.D.) most likely
at the end of the period; since it was
after Timothy had been sent to Corinth as the repre-
sentative of the Apostle (4 17, 16 10) and after the
Apostle himself had planned a journey soon to fol-
low to the same place (4 19, 16 5, 7) which from
Ac 19 10, 21 f. was after he had been two years en-
gaged in his Ephesian work. The probable date
may, therefore, be given as late in the winter or
early in the spring of 56.
The situation disclosed by I Corinthians is one of
marked unspirituality among the members of the
Christian community and of distinct
3. Condi- pastoral anxiety for their condition on
tion of the part of Paul. The people were re-
Corinthian turning, in a measure, to their old pagan
Church, habit of living, as shown particularly
in the party spirit which seemed to
possess them all (1 10-21, 3 3 f.), the sensuality which
existed unrebuked among them (5 1 f.), the skeptical
questionings to which they were giving themselves
(15 12, 35), and the general attitude of independency
in life and worship (89-13, 1027-33, 11 1-6, 20-22, 12-
14) which was threatening their respect and rever-
ence for Paul himself (4 3-19, 5 9-ll, 9 1-3).
Indeed before I Corinthians the Apostle had been
moved by their lack of sensitiveness to moral condi-
tions to write the people bidding them
4. Early not to keep company with fornicators
Corre- (59). To this they had replied that
spondence. the command was impracticable, indi-
cating either an indifferent or a de-
signed misunderstanding of it as involving the
general population of the city (5 10) a misunder-
standing which Paul corrects by showing them
that his reference was to immoral members of the
church (511).
In this reply they also lay before the Apostle other
troublesome problems in their church life, such as
marriage and divorce (ch. 7), meat offered to idols
(chs.Sand 10), the exercise of spiritual gifts (chs. 12-
14), the collection for the Jerusalem poor (161-4),
and the possible return to them of Apollos (16 12).
In addition to this, oral information had come to
him through members of the household of Chloe
concerning the wide prevalence in the
5. Oral community of a partizan spirit (1 ll)
Informa- not that there existed among them
tion as to clearly denned parties or distinct relig-
Partizan ions sects, but that the habit of fac-
Spirit and tionalism gathering around claimed
Other excellencies in certain of their ministers
Matters, and boasted superiority in certain of
their members had generally possessed
the church.
Doubtless through the same informants Paul
had learned of the aggravated case of immorality in
the community (ch. 5) and possibly also of the litig-
ious spirit among them (ch. 6), as well as of their
skeptical attitude of mind toward the fact of a gen-
eral resurrection of the dead (ch. 15).
Coriiilln.iti.-i
A STAM>-\l;li HIBLE DICTIONARY
148
It WM to rvlmke this factionalism in its various
forms of manifestation, to denounce this skepticism
as to tin 1 tnilli.aiul to discuss the qucs-
6. Motive lions laid IM-I.IIV him Ihat I Corinthians
and Con- was written.
tents of I I. The A|K>stle takes up, first of all,
Corin- the reported factionalism. After tell-
thians. ing them how he had come by the news
..f it . he visits upon it a plain and out-
spoken reproof, which extends practically through
the lirst thtvc chapters of the F.pistle. He shows
them that this spirit is contrary to the divine pur-
pose l-chind the ministry which he had accomplished
aiming them (1 12-17) in fact, against the spirit of
the Cos] -el itself and God's calling of them to its
privileges (1 is-31), that it was opposed to the prin-
ciple which had controlled his preaching of this
.-I. not only among them (2 1-5) but in general
(2-lfl), that it was against the spirit which had
actuated himself ami A|K>llos in their ministry to
them (:> 1-1:1) and against, the true spirituality of the
life implanted in them Uydod (3 16-23).
II. Such plainness of speech, however, calls for
a|H)logy, which he gives (4 1-5), stating that the rea-
son for his reproof had been his desire for a humble-
ness of life in them such a.s was .seen in Apollos and
himself (1 6-lti), to bring which desire to realization
lie had sent to them Timothy (4 17-21).
III. With his mind relieved on this first point of
dilliciilty between them, he takes up the reported
immorality (ch. 5), accusing them not of being them-
immoral, but of not being sensitive to those
of their number who were, and that too although the
particular case which had been cited to him as con-
doned by them was one of infamous nature (5 l f. ).
He prescribes the punishment in the case, which
apparently involved exposing the offender to the
infliction of a miraculous death (cf. case of Ananias
and Sapphira, Ac 5 1-11), though with the purpose of
the saving of his soul in the day of judgment (5 3-5).
He then renews his reproof of their lack of moral
judgment, taking occasion to remind them of his
commands to them on this matter in his former
(unpreserved) letter (5 6-13).
IV. In ch. 6 he conies to their irritating habit
of going to law in cases of dispute among themselves.
LOWS them that such a spirit is out of all har-
mony with the high dignity of their relationship to
the world and the true fellowship of their relations
to one another (6 1-11), which leads him to a state-
ment of (lie principle of Christian liberty, though
the especial application he makes of the prin-
ciple is to the matter of immoral relationships
(0 12-20).
V. 1. This application presents to him the first
"f (he specific questions laid before him in the letter
from the ( 'hurch the question concerning marriage.
On this he takes high ground. He holds marriage
to be wise and honorable (7 1-7) a bond not to be
loosened even where it involves an unbelieving com-
panion (78-17). In general, he holds that exist ing
nships Ixith in and out of wedlock should best
remain as they are, though his personal preference is
for tin- mmmrried state (7 18-40).
The second question concerns the eating of
meats offered to idols, in reply to which he urges the
principle of a self-denying regard for others' opinion
(ch. 8), as illustrative of which principle he refers to
liis own action in the matter of receiving support
from churches, answering objections to his course
(9 1-27), and exhorting against a spirit of self-conli-
dence (10 1-13), and against idolatry (10 14-22). To
this he adds a fuller statement of the principles of
Christian liberty (1023-11 1).
3. There then follows a rather prolonged discus-
sion of the complicated question of public worship
(11 2-14 40). He considers first the matter of appro-
priate head apparel in their assemblies (11 2-ie),
from which he proceeds to the vital situation in-
volved in their conduct of the Lord's Supper, which
had grown so disorderly as not only to become a
scandal but to bring a deadening influence on their
spiritual life (11 17-34). Finally he takes up the
confusion which had fallen upon their exercise of
spiritual gifts, disclosing the spirit of order and
mutual service that should actuate it (ch. 12),
while he leads them up to a consideration of love as
the greatest gift of all (ch. 13) and shows them the
practical worth and value of the gift of speaking
with tongues (ch. 14).
4. With ch. 15 he apparently digresses to the orally
reported difficulties in the Church, and takes up one
of the most important and significant of their troub-
les their skeptical attitude of mind toward the
resurrection. With great earnestness and apolo-
getic skill he meets the objections raised against
the doctrine, showing how it is necessitated by the
historical fact of the resurrection of Christ (15 1-19)
and by principles involved in Christ's relationship
to them (15 20-28) and fundamental to their spiritual
life (1523-58).
6. In ch. 16 he returns to the stated questions
from the Church first that concerning the collection
ordered among them for the Jerusalem poor, which
was evidently languishing for lack of proper method
(16 1-4), and finally, after a discussion of his own
and Timothy's plans of travel (16 5-11), that concern-
ing their request for the return of Apollos to them
a request which the Apostle himself had favored, but
Apollos for the present had declined (16 12).
This ends the Epistle's message, and a few verses
bring it to its conclusion (16 13-24).
The Second Epistle was written after Paul had
left Ephesus and had come by way of Troas into
Macedonia (2 12 f.). He had been
7. Date despondent about the Corinthian
of II church before leaving Ephesus and had
Corin- consequently sent Titus (by the short
thians. sea route) to Corinth for a betterment
of its affairs. Titus had met him in
Macedonia, coming north from Corinth (75-7; cf . 2
12 f . ). If Paul left Ephesus in the spring or the sum-
mer of 56, II Corinthians was written in the summer
or the autumn of the same year.
The situation in Corinth at the time
8. Con- II Corinthians was written is a develop-
dition of the ment of that disclosed by the First
Church. Epistle. The moral sensitiveness of
the community seems to have im-
proved, but the factionalism appears to have con-
centrated itself in an actual movement of hostility
against Paul (1 15-17, 2 5-10, 10 10 f., 11 5-12, 16, 12 11,
11!)
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Corinthians
15-18, 13 1 f., 5-7), emanating seemingly from the
Christ party (10 7, 11 13, 22 f., 13 3) and in all like-
lihood possessing the spirit, if not actuated by the
claims, of the Judaizers (11 4 f. fcf. Gal 1 6, 2 6-8], 11
13-15 [of. Gal 1 8 f.], 11 18-20 [cf. Gal 2 4, 4 3, 9, 5 l]).
That this development endangered the relation-
ship of Paul to the Corinthian Church of course
needs no proof. Its seriousness, however, gives sig-
nificance to several indications in II Corinthians
that the Apostle had been personally involved in the
process by which it had come to its strength.
There are, for example, certain passages which
seem to show that the visit to Corinth Paul has in
mind when writing is to be his third
9. Sorrow- visit to that city (12 14, 13 1-3), while
ful Visit, it has promise of being a second visit
of sorrow (21, 1221). The explana-
tion formerly given, by which these passages were
referred to the Apostle's third plan to go to them,
rather than to his third actual visit, is now generally
abandoned, and a visit, unrecorded in Acts, is ad-
mitted to have been made from Ephesus after I
Corinthians. Its occasion was the development of
this personal hostility which Timothy, who had been
sent to Corinth in connection with the First Epistle,
had apparently been unable to hold in check. Its
result was unsuccessful (1010f.), and the Apostle
returned to Ephesus in great despondency of mind,
from which he had not recovered when he left the
city (2 12 f., 7 5).
All this is borne out by certain other passages
which seem to hint at another letter sent by the
Apostle to Corinth a letter of "many
10. Pain- tears," written out of "much affliction
ful Letter, and anguish of heart" (24, 78-12)
a description that can not suit I Corin-
thians, which, though a letter of censure and shame,
was written rather in a balance between anger and
meekness (I Co 4 21) than in the abandonment of
grief. Added significance to the foregoing descrip-
tion is afforded by the fact that it is found in the
passages which refer to events evidently connected
with this unrecorded visit (2 1 f. [3 f.], 5-8 [9], lOf.)
and with Titus' mission in the emergency (7 5-7
[8f.], 10 f. [12], 13-16).
Apart, however, from all such admissions regard-
ing a special letter of tears, though gaining signifi-
cant interest through them, there has
11. II Cor- been a growing conviction among
inthians a. scholars that the peculiar difference in
Composite tone and contents of chs. 1-9 from chs.
Epistle. 10-13 points to the composite character
of II Corinthians. The cheerful and
sat isfied character of the earlier chapters discloses a
situation in the Church of general loyalty to the
Apostle; the dissatisfied and anxious character of
the latter chapters betrays one of general disloyalty
to him. In fact, when we note the peculiar cross-
references between 23 and 13 10, 1 23 and 132, 29,
and 10 6, it would seem that the states of feeling on
the Apostle's part, which in the later passages are
considered as threatening the Corinthians, in the
earlier passages are regarded as laid aside and re-
moved as though between the situation referred
to in chs. 10-13 and that referred to in chs. 1-9 there
had come a change for the better.
In view of these peculiarities it would appear not
only that these last four chapters were written be-
fore the first nine, but that they contain at least a
portion of the painful letter, written after Paul's
return to Ephesus from the unsuccessful visit a
position which gains significance from the fact that
in the foregoing cross-references those in the earlier
chapters (1 23, 2 3, 9) are all taken from the pas-
sages which expressly refer to this visit and the
letter connected with it.
This theory is strongly confirmed when the con-
tents of these chapters are considered in the order in
which this arrangement places them.
In chs. 8 and 9 Paul is urging upon them the col-
lection for the Judsean saints, citing the generous
spirit of the Macedonian churches as a stimulus
to their own benevolence and disclosing the spiritual
rewards that follow upon a liberal giving. Through-
out his appeal he leaves no doubt as to his confi-
dence in what they will do in the matter the chap-
ter ending with a thanksgiving that suggests the
hope he has of them.
In contrast to this, ch. 10 begins abruptly with an
assertion of his apostolic authority, over against a
state of criticism and open hostility toward him such
as is not hinted at in any of the preceding chapters
(101-11). In proof of the fact of his authority he
cites three things: (a) The independence of his
ministry (10 12-18), which united with it a jealousy
of affection for them (11 1-15) an affection which
was all the more marked in comparison with the sel-
fishness of his opponents' conduct (11 16-21a), which
lacked the background of the labors and sufferings
that belonged to all his missionary life (11 21b-33);
(6) the visions granted him by God (12 1-4), to-
gether with the infirmities laid upon him by the
same divine hand and the contact with God's
strength into which these weaknesses brought him
(125-10); (c) the manifestation of his apostolic power
in the working of miracles among them (12 11-13).
This assertion of his challenged authority is then
followed by a passage which, for the heaviness of
heart and bitterness of spirit that it discloses, is
unique among Paul's writings (1214-1310). It is
burdened with anxious fear for the stability of his
relations to them (12 14-21), while it is sharp with
threatened action against them at his coming (13
1-10). With this his message closes.
When we turn to the first nine chapters this stress
and strain would seem to be all over. The opening
chapter, to be sure, takes up a criticism which is
being urged against him by the people; but the
charge is a mild one, concerning simply his delay in
coming to them as he had promised, which seemed
to them to be a show of fickleness (1 15-17). This
charge he meets in a spirit of abounding confidence
in his own sincerity and in their loyalty toward him
(1 12-14), showing that his delay had been due to his
desire to spare them in giving himself time to re-
cover from his sorrow over their condition and them-
selves time for a change of their condition, indicating
that the case of hostility toward him, which they
had furnished, should now be forgiven by them, as it
practically had already been by himself (1 182 10).
Then, after showing how his anxiety to hear from
them through Titus had left him no peace of mind
Corinthians
Cosmogony
A STANDARD BIRLE DICTIONARY
150
on liis journey (Jl.'f. ), 1.. y a short transi-
tion (LMt-lT), ID :i review of his ministry among I IK-MI,
ippmval of it over against
. unfririully element as .;till remained in the
-eh. Beibowi the fruit of sen-ice to ! (In-
proof of :i tnit- ministry (31-11), while he displays
Ix'forv them tin- plainness and honesty of his
preaching ('! i-'-4 6) and at the same time the hard-
ship of his ministry and the secret of his endurance
(4 7-5 10), closing with an assertion of the absence
from his mind of all spirit of self-glory (5 11-21) and
an exhort a I inn to them to make their lives effective
in the service to which they were called (61-10).
This is evidently the end of his message; for there
f. .Hows u|H>nthis simply the practical warning against
fellowship with unbelievers (0 11-7 1 unless 6 14-7 1
Ix- a remnant of his first letter to them, referred to in
I ( 'o 5 9 f. ), a plea for yet closer fellowship with them,
with an acknowledgment of the comfort their loy-
alty toward him had already produced (7 2-16) and
the urging on them of the Jerusalem collection (chs.
8 and 9; see above).
It is seen from this that, while in both sections in
our II Corinthians there is a personal element in the
motive for the writing, there is between them a
marked difference of direction in which this motive
proceeds. In chs. 10-13 it is straight toward a
determination to meet and master the hostility
which had manifested itself against the Apostle since
I Corinthians, but in chs. 1-9 it is all toward a de-
sire to lay hold of and safeguard the loyalty which
had finally shown itself in the church.
With such an understanding of the contents of
these two parts of our Epistle and of the purpose
which lay behind them, it would seem that the
only arrangement of them possible is that of the
theory that chs. 10-13 belong to the painful let-
ter written at Ephesus and chs. 1-9 to the letter
which followed it on the journey from Ephesus to
Corinth.
There would thus be four letters of Paul to the
Corinthians: (1) The initial letter of prohibition, re-
ferred to in I Co 5 9 !., and possibly preserved in frag-
ment in II Co 6 14-7 l. (2) The letter in answer to
the Corinthian communication and preserved in our
I Corinthians. (3) The painful letter, preserved
in part in II Co 10-13. (4) The final letter, pre-
served practically entire in II Co 1-9.
It is a fact that there was a correspondence be-
tween Paul and the Corinthian church which had
not been preserved that led in the latter half of
the 2d cent, to the forging of two apocryphal Cor-
inthian letters one from the church to Paul and
the other a reply of Paul to the church. They
formed originally a part of the old Acts of Paid and
were admitted by the ancient Syrian and Armenian
churches into the N T which they ac-
12. What cepted and read.
the Epis- \\hen Paul went into Europe on
ties Show his second mission tour his work was
of Paul's carried on much more among the Glen-
Work, tiles and was consequently different
in its character from what it had been
previously. The cities of his first tour, though in
Asia Minor, were much nearer Syria and, therefore,
more likely to have in them a distinctive Jewish
element. In fact, Ac 16 1-4 shows us that, while
.still having this near-by region in mind as his im-
mediate field of labor, Paul felt the Jewish situa-
tion must be especially respected in the way his
work was done.
In Europe, however, not only was the Jewish
element in the communities less in number and in
influence (cf. Ac 16 13, 18 12-17), but in view of the
agreement reached at the Jerusalem Council (Gal
2 9) the Gentiles were now much more specifically
and admittedly the object of Paul's work. The
Corinthian Epistles disclose the character of that
European work as it developed in a large city center
among people uninstructed in religious principles,
whose difficulties and shortcomings were not so
much in the direction of doctrinal preconceptions as
of sheer ignorance of doctrinal truth and crude con-
ceptions of ethical obligation.
In other words, the Corinthian Christians being
predominantly gentile, these Epistles show us that,
in spite of the Apostle's long residence among them,
they still tended toward a liberalism of Christian
living, which seriously threatened their moral char-
acter, while they retained enough of the partizan
spirit of the old Greek paganism to endanger vitally
that Christian brotherhood which was the heart of
their religion. It is evident, therefore, that the Cor-
inthian stage of Christianity was not so developed
in its knowledge and in its disputes as the stage of
the more Jewish churches in Galatia though it was
clearly more developed than that of the gentile
church in Thessalonica. Consequently whatever
Judaizing element may have entered into the opposi-
tion which developed against the Apostle between I
and II Corinthians, it must have been of a less ad-
vanced kind than that which animated the great
controversy in Galatia. For though it is clear that
another Gospel was being preached among the
people (II Co 11 4, 12 f.; cf. Gal 1 6), there is no
evidence that the propaganda of circumcision as
necessary to salvation was being carried on. If this
was the same movement as the Galatian as would
seem generally to be the fact it was concerning
itself rather with the preliminary personal opposi-
tion to Paul's apostleship than with the central
debate and controversy over doctrinal truth (cf.
II Co 10 1-3, 11 5, 12 11; Gal 1 l, 15, 17, 2 6).
LITERATURE: Among the N T Introductions accessible to
English readers Jiilicher 6 , 1906 (Eng. transl. 1904), may
be consulted for the more advanced critical views, and the
unexampled treasure-house of Zahn 3 , 1906 (Eng. transl.
1907), explored for the conservative positions. Consult
also the introductions to the Commentaries of Schmiedel,
1891; Heinrici, I Co, 1896; II Co 1900; Bachmann,
1905; Findlay, I Co, 1900; Bernard. II Co, 1903 (the
last two in The Expositor's Greek Testament).
For a description of the Corinthian situation consult, be-
sides Zahn's Introduction, von Dobschiitz's Christian
Life in the Primitive Church (chs. 2-4), 1904.
For the composition of II Co, consult Hausrath Der Vier-
kapitetbrief des Paulus an die Korinther, 1870. with
reply by Klopper in his Commentar iiber d. zweite Send-
schreiben an die Gemcinde in Korinth, 1874 ; also Kennedy,
The Second and Third Epistles to the Corinthians. 1900;
and art. "The Problem of Second Corinthians" in Her-
mathena, No. XXIX. 1903, with contrary view in Intro-
duction to Bernard's Com. above. Jf \y_ J.
CORMORANT. See PALESTINE, 25.
CORN. See AGRICULTURE, 4-7, and FOOD, 1.
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Corinthians
Cosmogony
CORNELIUS, cf.r-ni'li-us (Kopvfaios) : A Ro-
man official referred to in Ac 10 as a centurion of the
"Italian bund " (q.v.) and resident in Csesarea, either
in connection with his troops stationed there or on
detached duty from his command, or even possibly
retired altogether from active service, his Roman
name probably indicating that he himself was an
Italian.
At the same time the terms in which he is relig-
iously described (ver. 2, "a devout man and one that
feared God," et>o-c/3f}c [differing from "devout,"
iJXa/3iJ, of Jews, Ac 2 5, 8 2, 22 12] KOI fapovfifvos
TOV Qeov; ver. 22, "a righteous man and one that
feareth God," SUcuot ical Qofiovpevos TOV Beov) show
him to have belonged to those half-way followers of
Judaism who, though not circumcized (of. ver. 28
with 113) and consequently not members of the
congregation of Israel, had in their feeling after the
true God adopted certain Jewish practises (cf. vs.
2, 30), in virtue of which they not only came into
good favor with the Jews (cf. ver. 22; also Lk 7 4), but
were permitted to take part in the worship of the
Synagogue (cf. Ac 13 16, 26, 43, 17 17). He was thus
of a class who were neither 'proselytes of the gate,'
nor 'proselytes of righteousness'; in fact, from the
evident conflate reading, Ac 13 43 (TW o-f/3o/*e'vwy
irpoa-Tj\vTit>v), not proselytes at all. Under these
circumstances the baptized admission of himself
and his household into the Christian brotherhood
(ver. 47 f.) was such a breach of the Jewish prin-
ciples which then ruled in the Church that upon his
return to Jerusalem Peter was called to account for
his connection with the incident (11 2f.). His justi-
fication of his action on the basis of the visions re-
ceived by himself and Cornelius and the outpouring
upon the convert of the gifts of the Holy Spirit was
accepted and the case was doubtless treated as ex-
ceptional, its significant relation to the ideal racial
unity within the Church not being comprehended.
LITERATURE: For the military status of Cornelius in Cses-
area, cf. Ramsay, Was Christ Born in Bethlehem f (1898,
pp. 260-269); Expos., Sept. and Dec., 1896, Jan., 1897;
Rackham, Acts in Westminster Corns., note, p. 146. For
the relation to Judaism of the class to which C. belonged
cf. Schurer, HJP. II, ii., 311-327. For the bearing of
the incident on the development of the early Church, cf.
works on Apostolic Age by Bartlett (1899, p. 41 f.), and
McGiffert (1897, p. 107 f.) ; Rackham, Acts in Westm.
Corns. ; Knowling, Acts in Expos. Gr. Test.
M. W. J.
CORNER : The exact equivalent of the Heb. pin-
nah, pdnah, zawiyyoth, and the Gr. yiavia, the ma-
jority of instances where the word occurs. The word
is also used to render (1) pa'am, 'foot' (Ex 25 12,
AV); (2) miqtso'a, 'angle' (Ex2623); (3) pe'ah,
'quarter' or 'side' (Ex 25 26); (4) kanaph, 'wing' (Is
11 12); (5) katheph, 'shoulder' (II K 11 11, AV);
(6) tsela', 'rib' (Ex 304, AV); (7) qatsah, 'end'
(K\-274); (8) Hoph'al participle of qats'a, 'turn'
(Ezk 4622); and (9) the Gr. ap x h 'beginning' (Ac
1011). A. C. Z.
CORNER GATE, GATE OF THE CORNER.
See JERUSALEM, 32.
CORNER-STONE: In Is 28 16 the "precious cor-
ner-stone" that J" is to lay in Zion is the great prin-
ciple of genuine- failh in Him, in contrast to the false
confidence exhibited by the prophet's contempo-
raries. In Ps 118 22 it is Zion (viewed ideally) over
against the world (its oppressor) that is the corner-
stone of J". In the N T both of these ideas are sub-
ordinated to the application of the passages to Christ
as fulfilling them in the widest sense possible (Mk 12
10 and ||s; Ac 4 12; Eph 2 20; I P 2 6f.). E. E. N.
CORNET. See Music, 3 (5).
CORN-FLOOR. See AGRICULTURE, 6.
CORPSE. See BURIAL AND BURIAL CUSTOMS,
1, and PURIFICATIONS, 6.
CORRECT, CORRECTION. See CHASTEN.
CORRUPTION, MOUNT OF (UK 23 13): The
literal meaning of the Heb. mashhUh is 'des-
troyer,' though it may have been taken in this
passage in the sense of 'destruction.' The reference is
probably to the S. elevation of the Mount of Olives,
afterward called the Mount of Offense. E. E. N.
COS (Kcir, Coos AV): A long, narrow island
between the promontories of Cnidus and Halicar-
nassus (Ac 211). The ancient capital, A stypalcea,
was supplanted by the town Cos (366 B.C.). Cos
belonged to the Dorian Hexapolis and the Athenian
Confederacy. It was declared free by Claudius.
The island was often devastated by earthquakes.
Cos was much favored by Herod. It was the birth-
place of Apelles, Hippocrates, Aristo, and Ptolemy
Philadelphus. It contained a temple of Asklepios
and a medical school and was also a banking
center. J. R. g. g.
COSAM (Kwo-a'/i): One of the ancestors of Jesus
(Lk328). E. E. N.
COSMOGONY
ANALYSIS or CONTENTS
1. The Biblical Accounts of 4. The Babylonian Creation
Creation Epic
2. Gn l'-2< 5. Superiority of the Bib-
3. Gn l-2 and Modern lical Account
Science
Besides a number of references in the poetical
books (e.g., Job 26, 38; Ps. 24 2, 104), the O T con-
tains two chief accounts of the Creation,
i. The (a) Gn 1-2 4a belongs to the Priestly
Biblical narrative (see HEXATEUCH), whose
Accounts regard for system is seen in the ar-
of Crea- rangement of the entire book under
tion. ten generations or 'begettings' (2 4 a ,
5 l, 11 10, etc.). In the case of "the
heavens and the earth," the term "generation" is,
of course, employed figuratively; and 2 4 a probably
stood originally before 1 1 i.e., at the beginning of
its section, as in the other occurrences of the expres-
sion. The characteristic formal arrangement of the
Priestly writer is also seen in the recurrence of stere-
otyped formulas in Gn 1-2 4 a : "And God said,"
"and it was so," "and God saw that it was good,"
and there was evening and there was morning,
a ... day." (6) Cn24bff. is from the earlier
Jehovistic narrative, and differs from 1-2 4a not
Cosmogony
\ SI \ND\i: I> IUHLE DICTIONARY
only in l-in;; mure simple, concrete, and anthropo-
rphic. > iis content. It is concerned
ahni..-t entirely with the creation of man, and the
.m' secondary.
Turning now to (in 1 'J^i. we notice that there
distinguished by charac-
ic formulas; and of these one falls
2. Gn (m each day. excepting the third and
: i 14*. sixth days, which have two works each.
Again, the six days arc divided into two
groups of three each, whose relation of preparation
and accomplishment will at once be seen from the
following summary:
iht.
2. The waters divided by the
firmament.
3. (a) Dry land separated
(mm thewMU. (6) Veiee-
tation.
7. Sabbath of Rest.
4. Unlit*: sun, moon, and
r>. Living creatures in the
HUNT*, mid birds that
fly in front of U'' 1 ' 1 - '""
the fnce of ') the firma-
ment.
ll. (a) Land animals. (l>)
Man.
Without attempting a detailed exegesis of Gn
1-2 4a. the following points should be mentioned for
their bearing u|>n the general subject under dis-
n: I In' Hebrew word bard ('create,' Gn 1 1),
while it here denotes the production by Divine power
of something fundamentally new, does not necessaiilj'
mean 'to i :iiiln. An original creation out
of nothing is not denied by <!n 1, but the narrative
begins no farther back than the picturing of a vast,
dark, chaoti, . watery mass (cf. IIP 3 5), upon the
face (i.e., surface) of which the spirit (literally
'breath') of God was brooding as a bird over her
nest. 1 The syntax of vcr. l is obscure; it should
be translated probably as follows: 'In the begin-
ning of Cod's creating the heavens and the earth
now the earth was without form and void and dark-
'.vas upon the face of the deep then God said,
Let there be light.' The primeval light is here rep-
lied as something in itself, independent of the
luminaries (cf. vcr. 14(1.). Furthermore, darkness
. to be thought of as having a distinct existence
and abode, and not as the mere absence of light (cf.
(in 1 5, is with Job '_'<! 10, 3819 f.).
It already appears that the conceptions of Gn
1-2 4a are not exactly those of modern astronomy,
geology, or paleontology. Other dis-
3. Gn crepancics might be noted, of which the
l'-24 and following are perhaps the most obvious:
Modern (1) There is no reason for supposing
Science, that the Hebrew word y6m in Gn 1 is
used in any but its ordinary sense of a
day of twenty-four hours; but even if the writer
this word figuratively, the periods there men-
tioned could not possibly be identified with the geo-
s. (L>) The sun and stars sire said to
have been created after the earth. (3) According
toCn 1 there is light, and evening and morning, be-
fore there is a sun. (I ) Plant life precedes sunlight.
I '.in Is precede all land animals, and vegetation is
complete in its highest, forms before any animal life
appears.
> See ( Ixf.ird Hrljm, Genesis,' 5 5.
Attempts to reconcile these statements with the
teachings of modern science have been marked
either by a dogmatic denial of .scientific truths ' or
by a distortion of the plain meaning of Hebrew and
h words. The efforts of the most eminent
harmonists 2 are remarkable only for their uniform
failure.' "Read without prejudice or bias, the nar-
rative of Gn 1 creates an impression at variance with
the /acts revealed by science: the efforts at reconcilia-
tion . . . are but different modes of ... reading
into it o view which it does not express" (the italics
are Canon Driver's). The preeminence of the relig-
ious conceptions of the narrative will be dealt with
later; but we can not, and need not, escape from the
conclusion that here, as elsewhere in the Bible, the
inspired writer shares the 'scientific' beliefs of his
contemporaries.
The Hebrew conception of the universe or world
may be brieBy stated as follows: The earth is the
center of all; apparently a circular disk (cf. Is 40 22)
restingupon unseen foundations (Job 380; Zee 121).
The firmament (sky or heaven), like a thin, solid
dome (cf. Job 22 14, "vault" [circuit AV]; Pr827,
circle [compass AV]; Ps 1049, "bounds"), re-
strains the waters above it (Gn 1 6), except when
its windows are opened to let down rain (Gn 711).
The firmament also rests upon mysterious founda-
tions (II S 22 8; Job 26 11). In it are fastened the
luminaries (Gn 1 14-17), which move in their fixed
courses. Sometimes a plurality of heavens ( ? seven ;
cf. II Co 12 2; Eph 4 10) are spoken of (Dt 10 14; Ps
148 4), in the highest of which God dwells (Dt 26 15;
II Ch 6 21; Am 9 6, upper chambers, rather than
"stories" [i.e., 'success! ve heights'] of AV). Within
the mass of the earth is the dark abode of the de-
parted, called Sheol, Abaddon, Hades, or the Pit (Nu
16 33; Ps 15 11; Is 38 18; cf. Rev 6 8, 9 11). Beneath
the earth is the great deep (Is 51 10), whose store-
houses and fountains (Gn 7ll) feed the seas.
Such a rapid generalization, however, is apt to
give the impression that the O T portrays a very
rigid, mechanical universe; and the outlines of the
picture need to be softened by a consideration of the
following important facts: There is no single con-
nected passage which describes the cosmos as a con-
sistent whole, or even brings together all the funda-
mental conceptions just mentioned. A very large
proportion of the cosmological references are found
in formal poetry, and ought not to be interpreted as
literal prose; while many others are in highly figura-
tive prophecy or apocalypse. The inspired writers
showed no more hesitancy in employing metaphors
that were shifting and contradictory than do we in
using these very same crystallized figures of speech
in our modern poetry and colloquial prose. 4 Along
the horizon everything is vague and mysterious;
concerning some things all that the Bible tells is
1 K.U., Keil, Genesis.
! E.g., Prof. Arnold Guyot, Creation (1893); Prof. J. D.
Dana, in Bib. Sacra, Apl., 1885; Sir J. W. Dawson, The
Origin of the World According to Kerelntiini mid Science
(1893); Wm. E. Gladstone, The ImprcgnaMr Hm-k of Holy
Scripture.
3 See further H. Morton, 'The Cosmogony of Genesis
and Its Reconcilers,' in B b. Sacra, Apl. and July. 1897.
4 To compare 'the sun rises' \vith Ps 19 * " is the redltctio
ad absurdum for a too mechanical criticism.
153
A STANDARD HIHL1C DICTIONARY
Cosmogony
that man knows nothing about thorn; indeed, the
whole question of the; original creation and present
structure of the universe is frequently stated to be
beyond the comprehension of the human reason (e.g.,
Jer 3137; Is 40; Job 20 14, 30 29, 37l6f., 38). In
other words, the O T does not draw the universe in
plan and elevation, but paints it in perspective, seen
from man's point, of view; UK; instrument^ used
are not the theodolite and telescope, but the brush
and palette of poetic imagery. In the light of such
an understanding of the Hebrew cosmology, one
class of apologetic problems simply vanishes.
The cuneiform text just mentioned dates from the
7th cent. B.C., but the poem was originally cmnj .
probably at least, as early as 2000 B.C. This great
epic, entitled" When in the Height," from its opening
words, consists of 994 lines, divided into seven sec-
tions of approximately equal length, each inscribed
upon a separate tablet. "The poem embodies the
beliefs of the Babylonians and Assyrians concerning
the origin of the universe; it describes the coming
forth of the gods from chaos, and tells the story of
how the forces of disorder, represented by the prime-
val water-gods, Apsu and Tiamat, were overthrown
MARDUK'S FIGHT WITH TIA*MAT.
The narrative of Gn 1-2 4a has points in common
with several ancient cosmogonies; 1 but archeolo-
gists are now agreed that its immediate
4. The source is to be found in the beliefs
Babylonian concerning the beginning of the uni-
Creation verse which were held by the Assyrians
Epic. and Babylonians. 2 These beliefs have
long been known in an incomplete form
through Greek-Christian references to the writings of
Berossus, a Babylonian priest (c. 300 B.C.); but it
was not until 1875 that fragments of a cuneiform
account of the Creation were discovered at Nineveh
by George Smith. Since then other tablets have
been brought to light, until we now have more than
enough to indicate the general plan of the Baby-
lonian cosmogony. 3
1 See Dillmarm, Genesis (trans. 1897), pp. 27-94; EB,
s.v. Creation.
2 For other parallels between Hebrew and Babylonian
narratives, see articles FLOOD, PARAOISE, EDEN.
8 See L. W. King, The Seven Tablets of Creation (1902),
vol. I, translation and notes; also his more popular Baby-
lonian Religion and Mythology (1899), pp. 53-120.
by Ea and Marduk respectively, and how Mar-
duk, after completing the triumph of the gods
over chaos, proceeded to create the world and
man" (King). Its central theme is the glorifica-
tion of Marduk, the supreme god of Babylon,
and the actual account of the creation of the
world does not begin till near the end of the Fourth
Tablet. The Seventh Tablet gives the fifty titles
of Marduk, and ends the poem with a fine hymn
of praise. A few lines from the opening and clo-
sing are given to illustrate the style of the epic
(King's translation):
" WHEN IN THE HEIGHT heaven was not named,
And the earth beneath did not yet bear a name,
And the primeval Apsu, who begat them,
And chaos, Thtmat, the mother of them both,
Their waters were mingled together,
And no field was formed, no marsh was to be seen;
When of all the gods none had been called into being,
And none bore a name, and no destinies [were ordained];
Then were created the gods in the midst of [heaven],
Lahmu and Lahamu were called into being [. .].
Ages increased [. , . .],
Then Ansar and Kisar were created. . . ,"
Cosmogony
A ST\M)\l;i) BIB1.10 DICTIONARY
l.-. I
EriLoou*.
'Let thrm [i.c . the namr.i of Manluk] lx> held in rcmem
branoe, and let the first man proclaim them;
Let the wine and the understanding consider them together
I ! the (athrr repeat them and teach them to his son;
Let thorn be in the ear* of the pastor and the shepherd !
Ijel a man rrjuicf in Mnrduk. the Lord of the gods,
That he may cause his land to t fruitful, and that he
himself may have prosperity I " etc.
A study of (he entire epic reveals many remark-
:il)lc parallels between the Hebrew and Babylonian
narratives. The general course of the two accounts
is the some, anil the following specific agreements
(among others) are striking: (1) Both narratives
i with a description of primeval chaos. (2)
The early creation of light (Gn 1 3) is paralleled in
the original form of the Babylonian myth, according
to which Manluk was a solar deity. In both ac-
counts there is light before the creation of the lumi-
naries. (3) The deep (t'hOm) of Gn 1 2 shows even
a verbal similarity to the Babylonian chaos-monster,
TiAmat; and the occasional personification of the
ileep as a sullen, pouching monster (Dt 33 13; see
also SERPENT, DUAOON, KAHAB, LEVIATHAN)
is undoubtedly a survival of the Babylonian
dragon myth. (4) The creation of a firmament to
divide the waters (Gn 1 6) is parallel to the act of
Manluk, who used half of the cleft body of Tianiat
for a similar purpose. (5) The Biblical account of
the creation of the heavenly bodies (Gn 1 14-19) finds
an exceedingly close parallel in the beginning of the
Tifth Tablet. (6) In each narrative the culmina-
ting act is the creation of man. According to the
Babylonian epic, he was made from the blood of
Marduk, who spoke thus:
"My blood will I take, and bone will I [fashion],
I will make man, that man may ....
I will create man who shall inhabit [the earth?],
That the service of the gods may be established, and that
[their] shrines [may be built]."
Finally, though it is not mentioned in what has
been recovered of the creation epic, the Sabbath
(q.v.) (Gn22f.) was probably of Babylonian origin.'
To the thoughtful and reverent student, however,
these resemblances in the framework
5. Superior- of the Hebrew and Babylonian cos-
ity of the mogonies will only serve to emphasize
Biblical the infinite superiority of the content
Account, of the Biblical narrative. The Baby-
lonian epic is verbose in language and
grotesque in its polytheism; chaos is anterior to
deity, and Marduk gains the supremacy only after
a fearful struggle. In Gn 1-2 4a the language is
simple yet majestic, God is from the beginning su-
preme. ui'l the processes of creation are but the or-
derly working out of His unimpeded plan. 2
The foregoing considerations lead to two conclu-
sions: (1) Historically: there must have been a
long period of naturali/.ation in Palestine to allow
the Babylonian cosmogony to be so refined and
stripped of all ite mythological features. The Baby-
lonian creation legends were probably already cur-
i' In t ! 1 *^r < ^ ond , "s*^ Btory <w
coloring is distinctly Babylonian.
' The divergences between the Hebrew and Babylonian
narrative* are emphasised by Morris Jastrow. Jr., in the
JtmiH Quarterly Review. July, 1901, pp. 020-654
rent in Canaan when the Israelites entered the Prom-
ised Land. (2) While Gn 1-2 4a does not attempt
tn teach .scientific facts which we coukl find out for
ourselves, its revelation of transcendent religious
truths evidences the guidance of the Holy Spirit.
The general outline of the Babylonian epic survived,
together with the common Semitic conception of the
universe; but the grossness and polytheism of the
earlier cosmogony were divinely transmuted into
monotheism and spirituality. By a series of repre-
sentative pictures we are taught that the universe
was not self-originated, but dependent for its exist-
ence and present form upon the decrees of the one
omnipotent God, whose plan penetrated every detail
of creation; while man is shown in his ideal state as
head and center of creation and the image of his
Maker.
To sum up what has been said: The O T writers
certainly shared the ideas of their contemporaries
concerning the material universe; and, in particular,
the outlines of the Biblical cosmogony were derived
from the Babylonian beliefs embodied in the crea-
tion epic. Therefore it is impossible to 'reconcile'
( lenesis with modern science. To insist upon such
a reconciliation shows a misconception of the char-
acter of divine revelation; and has put a stumbling-
block in the path of many an earnest, intelligent
inquirer after spiritual truth. The methods of Gen-
esis and geology have nothing in common. The
Bible is silent concerning the operation of second-
ary causes which can be investigated by the human
reason. While the more speculative minds of Egypt,
Babylonia, and Greece put foundation under foun-
dation and creator behind creator in a vain attempt
to provide a firm basis for their cosmogony and on-
tology, the inspired writers disregarded all inter-
mediate processes in order to press home the supreme
truth that "God said . . . and it was so"! Thus the
human and temporary framework of the creation
story is so subordinate to its permanent religious
message that no advance in our scientific knowledge
weakens our confidence in the great elemental truths
concerning God, man, and the universe, which are
so simply and inimitably told in this fitting prelude
to the history of redemption.
LITERATURE: The best popular presentation is in Driver's
Genesis (3d ed , 1905), pp. 19-33 (with a large bibliogra-
phy). George T. Ladd's Doctrine of Sacred Scripture
(1883), part II, ch. ii, is scholarly and exhaustive, yet
very readable. See also the works mentioned in the
foot-notes to this article. L G L
See NOMADIC AND PASTORAL
COTE, SHEEP-.
LIFE, 6.
COTTAGE: (1) In Is 24 20 A V. The Hob.
s the same word as that rendered "lodge" in 1 s.
The reference is to the frail hut used by the watch-
man and easily swayed by the wind ("hut " ERV,
'hammock" ARV). (2) In Is 1 8 AV. A less cor-
rect rendering of ?ukkah than the RV "booth."
3) In Zeph 26 the text is probably confused, and
the word rendered "cottages" may be a mere (In-
dication of the preceding "pastures." See also
T 'ODGE. E. E. N.
COUCH. See BED.
COULTER. See PLOW.
PRIMITIVK HABYLONIAX REPRESENTATIONS OP THE COSMOS (THE SlGNS OF THE ZODIAC').
The serpent of cuts Nos. 1, 3, 4 probably represents the irreiit dragon Tiainat, i.e., the primeval watery chaos
(the " deep " of Gn 1 a , etc.).
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
156
COUNCIL: The chief court ot the Jews. Umlcr
tin- Romans a measure ul nment was con-
ceded the Jewish n.-iiion, both as a
1. Origin religious community and as a race.
of Council. The r.-mgm up of the com-
munity w:ia accordingly vested in the
council of len.lers known in the Jewish writings as
Hrthilin hag-gOdhSl, or by t he < ireek mime SiWfywoi/,
tyntdrium, n-dutvd into the Aramaic Sanhedrin
u.-ously Xiinhedrim). The original of this body
probably in the IVr.-ian jK'riod, although it can
not ! traced clearly farther buck than the time of
I he (ireek dominion. In ihis early stage of its exist-
howevcr, it w:w known only under the name
Senate, yipova-la (Ac 5 21; Jos. Ant. XII, 3 3). The
name Sanhedrin :ipi)ears first under Herod.
The mcmU-rsliip of this court was according to
the Mishna (.Sn/i/i. 1 ) lixcd at 71 in imitation of
tlii> ancient court of elders (Null 16).
2. Consti- Those qualified to be members were in
tution and general of the priestly h-mse and es-
Member- |>ccially of the Sadducean nobility.
ship. But from the days of Queen Alexandra
(69-68 B.C.) onward there were with
these chief priests also many Pharisees in it under
the name of scribes and elders. These three classes
are found combined in Mt 27 41; Mk 11 27, 14 43, 53,
15 l. How such members were appointed is not
entirely clear. The aristocratic character of the
body and the history of its origin forbid the belief
that it was by election. Its nucleus probably con-
sisted of the members of certain ancient families, to
which, however, from time to time others were
added by the secular rulers.
The presiding officer was the high priest, who at
first exercised in it more than the authority of a
member, claiming a voice equal to that
3. High of the rest of the body. But after the
Priest's reduction of the high priesthood from a
Place in It. hereditary office to one bestowed by
the political ruler according to his
pleasure, and the frequent changes in the office in-
troduced by the new system, the high priest natu-
rally lost his prestige. Instead of holding in his hands
"the government of the nation," he came to be but
one of many to share this power; those who had
! a.s high priest, being still in esteem among
their nation and having lost their office not for any
reason that could be considered valid by the relig-
ious sense of the community, exerted a large in-
Iliience over the decisions of the assembly. In the
N T they are regarded as the rulers (Mt 26 59, 27 41;
Ac 4 5, 8; Lk 23 13, 35; Jn 7 26), and Josephus' testi-
mony supports this view.
The functions of the Sanhedrin were religious
and moral, and also political. In the latter capacity
they further exercised administrative
4. Func- as well as judicial functions. As a ra-
tions, ligious tribunal, the Sanhedrin wielded
a potent influence over the whole of the
Jewish world (Ac 9 2), but as a court of justice, after
the division of the country upon Hie death of Herod,
its jurisdiction wa.s limited to Judaea. Here, how-
ever, its power was absolute even to the passing of
111.' .sentence of death (Jos. Ant. XIV, 9 3, 4; Mt 26
3 f. ; Ac 4 S, 6 12, 22 30), although it had no authority
to carry the sentence into execution, except as
approved and ordered by the representative of the
Human government.
The law by which the Sanhedrin governed \\;is
naturally the Jewish, ami in the execution of it this
tribunal had a police of its own, and
5. The made arrests at its discretion (Mt 2647).
Law It Accordingly, to the extent that the pro-
Observed, visions of this law were respected in
the trial of Jesus, that trial and execu-
tion were legal (but cf. Taylor Innes, The Trial of
Jesus, 1899; Rosadi, The Trialoj Jesus, 1905). The
trial and stoning of Stephen, however (Ac 6 12 ff.),
appear to have been too summary and out of har-
mony with the procedure prescribed by the law,
and therefore illegal.
Among the administrative duties of the Sanhedrin
was the collection of taxes. Under the procurators,
the custom had been established
6. Taxa- throughout the empire of committing
tion. the levying of taxes to the local au-
thorities of the subject countries, for
the most part to the senates of the towns. In
accordance with this practise the Sanhedrin became
responsible for the collection in Judaea (Jos. BJ . II,
17 1). In carrying out this provision it sold the
revenue to tax-purchasers or speculators (publicans).
The foregoing holds true of the period between
6-66 A.D., i.e., the period of the Roman proc-
urators. Before the opening of this
7. Tempo- period restrictions and restorations of
rary Limi- the jurisdictions took place alternately.
tations of. Gambinius, the proconsul of Syria, for
Power, instance (57-55 B.C.), subdivided Ju-
daea into five districts, assigning each to
a separate council (owffipiav, (rvvoSos, Jos. Ant.
XIV, 54; BJ. I, 8 5). Thus he limited the jurisdic-
tion of the Jerusalem council very materially. This
was, however, done away with by Julius Cesar in
47 (Ant. XIV, 9 3-5; BJ. I, 10 7), and the Sanhedrin
was restored to its former supremacy. With the de-
struction of Jerusalem the council was abolished.
While the general authority of the Sanhedrin ex-
tended over the whole of Judaea, the towns in the
country had local councils of their
8. Extent own (vvveSpia, Mt 5 22, 10 17; Mkl39;
of Juris- /3ouAm, Jos. BJ. II, 14 1) for the ad-
diction, ministration of local affairs. These
were constituted of elders (Lk 73), at
least 7 in number (Jos. Ant. IV, 8 14; BJ. II, 20 5),
and in some of the largest towns as many as 23.
What the relation of these to the central council in
Jerusalem was does not appear clearly. They were
probably not inferior courts in a uniform system with
the right of appeal from the lower to the higher, but
rather independent judicatories with a definite recog-
nized work. And yet their independence did not
amount to absolute unrelatedness to one another.
Some sort of mutual recognition existed among them;
for whenever the judges of the local court could not
agree it seems that they were in the habit of referring
their eases to the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem (Jos. Ant.
IV, 8 14; Mishna, Sanh. 11 2). A. C. Z.
COUNCIL, also COUNSEL: A conference more
or less informally held (swlh, Ps 55 14; Pr 15 22), but
157
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Council
Covenant
not necessarily of those who bore no office or re-
sponsibility. The council of leaders in Jerusalem
(crvpfiovXiov, Mt 12 14; Ac 25 12) included probably
members of the Sanhedrin, as well as leading lay-
men. The act of holding such councils (counsels)
is called "consulting" (Ps 83 3) and its finding
'counsels' (ouAij, Lk 2351). A. C. Z.
COUNT: Besides being the usual rendering of
maiuih, saphar, ^nj^tfuv, and crvptyr)<j>tfiv, all mean-
ing in general 'to calculate,' the word renders (1)
the Heb. hashabh = Gr. \oyle<r6ai, 'to think' or
'impute' (Gn 150; Ro220; Ph 3 13). (2) paqadh,
'to inspect' (ICh21 o). (3) xi, 'to hold' (Mt 145;
Phm 17), and (4) fjyela-dat, 'to account' or 'esti-
mate' (Ph 3 7, 8; He 10 29). A. C. Z.
COUNTENANCE: In most instances this is the
rendering of words meaning 'face' or 'appearance.'
In Dii 5 6, 9, the original ziw means the 'brightness'
or 'color' of the face. In I S 16 12 'eye,' in I S 25 3
' form ' is the literal meaning of the Heb. E. E. N.
COUNTRY : In most instances the suitable ren-
dering of terms meaning 'land,' 'field,' or 'place.'
The following cases call for remark: In Dt 3 14 the
original word means a 'district marked off'; in Mk 6 1,
4 and ||s; Jn444; He 1114, it means 'fatherland';
in Lv 10 29, 17 15, 24 22; Nu 15 13; Ezk 47 22, the one
Heb. word means 'native'; in Mk 12 1 and ||s and Mt
2514, "went into a far country" is simply 'went
away from home.' In Jos 1711, Jer 47 4, and Ac 4 36
RV gives the more correct rendering. E. E. N.
COUNTRYMAN: The translation of yevos, 'race'
(II Co 11 20), and of o-u/^vAfYr;?, 'of the same tribe'
(I Th 2 14). In the first instance Paul is referring
to the Jews, in the second to the fellow citizens of
the Thessalonian Christians. E. E. N.
COURSE: This term signifies one's way or habit
of life (Jer 8 6, 23 10). In Eph 2 2 it renders the Gr.
ala>v, 'age.' In Acts 13 25, 20 24; II Ti 4 7 the Gr.
is Spofios, 'running course,' i.e., the task or mission
of life. In Ja 3 6 the Gr. rpo^os, 'a running thing,'
'a wheel,' refers to one's natural disposition, tem-
perament, tendencies, etc. ; in other words, to the en-
tire compass of one's life. Other occurrences need
no explanation. (See also COSMOGONY, 3, and
PRIESTHOOD, 10.) E. E. N.
COURT. See HOUSE, 6 (f), PALACE, and TEM-
PLE, 6, 20, 27, 29 f.
COUSIN: In AV of Lk 1 36,68, in the sense of
'kinswoman' or 'relative' (cf. 'cousin' RV); as used
to-day, is too definite. In Col 4 10 " cousin," RV,
is preferable to " sister's son," AV. E. E. N.
COVENANT (.I"?, b'rith, Assyr. Mritu; cf. Zim-
mern, Bab. Busxps., 59, 82, from a root barah, 'to
determine,' Assyr. baru, Gr. 8uid!)Krj,
I. General 'disposal'): Broadly, a compact or
Idea. agreement. In this sense covenant is
used frequently of contracts among
men. Abimelech at Gerar entered into covenant
with Abraham (Gn 21 27), and afterward under
similar conditions with Isaac (Gn2G2S). Abraham
entered into covenant with the Amorites (Gn 14 13),
Laban with Jacob (Gn3t 44), Jonathan with David
(18183,2318), Solomon with Hiram (I K526),
Ahab with Ben-hadad (I K 20 34), etc.
But in Biblical usage, this general conception of
covenant developed into a much more specific one.
For (1) as a contract includes a binding
2. The element, or creates an obligation, a
Biblical covenant becomes a bond, imposed by
Covenant, two covenanting parties upon each
other, or by one upon himself and the
other. Hence in passages such as Gn 15 18 f. the
covenant is made by J" (cf. also Jos 24, by Joshua in
behalf of J"; Jos 9 7, Joshua with the Gibeonites; II K
11 4 by Jehoiada, and II K23 3 by Josiah, in behalf
of J"). The part of Abram (or those who may be
called the second party in the affair) is passive. It
is quite proper to speak of it as voluntary; but the
covenant is not in these instances entered into by
God and man upon absolutely the same terms. (2)
The second limitation of the general idea is intro-
duced with the religious element in it. A covenant
is not merely a contract as between men and before
men. God is invoked in it as a third party. He has
a share in its terms and results. Even when the
agreement aims at outward material ends, it is not
complete until by a religious service J" has been
brought into the transaction. To this end an oath,
curse, or sacrifice is an indispensable ceremonial ac-
companiment. When Abimelech (Gn 26 26 ff.), act-
ing for himself, Ahuzzah, and Phicol, proposed to
Isaac that they should enter into covenant, he used
the formula "Let there now be an oath betwixt us,
even betwixt us and thee," and "let us make a cove-
nant" (ver. 28). The word used here for "oath" may
also be rendered "curse" (cf. also Gn 31 44 ff., the
covenant between Laban and Jacob). (3) A third
limitation is the creation of a new relation between
the covenanting parties. In the later development
of the idea and in some extrabiblical expressions of
it, this is symbolized by some act or acts denoting
the possession of a common life. The partaking of a
sacrificial meal, of salt (which is in such cases the
substitute of blood), or of blood itself, either poured
out in the form of a libation or used in other em-
blematic ways (W. Robertson Smith, Rcl. of Sem., p.
451), was made to serve as the sign of the new and
irrevocable relationship, the object of which was
mutual benefit and helpfulness. So far as the cove-
nant was concerned, those who entered upon it were
bound to regard each other as members of a new
organic entity. So sacred and intimate was the new
relation that nothing could surpass the enormity of
the sin of covenant-breaking. The sin is loathed and
denounced by the prophets in unmeasured terms (cf.
Hos67, 8 1, 104; Is 24 5; Jer 11 10). On the other
hand, it is a sure manifestation of God's perfection
that He can not and does not forget His covenants,
but remains constant to the rights and obligations
created by them (cf. Ro 3 1-4).
Accordingly, the covenant of God with His people
is an expression of His love for them. It may be
called the divine constitution or ordinance, which
is designed to govern human relations with Him-
self. As such it appears in the record of His deal-
ings with Noah (the Noachian covenant, Gn 9 11 ff.).
Even the story of Eden has been read by some in
Covenant
Crimes and Punishment*
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
158
tin- terms f lln' r.iv<-n:iiit idea. Hut it is more
partic.ilarlythe Divine mode of defining (lie relation
with tin- Chosen People. Abraham
3. God's was taken into covenant at the very
Covenant Ix-piming (Gn 15 18) with a symbolical
an Ex- :m.l impressive ceremony. With Moses
pression of mul the new stage of development in
His Grace, the life of the people, Israel as a na-
tion Is pictured as entering into cove-
nant with J" in :ui even grander and more impressive
n (the Sinaitie covenant, Ex 34 10, 27,_28).
I'.v :i covenant with I'hinehas an everlasting priest-
hood was established (Nu25l2f.). Other cove-
nants with the same ruling idea are those with
at :,n,l Israel (Jos 24 25), David (Ps 89 4, 132 12;
.I.T3321), Jehoiada (II K 11 17), Hezekiah (II Ch
.". 10), Josiah (II K 23 3), and Ezra (Ezr 10 3).
It w:is characteristic of the covenant idea that
when entered into it bound not only the individual
but his family and posterity, and as a
4. Cove- counterpoint the benefits ai/d privileges
nant with secured by it were transferred to the
Collective offspring of the parties to it. The
Bodies. covenant with Abraham was made with
him and with his seed forever (Gn 17
10). Moses was not an individual but a representa-
tive of the whole people before J". The covenant
with David was the means of blessing to the whole
lineage of the great king (II S235; II Ch 135,21 7;
Jer 33 21 ). The national poetry embodied in glowing
terms the conviction that the covenant with David
was the ground for the unfailing care on the part of
J* over the royal dynasty as well as over the people
ruled by it.
Israel's experiences with the covenant led the
prophets to despair of its continuance, but its lapse
would not be final (Hos 1 9f., 22,23,
5. The 3 3). They predict its renovation and
Prophetic reestablishment under better condi-
New tions. In this form they called it the
Covenant. New Covenant differing from the old
(1) in spirituality. It should be a
covenant written on the hearts of God's people
(Jcr 31 31), and God's people should be not a tribe
or nation but a society of individuals who should
know Him and keep His covenant. (2) In uni-
ility. Through Israel the new religion of God
should extend to other nations and the covenant
should embrace these too (Is 49 6). (3) Its results
would be forgiveness of sin and a new righteous-
ness (Jer 31 34).
The covenant conception having served its pur-
pose in the O T, it disappears from the N T, yielding
to the expression of God's relation to
6. Covenant man in the terms of an individual fel-
in N T. lowship and indwelling. In the Epistle
to the Hebrews, however, it is still made
to serve the basis of the difference and contrast be-
tween the better order of things introduced through
i* Christ and the old order either under the
Abrahamic or the Sinaitic covenants (7 22, 8 6 ft".,
A. C. Z.
COVERING. See TABERNACLE, 3 b. For usage
in K\ !'_' 27: Job :il 19, cf. DRESS AND ORNAMENTS,
3.
COVERT: (1) In I S 25 20 the meaning is that
Abigail was concealed from view as she drew near
to David and that the meeting between them was
sudden. (2) In II K 16 18 KV reads "covered
way." The sense of the entire verse is obscure,
and what is meant is not known. E. E. N.
COVET, COVETOUSNESS : This term ex-
presses various ideas: (1) Desire to have. As such
it is not only innocent, but when its object is worthy,
commendable (I Co 12 31, 14 39, "desire" RV). Also,
however, (2) desire inordinate and without any
ulterior purpose, in which case it is folly (Lk 12 15 ft". )
and idolatry (Eph 5 5; Col 35). (3) Desire to possess
that which belongs to another. Such desire is
contrary to the moral law (Ex 20:7, "lust" AV;
Ro 7 7). Possibly (4) the effort to secure what one
has no right to possess (I TiGlO, "to reach after"
RV). A. C. Z.
COW. See NOMADIC AND PASTORAL LIFE,
4, and PALESTINE, 24.
COZ. See HAKKOZ.
COZBI C3J5, kozbl), 'deceitful': A Midianite
princess, slain by Phinehas (Nu 25 7 f., 15, 18).
E. E. N.
COZEBA. See ACHZIR.
CRACKNELS. See FOOD, 2.
CRAFT. See ARTISAN LIFE, 1.
CRAFTSMEN, VALLEY OF. See GE-HARA-
SHIM and CITY, 4.
CRANE. See PALESTINE, 25.
CRAWLING THINGS. See PALESTINE, 26.
CREATE, CREATION. See COSMOGONY, 1-3.
CREDITOR. See TRADE AND COMMERCE, 3.
CREEPING THINGS. See PALESTINE, 26.
CRESCENS, cres'senz (Kp^o-^f): An early Chris-
tian mentioned in II Ti 4 10 as having gone to Gaul
(Gr. roXario, which must be rendered 'Gaul,' not
"Galatia"; cf. Zahn, Introd. toNT, 33, n. 8). The
fact that Titus was sent at the same time to
Dalmatia suggests that both journeys may have
been undertaken for the purpose of preaching the
Gospel in new regions. According to later tradition
(see Tillemont, Mem. I, 585) C. was the founder of
the Church in Vienne and Mainz. J. M. T.
CRESCENTS. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS,
111.
CRETE (K/;TI;): Modern Candia, a rich and
beautiful island, one of the chief seats of the worship
of Zeus, whose birthplace was Mt. Ida or Dicte. Long
before the Phoanician traders came, and even before
the Mycenaean Age, the island had a highly devel-
oped civilization, which seems to have been buried by
invasions from the N. (For excavations now pro-
ceeding at Knossos and elsewhere see Ch. Quar. Rev.,
Jan., 1906.) "The pottery found in southern Pales-
tine is Cretan, confirming the Hebrew tradition that
the Philistines were strangers who wandered in from
159
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Covenant
Crimes and Punishments
Civic" (Caphtor [Jer 47 4; Am 9 7]. See Breasted,
Hist, of byypt, p. 512). The island possessed a large
number of independent cities, in some of wliich, no-
tably Gortyna, many Jews were settled before the
middle of the 2d cent. B.C. The Romans occupied
Crete in 67 B.C., during the great war with the pi-
rates, and under the Empire it was made a sena-
torial province along with Cyrene. By universal
testimony the Cretans were avaricious, fraudulent,
and sensual, as their poet Epimenides (600 B.C.),
called by Plato a "divine man" and quoted in Tit
1 12, also affirms. Even in the rich coinage of their
cities, which were in a state of constant feud among
themselves, "there is always present a substratum
of barbarism." If the Gospel was first carried
there after Pentecost (Ac 211), it did not appar-
ently make headway until the visit of Paul and
Titus (Tit 1 5). Fair Havens was touched at by
Paul on his way to Rome, and Phoenix was a good
harbor to the W. (Ac 27 8, 12). R. A. F.
CRICKETS. See PALESTINE, 26.
CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS: The fundamen-
tal principle of Hebrew penology is strict retribu-
tion. The lex talionis, including prop-
i. Hebrew erty as well as the person, is enunciated
Penology, in all three sections of the Mosaic codes
(Ex 21 23-25; Lv 24 17, 19f.; Dt 19 21).
This was an ancient Semitic penal custom, and we
find it expressed in the CH [Code of Hammurabi
(c. 2250 B.C.)] in phraseology almost identical with
Biblical language: son for son, 116, 230, daughter
for daughter, 210, eye for eye, 196, limb for limb,
197, tooth for tooth, 200, life for life, 229, slave
for slave, 219, 231. The punishment of crime had
two great purposes: (1) deterring others from simi-
lar offenses (Dt 17 13), (2) the extirpation of the evil
from Israel (Dt 13 5). In reviewing this subject the
historical development of the Hebrews must be kept
in mind. In the nomadic state crime was revenged
rather than punished, and it was looked upon as an
injury done to a tribal brother (see BLOOD, AVEN-
GER OF). When the nation passed into the agri-
cultural and later to the commercial state of society,
the object of punishment was to protect life and
property. Under the ethical influence of the religion
of Jehovah, crime came to be regarded as a violation
of the righteousness and holiness of God, and was
punished in order to vindicate these Divine attri-
butes. The N T reflects Roman as well as Hebrew
ideas in regard to both crimes and punishments.
The more serious infringements of the Law may be
grouped into three classes: (a) Injuries to property.
Under this group falls theft, which is
2. Crimes, absolutely prohibited in the Decalogue
(Ex 20 15). The CH is more severe
than the Biblical codes in its treatment of this evil.
In the former, stealing is a capital crime the re-
ceiving, purchasing, and selling of stolen goods, the
theft of a child, the detention of a slave, brigand-
age, looting at a fire, appropriating state levies all
being punishable with death (cf. Ex 22 2; Jos 7 25;
Ex 21 16). The owner of a vicious bull was liable for
any injury inflicted on the slave of another by the
goring of the animal (Ex 21 28 ff . ). The CH, 250-
252, inflicts a fine for a similar case. The practise of
extortion was no doubt common enough in O T
times (Ps 10911, "extortioner" - 'usurer'), but in
the NT (Mt 23 25; Lk 19 8) it refers to a form of
blackmail levied by the publicans (q.v.).
(b) Injuries to person or life. Bribery, also
trnnrd a gift, not only might prevent justice, but
place the person of the accused in jeopardy. The
Biblical codes have the former evil in mind (Ex 23 8;
Dt 16 19), while the CH contemplates the latter: "If
a man in a case bear witness for gain or money, he
shall himself l>ear the penalty imposed in that case"
( 4). Lying, forswearing, and bearing false
witness also resulted in the miscarriage of justice
and were fraught with danger to the accused person.
They were prohibited (Ex 20 16; Lv 19 12; cf. Mt
5 33), and the guilty party was to be punished ac-
cording to the lex talionis. In the CH the false charge
of a capital crime makes the accuser liable to the
death penalty ( 1 ), and the slanderer of a priestess or
of a married woman was to be branded on the fore-
head ( 127). The breaking of a vow that had
been strengthened by an oath was not permissible
(Nu 30 2; cf. Lv 5 1-6; Jg 17 2 ff.). The oath of pur-
gation is required in seven instances by the CH (
131, 227 et al). The O T regards human life as
sacred, because it was created in the Divine image
(Gn 9 6). Manslaughter is carefully distinguished
from murder, the latter being the result of premedi-
tation and malice, the former of accident (Ex 21 13;
Dt 19 4). In the case of manslaughter the offender
could find an asylum (Nu 35 ll, 15; Dt 195), but
murder was always a capital crime and the penalty
could not be commuted by a ransom (Nu 3531 ff.).
Parricide and infanticide are not mentioned in the
Mosaic codes, but there are many instances of assas-
sination and suicide in the O T (Jg 3 20 ff. ; I S 31 4 ff.).
The tribal custom of blood revenge (see BLOOD,
AVENOEK OF) which is entirely unknown to the CH,
prevailed among the Hebrews in the earlier periods
of history, but the attempt was made later to regu-
late it (Dt 24 16; Nu 35 12-34).
(c) Offenses against the moral order and the fun-
damental laws of the theocracy: Every improper
use of the Divine name (Lv 24 ll), speech derogatory
to the majesty of God (Mt 26 65), and sins with a
high hand i.e., premeditated transgressions of the
basal principles of the theocracy (Nu 9 13, 15 30; Ex
31 14) were regarded as blasphemy; the penalty
was death by stoning (Lv 24 16). The Mosaic
codes dealt with the improper relation of the sexes in
detail. To lie carnally, and fornication are gen-
eral terms for illicit sexual intercourse (Lv 18 20).
The prevalence of prostitution, at a later date in
Israel as well as in the Grseco- Roman world, was ap-
palling (Pr 4 6-19; Ro 1 26), but it was strictly pro-
hibited (Lv 1929; Dt 23l7f.). See also HARLOT.
The abominable Canaanitic practise of having tem-
ple prostitutes (q'dheshoth) was forbidden (Dt 23 17).
The devotee, or sacred prostitute, enjoyed the privi-
leges of special legislation in the CH ( 110, 178, 181,
182). The Mosaic codes, however, debarred a son of
harlotry or of fornication from the congregation (Dt
23 2). Adultery is a capital crime in the CH ( 1 29).
Incest in its various forms is prohibited in Lv 18 6-18.
The CH, 154-158, deals severely with this crime,
in one case a man with his son's wife drowning
Crimes and Punishments
Crucifixion
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
160
In-ill); tin- Anally, iii another- a 111:111 with his moth-
er ilrath :it the (take. Sodomy, common enough
MiiioiiiMlieCanaamli's. is looked upon as an abomina-
tion and ilMoliitoly prohibited (Lv 18 tt; Dt28n).
purpose of punishment has boon noted above.
OK and b:irb:iroiis method* of inflict ing penal-
ties - ^., blinding, maiming, tearing out
3. Punish- the tongue, and suffocating, which were
ments. common in antiquity are foreign to the
^pirit of the O T. Torture was first
introduced by tlio llonxls. (a) Capital punishment
was administered in various ways. Stoning was the
ordinary method of inflicting the death penalty
among the Hebrews (Exl'Jiaff.; Lv 2027, 24 10-23;
I )t 1:5 5, 10, 21 21; Ac 7 59). The stoning took place
outxidt! of the cnmp and in the name of the congre-
i (l.v '_'! 14), the witnesses casting the first
. s. Beheading was not known as a judicial
penalty in the Mosaic codes, and when death by the
uword'is mentioned in the O T we are to think
of thrusting rather than decapitation. The latter
was first introduced among the Jews in the Ro-
man period (MtHlOff.). The hanging of the
living was introduced by the Romans; the He-
brews sometimes impaled or hung the lifeless body
on a tree (Dt 21 23 ff.; Gal 3 13), the exposure of
the body being intended as an added indignity.
The Heb. yaqa' (translated "hang") is uncertain in
meaning (Nu254; IIS 216). Gallows are men-
tioned as a Persian institution in the story of
Roman (Est 2 23, 7 9). According to the CH, 153, a
woman who murders her husband is to be impaled.
The Habylu.iian code imposes burning as a pen-
alty for incest ( 157; cf. Lv20 14,21 9), for theft
at a fire ( 25), and upon a priestess for entering
or conducting a wine-shop ( 110). The oft-recur-
ring phrase cut off is not a designation for the
death penalty, but signifies excommunication (Ex
12 15, 19; Lv 7 20 ff., 23 29; Nu 9 13). Crucifixion
was a terrible method of punishment adopted by the
Romans from the Orient, and used by them only on
slaves and the vilest criminals (Cicero: extremum
sitiHiinimque supjjlicium). Roman citizens were
always exempt. The shape of the cross upon which
our Savior suffered was probably y, the crux im-
missa or Latin cross (T crux commissa). The
upright was 7J ft. to 9 ft. high and remained per-
manently in the ground; the crosspiece (patibidum)
was carried by the criminal. A piece of wood
(tedilc) was used as a saddle to support the sufferer.
The crime was either proclaimed by a crier or in-
scribed on a board (litulus; see SUPERSCRIPTION)
which was nailed to the cross. In the history of the
'i in nf .le.siis, we have a detailed account of the
procedure at a crucifixion. (See CROSS, 1.)
(b) Physical punishments other than capital:
I'min its frequent mention in the OT (Ex 21 20; Pr
111 13, 1720,263; Jer 20 2, 37 15; Is 50 6), we infer that
beating was a very common punishment among the
ll'brews. According to Dt25 3 the penalty was in-
flirtod before the judge, with the culprit in a recum-
bent position. The phrase "cause him to lie down"
(I it 25 2) suggests the bastinado. The humane
spirit of tin- Deuteronomic legislation mitigated the
:ily of this penalty by restricting the number of
strokes to forty. The words chasten and chastise
sometimes refer to corporal punishment (Dt22 18;
I K 12 14). The scorpion is mentioned as a terrible
instrument of castigation; it consisted probably of
thongs armed with pieces of lead (I K1214; II Ch
10 14). In the N T the terms stripe and scourge
have a twofold signification. In some passages the
writer had in mind the Jewish form of punishment
which was administered with a whip of three lashes
(II Cor 11 24; cf. Jos. Ant. IV, 821). Again the
reference may be to the Roman custom of beating
slaves and criminals (Ac 16 22, 22 25; II Co 11 25). At
Philip])! Paul alludes to the Porcian law, which ex-
empted Roman citizens from this penalty (Ac 16 37).
This is not to be confused with the scourging of Jesus,
which was flagellation with thongs. The branding
of slaves was a common custom (Is 44 5; CH, 226,
227), and, according to Babylonian law, the slan-
derer of a woman was to be branded on the forehead
( 127). Imprisonment is a penalty unknown to
both the CH and the Mosaic codes, but it is men-
tioned toward the close of the monarchy (Jer 32 2,
37 10), and implied in the mention of prison garb (II
K 25 29), and use of chains, fetters, and stocks (II
S 3 34; Jer 20 2, 29 20; Ac 16 24). The so-called
law of jealousy was really an ordeal for a woman
suspected of adultery (Nu 5 11-31). In the CH the or-
deal by water was employed as a test for a sorcerer
and a suspected wife ( 2, 132).
(c) Penalties in means or money: Fines in our
modern sense were unknown, but the injured party
received an indemnity for loss or injury from the
guilty person. Three instances are given in the
OT (Ex 21 32; Dt 22 19, 29), while the CH pun-
ishes twenty-one offenses in this way. The res-
toration of things lost, stolen, or injured is a
fundamental principle in the Mosaic codes, and is
quite prominent in the CH, which contains forty-eight
enactments exacting restitution in some form. The
restitution of a stolen ox must be fivefold, of a
sheep fourfold (Ex 22 1; cf. Lk 19 8) ; in the CH, 112,
goods lost by carrier in transportation must be re-
stored fivefold. For other O T instances see Ex
22 1-9; Lv 6 4 f., 24 21. A Roman jailer or guard
allowing a prisoner to escape made himself liable to
the penalty imposed on the criminal (Ac 12 19, 16 27).
The CH, in fifteen enactments, punishes with for-
feiture, which is twice mentioned in the O T (Dt
22 9; Ezr 108). Confiscation was not practised by
the Hebrews, but is referred to as a Persian custom
(Ezr 7 26).
LITERATURE: Keil, Biblical Archeology, II, 337 ff. (1887);
Schurer, History of the Jewish People, II, 11, 90ff.; JE
separate articles on various crimes and punishments; for
The Code of Hammurabi, see edition of K. F. Harper
and article by C. H. W. Johns in HDB, Vol. V; in German,
the works of Benzinger and Nowack on Heb. Archriologie
(1894). J. A. K.
CRIMSON. See COLORS, 2, and DRESS AND
ORNAMENTS, 5.
CRIPPLE. See DISEASE AND MEDICINE, 4 (4).
CRISPING PINS. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS,
11.
CRISPUS, cris'pirs (KpiWos): A ruler of the Jew-
ish synagogue in Corinth who with his entire family
accepted Christianity (Ac 18 8) and probably was
baptized by Paul himself (cf. I Co 1 14). J. M. T.
161
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Crimes and Punishments
Crucifixion
CROOK-BACKED. See DISEASE AND MEDI-
CINK, 4 (5).
CROSS (oravpos, probably a 'stake' or 'pole,'
nnlirally cognate with I-OTIJ-/U): The N T word
for the instrument on which Jesus was put to death.
I. Physical: The early usage of the term <rravp<>s
corresponded to its primary meaning (of. Odyssey,
14 11, 'poles for fencing'; Xen. Aruib. V, 221, 'stakes
for fortification'; Hdt. 56, 'foundation piles'). As
a means of execution it was first used in its form of a
stake (crux simplex) for impaling the victim the
custom being practised by the Assyrians, Persians,
Phcenicians (Carthaginians), and Egyptians, and
passing from the Persians and Carthaginians to the
Greeks and Romans. This form was later elaborated
into the crux compacta, of which there were, in the
tirurs of Christ, two varieties the crux commissa
(' St. Anthony's cross') shaped like a T, and the crux
immissa (the 'Latin cross') shaped, as we generally
know it, like a -f- The 'St. Andrew's cross' (crux
decussata), shaped like an X, was of much later
origin and of a usage much disputed. The cross used
at Jesus' death was almost certainly the crux im-
missa, not only because this is the testimony of the
oldest tradition, but because it is impossible other-
wise to understand the setting "up over his head"
of His "accusation" (Mt 27 37; cf. also ||s).
The upright (staticulum) was of some strong wood
and, after implanting in the ground, did not stand
more than 9 ft. high. This was left permanently
erected outside the walls of the city, only the cross-
bar (patibulum) being carried by the criminal to the
place of execution, where it was affixed, with him
fastened on it, to the upright. On this upright there
was placed a short piece of wood (sedile or cornu) on
which the body rested as on a saddle. Whether
there was also a support for the feet (suppedaneum
lignum; cf. Greg, of Tours, De Glor. Martyr, vi) is
still in question.
II. Religious: The infamy of such a punishment,
together with the primary significance of Jesus'
death in His redemptive work, quickly brought the
crucifixion into prominence in the thought and
preaching of the Apostolic Church (cf. Peter's early
references to it, Ac 2 23, 36, 4 10). The Cross thus
became not only in its suffering and shame a mark
of the self-sacrificing love of Jesus (Ph 2 8; He 12 2),
but also in its infamous indignity an assertive sym-
bol of the disciples' faith, in which they gloried (Gal
5 14), for which they were willing to be persecuted
Gal 6 12; cf. He 13 13), to which those of unchristian
iving were counted enemies (Ph 3 18; cf. He 6 6), and
n which, because of its infamous character as a pen-
alty, the unbelieving were scandalized (Gal 5 11) and
bund nothing but ridicule and contempt (I Co 1 18)
as in fact the disciples themselves were confused
and mystified by Jesus' references to His coming
death before they realized its necessity (Mk 8 31 f.
and ||s). From this it easily grew to be the term in
which Christian work was most strikingly presented
in its triumph over the condemnation of the Law
(Col 2 14) anil its consequent reconciliation of sinners
to God (Col 1 20) and to each other (Eph 2 16). In
fact, with Paul it came to stand as the sympathetic
term for the Gospel of God in Jesus Christ, the pro-
claiming of which was his consecrated life-work (I
Co 1 17; cf. ver. 23, 2 2; Gal 3 l; also vs. 10-13); as
a consequence his union with Christ through faith
was summed up in his claim to have been crucified
with Christ (Gal 2 20) and in this experience to be
crucified to the world (Gal 6 14; Ro 6 0; cf. Gal 5 24).
Though Jesus' allusion to the manner of His
coming death was unintelligible to the Jews (Jn 12
32 ff.), His warning to His disciples of the necessary
cross-bearing which their following of Him would
nvolve (Mk 8 34 and ||s; Mt 10 38; Lk 14 27) was per-
: ectly clear, in view of the crucifixions inflicted by
Antiochus Epiphanes, Alexander Jannseus, Varus,
and Titus. There is therefore no anachronism in
the statement; while to Jesus Himself it was part of
His prophetic consciousness of His death. See CRU-
CIFIXION.
LITERATURE: Besides works on the Life of Christ and
commentaries on the passion narrative in the Gospels,
cf. Zockler, D. Kreus Christi (1875 [Eng. transl. 1878]).
M. W. J.
CROSSWAY. See WAY.
CROW. See TIME, 1.
CROWN : An ornamental head-dress symbolic of
unusual honor or prerogative. Crown, diadem, and
fillet are used in the Bible without very
I. Lin- strict regard to different shades of
guistic meaning. In general, the first of these
Usage. terms takes the most conspicuous place
among them. It is applied (1) in a
literal sense: (a) to the round border or edge of ob-
jects like the ark or the altar (Ex 25 11,30 3, zer,
"rim or molding" RVmg.) and (6) to the headgear
of persons distinguished from the ordinary as kings
and queens (nezer, II K 11 12; kether, Est 1 11, etc.;
'utarah, II S 12 30; 8mSi)/ia, AV Rev 19 12; ore'^avoy,
Mt 27 29, etc. ) ; also to the emblem of priestly office
worn upon the miter (Ex 29 6; cf. also Zee 6 11.
Wellhausen and Nowack, however, think Zerub-
babel and not Joshua must be meant). Brides
and bridegrooms also wore crowns as they do at the
present day in Asia Minor (Ezk 16 12; Is 61 10, "gar-
land," RV, but cf. mg.). Victors in athletic con-
tests were crowned (I Co 9 25; cf. PRIZE). (2)
Metaphorically, "crown" is the head as that mem-
ber of the body on which the literal crown is worn
(qodhgodh, Job 2 7) and also any cause of justifiable
pride (Prl24, 1631, 176; Is 28 5; Ph4l; Jal 12).
The Egyptian and Assyrian kings wore crowns of
definite shape, the former combining the two em-
blematic head-dresses of the upper and
2. The the lower country, and the latter using
Royal a truncated cone with a low projecting
Crown in point on its summit. That the He-
Israel, brews had something of a similar na-
ture distinguishing their kings is prob-
able, but no data have survived as to its form. The
material of crowns was generally some precious
metal (Zee 6 9-15). The date of the introduction of
crowns is fixed by Nowack (Hebr. Arch., 1894,
I, p. 307) as the reign of Solomon. But if so, II
S 1 10 must be regarded as due to a later working
over of the narrative. A. C. Z.
CRUCIFIXION. See JESUS CHRIST, | 16.
Crucify
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
102
CRUCIFY: 1. As a mode of punishment
CIIIMKSAM. l'i MSHMKNTS, J 3 (n). Z.TIietermU
lipiratively by Paul (<'">' ^ 2 . - r> 24 - 14 > to de ~
note his own m..r:il unity with Christ's death as a
death unto sin. and by the author of He (6 6) to
show tli,- terrible nature of the sin of apostasy. (See
CROSS, II.) L - L ' y
CRUSE: The rendering of three different Heb.
terms- (1 ) baqbuti (I K 14 3) means a small earthen-
ware flask. (2) ts-ldhlth (II K220), an earthen-
ware dish. (3) tsappahath (I S26 11 ff.; I K 17 12 ff.,
19 ) a bottle-shaped vessel, probably of metal, used
journeys for carrying drinking-water, or for oil,
,-tc In the NT, RV substitutes "cruse' for AV
'|H.\"m Mt 2<>7; Mk 143; Lk 7 37. A smaU jar or
flask of alabaster is meant . E. E. N.
CRYSTAL. See GLASS.
CUB (-':, kubh, Chub AV): Probably a mistake
in the Heb. text of Ezk 305 for Lud (so LXX.),
,>.. l.ydia. E. E. N.
CUBIT. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 2.
CUCKOO, CUCKOW. See PALESTINE, 25.
CUCUMBER. See FOOD, 53, and PALESTINE,
J23.
CUMI. See TALITHA-CUMI.
CUMMIN. See PALESTINE, 23, and FOOD,
4.
CUR ("-, kiln, Chun AV): An Aramean city be-
longing to Hadadezer, taken by David (I Ch 18 8).
In the || II S 8 8 Berothai is given as the name of the
city. The identification is uncertain, but Kuma
(Curanue), between Laodicea and He.liopolis, may
be the place. E. E. N.
CUNNING: The various words rendering "cun-
ning" in the AV all have the general meaning 'skil-
ful' or 'able to plan and execute' and are accordingly
rendered usually in the RV by "skilful." In Is 3 3
the Heb. means 'wise' ("expert" RV). In Dn 1 4
KV renders yodhe, 'knowing,' by "endued with." In
Job 5 13 the Heb. ;/ i/ililaUm has in it the idea of fraud
or deceit ("cunning" RV, "f reward " AV).
E. E. N.
CUPBEARER (literally 'drink-giver'; in Gn 40 1-
419 translated butler; cf. "butlership," Gn402l):
On account of frequent intrigues and attempts at
poisoning, the office of cupbearer to an Oriental
monarch was one of considerable responsibility and
honor. The loyalty of the persons who served the
king's wine had to be above suspicion, and they
often, like N'ehcmiali, enjoyed the esteem and con-
fidence of their royal masters. The OT mentions
tl iiplx-arcrs of Pharaoh ((In 40 1), Solomon (I K
111 5-IICh94), and Artaxerxes (Neh 1 11).
L. G. L.
CUPS: The exact form and size of some of the
vessels called ''cups" in EV are uncertain. The or-
dinary drinkin^-cup was the km (Gn 40 11; II S 12 3
or jrorij/doi/ (Mt 1042; Mk 14 23). The gaswah (I
Ch'JS 17; NH I 7) stems to have been a jug (cf. K>
25 29 "flagons"). The gabhla' in Benjamin's sack
'Gn 442) was probably a large goblet (cf. Jer
355 "bowls"). The 'aggan (Is 2224) and ?aph
(Zee 122) are both elsewhere translated "basin"
(q.v.). L ' G " L -
CURE. See DISEASE AND MEDICINE, 7 f .
CURIOUS: To devise "curious" ("skilful" RV)
works (Ex 35 32) means to plan works requiringa
thought. In Ps 13915 "curiously" means -woven
together'; the "lowest parts of the earth" being the
womb. For Curious Arts see MAGIC AND DIVI-
NATION, 9.
CURSE : In the Bible "curse" means in general an
expressed wish or prayer for evil, i.e., an impreca-
tion. It may be pronounced with
I. In reference to all sorts of beings, such as
General, the day (Job 3 8). When its object is
God it is tantamount to blasphemy
(barak [in Piel] Job 15,11,25,9, AV ["renounce"
RV]). More frequently, however, it is a prayer
addressed to God for some evil toward another per-
son or thing. As such it may be as vague as a mere
oath or invocation of the Divine name, and is prop-
erly translated by the English oath (Jg 172; Is 65
15 ["oath" RVmg.]).
More specifically a curse is an act of dedication.
Anything (primarily objects taken in war) may be
devoted to God. Such an act carried
2. Devoted with it the prohibition of appropriating
Thing. things thus devoted to private uses
(her em Lv 27 28, etc. ). According to a
primitive Semitic custom, the inhabitants and goods
of a city or territory in time of war were vowed to
God as the Lord of Battles and when conquered de-
voted to Him, each according to its nature. Men
and animals were slaughtered in sacrifice (Dt 20 12-14;
Jos 6 25 ff.). But virgins and children were re-
deemed (Nu 31 7 ff.; Dt 21 11 ff.). Things capable of
being burned were consigned to the flames (Dt 7
25), and incombustible objects such as metals were
taken into the Temple (Jos 6 24). Whoever violated
the law of the curse ("devoted thing") was him-
self made a curse (cf. Achan, Jos 6 18, 71 ff.).
From the destruction which followed the curse in
the narrower sense the accursed thing (Jos 6 17, 7 12)
was viewed simply as that which was
3. De- consigned to destruction. The Ca-
struction naanites were thus put under the ban
of the of extermination (Jos 2 10, 6 17, "de-
Accursed. voted," RVmg.). The conception in
this form is transferred to the N T aa
anathema (Gal 1 St.; Ro 9 3). When Christ Ls said
to have become a curse (Gal 3 13) it is because
according to the Law (Dt 21 23) the mode of death
which He suffered rendered its subject accursed (de-
voted his body to destruction). "Curse" and "ac-
cursed" seem to be used here as exact synonyms.
A. C. Z.
CURTAIN : The curtain was a much more nec-
essary and familiar piece of household furniture in
Oriental life than elsewhere, especially in the trans-
ition from the tent of the nomad to the house of a
more settled condition of society. Accordingly it is
of frequent occurrence in poetic composition as the
10,3
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Crucify
Cyprus
symbol of that which either hides or adorns. Of
the latter use Is 4022; Ps 1042, and of the former
Jer 420,1020, are illustrations. See also TAHEK-
NACLE, 3. A. C. Z.
CUSH, cush (", kush) : I. 1. A descendant of
Noah, the eldest son of Ham (Gn 106, etc.; I Ch
18). See ETHNOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY, 10.
2. The name of a Benjamite (Ps 7, title) sup-
posed to be the enemy (of David) referred to in
the Psalm. A. C. Z.
II. The name of a country. Until recently it
was thought that, all the occurrences of this word
in the Heb. O T (except possibly in Gn 2 13) referred
to the same country, viz., Ethiopia, consequently it
is often so translated (e.g., Is 11 11, 18 1, etc.). But
reeent researches (especially by Winckler; cf. KAT. 3
]>. 144 ff.) have made it probable that two districts
were known both to the Assyrians and to the He-
brews under the sane name, "Cush." One of them
was Ethiopia (q.v.). The other was in the W. and S.
of Arabia, not always exactly defined. Winckler con-
siders that the Arabian Cush is meant in the following
passages: Gn 2 13, 10 6 ft.; Nu 12 1; II S 18 21; II Ch
14 8 ff., 21 16; Is 20 3, 43 3, 45 14; Hab 3 7; Ps 87 4.
E. E. N.
CUSHAN-RISHATHAIM, cu"shan-rish"a-the'im
(C!."^"f1 ]&, kushanrish'athayim): King of Meso-
potamia, Aram-Naharaim (AVmg. and RVmg.),
who oppressed the children of Israel for 8 years
when a rebellion under Othniel, the son of Kenaz
and younger brother of Caleb, of the tribe of Judah,
put an end to his rule (Jg 3 8-10). It has been
questioned whether there is a foundation in tradi-
tion for the story as thus given. The reasons for
this doubt are (1) the improbability of the sub-
jugation of Canaan at this time by an enemy from
such a distance, and (2) the equal improbability
that Othniel, a Kenizzite clan in the extreme S.,
should be the liberator (cf. Moore on Judges, in Int.
Crit. Com. 1895). But the improbability of an Ara-
mean conquest of Canaan is not conceded in view of
the inactivity of Assyria just before the reign of
Tiglath-pileser I (1120 B.C.). (Cf. McCurdy, HP
and M. I, p. 230.) As to the Kenizzite clan of Oth-
niel, it is not certain that it was so insignificant.
If there be no corroboration from without of the sub-
stantial correctness of the story, there is, on the other
hand, nothing to compel its being set aside as un-
trustworthy. But see JUDGES. A. C. Z.
CUSHI Ov'12, kushl): 1. "The Cushite" is the des-
ignation of the woman whom Moses married (Nu 121);
also of the messenger sent by Joab to report to Da-
vid the death of Absalom (II 818 21). Probably
both persons were of Ethiopian origin (see CUSH,
II). 2. The great-grandfather of Jehudi (Jer 36 14).
3. The father of Zephaniah (Zeph ll). A. C. Z.
CUSHION: This term does not occur in the AV.
It has been introduced into the RV (Mk438) as
the rendering of trpo(TKf<j)d\aiov, 'a rest for the
head.' A. C. Z.
CUSTOM. See TAX, and LAW AND LEGAL
PRACTISE, 1 (1).
CUT, CUTTING. See MOURNING CUSTOMS,
3, and SEMITIC RELIGION, 2(i.
CUTH, CUTHAH, roth, cuthd (H13, kuth; n^",
kuthiih): A place whence the Assyrians deported
:olonists to plant them in Samaria (II K 1724,30).
The same place is mentioned on the Assyr. in-
scriptions as Kutu. It was near Babylon and
was the chief center of the worship of Nergal, a god
of war, hunting, pestilence, and of the realm of the
dead. (Cf. KAT.'p. 412 ff.)
CUT OFF. See CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS,
3 (a).
CYMBAL. See Music, 3 (1).
CYPRESS. See PALESTINE, 21, and HOUSE,
4.
CYPRUS (KVTT/JOS, 'copper'): An island of 3,584
sq. m., 45 m. from the coast of Asia Minor and
60 m. from that of Syria. A very fertile plain run-
ning E. and W. is bounded on the N. and S. by two
mountain ranges in which there were formerly rich
copper-mines that gave the island its name. There
was also a valuable export of timber, which, to-
gether with other productions, made a large trade.
In the O T its inhabitants were called Kittim (Gn
104; Is 23 1,12; Ezk276) from Kitti (Kition -
modern Larnaka) on the S. coast. In very early
days there were Mycenaean settlements on the island,
but afterward the Phoenicians took possession,
though side by side with them Greeks were found,
who, isolated by the Persian rule, organized them-
selves, in dependence upon Egypt, in autonomous
cities according to Greek polity (Mommsen), their
coinage being very well known. Paphos, at the W.
end of the island, was the home of the wide-spread
cult of the Phoenician Astarte, the Greek Aphrodite.
After the time of Alexander the Great, Cyprus be-
came one of the most valuable possessions of Egypt.
Taken by Rome in 58 B.C. it first came under im-
perial administration, but was transferred a few
years later to the control of the Senate (see PROV-
INCE) and was in the time of Paul governed by the
proconsul Sergius Paulus (Ac 13 7, 12), whose name
has been with probability identified on an inscrip-
tion. Jews had settled in Cyprus in early times and
were there in large numbers at the beginning of the
Christian era; in the reign of Trajan they massacred
thousands of the native Cypriotes and were there-
after forbidden to live on the island. Soon after the
persecution that arose on the death of Stephen,
Christianity secured a foothold in Cyprus. This
island was the first place visited by Saul and Barna-
bas, a native of Cyprus (Ac 4 36), on their first mis-
sionary journey. They landed at Salamis on the E.,
the largest city of the island, and traversed its entire
length to Paphos, the capital, about 100 m. to the W.
(Ac 13 4-12). Later, Barnabas, with Mark, returned
to the island, evidently to carry on the work already
begun (Ac 15 39). It was men of Cyprus and Cyrene
who first preached the Gospel to Greeks in Antioch
(Ac 11 19f.), and the early disciple Mnason, with
whom Paul lodged in Jerusalem, was a Cypriote (Ac
21 16). Nothing further is known regarding the
history of Christianity in Cyprus in the Apostolic
Age. But see HEBREWS, EP TO, 6. R. A. F.
Gyrene
Damascus
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
164
CYREKE, sdi-ri'ni (Ku / j./i'/j): The rich and pow-
erful capital city <>l C\n-n;iira (Nortli Africa). It
was founded tvil n.c. by people from the island of
Thcra under Matins. ('. was situated on a lofty hill
HI in. from the so a and was a center of Greek learning
and culture. It was the birthplace of Aristippus,
Carneades, and Callimachus. Its kings took part in
l IIP games of Greece (cf. the Charioteer of the group
at U-lphi). \\hileC.foughtsuccessfullyagainstthe
Libyans and Egyptians, it was worsted by Carthage
and became tributary to Cambyses 524 B.C. The
Cyrenaic Pentapolis under the protectorate of the
Ptolemies was founded in 321 B.C. Under the Ptol-
emies C. became the home of large numbers of Jews
(cf. Ac 6 9). It became an independent kingdom in
117. It was bequeathed to Rome in 96 and with
Crete was made a Roman province in 67 B.C. Its
ruins are vast in extent, but hostile natives prevent
excavations. Simon of Cyrene was not a negro, but
a Jew of Cyrene (Lk 23 26, AV "Cyrenian").
J. R. S. S.
CYRENIUS, soi-rl'ni-ns. See QUIKINIUS.
CYRUS, soi'rus (EH'S, kBresK), the Latinized
form of Gr. Kvpos, for the old Persian Kurush: The
founder of the Persian Empire and the greatest of
the kings of W. Asia. He was hereditary prince of
Anshan or S. Elam, a dependency of Media at the
time of his birth, c. 590 B.C. He was, however, of
the Persian royal race, a great-grandson of Achsem-
enes the founder of the line, Anshan having first
come under the control of the petty Persian rulers
and then with them under the suzerainty of the
Median kings. In 550 he threw off the yoke of Me-
dia, the troops of whose king Astyages came over to
him without giving battle. He thus became ruler
of the great Median Empire, which reached west-
ward to the river Halys. In 546 he took Sardis, the
capital of Croesus, the king of Lydia, and thereby
secured the sovereignty of Asia Minor, including its
Greek colonies. In 539 war arose between him and
Nabonidus, the last native king of Babylonia. After
a campaign of two weeks the city of Babylon sur-
rendered to the Persians without resistance. All
the lowlands of W. Asia were thus added to his
possessions, including Syria and Palestine to the
border of Egypt, Babylon being made one of his
capitals. He died in 529, probably on some eastern
journey or expedition, for his later years were de-
voted to the organization of his own Iranian peoples.
His tomb remains at the oldest Persian capital,
I'asargedce (modern Muryhab; see Jackson, Persia
Past and Present, 1906, p. 278 ff.).
Cyrus has a twofold importance in the Bible,
being an imposing figure in both prophecy and his-
tory. In the former he presents himself to the great
prophet of the close of the Exile as the servant and
friend of Jehovah Himself, under whose protection
and guidance he should destroy the power of Israel's
oppressors, restore the captives to their own land,
and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem (Is 41 2 f., 44 28-
45 6). In the latter he, in the first year of his reign,
actually gives the exiles permission to return, also
encouragement and support in their migration (Ezr
1 Iff.). The fact that the glowing anticipations of
the seer were not fulfilled under Cyrus himself does
not diminish his significance as a grand prophetic
ideal any more than the collapse of his empire under
his unworthy son and successor detracts from his
greatness as a statesman and consummate ruler of
men.
Babylonian inscriptions of Nabonidus and of
Cyrus himself materially supplement and correct
the traditions and legends of the classical writers.
These inscriptions state also that Cyrus, after the
capture of Babylon, restored many exiled peoples to
their homes.
LITERATURE : Besides the general Oriental histories of
Duncker and Meyer, see E. Lindl, Cyrus, Munich, 1903.
For Old Testament relations see Winckler in KA T 3 (In-
dex under "Kyros")l McCurdy, History, Prophecy, and
the Monuments, Vol. Ill, 1373-1420, where are given
translations from the relevant inscriptions, which are
dealt with in full by Hagen, in Beitr&ge ZUT Assyrioloffie,
III. 205-257. J. p.
DABAREH, dab'a-re. See DABERATH.
DABBESHETH, dab'e-sheth (n^, dabbasheth,
Dabbasheth AV): A place on the border of Zebu-
Ion (Jos 19 11). Perhaps the modern Dabsheh, Map
IV, C 5. E. E. N.
DABERATH, dab'e-rath (."051, dabhrath, Dab-
areh AV), the mod. Deburieh, Map IV, D 7: A
town of Issachar on the borders of Zebulon (Jos
and also a Levitical city (Jos 21 28; I Ch 6 72).
Ita position is strategic and possibly here the
Israelites under Barak gathered for their attack on
Siscra (Jg4 14, 5 15). E. E. N.
DAGGER. See ARMS AND ARMOR, 2.
DAGON, dr'gon: A Philistine deity. See SEM-
ITIC KKMCION, J 20.
DALAIAH, dal"a-<ii'a. See DELAIAH.
DALE. See KING'S DALE.
DALMANUTHA, dal"ma-nu'tha. See MAGADAN.
DALMATIA, dal-me'shi-a (AaA/wm'a) : A prov-
ince on the eastern shores of the Adriatic Sea,
originally a part of Illyricum. It became independ-
ent 180 B.C., but was made tributary to Rome in
156 B.C. Augustus made it a Roman province. It
now belongs to Austria. It is mentioned once by
Paul (II Ti 4 10), but nothing is known of the nature
of Titus' mission thither. J. R. S. S.
DALPHON, dal'fen O'C/1, dalphon): One of the
sons of Haman (Est 9 7). E. E. N.
DAMARIS, dam'a-ris (Aa/iapir possibly AapiXif
['heifer'], a frequent feminine name): One of Paul's
converts in Athens (Ac 17 34). The title ripta,
'honorable,' Riven her in one N T MS (E), was
due perhaps to a desire to save her reputation, in
105
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Cyreno
Damascus
view of the fact that a respectable woman of Athens
would not have been present in such a public gather-
ing. Her association with Dionysius may be in-
tended to imply that she was a woman of rank.
J. M. T.
DAMASCUS, da-mas'cus (pwS~, dammeseq, but
also darmeseq, I Ch 18 5, II Ch 28 5, and dum-
meseq, II K 16 10. In the Egyptian
1. Name lists of the 16th cent, called timasqu
and and of the 13th cent, ti-ramaski [W.
Location. Max M tiller, Asien u. Eur., 1893, pp.
162, 234]. Assyrian, dimaski. Ety-
mology obscure): A well-known city located in the
X\V. end of a fertile plain which the rivers Abana
(the modern Barada) and Pharpar convert into a
beautiful garden
spot. The whole
plain is excep-
tionally rich in
natural features,
ami must from
the first have
offered attrac-
tions to travelers
between the
Mediterranean
seaboard and the
Mesopotamia!!
valley as a con-
venient place for
rest, and also to
the merchants as
a suitable site for
a center of dis-
tribution. It is
no wonder that
a populous and Plan of Modern
prosperous town
grew up at this point, al:nost as early as the country
on either side was fairly settled.
The origin of the city is not traceable to any defi-
nite date or agency, although the belief prevailed
among the later Jews that it was found-
2. Early ed by Uz, grandson of Shem (Jos.
History. Ant. 1, 6 4). It ia mentioned as exist-
ing in the days of Abraham (Gn 14 15).
Eliezer, Abraham's steward (Gn 15 2), is called a
Damascene. It is very probable that between the
l.'jth cent. B.C. and the 13th Damascus was a sub-
ject of warfare between the Egyptians and the Hit-
tites; but it was about the year 1200 that the Syri-
ans (Arameans) secured possession of it and made
it the capital of their kingdom. In the days of
David the city as well as the kingdom of which it was
the capital was made subject to Israel (IIS 8 5).
But this relationship could not have lasted very
long, for soon afterward (c. 950) Rezon (Hezion),
son of Eljada, established a strong dynastic rule at
Damascus (I K 11 23-25), which lasted until the com-
plete collapse of Syria under the irresistible blows
of the Assyrian power in 732.
Rezon was succeeded by Tabrimmon (I K 15 18), of
whom, however, nothing more is known than that he
was the father of Ben-hadad I (c. 900). Ben-hadad
helped Asa against Baasha and later made war
against and defeated Omri of Israel (I K 20 34).
Ben-hadad II (870-844, Hadadezer in the inscrip-
tions of Shalmanezer II) came into con-
3. Later flict with Ahab and was by him defeated
History, at the battle of Aphek and compelled
to yield the king of Israel the right to
"make streets" (i.e., bazaars) for himself in D.
Shortly after this, Ben-hadad put himself at the head
of a confederacy including Israel and other neigh-
boring states, which was designed to stem the grow-
ing power of Assyria in Western Asia. But in this
plan the confederacy completely failed, being de-
feated at the decisive battle of Karkar (854). These
reverses undoubtedly rendered Ben-hadad unpopular
in his own realm. He was finally slain by Hazacl,
who assumed his place on the throne (II K 8 15).
Under Ilazarl
(844-813) the
prestige of Da-
mascus revived in
spite of two de-
feats sustained at
the hands of
Shalmanezer II
(843 and 840).
In his wars with
Jehu, this king
succeeded in
wresting from
Israel the terri-
tory E. of the
Jordan and S. as
far as the river
Arnon (II K 10
32 f.; Am 1 3) and
threatened Judah
into paying him
City of Damascus. a large tribute (II
K12l7f.). Haza-
el's son and successor (Ben-hadad III, or Mari, 812-
770) was obliged to abandon the war against Israel
and defend himself against Assyria. In the twenty
years between 773 and 753, Damascus suffered five
separate attacks, all of which resulted in the ex-
haustion of its resources. The immediate successor
of Mari is not certainly known. The names of Ta-
beel and Tabrimmon II both occur (770-740).
It was under Rezon (740-732) that Damascus finally
succumbed to the attacks of Tiglath-pileser III. Its
beautiful territory was devastated, its people taken
into captivity, and its king put to death (Schra-
der, COT. I, 252).
For the next five centuries Damascus was simply
the residence of Assyrian, Babylonian, or Persian
governors. Biblical allusions to it
4. Damas- are scarce and doubtful (Jer 49 23-27;
cus from Ezk47 16 ff., 48 1). In the Greek pe-
732 riod it even ceased to be the capital of
Onward. Syria and was supplanted in that capac-
ity by Antioch, though the Seleucids
kept possession of it throughout. In 85 B.C. it was
captured by the Nabataean king, Aretas (Jos. Ant.
XIII, 15 2), and in 65 acknowledged the sovereignty
of Rome. When the Apostle Paul fled from it, it
was under command of an ethnarch. In N T times,
there were evidently many Jews in Damascus (Ac 9 2 ;
Damnation
Daniel, The Book of
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
1 1 1 1 1 N; Jos. BJ. II, 20 2, VII, 8 7). That one of
ite streets which has acquired fame as the "street
which is called straight" (Ac 9 11) was probably
flanked by pillars. The houses of Judas and Ana-
nias (Ac 9 10 f.) and the window in the wall through
which Paul was let down (II Co 11 33; Ac 9 M) are
still shown in tin- modern city, which has been under
Mohammedan rule since 624 A.D. A. C. Z.
DAMNATION. See ESCHATOLOQY, 18-21,
30, 39, 48, 49.
DAMSEL. See FAMILY AND FAMILY LAW, 6,
and MAHKIAQB AND DIVORCE.
DAN (11. dan), 'judge': I. A son of Jacob and
Bilhah, Rachel's maid, and the ancestor of one of
tl' tribes of Israel. See TRIBES, 2 and 4. II.
A city in the extreme N. of Israel's territory, once
called Laish (Jg 18 29, "Leshem" by mistake in Jos
l;i tl), but changed to Dan after its capture by a
large section of the tribe of Dan that emigrated
thence in the early days of the occupation of Canaan
by Israel (Jg 1 7 f.). The exact site is a matter of dis-
pute, opinions being divided between Tell el-Kadi,
a mound from which flow two of the streams that
unite to form the Xahr Leddan, or "Little Jordan,"
and Banlas, the ancient Paneas, also called Cffisarea
Philippi. See Map IV, E 4, F 4. The fact that the
Arabic KSdi is the equivalent of the Hebrew dan is
strongly in favor of the site of Tell el-Kadi, and with
this agree express statements in Jos. Ant. 1, 10 1, V,
3 i, VIII, 8 <; BJ. IV, 1 1 and in theOnomasticon of
Eusebius and Jerome perfectly which locate Dan at
the source of the ' lesser' Jordan and about 4 m. from
Paneas. For the argument for the site of Paneas see
G. A. Smith, HGHL. p. 472 f. Dan was counted
the northern limit of Israel's territory, "from Dan to
Beersheba," meaning the whole extent of Israel N.
to S. (I S 3 20, etc.). At Dan was one of the most
ancient sanctuaries in Israel, over which Jonathan,
a grandson of Moses, was said to have first presided
(Jg 18 30). As situated near a large spring (the
mound being that of an extinct volcano), it was
probably always considered a sacred spot. Here, at
a later time, was placed one of the two golden calves
made by Jeroboam I (I K 12 29). E. E. N.
DAN, DANITE. See TRIBES, 4.
DANCE : Throughout the O T period down to the
Greek era, the dancing in vogue among the Hebrews
was predominantly a religious exercise. In very an-
cient times it
was customary
for worshipers to
engage in a joy-
ous religious pro-
cession around
the sacred tree
or other sacred
symbol. (See
accompanying
cuts.) The com-
mon word for
dance, nahdl
(from hdl, 'to
A Dane* Around a Sacred Tree. move ill a circle,'
'to twist') refers to such circular rhythmic move-
ment (Ex 15 20, 32 19; Jg 11 34,21 21; I S21 11,295).
This dancing was generally accompanied by music
and song. It was engaged in by men, or more often
women, or both together (cf. Ps 68 25), frequently
in two antiphonal companies (cf. Song 6 13 RVmg.).
Other words for dancing as kdrar, 'to turn' (II S 6
A Sacrificial Ceremony.
The dancers move toward the altar, behind which is seated a
woman holding a flower to her nose. Behind her are
female musicians.
14, 16), raqadh, 'to leap' (I Ch 15 29; Job 21 11; cf. Is
13 21), and pazaz, 'to spring,' reveal the fact that
the motion was violent rather than graceful. The
verb hagag (I S 30 16, from which hag, the ordinary
word for a religious "feast" [cf. Ex 5 1], is derived)
is evidence for the original religious character of
dancing. During the Greek period the Jews became
acquainted with professional dancing women, and
sometimes did not hesitate to imitate them (cf. Mt
14 6). But the dances most loved by the people re-
tained their primitive character of pure and joyous
simplicity. Social dancing, as practised to-day in
the Occident, was unknown to the Hebrews.
E. E. N.
DANIEL (Vx.!5^, daniyyel), 'God is my judge':
1. Son of David and Abigail, the Carmelitess (1 Ch
31). 2. Son of Ithamar, one of those who sealed the
covenant with Nehemiah (Ezr82; Neh 10 o). 3. A
sage whose reputation entitled him to be classed
with Noah and Job (Ezk 14 14, 20). In addition to
his exemplary piety, he had also acquired a great
name for his exceptional wisdom (Ezk 28 3). There
is no valid reason for distrusting the traditional
identification of this Daniel with the Daniel of the
book bearing that name. Neither is there any evi-
dence of the existence of another Daniel at an earlier
date. Outside the book, however, the three refer-
ences in Ezekiel are the only ones made to him until
a very much later time (I Mac 2 59 f. ; Mt 24 15 [Mt
13 14]; Jos. Ant. X, 2 7). But the name of Daniel
became the rallying-point of apocryphal and pseud-
epigraphical writings (Bel and the Dragon; History
of Susannah; Prayer of Azariah; Song of the Three
Children; cf. also Fabric., Cod. V. T., i, 1124).
A. C. Z.
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Damnation
Daniel, The Book of
DANIEL, THE BOOK OF
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
8. Internal Evidence: Lin-
guistic Aspects
9. Internal lOviclenoe:
Type of Religious
Thought
10. Authenticity
11. Canonicity
12. Interpretation
1. Contents. Part I
2. Contents. Part II
3. Language
4. Date and Authorship;
The Rival Views
5. The Exilic Date
6. The Maccabean Date:
Kxternal Evidence
7. Interim! Kvidence: His-
torical Aspects
This book consists of two parts easily distin-
guishable. The first part (chs. 1-6) is narrative in
form and has for its theme Daniel as
I. Con- a sage and interpreter of dreams; the
tent. subject of the second (chs. 7-12) is a
Part I. series of visions seen by him. The
narrative element in it is at a minimum.
The l>ook opens with a portraiture of Daniel and
the three young Jewish nobles, who because of
ceremonial scruples refused at Babylon to eat the
kind's food and were prospered for their fidelity to
the national law (ch. 1). This incident is followed
by an account of Daniel's successful interpretation
of Nebuchadrezzar's dream of the composite image
(ch. 2). Next comes the story of the refusal of
Daniel and his three associates to worship the image
set up by the king and their subjection to the ordeal
of the fiery furnace (ch. 3). Daniel is then pictured
as interpreting the king's dream of a tree (ch. 4).
He also plainly explains the meaning of the hand-
writing on the wall at Bclshazzar's banquet (ch. 5),
and is promoted by Darius the Mede, but on account
of envy is subjected to the ordeal of the lion's den
(ch. 0).
The second part of the book contains an account
of four great visions seen by Daniel. The first is an
apocalyptic representation of the four
2. Part II. great world powers (Babylonian, Medo-
Persian, Persian, and Macedonian or
Greco-Syrian) in the form of four beasts, followed by
the establishment of the "people of the saints of the
Most High, whose kingdom is an everlasting king-
dom" (ch. 7). The second vision is also an apoca-
lyptic representation, but of the Macedonian power
with its fourfold development. Here Alexander
the Great appears in the form of a he-goat who over-
came the ram (the Persian Empire). From one of
the four divisions of the Greek Empire a king arises
who proceeds to desecrate the sanctuary (ch. 8).
The third vision is given in answer to a prayer of pen-
itcnce and is cast in the form of a Divine communi-
r:iiinn through the angel Gabriel, which concerns
the Messianic Kingdom to come in 70 weeks (ch. 9).
The fourth vision is given by direct angelic visitation
assuring Daniel of God's love for His faithful people
and detailing the course of events under the tyran-
nical and sacrilegious king of the N., Antiochus
Kpiplumes (c. 17,5-165 B.C., chs. 10-12).
One striking feature of the book is its bilingual
character. The portion of it which is included be-
t \vccn 2 4 and 7 28 is in Aramaic, all the rest in He-
brew. To account for this fact, it has been assumed
(by Meinhold, Kam. z. li. Dn, in Strack-Zockler, pp.
21 i 1 , 262 ) that Dn is drawn from sources of which the
first, an Aramaic document of c. 300 B.C., furnishes
the basis of chs. 1-6, and the second, a Hebrew work
of the Maccabean Age, makes up chs.
3. Lan- 7-12. But as ch. 1, outside of these
guage. natural divisions, is in Hebrew and ch.
7 in Aramaic, Preiswerk (Der Sprach-
wechsel im B.Dn, 1903, pp. 88, 1 12) alleges that ch. 1
has been translated from Aramaic into Hebrew and
ch. 7 from Hebrew into Aramaic. But aside from
the support which such an allegation is intended to
furnish to the theory of two underlying documents,
there is no evidence for it. Moreover, why should
the translation of Hebrew and Aramaic respectively
stop precisely where it does? Another attempted ex-
planation of the facts is in the theory that the speech
of the Chaldean magicians in 2 4 is given in their
own language. But as the conversation with the
Chaldeans is so brief, the continuation of the narra-
tive in the Aramaic dialect is on this theory unac-
counted for. As against these grounds a more sat-
isfying explanation may be found in a comparative
use of the two languages at the time of the composi-
tion of the book. If this be fixed in a period when
Hebrew was being largely supplanted by Aramaic
in popular usage, the author may be imagined as re-
sorting to the more intelligible dialect in portraying
affairs in Babylonia and turning to the less familiar
Hebrew when desirous of limiting the circle of those
who could understand his meaning; i.e., in the more
purely apocalyptic sections of his book. As this
dealt with current affairs, the risk of incurring the
displeasure of the Syrian authorities would be thus
lessened. At the same time the encouragement and
confidence in a speedy relief would be imparted to
the narrower circle of the faithful.
Strictly speaking Dn is anonymous. In this it
differs from Is, Jer, and Ezk. So far as it contains
any traces of the date of its origin and
4. Date its authorship, the proper use of these
and Au- data will depend upon a correct con-
thorship; ception of its literary form. If this
the Rival proves to be that of a purely historical
Views, prophetical book, these facts can only
be read as a claim on the part of the
book that it was written in the Exilic period and by
the illustrious sage (prophet) who is its chief char-
acter. Upon this understanding of it the prophet
Daniel would bear the same relation to the book
which Ezekiel does to the book bearing his name, etc.
But if Dn be an apocalypse, written according to the
current methods of composition governing the writing
of apocalyptic productions, it is plain that the author
lays no claim to giving precise history or accurate
minute prediction, but, wishing to convey a message
of hope, and to infuse fortitude under trial into the
hearts of a persecuted generation, he transfers him-
self back to the time of a great God-fearing man, and
through his figure conveys his message. In so doing
he embodies such knowledge as he possesses of the
age and environment of his hero. In no case, how-
ever, does he, on this supposition, aim to produce the
impression that his work is that of the sage himself.
Of these two alternatives, the first prevailed in
ancient times, as may be gathered from the treatment
of Porphyry's attack on the genuineness of the
book and the defense by Christian writers (Jerome,
Daniel, The Book of
Daniel, Apocryphal
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
ir>8
Pro/, in Dan.). In modern times the criticism of
.--ins with doubts regarding the authorship of
clis. 1-7 (Spinoza, Newton), which were
5. The followed by tin; view that the Aramaic
Exilic section (_> 4-7 28) was an interpolation
Date. (J. D. Miehaelis), and were finally sup-
planted by the theory that the whole
book is the work of a Jewish patriot of the time of
Antiochus Epiphanes (Corrodi, 1783, followed by
1 .icliliorn. etc.). The argument for the Exilic date of
i h- lxx>k is chiefly based on the alleged traditional
acceptance of it as such from the earliest days. It
is, however, also supported by such features of it as
come into view in I hi; effort to defend this traditional
theory against attacks from the critical view-points.
Tin- weakness of the argument is that the tradition,
when traced to ita earliest date, becomes quite un-
certain. The Baba-Bathra (146) ascribes the writing
of Dn not to Daniel but, along with that of some
other books, to "the men of the great synagogue."
The first portion of the book, at least, bears out the
assertion that Daniel is rather the hero and sub-
ject of it than the author. Of the latest advocates
of this position the ablest are C. H. H. Wright, Dan-
iel and His Prophecies (1906); Kennedy, Daniel from
the Christian Point of View (1898).
The Maccabean date of Dn is supported by con-
siderations both external and internal. Of the
former (1 ) the place of the book in
6. The the Hebrew canon between Esther and
Maccabean Ezra in the group of Hagiographa, and
Date: not with the prophets, shows that it
External was composed after the second group
Evidence, of the canon (the N'bhi'lm) had been
closed. The effort to break the force
of this fact by pointing to the Psalter, which is
also put among the Ilagiographa, although com-
pleted before the second division of the canon
had been closed, is unavailing, because from the
nature of the case (lie Hook of Psalms could not have
been put either in the first division (Pentateuch) or
in the second (Prophets). A better analogy is fur-
nished by the Book of Jonah, which, though in every
respect exactly like Dn, found a place among the
prophets simply because it was composed before the
collection of the N'bhi'lm had teen completed. (2)
The silence of Ben Sira regarding the prophet indi-
cates that Daniel was not prominently before the
mind of the faithful Hebrew, as would have been the
case had such an account of him as Dn presents been
published (Sir 49). According to Ben Sira no man
has arisen like Joseph since Joseph's day, but as
Koenig points out (Einl., p. 386) Daniel is such a
perfect analogue to Joseph, especially in the matter
of rising to a first place in a foreign realm because of
the successful interpretation of dreams, that the
failure to recognize him is unaccountable upon the
Exilic dating of the book. (3) The total absence of
any trace of the influence of Dn upon subsequent af-
faire is also a fact not accounted for by the theory
of its |.'.\ilic date.
The internal grounds for the Maccabean date may
be grouped as (I i those which are drawn from the
nature of the historical details included in the book.
Them; show that to the author the conditions of the
iln were not the familiar environment of his own
day but an atmosphere and surrounding into which
he had mentally transferred himself. On the other
hand, the history of the Maccabean
7. Internal Age as reflected in the book is mi-
Evidence : nute and accurate (cf. Farrar on Dn
Historical in Expositor's Bible, pp. 38-62). (2)
Aspects. The fact that the author touches upon
the conditions of the Exile, passes over
the entire period between Cyrus and Alexander, and,
glancing at that conqueror as a landmark, proceeds
at once into a minute description of events during
the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes is accounted for
best by the Maccabean dating of the book. The
historical conditions of the Exile were necessary as
the literary framework for his great hero. The
intermediate period was irrelevant and therefore
omitted. The details of the Maccabean Age were
introduced because they were of all-absorbing in-
terest. Upon the theory of an Exilic date such a
selection of historical material is unexplainable.
The linguistic aspects of Dn point to the Macca-
bean Age. The language of the Hebrew section
affiliates it with that of Esther and
8. Internal Chronicles, the latest books of the O T
Evidence: (Driver, LOT*, p. 504 ff.). Its
Linguistic maic is not the Babylonian but the Pal-
Aspects, estinian variety of that language (cf.
Koenig, EM., p. 387; Driver, op. ci!.,
p. 502). Certain Persian words (about 10 to ]."> i fix
the earliest limit for the composition of the book as
c. 500 B.C., while the Greek terms for musical instru-
ments used in 3 4 f. point to a date subsequent to 331
B.C. The explanation sometimes offered for t he-
intrusion of these words in a book of the 6th cent.
B.C. which assumes that they might be stray names
introduced through occasional intercourse between
Babylonia and the Greeks of Asia Minor is inade-
quate, inasmuch as two of them at least belong to a
much later age. Sumponyfth ("dulcimer," &vn<t>a>-
via) is first found in Plato, and psanterln ("psal-
tery," tyakrlipiov) by its change of 1 into n betrays
the influence of the Macedonian dialect and must
therefore be later than the conquest of Alexander.
The type of religious thought which prevails in
the book confirms the conclusion pointed to by the
considerations already adduced. The
9. Internal theology of the book is akin to that of
Evidence: the Books of the Maccabees and quite
Type of different from that of the Exilic pro-
Religious ductions or even from that of the wri-
Thought. tings of Haggai, Zechariah, Ezra, and
Nehemiah.
If Dn was not intended to be taken as the work of
the man whose name it bears but as an apocalypse
in which the prophet's figure was used
10. Au- as the vehicle of a Divine message to
thenticity. the persecuted generation of Jews who
lived in the middle of the 2d cent.,
there can be no question of its authenticity. For the
question of authenticity can arise only when facts
are discovered that point to a conclusion con-
tradicting the claim of authorship made by a
book for itself. As a book cast into the apoca-
lyptic form, Dn could not biit be put, in ac-
cordance with the legitimate literary principles
governing such forms, into the mold in which it is
169
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Daniel, The Book of
Daniel, Apocryphal
found. Even such a statement as 124 belongs to
the literary framework, and does not constitute a
claim of Danielle authorsliip.
Whether Dn deserves a place in the canon of
Scripture does not depend cither upon the personal-
ity of the author or the species of lit-
n. Can- erature he may have chosen for his
onicity. message, but upon the recognition of
the book by the spiritual consciousness
of (iod's people as containing a real message of per-
manent value. This recognition was accorded to
the book in the days of Jesus and by Jesus Himself.
It lias been concurred in by almost the unanimous
body of believers. No investigation of a literary
historical character can shake its place in the rule of
faith.
Much of the difficulty experienced with the mean-
ing of Dn is lost when it is recognized as a product
of the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes.
12. Inter- Ch. 11 especially, with its four world
pretadon. kingdoms, is wonderfully cleared when
viewed from this standpoint. The third
of these kingdoms is explicitly named as the Per-
sian (112); the fourth to follow is evidently the Greek
(Macedonian). Of this the Syrian (Seleucid) king-
dom is considered the northern branch. The same
fourfold division of history appears in the earlier
part of the book (cf. ch. 2, the image of Nebuchad-
rezzar's dream) and in both cases the fourfold
world-power is succeeded by the kingdom of the Mes-
siah, .specifically represented in 7 9 ff. as the reign of
the Son of Man.
LITKKATURF. : Driver, LOT 1 ; J. D. Prince, A Crit. Com.
on the Book of Dn, 1899; Driver, Camb. Bib. for Schools
and Coll., Dn, 1900; Belirmann, Hand-Kom. z. Dn, 1894.
A. C. Z.
DANIEL, APOCRYPHAL ADDITIONS TO: In
the Greek text of the Book of Daniel are found the
following additions: (1) The Prayer of Azariah and
the Thanksgiving of the Three Children in the Fiery
Furnace. (2) The History of Susannah. (3) The
Story of Bel and the Dragon. The first of these has
a much closer relation to the Book of Daniel than the
other two.
This is an apocryphal addition of 67 verses to the
Book of Daniel inserted after 3 23. The title does
not fully express all the contents of the
i . The Song section , for it contains also the Prayer
of the Three of Azariah (1-22), and a brief narrative
Children. (23-27) of the heating of the furnace,
and of the coming of the Angel of the
Lord to the rescue. Codex B has the headings "The
Prayer of Azariah" and "The Hymn of the Three."
It has been often noted that the prayer, which is
really as if a nation was speaking, confessing its past
sins and seeking mercy, is singularly inappropriate
to the circumstances. So too the Hymn is quite as
unlikely in such a situation. It is more like a litany,
and seems to be modeled after Ps 136. Both are
unauthentic amplifications of the story in the ca-
nonical Dn, that are meant to fill out the account of
the miraculous deliverance of the three Hebrews
by giving the prayer which one of them offered, be-
seeching God for deliverance, and the hymn of
praise which they sang when they saw that this
prayer was answered. It is entirely unknown who
composed them. Their date also is unknown. Tlu-y
have l>een preserved for us in the Greek Bible and in
the versions made from it. It has been much dis-
cussed whether the original of this section was
Hebrew or Greek. The question is not easy of set-
tlement, since every extant version is based on the
LXX. As yet there is no unanimity in the matter.
This apocryphal addition to the Book of Daniel is
entitled in some MSS. "The Judgment of Daniel."
In Greek MSS. and in the Old Latin
2. The version it is placed before Dn ch. 1; in
History of the Vulgate it stands at the end as
Susannah. Dn ch. 13. The Greek text is extant
in two recensions, the LXX. and that
of Theodotion, which differ from each other in some
details. There are several Syriac versions of the
book. The story is as follows : Susannah, the wife
of a wealthy Babylonian Jew, was accustomed to
walk daily in her garden. Two elders, who had been
recently appointed judges, becoming enamored of
her beauty, concealed themselves one day in the
garden and when Susannah was taking her bath
suddenly appeared and made shameless proposals
to her. Her outcry discovered them, and to save
themselves they publicly accused Susannah of adul-
tery with a young man whom they had found in the
garden. The innocent woman was condemned to
death, but was saved by Daniel, who by sharp cross-
questioning exposed the falsity of the elders and se-
cured their punishment.
This narrative can not be regarded as historical.
It is full of improbabilities. Ball (Speaker's Bible,
Apoc. II: 325) following Briihl finds the origin and
motive of the Susannah story in a tradition of two
elders of the time of the Captivity, who by promising
women that they would become the mothers of great
prophets led them astray, and he suggests that in
the time of Ben Shetach (100 B.C.) we can find rea-
sons for the presentation of the story in the form in
which it here appears with the trial attached. If
this theory be correct, several important teachings
are exemplified in the story. Julius Africanus was
the first to dispute its canonicity. It is still re-
garded by the Roman Catholic Church as canonical.
These are two distinct stories which have been
added to the Bo'ok of Daniel in the Greek and other
versions. They both have as their aim,
3. Bel along with the glorification of Daniel,
and the the exhibition of the emptiness and de-
Dragon, ception of idolatry. In the story of
Bel, Cyrus the Persian king discovers
that Daniel does not worship the Babylonian idol
Bel, and calls him to account for his conduct. Daniel
denies that Bel is a living god, and offers to prove it.
The test is to be made in reference to the daily offer-
ings of meat and drink which Bel was supposed to
consume. If it should be found that these were
made away with by other means than by the god
himself, then Daniel was to be honored. Upon the
floor of the temple Daniel had spread a thin coating
of fine ashes and after the food had been deposited
before the god, the king himself shut and sealed the
door. The next morning when the door was opened
the food was gone, but the marks of human feet were
\ipon the pavement. This led to the discovery of a
secret door, through which the priests with their
Dinjain
David
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
170
I :mcl children had entered the room. The
proof was irrefutable, the false priests were slain,
and Daniel was honoi
In the Story .-f tin- Dragon ihc same question was
at issue as to whether it was a living god. Daniel
denied it and offered to slay him. The king gave
him permission to try, and Daniel making lumps
"of pitch, and fat, and hair" gave them to the
dragon to cat. whereupon he burst asunder. Baby-
lon was indignant at the death of their god and
compelling the king to give up Daniel cast him into
the lions' <len. where he was miraculously kept
unharmed. The king's wonder at this led him to
honor the prophet and to acknowledge the prophet's
God.
Neither of these stories, of course, is authentic,
but each is framed from material taken from current
legends and ideas. The dragon myth had wide cir-
culation. As in the case of the History of Susannah,
the two Greek recensions, that of the LXX. and that
of Theodotion, differ in details. The original lan-
guage of these stories has generally been considered
to be Greek. Caster's discovery of an Aramaic text
of the Story of the Dragon in the Chronicles of
Jerahmecl gives strong support to the few who have
stood for an Aramaic original and has started again
the question of Aramaic originals for them both, but
as yet a clear decision is not possible.
The Roman and Greek Churches accept these
stories as canonical ; the Protestant Church holds
them to be apocryphal. J. S. R.
DANJAAN, dan"je'an (i?- ~J-, danah ya'an)
(IIS 24 6): The text here seems to be corrupt.
The LXX. is unintelligible, but indicates that 'Dan'
occurred twice. Some would amend: "And from
Dan they went round to Sidon." Others would
read "and to Ijon" for "Jaan." E. E. N.
DANNAH, dan'a (~J1, dannah) : A city in the hill-
countryof Judah( Jos 1549). Map II, D 2. E.E.N.
DARDA, dflr'da (l'~"1, darda') : A person famous
for his wisdom (I K4 31). He is called a son of Mahol,
but in I Ch 2 6, where the same set of names occurs,
he is called Dara and counted as a son of Zerah,
son of Judah. Mahol may have been the name of
a family of the clan of Zerah, a subdivision of the
tribe of Judah. E. E. N.
DARIC. A Persian coin. See MONEY, 8.
DARIUS, da-rai'us (*"% daryawesK): 1. D.
Hystospes, King of Persia (521-485 B.C.), the restorer
of the empire of Cyrus, who followed the policy of the
founder in his treatment of the subject states, and
acted generously toward the Jewish settlement in
Palestine which had been made under Cyrus. He
commanded by a special decree, in his second year,
that all those who had hindered t lie rebuilding of the
Temple of Jerusalem should cease their obstruction,
and that money and material for sacrifices should be
granted from the revenue of the province (Kzr 6 6-12;
< f. Hag. 1 1, IS, 2 10; Zech 1 1, 7). "Darius the Per-
sian," whose reign is mentioned in Neh 12 22 as the
date of registration of certain priests, was probably
alao the great Darius. 2. "Darius the Mede" is
named in Dn 5 31 as succeeding Belshazzar, at the age
of sixty-two, on the throne of Babylon. In 9 1 he is
said, in addition, to have been "the son of Alias-
uerus of the seed of the Medes" (cf. 11 l). Both of
these alleged personages are unhistorical; and, judg-
ing from the character of the other references to mat-
ters of history in the Book of Daniel, it is perhaps not
necessary to assume that the author, writing nearly
four centuries after the fall of Babylon, had any
definite individuals in mind. Fortunately, the cunei-
form inscriptions have given us the history of the
Babylonian succession after the fall of the native
dynasty. The last Chaldean ruler was Nabonidus,
not Belshazzar, who was the crown prince. After
the surrender of Babylon, and the formal entry of
Cyrus three months later, his son Cambyses, as it
would appear, was made king, but only for less than
a year; thereafter Cyrus himself assuming the title
and function. It is barely possible that some tradi-
tion of Gobryas, the Median general of Cyrus who
occupied the city till his sovereign came to take
possession, may have lain at the foundation of the
references in Daniel. But this hypothesis would at
best be only another illustration of the author's
notion of the relative unimportance of the minute
details of history. J. F. McC.
DARKNESS: In figurative language darkness
often appears as the symbol of mystery (Ps 139 12;
I Co 4 S), of ignorance (Is 42 7; Ps 82 5), and oftener
of moral evil or sin (Is 5 20; Mt 4 16; Jn 3 19). (
of physical darkness are alluded to in connection
with the creation, the plagues in Egypt, the cruci-
fixion of Jesus (Mt 27 45), and the last day (cf. Es-
CHATOLOQY, 39). A. C. Z.
DARKON, dar'ken CrpTl, darqori):' The ances-
tral head of a subdivision of "Solomon's servants"
in post^exilic days (Ezr 2 56; Neh 7 58). E. E. N.
DARK SAYING. See PROVERB.
DARLING: The rendering of the Heb. "",*,
yahldh, 'only,' 'only one,' in Ps 22 20, 35 17, where it
is used poetically for one's life or soul. E. E. N.
DART. See ARMS AND ARMOR, 1.
DART IN THE LIVER. See DISEASE, 6 (3).
DATHAN, de'than (}?-, dathan): A Reubenite
and a leader in a rebellion against Moses (Nu 16).
See KORAH. E. E. N.
DAUGHTER. See FAMILY AND FAMILY LAW,
5, 6.
DAVID
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
1. Name
2. Sources for the History
of David
3. David's Life
4. Estimate of David's
Reign and Work
The name David (Tl^ ,T^, davndh) is probably
related to Til, dodh, 'beloved one.' Some take it
to mean 'paternal uncle' (cf. Gray,
i. Name. Heb. Pr. Names, p. 83). Others refer
it to Dodo, the name of a deity.
In the Biblical material relating to David later
and earlier narratives have been fused together in
171
A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY
Danjaan
David
I he accounts in the Books of Samuel and in I K
1-2. The account in I Chronicles is based for its
nuiin facts on the earlier account in
2. Sources Samuel and Kings. While the Chron-
for the icier may have had access in a few
History of instances to other ancient sources of
David. information, most of the remarkable
differences between his narrative and
that in the earlier books must be laid to his unhis-
torical imagination. He projected back into David's
time the fully developed liturgical and other arrange-
ments of the Temple service in his own day. Com-
pare, e.g., the account of the bringing of the Ark to
Jerusalem in I Ch 15 with the earlier account in
I 1 S 6, and the difference in point of view will at once
be apparent. See CHRONICLES.
We are thus practically limited to the accounts
in I and II S and I K 1-2 for our knowledge of Da-
vid. This material will be found, on examination,
to consist of excerpts from older and originally in-
dependent narratives in addition to editorial notes
of various kinds. See SAMUEL, BOOKS OP.
David is introduced, for example, in I S 16. The
account in 16 1-13 is a natural sequence to ch. 15.
But at 16 14 a new strand of narrative appears.
Saul is persuaded to send for David, already famous
as "skilful in playing, a mighty man of valor, and a
man of war," etc., as one who by his playing on the
harp might soothe the troubled spirit of the king.
David comes to Saul, who likes him, makes him liis
armor-bearer and provides for his permanent stay
at court. The sequence to tliis narrative is cer-
tainly to be found in such a passage as 18 6 ff. (note
that in ver. 6 the correct reading is "Philistines"
[plural] and the reference originally may not have
been to the Goliath story). But instead of this we
have next the account of David and Goliath, ch.
17-185, in which David is introduced, as if for the
first time 
