Full text of "A standard Bible dictionary, designed as a comprehensive guide to the Scriptures, embracing their languages, literature, history, biography, manners and customs, and their theology;"

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A STANDARD
BIBLE DICTIONARY

STANDARD

BIBLE DICTIONARY

DESIGNED AS A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE TO THE SCRIPTURES,

EMBRACING THEIR LANGUAGES, LITERATURE,

HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, MANNERS AND

CUSTOMS, AND THEIR THEOLOGY

EDITED

MELANCTHON W.^JACOBUS, D.D.

(CHAIRMAN OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD)

DEAN, AND HOSMER PROFESSOR OF NEW TESTAMENT EXEGESIS AND CRITICISM, IN HARTFORD

THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

EDWARD E/NOURSE, D.D.

PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL THEOLOGY, AND INSTRUCTOR IN NEW TESTAMENT CANONICITY AND
TEXTUAL CRITICISM, IN HARTFORD THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

AND AV r^

ANDREW Cs^ENOS, D.D.

PROFESSOR OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY, IN McCORMICK THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, CHICAGO

IN ASSOCIATION WITH AMERICAN, BRITISH
AND GERMAN SCHOLARS

Embellished With New and Original Illustrations and Maps

FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY

NEW YORK AND LONDON
1909

1
+ *
t

Att rights of translation reserved

Registered at Stationers' Hall, London, England

[Printed in the United States of America]

Published January, 1909

KEY TO INITIALS OF CONTRIBUTORS

A. C. Z Andrew C. Zenos, M.A., D.D.,

Professor of Ecclesiastical History in
McCormick Theological Seminary,
Chicago.

A. S. C Augustus Stiles Carrier, D.D.,

Professor of Hebrew and Cognate
Languages, McCormick Theological
Seminary, Chicago.

A. T Albert Thumb, Ph.D.,

Professor in the Philosophical Facul-
ty, University of Marburg.

C. S. T Charles Snow Thayer, Ph.D.,

Librarian of Hartford Theological
Seminary.

D. B. M. . . .Duncan B. Macdonald, M.A., B.D.,

Professor of Semitic Languages, Hart-
ford Theological Seminary.

E. E. N Edward E. Nourse, S.T.B., D.D.,

Professor of Biblical Theology in
Hartford Theological Seminary.

E. K Eduard Konig, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis
in the Protestant Theological Faculty,
University of Bonn.

E. K. M. . . Edwin Knox Mitchell, D.D.,

Professor of Grseco-Roman and East-
em Church History, Hartford Theo-
logical Seminary.

E. von D. . .Ernst von Dobschutz, D.D.,

Professor of Theology, University of
Strasburg.

G. B. G George B. Gray, M.A., Hon. D.D.,

Professor of Hebrew and Old Testa-
ment Exegesis, Mansfield College, Ox-
ford.

G. E. P George E. Post, M.D., F.L.S.,

Professor in the Syrian Protestant
College, Beinlt.

G. L. R George L. Robinson, Ph.D., D.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Literature
and Exegesis, McCormick Theological
Seminary, Chicago.

G. M George Milligan, D.D.,

Minister of the Established Church of
Scotland.

H. G Hermann Guthe, D.D.,

Professor of Theology, University of
Leipsic.

I. M. P Ira Maurice Price, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Semitic Languages and
Literature, University of Chicago.

J. A. K James A. Kelso, Ph.D., D.D.,

Professor of Hebrew and Old Testa-
ment Literature, Western Theological
Seminary, Allegheny, Pa.

J. D James Denney, D.D.,

Professor of New Testament Lan-
guage, Literature, and Theology,
United Free Church College, Glasgow.

J. F. McC.. James F. McCurdy, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Oriental Literature, Uni-
versity College, Toronto, Canada.

J. H. R James Hardy Ropes, A.B., D.D.,

Bussey Professor of New Testament
Criticism and Interpretation, and
Dexter Lecturer on Biblical Litera-
ture, Harvard University.

J. M. T John Moore Trout, Ph.D.,

Dobbs Ferry, N. Y.

J. R. S. S.. . John R. S. Sterrett, Ph.D., LL.D.,

Professor of Greek, Cornell Univer-
sity, Ithaca, N. Y.

J. S. R James Stevenson Riggs, D.D.,

Taylor, Seymour, and Ivison Pro-
fessor of Biblical Criticism, Auburn
Theological Seminary.

J. V. B J. Vernon Bartlet, M.A., D.D.,

Professor of Church History, Mans-
field College, Oxford.

K. L Kirsopp Lake, M.A.,

Professor of Early Christian Litera-
ture and New Testament Exegesis,
University of Leyden.

KEY TO INITIALS OF CONTRIBUTORS

L. B. P Lewis Bayles Paton, Ph.D., D.D.,

NYt ili-inn I'rnfi-s-a.r of Old Testament
Exegesis and Criticism. Instructor in
Assyrian :tml Cognate Languages,
Hurt ford Theological Seminary.

L. G. L Lewis Gaston Leary, Ph.D.,

l':i-tor of Huguenot Memorial Church,
1'clham Manor, New York.

M. D Marcus Dods, D.D.,

Professor of New Testament Theol-
ogy, United Free Church College,
Edinburgh.

M. W. J Melancthon W. Jacobus, D.D.,

Dean, and Professor of New Testa-
ment Literature and Criticism, Hart-
ford Theological Seminary.

R. A. F Robert A. Falconer, D.D.,

Principal of Toronto University, To-
ronto, Canada.

S. D Samuel Dickey, M.A.,

Professor of New Testament Litera-
ture and Exegesis, McCormick Theo-
logical Seminary, Chicago.

S. M Shailer Mathews, D.D.,

Professor of Systematic Theology,
and Dean of the Divinity School,
University of Chicago.

S. R. D Samuel R. Driver, D.D., Hon. D.Lit.,

Regius Professor of Hebrew, and Can-
on of Christ Church, Oxford.

W. D. M. . .Wm. D. Mackenzie, D.D., LL.D.,

President and Riley Professor of
Christian Theology, Hartford Theo-
logical Seminary.

W. N Wilhelm Howack, Ph.D.,

Professor of Old Testament Exegesis
in the Theological Faculty, University
of Strasburg.

W. S Wm. Sanday, D.D., LL.D., D.Sc.,

Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity,
and Canon of Christ Church, Oxford.

W. S. P Waldo S. Pratt, Mus.D.,

Professor of Ecclesiastical Music and
Hymnology, Hartford Theological
Seminary.

PREFACE

I. THE ORIGIN OF THE DICTIONARY.

THIS Dictionary owes its origin to two facts, not altogether unrelated: In the first
place, the existence of a general need, frequently expressed in many quarters, as not
beincr supplied by the two comparatively recent Biblical dictionaries of Hastings and
Cheyne These dictionaries have been found to be too discursive to answer the purpose
of handy and ready-reference books. In addition to this fundamental objection, their
high price has made it impossible for many to purchase them who are desirous of having
in their possession an accurate, modern Bible Dictionary.

The second fact was the appearance in Germany of the one-volume Bibelworterbuch,
edited by Professor Hermann Guthe. This work attracted the attention of the Funk
& Wagnalls Company, who planned at first to have it translated and thus put before the
English reading public. It was found, however, on investigation that Guthe's work would
involve so much editorial revision in order to adapt it to an American or a British public
that the idea of translating it was abandoned, and it was determined to construct an ab-
solutely new Dictionary, altogether independent of any existing one, which it was hoped
would meet the demands of the situation. Of this effort the present work is the result.

II. THE PROBLEM OP THE DICTIONARY.

The construction of a modern single-volume English Bible Dictionary, accurate and
abreast of modern scholarship, presents a complicated problem. For the production of
such a book there must be an understanding of the material with which it has to deal;
there must be an appreciation of the constituency to which it is to minister; and there must
be an intelligent consciousness of the critical position to which its purpose commits it.

(1) The material with which an English Bible Dictionary has to deal is the contents
of the English Bible. The English Bible, however, is simply a version, and behind its
English terminology are the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek originals. As a consequence,
the Dictionary, while it reproduces the words and phrases of the English Bible in its titles,
must treat them primarily with reference to the Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek terms which
underlie them. In other words, its task must be the explication of a terminology drawn
in the first place from the English Bible, but not from the point of view of English philology
or etymology, but from the point of view of the underlying terminology of the originals.

(2) The constituency had in view in such a Dictionary is determined largely by the
facts which have called the book into existence. It is a constituency which is much wider
than the class of distinctive scholars, continually engaged in Bible study, familiar wit'
Hebrew and Greek, and having a first-hand acquaintance with the field of modern E
research. It is made up of the educated ministry, who, while possessed of technici
scholarship, have not always the leisure to enter into a discursive presentation of crit:
research; besides this, it includes the Sunday-school teachers and workers, who in most
cases have not had the benefit of a technical education in Bible study and yet

and appreciate all that Biblical scholarship can give them of its results; and, finally, u
includes the intelligent laymen interested in Bible study, but not acquainted with Hebrew,

PREFACE

or in many cases with Greek. For this widely extended circle of interested Bible students
the Dictionary, to be of service, must avoid being too scholastic in its general character.
It should be accurate in its presentation of facts, but not so technical as not to be easily
understood; it should be up to the day in its information, but not so discursive as to burden
its pages with the pedantry of undigested facts. What it gives should be given in such a
way as not to repel the busy man and woman of to-day, but to help them in their under-
standing of the Bible, which they wish' to read intelligently and to study with a view to
the best results for themselves and others.

(3) The critical position to which such a Dictionary is necessarily committed must
be one of acceptance of the proved facts of modern scholarship, of open-mindedness toward
its still-debated problems, and of conservation of the fundamental truths of the Christianity
proclaimed and established in the message and mission of Jesus Christ. The constituency
to which the Dictionary appeals is not to be helped by an apologetic method that ignores
what a reverent critical scholarship has brought to light regarding the Book of the Christian
religion; nor is it to be served by a radical spirit so enamored of novelty and opposed to
tradition that it would seek to establish a new religion on the ruins of the historical facts of
Christianity. It can be ministered to only by a clear, charitable, uncontroversial presenta-
tion of the results which a century and a half of earnest, conscientious, painstaking, self-
denying study of the Bible has secured, to the end that all students and readers of the Book
may be led into* its more intelligent understanding and its more spiritual use.

III. THE PRINCIPLES GUIDING THE EDITORS.

Such being the character of the problem, the principles guiding the editors in the
constructing of the Dictionary have been the following:

(1) The text of the American Standard Edition of the Revised Bible (copyright,
1901, by Messrs. Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York) has been made the standard English
text 'of the Biblical citations and references. At the same time, it is evident that, the
Dictionary being intended for English readers in general, this text could not be adhered
to exclusive of any reference to that of the English Revision of 1881 (copyright by the Ox-
ford University Press, Oxford, England) which occupies in British- countries relatively the
same position as that held by the American Revision in this country; much less could there
be an ignoring of the Authorized Version of 1611, which in all English-speaking countries
still maintains, and is certain to continue to maintain for some time to come, a position of
great respect and considerable use. In fact, in so far as the Dictionary concerns the Eng-
lish Bible as a version of its original languages, it must, while adopting a standard English
text, have constant reference to such varieties of interpretation as the English versions
actually in use present.

(2) The Concordance to the English Bible has been made the basis of the list of titles.
At this point the editors were confronted with a peculiar difficulty; for there is as yet no
complete concordance of the American Revised text. The nearest approach to any such
work that was at their disposal is the elaborate Concordance of James Strong, S.T.D.,
LL.D., which indicates the passages in the Authorized Version where changes were made
in the Revision of 1881, and which shows these changes in a comparative table, but contains
no concordance of them. While every effort has been made to supply this fundamental
lack, it is more than likely that some terms in the American Revision have been inad-
vertently omitted. Apart from this, however, it is obvious that this basal relation of the
concordance to the list of titles does not mean that all the words in the concordance have
been given a place in the list of titles. The purpose of the Dictionary is not to record
the contents of the Bible, but to give information and instruction regarding such parts

PREFACE U

of the Bible contents as may be of service to Bible readers and students. Furthermore,
it is clear that not all the contents of the Bible which call for such treatment belong legitimately
to a Bible Dictionary; for, again, the purpose of such a Dictionary is not to do the work
of an English lexicon or grammar. There are not a few obsolete English words and phrases
especially in the Authorized Version which are subjects of interesting study in our own
language, but are without significance in the underlying original languages of the Bible.
These can safely be omitted, and both the space and the dignity of the Dictionary be
conserved. Still further, there are words and phrases which so obviously belong to the
field of ordinary Bible comment, having little or no significance in the study of the Bible,
that there would be no real service rendered the student or the reader in considering them.
The Dictionary is not intended to do the work of the general English commentary any more
than of the general English lexicon. With these exceptions, however, the effort has been
made to include in the list of titles every term in the American Revision.

(a) This being the working list, it will be found as a matter of fact that its larger part
consists of names of persons and places. These resolve themselves into two classes, the
more important and the less important. As to the latter class, it has been impossible in
many cases to do more than record the Bible statements, there being nothing known
beyond them. But even in doing this the endeavor has been to place these statements in
the critical connections to which they belong, the purpose of the Dictionary being not
simply to gather Bible references, but to present results of scholarship wherever they
have been secured. As to the former class, the endeavor has been to treat them not only
in regard to the facts of the Bible record, but also and more especially in regard to the
relation which they sustain to the progress of the history and the development of the
religion contained within and connected with the Bible. This, the editors believe, will
be conspicuously evident in the most important articles in this class such as those on
Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt, Asia Minor, and Palestine on the one hand, and those on
Moses, David, Elijah, Jeremiah, John the Baptist, James, Peter, John, and Paul on the
other. It will be found at its best in what has been written of the One Supreme Person-
ality in all religion.

(6) Closely connected with these person and place articles and necessitated by the
historical method employed in their treatment will be found a class of articles presenting
in larger compass the general subjects of the History of Israel, Semitic Religion, Greek
and Roman Religions, Ethnography and Ethnology, with a specific discussion of the
politico-religious parties of the New Testament times, and the Religious Thought and Life
and Institutions of the Jewish People.

(c) Conversely, in the direction of the details of the people's civic and domestic life,
the reader of the Dictionary will find articles on such subjects as Crimes and Punishments,
Law and Legal Practise, Family and Family Law, Marriage and Divorce, Money, Trade
and Commerce, Agriculture, Artisan Life, Disease and Medicine, Dress and Ornaments,
Burial and Mourning Customs.

(d) It is impossible, however, in any study of the Bible to dissociate the history
and life of the people from the literature in which the history has been recorded and the
life has found expression. Necessarily, therefore, the plan of the Dictionary has included
a discussion of the origin, composition, and characteristics of the Bible writings, together
with those of the Apocrypha and of the more important writings in the apocalyptic litera-
ture. In the treatment of these writings the editors have been influenced by a considera-
tion of the readers for whom the Dictionary is intended, and have sought, consequently,
not so much to enter into the details of the critical problems involved as rather, along
with a plain statement of the critical facts which scholarly investigation has brought to

PREFACE

light, to unfold the significance of the writings in their connection with the history which
they record and the teachings which they present. This will account for the space de-
voted to the analysis of the contents of the respective books and for the treatment in
many of them of their theological position. With a treatment of the Biblical books nat-
urally is connected a treatment of the languages in which they were written, of the text
in which they have been preserved, and of their collection into the canons of the Old and
New Testaments.

(e) From such a treatment of the Biblical literature it follows that there must be
some specific presentation of the theological teachings of the Bible, as a whole. The plan
of the Dictionary confessedly did not permit it to enter the field of systematic theology;
but equally, it did not admit of its ignoring the Biblical basis on which this science is
founded the point in fact at which the Bible is perhaps most profoundly searched and
studied. The editors consequently determined upon including among the articles the
fundamental doctrines on which the Scriptures themselves give utterance, such as Faith,
Repentance, Atonement, Sin, Forgiveness, Grace, together with such presupposed doc-
trinal facts as God, such doctrinal inferences as Predestination, and such general fields of
doctrinal thought as Eschatology.

In all these varied directions it has been the endeavor of the editors to maintain the
purpose of the Dictionary to present to the readers and students of the Bible the results of
a reverent scholarship, committed to the accepted facts of criticism, open-minded to its un-
settled problems, and thoroughly loyal to the basal truths of an evangelical Christianity.

It is difficult to measure the help to the editorial work which has come from the sym-
pathetic interest of the contributors to the undertaking. The editors desire that their
appreciation of the assistance which has thus been rendered them shall not be underesti-
mated. In addition, they would acknowledge the courtesy of the authorities of the BRITISH
MUSEUM in permitting the use of illustrations taken from their magnificent collection of
antiquities as well as the generous use which the PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND and the
EGYPTIAN EXPLORATION FUND have permitted of the cuts which their records contain of
the valuable finds made at Gezer and elsewhere.

Thanks are due also to Professor JOHN R.'S. STERRETT, of Cornell University, for the
map of the Pauline world; to Professor SAMUEL DICKEY, of McCormick Seminary, for the
excellent photographs of Oriental scenes and places gathered by him while in Palestine and
the East; to Dr. LEWIS GASTON LEARY, of Pelham Manor, N. Y., for photographs tak^n
by himself of the tombs of the Cave of Machpelah; to Professor LEWIS BAYLES PATON, of
Hartford Seminary for his map of Jerusalem, and to him in conjunction with Professor
ELIHU GRANT, of Smith College, for the admirable photographs of objects included in the
complete collection of articles of dress and utensils of domestic and agricultural life gathered
by him and his devoted wife during their year in Jerusalem and Palestine.

The editors would not forget the constant kindness of Professor CHARLES SNOW
THAYER, the librarian of the Case Memorial Library of Hartford Seminary, and of his as-
sistants, Mr. ANANIKIAN and Doctor CHAPMAN, in the bibliographical details of the Dic-
tionary; and also the painstaking care of Mr. EDWARD F. DONOVAN, of the publishers'
editorial staff, in correcting the proofs for the press, particularly in the care of the Hebrew
text and its transliteration. To Miss ETHEL L. DICKINSON special thanks are due for her
efficient service in preparing the manuscript for the printers.

M. W. JACOBUS.
E. E. NOURSE.

A. C. ZENOS.
HARTFORD, January, 1909

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

N. B. In the following list subjects likely to be sought for under various headings are repeated under
each heading. Cross-references in this list are to other items in the list, not to articles in the
Dictionary.

v PA"E

'Agalah, Threshing with an 17

Agricultural Implements facing 16

Alexander the Great, Tetradrachmse (Silver Coins) of 556

Alexandria, Map of 23

Alphabets, Specimens of Early Hebrew and Aramaic 27

Altar of Burnt Offerings 29

Altars, Primitive (Dolmens), in Eastern Palestine 29

Amon, Temple of, at Thebes, Ground-Plan of the 850

Amulets Collected in Cyprus 191

Ancient Lamps (Simplest and Improved Forms) 474

Palestinian Lamps 475

- Seals on Pottery (Jar Handles) 777-778

Semitic World, Map of the facing 780

Anklet and Toe Rings, Foot with 192

Anointing of a Sacred Stone Pillar 37

Aramaic Alphabet Specimens of

Archers in Battle

Articles Used in Travel facing 760

Ashkelon, Capture by Rameses II of the Castle of 59

Ass, Pack-Saddle for: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760

Asshur, Military Standard with the Image of the God 84

Asshurnasirpal's Palace, Archers in Battle seen from 895

Assyrian, Head of an 68

Slave-Labor Transporting Colossal Bull 818

Astarte, Clay Figure of 783

, Coin from Byblus Showing Symbol of "83

with a Dove, Clay Figure of "83

Baal Hamman of Carthage 784

Babel, Tower of

Babylon, Plan of the Ruins of

Babylonia, Procession of the Gods in 790

Babylonian Map of the World, Early

Representation of the Cosmos, Primitive

Bagpipe: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing y

Baker's Oven Showing the Dough Against the Oven Wall 2

Showing the Loaves on Hot Ashes 263

Showing the Loaves on Red-Hot Stones 2

Bar Kochba, Coin of Simon ;

Base with Laver

Basket for Carrying Earth: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II

for Fruit or Vegetables: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II /<<"</ -

- with Handle: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II

- Large, with Handle: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II ! acil >3 2 06

xli LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Basket, Small, for Flour: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I faci 264

Bellows see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II..

Bells, Woman's Girdle with [\

Bethel, Stone Circle (Supposed) at ' \'_ . ' .

Bin, Grain: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I

Bird-Hunting with Boomerangs in a Swamp. . .

Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser, The. . ' 'o 70 ,

Boot, Modern .......'.'.'.'.'.".'.'' IOQ

Booth in a Vineyard

Bowl, Dough: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I 'lacing '>64

Breastplate of the High Priest, Diagram Showing Arrangement of Stones. .... . . . 830

Bridle: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL "foci ' ' 760

Brook Cherith, An Eastern Jordan Wady facing 620

Broom: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II

Bull, Assyrian Slave-Labor Transporting a Colossal ....

Burnt Offerings, Altar of 9 o

Byblus, Coin from, with a Temple and Symbol of Astarte

Caesarea, Plan of

Camel's Pack-Saddle: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL 'facing 760

Saddle Bag: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL

Capture of the Castle of Ashkelon by Rameses II

Cart, Ox, as seen in Palestine To-day ' ,<

Carthage, Baal Hamman of ' _.

Castle of Ashkelon, Capture by Rameses II of the

Cedars of Lebanon, One of the Few Remaining Groves of the. . . ' facina 118

Central Palestine, Map (III) of "'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '. lacing 622

Ceremony, Sacrificial

Chariot, Hittite War- '.'. '.'. ... ' ' '.',[ _.[ .......... ... ' "

Cherith, Brook ' V ac j- " 690

Chest for Clothes: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II. .

Clay Figure of Astarte \..\.\\\\\\\ '. * . 783

with a Dove ' _'

Coffee-Mill: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II ' y ac j-" 266

Coin from Byblus, with the Temple and Symbol (Cone) of Astarte

of Eleazar ' .._

of Herod I, Copper

of John Hyrcanus

of Simon Bar Kochba ' ,-_

Coins of Darius Hystaspes, Gold

Colossal Bull, Transported by Assyrian Slave-Labor 81 S

Conduit from the Virgin's Fountain to the Pool of Siloam, Course of Underground. . 397

Copper Coin of Herod I -

Denarius of Emperor Tiberias, Roman

- Kettle: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 26&

Cosmos, Primitive Babylonian Representations of the

Course of Underground Conduit from the Virgin's Fountain to the Pool of Siloam. .

Court of the Tabernacle '

Cover, Wicker, for Dough-Bowl: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I '.facing 264

Crooks, Types of Shepherds' g 02

Cross-Section of the Site of Jerusalem, Showing Elevations

Showing Comparative Heights of Different Parts of Jerusalem

Cyprus, Amulets Collected in ' jgj

- Model of a Phoenician Temple at Idalion o to

Pillars from -

Damascus, Plan of Modern City of , 6 _

Dance Around a Sacred Tree

Darics (Gold Coins of Darius Hystaspes) . .

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS mi

PAI.K

Darius Hystaspes, Gold Coins of ^-j

Denarius (Copper) of the Emperor Tiberius, Roman

Dervish's Tambourine: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 504

Dibon of Moab, Plan of \^i

Dolmens (Primitive Altars) in Eastern Palestine 29

Dough-Bowl: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 'Jti 1

Drum, Hand: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564

Kettle: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing ."><; 1

Dung-Catcher: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS Joeing 1ft

Early Babylonian Map of the World 287

Eastern Jordan Wady Joeing 620

Egypt, Map of facing 200

Semitic Traders Bringing Their Wares into 370

Eleazar, Coin of 557

Elevation, Cross-Section of the Site of Jerusalem Showing 397

Ephesus, Ruins of Theater in Foreground facing 216

Excavation of Gezer 29O

Exodus, Probable Route of the 371

Ezekiel's Ideal of the Holy Land and People 841

Vision, Ground-Plan of the Temple of 854

Feed-Bag: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760

Female Head with Nose-Ring 191

Fetter for Horse: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760

Fiddle: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing ">(>4

Fight with Tiamat, Marduk's 153

Fishing Scene on the Sea of Galilee 777

Floor, Threshing- 16

Flour-Sieve: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264

Flute: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing .564

Foot with Anklet and Toe-Rings 102

Fork, Two-Pronged: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16

Winnowing, Five-Pronged: see AGRICULTURAL, IMPLEMENTS facing 16

Forks and Shovel Used in Winnowing 1&

Fountain, Virgin's, Course of Underground Conduit from the, to the Pool of Siloam 397

Front Elevation of the House of the Forest of Lebanon 482

Front View of Solomon's Temple, after Stade 851

Galilee, Fishing Scene on the Sea of 777

Sea of 275

Genealogy of Hebrew Tribes 877

Gentiles, Tablet Forbidding Them from Entering the Court of Israel 856

Geography, Map of Hebrew -facing 288

Gezer, Excavation of 290

Girdle with Bells, Woman's 191

Girth: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760

Goad: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16

God, Sun-, Shamash, Representation of the "8' 1

Goddess Emerging from, or Growing Out of, a Sacred Tree 782

Gold Coins of Darius Hystaspes

Golden Necklace 1^1

Goshen, Land of, Showing Probable Route of the Exodus 371

Grain-Bin: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264

Grain, Reaping facing

Grain-Sieve: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing

Grinding Meal with a Mill, Women ' ' '

Ground-Plan of the House of the Forest of Lebanon

liv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Ground-Plan of Solomon's Temple 850

of the Temple of Amon at Thebes 850

Groves of the Cedars of Lebanon, One of the Few Remaining facing 118

Growth of the City of Jerusalem, Map Showing the facing 402

Half-Shekel (Copper) of Simon Maccabjeus 26

Hamman of Carthage, Baal 784

Hananiah, Seal of 26

Hand-Drum: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564

Hand-Mill for Grinding Flour: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264

Head of an Assyrian 68

with Nose-Ring, Female 191

Hebrew, Early, and Aramaic Alphabets, Specimens of 27

Geography, Map of facing 288

Tribes, Genealogy of 877

Hebron, Interior of the Mosque at, The Monuments to the Patriarchs 504

Heights of Different Parts of Jerusalem, Cross-Section Showing Comparative 395

Herod I, Copper Coin of 26

High Priest, Diagram Showing Arrangement of Stones on Breastplate of 830

Hittite War Chariot 53

Holy Land, Ezekiel's Ideal of the Distribution of the People of the 841

Horn: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564

Horse, Breast Ornament for: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760

Fetter for: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760

Head Ornament for: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760

House in the Forest of Lebanon Front Elevation 482

Ground-Plan of the 482

Household Utensils, I facing 264

- II facing 266

Hyrcanus. Coin of John 26

Hystaspes, Gold Coins of Darius 557

Image of the God Asshur, Military Standard with the 84

Implements, Agricultural facing 16

Inscription, Mesha (Lines 24 and 25) 25

The Siloam 25

Instruments, Musical facing 564

Interior of the Mosque at Hebron, The Monuments to the Patriarchs 504

Jacob's Well (Sectional View) 380

Mouth of 379

Jar Handles Found in Palestine, Seals on i 777-778

Jerusalem, Cross-Section Showing Comparative Heights of Different Parts of 395

Cross-Section Showing Elevation of the Site of 397

Map Showing the Growth of the City facing 402

Outline Map Showing Topography of, and Vicinity facing 396

from Scopus facing 400

Jewish Ram's Horn: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564

John Hyrcanus, Coin of 26

Jordan, Wady, Eastern facing 620

Judah, Wilderness of 61.")

Kefr Bir'im, Galilee, Front Elevation of the Synagogue at 834

Ruins of a Galilean Synagogue at 834

Synagogue at, Ground- Plan of 833

Kettle, Copper, see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266

Kettle-Drum: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564

Key and Lock: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv

FAOE

Key of a Palestinian Peasant House, with Lock

Kochba, Coin of Simon Bar

Lachish, Siege of, by Sennacherib 94

Lamps, Ancient 474-475

Land of Goshen, Showing the Probable Route of the Exodus 371

Laver, Base with 853

Lebanon, House of the Forest of, Front Elevation 482

House of the Forest of, Ground-Plan 482

One of the Few Remaining Groves of the Cedars of facing 118

Lilybaeum, Sicily, Stele from 784

Lock and Key: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266

of a Palestinian Peasant's House .'!."><>

with Key 356

Locust 488

(with Extended Wings) 488

Lodge in a Vineyard 108

Lute: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564

Lyre: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564

Maccabaeus, Simon, Half-Shekel (Copper) of 26

Silver Shekel of 26

Mallet: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266

Mandolin: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564

Mandrake 628

Map of Alexandria 23

of Ancient Semitic World facing 780

- of Central Palestine (III) facing 622

- of Egypt facing 200

of Hebrew Geography facing 288

- of Jerusalem, Showing the Growth of the City facing 402

of Nineveh and its Environs 58.~>

- of Northern Portion of Palestine (IV) facing 638

- of Palestine (I) between 610-611

- of Pauline World lacing 648

- of Southern Portion of Palestine (II) facing 614

- of the World, Early Babylonian

Showing Topography of Jerusalem and Vicinity, Outline -facing 396

Marduk's Fight with Tiamat

Meal, Women Grinding, with a Mill 547

Mesha Inscription (Lines 24 and 25) 25

Metal, Mirror of Polished 293

- Plate for Baking Bread: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing Ji I

Military Standard with the Image of the God Asshur

Mill, Coffee-: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266

Hand-, for Grinding Flour: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264

Women Grinding Meal with a *"'

Mirror of Polished Metal 2

Model of Phoenician Temple at Idalion, Cyprus

Modern Boot

Pool of Siloam, Showing the Mouth of the Underground Conduit from the Virgin's Fountain . . .

Shoe ^

Monuments to the Patriarchs, Interior of the Mosque at Hebron

Morag or Sledge for Threshing

Mortar for Grinding Coffee: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II

Mosque at Hebron, Interior, The Monuments to the Patriarchs

Mouth of Jacob's Well

Musical Instruments / aci "

ivl LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Necklace, Golden 191

Nethaniah, Seal of 778

Nile God 584

Nineveh and its Environs, Map of 585

Northern Palestine, Map (IV) of facing 638

Nose-Ring, Female Head with 191

Obelisk of Shalmaneser, The Black 372-373

Offerings, Altar of Burnt 29

Oil-Press 595

Outline Map, Showing Topography of Jerusalem and Vicinity _. facing 396

Oven (Tabun) Used in Baking. Under View 265

Baker's, Showing the Dough Against the Oven Wall 264

Showing the Loaves on Hot Ashes 265

Showing the Loaves on Red-Hot Stones 264

Large: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264

Small: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264

Oi-Cart, as Seen in Palestine To-day 119

Pack-Saddle for Asses and Camels: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760

Palestine, Map (I) of between 610-611

Map (III) of Central Portion facing 622

Map (IV) of Northern Portion facing 638

Map (II) of Southern Portion facing 614

Seals on Jar Handles Found in 777-778

Palestinian Lamps, Ancient 475

Pannier for Water-Bottles: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760

Papyrus Plant 628

- Skiff Made of 808

Patriarchs, The Monuments to the, Interior of the Mosque at Hebron 504

Pauline World, Map of facing 648

Peasant Plowing, Syrian 15

People of the Holy Land, Ezekiel's Ideal of the Distribution of the 841

Person Worshiping Before the Sacred Tree 782

Pharaoh with the Crown of Upper and Lower Egypt 666

Phoenician Temple at Idalion, Cyprus 852

Pillar, Anointing of a Sacred Stone 37

Pillars from Cyprus 788

Pithom, Store City of, and Its Vicinity 679

Plan of Caesarea 114

of Dibon of Moab , 181

of Modem City of Damascus 165

of Royal Buildings 849

of the Ruins of Babylon 77

of the Ruins of Samaria 766

Plate, Metal, for Baking Bread: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264

Plow and Ox-goad, Syrian 681

see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 10

Plowing, Syrian Peasant 15

Polished Metal, Mirror of 293

Pool of Siloam, Course of Underground Conduit from the Virgin's Fountain to the 397

Pot for Hot Water: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266

for Making Coffee: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266

Potter at Work 56-

Pottery facing 56

Ancient Seals on Jar Handles 777-778

Pounder, Washing: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266

Pre-Exilic Seals on Jar Handles Found in Palestine. . . 777-778

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvil

Press, Oil- 95

Primitive Babylonian Representations of the Cosmos (The Signs of the Zodiac) 155

Procession of the Gods in Babylonia 790

Ram's Horn, Jewish: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564

Reaping Grain lacing 18

Representation of a Procession of the Gods in Babylonia 790

of a Sacred Tree 782

of the Sun-God Shamash 789

Ring, Signet- 191

Road, Sectional View of Roman 898

Roman Denarius (Copper) of Emperor Tiberius 556

Route of the Exodus, Probable 371

Royal Buildings, Plan of 849

Ruins of Babylon, Plan of the 77

of Ephesus Theater in the Foreground facing 216

Sacred Stone Pillar, Anointing of 37

Tree, Goddess Emerging from 782

Person Worshiping Before 782

Representation of 782

Sacrificial Ceremony 166

Saddle: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760

Saddle-Bag: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760

Samaria, Plan of the Ruins of 766

Street of Columns 766

Samaritan Script 28

Sandals, Various Forms of 190

Scopus, Jerusalem from facing 400

Script, Samaritan 28

Sea of Galilee 275

Seal of Hananiah, Son of Azariah 26

of Nethaniah, Son of Obadiah 778

of Shemaiah, Son of Azariah 26

Seals on Jar Handles Found in Palestine, Pre-Exilic 777-778

Section of the Underground Conduit at the Virgin's Fountain 399

Seed-Sowing, Tube for: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16

Semitic Traders Bringing Their Wares into Egypt

- World, Map of Ancient facing 780

Sennacherib, Siege of Lachish by 94

Shalmaneser, The Black Obelisk of . 372-373

Shamash, Sun-God, Entering Through the Eastern Gate of Heaven

Representation of the Sun-God

Shechem and Its Environs

Shekel of Simon Maccabteus, Silver

Half (Copper) of Simon Maccabsus

Shemaiah, Seal of 26

Shepherds' Crooks, Types of 802

Shoe, Modern 190

Shovel Used in Winnowing, Forks and

Winnowing: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS ./'"'"'? 16

Sickle: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS .facing 16

Siege of Lachish by Sennacherib

Sieve, Flour: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264

Grain: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16

Signet-Ring

Siloam Inscription

Pool of, Course of Underground Conduit from the Virgin's Fountain to the

xvill LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Silver Shekel of Simon Maccabseus 26

Simon Bar Kochba, Coin of 557

Maccabteus, Half-Shekel (Copper) of 26

Silver Shekel of 1>6

Site of Jerusalem, Cross-Section Showing Elevation of the 397

Skiff Made of Papyrus 808

Skin Utensils facing 108

Sledge, Threshing with a 17

Threshing: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16

- Used for Threshing (Under Side) 18

Solomon, Plan of the Royal Buildings of 849

Solomon's Temple (After Stade), Front View of 851

Front Elevation, Showing Probable Construction of the Side Chambers 851

Ground-Plan of 850

Southern Palestine, Map (II) of 614

Specimens of Early Hebrew and Aramaic Alphabets 27

Stand and Tray: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760

Standard with the Image of the God Asshur, Military 84

Stele from Lilybjcum, Sicily 784

Stone Circle (Supposed) at Bethel 292

Pillar, Anointing of a Sacred 37

Stool: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266

Store City of Pithom and Its Vicinity 679

Street of Columns. Samaria 766

Sun-God Shamash Entering Through the Eastern Gate of Heaven . 789

Shamash, Representation of the 789

Synagogue at Kefr Bir' im, Galilee, Front Elevation, Partially Destroyed 834

- in Galilee (Ground-Plan) 833

Ruins of a Galilean, at Kefr Bir'im 834

Syrian Peasant Plowing 15

- Plow and Ox-goad 681

Tabernacle, Court of the 838

Tablet, Warning Gentiles Not to Enter the Court of Israel 856

Tabun, or Small Oven, Used in Baking (Under View) 265

Tamarisk-Tree 627

Tambourine, Dervish's: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564

Temple and Symbol of Astarte, Coin from Byblus Showing 783

at Idalion, Cyprus, Model of a Phoenician 852

of Amon at Thebes, Ground-Plan of 850

of Ezekiel's Vision, Ground-Plan of 854

of Solomon (After Stade), Front View of 851

Ground-Plan of the 850

Showing Probable Construction of the Side Chambers, Front Elevation of 851

Terebinth-Tree 626

Tetradrachmse (Silver Coins) of Alexander the Great 556

Thebes, Ground-Plan of the Temple of Amon at 850

Threshing with a Sledge, or Morag 17

Threshing-Floor 16

Threshing-Sledge: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16

- (Under Side) ^ 18

Threshing with a Wagon, or 'Agalah 17

Tiamat, Marduk's Fight with 153

Tiberius, Denarius (Copper) of Emperor 556

Toe-Rings, Foot with Anklet and 192

Tower of Babel 872

Traders, Semitic, Bringing Their Wares into Egypt 370

Transportation of a Colossal Bull by Assyrian Slave-Labor 818

Travel, Articles Used in facing 760

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xlx

FAOB

Tray and Stand: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760

Tree, Dance Around a Sacred 168

Tube for Sowing Seed: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16

Types of Shepherds' Crooks 802

Underground Conduit from the Virgin's Fountain to the Pool of Siloarn, Course of

Utensils, Household, I facing 264

II facing 26C

Skin facing 108

Vineyard, Booth or Lodge in 108

Virgin's Fountain, Course of Underground Conduit from the, to the Pool of Siloam 397

Wagon, Threshing with a 17

War Chariot, Hittite 53

Warning Tablet Forbidding Gentiles to Enter the Court of Israel 856

Washing-Pounder: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, II facing 266

Water-Bottle: see ARTICLES USED IN TRAVEL facing 760

Well, Jacob's (Sectional View) 380

- Mouth of Jacob's 379

Wicker Cover for Dough-Bowl: see HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS, I facing 264

Wilderness of Judah 615

Winnowing-Fork, Five-Pronged: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16

Winnowing, Forks and Shovel Used in 18

Winnowing-Shovel: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 19

Woman's Girdle with Bells 191

Women Grinding Meal with a Mill 547

World, Early Babylonian Map of the 287

Map of Ancient Semitic facing 780

Yoke for Threshing Animals: see AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS facing 16

Zither: see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS facing 564

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

[Self-evident abbreviations, particularly those used in the bibliographies, are not included here.]

X, *, b - , B, DEHLP, etc. Symbols by which the
various N T Gr. MSS. of the uncial type are designated. The
* signifies the first hand or writer of the MS. ; the superior
letters (* b - c , etc.) indicate later revisers or correctors.
See NEW TESTAMENT TEXT.

AJSL . . . American Journal of Semitic Literature.
AJT . . . American Journal of Theology.
Am.PEFSt. . . American Palestine Exploration Fund,

Statement.

Ant. . . . Josephus, Antiquities.
AOF . . . Hugo Winckler, Altorientalische For-

schungen.

ARV . . . American Standard Revised Version.
ARVmg. . . American Revised Version, margin.
Asc. Mos. . . Ascension of Moses.
AV . . . Authorized Version (i.e.. King James's

Version of 1611).
AVmg.,RVmg. . Authorized Version, margin. Revised

Version, margin.

Bell. Jud. or BJ . Josephus, Jewish War (with Rome).

Bib. Sacr. . . Bibliotheca Sacra.

Bib. Theol. Lex. . Cremer. Biblico-theological Lexicon of the

New Testament.

BJ . . . Josephus, Jewish War (with Rome).

BRP . . . Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palatine.

bZ . . . Byzantinische Zeitung.

CH . . . Code of Hammurabi.

Ch. Quar. Rev. . Church Quarterly Review.

Chron. Pasch. . Chronicon Paschale.

CIG or CIGr. . Corpus Inscriptionum Gracarum.

C1L . . . Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.

CIS or CISem. . Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum.

Cod. Ham. . . Code of Hammurabi.

Cod. V.T. . . Codex or Codices Veteris Testamenti.

Cont. Ap. . . Josephus, Against Apion.

COT . . . Schrader, Cuneiform Inscriptions and
the O T, Eng. transl. by Whitehouse.

D . Deuteronomy (in its original form).

DB . . . Smith's or Hastings' Dictionary of the

Bible.

DCB . . . Wace, Dictionary of Christian Biography.
DCG . . . Hastings, Dictionary of Christ and the

Gospels.

E . . . . The Elohist Document; see HEXATECCH.
EB . . . Encyclopaedia Biblica.

EBrit. . . . Encyclopedia Britannica, 9th ed.

EM. . . . Einleitung.

Ep., Epp. . . Epistle, Epistles.

ERV . . . English (or British) Revised Version of

1881.
ERVmg. . . English (or British) Revised Version of

1881, margin.

ET . . . Expository Times.
Eth. En. . . Ethiopic Enoch.
EV or EW . English Versions of the Bible ( AV, ERV .

and ARV).
Expos. . . . Expositor.

GAP . . . F. Buhl, Geographic del alien Palastina.
GJV . . . E. SchUrer, Qeschichle des Judischen

Volkes, 3d ed.
Gr. ... Greek.
GVI . . . B. Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel.

HC . . . Holiness Code: see art. HEXATEUCH.
23.

HDB . . . Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible.

HE . . . Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica.

Heb. . . . Hebrew.

Hebr. Arch. . . Hebraische Archaologie.

HGHL . . . G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the
Holy Land.

HOP . . . SameasHGffi.

Hist. Nat. or

UN . . . Pliny, Historia Naturalis (Natural His-
tory).

HJP . . . Schurer, History of the Jewish People in
the Time of Jesus Christ, Eng. transl.
of GJV, 2d ed.

Hor. Heb. . . J. Lightfoot, Horce Hebraicce.

H. P. & M. or

HPM . . McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the
Monuments.

IGSicil. . . Inscriptions Grirca; Sicilians.
Int. Crit. Com. . International Critical Commentary.

J . The Jahvistic Document; see HEXA-

TEUCH.

J" . Jehovah.

JBL or JBLE . Journal of Biblical Literature and Ext-

getis.

JE . . . Jewish Encyclopedia.
JEDP . . . See art. HEXATEUCH, 29.
JHS . . . Journal of Hellenistic Studies.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

xzl

Jos. . . . Josephus.

Ant. . . Antiquities.

BJ . . Jewiih War.

Cont. Ap. . Against Apion.

Vit. . . Life.

JQR . . . Jewish Quarterly Review.

KAT* . . . Schroder, Die Keilinschriften und dat

Alte Testament, 3d ed.
K'thibh . . The ordinary Hebrew text of the O T

as written.

LOT . , . Driver, Introduction to the Literature of
the OT, 6th or later edd.

LTM or LTJM . Edereheim, Life and Times of Jesus the
Messiah.

LXX. . . . The Septuagint Version of the OT.

NKZ . . . Neue Kirchliche Zeitung.

NT. . . New Testament.

NTGr. . . . Novum Testamentum Gracum.

Onom. or Onom.

Sacr. . . Eusebius, Onomasticon (also Jerome's

ed. of the same).

O T . . .Old Testament.
Oif. Heb. Lex. . Oxford H ebrew Lexicon, by Briggs, Brown

& Driver.

P . ... Priest's Code; see art. HEXATEUCH,
55 21 ff.

Pal. . . . Robinson, Biblical Researches in Pales-
tine.

PC . . . . Same as P.

PEF . . . Palestine Exploration Fund.

PEFQ, PEFQS.

or PEFSt. . Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly
Statement.

PRE 3 . . . Realencyklopadie fur prolestantische The-
oloffie und Kirche, 3d ed.

Proleg. . . . Prolegomena.

Q'ri or Q'r6 . . The Hebrew text of the O T as it should
be read according to the Massoretio
scholars.

RE . . . Realencyklopadie. (Same as PRE'.)
RV . . . Revised Version. (Generally, the Ameri-
can Revised Version is intended by
this abbreviation.)
RVmg. . . Revised Version, margin.

SBOT . . . Sacred Books of the OT (.The Polychrome

Bible).

Sib. Or. . . Sibylline Oracles.
Slav. En. . . Slavonic Enoch.
SWP . . . Survey of Western Palestine.
Syr. . . . Syriac Version.

Targ. . . . Targum.

TLZ . . . Theoloffische Literatuneitung.

TR . . . Textus Receptus (of the N T).

TU . . . Texte und Untersuchungen.

ver. . . . verse.
Vit. . . . Josephus, Life.
vs. . . . verses.
vs. ... versus.

Vulg. . . . Vulgate (Jerome's ed. of the Latin
Bible, 390-405 A.D.).

WH. . . . Westcott and Hort's ed. of the N T in

Greek.
WZKM . . Wiener Zeiischrift fur die Kunde des

Morgenlandes.

ZATW . . Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wis-

senschaft.
ZDMO . . . Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenland-

ischen Gesellachaft.
ZDPV . . . Zeiischrift des Deutschen Palastina-

Vereins.
ZNTW . . Zeitschrift fiir neutestamentliche Wissen-

schaft.
ZWT . . . Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Theologie.

HELPFUL HINTS FOR THE GUIDANCE OF

THE READER

any i

found instantly, .(? :

When the box-head section to which reference is made is a long one and the term referred to it is treated
Tnly there, U,l term is printed in heavy-faced type. In this way it is believed the value of the D.cUonary
as a ready-reference book will be greatly enhanced.

lation does not agree

ings given to the Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek originals.

r Han 'ase of proper names, the meanings have been given wherever they are known or can be

JS wTa fair d" probably. In a great many case, this is not possible, and conseauently no meanings

have been assigned.

for the sake of greater simplicity.

are short The indistinct shwas are indicaied by small superior letters, nearly always or ..
The following table indicates how the vowels are to be pronounced:

_ & long, as in father. _ a short, as in fat, _ a very short
_orVS ...... prey, _ e " " met. _ e

, _ or _ i ..... ' ravine, i " P m >

{or ^-6 ..... 'tone, -or__o ...... not, o

I or __ u ...... lute. " " " put|

1. , ', >, merely a breathing not a full vowel sound.

In pronouncing a transliterated Hebrew word the following general rules will be of service:
There are as many syllables as there are vowels, and every syllable must besin with a consonant (X- '
consonants).

As a rule, a consonant with the vowel following forms a syllable.

i ,w ncriir between two vowels, the first consonant unites with the preceding vowel

" tirwiraTe^uirlnted on the last syl.able, but if both vowe.s of the last two syUables are S hor t the
accent will generally be placed on the syllable next before the last.

HELPFUL HINTS FOR THE GUIDANCE OF THE READER

xxill

d and dh, k and kh, p and ph, t and Ih. But as gh does not well represent the sound of undagheshed 3, it seemed best not
to attempt to make any distinction in regard to this letter, but to allow the one letter g answer for both the hard and soft J}.

Hebrew and Arabic words are transliterated according to the following tables:

HEBREW

X- '

73 1 E m

:=b, 2- bh ...)

1 ] -n

i - g, gh

D "= s (emphat-

n - d, 1 - dh (i.e., th

ic )

as in /// . i

J!-(a gut-

n-h

tural, gasp-

T w

ing sound)

T = z

B - P, C, f] - ph

n h (i.e., a

X. V - t

guttural A)

tS-t (palatal <)

p-q

T- r

11 - y

C " s

2 - k, 2, Tj = kh (like a

Scotch cA)

'iff - sh

b - 1

n - 1, n - th

ARABIC

> \

d j

d O^

k ^

b t '

dh ^>

t is

i J

t O

' }

a 1=>

m (

* C

th O

n 0^

j (

8 ^

gh ,P

h jifc

h e

sh t^^

u.w )

^ j.

s C_^

k ui

i, y C_

ABBREVIATIONS OF NAMES OF THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE
AND OF THE OT APOCRYPHA

Gn Genesis

Ex Exodus

Lv Leviticus

Nu Numbers

Dt Deuteronomy

Jos Joshua

Jg Judges

Ru Ruth

IS I Samuel

II S II Samuel

IK I Kings

UK II Kings

ICh... .. I Chronicles

I. BOOKS OF THE OT

II Ch II Chronicles

Ezr Ezra

Neh Nehemiah

Est Esther

Job Job

Ps Psalms

Pr Proverbs

EC Ecclesiastes

Song Song of Solomon

Is Isaiah

Jer Jeremiah

La Lamentations

Ezk... ..Ezekiel

Dn Daniel

Hos Hosea

Jl Joel

Am Amos

Ob Obadiah

Jon Jonah

Mic Micah

Nah Nahum

Hab Habakkuk

Zeph Zephaniah

Hag Haggai

Zee Zechariah

Mai... ..Malachi

Mt Matthew

Mk Mark

Lk Luke

Jn John

Ac The Acts

Ro To the Romans

I Co I Corinthians

II Co II Corinthians

Gal... ...Galatians

2. BOOKS OF THE N T

Eph Ephesians

Ph Philippians

Col Colossians

I Th I Thessalonians

II Th II Thessalonians

I Ti I Timothy

II Ti II Timothy

Tit Titus

Phm Philemon

He To the Hebrews

Ja Epistle to James

IP I Peter

IIP II Peter

I Jn I John

II Jn II John

III Jn Ill John

Jude Jude

Rev Revelation

I Es I Esdras

II Es II Esdras

Sir Sirach.orEcclesiasticus

Bar Baruch

To Tobit

3. THE OT APOCRYPHA

Jth Judith

Three Song of the Three

Children

Sus Susanna

Bel Bel and the Dragon

Ad. Est Additions to Esther

Wis Wisdom

Pr. Man Prayer of Manasses

I Mac I Maccabees

II Mac II Maccabees

KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

Throughout this book the Scientific Alphabet, prepared and promulgated by The American Philo-
logical Association, and adopted by the Standard Dictionary of the English Language, has been used to
indicate pronunciations. Where two or more pronunciations are given, the first is the one preferred by
this work. Respellings of simple words have been omitted as unnecessary.

Two pronunciations are intended by the diacritics -. and ~ below a vowel: (1) a formal pronunciation ;
(2) an approved colloquial weakening. The mark -* indicates that the colloquial weakening is toward u in
but. The mark indicates that the colloquial weakening is toward i in pity.

as in sofa.

as in arm.

as in ask.

as in at.

as in fare.

as in alloy.

as in pen.
as in epistle.
as in moment.

as in ever.

as in they.

as in usage.

as in tin.

as in machine.

as in obey.

as in no.

as in not.

as in nor.

as in actor.

as in full.

as in rule.

as in injure.

as in but.

as in burn.

as in pine.

as in out.

as in oil.

as in lew.

as in duration.

as in future.

c=k

as in cat.

as in c/iip.

cw = qu

dh (th)
f
g (hard)
hw (wh)

as in queen.
as in the.
as in fancy.
as in go.
as in why.

as in jaw.

as in sing.

as in sin.

as in she.

as in thin.

as in zone.

as in azure.

The pronunciation given immediately after the titles, when these are Hebrew proper names, is that
preferred by the Standard Dictionary. A comparison of this pronunciation with the transliteration of
these names will show the difference between the modern English pronunciation of such names and the
Hebrew pronunciation.

A STANDARD BIBLE
DICTIONARY

AARON, aiAm CP~$, 'ah&run}: Son of Amram
and Jochebed, descendunt of Levi through Koliath,
and three vears older than his brother Moses (Ex

What was done to and for Aaron was what should

be done with any high priest. The ceremonial en-

duement prescribed in Ex chs. 28. 29

ADDENDA ET COEEIGENDA

Page 98, col. 2, second paragraph, line 2, read "Lat." for

"LXX."

Page 119, col. 2, article CEDAR, line 1, read "TTN, "era."
Page 522, col. 2, line 2, read "one" instead of "two."
Page 522, col. 2, line 28 from end, read "b'rdkhah."
Page 611, col. 1, last line, read "hayyarden."
Page 612, col. 1, line 22, read "en^Nakura," and "'el-

Abyad."

Page 612, col. 1, line 23, read " 'el-Umthakkah."

Page 612, col. 2, line 18, read '"el-Akaba."

Page 613, col. 1, third paragraph, line 10, read "Mu-

tetellim."

Page 614, col. 2, second paragraph, line 11, read "Sarar."
Page 616, col. 2, last paragraph, line 11, read "Enin" for

" Dschenin."

Page 617, col. 1, first paragraph, lines 11 and 12, read

"Ras."

Page 617, col. 1, last line, read " Mukatta'."

Page 618,
Page 618,

"Ketheph."
Page 619,
Page 621,
Page 621,
Page 622,
Page 622,
Page 622,

"Rdjib."
Page 622,
Page 623,
Page 626,
Page 626,

ond "Ac."
Page 629,
Page 630,
" 'aqqo."

col. 2, first paragraph, line 13, read "Rubin."
col. 2, first paragraph, line 9 from end, read

col. 2, line 8 from end, read "Afejdmi 1 ."

col. 2, second paragraph, line 15, read "High."

col. 2, line 2 from end, read "Zedi."

col. 1, line 15, read "gabhnunnim."

col. 1, line 19 from end, read "Hamad."

col. 2, first paragraph, line 3 from end, read

col. 2, line 6 from end, read "Osha 1 ."
col. 1, line 18, read " Hammam ez-Zerkd."
col. 2, line 5, read "n'koth."
col. 2, second paragraph, line 4, omit the sec-
col. 1, line 2, for "few" read "none."
col. 1, line 11 from end, read "and" after

dactional passages connecting the l^aw ot Holiness
with its present context. In Ezk 40-48 Zadok, not
A., is the cponym of the priestly line (44 15, etc.).

(d) View of P. In P Aaron is regularly subor-
dinated to Moses. The first three simpler plagues
Aaron brings on at Moses' command; thereafter
Moses himself is the actor. In the narratives (Nu
16, 17) it is Moses in each case who vindicates him.
A. dies at Mt. Hor in the 40th year of the Exodus
(\u. 2022 ft., 33 38), because of rebellion at Meribah
(cf. Dt as above).

In Ex 2")-3() and 35-40, and in Lv and Nu Aaron's
name occurs frequently, but evidently as a con-
venient priestly symbol demonstrating the priestly
function to the people (cf. the usage in Ezk).

Lebanon. Breaking out into the plain a few miles
W. of Damascus, its waters irrigate the plain and
supply the city. It loses itself in the swampy Mead-
ow Lakes 20 m. E. of Damascus on the edge of the
desert. Its right name was probably Arnana (RV
mg. ). The modern name is Barada. See also DA-
MASCUS. E. E. N.

ABARIM, ab'a-rim (="!?2 , 'abharlm), ' those-
on-the-other-side': The name of the mountain range
in NW. part of Moab. (The term, however, ac-
cording to G. A. Smith (HGHL. p. 548; EB. 1 4) is ap-
plicable to the whole E. Jordan range.) Mt. Nebo
is the best-known summit, and Abarim is used by
metonymy for Nebo (Nu 27 12; Dt 32 49). In Jer

Abba
Abimelech

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

J. -() (" passages " AV) Abarim is a more exact
synonym of Bashan. The Hob. text of K/.k 39 11
also contains I lie word Abarim, but it is more
literally translated "they that pass by." A. C. Z.

ABBA, ab'a ('A&3u - K?8): Aramaic for 'Fa-
ther,' transliterated into Greek and thence into
English. It occurs three times in the N T (Mk 14 36;
Ro 8 15; Gal 4 6). From the fact that it is invari-
ably followed by the explanatory addition "father"
it has been argued that it had come to be regarded
as one of the proper names of God. For this there
is no direct evidence. More probably it was used as
a familiar liturgical expression, which Jesus and
Paul adopted with particular emphasis on its essen-
tial content, developing into rich suggestiveness.

A. C Z.

ABDA, ab'da (N'-?i', 'abhda'), 'servant of J'":
1. The father of Adoniram, Solomon's tribute-master
( I K 4 6). 2. The son of Shamrnua (Neh 1117, called
Obadiah in I Ch 9 16). E. E. N.

ABDEEL, ab'de-el ("-;?, 'abhd>'el), 'servant of
God': The father of Shelemiah (Jer3626).

E. E. N.

ABDI, ab'dai ("Si', 'abhdi), 'servant (of J")':
1. The father of Kishi or Kish (I Ch 6 44; II Ch
2'.i 12, or Kushaiah in I Ch 1517). 2. One of the
" sons of Elam " (Ezr 10 26). E. E. N.

ABDIEL, ab'di-el (^--,52?, 'abhdi'el), 'servant of
God': A Gadite (I Ch 5 15)! E. E. N.

ABDON, ab'den (]'~*i\ 'abhdon), 'servant' :
I. 1. One of the minor judges of Israel, son of Hillel
(Jg 12 13, 15). See also BEDAN. 2. A son of Sha-
shak (I Ch 8 23) . 3. A son of Jeiel, father of Gibeon
(I Ch 8 30, 9 36). 4. A son of Micah (II Ch 34 20,
called Achbor in II K 22 12).

II. A Levitical city in Asher (Jos 21 30) called
Ebron (Hebron AV) in 19 28. Map IV, E 6.

A. C. Z.

ABEDNEGO, a-bed'ne-go (wj "CX, 'abhedh n-go),
from Abcd-.Vebo, 'servant of Nebo': The Babylonian
name of Azariah, one of Daniel's three companions
(Dan 17, 249, etc.). E. E. N.

ABEL, e'bel (^~, hebhel, etymology doubtful,
formerly translated 'breath,' but with more proba-
bility derived from the Assyrian ablu, 'son'): Adam's
second son, murdered by Cain (Gn 4 2 ft.). In the
NT (Mt 23 35; I,k 11 51; He 11 4; I Jn 3 12) A. is pic-
tured as a martyr for a high, religious conception.
In He 1224 the blood of Jesus, which declared for-
giveness, is contrasted with Abel's, which called for
vengeance. A. S. C.

ABEL, e'bel fatt, 'abhel), 'meadow' (IIS 20
14-18): 1. See A.-BKTH-MAACAH. 2. According to
tin' Heb. text of I SO 18, followed by AV, the name
of a locality near Heth-slu-mesh. The I.XX. reads
instead "stone," which is followed by RV.

E. E. N.

ABEL - BETH - MAACAH, 6"bel-beth-me'a-ca
(~V*!3'j n*3 "(!, 'abhfl bcth hamma'ikhoK): A
northern frontier fortress, the stronghold of Sin- 1
insurrection (II S 20 14 ff.); connected in the LXX.
with Dan (IK 15 20; UK 15 29). The site is
probably Abil cl-Kamh, about 3 hours' ride W. of
Tell el-Kadi (Dan). It was besieged by Ben-hadad
(I K 15 20) and Tiglath-pileser III (II K 15 29). Map
IV, E 4. A. S. C.

ABELCHERAMIM, e"bel-ker'a-mim (=^",5 "X,
'abhel k'ramim, A.-Keramim AV), 'vineyard-
meadow': A locality in Ammon (Jg 1133). Site
unknown. A. S. C.

ABEL-MAIM, e"bel-me'im (C:i "K, abhel ma-
y~tm), 'meadow of waters': A variant, or text-cor-
ruption, for Abel-beth-maacah (II Ch 1C 4).

A. S. C.

ABEL - MEHOLAH, e"bel-me-h6'la (~rT; "X,
'abhel m'holdh), 'dance meadow': Elisha's birth-
place, near Beth-shean (Jg 7 22; I K 4 12, 19 10).

A. S. C.

ABEL-MIZRAIM, e"bcl-miz'ra-im (="V^ "K,
'abhel mitsrayim), 'meadow of Egypt': The stop-
ping-place of Jacob's funeral cortege (GnSOn).
On location, see ATAD. A. S. C.

ABEL - SHITTIM, e"bel-shit'im (u"J'i ; .j "N,
'abhfl ha-shittlm), 'acacia-meadow': A locality in
the lowlands of Moab (Nu 33 49; cf. Mic 6 5). Map
III, H5. A. S. C.

ABEZ, e'bez. See EBEZ.

ABI, a'bi ('3$, 'abhl), 'father': Compound per-
sonal names in which "Abi" forms the first element
are of two general classes: (a) In which the second
part is a noun, generally the name of a deity;
(6) in which it is an adjective or a verb. In cases
under (a) Abi is generally the predicate, as Abi-jah,
i.e., "Jan ( = Jehovah) is father." In cases under
(6) it is the subject, as Abinadab, i.e., "the father
( = God) gives." The "i" of Abi is probably not the
pronominal suffix "my," but an old ending serving
merely as a connective. See G. B. Gray, Heb. Prop.
Names, pp. 75-86). E. E. N.

ABI, e'bai (in II K 18 2). See ABIJAH, 7.
ABIA, a-bai'a, ABIAH, a-bai'a. See ABIJAH.

ABIALBON, e"bi-al'ben G'2^y-;8, 'ibhl 'albon):
One of David's heroes (II S 23 3l'. Abie'l in I Ch 11 32).

E. E. N.

ABIASAPH, a-bai'a-saf. See EBIASAPH.

ABIATHAR, a-bai'a-thar C^T?, 'ebhyathar),
'father of abundance': A son of Ahimelech, priest
at Nob. When Saul massacred Ahimelech ami
his household for harboring the fugitive David
(I S 22 11-19), A. escaped and joined David :it Kcilah,
reporting to him what S.ml had done. As he also
brought the ephod with him, David appointed him

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Abba
Abimelech

to be the priest of his company, and consulted .1"
through him (I S 30 7). Thenceforward Abiathar
remained with David, and, when the latter became
king, was associated in the priesthood with Zadok
(II S 15 '24, 29 35). He survived David, and was de-
posed and banished to Anathoth by Solomon for
abetting and assisting in Adonijah's plot to wrest
the kingdom from him (I K 1 7, 19, 25, 2 22, 26, 27).

A. C. Z.

ABIB, e'bib: The 'earing' month of the old He-
brew year. See TIME, 3.

ABIDA, a-bai'du (1T38, 'dbhldha', Abidah AV),
'the father knows': The ancestral head of a clan
of Midian (Gn 25 4; I Ch 1 33). E. E. N.

ABIDAN, ab'i-dan OT28, 'dbhldhan), 'the fa-
ther is judge': A prince of Benjamin in the Mosaic
age (Nu 1 11, 2 22, 7 00, 05, 10 24). E. E. N.

ABIEL, e'bi-el ^(T^!, 'Abhl'fl), 'father is God':

1. Grandfather of Saul and Abner (I S 9 l, 14 51).

2. One of David's heroes (I Ch 11 32, Abialbon in
II S 23 31). E. E. N.

ABIEZER, e"bi-i'zer CirlS, 'dbhl'ezer), 'the
father is help': 1. The clan of Abiezrites of Ma-
nasseh, to which Gideon belonged (JgG 11 ff., 8 2, 32).
Reckoned genealogically to Machir through Gilead
(Jos 17 2; I Ch 7 18; Nu 26 30, where the form is lezer,
lezerite [Jeezer, Jeezerite AV]). 2. An Anathoth-
ite, one of David's heroes (IIS 23 27; I Chi 128,
27 12). E. E. N.

ABIEZRITE, e"bi-ez'rait. See ABIEZER, 1.

ABIGAIL, ab'i-get (^J'58, 'dbhigayil): 1. The
wife of Nabal, later of David (I S 25 3, 42), mother
of Chileab (or Daniel, I Ch 3 1), David's second
son (II S 3 3). 2. The mother of Amasa, daughter of
Nahash (II S 17 25; Abigal RV), or of Jesse (I Ch
2 16), which is preferable. A. S. C.

ABIHAIL, ab"i-he'il (b:o*2, 'dbhihayil), 'the
father is strength': 1. The father of Zuriel(Nu3 35).
2. The wife of Abishur (ICh229). 3. A Gadite
(I Ch 5 14). 4. Niece of David, and mother-in-law
of Rehoboam (II Ch 11 18). 6. The father of
Esther (Est 2 15, 9 29). E. E. N.

ABIHU, a-bni'hu (Kl.1'58, 'Abhihu'), 'my father is
lie': Second son of Aaron (Ex 6 23; Nu 3 2, etc.).
He and his brother Nadab were with Moses on the
Mount (Ex 24 1-2, 9 ff.). Together they became
priests (Kx 28 1) and were slain for offering strange
fire (Lev 10 l ff.; Nu 3 4, 2661; ICh.242). E. E. N.

ABIHUD, a-bai'lwd (-.Vv;s, 'dbhihwlh), 'my
father is glory' : A son of Bela (I Ch 8 3) .

E. E. N.

ABIJAH, a-bai'ja (HJ3K, '";3iS, 'dbhiyah, 'dbhi-
yfiku),'J" is my father': 1. Kingof Judah, the son of
Rehoboam, and Maacah, the daughter of Absalom.
In I K I I HI. 15 1 ff., the name is spelled Abijam (an
error). During his reign of three years he waged

continual war with Jeroboam. The story in I K
produces the impression of a prolonged campaign,
while the Chronicler (II Ch 13) records only a single
decisive battle. With 400,000 troops he met Jero-
boam with 800,000 at Mt. /emaraim. He upbraided
Jeroboam and Israel for rebellion against the Davidic
dynasty, for apostasy, and t lie expulsion of the priesta
and Levites. Caught at a disadvantage, the men of
Judah prayed to Jehovah, who granted them a signal
victory. His character was not exemplary, for he
walked in the sins of his father, and his heart was not
perfect with Jehovah. 2. A son of Jeroboam I.
He died in fulfilment of Ahijah's prediction (I K 14
Iff.). 3. A son of Samuel (I 882, Abiah AV). 4. The
ancestral head of the eighth course of priests, to
which Zacharias, the father of John the Baptist,
belonged (Lk 1 5 [Abia AV]; I Ch 24 10; Neh 10 7,
124). 5. A son of Becher(ICh78,AbiahAV). 6.
The wife of Hezron (I Ch 2 24, Abiah AV). 7. The
wife of Ahaz and mother of Hezekiah (II Ch 29 l).

J. A. K.

ABIJAM, a-bai'jam. See ABIJAH, 1.

ABILENE, ab"i-li'nt ('A/SiXi^, 'A.pei\rjvq, WH.):
The tetrarchy of Lysanias (Lk 3 1) in the Anti-Leb-
anon. Abila, 18 Roman m. NE. of Damascus on
the Abanah River, was its chief city, and has been
identified with the ruins at Siik Wady Barada. Jo-
sephus (Ant. XX, 7 1) speaks of a tetrarchy of Lysa-
nias, and in XIX, 5 l of "Abila of Lysanias." See
LYSANIAS. C. S. T.

ABIMAEL, a-bim'a-el ("?8?}38, 'dbhlma'el) : One
of the descendants of Joktan (Gn 10 28). See ETH-
NOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY, 11. E. E. N.

ABIMELECH, a-bim'e-lec ($!?'?S, 'dbhlmelekh),
'my father is Melech (Molech)': 1. A Philistine king
of Gerar, a locality near Gaza. Struck by the beauty
of Sarah, and being deceived by Abraham as to her
true relationship, he took her to wife. Obedient to
a warning from God in a dream, he returned Sarah to
her husband with costly gifts, at the same time
pleading his integrity and upbraiding Abraham for
his deception (Gn 201-18, E). Later, their quar-
rel over the possession of a well was finally settled by
the making of a covenant at Beer-Sheba (Gn 21
22-34, E). A similar story combining both incidents
is related of Abimelech and Isaac (Gn 26 7-11, 26-33,
J ) . Critical scholarship looks upon the two accounts
as doublets.

2. A son of Gideon by a woman of Shechem. He
made the first attempt to found a monarchy in Is-
rael. The Shechemites made him king after he had
murdered all of Gideon's sons but Jotham. His
reign of three years ended in a revolt. Abimelech
took Shechem, and burned it with its citadel and
temple. Later, at the siege of the citadel at Thebez,
his skull was fractured by a millstone thrown from
the wall by a woman. His armor-bearer thrust him
through at his own request (Jg 8 31, ch. 9).

3. A son of Abiathar, David's priest (I Ch 18 16,
but see AHIMELECH). 4. A Philistine king (Ps 34:
title probably an error for Achish, cf. I S 21 10).

J. A. K.

Abinadab
Absalom

A STAXI>A1!I> BIBLE DICTIOXAKV

ABOTADAB, u-l,m'u-dab (-"}?!$
'my father is generous': 1. A man of Kiriath-
Jearim, to whose liouse the Ark was brought from
Beth-Shemesh (IS7l), where it remained until
David carried it to Jerusalem (II S 6 3 f. ; I Ch 13 7).
2. The second son of Jesse (I S 16 S), who followed
Saul against the Philistines (I S 17 13; I Ch 2 13). 3.
A son of Saul, perhaps also railed Islivi (IS 14 49),
slain by the Philistines in the great battle of Mt.
Gilboa (I S 31 2; I Ch 8 33, 9 39, 10 2). 4. See BEN-
ABINADAB. C. S. T.

ABINOAM,a-bin'o-<nn (=?:*;, 'ibliino'am), 'the
father is pleasantness ': Father of Barak (Jg4 6, 12,
5 1, 12). E. E. N.

ABIRAM, a-bai'rom (ST38, '(Utlnram), 'the
father is the High One': 1. A Reubenite (Nu 16

I ff.). See KOHAII. 2. Eldest sou of Hiel of Bethel
(I K 16 34). E. E. N.

ABISHAG, ab'i-shag (J^K, 'dbhisttag) : A young
Shunammite woman, nurse of David in his old
age (I K 1 3, 15). Adonijah's request for her after
David's death led to his execution (I K 2 17 ff.).

E. E. N.

ABISHAI, a-bi'shai (^38, 'ibhlshay): One of
the ruthless sons of Zeruiah. He was Joab's elder
brother, chief of staff during David's outlaw period
and the leader of the Thirty (IS 26 off.; IIS 23
18 ff.). His great exploits were the slaughter of 300
Philistines, the rescue of David from Ishbi-benob
(IIS 21 17), and the subjugation of Edom (I Ch
18 12, but cf. II S 8 13). Without the calculating
ferocity of Joab, he is consistently portrayed as the
ineiter of David to acts of fierce reprisal (I S 26 8;

II S 16 9). He disappears from history shortly after
Absalom's rebellion. A. S. C.

ABISHALOM, a-bish'a-lem. See ABSALOM.

ABISHUA, a-bish'u-a (yitf^K, 'ibhlshua'), 'the
father is wealth': 1. A priest, son of Phinehas (I Ch
4 f., 50; Ezr 7 5). 2. The ancestor of a Benjamite
clan (I Ch 8 4). E. E. N.

ABISHUR, a-bish'Or (Ttf^S, 'dbhishur), 'the
father is a wall': A son of Shammai (I Ch 2 28 f.).

E. E. N.

ABITAL, ab'i-tal (Vs'JK, 'dbhifal), 'the father is
dew': A wife of David (II S 3 4; I Ch 3 3).

E. E. N.

ABITUB, ab'i-tub p-^H, 'Mihltubli), 'the
father is good': A son of Shaharaim by Hushim
(I Ch 8 11). E. E. N.

ABIUD, a-bai'ud ('A/3.ov8): A son of Zerubbabel
(only in Mt 1 13). E. E. N.

ABJECTS (=;:, PsSolS): The RV margin
"smiters" gives better sense, but is incorrect. Per-
hap.s 'strangers' (impious Israelites) are meant. The
Hebrew term occurs only here and is of uncertain
meaning. E. E. N.

ABNER, ab'ner C^K, 'nbhiiir), 'my father is
a light': The cousin, or uncle, of Saul (I S 14 50;

I ( h S 39 ff.) and his chief of staff. After the defeat
and death of Saul at Mt. Gilboa (I S 31) Abner came
forward as the champion of Ishbosheth, Saul's son
(II S 2 8). He was defeated at the tournament and
subsequent battle of Gibeon (II S 2 12 ff.), an old
ancestral possession (I Ch 829). It was there that
he slew Asahel (IIS 2 18 IT.), and thus started the
blood-feud with the sons of Zeruiah. He was loyal
to the house of Saul until Ishbosheth took him to
task for his alleged conduct concerning Rizpah
(II S 3 7 ff.); then he plotted to turn over all Israel
to David, but Joab treacherously murdered him
before this could be accomplished, whereupon David,
not to lose his hold upon Israel, assumed the duty
of blood-revenge which was carried out by Solomon
(IK2Sf.). A. S. C.

ABOMINATION rentiers Heb. terms as follows:
(1) tofbhah, broadly that which gives offense either
to God or to men, possibly because of inherent re-
pulsiveness (e.g., Gn 46 34; Lv 18 22), or a violation
of established customs (e.g., Pr 6 16, 11 1). (2)
sli iqqiits, that which is hated as a religious offense.
The term is frequently applied in contempt of the
idols of the heathen (I K 11 5; Jer 13 27, etc.). (3)
sheqets, i.e., 'taboo,' used only in Lv 11 10-42. (4)
piggiil, sacrificial flesh which has become stale and
hence loathsome and unfit for food (Lv 7 18, etc.).
(The Greek term [used in LXX.] fidiXvypa is ge-
neric, and means approximately the same as the
English "abomination.") A. C. Z.

ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION (Ti /38-
Xuy/ia T/jr eprjp.a><rftas) only in Dn (9 27, 11 31,
12 ll; "that maketh desolate," AV; "astonisheth,"
AVmg.) and in the 'Apocalypse of Jesus' (Mt 25 15;
Mk 13 14). The latter, however, is a direct reference
to the former. The original in Dn is susceptible of
more than one rendering. It may be 'the abomi-
nation that desolates' or 'the abomination that
appals' (cf. Ox/. Heb. Lex. s.v. C"'y ). The term,
moreover, which is translated "abomination" (shiq-
quts) strictly means 'image of a false god' (cf. I K

II 5; II K 23 13). What the author of Dn had in
mind was the setting up in the Temple of a heathen
idol, the presence of which there should strike the
devout Israelite dumb with amazement and at the
same time profane the sacred precincts, and be the
signal of a terrible distress. This distress is con-
ceived of as laying waste the country ((prifiaxris,
'desolation,' Dn 9 26; Lk 21 20). The conception
of Dn seems to have created an apocalyptic figure
about which is centered all enmity against ttie true
God and His will. The figure is used under different
names in subsequent apocalyptic compositions. It is
probable that the "Man of Sin" in the 'Little Apoca-
lypse' (II Th 2 1-12) is one of these. The fact that
Jesus points to the appearance of this figure as a sign
by which His followers should recognize the definite
beginning of the final stage of the Messianic era
has led many persons to identify the abomination
of desolation with some historic person, event, or
thing, e.g., the Roman army (B. Weiss), desecration
by zealots (Bleek and Alford), a statue of Caligula,

A STANDARD BIBl,i; DICTIONARY

Abinadab
Absalom

1 he Roman standard with the figure of the eagle,
etc. But such identifications are futile, inasmuch as
apocalyptic figures are embodiments of ideas whose
concrete appearance in the form of historical facts or
personages is not necessarily bound to individuals,
but occurs with every realization of the idea. The
abomination of desolation is actualized whenever
its conception as above defined becomes an objective
fact. A. C. Z.

ABRAHAM, e'bra-ham (Err;;K, 'abhrShSm): The
meaning and derivation of the word are uncertain.
For Abram (E'58, i.e., Abiram [?]), cf. analogies
in Abimelech, etc. Abc-ramu occurs on contract-
tablets prior to Hammurabi (2250 B.C.). 'The
Exalted One is (my) father' (or 'exalted father') is a
probable translation. Abraham is perhaps an am-
plified form, and Eu^ an otherwise unused variant
of Cll (Ox/. Heb. Lex.). "Father of a multitude"
(Gn 1 7 5) is a word-play between EH and ]"?2 Jl.

A. holds a prominent place in the thought of both
the O T and the N T. His name occurs repeatedly in
the formulas of inheritance (Dt 18; II K 13 23), and in
the assertion of the continuity of the religion (Ex
3 15; I K 18 36). By the prophets he is seldom men-
tioned, perhaps never in a pre-exilic passage, but
this is hardly significant, considering the clear na-
tional consciousness. The prophets assume his
personality; he is God's "friend" (Is 41 8; cf. II Ch
20 7); he was "one" (Is 51 2; Ezk 33 24; perhaps Mai

2 15) ; Abraham and Sarah are progenitors (Is 51 2; cf.
also Is 2922, 6316; Jer 3326; Mic 720). The NT
recognizes A. as a race-father (Mt 39; Jn 8 33, 37, 39),
but it is more deeply conscious of his profound sig-
nificance as a hero of faith (He 1 1 8-1 1), his intimacy
with God (Jn 8 56), and his spiritual fatherhood (Lk
16 22; Ro4ll ff.).

The present form of the narrative is due to the
writer's desire to picture an ideal figure, embody-
ing supreme religious conceptions. The following is
the analysis: (1) Gn 12-14, A.'s character and great-
ness. (2) Gn 15-22 19, the trials through which
character was achieved. (3) Gn 23-25 8, the final
acts of a well-rounded life. The thought of the cove-
nant is ever dominant, but first is shown how exalted
the hero was. He marches across the ancient world
from the Euphrates to the Nile, his possessions in-
crease in Canaan, he is able to overthrow the army
of a world-conqueror. How did A. become so pow-
erful? The answer is not through heaping to-
gether wealth, -not through flocks and herds, not
through conquest, bin by silent communion with
God beneath the stars of heaven, by trials that
tested his patience and wrung his heart, and by a
life which found its goal not in earthly grandeur but
in God. And he leaves the scene, not as one who
has passed his prime, but as a king, who before he
lays down the scepter prepares for his own depar-
ture, and, with dignity and far-sightedness, for his
heir, and for the children who have a claim upon his
love but no share in the great promise of his line.

The offering of Isaac, the crowning test of his
faith, taught positively the need of a consummate
sacrifice for the final ratification of the covenant,
and negatively, that J" did not desire human sacri-

fice. The site could hardly have been the Temple-
mount, because (1) Jerusalem seems to have been
already occupied (Gn 14 18) and (2) is much less than
three days' journey (Gn 22 4) from Beer-sheba.

While some maintain the absolute historicity of
the entire Abrahamic narrative, others treat it as a
myth, personalized tribal history, or the outgrowth
of religious reflection. For A.'s actual existence,
the persistent national tradition is a witness. The
name is stamped too deeply upon the records to
be but a fanciful creation. On the other hand, the
narrative is so artistic as to indicate idealization.
The minute particularizations (e.g., Gn 18) seem
hardly consistent with literal history, and we should
distinguish between the present form and the orig-
inal substratum. Probably under the name of A.
are preserved traditions of great tribal movements
which began in Arabia, followed the Euphrates,
crossed to Haran, and ended for the time in Canaan.
The leader may well have been named Abraham, but
the clan was originally the concrete reality. While
his name nowhere occurs as a clan title, on an in-
scription of Shishak the "field of Abram" is men-
tioned (PEFQ, Jan., 1905, p. 7);cf. "field of Moab"
(Nu 21 20). For a theory of the two names Abram
and Abraham, see Paton, Early History oj Syria and
Palestine, pp. 25-46.

It is now the general consensus that the names of
the four kings (Gn 14) are historical, though not, all
have, with certainty, been identified. Gunkel ar-
gues for the historicity of Melchizedek also. The
forms, however, of the Elamite and Babylonian
names have suffered much in transmission. The
synchronism with Hammurabi (Amraphel) postu-
lates a date earlier than was formerly assigned to A.
The chapter forms the fitting conclusion to the pic-
ture of Abraham's greatness.

LITERATURE: Comm. on Genesis, by Delitzsch, Dillmann,
Green, Gunkel. Driver; Hommel. Anc. Heb. Trad.; Kit-
tel, Hist, of the Hebrews; Kent, Beginnings of Heb. His-
tory; Orr, Problem of the O T. A. S. C.

ABRAHAM'S BOSOM. See ESCHATOLOGY,
38.

ABRAM. See ABRAHAM.

ABRECH, e'brec $}$,'abhrekh): The Hebrew
original of "bow the knee" in Gn 41 43. The trans-
lation thus given is probably not correct. Abrech
does not correspond to any Hebrew word-form.
The most probable view is that the true reading
is abarak, a Babylonian term for a royal minister.
On account of the political predominance of Baby-
lonia, official terms in use in that country were in
vogue also in Palestine and Egypt in the days of
Joseph. J- F. McC.

ABRONAH, a-bro'nu ( n ^?2, 'abhronfih, Ebro-
nah AV): A station on the wilderness journey
(Nu 33 34 f. ). Site unknown. E. E. N.

ABSALOM, ab'sa-lem (C$$38, 'abhlshalom,
Abishalom in I K 15 2, 10), 'father of peace,' per-
haps so named as a good omen of David's growing
power: David's third son, born at Hebron of
Maacah, daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur (II S

Abyss

Acts of the Apostles

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

3 3). His character is delineated consistently
throughout as fierce, revengeful, and treacherous.
Evidently he inherited his traits from his mother's
wild mountain ancestry. His first outbreak follows
Amnon's outrage of Tamar (II S 13), and self-
exiled, he appears to wait in (Jeshur a vindication of
his act. Joab's ruse to bring him back (II S 14)
seems to embody an attempt to secure the abroga-
tion of the right of private blood-revenge. Absa-
lom's recall was, therefore, equivalent to a legal
enactment on the subject (II S 14 11). But his
confinement thereafter to his own quarters was an
affront which his untamed spirit could not brook,
and which precipitated the insurrection wherein he
perished (II S 18 14). The narrative (II S 13-19)
is intended to show how the folly of each of the pre-
sumptive heirs to the throne wrought their ruin
and thus cleared the path for the youthful Solomon.
Abijam (I K 15 2) and Asa (I K 15 10) were Absa-
lom's descendants through Maacah. A. S. C.

ABYSS (afivvo-ot), 'a place of great depth':
As far as known the word is found only in the Greek
of the Bible. It occurs frequently in the LXX. as the
translation of the Hebrew t'how. deep. In the N T
it is the name of Hades, the place of the dead (Ro 107;
Lk 8 3i; Rev 9 1, 2, ll, 17 8, 20 l, 3. In AV of Rev,
it is always rendered "the bottomless pit"). See
also ESCHATOLOGY, 48. A. C. Z.

ACACIA. See PALESTINE, 21.

ACCAD, ac'ad ("S, 'akkadh): One of the four
cities which, according to Gn 10 10, were the starting-
point of the dominion of Nimrod in Babylonia. In
the inscriptions the same word-form usually desig-
nates not a city but the division of the country lying
N. of the district about Babylon. The form Agade,
however, is written as the name of a very ancient
city, also in N. Babylonia, and supreme over the
whole country about 3800 B.C. This is doubtless
the same name as Accad, the g of the so-called
Accadian language being regularly represented in
proper names by k (c) in Semitic Babylonian.

'Accadian' is the name given by Sir Henry Raw-
linson to a supposed non-Semitic language, spoken
and written in many inscriptions in Babylonia, and
to the people employing it. These are, however, now
generally named "Sumerian," since the inscriptions
in question are found not in N. but in S. Babylonia,
and Simmer is supposed to be a designation of the
latter region. This is doubtful (see BABYLONIA,
9). In any case 'Accadian' is a misnomer and
should be discarded. J. F. McC.

ACCO, ac'o C':V. 'kk,->, Accho AV; in Acts 21 7
called Ptolemais; Arabic, 'akk(i): A Canaanite
city in the territory of the tribe of Ashcr, whose in-
habitants were not driven out by Israel. Fortified
and situated on the seacoast at the N. end of the
Bay of Acre, and on the mvin road along the coast,
it was important for controlling the roads inland to
the fertile plain of Esdraelon and to lower Galilee.
From the earliest times down to the Crusades its
-^ion was considered of great strategic value,
although politically it was inferior to Tyre and Sidon.

(See PALESTINE, 4.) At the close of the 3d cent.
B.C. its name was changed to Ptolemais. Map IV,
B 6. C. S. T.

ACCURSED: The RV translation of ~V^ (Dt
2123) and ^j (Is 65 20), from the root 'qiilul,
meaning 'to esteem lightly.' The AV has "ac-
cursed" in most OT passages, where the RV has
"devoted" or "devoted thing." In the place of the
AV "accursed" the RV in N T reads "anathema,"
the transliteration of the Greek word. See ANATH-
EMA, DEVOTED, also Cunsrc. C. S. T.

ACCUSATION. See SUPERSCRIPTION.
ACELDAMA. See AKELDAMA.

ACHAIA, a-ke'ya ('A^aia): The northernmost
country of the Peloponnesus, but in Homer the
country inhabited by the Aelueans, that is, all
Greece. The Romans (after 27 n.c.) adopted the
Homeric usage, and their Provincia Admin (capital,
Corinth) included all Greece along with Thessaly,
Aearnania, JStolia, Eubcea, and the Cyclades. This
is N T usage, " Gallio, Proconsul of Achaia " (Ac 18
12; cf. also 18 27; Ro 15 26, etc.). J. R. S. S.

ACHAICUS, Q-ke'i-cus ('A^micof): Mentioned in

1 Co 16 17 with Stephanas (q.v.) and Fortunatus.
From the exhortation (ver. 1C; cf. I Th 5 12) we infer
that A. and the others occupied some important po-
sition in the Corinthian Church. Their attitude of
friendliness relieved Paul's anxiety (ver. 18), partic-
ularly in view of what was lacking in the Church's
moral condition at the time (TO vpiTipov ia-ripr/fia,
ver. 17b; cf. 5 l t.). J. M. T.

ACHAN, e'can fiJJ', Tikhan, called Achar, I Ch

2 7): A member of the tribe of Judah, who appro-
priated treasure from the spoils of Jericho, thus
violating the law of the ban (her em) (see CURSE,
2), according to which spoils of war were sacred
to Jehovah. This sin brought defeat on Israel at
Ai. By lot Joshua discovered Achan to be the
offender. In the valley of Achor he and his family
were stoned to death, while all his property was
burned (Jos 7 1-26). J. A. K.

ACHAZ . See A H A z .

ACHBOR, ac'bor ("*'??, 'akhbor), 'mouse': 1.
The father of Baal-hanan, a king of Edom (Gn 36
38 f.; I Ch 1 49). 2. A courtier under Josiali and
Jehoiakim (II K 22 12-14 [but cf. II Ch 34 20]; Jer 26
22, 36 12). I!. E. N.

ACHIM, e/kim
(Mt 1 14).

An ancestor of Joseph
E. E. N.

ACHISH, e'kish (-"$, 'akhlsh): The Philistine
king of Gath who befriended David (I S 21 10 ff.)
and later gave him Ziklag. He demanded David's
aid against Saul, but yielded to the objections of
the Philistine princes (I S 27-29). He was still king
at Solomon's accession, according to I K 2 30, but
this seems improbable in view of David's conquest
of Gath and of the chronological difficulty.

' K. K. N,

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Abyss

Acts of the Apostles

ACHMETHA, ac'me-tha (N^SHS, 'ahm'tha'):
A royal city in Media where the roll was found
containing a copy of Cyrus" decree permitting the
return of the Jews (Ezr 6 2). The word is the
Aramaic equivalent of the Pers. Hagmatama or Ec-
bat ana, as the Greeks spelled it. The site of the city
mentioned in Ezra is somewhat uncertain. The old
Median Ecbatana can not easily be identified with
the beautifully situated Ecbatana, used by the Per-
sian kings as a summer residence, now called Hama-
dan; but it is probable that the latter is the city
referred to both in Ezra and in To 6 5. E. E. N.

ACHOR, e'kor, VALLEY OF (T:2 py, 'erneq
'dkhor), 'valley of trouble': The valley near Jericho
where Achan was stoned (Jos 7 24-26). Its identifi-
cation with the Wady-el-Kelt is unsatisfactory.
Jos 15 7 implies a more southern, Is 65 10 a more
spacious valley. Hos 2 15 plays on the meaning of
the term. E. E. N.

ACHSAH,ac'sa (~y?*, 'akhsah, Achsa AV), 'an-
klet': A daughter of Caleb (perhaps in reality a clan)
given to Othniel for conquering Kiriath-sepher.
The springs mentioned lay a few miles north of Debir
(Jos 15 16 ff. ; Jg 1 12 ff. ; I Ch 2 49). E. E. N.

ACHSHAPH, ac'saf (-"|$';8, 'akhshaph), 'sorcery':
A town on the border of Asher (Jos 19 25) whose
king was confederate with Jabin of Hazor against
Joshua (Jos 1 1 1, 12 20). Site unknown. E. E. N.

ACHZIB, ac'zib (2VJS, 'akhzlbh), 'winter tor-
rent' (?): 1. One of the 22 towns of the tribe of
Asher (Jos 19 29) on the seacoast S. of Tyre; the in-
habitants were not driven out by Israel (Jg 1 31).
Map IV, B 5. 2. A town in the Shephelah of Judah,
mentioned with Keilah and Mareshah (Jos 1544),
with Mareshah and A-lullam (Mic 1 14); the same as
Cozeba (ICh422) and Chezib (Gn385). Map II,
Dl. C. S. T.

ACRE. See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 2.

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, THE: The book
of Acts is unique. Without it any consecutive
knowledge of the Apostolic Age could
i. Intro- not be attained, even with the aid of
ductory. the Pauline letters. With it as back-
ground, all other data fall into order
and unity in a way which speaks loudly for its his-
toric worth. As, then, our hopes of constructing
a sure picture of primitive Christianity depend
largely on Acts, it is essential to form a correct
idra as to its historicity. How far does it satisfy
modern requirements? One thing must be borne
in mind: Its author, alone of N T writers, claims
to write history (xadf^s ypa-^rai.), and to have sat-
isfied the conditions of accurate inquiry (nacnv
igpifKt) necessary to give the reader a sense of se-
curity (Iva f7Ti"/vws . . . rfjv a(T(j)a\fiav) touching
tin 1 matters of Christian faith (TOIV Tr(ir\r]po<popri-
fifviav fv rjfiiv irpayiiartav). Such is the cltiirn of the
preface to his work in two parts, of which Acts is the
second. It was meant as serious history, occa-
sioned too by the consciousness that existing narra-

tives dealing with the same class of facts were not
satisfactory in this very respect, as a basis of ra-
tional historic assurance.

But, it will be said, there is history and history.
We need to know how far Acts is an objective
record of objective facts. As to the objectivity of
its author's attitude, Ramsay is probably right in
claiming for Acts a place among histories of the first
rank, in which nothing is allowed consciously to
deflect the historian from stating things as (hey
really occurred. Only this does not mean the dead,
superficial fidelity of a photograph, giving no guid-
ance to the beholder by light and relief. Our author
gives an interpretation of the story, particularly of
its religious meaning, in order to aid one seeking for
religious truth, so far as this can find expression in
history. But this need not make him inaccurate,
or ready to suppress facts material to the line of ex-
position selected in keeping with the total effect of all
known to the writer, though much can not be brought
in for reasons of space and perspective. Whether
all that reached him as 'facts,' or even all that he
had verified for himself as such, were really objective
facts at least as we should interpret them to-day
is another question. This can not here be discussed,
save as regards the probability that our author was
himself an eye-witness of a large number of them
and these often, as Harnack points out, of the same
'supernatural' order as those which he records on
the evidence of others and in so far as we can infer
that those others were themselves eye-witnesses or
drew their impressions directly from such. Ap-
proach, however, to all such problems lies through
a consideration of the general drift of Acts, and of
its verisimilitude or otherwise. The question of its
Scope will lead on to those of its Aims, Occasion and
Provenance, Authorship, and Date. The final test
of all these will be their mutual coherence as the
simplest theory for unifying an immense complex of
phenomena, literary and historical.

Acts sets forth in orderly sequence (KaSfgqs)

how the Divine Society constituted by the Gospel

spread, in ever-widening circles, from

2. Scope its native home in Jerusalem even unto
and Plan. Rome, the distant capital of the world.
This appears from the commission (1 8)
given at the final interview between Jesus and those
who as "witnesses" were to continue His ministry,
and who, as so commissioned, were "apostles" in the
wider sense, as distinct from the Twelve (see 1 6, 14 f .,
21 ; Lk 24 33 ff., and I Co 157, rots cnrotrr6\ois iratrtv).
We gather that their horizon was still conflned to a
Messianic Kingdom for Israel (1 6); and, in fact,
down to ch. xv we find, traced with a care implying
a very primitive standpoint (for A.D. 70 effaced
such shades of distinction), the gradual steps by
which they accepted the logic of Divine facts, even
when running counter to preconceived theory, in the
annulling of Jewish restrictions upon membership in
God's Kingdom. The one secret of this triumph
of the Divine over human limitations as of all
those triumphs which constitute the moral of the
book and its high argument lay in the power of the
Holy Spirit upon and through the Lord's witnesses.
This is surely true to life. Here, too, lay the conti-
nuity between our author's two books: the same

Acts of the Apostles

A STAMiAKP BIBLE DICTIONARY

Spirit qualified (lir Master and His disciples (Lk 4 14,
24 49; Ac 1 1 f., 8, 2 33, cf. 16 7, "the spirit of Jesus")
both to do and endure; for (lie pathway of 'glory
through suffering' was God's counsel for both (Lk
24 26, 4 ; Ac 14 22, cf. 5 41). The traditional Jewish
forms of thought touching the mode of the King-
dom's consummation within the generation then
living (Lk 21 32, cf. 932; Ac 1 11, 320f.), and the
natural assumption thai .leu ish forms of worship and
ritual still held good, did not suddenly fall away.
The Gospel did not destroy save through being seen
to fulfil. These things simply faded away in the
growing light which spread from the new luminary of
the spiritual world; and the subjective power to ap-
propriate all in Him turned on the Messianic gift, the
''Spirit of the Lord'' in new form and fulness, which
constituted the New Israel out of the Old in spite of
ils wonted stiff-necked resistance to the Holy Spirit
(751). Israel was even then a " crooked generation,"
from which '"salvation" was needful (2 40, 4 12, cf.
14 26).

Accordingly the Messianic outpouring of the
Spirit at Pentecost holds the same determinative
place in Acts as in the Gospel the coming of the
Messianic consciousness to Jesus Himself unfolded
in the discourse in the synagogue at Nazareth
(3 2lb, 4 14-30). The parallel is all the closer in
that, in both cases, rejection by Judaism follows, be-
cause the conditions of the Kingdom are presented
as purely spiritual, so that birth confers nothing but
prior opportunity. Thus Acts depicts, first, the
Divine power and spirituality of life manifest in the
nucleus of the coming Kingdom, the new Ecclesia;
while Judaism passes self-judgment upon itself, step
by step, by hardness of heart to the Spirit's appeal
(chs. 3-5). Anon we are shown a certain differentia-
tion within the new Ecclesia itself, between the less
and the more progressive types those strictly "He-
brews, " and those in fuller sympathy with Israel's-
wider heritage owing to experience of the Greek
world, the "Hellenists." The spokesman of the
latter is Stephen, whose speech before the official
representatives of strict Judaism indicates the prin-
ciples at issue, and foreshadows the line of develop-
ment for the Ecclesia. Then the shaking of perse-
cution (chs. 6, 7) providentially spreads this true
seed beyond Jerusalem, in various soils more and
more remote from those heretofore held fit for the
reception of God's word. Thus the Samaritans re-
spond to Philip the Evangelist and are solemnly
adjudged of God by the Messianic gift, through the
agency of Peter and John most authoritative of
" apostles" worthy of life: an imperfect proselyte (a
eunuch) is by special Divine action admitted, less
publicly, through Philip: there follow proofs of
God's hand with His new Ecclesia, in the conversion
and parly ministry of Saul, the leader of the recent
persecution, and next in typical incidents taken from
Peter's missionary work in Judaea; and then the latter
is led to sanction the admission of a group of prose-
lytes to the spirit merely of Judaism, and not to the
letter of its requirements (through circumcision) in
sheer deference to God's manifest will in the gift of
the Spirit. This case is made the more significant by
being challenged at Jerusalem and successfully vin-
dicated by Peter, on the ground that God had acted

and could not be gainsaid. Thus "to the Gentiles
had God given repentance unto life" (11 18).

This occurred at Cscsarea, just beyond the borders
of the Holy Land of Judaea proper (from which Peter
had passed in coming from Joppa, 43, 11 5, 11; cf.
Knowling, on 8 40), and might hardly have been
tolerated nearer to Jerusalem. Further it affected
but few in the first instance, and was probably not
expected to extend very far either numerically or
locally. But in both respects God was already on
the way to transcend Jewish-Christian thought even
more signally. Yet here too progress was gradual,
and no sharp breach was actually caused with the
Palestinian Ecclesia. This, so far, had conceived of
itself as "the Ecclesia" (eVcicXi/crta, 'called sect,' usu-
ally rendered "church"), made up of "the saints"
proper (9 32, 41; cf. 9 13, 26 10; also I Co 16 1; Ro
15 25), while non-Jewish adherents were Messianic
proselytes on the skirts of Israel (as with orthodox
Judaism ). Such a conception would be helped by t he
sense that all was still provisional. "The Lord was
at hand," and He would perfect all in His Ecclesia.
But the conception was menaced as soon as mem-
bership in the Ecclesia extended far beyond Pales-
tine, and included by special Divine bounty large
masses of persons hitherto assumed to be exceptions
by special Divine bounty. This is what happened
at Antioch, which therefore is treated as the second
home of the Gospel, and then as the starting-point
of the Gentile Mission proper. But the actual ex-
tent of the fresh departure, in its beginnings, is
doubtful. According to the best MSS reading in
11 20 the "great number" who there hastened to be-
lieve were "Hellenists," and therefore Jews of a
kind, yet not of the kind which had hitherto consti-
tuted the great mass of "the Ecclesia" in the Holy
Land. So great a change in relative proportions
would in itself warrant the sending of some one to
examine matters and report; and we notice that
Barnabas, himself a Hellenist, was chosen, and not
Peter and John (as for Samaria), which would surely
have been the case if anything so revolutionary as a
preponderance of uncircumcised "Greeks" (the other
reading) had appeared at this stage even outside
Palestine.

Hort (Judaistic Christianity [1894], p. 59 f.) seems right in
insisting on the more difficult reading of BD 2 EHLP, sup-
ported by X* eua-yY<Ai<TT; see also 13 , cf. 14 ". The au-
thor's meaning seems to have been missed by the other MS
authorities, through tuking the 6 in fivav 5e Ttpes { aurwv-
KTA, as adversative to the foregoing oi per ovy tiaffiraptv*
to the undue prejudice of ^Tjfievi . . . ei ^ ft-oi'ov 'loufiaiots',
whereas it really appends a special instance as in 8 4 f -, and
elsewhere in Acts. So it is to be rendered: "Now there
were certain of them, men of Cyprus and Cyrene, such as
(oi'Tir, cf. 9 35 ) on reaching Antioch began to address the
Hellenists." It seems best, therefore, to follow X" DEHLP
al. pier. sah. cop. syr. lr . arm. oeth. col. gig. vg codd Chry.
in omitting Kai, since its presence in X* AB may well be due
to the feeling that it is needful to the antithetic relation of
ver. " to ver. M which they agree with the authorities for
*EAA>)i/as in reading into the passage.

In any case the extension to Antioch, standing
midway between the Jewish and Greek spheres, was
a momentous step; and there, we read signifi-
cantly, the disciples of Jesus first obtained the name
distinguishing them from Jews proper, "Christians."
There too begins the association of Saul with Bar-

A STAXDAlil) HII!I,I<; DICTIONARY

Acts of the Apostles

nabas, which marks the next stage of advance still
wit hout loss of touch with the old center, Judcea (11
27-30). But before leaving the fortunes of the Gos-
pel in its first home, we are shown how attempts to
harm it ever turned, by God's grace, to the confu-
sion of its foes (eh. 12): then, with a verse reestab-
lishing sequence with ch. 11, we pass on to the be-
ginnings of the real Gentile mission, with its base at
Antioch.

And now Saul who at the psychological moment
(13 9) is given his Gentile name, Paul comes out in
his true role as the main agent of *he Divine counsel
in the wider destiny of the Gospel, as surely as Peter
had been the pioneer of its more restricted scope.
The 'turning to the Gentiles' is narrated very em-
phatically in 13 46-48, while the moral of the whole
mission is pointed in 1427, "all things that God
had done with them," so showing "that he had
opened a door of faith unto the Gentiles." It was
seemingly the news of this great extension of Gentile
Christianity on principle that drove the more re-
actionary wing of the Jerusalem church (now in-
cluding Pharisees, 15 5) to action in Antioch (as also
in Galatia), where it was felt that the issue had to be
fought out (see GALATIANS, 3). With the Jeru-
salem Concordat, which settled it for the time, i.e.
as it arose in Syria and Cilicia (and Galatia), where
the Jewish element, side by side with the Gentile,
was large, the story, as so far told, reaches its natural
conclusion (15 35). Hitherto it has been treated
from the Hellenistic standpoint, from which the con-
ditions of intercourse in the Ecclesia between Jew
and Gentile, set forth in 15 20, 29, seemed to be min-
imum concessions (ravra ra evavayKts) to unity
on the part of godly Gentiles. Hereafter, however,
the horizon widens enormously; new interests and
conditions arise: the old platform becomes too nar-
row in practise, where Gentiles more and more out-
number Jewish converts in typically Gentile regions.
Antioch and its associations are largely left behind;
and the history gathers round the career of the
Apostle of the Gentiles, whose personal commission
determines his conduct in regions to which, in his
judgment, the Jerusalem compact was inapplicable.

Here space forbids any full discussion. As regards chy.
1-12 the present writer feels that neither the hypothesis of

merely oral traditions nor the usual theories

3. Sources O f written sources Aramaic (so now Har-

Ol nack) or Greek can fully meet the case.

Acts. The use of a Hellenistic or Antiochene source

would account for the bulk of these chap-
ters, but there is need also of the view broached in the com-
mentary on Acts in the Century Bible (1901), viz.. that Luke
wrote some of Acts 1-12 (or even 15 3;I ) on the basis of notes
taken down by himself from the lips of excellent infornuin Is.
and largely in their own words (which explains the distinc-
tive language and thoughts shining through the present
Lucan narrative). Probably Philip, Hellenist and Evan-
gelist, was his main oral source for such notes as to the Je-
rusalem and Judji-an church, taken during Paul's detention
in Cirsarea (cf. 21 8 '). Mark or his mother may be the
channel through whom most of ch. 12 (with its intimate
reference to Mark's home and the maid servant and the
abrupt naming of James, the Lord's brother) reached
Luke. Stephen's speech may or may not have come
through Philip; at all events it came through a Hellenist
of the same circle or type as the author of the Epistle to
the Hebrews (the affinities with which are well pointed out
by Dr. B. W. Bacon, Stephen's Speech, in Yale Biblirnl
Studiet, 1901). For Saul's history during that period, Paul
himself and Luke's own notes of Paul's defenses at Jcru-

sulfiTi and ('irsaroa (not always quite at first hnnd) would
contribute something. Other and more purely traditional
elements, e.g. the idea of Pentecost as involving foreign
tongues in contrast to Peter's speech on that occasion
may be due to Hellenists in Antioch. The Kirst Mission-
ary Journey (13-14) probably reflects the account given
by an eye-witness (Titus?) on returning to Antioch. I <.r
the latter part of Acts all is due to Luke's memory or notes,
as the case may be; nor is the absence of "we" any sure
Hisproof of his presence, as it may have merely a psycho-
logical or emotional significance.

Henceforth the moti/s underlying the narrative,
and causing selection from a larger mass of mate-
rials, become more varied. The central
4. Aims, one so far, the universal spirit of the
old religion, as of Divine origin in
spite of Jewish blindness and hardness of heart, now
as in former days (cf. Stephen's Speech) persists to
the end, with its climax at Rome (28 17-28). But
with it blends more and more another idea, its coun-
terpart, viz., the witness borne by the attitude of
typical representatives of the Gentile world, the
Roman Empire in the widest sense, that the hostility
of actual Judaism was vexatious and groundless.
Further, as far as Judaism might try to crush its
rival by suggesting that it was an element of disorder
and even of disloyalty in the Empire itself, the early
history of the Christian Church and its relations to
the Roman State, its law and order, refuted the
charges. Such troubles as had arisen were in fact
due to Jewish jealousy and misrepresentation. All
these lines of thought meet in Paul himself, both in
his outer lot and in his attitude, whether to his na-
tional religion or to Roman citizenship. To both
he was essentially loyal. This explains the long and
at first sight unduly prolix story of Paul's last visit
to Jerusalem and its issues, particularly the repeated
speeches of defense. Paul, in fact, was the em-
bodied apologia of the Church in the Roman Empire,
over against all its traducers (cf. Von Soden, Early
Christian Literature [1906], pp. 230 ff.).

The occasion of Acts, then, like that of all NT
writings, is practical. It is determined by pressing
religious needs, not by abstract or scientific interests.
It is an apology for the religion of Jesus, addressed
primarily to men of faith, yet a faith distressed both
by bitter opposition and by some perplexities of
thought, not as yet quite at home with the deeper
ideas of the new religion as one of power shown
through suffering, not through prosperity (the notion
of ancient religion generally). But while primarily
meant for actual faith, Luke's writings, perhaps
alone in the N T, look also to potential faith outside,
in 'men of good-will' who need only to know the
facts, in all the improssiveness of their true order
so that their real meaning jumps to the eye in order
to believe in the "Kingdom of God" among men.

Where, then, was such a work likely to arise?
Internal evidence suggests that the region in which
its first readers were most interested
5. Pro- was the Roman province of Asia (note
venance. references to Paul's abortive wish to
visit it and Bithynia in 16 6 f.), where
the concrete narrative becomes most detailed and the
topography most minute (18 24-21 1; contrast the
verses given to the last visit to Greece, 20 2-5). Dif-
ferences, even, and abuses among believers emerge

Acts of the Apostles
Adam

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

at Ephesus (18 24-19 7, John's baptism, and 20 26-36,
forecast of that church's future dangers), as nowhere
else. Observe too the calm allusiveness of the ref-
erence to "the school of Tyrannus" (TWOS was soon
added to soften it) in 10 9, as though self-explana-
tory to "Theophilus" and his circle (cf. the abrupt
reference to Alexander in 19 33); also the triviality
of the itinerary in 20 13-15, save for those familiar'
with the coast between Troas and Ephesus.

Here reference may be made to some of the most striking
of the readings in Codex Bezae, etc. A whole series of them
betray special acquaintance with Asia Minor (Ramsay) ; and
these are among the oldest of the so-called 'Western' or
ft text. But they are never more than intelligent glosses,
showing that Acts was read with more than special interest
in the region. The change in 15 20 ' 20 , where the abstinences
lose their ceremonial or Jewish reference, may also have
arisen in Asia, especially as it is already found in Irenseus.

Finally consider the correspondence between this
environment and the inottfs of Acts, as already de-
scribed: the numbers and influence of the Jews in
Asia (referred to in 21 27, 24 19 as prime causes of
Paul's arrest); the bitterness of their hostility to the
Christians both in the later Apostolic age (Rev
29f.) and in Polycarp's day; the interest for this
region of the modus Vivendi of Acts 15 20, 29, in the
light especially of Rev 2 6, 14 f., 20; and the problem
of the internal relations of Judaism and Christianity
there as late as Ignatius' day. Surely these things
constitute strong cumulative evidence for Asia, and
Ephesus in particular, as the original home of Acts.

If this be granted, it will nUl also to our evidence

for date, in so far as the tone of Acts is optimistic

touching Rome's attitude to Christians, apart from

Jewish envy and slander. It assumes

6. Date, that Rome may continue its old policy
of treating Christianity as a form, the
most legitimate form, of Israel's religion, and as
sharing its status as a religio licita, exclusive of the
forms of the Imperial cult, as of every other 'idol-
atrous' worship, yet not therefore disloyal to Rome
and Csesar. When exactly the course of events in
Asia, the center of fanatical Caesar-worship, ren-
dered such hopes untenable, it is hard to say. But
relatively early, we may be sure, apart even from
the evidence of Rev, the date of which is itself an
open question. Harnack thinks a date about 80
A.D. most probable: the present writer inclines to a
date earlier in the Vespasian era, as better suiting
the words of the Gospel (21 32, cf. 926f.) touching
the fulfilment of "all things" before the passing of
the original generation of Christ's hearers. The ex-
periences of the era of the siege and fall of Jerusalem
seem clearly implied in the wording of Luke 21; but
the "times of the Gentiles" seem only just begin-
ning to be fulfilled (21 24, 28). Still "redemption
draweth nigh," and some of Christ's generation
will see it.

The argument for a date about 100 A.D. derived from par-
allels with Josephus' Antiquities is quite "in the air" (Har-
nack, op. cit., p. 18). It does not account for the diver-
gences in the case either of Theudas (5 3a , e.g., the number
400) whatever be made of the account in Acts or of
Herod (12 20 ") On the other hand, it is unsafe to argue
from the point at which Acts ends (01-62 A.D.) ; for the nar-
rative has reached its natural climax when the Gospel is
preached by Paul in Rome. Paulus Ifomte apex evanffelii.
Nothing of equal significance could be added. The heroic

age, in which the Divine power working in Christ's wit-
nesses was most manifest, was already well-nigh over.

Finally a date between 70 and 80 A.D. best suits
the most probable theory as to authorship, viz., that

the whole work, as distinct from a sup-

7. Author- posed Travel-diary cropping out here

ship. and there between chs. 16 and 28

comes from Luke, "the beloved physi-
cian," companion and helper in the Gospel to Paul,
who is the hero of the book's most moving sections
fromch. 9 onward. Harnack has recently accepted
and restated in Lukas dcr Arzt the arguments used
by scientific defenders of the traditional authorship, 1
such as Hobart in The Medical Language oj St. Luke
(1882), and Sir J. C. Hawkins in florae Synoptics
(1899), as regards the stylistic unity of Acts gener-
ally. At present, then, as far as linguistic evidence
goes, this view may be said to hold the field. The
weakness of the counterview, which assigns Acts to
about 100 A.D., is seen in the paradox to which it is
driven, in order to account for certain Hellenistic
features in the warp and woof of the book, that its
final author was a 'Hellenistic Jew' (so Wendt and
B. W. Bacon). The form of the preface to both
works, and their whole feeling when dealing with
GrsDCO-Roman matters (cf. Ramsay), make this
most unlikely. Luke, however, though born a Gen-
tile (whether Syrian or Greek in race), would natu-
rally have much of the Hellenist in his training he
may have been a Jewish proselyte to begin with
and suits the complex conditions of the problem,
both of style and thought, completely. Early tra-
dition touching him is well summed up in the Mon-
archian Prologue to Luke's Gospel: "Luke, a Syrian
by race, an Antiochene, 2 by profession a physician,
. . . departed this life at the age of seventy-four in
Bithynia." The latter statements, in no way sus-
picious in themselves, agree well with the foregoing
theory in all respects.

One confirmation of Luke's authorship lies in the appar-
ent non-use of the Pauline letters, which any one save a
. companion of Paul's would eagerly study
o. Relation for data. Particularly striking is the case as
to the regards the Epistle to the Galatians, which
Pauline runs parallel to much in Acts, and the ab-
Letters. sence of exact harmony with which is by
some made a prime reason for denying
Lucan authorship. As this case is crucial for the histo-
ricity of Acts, we must deal with it somewhat fully, instead
of trying to discuss minor problems of like order.

Some still regard Acts 15 and Gal 2 >- 10 as both histor-
ically trustworthy versions of the same incident, in spite
of their marked differences. Such differences are, e.g. . (1)
their ostensible occasion; (2) the privacy implied in Gal

1 This is supported by very early and wide-spread evi-
dence, going back as far as Marcion (c. 140 A.D.) , for Luke's
Gospel. This is natural, if Harnack be right in saying
that a work with a Prologue must from the first have had its
author's name in the title. Evidence of the use of Acts is
probable (so HOLTZMANN) in Ignatius of Antioch and Poly-
carp of Smyrna, c. 115 A.D., and perhaps even in Clement of
Rome (xviii. 1, cf. Acts 13 22 ), c. 96 A.D.

2 Knowledge of this fact (and nothing else) is perhaps im-
plied in the early reading of D also Aug. after 11 - 7 , "and
when we were gathered together," etc. -unless we have
here secondary use of an Antiochene source underlying Acts.
Note also the intimate knowledge of the Antiochene Church
shown in Acts 1 1 28 , 13 , cf . 6 6 fin.

3 At best, Paul's account could apply only to a private con-
ference at the time of Acts 15, but not there recorded, while
yet Paul lays all the stress on it (but see GAI.ATIANS. 3).

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Acts of the Apostles
Adam

(where it was important for the purpose of Paul's argument
to emphasize the public vindication of his own Gospel, if
it had then occurred) ; (3) the practical conditions laid down
for keeping the two separate missions in sufficient touch
with each other ns to which Paul's language in Gal 2 10 ,
"only," etc., formally excludes any other terms than those
he specifies; (4) the clear implication both of Paul's logic
(which does not leave him free to pass over any visit be-
tween Gal 1 18 and 2 ' without explanation) and of the state-
ment that lie remained still unknown by face to the churches
of Judxa (1 22 ' ), to the effect that no visit to Jerusalem fell
between those in Gal 1 18 and 2 ', whereas Acts II 27 If - re-
cords a relief visit to Judaea after Gal I 18 ; (5) the contrast
between the attitude of Peter and yet more of Barnabas
(after his Gentile experiences in Acts 13-14) in Gal 2 " ",
with what we should gather of them in Acts 15 (esp. s - 36 ).
Those who see their way around these differences must be
allowed to take their own course ; but they can not fairly cite
Lightfoot's authority, since the 'South-Galatian' theory,
which makes Paul in Galatians address a totally different
body of readers from that contemplated by him, has become
so widely accepted, even by defenders of Acts IJ^Ga^ 1 - 10 .
This changes the whole perspective. In particular it makes
the natural assumption that Paul is defending the inde-
pendent authority of his Gospel as proved prior to his " be-
getting" his readers by its agency an assumption involved
by Lightfoot's 'North-Galatian' theory tell heavily against
Acts 15 = Gal 2 1 -' on the current theory.

Turning, then, to those who agree in regarding the forego-
ing historical equation impossible, we have two types of the-
ory. The one frankly denies any real historicity to Acts 15,
and in most cases performs a critical operation on its organic
unity, separating the conditions contemplated in 15 2 . 2 ,
cf. 21 25 , from the narrative as a whole, and relegating them
to some later occasion, real or supposed. This leaves Acts
thoroughly discredited and its Lucan authorship out of the
question. Here Harnack's present position is untenable, as
Schurer presses home in the TLZ (1906, cols. 406 f.). He
must unify his literature and historical results somehow.
The other simply challenges the traditional dogma that
Acts 15 must be meant to refer to the same visit as Gal 2
'- 10 , and sets about finding an earlier stage in the story of the
Gospel's extension in Acts with which it may be correlated.
Thus there is no reason why a private conference should not
have taken place between the Antiochene and Jerusalem
leaders touching their respective 'missions' with a view to
anticipate public difficulties such as a Paul would readily
foresee (cf. Gal 2 ! ) prior to the emergence of public occa-
sion 1 for deputation of Acts 15 2 ("and certain others").
Distinguiie tempara. As yet the problem was not one pres-
ent to the rank and file at all, only to Paul himself in the
first instance leading him up "by revelation" to make sure
of the "pillar" apostles. On this occasion these devout fol-
lowers of the finger of God (cf. Acts 1 1 ", and later 1.5 12 ->*)
felt the unity of the Divine working visible in both types of
mission, and simply requested that Paul should see to it that
he and his converts "should remember the poor" in keeping
with the best traditions of Jewish piety (cf. Acts 2 3< ") a
principle for which Paul was himself already zealous. It is
just here that the second theory divides into alternative
forms. Ramsay, followed by V. Weber and others, sees in
the wording of Gal 2 10 a reference to Paul's being in Jerusa-
lem for the very purpose of showing the Antiochene mind-
fulness of the poor saints in Jud.-r-a (Acts 11 ). But the
present writer considers this identification exegetically
forced and views that relief visit rather as an early proof 2 of
Paul's zeal for the principle expressed in Gal 2 10 . That is, it
is simplest and best to assume, as we are free to do since
the account in Acts is so far from professing to be a com-
plete narrative that the visit of Gal 2 '-' is an otherwise
unrecorded visit, preparing the way privately for that other
and public concordat which was occasioned by overt con-

1 I see no such occasion in Gal 2 < ' There is no sugges-
tion such as Paul's readers could be expected to follow, that
the "false brethren" were "brought in" at Antioch, rather
than at the private conference in Jerusalem mentioned just
before.

2 See Erpimitnr (Oct., 1899), p. 268: cf. O. Iloltzmann
inZNTW Mill I.',), pp. 102 fT. : "Hut then the journey to the
Apostolic conference and the first Collection-journey fall in
the period immediately after Acts II 2 '; one must assume
that both journeys followed one another quickly, as Gal 2 ">
lets one suppose."

troversy in Antioch some years later (but see GAI.ATIANS,
3). Thus there is no necessary clash between Acts 15 and
Gal. 2 '">; and with similar allowance for different per-
spective, we may say the same for Acts 9 and Gal 1 ',
touching Paul's movements in the first years after his con-
version.

LITERATURE: A full discussion of the literature on Acts will
be found in the last edition of Meyer's Kommenter (1899),
by Wemlt, and in Knowling's Comm. in thr Expo
Greek Test. (1900), supplemented by his Testimony nf ,S7.
Paul to Christ (1905); see also Moffatt's liislaricnl
Testament (1901), and C. Clemen, Paulus (1904), i. 162-
330. Add Harnack, Lukas der Arzt tier Verjasser des
dritten Ew.ngeliu.rn u. der Apostelgeschichte (1906) Enu
tr. (1907). J V . B.

AD AD AH, ad'a-da (~~yV, 'adh'adhah): A town
on the S. border of Judah (Jos 15 22). Probably
the Aroer (q.v.) of I S 30 28. E. E. N.

ADAH, e'dfl (rn$, 'adhah), 'beauty': 1. A wife
of Lamech (Gn4i9ff.). 2. The Hittite wife of
Esau (Gn 362 ff.). g. E. N.

ADAIAH, a-d6'ya (IT-,?., 'ddhayah), 'J" has
adorned': 1. The maternal grandfather of King
Josiah, of Bozketh in the Shephelah of Judah (II K
22 l). 2. A Levite of the sons of the Kohathites
(I Oh 6 41). 3. A Benjamite of the family of Shimei
(Shemaver.13), (ICh82l)of Jerusalem. 4. Apriest
dwelling in Jerusalem (I Ch 9 12). 6. The father of
Maaseiah (II Ch 23 l, here spelled VTJS). 6. A
man of the family of Bani of the post-exilic Jewish
community who had married a foreign wife (Ezr
10 29). 7. Another of same family and guilty of
same offense (Ezr 10 39). 8. A descendant of Perez,
son of Judah (Neh 11 5). 9. A priest, son of Jeroham,
in the post-exilic list of the inhabitants of Jerusalem;
probably the same as 4 (Neh 11 12). C. S. T.

ADALIA, ad"a-lai'a (N;
Hainan's ten sons (Est 9 8).

'tdhalya'): One of
E. E. N.

ADAM, ad'am (E~N, 'adham, from root C~iN, 'to
build,' 'produce'?): I. According to the crea-
tion story of Genesis the name of the first man of the
race. The Hebrew word used without the article is
the name of the first man (On 4 25, 5 1, 3-5; I Ch 1 1;
also Gn 2 20, 3 17, 21?); with the article, it should be
translated 'the man,' as it is in most instances in
RV, where AV has " Adam." It is used as the name
of the first man where it is necessary to distinguish
him from his descendants. In the N T the Greek
transliteration 'Afidfi is used as the name of the first
man (Jude ver. 14), who is looked upon as the father
of the whole human race, so closely connected with
all men that he involved all in his acts (Ro 5 14a; I
Co 15 45a; I Ti 2 13 f.). In Ro 5 14b (5 12 f.), I Co
15 22 Paul brings out the historical connection of
Adam with humanity, in representing him as being
the author of sin and death for all by his one act of
disobedience; in this he is a type though by con-
trast in result of Christ, who by His one act of obe-
dience is the conqueror of sin and death. In I Co
1545 Paul seems to go from the influence exerted
historically to nature, i.e., to the relation in which
they stand to humanity; Adam the first sensuous,

Adam
Adullam

A STANDARD HI BMC DICTIONARY

earthly man, Christ the second ami last, the spiritual
and heavenly man.

II. The name of a city in the Jordan valley, near
the mouth of the Jabbok, where the waters were
dammed up when Joshua led Israel into Canaan
(Jos 3 16). Map III, II 4. C. S. T.

ADAM, THE BOOKS OF: This general title is
given to a number of apocryphal and apocalyptic
productions (by Christian hands working on Jewish
originals), embodying semireligious romances in
which Adam and Eve figured as the chief characters
and the story of Gn 3 is supplemented and embel-
lished by legendary or mythical accretions. The
books are: 1. The Narrative and Citizenship of
Adam and Eve (ed. Tischendorf, 1867; also in a
Latin form, Vita Ad<e et Krcr); 2. The Mandaite
Sacred Book of Adam; 3. The Ethiopic Book of
Adam ; 4. The Syriac Treasure Care oj Adam (basei 1
upon the preceding); 6. The Syrian Testamentum
Adami (cf. Hort, in DCB). A. C. Z.

AD AMAH, ad'a-mci (<~^-,X., 'adhamah): A city
of Naphtali (Jos 19 36). The identification, Map
IV, G 7, is uncertain. E. E. N.

ADAMANT. See STONES, PRECIOUS, 3.

ADAMI-NEKEB, ad"n-mni-nek'eb Pi?|n "Xn^

'atlhanu ha-neqebh): A town on the NW. border of
Xaphtali (Jos 19 33). Its site is uncertain.

E. E. N.

ADAR. See TIME, 3, and ADDAR II.

ADBEEL, ad'l>e-el (Vsp-tf, 'adhb-'fl): A 'son' of
Ishmael (Gn 25 13; I Ch 1 29). An Arabian tribe
Idiba'U near Egypt is mentioned in the Assyrian
inscriptions. E. E. N.

ADDAN, ad'dan Q~N, 'addan): The Babylonian
home of cert ain exiles who were unable to prove their
genealogy (Ezr 2 59). Called Addon in Neh 7 61 ff.
Site unknown. E. E. N.

ADDAR, ad'dar (1~8, 'nddar): I. Ancestor of a
Benjamiteelan (ICh83). Cf. Ard in Gn 46 21; Nu
26 40. II. A town on- the S. border of Judah, site
unknown (Jos 15 3). In Nu 34 4 it is combined with
He/ron into Hazar-Addar. E. E. N.

ADDER. See PALESTINE, 26.

ADDI, ad'dui ('AfiSfi') : An ancestor of Christ (Lk
3 28). E. E. N.

ADDON. See ADDAN.
ADER. Sec EDKH.

ADIEL, e'di-el (V ,}.;, 'ddhi 'cl): 1. A Simeonite
chieftain (I Ch 4 36-40). 2. A priest (I Ch 9 12).
3. Father of Azmaveth (I Ch 27 25). E. E. N.

ADIN, i"'din (]"? , 'iiilliln ): The ancestral head
of a large post-exilic family (Ezr 2 15, 8 6; Neh 7 20,

10 16). K. K. N.

ADINA, a-dni'nn (K;'-};, &lhi,m). 'delightful':
A Reubenite chief tain in David's army (I Ch 11 42).

E. E. N.

ADINO, Q-dai'no ('J"'?., 'adhinii): IIS 23 8 reads
"Adino the Eznite" as a second name of David's
mightiest hero. I Ch 11 11 more correctly omits the
name altogether. E. E. N.

ADITHAIM, ad"i-the'im (C:?"i? : , 'wlhithuyim):
A city of Judah in the Shephelah (Jos 1536).
Site unknown. E. E. N.

ADJURE. Sec OATH.

ADLAI, ad'le-di ("H?, 'adhlay): Father of Sha-
phat (I Ch 27 29). E. E. N.

ADMAH, ad'mu (~'i~8, 'ndhmdh): One of the
cities near the Dead Sea that rebelled against
Chedorlaomer (Gn 1019, 142,8). It was destroyed
with Zeboim, Sodom and Gomorrah (Dt 29 22; Ifos
11 8). E. E. N.

ADMATHA. See PHINCES, THE SEVEN.

ADNA, ad'na (SJ~?, 'adhna'), 'pleasure': 1.
( )ne of the " sons of Pahath-moab " (Ezr 10 30).
2. A priest (Neh 12 15). E. E. N.

ADNAH, ad'na (HJ-;?, 'adhnah): 1. A Manas-
site who deserted Saul for David (I Ch 12 20).
2. A captain under Jehoshaphat (II Ch 17 14).

E. E. N.

ADONIBEZEK, a-do"nai-bi'zek (pJ?JT4|, 'adhd-
nlbezeq), 'lord of Bezek': A Canaanite king de-
feated by Judah and Simeon at Bezek. He escaped,
but was pursued, captured, and mutilated. He
died afterward in Jerusalem (Jg 1 5-7).

A. C. Z.

ADONIJAH, ad"o-nai'ja (JV^S, 'Mhomyah),
'my Lord is J"': 1. The fourth son of David. His
mot her was Haggith. Near the close of David's reign
he assumed royal state, hoping to become his father's
successor. Joab and Abiathar were his active sup-
porters. He made a feast at the Stone of Zoheleth,
near Jerusalem, and invited all the king's sons and
nobility, except Solomon and his partizans, Be-
naiah, Zadok, and Nathan. Here he disclosed his
plot for seizing the throne. At this crit ical juncture
Nathan advised Bath-sheba to remind David of his
promise to appoint Solomon as his successor. David
acted with characteristic energy, commanding Solo-
mon to ride on his own mule to Gihon, there to be
anointed by Zadok and proclaimed king under the
protection of the body-guard. A. and his guests
heard the acclamations of the populace, and Jona-
than, the son of Abiathar, informed them of
the coronation. A. took refuge at the altar, but
Solomon graciously pardoned him. Later, he
preferred a request to Solomon through Bath-sheba
for Abishag, David's concubine. As the harem of a
king belonged to his successor, Solomon rightly con-

A STANDARD H1BI.K DK"I '!< i.\ AKY

Adam

Adullum

sidered this an act of (reason, and hail him put to
death (I K 1 ami 2). 2. A Levite(IICh 17 8). 3.
Ancestral head of a family of Levites (Neh 10 16)
called Adonikam (q.v.) in Ezr 2 13, etc.

J. A. K.

ADONIKAM, ad"o-nui'kam (C^'S,
qam), 'the Lord is risen up': Ancestor of a large
post^exilic family (Ezr 2 13, 8 13; Neh 7 is). Called
Adonijah in Neh 10 10. E. E. N.

ADONIRAM, ad"o-nai'ram (2 V J1 J?, 'idhonlram ),
'the Lord is high' (called also Adoram and
Hadoram) : Overseer of the men forced to work on
public works under David and Solomon (II S 20 24;
I K 4 i), 5 H). He was stoned to death in N. Israel
(1 K 12 is; II Ch 10 18). E. E. N.

ADONIZEDEK, a-do"nai - zi'dek (pjV^i?,
'idhOnl tsedheq), 'lord of righteousness': King
of Jerusalem when Joshua conquered Ai; he
entered into a league with four other Canaanite
kings to fight against the inhabitants of Gibeon,
which had made peace with Israel. He was de-
feated and put to death by hanging (Jos 10 1, 3).
Perhaps the same as Adoni-bezek (Jg 1 5).

C. S. T.

ADOPTION (vlodfa-ia): A legal term appropri-
ated by theology. Its Biblical usage is limited to the
Pauline epistles (Ro 8 15, 23, 9 4; Gal 4 5; Eph 1 5).
Here it signifies the act by which the privileges of a
child of God are conferred upon the believer in Jesus
Christ. In the Roman judicial system a place was
made for a formal act of adoption. In Israelite his-
tory cases of adoption also occur. Esther was adopt-
ed by Mordecai (Est 2 7, cf. also the cases of Moses,
Ex 2 9, and of Genubath, I K 1 1 20). But no formal
act is mentioned. According to the Roman law, on
the other hand, the person to be adopted was pub-
licly sold to the prospective parent before wit-
nesses, and thenceforth became a member of the
latter's family, exactly as if he had been born into it.

The Apostle's use of the Roman legal term raises
the question whether he meant to ascribe real sig-
nificance to the act of adoption and assert that in
the dispensation of redemption there is something
corresponding to it. If not, he had in mind the
great change for the better in one who has entered
the Christian life, with a special regard to the privi-
leges thus secured him. If the act is the important
thing in the Apostle's mind, adoption is a separate
and distinct stage of redemption. If the privileges
it brings are the emphatic element, then adoption
is merely another name for regeneration, and tin-
Roman legal formula is chosen to express it because
it does vividly bring before the mind these privileges.
Of these alternatives, the latter is much more prob-
able. A. C. Z.

ADORAIM, ad"o-re'im (C^'lN', 'folhorayim):
A city of Judah fortified by Rehoboam, about 6 m.
W. of Hebron (II Ch 119). Map II, E 2.

E. E. N.

ADORAM. See ADONIRAM.

ADRAMMELECH, -dram'el-.-<: ('*--$, 'n>lh-
rammelekh): 1. One of the gods of Sepharvaiiu
(II K 17 31), or Sippar in Assyria, possibly Adar
(Adrammelech-Adar-King) ; but a god Adar is un-
known in the Assyrian pantheon. 2. One of the
two sons of Sennacherib, who murdered their father
on his return from the unsuccessful campaign
against Jerusalem (Is 3738; II K 1927; in the
latter passage, however, the word "son" does not
occur). A. C. Z.

ADRAMYTTIUM, ad"ra-mit'ti-um ('A>8papvr-
TIOV): A city of Mysia formerly situated on the sea,
but now six miles inland from the Adramyttian gulf,
surrounded by olive groves and vineyards, which,
with timber from Mt. Ida, make it prosperous. It
was founded by Adramys, son of Alyattes and
brother of Crcesus. Later, it was colonized by
Athens and under the Romans was a metropolis and
the seat of a conventus iuridicus (see ASIA MINOR,
10). It was in " a ship of Adramyttium " that
Paul sailed from Caesarea to Myra on his voyage
to Rome (Ac 27 2-5). J. R. S. S.

ADRIA, a'dri-u (Ac 2727), Gr. 'A.8pias, Lat.
Hadria, Hadriaticum mare: The name may have
been derived from the town of Adria, or Atria, near
the mouth of the Po, and was ordinarily applied to
the gulf between Italy and Illyria. But geogra-
phers contemporary with the N T extended it to in-
clude not only the Ionian Gulf but the sea bounded
by Epirus, Achaia, and Crete on the E., and Sicily
with the southern coast of Italy on the W. and NW.
Strabo, e.g. ( 123), says that the older name was
used for "part of what is now called Adrias," under
which he includes the Ionian Gulf and the Sicilian
Sea. Ptolemy distinguishes the Adriatic Sea from
the Adriatic Gulf, and Pausanias applies the name
to the sea between Sicily, Malta, and Crete. Luke
conforms to this later usage possibly, as Ramsay
suggests, following the sailor's nomenclature in
using the term "the Adria" for the sea in which
Paul's company drifted about for fourteen days,
generally in a southerly and southeasterly direction,
from Crete until they reached Melita. An opinion
that Paul was wrecked on a little island Afeleda in
the Adriatic on the Dalmatian coast is baseless.

R. A. F.

ADRIEL, e'dri-el (^"H?, 'adhri'el): A Meho-
lathite who married Saul's daughter Merab, already
promised to David (I S 18 19). His five sons were
given up to the Gibeonites (II S 21 8 [Michal here
by mistake for Merab]). E. E. N.

ADULLAM, a-dul'am (2H?., 'ddhullam): The
earliest notice concerning Adullam (Gn 38) is to the
effect that in early times clans or families of Judah
consolidated with Canaanitish clans (Adullamites)
near Adullam. The statement in Jos 12 15 that the
city and its king were conquered by Joshua is late
and conflicts with the earlier accounts of the con-
quest. From the notices in Jos 15 35; Mic 1 15; Neh
11 30, its general location is made certain (Map II, E
2). David frequently used its stronghold or citadel
as his headquarters (I S 22 l; II S 23 13, where the

Adultery
Agriculture

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTION A I; V

true reading is ' stronghold/ not " cave "; cf. ver. 14
and 517). Rehoboam strengthened its fortifica-
tions (II Ch 11 7) It was reoccupied by Jews
e:irly in post exilic times (Neh 1130). (See Ci. A.
Smith, HGIIL, p. 229.) E. E. N.

ADULTERY. See MARRIAOB AND DIVORCE,
10.

ADUMMIM, a-dum'im, THE ASCENT OF

(2"?~!. ~"i]", ma'aleh 'faihummim, thus named,
perhaps, on account of the red-colored stone in the
pass): It lay on the road most traveled between
Jerusalem and Jericho, and on the boundary-line be-
tween Judah and Benjamin (Jos 157, 18 17). On a
height NE. of the pass was the Chastel Rouge of the
Crusaders. Map II, G 1. C. S. T.

ADVERSARY: In the OT the term most
often used to designate opponent in general (tsar);
but in I S 1 6 this signifies the rival wife. In Nu 22
22; I S 29 4; II S 19 22; I K 5 4, 11 14, 23, 25, it is the
translation of the noun, and in Ps 71 13, 109 20, 29, of
the verb from the root ^JC ('satan'), meaning to
'accuse' or 'oppose.' In Job 335 it means an op-
ponent in a case at law. In the N T it often desig-
nates the general idea of opponent, but in Mt 5 25;
Lk 12 58, 18 3; I P 5 8, that of legal opponent.

C. S. T.

ADVOCATE (rrapaic\T)Tos), i.e., 'pleader' or ' in-
tercessor,' applied to Jesus only in I Jn 2 l. See
HOLY SPIRIT. E. E. N.

jENEAS, i-ne'as (AiVe'ay, Eneas AV): A para-
lytic healed by Peter (Ac 9 33-34). E. E. N.

, i'nen (AiVow, ' springs ' ) : A place near
Salim (Jn 3 23). Neither site is certainly identified.
According to Eusebius and Jerome (Onom. 245, 91;
134, 25) JEnon. was eight Roman miles S. of Beth-
shean (Scythopolis). But Conder's identification
(Tent Work*, p. 57 f.) of the " much water" (Jn
3 23) with the springs between Salim (Map III, F 3)
and 'Ainun (Map III, G 3) is more probable.

J. M. T.

AGABUS, agVbus ("Ayo,3os) : A Christian prophet
(Ac 11 27 f.) who came down to Antioch and pre-
dicted "a great famine over all the world" (proba-
bly the famine in the reign of Claudius c. 46-48 A.D. ).
In the diary source Ac 21 10 f. A. appears in Cffisarea
and predicts Paul's arrest and deliverance to the
Gentiles (see CHURCH LIFE AND ORGANIZATION,
5). J. M. T.

AGAG, e'gag (JJR, 'dgag): King of an Amalekite
tribe. Samuel commissioned Saul utterly to ex-
terminate the tribe with their king, because of past
hostility to Israel, thus put ting Agag under the ban
(herein). See CUKSE, 2. But Saul saved the
king and also much booty. Samuel, highly dis-
pleased at this disobedience, carried out the Divine
commission by hewing Agag to pieces (I S 15).
In Nu 24 7 read Og or Gog for Agag. J. A. K.

AGAR. Sec HAOAU.

AGATE. SceSTuNKs, I'KKCIOUS, 2.

AGE, AGES. See ESCHATOLOGY, 27, 45, and
APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE, 1 (6).

AGEE, e'gi (X;$, 'age'): A Hararite, father of
Shammah (II S 23 ll). E. E. N.

AGRICULTURE: There can be no doubt that
the Israelites first learned agriculture in Palestine.

According to the patriarchal legends

I. Israelites their ancestors were essentially no-

Originally madic, and became agriculturists

not Agri- only incidentally, as in the course of

culturists. their wanderings they came upon land

adapted to farming purposes (Gn 26
12, 37 7; cf. 30 14). Gn 4 20, with its peculiar appre-
ciation of the nomadic life, is not the only thing
which reminds us of the fact that the Israelites were
once nomads; the Rechabites also, who tried to re-
tain artificially the old conditions which had long
since disappeared, bear witness to the fact that the
nomadic life was for them the genuine Israelitre life
(Jer 35 7).

The nomadic situation, however, changed after
Israel had settled in the W. Jordan country. Here

the conditions demanded that they

2, Transi- take up a settled life the chief employ-

tion to ment of which was farming an art

Agriculture they learned from the Canaanites ; for

After the Canaan had been a well-cultivated

Conquest, country long before Israel settled there.

The lowlands especially had from very
ancient times been tilled, though the cultivation of
the hillsides was also old, in spite of the fact that
the house of Joseph are bidden to clear the hill-
tops of their forests (Jos 17 15-18). The importance
which agriculture had for Israel from the very be-
ginning of its settlement in Canaan is seen not only
in the close connection in which agriculture and re-
ligion stood in the earliest times, but also in the fact
that it is the background for all the legislation of
Israel even the oldest. After the tribe had by
conquest secured a place of habitation for itself,
every family probably received a certain piece of
land, which was marked off definitely, generally by
stones, the removal of which was subjected to curse
(Hos 5 10; Dt 19 14, 27 17; Pr 22 28). The land was
measured according to "acres," literally 'yokes,'
tsemer: i.e., the unit of measurement was as much
ground as one yoke of oxen could plow in a day
(I S 14 14; Is 5 10), as it is to-day with the feUtiliiii,
whose measure is the jcddan (i.e., literally, 'yoke of
oxen'). According to Lev 27 16, land was also ap-
praised at times by the quantity of seed used in
sowing (cf. I K 18 32).

In Dt 1 1 10 f., as an especial advantage over against
Egypt, the point is emphasized that Israel is not com-

pelled to irrigate the land, but that
3. The Soil. Jehovah pours out upon it rain and

dew; as in other ways the brooks,
springs, and lakes Were esteemed for their importance
with reference to fertility (Dt 8 7). There must

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Adultery
Agriculture

have been, therefore, in early times, as to-day, very
little irrigated land.

Thorough manuring of the soil was unknown. In
II K 9 37; Jer 9 22, 16 4, reference is made merely to
the excrement of animals, especially of the oxen
and asses used in plowing, which lay upon the fields;
and such passages as Dt 23 13 f.; I K 14 10; cf. Ex 29

the earlier days except with the greatest hardship
to the people but each field had its own definite
fallowing year, as was formerly the custom in Ger-
many.

In the tilling of the soil it was necessary to wait
till autumn, when the early rains, mdreh termed
early because the old civil year began in autumn

i*?-" '*.-, Vi : -"^ nll u*'jt^. . ''"*""' ^W.rA^^Ir.'.UVi.Or-VV*'^'-*"*^

f/& %&.- ' ft* < ",^ '": '-? f'^* ~f ..fm..~S i!nv-/A*lh.'iW ; 'lt 1 WfeS

A SYRIAN PEASANT PLOWING.

14, show the practise of thorough fertilization to have
been most unlikely. Moreover, manure was dried
and often used as fuel (Ezk 4 15). This custom is
still prevalent among the Jellahln of Palestine (cf.
ZDPV, IX, 29). Instead of manure the people
employed for fertilization straw and stubble, which
like thorns and thistles were burned (cf. Ex 15 7; Is
5 24, 47 14). Of significance for the fertility of the
land is the regulation in Ex 23 10 f. that farms, vine-
yards, and olive orchards were to lie fallow in the
seventh year. This hardly indicates that there was
a fixed fallowing year for the whole country a re-
quirement which could not have been carried out in

softened the ground which had grown dry and hard
as stone in the summer sun. As the soil to-day
in certain localities is worked with the mattock

(q.v.), so it was perhaps, here and
4. Tillage, there, in early times (I S 13 20; Is 7 25) ;

but the ordinary way was to use the
plow (q.v.); and very likely the practise then, as
now in Judfea, was not to plow till after the sowing.
The sower scatters the seed rather thinly over the
fields, and it is then through the plowing turned
under and covered to a depth of about three to four
inches. Furrows (Job 39 10; Ps 65 10; I S 14 14)
can not be understood of a deep trench as in Western

Agriculture

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

agriculture. Tin- plow does not do much more than
break up the surface of the ground; so that it is not
sufficiently freed of weeds. For example, in the
fertile plain of Philistia there are weed-roots as thick
as one's finger, spreading out a yard or more in all
directions, and at a depth that can not be reached by
the plow. The ox was generally used to draw the
plow, the ass also being probably used on lighter

i Is US j.l) a l>\ with open front is used to-day in

Palestine (ZDl'V, IX, 38).

It is likely that the difference between winter and

Hummer seeds was recognized, as it is to-day. The
former consist of wheat and barley, the

5. Seeding, latter of millet, sesame, melons, cu-
cumbers, etc. Seeding could not be

begun until the early rains had set in, which come

^^~ -__r, .. *V^*^T V -' -"Vs^C-

THRESHING-FLOOR.

soil. The prohibition in Dt 22 10 leads to the con-
clusion that at one time both were yoked together.
A single plowing did not suffice for fallow land. Upon
the first plowing in winter there followed a second
in the spring, and a third in summer: indeed, the
careful farmer plowed in the late summer a fourth
time; cf. \Vetzstein in Delitzsch's Isaiah 2 , 389 f.
Whether harrowing was known in early times is a
question. Perhaps the word which is generally so
translated ("-') means rather a sort of plowing
(cf. IIos 10 11; Is 28 24). For leveling off the fields

toward the end of October, at first intermittently
and generally at night. Barley was sown first, fol-
lowed by the wheat. Seed was usually sown with
the hand (Mt 13 3-8); the more valuable varieties,
such as barley, wheat, and spelt, were at times laid
in the furrow by a sower who followed behind the
plowman, as is still done to-day, and then plowed
in, to protect them from the large ants of which
there are great numbers in Syria and Palestine,
and which are fond of carrying off the grain into
their holes (ZDPV, IX, 30, note). It was per-

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Agriculture

Imps also clone to keep the seed from drying up,
since a period of from four to five weeks of dry-
ness sometimes elapses after the sowing (ZDPV,
IX, 29 f.)-
The summer grain was sown at the end of January

Jl 1 4), and at times by hail (Ps 7847; Hag 2 17).
If the harvest-time were near, those crops which were
especially valuable were protected by watchmen (Jer
4 17); but it was permitted one who was hungry to
pick ears in passing by (cf. Dt 23 25; Mt 12 1). [On

THRESHING WITH A SLEDGE, OR Morag.

and in February. The later rain, malqiish, which
falls in March and at the beginning of April, was of
great importance for the ripening of the grain. If it
failed, or if it came too late, or if it was too scanty, the
grain did not mature properly. Another enemy of

the subject of this general paragraph see PALES-
TINE, 16-23.]

The harvest, qatsir, began in April with the cutting
of the barley, at which time lentils and fitches were
also ripe. Two or three weeks later followed the

THRESHING WITH A WAGON, OR Agalsh.

agriculture was the hot east or southeast wind (qad-
hlm , Arab, chamsin), which scorched, shiddaphon, the
ears (Gn 41 6; Dt 28 22), so that they turned yellow,
yf-raqon (Am 4 9; IKS 37). The crops were fre-
quently destroyed by grasshoppers also (Am 7 2;

harvest of wheat and spelt; but of course the har-
vest-time varied according to the climatic condi-
tions of each region. In the hot lowlands about
Jericho the barley harvest began near the first of
April; on the coast it was eight and in the moun-

Agriculture

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

tains fourteen days later. The grain harvest gen-
rrally lasted about seven weeks, from Passover to
Pentecost. The grain was reaped
6. Har- with the sickle, hcrmesh, mugyiil, as is
vesting, still done (Dt 16 9). The reaper, qotaer,
grasped a number of stalks with one
hand (Is 17 5; Ps 129 7) and with the other cut them
off some distance from the ground. The grain that
had been cut remained lying in swaths, 'Amir, behind
the reaper, and was bound by the sheave-binder,
mt'offfph (Jer 9 22) into sheaves, 'tilummoh (Gn 37 7),
'Smer (Lv 23 10, etc.; Gn 37 7), which were gathered
into shocks, gadhlsh (Ex 22 6). In Lv 19 9, 23 22,
every one is forbidden, in the interests of the poor,
to harvest his field to its limits. The laborers re-
fresh themselves, while harvesting, with roasted ker-
nels of grain, qoli, and bread dipped in a sour drink,
hornets (Ru 2 14).

The grain was generally threshed, dush (I Ch 21 20) ,
or habhat (Jg6 11), in the open air, however, which
was possible inasmuch as the harvest-
7. Thresh- time is free from rain (IS12ieff.).
ing and During threshing-time the harvest men
Storing, spent the night, as is still the custom,
upon the threshing-floor, in order to
guard it (Ru 3 6; Robinson, Pal. II, p. 720). The
threshing-floors, goren, were either permanent loca-
tions on mountains or hills or else placed, if possible,
upon a somewhat elevated spot. There were differ-
ent modes of threshing: cattle were driven over the
sheaves, which were piled knee-deep in layers upon
the floor, until they had trodden out the kernels of
grain with their hoofs and reduced the straw to
chaff, in which operation the ox was not to be muz-
zled (Dt 25 4; cf. I Co 9 9; I Ti 5 18); or the thresh-
ing-sledge, morag, morag hariits, or haruts (rpifio\ov,
tribulum of the ancients), was used (Am 1 3; Is 28 27;
II S 24 22). This
sledge was made
very likely, as to-
day, of wooden
planks joined to-
gether, in the un-
der side of which
were set stones
or knives (now
called naurag, cf.
ZDPV, IX, 41).
In addition there
was the thresh-
ing-wagon, 'aga-
lah, "cart wheel"
(Is 28271.), which
consisted of sev-
eral rollers run-
ning parallel, each
of which was pro-
vided with three or four iron disks, so arranged that
the disks of one roller extended into the spaces left
by the others (cf. ZDPV, IX, 44). After threshing,
the chaff, mdts, was separated from the kernels of
grain, bar, by winnowing, zarah, i.e., by throwing
the chaff and grain into the air, with a fork, mizreh
(Is 30 24), sometimes furnished with two but gen-
erally with several curved prongs. This was done
toward evening and at night (Ru 3 2) ; for the sea

wind blows from four o'clock in the afternoon till
half an hour before sunset, and carries away the
light chaff. The kernels were then sifted (Am
9 8), and thrown together into larger heaps by
means of the winnowing-shovel, rahath (Is 30 24).
In the earlier period there were no barns, strictly
speaking; the stores of grain were stowed away
in pits resembling cisterns, which were carefully

A M

A Threshing-Sledge, Showing Under Side.

Forks and Shovel Used in Winnowing.

covered up, as is still done at the present time in
Palestine (Jer 41 8). In later times storehouses
seem to have been in use (II Ch 32 28;
8. Variety Pr 3 10; Jer 50 26; Jl 1 17).
of Yield. The yield varies greatly. On soil
which has been fertilized, and which
is advantageously located, under favorable con-
ditions wheat may yield thirtyfold and barley a
hundredfold (cf. Mt 13 8). On unfertilized land, in

the plain of Es-
draelon, wheat
does not yield at
the most more
than tenfold and,
on the average,
seven to eight-
fold ; barley at
most not more
than tenfold
and, on the aver-
age, sixfold. In
the mountains
of Judah wheat
yields twofold,
barley threefold.
See further FOOD
and VINES AND
VINTAGE.
LITERATURE : Cf.

Anderlind, Ackerbau und Viehsucht in Syrien und
besonders in PalHstina, in ZDPV, IX. 1 ft. : Hermann
VoKelstein, Die Landwirtschajt in Palastina zur Zeit
der Mishnah, I Getreidebau C1894). -yy_ jf .

AGRIPPA, a-grip'a. See HEROD, 8.

AGUR, e'gar ("'.'Is', 'ai/ur): The reputed author of
the whole or part of Pr 30. Nothing is known of his
personality, but the similarity of Pr 30 1-6 to parts of

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Agriculture

Job favors the conjecture that ham-mas-sa' ("the
oracle," ver. 1) is the name of a region S. of Judah.
Its unique literary character makes it reasonable to
attribute the entire chapter to Agur. A. S. C.

AH, Q, AHI, d'hai (njj, *0, 'dh, '&hi), 'brother'
or 'my brother': In compound personal names Ah
or Ahi may refer (1 ) to the deity as 'brother,' or (2)
to the common human relationship. Names of class
(1) are very common, e.g., Ahijah, 'Jah (Jehovah) is
brother.' Examples of (2) are much more rare and
of more obscure meaning, e.g., Ahab ( = 'father's
brother'?). See ABI. E. E. N.

AHAB, e'hab (2808, 'ah'abh), 'father's brother':
1. The second king of the Omri dynasty and early
Israel's most conspicuous and potent ruler. Two
alliances give special interest to his reign: his own
marriage to the Phrenician princess Jezebel, and
that of their daughter Athaliah to Jehoram of Ju-
dah. Through the former he gained the support
of the richest trading people of antiquity, and by the
latter the old schism of the Hebrew people seemed
in the way of being healed. Though this hope was
doomed to disappointment, Israel and Judah were
joined by close bonds for over a century.

But the Phoenician alliance brought with it the
cult of the Tyrian Baal, an importation distasteful
to people and prophets. The local Baalim had been
regarded as legitimate, and doubtless even identified
with Jehovah, hence the people resented the intru-
sion of the strange god, whose centralized worship
threatened the existence of the local shrines. The
names of Ahab's children Ahaziah, Jehoram, Atha-
liah indicate indeed the strength of the J" religion,
but the growing syncretism aroused the prophets to
outline a purer and loftier idea of J", which domi-
nated prophetic thought from that time forth.

The gross disregard of personal rights shown in the
seizure of Naboth's vineyard (I K 21) was undoubt-
edly a potent element in the downfall of the dynasty,
while it enabled the prophets to grasp and present
the great principles of ethical monotheism.

Two important synchronisms meet us in this
period: (1) The Moabite Stone, lines 6 and 7, re-
fers to Ahab, and suggests that even in his reign
Moab began struggles for independence, which
culminated under Jehoram (see MESHA). (2)
Ahal) ascended the throne as the vassal of Da-
mascus (I K 20 4), but at the battle of Aphek he
threw off the yoke and a three years' peace fol-
lowed (I K 22 1). In this period we should prob-
ably place the invasion of Shalmaneser II., who
records that A-ha-ab-ba of Sir- a-la-ai (Israel) ap-
peared with 2,000 chariots and 10,000 soldiers at
Karkar, 854 B.C., and together with the allied Syr-
ian kings suffered a crushing defeat. The battle
must have been indecisive, however, for it was not
followed up, and Ahab's military establishment
gave him confidence to seek to wrest Ramoth-gilead
from Damascus, in which enterprise he perished (I K
22). Assuming that the battle of Karkar took place
during the Peace of Aphek, Ahab's death occurred
probably in 853 B.C.

2. A prophet, denounced by Jeremiah (Jer 29 21 f .).

A. S. C.

AHARAH. See AHIHAM.

AHARHEL, a-hQr'hel (^rpriS., 'dhdrhel): The
ancestor of certain families of Judah (I Ch 4 8).

E. E. N.
AHASAI. See AHZAI.

AHASBAI, Q-has'bai C2COS, 'd/w?6ay): The
father of Eliphalet (II S 23 34; cf. I Ch 11 35).

E. E. N.

AHASUERUS, a-haz"yu-i'rus. See ESTHEU,
11.

AHAVA, Q-he'va (SiqK, 'dhawa'): A town or
district in Babylonia used to designate a river (or
canal); also the name of the river, on the banks of
which Ezra gathered the Jews preparatory to their
return to Jerusalem (Ezr 8 15, 21, 31). C. S. T.

AHAZ, e'haz (TnX, 'ahaz), 'He (i.e., J") has
seized': 1. Son of Jotham and king of Judah, c.
735-721 B.C. (or later). See CHRONOLOGY OP
OT.

Tiglath-pileserlll. (745-727) received tribute from
Ahaz (called Ja-u-ha-zi, i.e., Joahaz) in 734 B.C. (cf.
II K 16 7). In the same year he de-
i. The As- posed and slew Pekah and thus broke
Syrian up the Syro-Ephraimitic alliance (cf.
Record. II K 15 37, 16 5). In 732 B.C. Damas-
cus fell, Rezin was slain, and Tig-
lath-pileser held a great levee as "King of kings" in
the captured city, at which Ahaz was present (ac-
cording to II K 16 10).

At Damascus Ahaz saw a great altar and ordered

Urijah to construct one like it. W. R. Smith (Rel.

Sem.* p. 487) considers this a great

2. The permanent altar-hearth, whose ritual,
Record described at length in II K 16 13 ff., was

in II Kings thereafter dominant. Possibly Is 29

1 6. echoes the struggle about the new altar

ritual, for Ariel ('altar-hearth,' or

'hearth of God') was probably the technical name

for the old brazen pillar-altar such as was displaced

by Ahaz. The dark period of invasion led to human

sacrifice and much oppression and cruelty (cf. II Ch

283).

Some of the most striking sections of Isaiah be-
long to this period. Children and babes are their
rulers, he declares, in a fierce invective

3. The against the turbulence of the state (Is
Prophetic 3 4). The Syro-Ephraimitic invasion

Record, called forth the Immanuel prophecy (Is
7 1-9 7), a declaration that God's pur-
pose to be with His people was invincible, though
princes might falter and people be recalcitrant (see
IMMANUEL). Inch. 28, dating near the fall of Sama-
ria, the drunken, scoffing, faithless politicians are
probably those who favored the Assyrian alliance
when Pekah and Rezin were threatening Jerusalem
with dynastic overthrow (cf. also Is 7 6). Ahaz's
weak, short-sighted policy can be largely ac-
counted for by his youth and inability to cope
with the deep-seated corruptions of his predecessors'
regimes.

2. A descendant of Saul (I Ch 8 35 f., 9 42).

A. S. C.

Ahaziah
Akeldama

A STAND \l!l> BIBLE DICTION All V

AHAZIAH, c"hu-/m'(i (~"-?, 'ah
hath grasped': 1. King of Israel (855-854), son
of Ahab and Jezebel. His character was on a
level with that of his parents. He was a devotee
of Baul ami also followed in the sin of Jerol>oani.
During his reign Mo:\b rebelled, and probably be-
came independent. Mesha says: "But I saw my
pleasure u|x>n him, and on his house, and Israel
ix-rished with an everlasting destruction" (Mesha
inscription, 1. 7. See MKSIIA). Seriously injured
by falling through :i latticework, lie sent to Kk-
ron to inquire of Baal-y.ebub. Elijah met his mes-
sengers and bade them return with the predic-
tion of the king's death (cf. ELIJAH). He made
a commercial alliance with Jehoshaphat for the
purpose of sending ships to Tarshish. The vessels
were destroyed, and the enterprise c.ime to naught
(I K '2-2 51-53; II K 1 l-is; II Ch 20 35-37).

2. King of Judah (84:5-842), son of Jehoram of
Judah, and grandson of Ahab through his mother,
Athaliah. The Chronicler speaks of him as the
youngest son, :is the Arabians hat! slain all the oth-
ers (II Ch 22 l, called Azariah in ver. 6). As an
ally, he went to war with Jehoram against the
Syrians at Ramoth-gilead. At Jehoram's assassi-
nation by Jehu, he was severely wounded, but
made his escape toMegiddo, where he died (II K 8
25-29). J. A. K.

AHBAN, Q'ban (iJOtf, '<iW><7): A son of Abishur
by Abihail (I Ch 2 29). K. E. N.

AHER, e'her (-!j8, 'ahfr): A Benjamite (I Ch
7 12; text obscure). E. E. N.

AHI, e'hai CHS., 'dhl), contraction for Ahijah:

1. A Gadite (I Ch 5 15). 2. An Asherite (I Ch 7 34).

E. E. N.
AHIAH. See AHIJAH.

AHIAM, n-lmi'um (=^n, 'Shi' am), 'mother's
brother' (?): One of David's heroes (II S 23 33; I
Ch 1 1 35). E. E. N.

AHIAN, n-hni'an ()*n8, 'ahynn), 'cousin': A
Mamissite, son of Shemida (I Ch 7 19). Possibly
the name of a town. E. E. N.

AHIEZER,e"hai-i'zerCi.i"nS,'dW'ezer),' brother
is help': 1. A prince of Dan (Nu 1 12, 225, etc.).

2. A Benjamite, chieftain of a body of archers who
deserted Saul for David (I Ch 12 3). E. E. N.

AHIHUD, Q-hai'hnd pvrnx. an d in'OK, 'dhl-
htidh), 'the brother is praise': 1. A prince of
Asher (Nu34 27). 2. A name occurring in the gene-
alogy of Benjamin; text obscure (I Ch 8 7).

E. E. N.

AHIJAH, a-hai'ja (n;nS : , Wi7i/(-(/0, 'J" is
brother': 1. A prophet of Shiloh, who incited Jero-
boam to head the revolt of N. Israel against the
house of David (I K 11 26 ff.), but afterward con-
demned him for his disloyalty to J* and foretold
the ruin of his house (I K 14). The story of Ahi-
jah's dealings with Jeroboam in the LXX. varies
considerably from that of the Massoretic Hebrew

text reproduced in our Eng. version. 2. Sec A Hi ME-
I.KCII, i. 3. Father of King Baasha (I K 15 27).
4. A son of Shisha (I K 4 3, Ahiah AV). 6. A son of
Jerahineel (I Ch 2 25). 6. One who helped Gera to
carry away captives (IChS7, Ahiah AV). 7. A
IVlonite; one of David's valiant men (IChll36).
8. According to the Heb. text a Levite, caretaker
of the sanctuary treasures under David (I Ch 26
20), but, according to LXX., instead of "Ahijah,"
we should read "their brethren." 9. One of the
signers of the covenant (Neh 10 2(i). V.. E. N.

AHIKAM, a-lmi'kam (=^"8, 'alilqam), 'the
brother riseth up': One of the trusted courtiers of
Josiah delegated to consult Huldah (II K22l4ff.).
He was a friend and protector of Jeremiah (Jer 26 24
ff.). His son Gedaliah was governor after the fall
of Jerusalem (Jer 3!) 14). K. 10. N.

AHILUD, a-hai'lud C^'OK, '&lilludh),'a. brother
is born': 1. The father of David's recorder, Jehosha-
phat (II S 8 16, 20 24; I K 4 3; I Ch 18 15). 2. The
father of Baana, one of the victualers of Solomon's
household (I K 4 12). E. E. N.

AHIMAAZ, a-him'a-az (Y^'nS., 'dhlma'ats),
'my brother is wrath': 1. A son of Zadok, David's
priest. In David's flight from Jerusalem, A. and
Jonathan were sent back to act as spies and cou-
riers. A., with his companion, was despatched by
Hushai to warn David. Eluding their pursuers,
they reached David and delivered the message
which enabled the king to escape. After the battle
with Absalom, A. desired to bear the tidings to
David. At first Joab refused, and sent a Cushite.
A. finally secured permission, outran the Cushite,
and delivered his message first (II S 15, 17, 18).

2. The father of Saul's wife, Ahinoam (I S 14 50).

3. A prefect and son-in-law of Solomon (I K 4 is).

J. A. K.

AHIMAN, Q-hai'man (J2*~8, 'dhinuin), 'my
brother is a gift': 1. One of the three sons of Anak
at Hebron, offspring of the Nephilim, and of such
gigantic stature that they terrified the spies (Nu I, 1 !
22 f.). They were conquered by Caleb (Jg 1 10, 20;
Jos 15 13 ff.). Ahiman, Sheshai. and Talmai were
most probably clan names. There may be a myth-
ological touch in the reference to the Nephilim. 2.
A Levite porter "at the king's gate eastward," who
returned from Babylon (I Ch 9 17). J. A. K.

AHIMELECH, a-him'e-lec CS"~K., 'dhimelekh),
'the king is brother': 1. The head of the priesthood
at Nob slain by Saul for assisting David (I S 21, 22).
Descended from Eli through Ahitub (I S 22 9, cf.
14 3; I Ch 24 3). His son Abiathar was priest under
David (I S 22 20, etc.). In II S 8 17, I Ch 24 6 read
"Abiathar son of Ahimelech." In I Ch 18 16 read
" Ahimelech " for " Abimelech," in 24 3, 31, "Abi-
athar" for " Ahimelech." Ahijah in IS 14 3 is
probably to be identified with Ahimelech. 2. A
Hittite in David's service (I S 26 6). E. E. N.

AHIMOTH, a-hni'meth (.Tto'ntf, 'ihimoth): A son
of Elkanah, a Levite (I Ch 6 25). (In ver. 35 and
II Ch 29 12 called Mahath.) E. E. N.

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Ahaziah
Akeldama

AHINADAB, a-hin'a-clab (2~J*ns, 'AhlnOdhabh),
'brother is generous': A prefect under Solomon
(I K 4 14). E. E. N.

AHINOAM, a"hin'o-am (=?i'n, 'dhind'am),
'brother is pleasantness': 1. The wife of Saul (I S 14
50). 2. A woman of Jezreel (in Jiulah, of. Jos 15
5(i), wife of David and mother of Amnon, his eldest
son (I S 25 43, 27 3, 30 5; II S 2 2, 3 2). E. E. N.

AHIO, a-hm'o (">08, 'ahyo): 1. A son of Abinadab
(II S 63f.). 2. The head of a Benjamite family
(I ChS 14). 3. A Benjamite of Gibeon (ICh.831,
!I37). E. E. N.

AHIRA, a-hai'ra (i'V'S, 'ihlra')-- A prince of
Xaphtali (Nu 1 15, 2 29, etc.). E. E. N.

AHIRAM, a-hai'ram (O^nR, 'Ahlram), 'the
brother is liigh': Ancestral head of the Ahiramites, a
clan of Benjamin (Nu 26 38; Ehi in Gn 46 21 ; Aharah
in I Ch 8 l; also cf. Aher, I Ch 7 12). E. E. N.

AHISAMACH, a-his'a-mac ("^'OS, 'd/i7w-
tnflkh), 'brother sustains': A Danite, father of Oho-
liab (Ex 31 6, 35 34, 38 23). E. E. N.

AHISHAHAR, a-hish'u-har ("n^'HR, 'thisha-
linr), 'brother is dawn': The head of a Benjamite
family (I Ch 7 10). E. E. N.

AHISHAR, a-hcii'shar C^'nR, 'ihlshUr): The
overseer of Solomon's household (I K 4 6).

E. E. N.

AHITHOPHEL, a-hith'o-fel (Vs'n'nR, 'dhltho-
phri), 'brother of foolishness': Accounted the wisest
man in Israel (II S 16 23), a counselor of David, pos-
sibly the grandfather of Bath-sheba (II S 23 34, cf. 11
3). He was a co-conspirator with Absalom (II S 15 12,
etc.). but his advice being rejected he committed
suicide, for which his name has perhaps been
.stamped with the opprobrious epithet b'n, thophel.

A. S. C.

AHITUB, a-hai'tub P'JVIK, 'dhlfSbh), 'brother
is goodness' : 1. A priest, descended from Eli, and the
father of Ahimclech (I S 14 3, 22 9). 2. The father
of David's priest Zadok (II S 8 17; I Ch 6 8, 18 16;
K*r 7 2). 3. A priest descended from Zadok (I Ch
6llf.). 4. A priest, ruler of the Temple in post-
exilic days (I Ch 9 1 1 ; Neh 1 1 1 1 ). E. E. N.

AHLAB, u'lab (:;?8. 'rthiabh): A Canaanite
town in Asher. Site unknown (Jg 1 31).

E. E. N.

AHLAI, 5'lai rS-lg, '(May): 1. A child of She-
shan; perhaps a son (I Ch 2 31), or, possibly, a daugh-
ter (ver. 34). 2. The father of Zabad (I Ch 11 41).

E. E. N.

AHOAH, a-ho'a (n % ;n, 'dhoah): The head of
the Ahohites, a Benjamite family (I Ch 8 4) to which
Zalmon (II S 23 28, Ilai in I Ch 11 29) and Dodo (I Ch
11 12, 27 4) belonged. E. E. N.

AHOLAH, AHOLIAB, AHOLIBAH, AHOLI-

BAMAH. See OHOLAH, etc.

AHUMAI, u-hu'mai ("Sing, 'dhamay): The
head of a family of Judah (I Ch4 2). E. E. N.

AHUZZAM, a-hu'zam (w;H8, 'dhuzzSm, Ahuzam
AV), 'possession' (?): A son of Ashur (I Ch4e).

E. E. N.

AHUZZATH, a-huz'ath (H-Tl^, 'dhuzzath), 'pos-
session ' : The "friend" (i.e., 'adviser') of Abimelcch,
king of Gerar (Gn 26 26). E. E. N.

AHZAI, a'zui ("W, 'ahzny, Ahasai AV): A
priest (Neh 1113); possibly = JAHZERAH (ICh9 12).

E. E. N.

AI, ai (*?, 'ay, in Hebrew always with the article;
Jos 7 2 f.; Ezr 2 28; [LXX., Tat]): An ancient royal
city of the Canaanites. situated "beside Bethaven
on the E. side of Bethel'* (Jos 7 2; Gn 12 8), destroyed
by Joshua (Jos 8 28) ; best identified with certain ob-
scure ruins just S. of the modern Der Dlwan (Map
III.F5). Hai(Gnl28, 133,AV),Aija (Neh 11 31),
and Aiath (Is 10 28) are but variant forms of the
same name. The Ai of Jer 49 3 was probably an
unknown city E. of the Jordan. G. L. R.

AIAH, e'yfl O^S, 'ayyah), 'falcon': 1. An Edom-
ite tribe (Gn 36 24, Ajah AV). 2. The father of
Rizpah (II S3 7, 218, ll). E. E. N.

AIATH, e'yath, AIJA, e-ai'ja. See Ai.

AIJALON, ai'ja-len fl^S, 'ayyalon, Ajalon AV),
'hart': 1. A broad valley NW. of Jerusalem leading
down to the seacoast plain (Jos 10 12). Map III,
E 5. 2. A town in this valley (Jos 19 42, 21 24; Jg 1
35; I S 14 31; I Ch 669,8 13; II Ch 11 10, 28 18), men-
tioned in the Amarna letters as Ailuna. Now called
Yalo. Map III, E 5. 3. A town in Zebulun, site
unknown (Jg 12 12). E. E. N.

AIJELETH HASH-SHAHAR, ai-je'leth hash-
she'har. See Music, 6.

AIN, e'in (")>', 'ayiri), 'spring': 1. A place on
NE. border of Canaan, near Riblah (Nu 34 1 1). Rob-
inson identifies it with the sources of the Orontes
River. 2. A place in the Negeb of Judah (Jos 15
32), assigned to Simeon (Jos 19 7) and apparently the
same as the Levitical city (Jos 21 16). Should per-
haps be read with Rimmon (Jos 15 32) as one word.
See EN-RIMMON. C. S. T.

AKAN, e'kan. See JAAKAN.

AKELDAMA, a-kel'da-mfl (' A.K(\&ap.ax, Acel-
dama AV): The Greek transliterates an Aramaic
word meaning 'field of sleep' (cf. Kot/ii/r^piov, ceme-
tery), and is given as the name of a piece of land
which Judas purchased with the blood-money paid
him for the betrayal of Jesus and upon which he
committed suicide (Ac 1 19). In Mt 27 7 f., it is said
that the high priests and elders purchased the field
with the money returned by the remorse-stricken
Judas, and that the field was used for the burial of
strangers, and called "the field of blood." The
place is identified with the modern Hakk-ed-Dumm,
S. of the Pool of Siloam, on a level spot, half-way up
the hill. The RV reading is based upon the assump-

Akkub
Alexandria Troas

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

tion that tho Akclduinarh of the Greek text is a mis-
take for 'A<tfX8n/io, the transliteration of Xt-~ ".":,
' field of blood.' A. C. Z.

AKKUB, nk'kub Pi??, 'aqqubh) : 1. A de-
srriKlant of David (I Ch 3 24). 2. The head of a
post-exilic family (I Ch9 17 -Ezr2 42; perhaps -
Neh 7 4S, 11 19, 12 25). 3. The head of a post-exilic
family of Nethinim (Ezr 2 4i). 4. One of the Le-
vitos who helped to expound the law read by Ezra
to the people (Neh 8 7). C. S. T.

AKRABBIM, ak-rab'im (="V"K*. 'aqrabbim),
'scorpions': The 'Ascent of the Scorpions' which led
up from the region about the S. end of the Dead
Sea to the highland of S. Judah (Nu 34 4; Jos 15 3,
Maaleh-acrabbim AV). Map II, F 5.

E. E. N.

ALABASTER (origin of word unknown): Min-
eral carbonate of lime. A white stone much used in
antiquity to ornament buildings and for vases and
small bottles for holding precious ointment (Lk 7 37;
Mkl43-Mt267). E. E. N.

ALAMETH, al'a-meth. See ALEMETH, I, 2.
ALAMMELECH, a-lam'e-lec- See ALLAMELECH.
ALAMOTH, al'a-moth. See PSALMS, | 2.
ALARM. See WARFABE, 4.

ALCIMUS, al'si-mus ("AXm/ior, probably the
Greek form of Eliakim): A leader of the Hellenistic
party, and opponent of Judas Maccabeus, c. 162
B.C. (I Mac 7 5). He was appointed high priest by
Demetrius I. , and a Syrian army under Bacchides was
sent to Juda;a to put him in power and take venge-
ance on Judas. Because Alcimus was of the "seed
of Aaron" (I Mac 7 14) he was accepted largely by
the ASSIDEANS (q.v.), but a treacherous murder of
sixty of them in one day caused a deep revulsion of
feeling, and after Bacchides returned to Syria, Alci-
mus was unable to maintain himself as high priest
(I Mac 7 21) and appealed to Demetrius for aid.
Judas defeated the first army sent under Nicanor,
and Alcimus fled. But a second large Syrian force
(I Mac 9 l) vanquished Judas at Eleasa (161 B.C.).
Alcimus now came to full power and a determined
policy of Hellenizing the land was carried out.
While taking down the dividing wall in the Temple,
in order to blot out the distinction between Jew and
Gentile, he was stricken with paralysis and died,
B.C. 160. J. S. R.

ALEMETH, al'e-meth (n^p, 'aZemetft): I. 1. A
descendant of Jonathan (I Ch 836, 942). 2. A de-
scendant of Becher, the Benjamite (I Ch 7 8). II.
A town in Benjamin. See ALLEMETH.

E. E. N.

ALEXANDER, al"egz-an'dgr (Gr., 'defender of
men'): 1. Alexander the Great. Alexander III.,
called 'the Great,' was born at Pella (Macedonia)
in 356 B.C., and died in Babylon in 323 B.C. Brief
as was his career, it was one of the most brilliant of
ancient history, not simply because of the irresistible

power of his military genius, but also because of the
policy which he followed in reference to his con-
quests, of bringing to them the riches and stimulus
of Greek culture. With him Hellenism virtually
began. Our interest in him in this brief article is
concerned entirely with his contact with the Jews.

The battle of Issus (333 B.C. ), in which he defeated
Darius, made him master of Asia. Soon thereafter
he went to Syria. Damascus, Sidon, Tyre, and
Gaza fell, one after another, before his victorious
forces. According to Josephus (Ant. XI 8 3), it
was while besieging Tyre that he sent to the high
priest at Jerusalem demanding auxiliaries, supplies
of provisions, and allegiance. The high priest re-
fused, and Alexander determined, after capturing
Gaza, to go to Jerusalem. The city was, of course,
in terror, and the high priest urged the people to
prayer and sacrifice for their protection. A dream
from God assured him that the city would be pro-
tected and directed him how to meet the conqueror.
In solemn procession the priests and the people met
Alexander at Scopus, and the story goes that Alexan-
der adored the name of God on the breastplate of
the high priest. When asked why he did this, he an-
owered that in a dream at Dion in Macedonia he had
seen a figure corresponding to the high priest, who
promised him success, hence none other than the
God of the Jews had been with him. Entering Jeru-
salem, he offered sacrifice, and gave the Jews the
favors which they asked. The prophecy in Daniel
shown to him by the Jews (8 21, 11 3) he interpreted
as applying to himself. The probable fact under-
lying this highly embellished story is that Alexan-
der visited Jerusalem. Alexander made Palestine
a province of Coele-syria. The Samaritans, en-
couraged by the privileges granted by Alexander to
the Jews (viz., " that they enjoy the laws of their
forefathers, and pay no tribute on the seventh year "
Ant. XI 8 5), asked also for favors, professing that
they too were Jews. Alexander promised to let
them know his decision on his return from Egypt.
While he was away they revolted against the gov-
ernor whom he had placed over them in Samaria, and
were severely punished on his return (Curtius IV.
5, 8). Shechem later became the religious capital
of the Samaritans. Alexander was favorably dis-
posed toward the Jews, giving them large privileges
in Alexandria (q.v.) and many enrolled themselves in
his army. He is expressly mentioned in I Mac 1 7,
62.

2. Alexander Balas (be'las) figures in Jewish his-
tory in the time of Jonathan Maccabeus. He was
a man of obscure origin who palmed himself off as
the son of Antiochus Epiphanes and laid claim to the
Syrian throne occupied by Demetrius Soter. His
remarkable likeness to Antiochus V., son of Antio-
chus Epiphanes, led many to believe in him, and he
was supported in his pretensions by Ptolemy Philo-
pator of Egypt, Attalus II. of Pergamum, and Aria-
rathes V. of Cappadocia; also by the Romans (Polyb.
XXXIII. 14, 16). He secured the support of Jona-
than (153 B.C.), and gave him in return high honor,
conferring upon him the title of "the high priest of
thy nation, and friend of the king" (I Mac 10 20).
Balas proved, however, totally unfit for the high posi-
tion which he had gained and after varying for-

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Akkub
Alexandria Troas

tunes during five years (150-145 B.C.) fled to Arabia,
where he was slain (I Mac 11 17). The general atti-
tude of the Jews toward him is given in I Mac 10 47.

3. Alexander, the son of Simon of Cyrene and
brother of Rufus (Mk 15 21).

4. Alexander, one of the kindred of the high
priest (Ac 4 6). Nothing further regarding him is
known.

6. Alexander of Ephesus, who was " brought out
of the multitude " by the Jews, to make a defense
for them (Ac 19 33). The purpose of this was most
likely to save the Jews from being mixed up with the
Christians in the vengeance of the people. He may
or may not have been the same as Alexander the
coppersmith.

6. Alexander the coppersmith (^aXvt), of

the northeastern quarter, and were granted large
privileges. Indeed, in this Hellenistic center Juda-
ism and Greek culture came into very close contact.
Owing to lack of information it is impossible to trace
the development of the city, but under the early
Ptolemies it became a noted center of commerce,
learning, and civic splendor. Its famous museum
and library were promotive of research, and made
Alexandria foremost in science. It was here that
the first endeavors were made to adjust the OT
to Greek conceptions; it was here that the Septua-
gint translation of the OT was made; it was here
that the allegorical interpretation of the Scriptures
was developed all of these being due to the close
touch of Judaism and Hellenism. In the Roman
period Alexandria was second only to Rome in im-

ALEXANDRIA

from IOOB C.tolOO A.D.

i a n Sea

Great Harbor

Anti

, .. Eunostos
_ } H aTb o r

livens Stfa

SSonnc^aCBIi

a X e Mareoti

whom it is said in II Ti 4 14 that he did Paul "much
evil."

7. Alexander, an early Christian, "who made
shipwreck concerning the faith," and whom Paul
"delivered unto Satan " (I Ti 1 19 f.). Attempts have
been made to identify 6, 6, and 7, but identification
is simply a matter of conjecture. J. S. R.

ALEXANDRIA, al"egz-an'dri-a: An ancient city,
situated 14 m. W. of the Canopic mouth of the Nile,
founded by Alexander the Great 332 B.C. It lay
on a strip of land 2 m. wide, with Lake Mareotis on
its southern side, and the sea on the northern. Run-
ning out from the mainland to an island 1 m. dis-
tant (Pharos Island) was what was called the Hep-
tastadium, an artificial mole. On either side of this
were two spacious harbors. A canal joined Lake
Mareotis with the Canopic branch of the Nile. The
city, which was regularly and beautifully built,
was divided into five districts. The Jews occupied

portance. Alexandria is not mentioned in the N T.
Tradition tells us that Mark went to Egypt and es-
tablished churches in the famous capital.

J. S. R.

ALEXANDRIA TROAS, or simply TROAS,
tro'as (Tpo>ds), originally Sigia, on the W. coast of
the Troad. Antigonus enlarged Sigia, colonized it
with people from Scepsis and elsewhere, and re-
named it Antigonia Troas. It was further embel-
lished by Lysimachus (300 B.C.), who renamed it
Alexandria Troas. A. sided with Rome against
Antiochus, and was made a Roman colony (Colo-
nia Augusta Alexandria Troas). It became one
of the most important towns in Asia. Caesar
planned to make it the seat of government, as did
Constantino at first. It was further embellished by
Augustus, Hadrian, and Herodes Atticus, who built
an aqueduct and baths, the ruins of which are still
extant, as are those of a temple, gymnasium, and

Algum-Tree
Alphabet

\ SI \\D.\HI) BIBLE DICTIONARY

theater, wliile the outlines of the port with quay
ami colonnade of granite columns are still ilistinot.
Many marble columns from A. now adorn the Yeni
Validd mosque in Constantinople (built 1649-87).
A. was a Christian bishopric in Byzantine times.
For Paul's connection with this city see Acts 18
8-11, 20S-12; II Co 1! in; II Ti 4 13. J. R. S. S.

ALGUM-TREE: The almug-tree. See PAI.K.S-
TIXK, 21.

ALIAH, n-loi'fl (-','"". -'il'/'-'h): A 'duke." proln
ablyaclan.of Kdom (tChlil). Alvah in (Jn.Sii 4n.

E. E. X.

ALIAN, al'i-mi (^".y.'ulyan): A S<-iritecl:m (I Ch

I 40). Alvan in Gn 36 23. !'.. 10. N.
ALIEN. See STUANGER AND SOJOUKNEH.

ALLAMMELECH, al-lam'e-lee or nl"lnni-me'-
lec (T^rtf, '<ill,inielrkh, Alaminelech A\ ): A place
in Asher (Jos 19 26). See Map IV, B 7. E. E. N.

ALLEGORY: The description of one thing un-
der the forms of another. Essentially, an allegory
is an extended metaphor. In the original text of the
Bible the word does not occur as a subst ant i ve. The
verb derived from it is \ised in (!al 4 J4 and may mean
that the affair allegorized was intended as such, or
that the interpreter is at liberty to see in it a meaning
different from that on the surface. As the object of
the Apostle in the passage in question is practical and
homiletical rather than doctrinal and pedagogical,
it is probable that he used the word to designate the
process of appropriating to a specific use by allego-
rizing what was originally intended in a different
sense. The allegorical method of interpretation was
common in Alexandria among the followers of 1'hilo,
and without committing himself to its underlying
principles the Apostle could use it in illustrating
and enforcing Gospel truth by O T utterances.
Other instances of similar allegorizing by Paul are
the use of Dt 25 4 in I Co 1 9 referring to the muzzling
of the ox employed in threshing; of Nu 14 16, 23, 30
in I Co 10 4 referring to the rock, and of Ex 34 33, 35 in

II Co 3 13. More akin to the typological use are the
references in the Epistle to the Hebrews to O T pas-
sages regarding Melchizcdek and other matters. As a
class these may be called allegories read into the O T.

Allegories designed to be such at the start are kin-
dred to parables (q.v.) and metaphors. It is im-
possible to draw the line sharply between these
similar and allied figures of speech (cf. Trench on
Parables). Nathan's story to David (II S 12 1-14)
may be construed either as a parable or as an alle-
gory. The figures of the Vine (.In 1.5 1-8). of the
l'iread of Life (Jn 6 32-42), and other kindred nar-
ratives are more clearly allegories. A. C. Z.

ALLELUIA, .d'Vlu'ya. See HALLELUJAH.

ALLEMETH, al'e-meth (.~;h', 'nllcmelh, Ale-
meth AVI: A Ix'vitieal city in Benjamin (ICh660).
Called Almon in Jos 21 18. Map II, F 1. E. E. N.

ALLON, al'nn (pS, '//,-,), ' oi ,k': I. A prince
of the tribe of Simeon (ICh4:t7). II. A city in
Kadesh Naphtali (Jos 19 33 AV), translated 'oak'
in RV. C. S. T.

ALLON BACUTH, al"on bac'uth, 'alldn bakhuth,
'oak of weeping': A place near Beth-el where
Deborah, Rebekuh's nurse, was buried (Gn 35 8).

E. E. N.

ALMIGHTY. See Goo.

ALMODAD, al-mo'dad: See ETHNOGRAPHY AND
ETHNOLOGY.

ALMON, al'men: See ALLEMETH.

ALMON-DIBLATHAIM, al"men-dib"la-the'im
(""""^r" r^t*' ''"' 6 " dibhliithaycmahy. One of
Israel's encampments in Moab, between Dibon and
the mountains of Abarim (Nu 33 46). Beth-dibla-
thaim (Jer 48 22, and Mesha-stone, line 30) may be
the same place.

ALMOND, am'und ("!]?, shaqldh [from iptf, 'to
keep watch,' or 'to be alert'], so called from its
early blossoming, as though watching for the spring;
cf. the play on the name in Jer 111): The almond, a
native of \V. Asia, was well known in Palestine and
was a delicacy much esteemed in other countries,
such as Egypt, to which it was exported from S.
Palestine (Gn43ll). The almond blossom was
imitated in the making of the golden candlestick
(Ex 25 33 ff., 37 19 ff.), each of the bowls being shaped
like its calyx (so Dillmann). In EC 12 6 the words
"the almond-tree shall blossom" seem to be, on the
whole, the correct rendering. The white (really
pink-white) blossoms are made the symbol of the
white hair of the aged man. See also PALESTINE,
21; FOOD AND FOOD UTENSILS, 5. E. E. N.

ALMS, ALMSGIVING. In the EVV this is an
exclusively N T word, being found only in Mt, Lk,
and Ac. As an English word, the term is derived
from the Greek through the Latin (fhtTjiuxrvyi), de-
emosyne, Old Eng. aelmese, alines), and is a singular
noun with a plural appearance. The essential ele-
ment of its meaning is that of gratuity bestowed as
an expression of compassion as in the presence of
God. The feeling at the root of the conception is
one which finds much encouragement in the laws and
institutions of the O T (cf. the law on gleaning, Dt 24
19-22). There is, however, a twofold development of
the thought in the O T. While on the one side the
Mosaic legislation looks upon compassion toward the
needy as a feeling to be cherished by the Israelite
in his ideal conduct, the prophets on the other side
present the case in the light of a rendering to the
needy of rights which they might justly claim. Out
of the interaction of these two sides of the develop-
ment, there arose in the intertestamental age the
idea of righteousness secured through almsgiving.
Especially were charitable deeds thought to be effi-
cacious in annulling the guilt of sin (Sir 3 14-30, 16 14)
and securing divine favor in time of danger or dis-
tress (To 14 10, ll; Sir 29 12, 40 24). The treatment
of the subject by Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount
(Mt 6 1-4) is characteristic. He does not denounce
almsgiving as futile in the search for right standing
with God, but attempts to plant it upon the right
motive of love to the heavenly Father. A. C. Z.

ALMUG-TREE. See PALESTINE, 21.

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Alburn-Tree
Alphabet

ALOES, al'oz, LIGN ALOES: The rendering
of two Heb. words ni^nX., 'dhuluth (Ps 45 8; Song
414) and D'^nX., 'dhalim (Nu 24 6; Pr7l7) and of
the Gr. dXoj; (Jos 19 3'J). In all but one (Nu 24 6)
of these reff. a perfume (or fragrant wood) is meant,
and in none is the common bitter aloes intended.
The two Heb. words probably refer to the same thing,
viz., the 'eaglewood' of commerce, an aromatic

Clem. Alex.) it denotes Christ as the fountain and
consummation of all things, and is common in Chris-
tian art as a monogram for the eternal Divine Son.

R. A. F.

ALPHABET: The hieroglyphic signs of Egypt
and the cuneiform characters of Babylonia had been
used in writing for centuries before the alphabet was
invented. It is first found in use among North Sera-

ipn

nmp3 . ipn . 3ip3 . IK .
icx3 . -mpV . nm:sn . TTD . ?pxi I nrr33 . 13 . ex

LINES 24 AND 25 OF THE MESHA INSCRIPTION. (For translation see MESHA.)

wood native to SE. Asia and well known to ancient
traders. When burned it yields a fragrant odor.
Most scholars consider that the text of Nu 24 6 is
corrupt, for it does not seem likely that a tree
native to far-off India could be spoken of by Balaam
so familiarly (though Post, in HDB, contends that it
may once have flourished in the tropical Jordan
valley and thinks that Song 4 14 supports this view).
Dillmann would emend to 'palms,' Cheyne and
others to 'poplars.' E. E. N.

ALOTH, e'loth. See BEALOTH.

ALPHA AND OMEGA, al'fa, o-mi'ga (ro'AA^a
nai TO *Q) : The self-designation of Jehovah (Rev 1 8,
216) and of Christ (22 13, cf . 1 17), and evidently based
on such passages as Is 41 4, 44 6, 48 12; Ps 90 2. The

itic peoples, and although it may not have originated
with them, it was developed by a Semitic people, and
became the source from which almost all systems of
alphabets can be derived. From the Tel-d-Amarna
letters, discovered in 1887-88 and dating from about
1400 B.C., it is evident that the Babylonian charac-
ters and language were then in use in Canaan. By
1000 B.C., however, they had been displaced by Sem-
itic alphabets and languages, which had developed
with the growth of the more or less independent'
national life of the various Semitic peoples. In each
people both alphabet and language, although having
an origin in common with that of all the others, be-
came changed and thus adapted to its individual
needs.
The material for the study of the development of

x. *?'*?' *

if. * <

~a~-x3 41

** v

In square Hebrew characters the inscription reads:

. ex . bv . y

by .

. ropn . 121 rrn . nn . rop^n . . .
x . vbv . tu'3i . m . ^x . ex ^nan
. 1X3 . mr . rrn '3 in . ^>x . xi
. ex .

o3xnn . exn . by ixn . n33 . n*n . nx . n

THE SILOAM INSCRIPTION. See JERUSALEM, J 34.

term, or its equivalent, was not uncommon in Rab-
binical and contemporary Greek writers. It means
' the Eternal One,' being in O T an attribute of Jeho-
vah, the source and end of existence, with whom the
writer of Revelation associates Christ in divine life-
giving power. In early Christian literature (Tert.

the Semitic alphabet is found in a few inscriptions,

principally on stones, seals, and coins.

I. Date of Perhaps the earliest inscription is that

Alphabet, on a bronze bowl of Phoenician origin.

It is dedicated to Baal-Lebanon by a

servant of Hiram, King of the Sidonians, and may

Alphabet

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

date from about 1000 B.C. From the middle of the
SUh cent, ((unoa the inscription of Mesha, King of
Mn:ili, railed tho Mrslci Stone (see illustration).
The earliest Hebrew inscription w:i.s found in the
Siloam tunnel, probably built by He/ekbh, and
therefore dating from the end of the 8th cent, (see

Seal of Hananiah, Son of Azariah.
The Hebrew inscription reads:
WlTi' p 1,V::r6 - to Hanany&hu ben 'AiaryahQ.

illustration), to which may be added inscriptions on
seals from the 4th to the 1st cent, (see illustrations),
and on coins from the Maccabean era and later (see
illustrations). The important Aramaic inscriptions
are from Zinjirli in N. Syria (8th cent.), Nerab, SE.
of Aleppo (7th cent.), and others (8th to 3d cent.
B.C.) (see cols. 6, 7, 8 of Plate). Comparison re-

Seal of Shemaiah, Sou of Azariah.
The Hebrew inscription reads:
'-; ; -""::- - to Sh'ma'yaha ben 'AzaryahO.

veals a common origin, and also a period of develop-
ment in the individual alphabets covering several
centuries, which were, however, slight. The earliest
forms of the Greek alphabet, especially where the
writing is from right to left as is the case with the
Semitic alphabet, show that these also were derived
from the same source. It is therefore evident that
the original alphabet must have come into use some

A. B.

Silver Shekel of Simon Maccabams.
The Hebrew inscription reads:

A. bXir" bpr - Shekel of Israel.

B. ,1T~J? ~?rW - Jerusalem the Holy.

Above the cup is the letter f (X), i. e., the numeral one
probably indicating the first year of Simon's reign.

centuries earlier than the dates of the inscriptions
cited, certainly by 1200 B.C.

Attempts have repeatedly been made to find the

source of the Semitic letters in the Egyptian or

Babylonian characters. J. HaleVy (Re-

2. Origin vue semUique, 1896, pp. 47-6.5: 1901,

of pp. 356-370) derives the forms directly

Alphabet, from the monumental hieroglyphs:

whereas E. de Roug6 (Memoir r si/r

I'origine fgyplienne de I'alphabet phenicien, 1874)

obtains them from the early hieratic characters,
a cursive development of the hieroglyphs. Isaac
Taylor (The Alphabet, Vol. I) accepts this view. On
the other hand, W. Deecke (ZDMO, xxxi. 102 ff.)

A. B.

Half-Shekel (Copper) of Simon Maccabeus.
The Hebrew inscription reads:

A. Sn 1O1K HOC - Fourth year : One-half (shekel).

B. ITS rbXtb - Ot the freedom (independence) of Zion.

and Hommel (Gesch. Babyloniens u. Assyriens, p.
50 ff.) contend that the forms of the Semitic alphabet
were derived from certain cuneiform characters. Fr.
Delitzsch (Die Entstehung des altesten Schrift-Sys-
tems, p. 221 ff.), however, contents himself with
the attempt to prove only a free dependence of the
Semitic letters on the Babylonian writing. Neither

Coin of John Hyrcanus.

The inscription reads: John the High Priest and the
Council of the Jews.

system can as yet be proved to be the direct source
of all the letters of the Semitic alphabet. The aero-
phonetic element of the later Egyptian characters,
however, may have suggested the alphabet to its in-
ventor, for a letter is represented in its earliest form
by the picture of the object, the name of which be-
gins with the letter represented.

Copper Coin of Herod I.
The Greek inscription: Sao-iAtajs 'HpciJou (of King Herod).

At present it is impossible to give the etymological
explanation of all signs used in the Semitic alphabet,
but several are certain: among them
3. Names are the following (consult Plate): N
and (a) 'ox -head,' Heb 'eleph; 3 (b)
Origin of 'house,' Heb.bayUh; *> (1) 'ox-goad,'
Indi- malmadh (Lidzbarski, EphemcHs, Vol.
vidual I, p. 263, gives, as the name of $>, a
Letters. Hebrew word beginning with D, pre-
fixed to a stem which begins with 7;
in use this initial D was dropped); D (m) 'water,'
mayim; y (i) 'eye,' 'ayin; B (p) 'mouth,' peh;
-\ (r) 'head,' r'osh; y (s, sh) 'row of teeth,' shen;

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Alphabet

n (t) 'sign,' taw. Noldeke
(Beitriige zur sent. Sprach-
wissenschaft, 1904, pp. 124-
136) and Lidzbarski (Ephe-
meris, Vol. II, Heft 2, 1906)
havp recently published in-
teresting contributions on
this point. A study of the
Greek names, which evi-
dently were derived from
the original Semitic forms,
may assist in this investi-
gation. The Aramaic form
of the names of the Hebrew
alphabet may point to an
Aramaic origin of the alpha-
bet. It is almost certain
that a few names were
given after the original sig-
nificance of the character
had been forgotten and
without the use of the
principle of acrophony,
further than that the
name should begin witli the
letter designated. Perhaps
certain letters were de-
veloped out of other let-
ters, as e.g., n from D, D
from T, D from n, the last-
named by enclosing the orig-
inal form, a cross, in a cir-
cle. There is, however, no
evidence to prove that the
North Semitic alphabet ever
had less than the 22 char-
acters used in the inscrip-
tions. All the letters were
originally consonants, but
', il, 1, and X came to rep-
resent vowels in Hebrew.
The Greek alphabet used
some of its forms for vowels
and added three new signs.
The phonetic demands of
the South Semitic peoples
led to the production of
many additional forms,
some at least derived from
older characters.

The names of the letters

show that the characters

were derived from parts

of the human body, from

animals, and

4. Order things with
of which they had

Letters, most to do.
The arrange-
ment of these letters in the
alphabet may have been
due in part to the tendency
to place together things re-
lated, e.g., = hand, 3 =
bent hand, J? = eye, Q =
mouth, and to other mne-

SPECIMKNS or EAHLT HKIIFIKW AND ARAMAIC ALPHABKTB.

ANCIENT HEBREW ALPHABETS.

Modern
Hebrew

-T

n
i

n
ID

j
D

3
P

17
Jl

Mc'shn
Stoue,
875 B.C

1=1

7
^

l-v-

Seals,
8tb-5tli cent.

B.C.

rni

T. I

Klloam,
700 B.C

J
J

2*-

Haccabean

Coins,
2a cent B.C.

V V

a o

W Wfc/

ARAMAIC .INSCRIPTIONS.

STRIA AND MESOPOTAMIA.

X.injirli.
8th cent.

ff
o

Nerab,
7tbcent.

B.C.

ff
O

....

8th :)d cent.
B.C.

/> A

<\ 11

1 K

X 2 V

2 *

1777

O D V

Alphabet
Altar

A .-TANDAHD HIIU.K DICTIONARY

5. Alpha-

bet Used

by the

Hebrews.

motile motives. We know the onlrrnf the Hebrew
alphal>et fnitu I hut of the Creek, from tlir nutner-
ical value of each letter, and also from the initial
letters of the verses in (lie alphabetic Psalms (111,
11-', ll'.i; 1'r lil 10 ff., and La 1).

Apart from the origin of the Semitic alphabet, the
changes in the alphabet use.l by the Hebrews are of
especial interest. The letters of the
Siioam alphabet (I'late, col. () show
a tendency to a more cursive character
than is found in the Mcsha Stone (col.
:_'); but the letters on the seals (col. 3)
ami coins (col. o) retain es.-entially the
forms of the Siioam inscription. The older Hebrew
forms were used
on the Maccabeati
coins, perhaps to
emphasize the
feeling of national
independence.

The Samaritans
continued to use
a form of the old
Hebrew alphabet
which shows its
close relation to
the original, and
proves that until
the separation of
the Jews and Sa-
maritans (about
40() B.C.) the older
form had main-
tained itself. The

accompanying illustration reproduces a few lines of
a Samaritan MS. (Dt 1 44-46) of the
Pentateuch, written in 1219 A.D., but
retaining essentially the forms used
by the earlier Samaritans. In certain
respects the Samaritan writing is more
cursive, while at the same time the characters are
more ornamental, as in a codex.

The Aramaic alphabet was undergoing a de-

velopment to the north and east of Palestine

(see Plate, cols. 6, 7, 8), and out of

7. Hebrew it developed the square letters char-

Square acteristicof the Hebrew alphabet, best

Characters, known to us from its use in the MSS.

of the O T. It was not a develop-

ment within the Hebrew alphabet; but was used by

that people, as they had adopted the earlier Aramaic

forms, familiar to them from their residence in Bab-

ylon. The Aramaic writing did not at once dis-

plai-e the' old Hebrew alphabet , but both were in use,

the Aramaic characters finally securing the prefer-

in copies of the books of the O T. Struck

(PRE^, Vol. 17) gives as explanation for this that

the Aramaic characters were considered holy, the

He-brew profane. At the time of Christ we have

evidence (Mf ."> is) that this square alphabet was in

use, for ' is the smallest letter. The changes in the

forms of the letters were largely due to the attempt

to obtain cursive forms, which were as simple as

Me and could be made without removing the

pen, and also to the .similar effort to join the letters

of words. This form of writing gave two forms for

Samar-
itan
Writing,

live letters: final forms, f, t\, ], D, ); and forms
for use before other letters of a word, D; and by
beiidiiigthe perpendicular lines to the left, y, B, 3,
3. In other letters, and in a similar way, horizontal
bars have arisen out of the vertical lines of the prim-
itive forms, cf. 3, D, as well as 3, 3, D, X, of
column 1. By the opening of the upper portion of
closed loops, and the straightening of zigzags of
earlier forms, the upper bars of 3, 1, 3, D, 3, D, "I
are obtained. In order to avoid the confusion of
characters in other letters the vertical lines were
left, cf. 3 and 1. The form y results from the
opening of the upper part of the original circle,
and extending the right-hand line toward a follow-
ing letter. The
square Hebrew
characters wen;
obtained by iso-
lating each letter
from all others in
a word, and re-
taining the form
thus resulting.
This alphabet,
with slight modi-
fications, IMS
been used in all
OT manuscripts,
the oldest of
which datee from
the end of the

9th cent. A.D.
The Samaritan Script.

L I T K R A T I I : ! : :

Books cited in

text, also Lidzbarski, Handbuch der nordsemitischen
Epigraphik, 2 vols., 1896-98; JK, Vol. I; I. Taylor, in
HDB; A. A. Bevan, article Writing, in EB, and the
bibliographies in the foregoing. Q_ g T.

ALPH^US, al'fe-us or al-fi'os ('AX^aior, WH
'AXi^aios) : 1. The father of the second James in the
apostolic lists (Mk 3 18; Mt 10 3; Lk 6 15; Ac 1 13),
probably the same as Clopas, husband of Mary
(Jn 19 25). For (a) both names are possible trans-
literations of the Aram, chalfphni, but cf. Zahn,
Forsch. VI, p. 343; and (6) in Mk 15 40; Mt 27 56,
the woman who corresponds to Mary, the wife of
Clopas in Jn 19 25, is called the mother of James
(Mk adds "the Less") and Joses. There is no rea-
son for the further assumption (Euscbius, HE, III,
11, 2; IV, 22, 4) that A. was a brother of Joseph,
thus making James son of A. the cousin of Jesus (see
BRETHREN OF THE LORD).

2. The father of Levi (Matthew) (Mk 2 14), but
cf. D, which reads 'idicetf^loi' (James) in place of Aevelv
(Levi). J. M. T.

ALTAR: The origin of the term altar is very

obscure. The current theory, that the altar is but a

development from the sacred stone, of

I. Semitic which the 'pillar,' the matatsfbhah. was

Altars in the later and more direct represent a-

General. tive (so e.g. Benzinger, p. 379, Nowack,

II. p. 18), is not beyond all doubt.

The ancient legislation (Ex 20 24) requiring that

altars should be of earth, or, if not. of unhewn stone

only, seems to indicate that the primitive altar often

A STA.VI)Al(l) BIHI.i; DKrriONARY

Alphabet
Altar

consisted simply of a heap of earth. In any case,
there can be no doubt that the earliest altars were
of the most simple type. The sacred stone, also,
was essentially an altar, in the sense of being a place
where some recognition of the presence of deity could

Western Side

of deity or indicated the near-by presence of
deity (cf. Gn 28 18-18). The main idea regarding an
altar was that it was the place of sacrifice (i.e.,
slaughter, since originally every slaughter was a
sacrifice) as its Heb. name mizbeah indicates. These

And Southern Longstde

T=^ En

DOLMENS (PRIMITIVE ALTARS) IN EASTERN PALESTINE.

be made (by smearing with oil, cf. Gn 28 18, or blood,
cf. IS 14 31-35). The ancient narrative in IS 14
31 ff. is instructive as to the intimate relation between
the sacred stone and the altar. Saul, horrified by
the news that the people were slaying the captured
animals and eating them "with the blood" i.e.,
without a proper sacrificial disposal of the blood

two ideas are brought together in the most an-
cient OT legislation regarding altars (E>x2024f.).
Wherever J" "recorded" His name was a legitimate
place for an altar; that is, wherever J" manifested
His presence, as by a theophany, by a dream, by
giving victory to His people, etc. Such conceptions
betray themselves in all that is said of altars in the

ALTAR op BURNT OFFERINGS (AS PORTRAYED BY EZEKIEL).

had a large stone placed before him to which the
people were ordered to bring their animals for
slaughter. This stone was both a sacred stone, set
up in commemoration of Jehovah's deliverance of
His people, and an altar a mizbeah, 'sacrifice-
(i.e., slaughter-) place.' The main idea regarding
tho sacred stone was that it either was actually the

patriarchal stories in Gn and in the stories in Jg
and I S. In all these a comparatively simple state
of society (seminomadic or undeveloped agricul-
tural) is presupposed, and all usages are correspond-
ingly simple.

Every Canaanite high place had its altar, and as
the main function of the altar was to furnish a place

Altar

Ambush

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

for the proper disposition of the blood (afterward,
of necessity, of the whole or parts of the body, by
burning of the sacrificial victim), remains of such
high-place altars generally show a number of cup-
like depressions on the top with one or more drains
to collect and carry off the blood (see the reports of
excavations at Gezer in PEFQ, 1902-06). For
illustrations of ancient Hebrew rock-altars see H. B.
('. nvne in Bib. World, May, 1897, and see also G. L.
Robinson's account of the Edomite high place of
Petra, ibid., Jan., 1901.

The Kingdom period with its development of city
life and the establishment of royal sanctuaries (e.g.,
at Jerusalem, Beth-el, and Samaria), with their
temples and more elaborate cultus, brought about a
corresponding development of the altar probably
with more or less extensive adoption of foreign types
(Phoenician, Assyrian, etc.). In some Canaanite
cities altars of elaborate form were in use before the
Conquest. One such was found at Taanach by
Professor Sellin (July, 1902), with ornamented cor-
ners and faces, with horns, a cup for sacrifices, etc.
(see PEFQ, Oct., 1902).

The detailed information regarding altars in the

O T concerns mainly those of the Tabernacle and the

temples of Solomon and of Ezekiel's

2. The vision. For his Temple Solomon dis-

Altars of carded David's altar and had a new
the Temple brazen altar constructed. It is prob-
and Taber- able that this altar was erected on the
nacle. site of David's sacrifice on the occasion
mentioned in II S 24 16-25 (cf. I Ch 22 1 ;
II Ch 3 l), the place now supposed to be covered by
the famous Dome of the Rock (see JERUSALEM,
4, 25). The description of this altar has been omit-
ted in I K 7 (though reminiscences occur in 8 64 and
9 25), but it can be supplied from II Ch 4 1. It was
20 cubits in length and breadth with a height of 10
cubits. Its general shape was probably like that of
the altar of Ezekiel's vision (Ezk 43 13-17). It "rose
in terraces, contracting by means of two inlets
[ledges] toward the top." It was 20 cubits square
at the base, but the altar hearth was probably not
more than 12 cubits square. By some Ezekiel's
altar is taken as an exact reproduction of Solomon's,
but the figures given in Ezk seem to make a struc-
ture 18 cubits square by 12 cubits high, instead of
20 cubits and 10 cubits (see Davidson's Com. on Ezk
in Camb. Bible). The altar was ascended by a flight
of steps on its east side. Its faces were probably
ornamented with figures of various kinds. Little
is said of its structure in detail. The material is
said to have been brass (bronze). Whether this
refers to the whole or only to its covering or plating
is not known. It had horns, apparently because
it was customary for more elaborate altars to have
such. The original significance of these is not
known. W. R. Smith (Rel. Sem., p. 436) thinks
that they were a survival of the practise of actually
placing the head (with the horns) of the sacrificial
victim on the altar and leaving them there to hang
votive offerings on, etc. The horns appear to have
been thought the most sacred part of an altar (cf.
Ex 29 12 ; Lev 16 18 ; I K 1 50). The altar was doubt-
less provided with drains, etc., but of these noth-
ing is said. Its location was "before Jehovah"

(II K 16 H), i.e., directly E. of the porch of the
Temple.

Solomon's altar was in general use for all burnt
offerings until it was displaced by the altar Aliaz
had made after a model he had seen at Damascus (II
K 16 10-lC). Both of these altars were doubtless des-
troyed at the capture of Jerusalem (586 B.C.).

In Solomon's Temple there w;is another " altar,"
that of the showbread (I K 6 20) made of cedar, over-
laid with gold. This is called a "table" in Ezk
(41 22). Something similar to this has been found
portrayed on the Assyr. monuments. (See the cut
in Benzinger, p. 387.) In K, Ch, and Ezk there is
no specific mention of an altar of incense.

When the exiles returned, one of their first acts
was to build an altar (Ezr 3 3) probably of unhewn
stones (cf. I Mac 4 47) in stricter accord with the old
law of Ex 20 25 than the altars of Solomon, Ahaz, or
Ezekiel had been. This altar was in use as the altar
of the Second Temple until it was desecrated by the
command of Antiochus Epiphanes (I Mac 1 54).
When the Jews regained possession of Jerusalem
they carefully pulled down the desecrated altar, laid
away its stone and built a new one, also of unhewn
stone (I Mac 4 44-47). It is thus seen that Ezekiel's
plan of a magnificent bronze altar was not realized.

The description of the Tabernacle in Ex 25-31 and
35-40, largely of post-exilic date, states ideals rather
than facts. It combines the conceptions of Ezekiel
with the actual practises of the post-exilic Temple in
one ideal presentation. According to this descrip-
tion the Tabernacle had three altars: (1) "The al-
tar," i.e., the altar of burnt offerings, a small port-
able structure, hollow, of wood overlaid with bronze,
5 cubits square and 3 cubits high. It was furnished
with horns and -with a bronze grating or network,
perhaps intended for carrying away the blood,
rather than for the ashes (Ex' 27 1-8). (2) The table
for the showbread (Ex 25 23-30). (3) The altar of
incense (Ex 30 1 ff.). The account of this last seems
to belong to a secondary stratum of the narrative in
Ex 25-31 and, since even Ezekiel says nothing about
such an altar, was probably added at a later time in
the post-exilic period after the altar of incense had
been added to the furniture of the Second Temple.
When that was no one can say, except that it took
place before the Maccabean period (cf. I Mac 4 49).
Of the altars of Herod's reconstructed temple little
is definitely known. See also TEMPLE, TABER-
NACLE, and SACRIFICE.

LITERATTJRK: Benzinger, Heb. Arch&ologie (1894), pp.
378 ff.; Nowack, Heb. Arcltaologie (1894), II, pp. 75-85;
Addis in EB. j? jf .

AL-TASHHETH, al-tash'heth (Al-taschith, al-
tas'kith, AV). See Music, AND MUSICAL INSTRU-
MENTS, 6.

ALUSH, e'lush (tf&& 'Slush'): An encampment
of Israel (Nu 33 13 f.). Site unknown. E. E. N.

ALVAH, al'va; ALVAN, al'van: See ALIAH,
ALIAN.

AMAD, e'mad p?SP, 'am'adh): A town of Asher
(Jos 19 26). Site uncertain. E E. N.

AMAL, e'mal (b^y, 'amal): A son of Helem, an
Asherite (I Ch 7 35). E. E. N.

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Altar
Ambush

AMALEK, um'a-lek (^Z, 'dmaleq): The grand-
son of Esau (Gn 36 12), whose descendants are
described in Nu24 20 as "the first of the nations,"
i.e., the most powerful. The reference in Gn 14 7 to
"all the country of the Amalekites " as smitten by
Chedorlaomer and his allies does not necessarily
carry them back in history to the days of Abraham,
but rather defines their locality in the time of the
author. They are not alluded to in the ' Table of
Nations ' (Gn 10). Geographically, they occupied
the desert region S. of Canaan, extending from
Beersheba beyond Kadesh-barnea far into the pen-
insula of Sinai and probably also into northern
Arabia. They withstood the Israelites, when the
latter under Moses migrated from Goshen to the
Promised Land, attacking them in the rear (Dt 25
17-19). At Rephidim, which is best identified with
Wady Feir&n, they were defeated by Joshua (Ex
178-16). When the spies returned they reported
that the Amalekites dwelt "in the land of the
South" (Nu 13 29). Not long after this they are
spoken of as occupying "the valley," presumably
the valley S. of the Dead Sea (Nu 14 25). Though
powerful at the time of Israel's exodus, they must
have become somewhat reduced through the seces-
sion of the Kenites and Kenizzites (cf. I S 15 6). In
the time of the Judges, however, they seem to have
possessed a foothold in Ephraim (Jg5 14, according
to the present text) and to have continued their
marauding expeditions (Jg 6 3).

Saul was commissioned to exterminate them
utterly, but he spared Agag, their king (I S 15). In
David's day Amalekite robbers made a raid upon
Ziklag and took it, but they were overtaken by
David and so completely decimated that they seem
never to have recovered (I S 30). In Hezekiah's
reign, "the remnant of the Amalekites that escaped"
were smitten by the Simeonites, who dispossessed
them of Mount Seir (I Ch 4 43). No trustworthy
data concerning them are to be found outside the
O T. Neither Assyrian nor Egyptian records allude
to them. G. L. R.

AMAM, e'mam (ES, 'dmam): A city of S. Ju-
dah (Jos 15 26). Site unknown. E. E. N.

AMANA, a-mQ'na (~^$, 'dmanah): The south-
ern portion, probably, of the Anti-Lebanon mountain
range (Song 4 8). E. E. N.

AMARIAH, am"a-rai'a (~;"SX, 'dmaryah), 'J"
hath promised': 1. A son of Meraioth and grand-
father of Zadok ( I Ch 6 7 f . ; Ezr 73). 2. The ances-
tral head of one of the subdivisions of the Kohathite
Levites (I Ch 23 19; cf. 24 23). 3. Chief priest in Je-
rusalem under Jehoshaphat (I Ch 6 11; II Ch 19 11).
4. A Levite assistant to Kore, the porter at the
east gate who was over the free-will offerings of
God, in the time of Hezekiah (II Ch 31 14 f.). 5.
Ancestor of Zephaniah, possibly son of Hezekiah,
King of Judah (Zeph 1 1). 6. One of the priests
that sealed the covenant of Nehemiah's time (Neh
10 3). 7. A Judahite who dwelt in Jerusalem (Neh
114). 8. One of the priests of Zerubbabel's band
which returned from Babylon (Neh 12 2, 13).

J. A. K.

AMASA, am'a-sa (N'lp$J>, 'dmOsH'): 1. A son of
Jethcr, an Ishmuulite, and David's sister Abigail
(I Ch 2 17; II S 17 25). Absalom appointed him
captain of his forces (II S 17 25). After David's
victory he gave Amasa the place held by his cousin
Joab (II S 19 13 ff.), probably in order to allay disaf-
fection in Judah. Very soon after this Amasa was
assassinated by Joab (II S 20 4-12; I K 2 , 32). 2. An
Ephraimite (II Ch 28 12). E. E. N.

AMASAI, Q-mas'ai ('$$$, 'dmdsay): 1. A Ko-
hathite Levite (I Ch 6 25, 35; II Ch 29 12). 2. One of
David's captains (I Ch 12 16-18, perhaps the same as
Amasa, 1). 3. A priest (I Ch 15 24). E. E. N.

AMASHSAI, Q-mash'sai ("DtfiM?, 'dmashfay,
Amashai AV): A priest (Neh 11 13), called Maasai
(ICh9l2). E. E. N.

AMASIAH, am-a-sai'fl (n;WJ|, 'dmafyOh), 'J'
bears': One of Jehoshaphat's captains (II Ch 17 16).

E. E. N.

AMAZIAH, am"a-zoi'a (V^VttK, 'dmatsy&hu), 'J'
strengthens': 1. Son of Joash and king of Judah,
c. 798-790 B.C. Though he executed his father's
murderers he refused to follow custom and spared
their children. Having reduced Edom once more
to subjection to Judah, he raslily engaged in war
with Jehoash of Israel, but was utterly defeated.
Jerusalem was captured, its walls partly demolished,
while Amaziah retained his throne only through
paying a heavy indemnity and giving hostages.
Judah was thus reduced practically to the condition
of subjection to Israel. After this, disaffection
showed itself and, like his father, Amaziah was mur-
dered by conspirators (II K 12 21, 13 12, 14 1-22; II Ch
25). Amaziah is said to have reigned twenty-nine
years (II K 14 2). It is probable that a mistake has
been made somehow and that he actually reigned but
nine years. See CHRONOLOGY OF OT (table). 2.
Priest of Beth-el under Jeroboam II., who attempted
to prevent Amos from prophesying in Israel (Am 7
10 ff.). 3. One of the descendants of Merari (I Ch
4 34). 4. A Levite (I Ch 6 45). E. E. N.

AMBASSADOR: In OT the equivalent of (1)
mtlits (II Ch 32 31). Properly, 'interpreter' (cf. Gn
42 23; Is 43 27 [RVmg.]; Job 33 23). (2) mal'ak (II
Ch352l; Is 30 4, 337; Ezk 17 is), 'One who has
been sent,' 'a messenger.' (3) ts'ir (root idea 'to
go'), ambassador in a technical sense (Is 18 2, 579;
Jer 49 14); parallel to "messenger" (Pr 13 17). In
Jos 9 4, the Heb. form is verbal, not substantive.

In N T only as a rendering of the verbal form
iv (II Co 5 20; Eph 6 20). J. M. T.

AMBER, am'bgr: This word occurs in the AV of
Ezk 1 4, 27, 8 2, as the rendering of the Heb. TOfO,
hashmal. The RV replaces it with the term "glow-
ing metal," which is as satisfactory a rendering as
can be suggested, since the meaning of the term is
uncertain. E. E. N.

AMBUSH, AMBUSHMENT. See WARFARE,
4.

Amen

Amos

A ST \.\DA1U) BIBLK DICTIONARY

AMEN, e"mcn' <>r ( WHS. ) ii"men': Originally a
verbal adjective meaning ' steadfast-,' it became an
adverb, 'truly,' or an interjection, 'so be it," 'so ii is.'
(1) In the OT: (a) Initially; in affirmation of a pre-
ceding statement, which the speaker solemnly makes
his own (I K 1 3d; Jer 28 6; cf. Rev 7 12, 22 20). (b)
Detached, as an oath (Nu 5 22; Dt 27 15; Neh 5 13).
(c) Liturgical; at the close of public prayer and
U'nediction (I Ch 16 36; Neh 8 6; Pa 106 48). (2) In
N'T: (n) In the Epistles, commonly a response to
public or private prayer (I Co 14 10; Rev 5 14). (b)
In Rev ;{ 14 (cf. II Co 1 20; Is 65 Hi; RVing.) it is
used as a proper name Jesus as the Word affirming
the truth of God's promises, (r) In the Gospels its
use is confined to the utterances of Jesus. Luke
usually employs instead of it the expressions "of a
truth," "truly," or " I say." Jesus uses it not as an
answer, but in strong asseveration. The truth of
His utterance must be accepted on His own testi-
mony (cf. "Yea" in Mt 119, 2ii). In John's (ios-
pel only the double term "verily, verily" (i.e.,
"amen, amen") occurs. R. A. !'.

AMETHYST. See STONES, PRECIOUS, 2.

AMI, e'mai ("?, 'aim, Amon in Neh 7 59): An-
cestral head of a family of "Solomon's servants"
(Kzr -2 57; Neh 7 59). E. E. N.

AMINADAB. See AMMINADAB.

AMITTAI, o-mit'ai (T^X, 'amittay), ' J" is truth '
(?): The father of the prophet Jonah (II K 14 25;
Jon 1 l). E. E. N.

AMMAH, am'a (~^$, 'ammah): A hill near
Giah in the wilderness of Gibeon, where Abner, sup-
porting the claims of Ishbosheth, son of Saul, was
defeateil by Joab, the leader of David's forces.

C. S. T.

AMMI-, am'mai (*"?, 'amml [or Cy, 'am, when
at the end of a word]): An element in the com-
position of proper names, which, since this word
may mean 'uncle,' 'kinsman,' or 'people,' may refer
to the divine Being (as ' uncle,' i.e., chief kinsman),
or to one's relatives or people. For illustrations see
the- significance of the various names compounded
with " ainmi " (or with the suffix "am"). Cf. G. B.
(Iray, Studies in Hebrew Proper Names, pp. 41-
60. E. E. N.

AMM1, am'mai ("?<?, 'amml), 'my people': The
designation of Israel as restored to divine favor (Hos
2 l); the opposite of Lo-ammi, "not my people "
(1 9), the symbolic name of Hosea's third child
which was indicative of the separation that had
taken place between Israel and ,1". E. E. N.

AMMIEL, am'mi-el (V"i\ 'amtm'el), 'God is
kinsman': 1. One of the spies (Nu 13 12). 2. The
father of Machir of Lo-debar (II S94f., 17 27). 3.
The father of David's wife Bathshua (I Ch 3 5), the
same as Eliam, father of Bath-sheba (II S113).
4. A Levite (I Ch 26 8). $. E. N.

AMMIHUD, am-mai'hud (-,W??. 'ammlhwlh),
'kinsman is glory': 1. The father of Klishania, prince

of Kphraim (Xu 1 10, 2 l\ etc.; ICh72B). 2. A
Siineonite (Nu3420). 3. A Naphtalite (Nu3428).
4. A Judahite, the son of Omri (I Ch 9 4). 5. For
II S 1337 see AMMIHUR. E. E. N.

AMMIHUR, am'mi-hor (lin-^y, 'ammihur, Am-
mihud AV): Father of Talmai, King of Geshur (II S
13 37). E. E. N.

AMMINADAB, a-min'a-dab (:i t j*3i', 'amminll-
ilhiihh), 'the [divine] kinsman gives': 1. The an-
crstral head of a family or clan of Judah (Nu 1 7,
2 3, etc. ; Ru 4 19 f. ; I Ch 2 10). 2. The name of one
or more Levites, descendants of Kohath (I Ch 6 22
[elsewhere called Izhar, vs. 2,18,38; Ex 6 18, etc.],
15 10 f.). A., the father of Aaron's wife (Ex 6 23), was
probably a Levite. The reference to Nahshon in
both Kx 023 and Nu 1 7, etc., may indicate some
intermarriage between Levite and Judahite fam-
ilies. E. E. N.

AMMINADIB, ci-min'a-dib (2"!}"?:', 'ammlna-
ilhtbli): A name which occurs in the AV of Song 6
12, but RV reads "my princely people." The Heb.
text is obscure and difficult. E. E. N.

AMMISHADDAI, am"mi-shad'da-ai ("uf^i',
'ammishad(lay), 'Shaddai is kinsman': Father of
Ahiezer, prince of Dan (Nu 1 12, etc.). E. E. N.

AMM1ZABAD, am-miz'a-bad ("51^1', 'ammlsui-
hhfiilh), 'kinsman has made a gift': An officer, son
of Benaiah, David's hero (I Ch 27 0). E. E. N.

AMMON, am'on fllXJ?, 'ammon; always ]'"i" 'J.5,
"children [sons] of Ammon," except in I S 11 11; Ps
837). In Assyrian inscriptions bit-ammainr. The
termination 'on' ('om'), seen also in Milcom, may
be an Ammonite linguistic peculiarity, and Ammon,
like Milcom, a qualitative designation of the god.
The Ammonites were a Hebraic people, descend-
ants of Lot through Ben-ammi (q.v.) (Gn 19 30 ff.).
Dispossessing the Zamzummim (Dt 2 20), they set-
tled E. of the Jordan. Their boundaries were indef-
inite, the Jordan was claimed as the W. border (Jg
11 13), and to the E. lay the uncharted desert.
When Israel entered Palestine the A. lived E. of the
Jabbok (Nu 21 24; Dt 3 16). Kabbah ("Rabbah of
the children of Ammon," Dt 3 n), now AmmAn, on
the Jabbok, was the capital.

The story in Gn 19 30 ff., generally assumed to be a
slur upon the origin of Ammon, is not necessarily
such. A. and Moab, both being in possession of
their lands long before the Exodus, might well call
themselves pure-blooded natives as compared with
the Hebrew immigrants. Later the story may have
become a taunt. Their language, nearly identical
with Hebrew (comp. their proper names), was a
witness to kinship.

The term "children of Ammon" suggests nomadic
characteristics, and while towns are vaguely referred
to, Rabbah is the only one named. Jg 1 1 gives the
first detailed account of their fortunes; Jephthah
repudiated their claims on Gilead and drove them E.
of the Jabbok. When they again attempted to hu-
miliate Israel, Saul defeated them (I S 11). David
was at first friendly to A., but. because of the insult to

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Amen

Amos

his ambassadors (II S 10 1 ff.)> besieged and captured
Rabbab, and discrowned Milcom (II S 12 30 mg.);
Jotham reduced them to tribute (II Ch 27 S). Later
we find them at times in a coalition against Babylon
(Jer 27 3), at other times tributary. They once at-
tacked Jerusalem (II K 24 2), and later exulted over
her fall (Ps 83). The prophets bitterly denounced
them (Am 1 13; Jer 49; Ezk 25 iff.; Zeph 2 8 f.). In
post-exilic days Tobiah the Ammonite (Neh 2 10)
was an opponent of Nehemiah. In 164 B.C., under
a leader, Timotheus, they were defeated by Judas
Maccabteus (I Mac 5 6-8). The name finally disap-
pears in the 3d cent. A.D.

The name of the chief deity was Milcom, from
the same root as ~Vp, 'king.' In IIS 12 30 we
should follow the RVmg. Perhaps a colossal idol-
statue stood in Kabbah.

LITERATURE: Moore on Judges in Internal. Crit. Comm.;
Driver on Genesis. J^ t Q Q

AMNO1T, am'nen 0*^8, 'amnon): 1. David's
eldest son, slain by Absalom for violating his sister
Tamar (II S 3 2, 13 1-39). 2. A descendant of Ju-
dah(ICh420). E. E. N.

AMOK, e'mek (P'">, 'amoq), 'deep': A post-exilic
priestly family (Neh 12 7, 20). E. E. N.

AMON, e'men ("~$, 'amon), 'master-workman':
1. King of Judah, son of Manasseh, and father of the
godly Josiah. Of his brief reign of two years (641-
639 B.C.) little is known. Like his father he was de-
voted to the worship of Assyrian deities. He was
assassinated by some of his courtiers, but the people
took vengeance upon his assassins. Scholars con-
nect these events with a religious struggle between
the prophetic and reactionary parties in Judah. The
former, having put the king to death, was not strong
enough to maintain its position (II K 21 18 ff.). 2.
The governor of Samaria, under Ahab (I K 22 26).
3. One of Solomon's temple slaves whose descend-
ants returned from Babylonia with Zerubbabel
(Neh 7 59). J. A. K.

AMORITE, am'o-rait (*lfc$$, 'emorl), perhaps
'mountain-dwellers' (Oxf. Heb. Lex.): The early
inhabitants of Palestine. Two strong Amorite
kingdoms confronted Israel E. of the Jordan prior
to the invasion, but they were overthrown and their
kings, Sihon and Og, slain (Dt 2 33, 3 3). But there
is evidence that the Amorites early occupied the
AV. and S. of the land as well as the E. The syno-
nymity of Amorite and Canaanite is uncertain, and
it is disputed whether the word martu in early Bab.
and Assyr. inscriptions is equivalent to A.; but in
inscriptions from Hammurabi's age onward, the two
terms are interchangeable. "Land of Amurri"
occurs on Bab. tablets as early as the 12th cent. B.C.,
and is also common in the Amarna tablets. The
name is frequent in the enumeration of nations (Ex
38, and elsewhere). The constant Hebrew tradi-
tion makes the A. the immediate predecessors of the
Hebraic and Aramean invaders (cf. Paton, Early
History of Syr. and Pal.). About 2500 B.C. a new
type of Semitic names appears in Babylonia, and
rari.'il changes are evident throughout Syria and per-
haps Egypt. A. S. C.

AMOS, c'mos (Ditty, 'amdf ), ' bearer' or ' borne' (by
God?): 1. The prophet Amos was a ndk&ih or nln-p-
herd of fine-haired sheep, a fender of
I. The sycamores, and a native of Tekoa, south
Man. of Bethlehem (Ami 1, 7 14). In the
loneliness of his native mountains, as
with Elijah (I K 19 12 ff.), (iod's voice was more
clearly heard and His words more perfectly under-
stood. So he was impelled to go to Beth-el to preach
against N. Israel his God-given message. His activ-
ity may be dated some time between B.C. 705 ami 750.
He repudiated the name nabhl', prophet (7 14), but
only because of Amaziah's implication that he proph-
esied for gain and belonged to a venal gild (7 12).
Yet he is the first of the writing prophets, the origi-
nator indeed of a new school of prophecy.

The analysis of the book, externally, is simple. We
may distinguish four sections: I. 1 2-2 16. Indict-
ment of the kindred peoples for sins
2. The against common humanity, culminating
Book. with Israel, who has broken a holier
law. II. 3 1-6 14. Oracles in which
are reiterated the folly of formalism and the futility
of national hopes, while luxury, extravagance, and
crime are rampant. To this belongs also 8 4-14,
which interrupts its present context.

III. 7 1-9 8a. Five visions of judgment with a
historical appendix. These visions are climacteric in
arrangement, though the order is broken first by
7 10-17, and second by 8 4-14. First, we have two
visions of remediable evils, 7 1-3, 4-6; then the hope-
less internal perversity, 7 7-9; and finally the im-
pending consummation, 8 1-3; with earthquake and
extermination, 9 1-4.

IV. 9 8b-l5. The Messianic future follows ver.
8a abruptly and differs in phraseology, conception,
and outlook from the rest of the prophecy. It can
hardly have been the original conclusion of Amps's
visions of judgment. The five visions seem to be the
original kernel of the book, and with them is associ-
ated the story of Amaziah's protest, and the prophet's
probable expulsion (7 12). The other sections, artis-
tically elaborated as they are, may well have been
written later by Amos and committed to posterity.
Four passages in I are of doubtful genuineness: 1 2
is probably a late addition; 1 9 f. is a doublet of 1 6 f . ;
24 f. is vague and colorless and to be rejected; while
Inf., according to some, with less reason, is post-
exilic.

Prophecy began a new era with the herdsman of
Tekoa. Whatever his predecessors may have done,

he first wrote for posterity the outlines

3. Theol- of an ethical theory of the world. The

ogy. Hebrew term 2'!I, 'good,' attained with

him a distinct moral significance (5 14;
cf. ver. 6). The essence of the Law was equity and not
sacrifice (57, ll, 22-25, 8 4-7). The Day of Jehovah
was not to be one of national aggrandizement but of
searching judgment (5 18 ff.). Above all rises the
conception of the God of Hosts transcendent in
power, inflexible in justice, whose dictates are
founded not upon arbitrary will, but upon the very
constitution of the world (77f.). It would, per-
haps, be too much to say that Amos had a system.
It would be inadequate to characterize him as a
teacher of ethical monotheism. He was one upon

Amoz
Angel

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

whom the reality of God had powerfully impressed
itself, and to the expression of this, monotheism was
but a corollary. If one attribute of the divine
nature appealed to him with more intensity than an-
other, this enabled him to present with startling
clearness the truths that there can be no religion
where human rights are not recognized, and that the
claims of justice between men find their original
counterpart in the nature of God Himself. In his
view of the relation of man to man in society, Amos
has not been outgrown, nor have his conceptions of
deity become antiquated.

2. An ancestor of Joseph (Lk 3 25).

I.ITKKATI-RE: W. K. Smith. The. Prophets of Isrne.t (1895);
G. A. .Smith, The liuuk <// the Tvelre 1'nnttiets (1890) in
the Kfiiiaitor'g liihlc; Driver, Joel aitil .-\7iios (1898) in
the Cambridge Bible: W. H. Harper, Anws and llosea
(1905), in the International Crit. Comm. A. S. C.

AMOZ, e'mez (V"$, 'amdts), 'strong': Father of
Isaiah (Is 1 1, etc.). E. E. N.

AMPHIPOLIS, am-fip'o-lis: A city of Thrace,
in a bend of the river Strymon (a/j.(f>t, iro\ts), and
a post on the Via Egnatia. Under the Romans it
was a free city and the capital of the province. It is
mentioned once in the N T (Ac 17 i ). J. R. S. S.

AMPLIATUS, am"pli-e'tus (' A^iaros, WH
'A^jrXiaTor, Amplias AV [am'pli-as], '\fiir\ias):
A Christian greeted in Ro 16 8 as "My beloved in the
Lord." The name, probably that of a slave, occurs
in inscriptions. Cf. C1L. 5154. J. M. T.

AMRAM, am'ram (2"^J?, 'amram): 1. Grand-
son of Levi, through Kohath, and father of Miriam,
Aaron, and Moses (Ex G 18-20; Nu 26 69). His de-
scendants were the Kohathite Levites called Am-
ramites (Nu 3 27). 2. One of the " sons of Bani "
who had taken strange wives (Ezr 10 34; cf. ver.
19). 3. See HAMBAN. E. E. N.

AMRAPHEL, am'ra-fel (7? 8 >
The king of Shinar who, with two other kings, in-
vaded Palestine some time in the 23d cent. B.C. under
the leadership of Chedorlaomer, King of Elam (Gn
14). Lately Amraphel has been identified by many
scholars with the great Hammurabi (see BABY-
LONIA, 15), who is known to have been king of
Babylon and therefore of Shinar, or Babylonia
proper, and to have thrown off the yoke of Elam
about 2250 B.C. The combination is probable but
not quite certain. An alternative hypothesis, that
the king in question was the father of Hammurabi,
has something in its favor. J. F. McC.

AMULET. See DRESS AND OKNAMENTS, 11.

AMZI, am'zai (TJS, 'amtsl): 1. A Merarite
Levite (I Ch 6 46). 2. A priest (Neh 11 10, 12).

E. E. N.

ANAB, e'nab (2ji', 'tnabh), 'grapes': A town of
Judah. c-ight m. SW. of Hebron (Jos 1121, 1550).
Map II, D 3. E. E. N.

ANAH, an'Q (.Vl' ; , 'Uriah): The ancestor of a Ho-
rite clan of the same name (Gn 36). In ver. 2 read

11 Anah the son of Zibeou the Horite" as is required
by vs. 20, 24 ft. E. E. N.

ANAHARATH, u-ne'ha-ruth (.1">;, 'aniihd-
rath): A city of Issachar (Jos 19 19). Site uncer-
tain. E. E. N.

ANAIAH, Q-nai'Q (r,;5i;, 'inayah), 'J" has an-
swered': 1. An assistant of Ezra (Neh 84). 2-
One of those that sealed the covenant (Neh
1022). E. E. N.

ANAK, e'nak, ANAKIM, an'a-kim (?;*;, 'ana,]).
The legendary ancestor of tin 1 gigantic Ana kirn of
S\V. Palestine (Nu 13 22 ft. ; Dt 2 10 f.; Jos 15 13 f.;
Jg 1 20, etc.). E. E. N.

ANAMIM. See ETHNOQKAPHY AND ETHNOL-
OOY, 11.

ANAMMELECH, a-nam'e-lee and fi"nam-me'lec
("!"", 'dnammclckh): A deity worshiped by
the inhabitants of Sepharvaim (Sippara), at times
with human sacrifice (II K 17 31). The text of tins
passage is somewhat uncertain ami A. may be a later
gloss. The name A. is explained by King (in EB)
as equivalent to Anu-malik ('Anu is the decider or
prince'), Anu being the name of one of the principal
Babylonian deities. See also SEMITIC RELIGION,
9. E. E. N.

ANAN, e'nan (%'V): One of those that sealed
the covenant (Neh 10 28). E. E. N.

AHANI, a-ne'nai or a-nfl'nt (*JJ, 'dnanl), 'my
cloud': One of the sons of Elioenai (I Ch 3 24).

E. E. N.

ANANIAH, an"a-noi'a (n;j3, 'dnanyah): 'J"
is a cloud': I. The father of Maaseiah (Neh 3 23).
II. A town in Benjamin mentioned along with Nob
and Ramah (Neh 1 1 32). Map II, F 1. A. C. Z.

ANANIAS, an"a-noi'as (Avavias, Heb. ";JM),
'J" hath been gracious': 1. A member of the early
Church, who attempted to enhance his reputation by
a show of liberality. Having sold a piece of property
he offered to the Church a part of the amount
received, pretending that he gave the whole sum.
Peter detected the deceit and its deliberate purpose
and laid bare the enormity of the sin to the guilty
conscience of A., who is represented as having died
from the shock (Ac 5 1-11). 2. A Christian disciple
living in Damascus who baptized Paul (Ac 9 10-18,
22 12-16). 3. The high priest before whom Paul was
brought by Claudius Lysias (Ac 23 1 ff. ; cf. Ac 24
1 ff.; Jos., Ant. XX, 6 2). J. M. T.

ANATH, e'nath
gar (Jg 3 31, 5 6).

j?., 'anath): Father of Sham-
E. E. N.

ANATHEMA, a-nath'e-ma. See CURSE, 3.

ANATHOTH, an'a-thoth (H'injX, 'analholh): A
name connected with that of the Semitic goddess
Anat. I. A city of Benjamin (Jos 21 18) where the
priestly family to which Abiathar belonged had its
estates (I K 2 26) and the home of two of David's
heroes (II S 23 27, Anethothite AV; I Ch 11 28, 12 3,

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Anathothite, Antothite AV). It was also the home
of Jeremiah where the family had property (Jer 1 1,
32 6-15). Its inhabitants once threatened the proph-
et's life (Jer 11 21-23). After the exile it was reoc-
cupiecl by the Jews (Ezr2 23; Neh 7 27, 11 32). Map
II, Fl.

II. 1. A Benjamite, the son of Becher (I Ch 7 8).
2. A leader of the men of Anathoth who sealed the
covenant (Neh 7 27, 10 19). E. E. N.

ANCHOR. See SHIPS AND NAVIGATION, 20.

ANCIENT OF DAYS: An apocalyptic name
of God, first used in its Aramaic form in Dn (7 9, 13,
22). It was chosen probably not in order to suggest
the eternity of the divine Being, but to show that
profound veneration was due Him. The figure im-
plies a strongly antliropomorphic conception and was
taken up by later apocalyptic usage (of. Ethiopic
Enoch 47 3, 48 2-c). A. C. Z.

ANCIENTS. See WISE MEN and ELDER.

ANDREW (AvSpeas, 'manly'): Son of John, of
Bethsaida Julius, brother of Simon Peter, with whom
he lived in Capernaum. He was the first called of
the disciples of Jesus, to whom lie was sent by John
the Baptist, and became one of the inner group of
four among the Twelve (Mk 13 3). In the lists he is
always next before his friend and fellow-townsman
Philip, with whom he is also associated on two im-
portant occasions in the Fourth Gospel (Jn 6 9, 12
22). After Ac 1 13 he disappears from view, but tra-
dition has it that he evangelized Seythia (becoming
thus Russia's patron saint) and was martyred in
Achaia. R. A. F.

ANDRONICUS, an"dro-nai'cus ('AvSpovixos) : A
Jew as is apparent from the term "kinsman" con-
verted before Paul, with whom he probably shared
imprisonment (Ro 1G 7). He is referred to as "of
note among the apostles," i.e., well known in the
circle of the apostles, though possibly here " apostle"
is used in the wider sense of that term (see APOSTLE).

ANEM, e'nem. See ENGANNIM. R ' A ' F-
ANER, e'ner (ID}?, 'oner): I. An Amorite prince,
with whom Abraham entered into covenant (Gn
14 13, 24). Since, however, Eschol and Mamre are
names associated with localities, it is quite likely
that the same is the case with Aner. If so, it may
be identical with Neir, a range of hills near Hebron.

II. A city west of the Jordan (I Ch 6 70). Site
unknown. A. C. Z.

ANETHOTHITE, an"e-theth'ait. See ANA-
THOTH, I.

ANGEL (Gk. ayyfXor, 'messenger,' the LXX
rendering of ~o?2, mal'akh, 'sent one'): Belief in
beings intermediate between man and God has
existed among all nations. In ancient Semitic
polytheism, this belief was associated
I. An- with the portraiture of the pantheon
gelology as a royal heavenly court in which the
in Semitic Supreme Being was the head of a family
Religion, and the master of a retinue of servants.
The sukkalli, ' angel ministers,' of prim-
itive Babylonian mythology are, however, ordi-
narily the sons of the gods whose messages they con-

vey to other gods and men (Muss-Arnolt, Concise
Diet, oj Ass. Lang., B.V.). An objective ground for
such a hierarchy of heavenly beings was furnished
by the astral theology of later times, according to
which the apparent relative size and importance
of sun, moon, and stars suggested subordination.
Even among the Hebrews echoes of an originally
astral angelology are to be found in such passages
as Isl4l2f., 2421 (cf. 271). But the Hebrews,
true to their purer revealed religious thought, elim-
inated this mythology from their doctrine of angels
and fixed mainly upon the relation of God and an-
gels in contrast with men and the work of angels as
messengers of God.

In their relation to God and in contrast with men

they are called "gods" (Ps 977), "Sons of God"

(Job 1 6, 2 1), "Sons of the Mighty" (Ps

2. In Their 29 1, 89 6), "Holy Ones " (Job 5 l ; Ps
Relation 89 5), "Watchers" (Dn 4 13, 17). They
to God. form the "host of heaven" (I K 22 19),

the "hosts" of Jehovah (Ps 103 21). It
is to be understood that these terms are not express-
ive of physical relationship, but rather descriptive
of the superior nature of these beings. They are far
above men. As such, superior and mighty, they
form the court of heaven. They are the armies of
the Most High, "the mighty in strength that fulfil
his word" (Ps 103 20), "the ten thousands of holy
ones" (Dt 33 2), who are about Him. They attend
upon Jehovah and constitute part of His royal and
judicial glory. They continually adore Him in the
heavenly sanctuary (Ps 148 2), and are the "council
of the holy ones" (Ps 89 7), i.e., are witnesses of His
counsels. In a word they form that great, glorious
company whose presence in heaven helps us to
conceive of the majesty and royal splendor of God
Himself.

As messengers of God to men they execute His
will whether it be of mercy or of judgment. They

mediate His purpose in the moral gov-

3. As Mes- ernment of the world, hence are not
sengers personified natural forces, but, from
of God the beginning, actual personal agents
to Men. who, appearing in the form of man,

carry out a divine commission which
may be a deliverance from evil (Gn 19 15), a sum-
mons to duty (Jg 6llf.), an interpretation of
special situations (Job 33 23), a prophecy (Gn 18 10),
a warning (Nu 22 31-35), or an actual judgment (II S
24 16). It was not until later times in O T history
that these angels were distinguished in moral char-
acter. At first simply the character of their mission
was noted; the bearer of it was not characterized.
All were executors of God's will. Later, however,
the conception of 'evil angels' grew up out of the
mission of destruction or judgment upon which they
came (cf. Ps 78 49) and from the desire to avoid ma-
king God the cause of moral evil. At times the provi-
dential care of God is figuratively spoken of as the
'encamping' of the angel of the Lord "round about
them that fear him" (Ps347), or as "giving his
angels charge" over one (Ps911l), but this is a
secondary use of the term angel. Primarily it de-
notes a superhuman being distinct from God serving
Him in heaven or among mon, and is not a mere
synonym of our term Providence.

Angel
Antichrist

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Prominent among the descriptions of these heav-
enly beings is one, The Angel of Jehovah or the
Angel of Ci(nl, which deserves special consideration.
While any angel executing God's commands might
be so named (as in I K 195,7; II S24 16), it is more
than one of the rank and file, so to speak, who is re-
ferred to in such passages as Gn 31 11-13; Ex 32 31;
Is 63 9. This angel in speaking identifies himself with
God. The conclusion that the "angel of God is God
himself" descending into visibility or manifesting
Himself is the one generally accepted. In Is 63 9 we
read, ''In all their affliction he was afflicted and the
angel of his presence saved them." Undoubtedly
there was to those who seemed to look into the
face of J" a distinction between God Himself and
His manifestation, but the Angel of His presence
was a veritable theophany. He represented God so
fully that in dealing with him they were virtually
dealing with God. What these temporary manifes-
tations of God were in the O T, that the Logos, in a
fuller and more abiding sense, is in the N T. It is
not surprising, therefore, that they have been looked
upon as foreshadowings of the Incarnation.

Beginning with the time of the exile and in con-
sequence of the new contact with the more developed
angelology of the Persians, the Jewish
4. Exilic doctrine started upon a new course and
and Post- in later times became extreme and
exilic often fantastic. This is true especially
Angelology. of extra-Biblical Judaism. Within the
Scriptures the doctrine is indeed always
sober, but it shows marked differences from the sim-
pler doctrines of the pre-exilic period. Some of these
are undoubtedly due to the increasing emphasis
given to the transcendence of God. Angels are
assigned a diversity of different functions such as
the interpretation of visions, the protection of the
faithful, etc. To some of them names are given, as,
e.g., Gabriel and Michael. Such names are always
of Hebrew etymology and significant of the service
rendered or the character of the bearer. Gabriel
signifies 'man of God' and served Daniel as the in-
terpreter of dreams and of prophecy (Dn 8 15, 9 21).
He appears in the N T as the foreteller of the birth
of John the Baptist (Lk 1 19), and as the bearer of the
glad tidings to Mary (Lk 1 26). In the pseudepi-
graphic books he is glorified as one of the four great
angels that stand at the four sides of God's throne and
act as guardians of the four parts of the globe (Elh.
En. 91). He is sent upon special missions to the serv-
ants of God, and against their enemies. He taught
Joseph the 70 languages of the world. With him
is closely associated Michael, who ranks just above
him, but ranks with him near the throne of the
Most High. Michael has his field of activity in
heaven, while Gabriel executes God's will on earth.
Each is the guardian of one of the divisions of the
twelve tribes of Israel, of which there are four, the
other two being assigned to Uriel and Raphael.
Into many an incident of the OT tradition has read
the name of Michael as the being who warned, res-
cued, or protected. Indeed he was looked upon as
the divine advocate of the Jews, and prayers were
ottered to him. He was the greatest of the Arch-
angels, of whom there were, according to the Book of
Tobit (12 15), seven (the number is not in all texts).

This number varies in other books (cf. Eth. En. 20,
40 2, 78 1, 89 1). All these chief angels have exalted
duties. They stand by the throne of God and each
has dominion over some particular sphere. Uriel
is set over the world's luminaries, and over Sheol
(Eth. En. '21 H, '27 2,333,4); Raphael, over the spirits
of men (To 3 17); Michael, over Israel; Gabriel,
over paradise and the cherubim, etc. In the Book
of Enoch the title of Watcher is given to the
Archangels (20, 39l2f., 402, 61 12). They are the
sleepless ones who stand before the Lord and say:
"Holy, holy, holy is the lord of spirits; he filleth
the earth with spirits " (Eth. En. 39 12). This title
appears also in the Book of Jubilees (4 15). The
term is first used in Dn 4 13, 17. Jewish tradition
declares that the names of the angels came from
Babylonia.

In the N T we have substantially all the foregoing
features of the doctrine of angels, but in sober and

reserved form. "A multitude of the

5. In the heavenly host praising God" appears

N T. over the shepherds (Lk 2 13) on the

night of the nativity. Angels are min-
isters to the saints (He 1 14) and they shall accom-
pany the Son of Man at his coming (Mt 2531; II Th
1 7). Satan and his angels are spoken of in Mt
2541; Rev 127. The distinctions in the Pauline
Epistles referred to under the terms thrones or
dominions or principalities or powers (Col 1 1C)
are those of the angelic hierarchy. These distinc-
tions appear in Jewish literature of the same general
period and were probably adopted by Gnostic Ju-
ciaizers (cf. Lightfoot on Col 1 16; see also GNOSTI-
CISM). In Christ's day the Sadducees were dis-
tinguished by their denial of angels (Ac 23 8).
LITKRATURE: Schultz's O T Theology; Oehler, O T The-
ol VV- J. S. R.

ANIAM, Q-nai'om (C"}8., 'dnl'am): A Manassite
clan or family (I Ch 7 19). E. E. N.

ANIM, e'nim (2*)y, 'anlm): A town of Jud:ih
(Jos 15 50). Map II, E 3. E. E. N.

ANIMALS. See PALESTINE, 24-26.
ANISE. See PALESTINE, 23.

ANKLETS, ANKLE-CHAINS. See DRESS AND
ORNAMENTS, 11.

ANNA, an'a (*Awa): An aged prophetess, daugh-
ter of Phanuel, of the tribe of Asher, belonging to the
circle of the ' Pious ' (see SIMEON), who hailed the
babe Jesus in the Temple as the coming Redeemer
of Israel (Lk 2 36-38). R. A. F.

ANNAS, an'os ("Awas; Heb. 1)n, 'merciful,'
in Josephus'Ai/ai'or): Appointed high priest by Qui-
rinius in 6 A.D., deposed by Valerius, 15 A.D., who
later appointed Simon, a son of A. In 18 A.D. his
son-in-law Caiaphas (q.v.) was appointed to the
office (Jn 18 13; cf. Jos. Ant. XVIII, 2 2). As head of
the family A. still retained influence, which explains
why Jesus was led first to A., probably only for an
informal hearing, and then to the high priest (Jn
18 13). For the same reason A. is called the high

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Angel
Antichrist

priest in Ac 4 6, although the actual high priest at tho
time must have been Caiaphas, or another of A.'.s
sons, either Jonathan or Theophilus (Jos. Ant. XVIII,
4 3, 5 3). J. M. T.

ANOINT (mdshah, whence 'Messiah,' is em-
ployed both literally and figuratively; npifiv [xP'-r-
licer, xpurdr], always of God's spiritual anointing;
the other terms [sukh, a\.eltpfiv, etc.] are used only
in the physical sense): Anointing originally signified
smearing with soothing and cleansing unguents.
Pouring oil upon the head was a later, ceremonial
form.

1. Practical. The application of scented oils was
a common toilet operation (Ru 33; Ps 10415; Pr

27 9), which was
discontinued in
time of mourning
(II S 14 2; Dn 10
3;cf. Mt6l7). It
was also a mark
of welcome to an
honored guest (Ps
235; Lk746; Jn
12 3). Ointments
were frequently
applied as reme-
dies (Is 1 6; Lk 10
34; Ja5l4); but the anointing of the dead (Mk 14
8; Lk 2356) seems to have been a token of re-
spect, rather than an embalming process (cf. Jn
11 39). Oil was rubbed upon shields to make them

Anointing of a Sacred Stone
Pillar.

slippery and bright (Is 21 5; II S 1 21). See ARMS

AND Alt.MOK, 7.

2. Symbolical, as a sign of dedication, sometimes
with resulting inspiration (I S 10 1 f., 16 13). Jacob
poured oil upon the pillar at Beth-el (Gn 28 18). The
Tent and its furniture were sanctified with "holy
anointing oil" (Ex 30 22 f.). See OINTMENTS AND
PERFUMES, 1. Priests were consecrated by
anointing (Lv 8 12, 30; cf. 4 3; Ps 133 2), and the early
kings were thus designated (I S 10 l, 16 13; cf. IIS
19 10) and inaugurated (II S 2 4, 5 3; I Ch 29 22).
Later monarchs apparently were anointed only un-
der exceptional circumstances (II K 9 6, 11 12, 23 so).

3. Metaphorical, signifying divine selection for
some particular service or blessing. In this figura-
tive sense Hazael (I K 19 15; cf. II K 8 13), Cyrus
(Is 45 1), Elisha (I K 19 16; cf. 19), and the prophet-
patriarchs (I Ch 1622; cf. Gn 207) were said to be
"anointed." Thus also, Israel, or Israel's king, was
Jehovah's anointed (Hab 3 13; Ps 89 38; La 4 20), and
Christians received the unction of the Holy Spirit (II
Co 1 21; I Jn 2 20, 27). For Christ as the Anointed
One (Is 61 1 =Lk4 18; Ac 1038), see MESSIAH, 7.
See BURIAL AND BURIAL CUSTOMS, 1.

ANT. See PALESTINE, 26.

ANTELOPE. See PALESTINE, 24.

ANTHOTHIJAH, an"tho-thai'ja ( '^'irijy, 'an-
thothlyah, Antothijah AV): A Benjamite (I Ch 8
24). E. E. N.

ANTOTHITE. See ANATHOTH, I.

ANTICHRIST, THE MAN OF SIN

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS

1. The Name Antichrist

2. Possible Connection with Babylo-

nian Myth

3. Antichrist in Old Testament

4. In Later Writings of the Jews

5. In Christ's Teaching

6. In Pauline Epistles

7. In the Apocalypse

8. In the Johannean Epistles

9. Present Significance of Antichrist

The actual name Antichrist is first found in the

Johannean epistles (I Jn 2 18, 22, 4 3; II Jn 7), but the

main idea underlies St. Paul's descrip-

i. The tion of the 'Man of Lawlessness' ("Man

Name Anti- of Sin" EVV) in II Th 2 1-12; while, from

Christ. the manner in which both writers refer

to this mysterious figure, it is evident

that they had in view an oral tradition current at the

time (I Jn 4 3 "ye have heard," II Th 2 6 "ye know").

Any attempt, therefore, to understand the doctrine

of Antichrist as it meets us in the N T must naturally

begin with this tradition, so far as it is now possible

to trace it.

Here, according to the latest view, we are carried

far back. Bousset, in his elaborate monograph, Der

Antichrist (189.5, Eng. transl. The Antl-

2. Possi- christ Legend, 1896), adopting and dc-

ble Con- veloping the suggestion of Gunkel in his

nection Schop/ung und Chaos (1895), would

with have us see in the Antichrist legend an

Babylonian anthropomorphic transformation of the

Myth. Babylonian Dragon Myth, according

to which the monster (Tidmat), who

had opposod the Creator at the beginning, would

again in the last days rear its head in rebellion, only,

however, to be finally crushed. It is impossible to

examine here in detail the evidence adduced in sup-
port of this position, but it seems practically certain
that this myth had reached Palestine, and may,
therefore, have had a share in familiarizing the Jews
with the idea of an arch-enemy of God, and of His
cause. Beyond this, with the data at our disposal,
we can hardly go at present, and we are on surer
ground when, for the early history of this belief, we
turn to the evidence supplied by the Scriptures
themselves.

In the O T we have ample proof of a general Jew-
ish belief in a fierce attack to be directed against
Israel in the end of the days by some hostile person
or power, while this attack is frequently
3. Anti- so described as to supply later writers
christ in with their language and imagery in
Old Tes- depicting the last attack of all against
tament. God's people. See, e.g., Psalm 88 (89),
many of whose words and phrases are
reechoed in II Th 1 and 2 (cf. Bornemann, Thess.
p. 356 f.), or the account of the fierce onslaught by
Gog from the land of Magog (Ezk 38, 39; cf. Rev
20 7 f.).

It is, however, in the Book of Daniel (168-165
B.C.) that we find the real starting-point of many of
the later descriptions of Antichrist, and especially in

Antichrist

Antioch

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

the picture that is there presented of Antiochus
Epiphanes. No other foreign ruler was ever regarded
by the Jews with such hatred on account both of his
personal impieties and of his bitter persecution of
their religion, anil, accordingly, he is here portrayed
as the very impersonation of all evil. Some of the
traits indeed ascribed to him are of such a character
(7 8, 11, 20, 21, 25, 1 1 30-45) that it has been thought the
writer had not so much Antiochus as the future Anti-
christ directly in view. And, though this is not exe-
getioally possible, it is easy to understand how this
description influenced the Apostolic writers in their
account of the arch-enemy of God and man (cf., e.g.,
II Th 2 4 with Dn 11 30 f. and Rev 13 1-8 with Dn
7 8, 20 f., 25, 8 24, 11 28, 30 and see Driver, Daniel, p.
xcvi f.). With the fall of Antiochus and the rise of
the Mnecalxjan kingdom, the promise of deliverance,
with which Daniel had comforted God's people dur-
ing their dark days, received its proximate fulfilment;
but, when the nation again fell under a foreign yoke,
the old fears were once more revived and received a
fresh coloring from the new powers by which the
Jewish nation now found itself opposed.

In determining the Jewish views regarding Anti-
christ during this period much difficulty is caused by
the uncertainty regarding the exact date of some of
the relative writings, and the possibility
4. In of their having received later Christian
Later interpolations. The following refer-

Writings ences, however, deserve notice:
of the Jews. In the Pharisaic Psalms of Solomon
(48-40 B.C.) Pompey, as the represent-
ative of the foreign power that had overthrown
Zion, is described as the personification of sin
(o AfiapT<>>\<jf, 2 1), and even as the dragon
(6 Spdiuav, ver. 29); while in IVEzr51-6, which,
though belonging to the last decade of the 1st cent.
A.D., is a characteristically Jewish work, after an
enumeration of the signs of the last times and the
shaking of the kingdom that is after the third power
(i.e., the power of Rome), we read of one who "shall
rule, whom they that dwell upon the earth look not
for" a mysterious being generally identified with
the future Antichrist. Compare also the description
of the destruction of the "last leader" of the enemies
of Israel in Apoc. Bar. 40 1 f., where again Pompey
may be thought of.

In none of these passages, it will be noticed, have
we more than a God-opposing being of human origin,
but it has recently been pointed out with great co-
gency by Dr. Charles (The Ascension of Isaiah, pp.
Iv ff.) that, in the interval between the O T and the
N T, a further development was given to Jewish be-
lief in Antichrist through the influence of the Beliar
myth.

In the O T "belial" is never, strictly speaking, a
proper name, but denotes 'worthlessness,' 'wick-
edness,' though, from its frequent occurrences along
with another noun in such phrases as "sons of Be-
lial" (Dt 13 13; Jg 19 22, etc., AV), the idea readily
lent itself to personification, until in the later
pseudepigraphical literature, the title regularly ap-
pears as a synonym for Satan, or one of his lieu-
tenants.

Thus in the Book of Jubilees (2d cent. B.C.) we
read, " Let Thy mercy, O Lord, be lifted up upon Thy

people, . . . and let not the spirit of Beliar rule
over them" (1 20, ed. Charles), and similar references
to Beliar as a Satanic spirit are frequent in the Testa-
ments of the Twelve Patriarchs (2d cent. B.C. in part
at least), in which see, e.g., Test. Reub. 4, 6.

The most interesting passage, however, for our
purpose is contained in the third book of the Sibylline
Oracles, in a section which in the main goes back to
the same early date, where Beliar is depicted as a
truly Satanic being, accompanied by all the signs
that are elsewhere ascribed to Antichrist (see Orac.
Sib. iii, 63 ff., ed. Rzach) . And witli this there should
also be compared Orac. Sib. ii, 167 f., where it is
stated that "Beliar will come and do many signs to
men," though here the originally Jewish origin of the
passage is by no means so certain.

In the same way it is impossible to lay too much
stress in the present connection on the speculations
of Rabbinical theology regarding the person of Anti-
christ, in view of the late date of our authorities. But
we may accept, as in the main reflecting the views
of the Jews about the beginning of the Christian era,
the conception of a powerful ruler to be born of the
tribe of Dan (cf. Gn 49 17; Dt 33 22; Jer 8 16, and see
further Friedlander, Der Antichrist in den vor-
christlichen jiidischen Quellen [1901] c, ix) and
uniting in himself all enmity against God and hatred
against God's people, but whom the Messiah will
finally slay by the breath of His lips (cf. Weber, Jiid.
Theologie [1897] p. 365).

We can at once see how readily this idea would

lend itself to the political and materialistic longings

of the Jews, and it is only, therefore,

5. In what we would expect when we find
Christ's our Lord, true to His spiritual ideals,

Teaching, saying nothing by which these expec-
tations might be encouraged, but con-
tenting Himself with warning His hearers against
false teachers, the "false Christs," and the "false
prophets" who would be ready "to lead astray, if
possible, even the elect" (Mt 2424; Mk 1322).
Even, too, when in the same discourse He seems
to refer to a single Antichrist, the reference is
veiled under the mysterious figure derived from
Daniel of the "abomination of desolation standing
(Ycrn/Korn) where he ought not" (Mk 13 14; ef Mt
24 15); while a similar reticence marks His words as
recorded in Jn 5 43, if here again, as is most probable,
He has Antichrist in view.

Slight, however, though these references in our
Lord's recorded teaching are, we can understand how
they would direct the attention of the Apostolic wri-
ters to the traditional material lying to their hands
in their treatment of this mysterious subject, and,
as a matter of fact, we have clear evidence of the use
of such material in the case of at least two of them.

Thus, apart from his direct reference to the Jewish

belief in Beliar in II Co 6 15, Paul has given us in II

Th 2 1-12 a very full description of the

6. In working of Antichrist, under the name
Pauline of the ' Man of Lawlessness,' in which
Epistles, he draws freely on the language and

imagery of the O T and on the specu-
lations of later Judaism. The following are the
leading features in his picture: (1) "The mystery
of lawlessness" is already at work, though for the

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Antichrist
Antioch

moment held in check by a restraining person, or
power, apparently to be identified with the power
of law or government, especially as these were em-
bodied at the time in the Roman State. (2) No
sooner, however, has this restraining power been
removed (cf. II Es 54; Apoc. Bar. 397) than a
general "apostasy" results, finding its consummation
in the 'revelation' of 'the man of lawlessness.'
(3) As 'the opposer' he "exalteth himself against
nil that is called God" (cf. Dn 11 36 f.) and actually
"sitteth in the temple of God, setting himself forth
as God" the description being again modeled on
the Danielic account (cf. Dn 8 13, 9 27, 11 31, 12 111;
while (4) the "lying wonders" by which his working
is distinguished are illustrated by Orac. Sib. iii, 64 f.;
Asc. Isaiah 45. (5) And yet, powerful as this in-
carnation of wickedness seems, the Lord Jesus at His
parousia will "slay him with the breath of his mouth,"
the words being a quotation from Is 11 4, a passage
which the Targum of Jonathan afterward applied
to the destruction of Armilus, the Jewish Antichrist,
and whose use here Paul may well have drawn from
the Jewish tradition of his time (cf. the use of the
same passage in Pss. Sol. 17 27, 39; II Es 13 10).

The whole description is thus of a very composite
character, but, at the same time, is so definite and
detailed that it is hardly to be wondered at that
there has been a constant endeavor to find its sug-
gestion in some historical personage of the writer's
own time. But, though the sacrilegious conduct of
Caligula (cf. Tacit., Hist, v, 9) may have influenced
the writer's language in ver. 4, the real roots of the
conception lie elsewhere, and it is rather, as we have
seen, in the O T and in current Jewish tradition that
its explanation is to be sought.

The same may be said, in part at least, of the

various evil powers which meet us in the Johannean

Apocalypse. The wild Beast of the

7. In Seer (Rev 13-20) vividly recalls the
the Apoca- horned wild Beast of Dn 7 and 8, and

lypse. the parallels that can be drawn be-
tween the language of John and of
Paul (of. Rev 129, 13 l f. with II Th 29f.; Rev
13 5 ff., 14 11 with II Th 2 4, 10 ff.; Rev 13 3 with II
Th 2 9 ff . ) point to similar sources as lying at the
roots of both. On the other hand, the Johannean
descriptions have a direct connection with contem-
porary secular history which was largely wanting in
the earlier picture. This is seen noticeably in the
changed attitude toward the power of Rome. So
far from this being regarded any longer as a re-
straining influence, it is rather the source from which
evil is to spring. And we can understand, there-
fore, how the city of Rome and its imperial house
supply John with many of the characteristics under
which he describes the working of Antichrist, until,
.t List, he sees all the powers of evil culminate in the
Beast of ch. 17, who, according to the interpretation
of Bousset (adopted by James in HDB), is partly
representative of an individual "who was and is
not," etc., that is, Nero redivivus', partly of a polity,
namely that of Rome.

There remain only the references in the Johannean
Epistles, in which, in keeping with the writer's main
object, the spiritual side of the conception is again
predominant. Thus, after indicating some of the

main elements in Christian truth, John passes in

I 2 18 to the conflict into which, at "a last hour,"

truth will be brought with falsehood,

8. In and in token of this points to the de-

Johannean cisive sign by which this crisis will be

Epistles, known, namely, the coming of "Anti-
christ" the absence of the article in
the original showing that the word has already
come to be used as a technical proper name. Nor
does "Antichrist" stand alone. Rather he is to !
regarded as "the personification of the principle
shown in different Antichrists" (Westcott, ad Inc.),
who, by their denial that "Jesus is the Christ,"
deny in like manner the revelation of God as Fa-
ther (2 22) and, consequently, the true union between
God and man (4 3).

It is, therefore, into a very different atmosphere

that we are introduced after the strange symbolism

of the Apocalypse, and the scenic repre-

9. Present sentation of the Pauline description.

Signifi- And one likes to think that the last

cance of word of Revelation on this mysterious
Antichrist, topic is one which leaves it open to
everyone to apply to the spiritual work-
ings of evil in his own heart, and in the world around
him, a truth which has played so large a part in the
history of God's people in the past, and which may
still pass through many varying and progressive ap-
plications before it roaches its final fulfilment in
the "dispensation of the fulness of the times" (Eph
1 10).

LITERATURE : In addition to the special literature referred
to above, mention may he made of the articles on A nti-
chrisl by Bousset in EB, by James (under the title
Man of Sin) in HDB, by Ginsburg in JE, and by
Sieffert in PltE 3 , and of the Excursuses by Bornemann
and Findlay in their Commentaries on the Thessalonian
Epistles; see also E. Wadstein, Die eschatologische Ideen-
yruppe: Anlichrist-Wellsabbat-Weltende und WeltgeriM
(1896). The argument of the foregoing paper will be
found more fully stated with the text of the passages re-
ferred to in the Additional Note on The Biblical Doctrine
of Antichrist in the present writer's commentary on The
Epistles to the Thesmlonians (1907). Q_ jj.

ANTIOCH ('Avrtnx(ia): 1. Pisidian Antioch
was so called to distinguish it from Antioch in
Syria. It was a Phrygian city situated near the
frontier of Phrygia and Pisidia (consequently called
Antiochia ad Pisidiam, i.e., A. toward Pisidia). It
is said to have been founded by a colony from Mag-
nesia on the Maeander and to have been renamed
Antiochia by Seleucus I. It was declared free by
the Romans (190 B.C.). In 39 B.C. it was given by
Antony to Amyntas, and in 25 B.C. incorporated into
the Province of Galatia. About 6 B.C. Augustus
made it a Roman colony and called it Csesarea. In
the time of Paul A. was a governmental and military
center, and the many Latin inscriptions (cf. Sterrett,
Epiqraphical Journey, pp. 127 ff.) probably belong
to this period. Later A. became the metropolis of
Pisidia. It was situated on the still traceable Royal
Road built by Augustus. It is now called Yalowadj.
At A. Paul opened his missionary labors in Asia
Minor. The church here was one of those addressed
in the Ep. to the Galatians (q.v.) (cf. Ac 13 14-51, 14
19, 21-24, 15 30, 16 4-6, 18 23).

2. Antioch on the Orontes ("the [Antioch] by
Daphne"), chief of the sixteen cities founded (301

Antiochus
Apocrypha

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

B.C.) by Seleucus I in honor of his father. It was
the capital of Syria, the residence of the Seleueid
kings, and famous for its beauty, luxury, palaces,
temples, and \v:is a renter of industry and commerce.
Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch (pop. 400,000) were
the three greatest eities of the Roman world. There
the Roman governors of Syria resided. It was
beautified by CiEsar, Augustus, Agrippa, Herod, Ti-
berius, Antoninus Pius, Constantino, and was a
favorite residence of Roman emperors. It had a
great library and a school of philosophy. It was des-
troyed by earthquakes ten times in the first six cen-
turies. Christians were first so called here, and A.
became the mother-city of Gentile Christianity (Ac
11 19-30, 13 1-3, 1426-152,15 30ff., etc.). According
to tradition Peter was for two years Bishop of
A., whose patriarchs therefore claimed precedence
over those of Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem,
and Alexandria. It is now called Antakia (6,000 in-
habitants). J. R. S. S.

ANTIOCHUS, an-toi'o-cus ('A.VTIOXOS, 'the op-
poser'):

Antiochus III (the Great) was on the Syrian throne
from 223-187 B.C. By his victory over the Egyptians
at Paneas in 198 B.C. Palestine came under the con-
trol of Syria, and though at first the Jews were favor-
able to the Syrian domination, a growing party in the
nation opposed the Greek influences furthered by the
Syrian monarchs. A. was succeeded by his son Se-
leucus Philopater (187-175), who reigned eleven
years with the same general conditions prevailing as
under his father. A crisis came under Antiochus IV
(Epiphanes), who succeeded his brother Seleucus in
175. He was a brilliant but moody man a strange
combination of intellectual power and moral weak-
ness. With unflagging zeal he sought to Hellenize
Palestine, and this brought on the Maccabean revolt
(see MACCABEES). At the very first he decided
against the high priest Onias III in favorof Jason, the
leader of the Hellenizing party (II Mac 4 7, 8). All
attempts of the Jews to resist his policy met with
swift censure, and twice he vented his rage uponJeru-
salem (I Mac 1 20 ff. ; II Mac 5 11 ff.). At last he de-
termined to extirpate the Jewish religion, and issued
the sweeping decree enforcing uniformity of (pagan)
worship throughout the land (I Mac 1 41). The ef-
forts to carry out this decree involved him in the
Maccabean war in which one Syrian army after an-
other was defeated by the brilliant Judas Maccabseus
(I Mac 3 10, 4 35). A., who had intrusted the subjuga-
tion of the land to his generals, was meanwhile away
in the East, where he became mad and died (104).

Antiochus V (Eupator) was only nine years old
when his father died, and Lysias, the governor of the
provinces, undertook the guardianship of the young
boy. Together they made an expedition into Judaea
and at the famous battle of Bethzacharias they de-
feated Judas Maccabaeus. The outlook for the Jews
at this time was very dark, when suddenly the war
was terminated by the attempt of Philip, foster-
brother of Antiochus IV, to secure the Syrian throne.
Hastily concluding a peace, Lysias and A. hurried
back to Antioch and suppressed Philip. In the fol-
lowing year (162) A. was betrayed into the hands of
Demetrius Soter, his cousin, and put to death.

The next Antiochus (VI), brought as a child
from Arabia by Tryphon, a Syrian general, as a
claimant to the throne, was a son of Alexander Balas,
a pretender to the throne who reigned 150-145.
Tryphon was successful and A. was crowned, but
the real power of the government was Tryphon,
who used the young king as a tool and finally had
him murdered in order to be himself made king.
During all the rivalries and intrigues of the Syrian
court up to this time, Jonathan Maccabseus (q.v. )
had been able by clever diplomacy to further the
interests of the Jews, but he fell at last a victim to
the treachery of Tryphon in 143 B.C.

In 138 Antiochus VII, a great-grandson of Anti-
ochus III (called Sidetes from the place of his edu-
cation, Side in Pamphylia), drove Tryphon out and
took the throne. To win the favor of the Jews,
former privileges were confirmed, and further con-
cessions granted, but as soon as A. felt himself secure
upon his throne he changed liis attitude and de-
manded of Simon (Jonathan's successor) the surren-
der of all the principal fortresses. On Simon's
refusal A. sent an army to enforce obedience. This
army was so disastrously defeated that A. troubled
Simon Ho further.

In the time of Hyrcanus (135) A. himself marched
upon Jerusalem. After a long siege a satisfactory
peace was arranged (Jos., Ant. XIII, 8 2-3). Sidetes
fell (128) in a battle with Arsaces, King of the Par-
thians (Jos., Ant. XIII, 8 4).

Altogether distinct from these Syrian kings is an
Antiochus mentioned in I Mac 12 16, 14 22 as father of
a certain Noumanius, one of the ambassadors sent
by Jonathan Maccabaeus to Rome. J. S. R.

ANTIPAS, an'ti-pas ('Ai/r[>]ijrar): 1. Herod
Antipas, son of Herod the Great. See HEROD, 5.
2. An early Christian martyr of Pergamum (Rev
2 13). E. E. N.

ANTIPATRIS, an-tip'a-tris ('AcrwraT/nr): A city
built by Herod the Great, named after his father
Antipater, on the main road from Coesarea to Lydda
(Ac 23 31). It was held to mark the NW. limit of
Judtea. Map I, C 7. E. E. N.

ANTONIA, an-to'ni-a: A strong fortress situ-
ated at the NW. corner of the Temple area, the
"castle" of Acts 21 34, etc. See JERUSALEM, 38,
and TEMPLE, 30. E. E. N.

ANTOTHIJAH. See ANTHOTHUAH.

ANUB, e'nub (-"3?, 'Qnubh): A Judahite person
or clan (I Ch 4 8). E. E. N.

ANVIL: The rendering of Heb. pa'am, lit.
'stroke,' in Is 41 7. The Targum renders "mallet."
The exact meaning is somewhat uncertain. See AR-
TISAN LIFE, 12. E. E. N.

APE: This animal does not belong to the fauna
of Palestine and is mentioned only in the account
of Solomon's riches, where it is said that his navy
brought apes, peacocks, etc., once every three years
(I K 10 22; II Ch 9 21). The Heb. r^p, qoph, rendered
"apes," apparently a loan-word from the Sanskrit
knpi (see Ox/. Heb. Lex.), was general in mean-
ing, so that it is impossible to determine what

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Antiochui
Apocrypha

species of monkey was meant. The animals \\vn>
probably purchased by Solomon's agents in S.
Arabia, though they may have been of African or
Asiatic origin. Ancient literature (Egyptian ami
Assyrian inscriptions, the Amarna letters) contains
references to apes or monkeys, showing that they
were well known and prized as curiosities.

]:. E. N.

APELLES, o-pel'liz ('Air(\\rjs): A Christian in
Rome to whom Paul sent a greeting as "the ap-
proved in Christ" (Ro 16 10). Nothing more is
known of him. E. E. N.

APHARSACHITES, APHARSATHCHITES,

a-far'sac-aits, afur-sath'caits (^'JOC^ES, 'dphar-
fathkhaye' ) : In Ezr 4 9 the term signifies, apparently,
a class of Persian officials, a meaning that suits the
other two passages also (5 6, 6 6). The different
spelling is probably due to scribal errors. E. E. N.

APHARSITES, a-fOr'saits (K^N., 'dpharsaye'):
A term of uncertain meaning, indicating probably
either a class of subordinate officials or the Persian
colonists in Syria (Ezr 4 9). E. E. N.

APHEK, e'fek (p8, 'dpheq), variant APHIK.
Three, probably four, cities whose identity is doubt-
ful: 1. Near Jezreel, whose king was slain by Joshua
(Jos 12 18; I S 29 l; I K 20 26, 30; II K 13 17). 2.
In the territory of Asher, never wrested from the
Canaanites (Jos 1930;Jg 1 31,Aphik). 3. Identified
with Afqa, NE. of Beirut (Jos 134). 4. NearMizpah
(IS4l). The first and the last are considered
identical by Robertson Smith. G. L. R.

APHEKAH, a-fi'ka (~P T ?.S, 'dpheqah): A town
of Judah apparently not far from Hebron (Jos 15
S3). E. E. N.

APHIAH, a-fai'a (n*C$, 'dphlah): One of the an-
cestors of King Saul (I S 9 l). E. E. N.

APHIK, e'fik. See APHBK.

APHRAH, af'ra. See BETH-LE-APHBAH.

APHSES, af'siz. See HAPPIZZEZ.

APOCALYPSE, a-poc'a-lips. See REVELATION,
BOOK OP.

APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE A class of
prophetic productions in which the form given to
the prophet's message is that of a vision.
i. Nature Such a form assumes the lifting of the
of Apoca- veil which hides the spiritual world,
lyptic Lit- bringing into view the realities in
erature. earthly symbols. Revelation through
dreams and visions is not uncommon in
the OT. In Jer, Ezk, and Zee there are apocalyptic
passages. In Dn the form so far predominates as to
control the whole book, thus distinguishing it as
an apocalyptic production. With the vision form,
however, apocalyptic literature developed asso-
ciated characteristics as follows: (1 ) Complicated
symbolism. (2) A dualistic view of the world, in-
volving on the one side a righteous people and on the
other a brutal opposition to God. (3) A system of
angelic mediators between God and man. (4) A

tendency to use the name of some renowned man of
piety of the earlier days as the seer of the visions
portrayed (pseudonorny). (5) An elaborate but op-
timistic eschatology. (0) Associated with eschatol-
ogy the division of the whole duration of the world's
life into ages (eons), chiefly the present age and the
coming age.

The period during which the Apocalyptic Litera-
ture had the most currency was that between 200 B.C.
and 150 to 200 A.n. During the early
2. Condi- part of this interval the conditions were
tions Favor- specially adapted to its being used as
ing Its the prophetic vehicle of address. The
Develop- people had objected to the domination
ment. of a foreign power (the Seleucid dy-
nasty of Syria). They struggled man-
fully to regain their independence, and did so at last,
but meantime they endured the stress of severe per-
secutions. The apocalyptic form of writing was
adapted to convey to them encouragement in the
form of great world pictures, showing that their op-
pressors were destined to collapse and Israel to rise
into dominion under the Messiah. These pictures
were to be understood by them, but to prove unin-
telligible to their oppressors.

The apocalypses according to dates of composition
are : (1 ) The Ethiopic Book of Enoch (first published
in modern times in 1821). (2) The
3. The Apoc- Slavonic Book of Enoch (1896). (3)
alypses. The Sybilline Oracles (1545). (4)
The Assumption of Moses (1861). (5)
Fourth Ezra or 2d Esdras (q.v.). (6) The Syriac
Book of Baruch (1866). (7) The Greek Barueh
(1886). (8) The Psalter of Solomon (1868). (9)
The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (1714).
(10) The Book of Jubilees (1859). (11) The As-
cension of Isaiah (1819). (12) The Histories of
Adam and Eve. (13) The Apocalypse of Elias
(fragm., 1886). (14) Book of Eldad and Modad
(1713). (15) Prayerof Joseph (1713). (16)Apoc-
alypse of Zephaniah (fragm., 1886).

While each of these books does not present all the
aspects of a typical apocalypse, the combination of
their characteristics groups them together as liter-
ary productions of this type

LITKRATURE: Porter, The Messages of the Apocalyptic
Writers, 1905; Charles, in HDB, and Zenos, in DCG.

A. C. Z.

APOCRYPHA OF OT AND NT: The word

'apocrypha' (dwoKpvtyos, 'hidden') passed through

several stages of meaning before it re-

i. The ceived the sense that we now give to it.

Term. At first it meant literally rolls which
were put away, because worn out or
containing faults in writing. They were thus 'with-
drawn from publicity,' 'hidden' (see OT CANON,
10, 12). Books might also become 'hidden' be-
cause they were unfit for public reading. Such,
e.g., was the story of Susannah. In this early use
of the word no other discrediting of the book as to
authorship, or teaching, was implied. A much
wider application was given to the word by early
ecclesiastical writers in denoting by it that which was
mysterious, secret, esoteric. It was thus used to
classify all such books as aimed to disclose to the
favored few 'the hidden things' of nature, of the

Apocrypha

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

future, of wisdom, :ul (if God. The Bonk of Enoch
and the Assumption (if Moses arc illustrations of this
kind (if literature. Their contents were reputed to
be handed down through secret tradition by the few
from those whose names are given as their authors.
In 1 1 Es 14 44-46 will be found an account of the
miraculous production of seventy esoteric books of
this kind. This meaning of the word ' apocrypha '
was restricted at first to the pseudepigraphieal
books. The claims of Gnostic leaders to the posses-
sion of just such hidden disclosures gradually added
another modification to the word 'apocrypha,'
and that was the meaning 'heretical,' and this
opened the way to the use of the word with which
we are familiar, viz.: to mark the non-canonical
books found in our English bibles between the OT
and the N T. Cyril of Jerusalem was, as far as we
know, the first who applied the name 'apocrypha '

T . -to the books which we place under this
2. List of
Q . description.

r ha The following list comprises the books

usually classed as O T Apocrypha (e.g.,
in the edition published by the Revisers in 1896):

The Song of the Three

Holy Children.
The History of Susannah.
The History of Bel and

the Dragon.
The Prayer of Manasses.

I Maccabees.

II Maccabees. .

I Esdras.

II Esdras.
Tobit.
Judith.

The Rest of Esther.

The Wisdom of Solo-
mon.

Ecclesiasticus.

Baruch. Chap. VI -
Epistle of Jeremiah.

These works may be classified as follows: I. Works
of a Historical Character: I Mac, II Mac, I Es-
dras. II. Works of a Reflective Type: Wisdom of
Solomon, Ecclesiasticus. III. Legendary Works:
Tobit, Judith, Rest of Esther, Song of the Three
Children, History of Susannah, History of Bel and
the Dragon. IV. Works of a Prophetic Type: Ba-
ruch. V. Apocalyptic Works: II Esdras. Of all
these the following were without doubt originally in
Hebrew: I Mac, Tobit, Judith, and Ecclesiasticus.

A full description of these various works will be

found under the separate titles. The purpose here

is to give only a general idea of each.

3. General / Esdras (sometimes called the Third

Character Ezra) is a revision of the canonical

of the Ezra with the following changes: Ezr

Several 47-24 is removed to an earlier place;
Books, ch. 31-56 interpolated; Neh 773-813
is added at the close. // Esdras (also
called Fourth Ezra). This work is composite.
Chs. 3-14 formed the original work and they contain
seven visions given to E/ra; the work is thus apoca-
lyptical in character. The other chapters were
added by a later hand. The whole has come down
to us in Latin, Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic, and Ar-
menian versions. The original language was Greek.
Tobit, a legendary (Hftggttdic) narrative whose scenes
are from the captivity, was written to lead the Jews
to adhere strictly to the Law. The work exists in
several versions, Aramaic, Greek, and Latin. Judith,
a narrative of the same kind as Tobit. It recounts
the bravery of Judith, a Hebrew widow, in deliver-

ing the city of Bethulia from the Assyrians under
Holofernes. The Greek text is a translation of a
Hebrew (Aramaic) original. The Rest of Esther.
These additions to the Book of Esther mention three
times the divine name in the particulars with which
they fill out the Bible story. This seems to be the
primary purpose of these additions to give distinct,
recognition to God. The original language was
Greek. The Wisdom of Solomon is a fine example
of Hellenistic literature written by an Alexandrian
Jew, and containing, besides a setting forth of the
glory and value of Wisdom, an earnest warning
against the folly of idolatry. Ecclesiasticus. This
work is of the same general character as the Wisdom
of Solomon. Its fundamental thought is Wisdom,
and it seeks to give instruction therein by a multi-
tude of rules for the regulation of life in all varieties
of experience. It was originally written in Hebrew;
a considerable portion of this Hebrew original has
been lately brought to light. Baruch. The book
in its preface (1 1-14) describes its origin, and then in
three distinct parts gives us (a) the confession of sin
and prayer of the Jews in exile (115-3 8), (b) an ad-
monition to the people to return to the fountain of
Wisdom (3 9-4 4) and (c) the promise of deliverance
(45-59). The first half of the book (11-38) was
originally Hebrew; the latter half was Greek. The
Epistle of Jeremiah, added to Baruch as a sixth
chapter, is a warning against idolatry. It purports
to be a letter from the prophet Jeremiah to the Jews
in Babylon. The Song of the Three Holy Children.
This is one of the additions found in the Greek text of
the Book of Daniel. It gives the prayer of Abed-
nego, uttered in the fiery furnace, and the song of the
three children because the prayer was heard. The
History of Susannah. This story glorifies Daniel,
who saves the beautiful Susannah from death, to
which she had been condemned under false charge of
adultery made by two elders, to save themselves
when discovered by Susannah as they were peering
at her in her bath. The History of Bel and the
Dragon. This third addition to Daniel (after ch.
12) is made up of two independent stories, both of
which show the prowess of Daniel and at the same
time set forth the worthlessness of idolatry. All
these additions to Daniel are found in the Septua-
gint, also in the version of Theodotion. The
Prayer of Manasses. This prayer, attributed to
Manesseh, King of Judah, was composed as a com-
pletion of II Ch 3.3. It is a confession of sin and a
cry for pardon. In most MSS it is in the appendix
to the Psalms. I Maccabees. A reliable history of
the period 175135 B.C. It is extant in Greek.
// Maccabees, originally written in Greek, is an
epitome of the work of Jason of Cyrene and covers
the period 175-160 B.C. The work is a mixture of
history and story told for religious edification.

A brief outline history of the posi-

4. The tion given to the OT Apocrypha by

Position the Jews, the early Christian Fathers,

Assigned and the Christian Church generally

to the will reveal their conception of its au-

Apocrypha. thority and value. It is safe to say

that, the Jews never have recognized

as belonging to the Canon of Scriptures any other

books than those which now constitute our O T. In

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Apocrypha

Alexandria some of the apocryphal books were read
in public, but oven here canonical authority was not
attached to them. They (the Jews) have always
recognized a difference between these works and
the OT (see OT CANON). As for the NT the
most that can be said is that there are interesting
parallels found in James and Paul with Bcclesiasticus
and the Book of Wisdom (see these titles). The
Apostles held to the same canon as their Jewish
brethren. Owing to the fact that in their Greek
bibles the early Christian writers found apocryphal
books joined with books of the Hebrew Canon, they
used them, citing them sometimes as Scriptures.
Their very connection with the canonical Scriptures
gave them honoring consideration. So Clement of
Alexandria, Tertullian, and Origen used them. At
the same time when investigation into the matter
was carried on we find emphasis placed upon the
number 22 (24) as the number of books in the He-
brew Canon. A series of writers thus support the
Jewish Canon as distinct from the Alexandrian
Melito of Sardis, Origen (despite his own habit of
citing apocryphal books), Athanasius, Cyril of Jeru-
salem, Gregory Nazianzen, and Jerome. Critical
judgment was at variance with common usage even
among scholars and for a long time the books were
cited. Eastern learned opinion excluded them
from the Canon. In the West, Jerome made the
most determined stand for the Hebrew Canon, but
the common usage of the apocryphal books, made
possible by their inclusion in the old Latin versions,
and the inconsistent practise of the Fathers left the
matter undecided. At the time of the Reformation
the question was finally settled in different ways.
The Protestant Church, following Luther's lead, gave
the position of inferior authority to the A., and from
that time the word 'apocrypha' has had the meaning
which Protestantism now gives to it. The Council of
Trent (1545) made these books of equal authority
for the Roman Catholic Church with those of the O T
proper. Coverdale was the first to translate the A.
from Greek into English. He placed them between
the O T and the N T, in which position they have
appeared in later versions. The English Church
recognizes the A. in its lessons, but only for edifica-
tion and not as authoritative in the sense that the
canonical books are. The A. have no recognition in
non-Episcopal churches.

In refusing to receive the apocryphal books as
canonical, Protestantism has by no means declared
them to be of no value. On the contrary, their
worth for certain purposes has always been recog-
nized. To the student of the centuries just prece-
ding the Incarnation, they are of deep interest as re-
flecting the life and thought of Judaism in one of its
most eventful periods.

The aim and general character of the N T Apocry-
pha are quite different from those of the A. added to

the OT. The latter seek to give the

5. The history or reflect the thought of the

Apocrypha period from which they come. The

of the N T Apocrypha, on the other hand, are

New deliberate attempts to fill in the gaps of

Testament, the N T story in the life of Jesus, to

further heretical ideas by false claims of
authority, and to amplify the prophecies of Jesus by

revelations given the Apostles. Works of this de-
scription were very numerous. They may be classi-
fied under four heads:

I. Gospels. These have as their object either
to offer a narrative which shall rival the canon-
ical Gospels or to add something to their story.
It does not fall within the scope of this article in
discuss the questions which they severally present;
rather to give a brief, concise idea of those which
were more prominent. (1) First to be noted is
The Gospel according to the Hebrews. The fragments
of this gospel have been brought together and dis-
cussed by Nicholson in his edition of it. It seems to
have existed in two forms the Nazarene and the
Ebionite, the latter being more heretical. It con-
tains additions to the canonical narrative and gives
us some new alleged sayings of Jesus.

(2) The Gospel according to the Egyptians. This
gospel shows marked Gnostic tendencies. Frag-
ments of it are found in Clement, Hippolytus, and
Epiphanius.

(3) The Gospel according to Peter. An impor-
tant fragment of this gospel was discovered in 1885.
In this work appears a strong Docetic tendency and
it shows acquaintance with all our Four Gospels.

(4) The Protevangelium of James. The narrative
of this well-known gospel extends from the birth of
Mary to the slaughter of the Innocents at Bethlehem.
This is a good sample of a supplementary gospel. Its
date is probably quite early.

(5) The Gospel of Thomas, or the Gospel of the
Infancy. This has been preserved for us in Greek,
Latin, and Syriae. It exhibits the life of Jesus from
the fifth to the twelfth year and makes Him at this
time a miracle-worker to satisfy His own whims and
ambitions. These are samples of many attempts
made to gratify curiosity by intruding upon the
silence of the Scriptures.

II. Among the Acts of Apostles we have The Acts
of Paul and Thecla. It is the story of a young
woman of Iconium who was converted by Paul and
suffered much for her faith, but was miraculously
protected. The work is preserved in a number of
versions and dates from perhaps the middle of the
second century. It is a romance inculcating conti-
nence and its rewards.

III. Epistles. Under this head we may mention
the Abgarus Letters one from the king of Edessa
to our Lord and His answer, which are quite early
and the Epistles of Paul to the Laodiceans and Alex-
andrians mentioned in the Muratorian Canon.

IV. Prominent among early apocalypses is The
Apocalypse of Peter. A large fragment of this apoc-
alypse was discovered in the same MSS containing
the Gospel of Peter (see above). It presents the Lord
complying with the request of His disciples to show
them their righteous brethren who had gone before
them into the other world. To Peter He gives a
revelation of heaven and hell, with a description of
the terrible punishment of the lost. It was written
probably early in the 2d cent, and exerted a wide in-
fluence. In the attempt to satisfy a demand for par-
ticulars not given us in our N T nearly all the Apostles
were made authors of apocryphal Gospels, while ficti-
tious Acts of the Apostles provided missionary en-
terprise for the Twelve. These are all of too late a

Apollonia
Arab

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

date to require attention here. It is needful only to
say a word regarding the outcome of this mass of
kpooryphal literature. It has required no such
careful discussion as did the Apocrypha of the O T
to determine its place. The love of the marvelous in
these creations of the imagination and their vivid
presentation of some special teaching made them
very popular. They have been the fruitful source
of sacred legends and ecclesiastical traditions. It
is to these books that we must look for the origin
of some of the dogmas of the Roman Catholic
Church. Because they have been thus influential,
scholarship has been deeply interested in a critical
study of them, and much light has been thrown in
recent years upon their origin, character, and worth.

LITERATURE: Commentaries on the T Apocrypha: (1) In
Lange-Schaff Series by Bissell. (2) Fritzsche und Grimm,
O T Apocrypha. See also Schurer, HJP. For the N T
Apocrypha, consult (he editions by Tischendorf and Lip-
sius. For the Gospel of Peter see the editions by Swete
and Zahn. J. S. R.

APOLLONIA, ap"el-lo'ni-a ('AffoAAow'a): A city
of Macedonia, on the celebrated Egnatian way, 30
m. W. of Amphipolis and 38 m. E. of Thessalonica
(Acts 171). Identified by Leake with the modern
Pollina. E. E. N.

APOLLOS, a-pel'es ('ATroAAoir possibly con-
tracted from "ATroAAtiwos. [So in D.]): A cultured
Jew of Alexandria, who came to Ephesus during
the interim between Paul's first and second
visits to that place (Ac 18 24-28). He is de-
scribed as "an eloquent man" and "mighty in the
Scriptures" the latter term defining the particular
field in which Ids gift specially realized itself (ver.
24). The seeming paradox that, though instructed
in the way of the Lord and able to speak and to
teach accurately the things concerning Jesus, he knew
only the baptism of John(ver. 25) is possibly explained
by saying that his knowledge of the new religion
had been confined to an information regarding the
facts of Jesus' life and teaching and did not involve
a definite course of instruction in the truths held by
the early Church (cf. Ac 21 21, 24 for the use of Karij-
Xflv in the sense of 'imparting information.' Cf.
also Zahn, Introduction, 60, n. 4). As a matter of
fact, converts were not at this early period of the
Church's life given the catechetical training which
later was given to candidates for baptism. The use
of Karrjxelv in Gal 6 6, I Co 14 19, in the sense of
'imparting instruction' refers to the teaching of full
members within the Church and does not cover such
oases as that of Apollos (or of Theophilus, Lk 1 3 f.).
In other words, in spite of pilgrims from Egypt (Ac
2 10), the news of an organized Church based on the
Pentecostal outpouring of the Spirit and involving
general charismatic gifts had not reached him, so
that he knew nothing beyond baptism as adminis-
tered by John as a symbol of reformation of life in
preparation for the Messiah. His condition was
simply a stage or so more primitive than that of the
people of Samaria before the coming to them of
Peter and John (Ac 8 14-17), though not so primitive
as that of the disciples of John referred to in 19 1-7.

Attracted by his speaking in the synagogue,
Priscilla and Aquila gave him the instruction needed
to complete his knowledge of Christian facts (Ac 18

20). I'IHIM his departure to Aehaia hi- carried with
him the warm commendation of the Kphesian
brethren (ver. 27) and coming to Corinth proved
specially helpful in controverting the Jews in their
denial of (lie Messiahship of Jesus (ver. 28). Un-
fortunately, however, his peculiar eloquence so
different from Paul's plainness of speech gave
opportunity to the partisan spirit which possessed
the Corinthian Church to form the bulk of the dis-
ciples into rival followings around these leaders'
names (I Co 3 4 ff. ; cf. 1 10-12). That Apollos was in
no way party to this rivalry is evident from the fact
that upon Paul's return to Ephesus, he is found
there with the Apostle, unwilling, even at his mag-
nanimous urging, to return to Corinth while parti-
zanship reigned in that Church (I Co 16 12).

The only other mention of him is in the brief note
of Tit 3 13, where, with "Zenas the lawyer" evi-
dently as bearers of the letter he is commended to
the brethren at Crete to be diligently cared for and
forwarded on the journey. M. W. J.

APOLLYON, a-pel'i-on ('AjroAAiW): The Greek
name of the Heb. Abaddon (q.v., Rev 9 11). Unlike
the Hebrew, which first designates a place (of de-
struction, Job 26 6, 28 22, etc.), and secondarily the
personification of that place, the Greek word, by
its etymology, refers solely to the destroyer. It
thus represents a fuller development of the concep-
tion. A. C. Z.

APOSTLE, Q-pos'l (aTToo-roAos, 'a commissioned
messenger' [cf. Jn 13 16], from airo<rrf\\fii>, 'to send
from'): A designation in the early Church of gen-
eral and not exclusive application. It was given not
only to the originally chosen disciples of Jesus (Mk
313-19 [ver. 14 Gr.]; Mt 101-4; Lk 613-16), but
also to others (e.g., James, the Lord's brother, Gal
1 19; Barnabas, Ac 14 4, 14; Androm'cus and Junias,
Ro 16 7).

Whatever natural tendency there may have been
in the first days after the Ascension to confine this
designation to the Eleven, it was offset by the au-
thority assumed by the Church in the filling, under
divine guidance, of Judas' place (Ac 1 23-26), and
whatever idea may have yet remained of restricting
this term to the sacred number of the Twelve was
removed by the divine appointment of an extra
Apostle in the person of Paul (Ac 9 15; Ro 1 1). The
way was thus opened for the application of the title
to such persons as James, who, though apparently
not commissioned to any work, was honored for
his special relationship to Jesus (Gal 1 19) and his
special witness to the Resurrection (I Co 15 7), and
Barnabas, who though not related to the Lord nor as
far as recorded a special witness to the Resurrec-
tion, was divinely set apart for significant work (Ac
13 1-3).

Through this latter application it became natural
to give the designation to those who, though not
marked by any outward sign as divinely chosen for
special work, showed their choice by their notable
performance of the work given them to do. It is
this development in the application of the term
which has led many scholars to understand Paul in
I Th 2 6 as associating Silvanus and Timothy and in
I Co 4 9, Apollos with himself as Apostles, and in I

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Apollonia
Arab

Co 9 5, 15 5-7, as having in mind a body of Apostles
extended beyond the Twelve (see Lightfoot, Gala-
tians, p. !)'2 f. ; Lindsay, The Church and the Ministry,
p. 79 f.)- In II Co 8 23 and Ph 2 25, however, the
word in the Greek text is used in its primitive sense
of commissioned messenger. Thus "messenger,"
RV, though "Apostle" RVmg.

Once it is used in a highly official sense of Jesus
Christ (He 3 1) where His representative relations
to God ("Apostle") and to man ("High Priest")
are combined. M. W. J.

APOTHECARY. See OINTMENTS AND PER-
FUMES, 2.

APPAIM, ap'pu-im (~*~N', 'appnylm), 'nostrils'
or 'face': A Judahitc (Jerachmeelite) person or dun
(ICh230f.). E. E. N.

APPAREL. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS.

APPHIA, ap'fi-a ('Airfftia, a Phrygian name,
indicating that the bearer was of native provincial
stock): Greeted (Phm vur. 2) as "our sister." Since
this epistle concerns one household exclusively it is
probable that A. was Philemon's wife and the mother
of Archippus. J. M. T.

APPIUS, MARKET OF ('Amriov Qopov, Appii
Forum AV): A station on the Appian Way, 43 in.
S. of Rome, at the northern terminus of the canal
through the Pontine marshes (Ac 28 15). E. E. N.

APPLE. See PALESTINE, 23.

APRON. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 1, and
HANDKERCHIEF.

AQUILA (' AKvAar): A Jew of Pontus, who mi-
grated to Rome. When Claudius banished the Jews
from that city in 49 A.D., A. with his wife, Priscilla,
went to Corinth, where they carried on their trade of
tent-making (Ac 18 1-3). Probably through Paul,
who wrought with them, they were converted to
Christianity. They accompanied the Apostle to
Ephesus (Ac 18l8f.), where, during the latter's
absence, they instructed Apollos. Their house in
Ephesus was used as a Christian assembly-place (I
Co 16 19). They are mentioned again, Ro 16 (ver. 3),
a chapter probably addressed to the Ephesian
church. But see ROMANS, 3. J. M. T.

AR (iy, 'ar), 'city' (?): A city of Moab, in one of
the upper valleys of the Arnon. The exact site is
unknown (Nu 21 15, 28; Dt 2 9, 18, 29; Is 15 1). The
same place is referred to in Jos 13 9, 16; II S 24 5.

E. E. N.

ARA, e'ra (N~K, 'dr'a): A descendant of Asher
(I Ch 7 38). E. E. N.

ARAB, ar'ab or e'rab (2^8, 'drabh): A town of
Judah (Jos 1552), to which Paarai the Arbite (II S
23 35) probably belonged. Map II, E 3. E. E. N.

ARAB (2>!, 'drabh); ARABIA: The use of
these names in the O T and the Hebrew knowledge
of the land and its people must be carefully distin-
guished. Middle and northern Arabia and the life
of its populations were practically the same for the

Hebrews as they had Ix-en from lime- inimemorial
and are still. Its steppes, deserts, and oases were
inhabited by nomads in tins steppes,
I. Intro- seminomatls around the smaller oases,
ductory. and settled townsfolk in the larger
oases, all keeping up relations with the
nomads. Thus, the life there, at the present day,
gives us a sufficiently exact idea of their life as the
Hebrews knew it. The best descriptions are in
Doughty "s Arabia Deserta, but Hogarth's Penetra-
tion o/ Arabia may also be used especially for its
elaborate bibliog.-aphy of exploration.

Except for the remotest prehistoric times, it is safe
to start with the position that Arabia was the original
home of the Semites. From it all the
2. Arabia Semitic peoples of Asia have gone out in
the Original successive waves, driven by an economic
Home of law. The population of Arabia is al-
the ways on the edge of starvation, just

Semites, larger than what the land can support.
In consequence, there is a steady over-
flowing on its borders; nomads pass over gradually
into agriculturists; Bedawin into FeUahin. The
picture in the prologue to Job is of a tribe half-way
through this process. But further, from time to
time, the pressure becomes so great that Arabia
pours out its thousands in a conquering army over
the neighboring lands. The early conquests of Islam
are one case in point; those of the Hebrews are an-
other ; there must have been many more.

We have, then, to consider the Hebrews as an Arab
clan that abandoned its original nomadic life, seized
rich lands, and turned more or less to
3. The He- a settled, agricultural existence. Yet
brews Es- this was not complete, and a yearning
sentially back to the nomadic ideal is always
Arabians, evident (cf. RECHABITES). Nomad
and farmer are a frequent contrast in
the O T, and now one, now the other is given prefer-
ence, according to the writer. A knowledge, there-
fore, of Arabian institutions and literature and of
the Arab religion and mind is of the first importance
as a guide to the genius of the Hebrews. All the
forms of Hebrew literature, except the psalm, can be
paralleled and illustrated from Arabic literature, and
all the manifestations of Hebrew religion have kin-
dred appearances in the desert. There can be best
found that common Semitic soil of ideas and emotions
from which the unique religion of the Hebrews rose.
The oldest views of the Hebrews on the Arab tribes
are given in Gn 10 (cf. ETHNOGRAPHY AND ETH-
XOLOGY, 10). Later, they speak of
4. Refer- them separately, as Ishmaelites, Midian-
ences to ites, Kedarites (q.v.). For the south
Arab Peo- Arabians, now becoming important for
pies in the the earliest history and most primitive
Bible. religion, see SABEAN. Only compara-
tively late does the name Arab appear.
Yet the evidence is that the Arabs called themselves
so from remote antiquity, and that they knew no
derivation for the name. The Hebrews, on the other
hand, connected it with the word 'drabhah, a dry,
sterile tract, and spoke of an ' Arabhi, the inhabitant
of such a tract, a nomad (Is 13 20; Jer 3 2). Whether
this is the true derivation of the name, preserved by
the Hebrews, but lost by the Arabs, we can not tell.

Arabah
Aramaic

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

it:

' Ardbhih does not seem to exist in old Arabic. In
Is 21 13 the title is probably incorrect, and in the
oracle should be read, "in the steppe" or "in the
evening." In Ezk 27 21 the Arabs ('drfibh, a collect-
ive) are a separate people besides the Kedarites; the
name is not general. In Jer 25 24 we have, "all the
kings of the Arabs ('drabh)," evidently now in a broad
racial sense. The same usage is firmly established
in II Ch (1) 14, 17 11, 21 16, 22 1, 267), and the Chron-
icler throws it back unhistorically into earlier times,
e.g., of Solomon ('. u) and Jehoshaphat (17 11). For
him, ' Arabhl is clearly an Arab, and he reckons them
with the Philistines as neighboring enemies of Israel;
once (21 16) also with the Cushites (Ethiopians).
More historical is the similar use of the term in
Xeh 2 19, 4 1,6 1. Apparently the slow appearance
of Arab, as a name in the O T, reflects the gradual
movement of Arabian tribes northward (which has
often occurred), displacing the Ishmaelites, Mid-
ianites, etc., whom the Israelites had previously
known. So a new general name for these strangers
came into use. Cf. especially Noldeke, Arabia, Ara-
bians, in EB. In Ac 2 11 "Arabians" means, prob-
ably, Nabataeans, and for Paul (Gal 1 17, 4 25), Arabia
was the country of the Nabatseans including the Sina-
itic peninsula.

LITERATURE: Doughty, Arabia Deserta, 2 vols., 1888; Ho-
garth, Penetration of Arabia. 1904; NOldeke, in EB.

1). B. M.

ARABAH, arVba (T^Z, 'drabhah): In its
broadest sense, that portion of Palestine extending
S. from the Sea of Galilee to the Red Sea, or more
accurately to the Gulf of Akabah (Dt 1 1, 3 17; II K
25 4; Jos 3 16, 1 1 2, 12 3), and embracing within it the
Dead Sea, which is sometimes called the " sea of the
Arabah " (Dt 4 49). The Hebrew name is usually
translated in the AV by "plain" or "wilderness,"
but in the RV it is treated, more correctly, as a proper
name; the article frequently accompanies it in the
original. The modern Arabs give two names to
this deep depression; that portion N. of the Dead Sea
they call el-Ghor, 'the depression,' while that S. of
the Dead Sea and extending to the Red Sea, they
designate as I I'm/;/ el-'Arabah (Dt 2 8). Both por-
tions are intensely arid and hot. More than two-
thirds of the whole stretch lies below the level of the
Mediterranean Sea. The highest point is the ridge
about opposite Mt. Hor known as er-Rishy, whose
altitude above sea-level is 723 ft. (Hull). Almost
the entire valley is bounded on both E. and W. by
high mountains which on the average are not more
than 10 m. apart. Hence the valley is usually very
narrow. Geologically, it is especially interesting be-
cause the terraces are filled with fossil shells which
afford traces of the former height of the waters of the
Dead Sea. Though barren now, the whole valley,
being composed of marl, sand, and gravel, might
become by means of proper irrigation a veritable
garden of rich productivity. See also CHAMPAIGN.

G. L. II.

ARAD, e'rad p^, 'dradh): I. A town in the
Negeb or "South" region, about 17 m. S. of Hebron.
Its king fought against the Israelites when they were
on the southern borders of Palestine (Nu 211, 33 40).
It was afterward occupied by the Kenites (Jgll6;

cf. Jos 12 14). Map II, E 4. II. A name in the gen-
ealogy of Benjamin (I Ch 8 15). E. E. N.

ARAH, e'ra (rTN, Tmilt), 'traveler': 1. One of
the sons of Ulla, an Asherite (1 Ch 7 39). 2. A clan
or family name in the list of Ezr 25= Neh 7 10.

E. E. N.

ARAM, e'ram (01$, 'dram): I. Aram, from

which our words Aramean and Aramaic are derived,

is the Hebrew name of a people and of a country

usually translated "Syrian" and "Syr-

i. Name, ia" in the English versions. The orig-
inal, however, is retained as the name
of an ancestor in Gn 10 22, 22 21, who is reckoned as
one of the sons of Shem. It appears also as the
name of the country in a few passages. " Ararn-
itess " is used as equivalent to an Aramean or Syrian
woman (ICh7l4). The adjective "Syrian" ("Syr-
iack," AV, or "Aramaic," RVmg.) is employed to
express the language of the Arameans (see ARAMAIC
LANGUAGE).

The Arameans were one of the great divisions of
the Semitic family, lying, as a whole, after the dis-
persion of the race, between the Baby-
2. Geo- lonians (and Assyrians) to the E. and

graphical the Canaanites to the W. Yet they

Distribu- were also found in large numbers as a

tion. pastoral people on both sides of the

Tigris till the latest Babylonian times.

W. of the Euphrates they do not appear in force

till after the 12th cent. B.C., though it was in this

region that they played their chief role in history.

Their historical progress may be summarized as

follows:

They were, until perhaps the 15th cent. B.C.,

wholly nomadic or seminomadic, ranging from the

lower Tigris to the middle Euphrates.

3. Charac- In or about the 15th cent, a portion

ter and of them formed a settlement near the

Influence, city of Haran in Mesopotamia and be-
came interested in trade. With the in-
creasing development of wealth and industry gener-
ally in both east and west, their trading habits
became more general till from the 9th cent, onward
they became the chief traveling merchants and nego-
tiators of Western Asia. In the 8th cent, they
are found doing business in Babylonia and Assyria
and their language is the lingua jranca of all Semitic
peoples (cf. II K 18 26). Meanwhile, with the de-
cline of the Hittite kingdoms in Syria, Arameans had
been crowding into Northern Syria and gradually
takipg the positions in Middle and Southern Syria
from which the Hittites had retired. Thus were
formed, on both sides of the river, the Aramean
communities which are referred to in the O T and of
which Damascus (q.v.) was by far the most im-
portant.

The other western districts (see below), which are
distinguished as Aramean, all lay to the S. and W. of
Damascus; but the great cities of Syria to the N.
Carchemish, Arpad, and Hamath were also Ara-
mean after the 12th cent.

(1) Aram - Naharaim is the original of the
Mesopotamia of EVV and designates (somewhat
inexactly) the country to the E. of the middle Eu-
phrates as far as the river Habor (the modern

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Arabah

Aramaic

Kliabour). Naharaim is generally supposed to mean
'the two rivers'; but it should probably be explained
as 'the river region.' The Priestly
4. Political Code has Paddan-Aram in the place of
Sub- Aram-Naharaim. The center of pi ^Mi-
divisions, lation and trade till long after the Chris-
tian era was the great city or district of
Haran (q.v.)- This region was of great importance in
the earliest history of Israel. Abram himself lived for
a time in Haran (Gn 1 1 31, 12 4 f. ; of. Dt 26 5). In the
same region dwelt his kindred, from among whom
both Isaac and Jacob obtained their wives. After the
patriarchal period we read that Balaam, the seer,
came from "Aram" (Nu 23 7; cf. 22 5), and not long
thereafter "Cushan-rishathaim," King of Mesopota-
mia, invaded the newly formed Hebrew community
in Palestine (Jg 3 7 ft.). According to II S 10 16 " Syr-
ians from beyond the River" came to the help of
their kindred who were involved with the Ammon-
ites in their war against David, and with them suf-
fered defeat at his hands. This was the last warlike
movement against Palestine reported of the Ara-
means to the E. of the Euphrates, though Arameans,
as was natural, formed a large element in the army
of Nebuchadrezzar (JerSoll), and, we may pre-
sume, of the earlier Assyrian invaders.

Other cities and districts settled by Arameans
were the following; those which lay in S. Syria were
ultimately absorbed in the great kingdom of Da-
mascus:

(2) Geshur. A district lying close to Bashan (Dt
3 U) which was not subdued by Israel (Jos 13 13),
but at one time took possession of some Israelitic
territory of northern Gilead (I Ch 2 23). Absalom,
whose mother, Maacah, was the daughter of Talmai,
King of Geshur, fled thither after the murder of Am-
non (II S 13 37). The reference in II S 15 8 shows it
to have been Aramean.

(3) Maacah was close to Geshur, probably to
the N., and equally independent of Israel (Dt 3 14;
Jos 13 13). The Aramean origin of its people is in-
dicated by their descent from Nahor (Gn2224).
They joined the other Arameans of the neighborhood
in assisting the Ammonites against David and shared
in then- defeat (II S 10 6-8). See Tob.

(4) Rehob or Beth-rehob, to be distinguished
from the city of the same name W. of the Jordan
which lay "toward Hamath " (Nul321). It was
a small kingdom E. of the Jordan, closely con-
nected with Zobah and sent a contingent to join
the Ammonites in their war against David (II S
106-8).

(5) Tob was an Aramean district, to which Jeph-
thah fled for refuge (Jg 113-5), and which also as-
sisted the Ammonites in their war against David,
where it was joined with Maacah as Rehob was with
Zobah. In II S 10 6-8, omit "the men" before "Tob,"
L'-IS having been written for njj in ver. 6 and re-
peated in ver. 8.

(6) Zobah, the most important of the southern
Aramean settlements after Damascus. Already in
the time of King Saul it was pressing upon the people
of Gilead, as we may infer from I S 14 47. In the
time of David it took the lead of the Arameans in
endeavoring to prevent the extension of his domin-
ion. The next year after the defeat of the Aramean

and Ammonite allies (see above), and wliile Rab-
bath-Ammon was not yet captured, Iladadezer,
King of Zobah, sent for reenforcements and defied
the advance of David, who, however, utterly de-
feated the combination. The result was the sub-
mission of all the Arameans of S. Syria (II S 8 3 fl.).

(7) Hamath, to be distinguished from "Hamath
the great" (q.v.), was a district lying on the SW.
slope of Hermon, reaching at least as far as the Jor-
dan westward, and forming the boundary of Pales-
tine and Israel to the NE. (Nu 34 8; I K 8 65; II K
14 25; Ezk 47 16; Am 6 14). In the 10th cent. B.C.
it was an Aramean kingdom whose ruler Tou, though
not joining in the league against Israel, became trib-
utary to David (II S 8 9 ff.; cf. I Ch 18 9). As the
frontier of a rival people, its control was always
aimed at by the powerful kings of Israel (II Ch 8 4;
II K 14 28). See Wincklerin KAT 3 , 182, 231 f., and
Oriental. Forschungen, III., Heft 3 (1905).

v (8) Mesopotamia is used in EVV to translate
'Aram-NaJi&raim. The word among the Greeks and
Romans stood for the whole territory lying ' between
the rivers' Euphrates and Tigris, S. of the Masius
range of mountains and N. of the Syro-Arabian
desert proper. This great region, however, is not
designated by tliis or any other single name in the
Bible (except perhaps in Ac 2 9). It is through
the influence of the LXX that the term came to be
used in the versions for the more limited area as
above described instead of Mesopotamia in the larger
sense. See the articles under that name in HDB,
EB, and EBrit.

, (9) Syria and Syrian. Syriajn the O T translates
'Aram except in the case of 'Aram-Nah&raim and
may be said to comprehend all the Aramean settle-
ments and their inhabitants W. of the Euphrates
above described. According to the common view the
word is a contraction of Assyria and was employed by
the Greeks of Asia Minor to designate the neighboring
peoples of the Assyrian Empire. It became after-
ward restricted to the empire of the Seleucidse,
formed after the death of Alexander the Great, and
in N T to the surviving portion of it which had its
capital in Antioch, and Damascus as its second
great city, and which in 65 B.C. was made a Roman
province. J. F. McC.

II. 1. A son of Kemuel, son of Nahor (Gn 22 21).
See I. 1. 2. A descendant of Asher (I Ch 7 34). 3.
ForMt I3f. and Lk 3 33 (AV) see RAM. E E N

ARAMAIC LANGUAGE: The following parts
of the OT are written in Aramaic: Gn 31 47 (the
words Y'gar sahddhutlia) ; Jer 10 11; Ezr
i. Where 4 8-6 18, 7 12-26; Dn 2 4b-7 28: there are
Spoken, also several Aramaic words cited in
the N T. Aramaic was a branch of the
Semitic languages, cognate with Hebrew, which, in
several closely allied dialects, was spoken formerly
in the countries surrounding Palestine, and ulti-
mately also in Palestine itself. The name Aramaic
is given to this group of dialects because "Aram"
commonly rendered in both AV and RV "Syria"
or "Syrians" (II S 85, etc.) was the name of the
people, spread over different localities (as "Aram
of Damascus," "Aram of Zobah," etc., II S 85, 10
8), by whom it was spoken.

Aramaic
Arba

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Looking at Aramaic in general, its relationship

with Hebrew is such that a person conversant with

one can at once see that the other is

2. Relation- allied; but at the same time there .ire

ship with differences: though most of the roots

Hebrew, and grammatical forms have evidently
a common origin, the roots (or deriva-
tives) in use in one are often not in use in the other,
and there are differences sometimes in the conso-
nants, and frequently in the vowels. Thus 'he
wrote' is, in Hebrew, kathab, in Aramaic, k'thab;
'I wrote' is, in Heb., kathabti; in Aram., kitlibfth,or
(in other dialects) kethbeth or k-thabith; 'he made to
write' is, in Heb., hikhtlb; in Arnm.,hakhteb orakh-
tfb:' 1' is, in Heb., 'anl, in Aram., 'Ana', the masc. plur.
ends in Heb. in -dm, in Aram, in -in; Heb. 6 often
corresponds to Aram, a, as Heb. Id, 'not' -Aram, la,
Heb. kutheb, 'writing' -Aram, katheb, Heb. f5b,
'good' =Aram. fab: in Heb. a noun is made definite
by the article being prefixed, as '6th, 'sign.' ha-'oth,
'the sign,' but in Aram, by -a affixed, as '6th, 'sign,'
'atha, 'the sign' (cf. in the NT Abba, Beth-esda,
Gabbetha, Golgotha, Tabitha, talitha): in certain
cases, also, consonants are changed, thus 'gold' is
in Heb. zahab, in Aram, d'hab; 'three' is in Heb.
shalosh, in Aram, th'lath; Heb. 2J in certain cases
corresponds to the Aram. 3> (as Y "?,(<, 'earth'
Aram. J'lK); and in certain other cases to Aram.
tS (as Y^r, 'he counseled ' = Aram. W?*); many
words, again, correspond in the two languages, but
there are some which are in common use in Ara-
maic but are rare (usually either poetical or late)
in Heb.: thus 'to go down" is yarad in Heb., but
n'heth in Aram, (only in a few poetical passages in
Heb.), 'to go up' is 'alah in Heb., s'leq in Aram,
(only Ps 139 9 in Heb.), 'to forsake' is 'azab in
Heb., sh'baq in Aram, (and so in " sabach-thani,"
Mt 27 46 =Mk 15 34), 'lord' is 'adore in Heb., but
mare in Aram. (cf. I Co 1622, " Marana-tha," 'Our
Lord, come!').

The following are the principal types of Aramaic

known: (1) The Aramaic found on weights, and in

short inscriptions attached to contract-

3. Differ- tablets, from Nineveh, and afterward

ent Dia- from Babylon, from the reign of Sargon

lects of (722-705 B.C.) onward.
Aramaic. (2) The Aramaic of inscriptions
found at Zinjirli and Nerab, in N. Syria
near Aleppo two of the former dating from the
reign of Tiglath-pileser III (745-727 B.C.), and one
being somewhat earlier.

(3) The Aramaic spoken by settlers in Egypt,
found chiefly on papyri dating from the reign of
Xerxes (485-465 B.C.) onward. Some of the long-
est and most important of those at present known
are marriage-contracts (between Jews), containing
descriptions of house-property, etc., but there are
also others. An interesting inscription from Tf-ma
(in N. Arabia, about 250 m. SE. of Edom) presents
the same type of dialect. Aramaic inscriptions as
far as they go, of the same type from Cappadocia,
and (on coins) from Tarsus in Cilicia (c. 350 B.C.)
are also known.

(4) Biblical Aramaic (see below).

(5) Nabataean inscriptions (chiefly sepulchral).

Mainly from el-'Old, about 80 m. S. of Tema, and da-
ting from the reign of nmn (i.e., Aretas, II Co 11
32), 9 B.C. to 60 A.D., and onward, till the over-
tlirowof the Nabata;an kingdom by Trajan, 105 A.D.
These inscriptions have a considerable mixture of
Arabic idioms.

(6) Inscriptions from Palmyra, 150 m. NE. of
Damascus, in an oasis in the Syrian desert, dating
from abqut the Christian era to 270 A.D. Many of
these are inscriptions on statues erected in honor
of different magistrates, etc.; others are votive in-
scriptions; a particularly valuable one is a long
tariff, regulating the tolls payable on various kinds
of goods brought into Palmyra.

(7) Syriac, spoken in and about Edessa, 100 m.NE.
of Aleppo in W. Mesopotamia, the home of Laban,
the "Syrian" (Heb. the "Aramean"). In this are
written the Syriac version of the Gospels commonly
called the Curetonian or the Sinaitic (c. 200 A.D.),
the Peshitto version of OT and N T, and an exten-
sive Christian literature besides (3d cent. A.D. on-
ward).

(8) The Targums (Aramaic "interpretations," or
paraphrases, of the O T) of Onkelos on the Penta-
teuch, and of Jonathan on the Prophets, of Judaan
origin, but in their present form redacted in Baby-
lonia in the 5th cent. A.D., and (according to Nol-
deke, though doubted by Dalman) considerably
tinged by the Aramaic dialect spoken by the Jews in
Babylon.

(9) Galilsean Aramaic, preserved chiefly in the
Aramaic parts of the Palestinian Talmud some
dating from as early as the 3d and 4th cent. A.D. This
must have been the dialect spoken by Christ and the
Apostles.

(10) The Christian Palestinian Aramaic, spoken
in Palestine in the 5th and 6th cent. A.D., and pre-
served in a lectionary of the Gospels, and also in va-
rious fragments, chiefly Biblical.

(11) Samaritan. The Samaritan version of the
Pentateuch, liturgies, etc., dating probably from the
4th and following centuries after Christ. No. 10 has
many resemblances with No. 9 ; and No. 1 1 has some
(cf. the synopsis in Dalman Gramm. 2 , pp. 44-51).

(12) Babylonian Aramaic. The Aramaic dialect
spoken in Babylonia in the 4th to the 6th cent. A.D.
preserved in the Babylonian Talmud.

(13) ' Mandaic,' the language of the strange
Gnostic sect of Mandaeans (from Manda, ' knowl-
edge ' = yva><ri.s), half Jewish, half heathen, living in
lower Babylonia. Closely allied to No. 12.

(14) The Targums on the Hagiographa, and the
so-called 'Jerusalem' Targums on the Pentateuch.
Of later date than No. 8 (c. 5th-8th cent. A.D., or
later). The language is in the main that of No. 8;
but it exhibits some of the distinctive features of
Nos. 9 and 10 (see Dalman Gramm.'', pp. 395 ff.).

Of these dialects, Nos. 7, 12, 13 are generally
grouped as Eastern Aramaic, and are distinguished
from the others, or Western Aramaic, in particular
by the prefix of the 3d pers. masc. impf. being n
(in Nos. 12 and 13 also sometimes I) instead of y. The
dialects all resemble one another, though several of
them have scripts, representing particular phases in
the development of the Aramaic alphabet, peculiar to
themselves ; they differ also, to some extent, in vocab-

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Aramaic
Arba

ulary and grammatical forms. Thus, in addition to
the difference just noted, in Nos. 1, 2, 3 the relative
and demonstrative pronouns are zi, z'nB,, not, as in
the others, di, d'na: the pron. suffix of the 3d pers.
plur. is in Nos. 2, 3, 5, and Jer 10 ll-om, in Nos. 4
(Daniel) and 6, -On (Ezr has both forms). No. 2 re-
sembles Hebrew in certain features more than any of
the other dialects do (e.g., ' to sit ' is ysheb, not ylli f-h,
cf. Hob. i/ashab). The Biblical Aramaic belongs to
the West Aramaic group, of the type spoken in and
about Palestine (the relative, for instance, is di, not
zi, as in Babylon down to at least 400 B.C.): it is very
similar to that of No. 8, though in some respects of
an earlier type; it has also (in particular forms) no-
table affinities with Nos. 3, 5, 6. It was formerly
called "Chaldee," from the mistaken idea that the
language of Dn 2 4 ff. was that actually spoken by
the "Chaldeans" in Babylon. The verse Jer 10 11
has some peculiarities showing that its author must
have spoken a particular Aramaic dialect (cf. the
writer's LOT, p. 255; Xp'X also occurs in Egyptian
Aramaic, side by side with SiHX).

Aramaic was formerly used largely as the language
of commerce and diplomacy, as is shown by II K
18 26 (701 B.C.), by some of the Ara-
4. Use of maic inscriptions on coins and weights,
Aramaic in and some of those from Egypt. How
Palestine, prevalent it was in the countries around
Palestine will be apparent from the
preceding enumeration of dialects. It is not, there-
fore, surprising that it gradually made its influence
felt upon Hebrew. Aramaic words appear occasion-
ally in Heb. written c. 600 B.C. ; in Heb. writings da-
ting from the captivity and later Aramaic words and
constructions become increasingly frequent: there
are many Aramaic words, for instance, in Job, the
later Psalms, Jonah, Esther, the Heb. parts of Dan-
iel; Aramaic words, and sometimes also Aramaic con-
structions, are marked in Chronicles, Ezr, and Neh,
and especially in EC. In the end, Aramaic sup-
planted Hebrew altogether as the popular language in
Palestine; and so nearly all the Semitic words quoted
in the NT are distinctively Aramaic (e.g., Akel-
dama, Maranatha, and the forms in -a cited above).
Of course, the old view that the Jews forgot their
Hebrew in Babylonia, and spoke in 'Chaldee,' when
they returned to Palestine, must be entirely given
up: the 'Chaldee' (Aramaic) of Daniel was not
spoken in Babylonia at all; Hag., Zee, and other
post-exilic writings use Hebrew, which was still
spoken normally in Jerusalem c. 430 B.C. (Neh 13 24).
The Hebrews, after the captivity, gradually acquired
the use of Aramaic through intercourse with their
neighbors in and about Palestine.

Another error is also to be guarded against. It
does not follow because a word, otherwise unknown
in I leb. but common in Aramaic, occurs once or twice
in Heb., that therefore the passages in which it
occurs are late: some regard must be had to the
character of the word, and we must consider, for in-
stance, whether it occurs in poetry or prose, and
whether it is isolated or accompanied by other marks
of a late style. Such a word may, for example, not
have been borrowed by Heb. from Aramaic at a late
date, but have formed part of the original stock
common to both languages, though in Heb. it may

have been rare and used only in poetry. Tin -i
also reasons for thinking that the language of the N.
kingdom differed dialcctically from that of Jud:i!;;
and some Aramaic forms may be due to the fact
the writings in which they are found originated in
the N. kingdom. This has been supposed to lx: I lie
explanation of the Aramaic expressions in the Song
of Sol.; but the trend of recent opinion has been to
attribute them rather to a post-exilic date, to whirl,
indeed, viewed in the aggregate, they certainly srrm
to point.

I.ITKIIATURE: Lidzbarski, Handlruch der Northern. Epigra-
phik (1898); Cooke, North-Semitic Inscriptions (1903);
Sayce and Cowley, Aram. Papyri from Egypt (1906);
Kautzseh, Griimm. des Bibl.-Aram. (1884); Dalm-m
Gramm. des Jildisch-1'al. Aram/iisch (ed. 2, 1903), with
full introd. on the different types of Jewish Aramaic;
Noldeke, Manddische Gramm., 1875 (important for its
philol. notes), Syrische Gramm. (translated, 1904). ami
art. Aramaic Language in EB\ Levias, Gramm. of the
Aram, of the Bab. Talmud (1900); Wright, Comparative
Grammar of the Semitic Languages (1890). The first
three of these books contain numerous examples of Ara-
maic inscriptions and papyri, illustrative of dialects Nos.
1,2,3,5,6. S. R. D.

ARAMITESS, 6'ram-ait"es: An Aramean woman
(K'h7l4). See ARAM, 1. E. E. N.

ARAM-MAACAH, e'ram-ma'oeu, NAHARAIM,
ne"ha-re'im, REHOB, ri'hob, and ZOBAH, zo'ba:
See ARAM, 4.

ARAN, e'ran (p$, 'dran), 'wild goat' (?): A
Horite clan (Gn 36 28; I Ch 1 42). E. E. N.

ARARAT, a/a-rat ('J^i* 'draraf): A district
located in E. Armenia, between Lakes Van and Uru-
mia and the River Araxes. Thither the sons of Sen-
nacherib fled after killing their father (II K 19 37; Is
37 38; Armenia AV). In Jer 51 27 it occurs as the
name of a "kingdom" along with those of the Minni
and Ashkenaz, all of whom are summoned by the
prophet to fight against Babylon. The Assyrian
inscriptions, from the 9th cent. B.C. forward, fre-
quently mention the land of Urarfu, or Ararat. The
altitude of this region above the level of the Medi-
terranean Sea is between 6,000 and 7,000 ft. Noah 's
ark is said to have rested on "the mountains of Ara-
rat" (Gn84); the reference being probably to a
mountain range, rather than to any particular peak.
In the Babylonian account of the Deluge also the
impression is given that the mountain (range) of
Nisir stopped the ship. It is barely possible that
the double-peaked mountain, whose altitude is
17,260 and 13,000 ft., respectively, and which is
situated about half-way between the Black and
Caspian seas, may have been in the writer's mind.

G. L. R.

ARAUNAH, a-re'nfl RpS, 'drawnShy.The Jeb-
usite from whom David purchased the threshing-
floor over which the destroying angel seemed to be
stationed (II S24 16 ff.; I Ch 21 15 ff.; cf. II Ch 3 1).
Called Oman in I Ch 21 IS ff. E. E. N.

ARBA, Qr'ba (218, 'arba'), 'four': Only in con-
nection with Hebron as the "city of Arba." The
legendary ancestor of the Anakim near Hebron (Jos
14 15, 15 13, 21 11). See also ANAK and HEBRON.

E. E. N.

Arbathite
Ark

\ STANDAKI) 11IH1. 1C IWTKi.XAUV

ARBATHITE, Qr'Uith-uit (T;", '.irbhntln r.
A man of Beth-arabah (II S 23 31; I t'h 11 32).

ic. ic. N.

ARBITE, ilr'bait ("J'N, \irln): A man of Arab
(II S 23 35). See AHAB (-'*). E. 1C. X.

ARCHANGEL. See ANGEL, ANGELOLOGY, H.
ARCHELAUS, cVke-le'iis. See HKROD, 4.
ARCHEOLOGY. See HEBHEW ARCHEOLOGY.
ARCHER. Sec WARFARE, 4.
ARCHES. Sec TEMt>LE (of Ezekiel), 23.

ARCHEVITE, flr'ke-voit, ARCHI, Qr'kai, AR-
CHITE, ur'cait ("?">', 'tirk-'inli/r): Only in Ezr 4 9
and of uncertain meaning. Possibly a mistake in
the text for Cuthites (cf. II K 1724). Generally ta-
ken as meaning people from Ereeh (q.v.) in Baby-
lonia. E. E. N.

ARCHIPPUS, or-kip'ns ("Apxwnrof ) : A member
of the household of Philemon, probably his son (Col
4 17; Phm ver. 2). Though evidently a young man,
he held an important office in the church of Colossal
Paul calls him his "fellow-soldier" (Phm ver. 2; cf.
Ph 2 25; II Ti 2 3). He may have shared with him
in some arduous labor for the Gospel. R. A. F.

ARCHITECTURE: The practical art of build-
ing in Palestine was mainly evolved from a single
type, the rectangular, flat-roofed house of stone or
brick.

The common nomadic tent of skins or stuffs
exerted no discernible influence upon structural
forms, and the use of wood was confined to small
internal details or fittings. The house-type was de-
veloped into the dwelling or domestic house, the
palace or royal house, the temple and synagogue or
house of religious assembly, the tower or fortress,
the granary or storehouse, and the tomb or house of
the dead. Aggregations of houses in towns were
regularly encircled by protecting walls, having gate-
ways for communication and towers for defense. A
city like Jerusalem might contain special structures
for communication, like stairways or bridges, and in
connection with pools or reservoirs and in the Temple
area porticos or colonnades were built. It seems
likely that in the artistic treatment of all these types
of building there was almost nothing original to
Palestine. In cases where considerable elaboration
may be inferred, it was doubtless an imitation of
Phoenician, Egyptian, or Greek styles.

The typical house-plan was introverted, i.e., the
exterior was normally barren, broken only by the
gateway, while all rooms opened inward upon a
central court. In the palaces of Jerusalem and
Samaria there was some use of halls whose roofs
were supported by columns. In these buildings
precious materials like ivory, gold, silver, and brass
and imported woods, like cedar, were used. To
columns and walls color and carving were somewhat
applied. The successive Temples were undoubtedly
devised with an eye to beauty and impressiveness.
But aside from very general accounts (as in
I KG; IICh3; Ezk 40-44) and some scattered ref-

erences to ilct:iils, we have but meager data for
forming an architectural conception. Remains of
synagogues are found in Galilee, showing a rectan-
gular plan, some bases for pillar-supports, and slight
rarved decoration of doorways. Detached tombs
are found in some places, as a rule constructed upon
Greek or Roman plans. (See also CITY, HOUSE,
PALACE, TEMPLE, SYNAGOGUE, TOWEK, TOMB.)

W. S. P.
ARCTURUS. See ASTHONOM Y, 5 4.

ARD, Qrd (~'S, 'anl): The ancestral head of a
Hcnjamite clan. In Gn 46 21 he is counted as a
brother, in Nu 20 40 as a son of Bela. In I Cli 8 3 the
name is given as Addar. K. 1C. N.

ARDON, iir'don (!'">', 'anliin): "Son " of A.-/.U-
bah, wife of Caleb (I Ch 2 IS). Perhaps a place- or
clan-name. I \. 1C. N.

ARELI, a-ri'lcii (^8'N, 'nr'fll): Ancestral head
ofaGaditefamily (Gn 4(i in; Nu26i7). E. E. N.

AREOPAGUS, e"re-ep'a-gos: A bare rock N\V.
of the entrance to the Acropolis of Athens; called
"Aptios Ilayos ('Hill of Ares') from the near-by tem-
ples of Ares. It was generally the seat of a
criminal court with jurisdiction over murder, im-
morality, etc. The Areopagites were drawn from
the noblest-born and wealthiest citizens, all state
officials being ex-officio members. It was a self-
perpetuating, conservative, all-powerful court, prac-
tically governing Athens. Its power was modified
by Draco, but Solon extended its jurisdiction to
criminal, political, and moral cases. Under Roman
rule all its ancient powers were restored. Before
this court Paul was summoned and, at least, not
found guilty of serious offense, but rather dismissed
in contempt. One of the court, Dionysius, was con-
verted to the Christian faith (Ac 17 16-34).

J. R. S. S.

ARETAS, ar'e-tas (Apiras, more properly 'Apeffas,
transliteration of Aram. n."l~ri): The name of a
number of the Nabatsean kings (see ARAB, 4).
1. A ruler (Gr. rvpawos) of the Arabians c. lli'.t
B.C. (II Mac 5 8). 2. A king of the Arabians c. !H'>
B.C. (cf. Jos. Ant. XIII, 13 3). 3. The king men-
tioned in II Co 11 32 in connection with the escape
of Paul from Damascus. His original name was
.<neas (Jos. Ant. XVI, 9 4). In the inscriptions
and coins from his reign (cf. CIS, Pars II, Aram.
Nos. 196-217), he is frequently called "Carithath.
King of the Nabatceans, lover oj his people," in dis-
tinction from some of his predecessors who were
called "lovers of the Greeks." His reign dates
probably from about 9 B.C. to 40 A.D. (cf. CIS,
Pars II, Aram. Nos. 216, 217). There are no Dam-
ascene coins extant bearing the image or inscrip-
tion of Roman emperors between 34 and 62 A.D.,
so that Damascus may have been ceded to Aretas
during the last years of Tiberius' reign, or, more
probably, upon the accession of Caligula (37 A.D.).
This would explain the statement of II Co 11 32 that
an ethnarch of Aretas guarded the city to prevent
Paul's escape. As Aretas and Herod Antipas were
enemies, such an alliance of the former with the Jew-

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Arbathitc
Ark

ish priestly party is not unlikely (Jos. Ant. XVIII,
51,3).

LITF.RATUHE '. Consult especially Schiirer'a monograph on
the Nabata>ans in his GJV 3 , I, 726 f. (lieilaue II).

J. M. T.

ARGOB, ur'gob (-J"8, 'aryiibh): A region in
Bnshun. According to the O T, Argob was a port ion
of the conquered territory of Og, assigned to the half
tribe of Manassrh (Dt 3 4). In ver. 14 "all liashan''
is made coextensive with "the region of Argob."
Within it were situated ''GO great cities with bra-
zen walls and bars." Its western border was the
land of the Geshuritcs and the Maacathites. Dt
3 14 (cf. IK413) makes these 60 cities identical
with llavvoth-jair (tent villages of Jair),but this is
probably a gloss (cf. Driver and also Dillmann, ad
loc.). The Targum identifies A. with Trachonitis
(Tarkonfi), the el-Leja, a region 30 m. S. of Damas-
cus, and 40 in. E. of Galilee, covered with lava from
the volcanoes of the Ilauran range. It rises from 20
to 30 ft. above the level of the surrounding plain,
and its greatest length is 22 m. with a maximum
breadth of 14 in. It contains, in a good state of
preservation, many remains of towns, built of the
black basaltic rock. Similar ruins are found in the
territory to the S. and E. Archeologists are agreed
in referring all these remains to cities of the Greco-
Roman period, which may, however, have been
built upon sites previously occupied by cities of the
Mosaic age. Viewed from the plain, el-Leja looks like
a rugged coast, and "the region (lit. hcbhel; bound-
ary-line, Dt 3 4) of Argob" has been interpreted as
referring to this rough stretch of rocks. Authorities
are skeptical about this identification. Wetzstein
placed A. and the Zumleh range about 15 m. far-
ther E.; Guthe locates it between Edrei and Xawa,
E. of Jolan (ZDPV, 1890, p. 237 f.). Dillmann
fixed upon the region between Gerasa, Edrei, and
Ashtaroth on the W. and Jebel Hauran on the E.
From the evidence at our disposal, it is probable
that G. A. Smith's cautious statement, "within
Bashan lay Argob," is all that is justifiable (HGHL,
p. ool).

LITERATURE: In addition to works referred to above:
Buhl, Geogrtlfihie de,i alien I'nliistiiui', Kwing, PEFQ,
1895; De Vosiii 1 , .Si/r/e Centrale.

3. A. K.

ARIDAI, Q-rid'a-ai ('T1K, 'Hrldhay): A son of
Hainan (Est 9 9). E. E. N.

ARIDATHA, a-rid'a-tha (N.7718 : , 'Hrldhatha')-
A son of Hainan (Est 9 8). E. E. N.

ARIEH, e'ri-e (""8?, ha-'arye): The statement
(UK 15 25) is not clear. If Arieh be a man's name,
he was either one of the conspirators against Pek-
ahiah or one of his servants who fell with him. The
text may be corrupt. E. E. N.

ARIEL, e'ri-el (Vs^K, 'dn'll), 'lion of God': 1.
A Moabite (IIS 23 20). 2. One of Ezra's leading
helpers, designated more especially teachers (Ezr
8 18). 3. A mystical name of Jerusalem (Is 29 1-7).
The original text here may have read ^N^X ' (altar)
hearth of God.' A. C. Z.

ARIMATHiEA, ar"i-imi-thi'u ('Api/wtfam): '1 1,.-
home of Joseph, the counselor (Alt 2757 and ||s).
Probably the same as Ramathaiin-zoplu'm, or KH-
mah (q.v.). I ;. 10. N.

ARIOCH, ar'i-ok ("1"i8, 'aryOkh): 1. King of
Ellasar (Larsa) who served under the king of 101am,
in his campaign against Palestine c. 2200 B.C. (Gn 14
1, 9); probably identical with Kim-Kin, King of I.
whose name is also written Kri-Aku. 2. The cap
tain of the guard of Nebuchadrezzar (Dn 2 14 f., 25).

J. F. M.C.

ARISAI, a-ris'a-oi ('w"K, '&ri?ay): One of the
sons of Hainan (Est 9 9). I ;. 10. N.

ARISTARCHUS, ar"is-tar'cus ('Apla~rap X os): One
of Paul's traveling companions, a Macedonian of
Thessalonica (Ae 272). He was attacked by the
Ephesian mob (1929), but escaped death, and ac-
companied Paul to Jerusalem (20 4) and to Rome
(272). J. M. T.

ARISTOBULUS, ar"is-to-biu'las ('AptorcJ/S
1. They "who are of the household of Aristobu-
lus" are greeted by Paul in Ro 16 10. This Aris-
tobulus was probably the grandson of Herod the
Great, who lived and died at Rome and was a friend
of the Emperor Claudius. If the members of his
"household" became the property of the emperor,
they might still bear the name of their former master.
Among them were the Christians whom Paul re-
members. This is substantially the explanation of
Lightfoot. 2. The Jewish teacher of Ptolemy
Philoinetor (II Mac 1 10). J. S. R.

ARK 011, 'drdn), 'chest' or 'box.' The Ark
of the Covenant was an oblong box of acacia-
wood, two and one-half cubits long by one and one-
half deep and wide, overlaid with gold, with a rim or
molding around the top. There were golden rings at
each corner for the staves that were used for carrying
it. Covering its lid, there was a solid gold plate,
called the Mercy-seat, with two cherubim of gold at
each end (Ex 25 10-22). Some of the names of the
ark are significant. It was termed the "Ark of the
Covenant of Jehovah" (Dt 10 8), and the "Ark of
the Testimony" (Ex 25 22), because it contained the
two tables of stone on which were engraved the
words constituting the basis of the covenant be-
tween Jehovah and Israel. It led the way through
the wilderness (Nu 10 33), at the crossing of the Jor-
dan (Jos 3), and in the march around the walls of
Jericho (Jos 6). Joshua took it to Gilgal and finally
to Shiloh (Jos 18 l), where we find it in the time of
Samuel. It was captured in battle by the Philis-
tines, who were forced to return it (I S 4 1-7 1).
David removed it from Kirjath-jearim to Jerusalem
(II S 6). Solomon placed it in the Temple (I K
84ff.). Its subsequent history is unknown, unless
Jer 3 16 ff. implies its presence in Jerusalem in the
prophet's day. Shishak may have taken it. Some
critics interpret the tables of stone as two meteorites
in which the divinity of Sinai resided, and conse-
quently relies of fetish worship. This subjective
view has no support in the O T. The significance of
the ark lay in its connection with the cherubim
(q.v.); they were symbols of the presence of Je-

Arkites
Arnon

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

hovah, so where the ark rested there was a mani-
festation of the God of Israel. Ita designations
"the throne of God" (Jer3l6ff.), "His footstool"
(Ps. 99 5), and the idea that it could not be looked
into without danger of death (I S 6 19), all indicate
that it symbolized the immediate presence of the God
of Israel. To the popular mind it was a palladium
(I S 4-7). Mercy-seat (Heb. KappOreth) should be
rendered 'propitiatory,' or, more literally, 'propitia-
ting thing.' Deissmann, in his luminous article in
EB, has proved that simple 'covering,' a favorite
rendering with German writers, is wholly inadequate.
The LXX.term i\aa-njpu>v and its significance in the
ceremonies of the Day of Atonement (Lv 16) point
to it as being an instrument of propitiation.

The full description of the ark is confined to P,
but JE must have had its own account (a fragment
of which we find in Dt 10 iff.) which was omitted
by R in favor of P. J. A. K.

ARKITES, Srk'aits. See ETHNOGRAPHY AND
ETHNOLOGY, 11.

ARMAGEDDON, ur"ma-ged'en. See HAR-MA-

OEDON.

ARMENIA, ur-mi'ni-a. See ARARAT.
ARMLET. Sec DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 11.

ARMONI, ar-mo'nai ("JS'TtS, 'armoni): A son of
Rizpah, Saul's concubine, executed by order of David
to satisfy the vengeance of the Gibeonites (I S 21 8).

E. E. N.

ARMS AND ARMOR

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS

I. OFFENSIVE WEAPONS

1. The Spear

2. The Sword

3. The Bow

4. The Sling

5. The Battle-ax

6. The Chariot

II. DEFENSIVE WEAPONS

7. The Shield

8. The Helmet

9. The Breastplate, or

Coat of Mail
10. Protectionfor theLegs.

I. OFFENSIVE WEAPONS: Without doubt the old-
est weapon which the Israelites brought with them
into Canaan from their nomadic life was
i. The the spear (hdmth ISlSlOf., javelin,
Spear. AV; romah Jg5s, called lance [lan-
cets AV] in I K 18 28). It consisted
of a wooden shaft (II S 21 19, 23 7) with a point of
bronze later of iron (I S 13 19), which because of its
glitter was called lahabh, or lehabhah ("head," liter-
ally'flame,' I S 177) or baraq ("glittering," literally
'lightning,' Nah 3 3). The kidhon ("javelin," Jos
8 18), which is mentioned nine times in the O T, sig-
nifies perhaps a smaller type of weapon, which prob-
ably was used mainly as a projectile, while the spear
was essentially a thrusting weapon, and maintained
its importance even alongside of the sword. The
dart, shebhef, referred to in II S 18 14, and the dart,
ma??a', and the pointed shaft, shiryah (haber-
geon AV), mentioned in Job 41 26, are probably
varieties of this kind of weapon.

The sword (dagger AV, Jg 3 16 ff.), herebh (from
harabh, 'to be sharp'), most likely did not become
Israel's chief weapon until they had settled in Pales-

tinr. The blade, lahabh (Jg322), was perhaps gen-
erally of iron (I S 13 19; Is 2 4), straight, at times two-
edged (Jg 3 16; Pr 5 4), held in a sheath,

2. The ta'ar (from 'aruh, 'to open out,' In ncc
Sword, 'that which is emptied,' IS1751; II S

20 8; nadhan, I Ch 21 27), probably of
leather from which fact the terms herlq (' to make
empty,' Ex 159; Ezk 5 2, 12) and pathah ('to open,'
Ezk 21 33) are often used for drawing the sword.
It was fastened by means of a girdle over the coat,
and probably, as in the case of the Assyrians, on the
left side (cf. Ex 32 27; I S 17 39, 25 13). It was used
both as a cutting weapon, "to smite with the sword "
(II S 12 9; "to smite with the edge of the sword," Jg
21 10), and as a thrusting weapon, "to thrust through
with the sword" (I S 31 4; II S 2 16).

Along with the sword and spear, the bow, qesheth,
was from early times the most used weapon. It was

made of elastic wood (of. II S 1 22),

3. The sometimes of bronze (II S 22 35). There
Bow. were probably different sizes. The

small bow was strung most likely with
the hand (cf. II K 13 10); the usual way was to place
the foot upon the bow (cf. Ps 7 12, "he hath bent his
bow," lit. 'trodden his bow," from darak, 'to
tread') that is to say, one end of the bow was
placed upon the earth and held fast with the foot,
while the other was bent down with the hand. The
bowstring was made of the intestines of oxen or
camels; the arrows, hitstsim, of reed or light wood.
Arrow-heads were at first probably of stone, later of
bronze and iron. They were sharpened (cf. Is 49 2),
also poisoned (cf. Ps 120 4) and provided with barbs
(Job 6 4), and in time of siege were wound with tow
and pitch, and ignited (cf. Ps. 7 13). The quiver,
'ashpah (Job 39, 23, etc.), or t'll (Gn 27 3), in which
the arrows were kept, was carried by the foot-soldier
on the back, or at the left side; the chariot-warrior
had it fastened at the side of the chariot. On the
march the bow was probably carried in a leather
covering, which, however, enclosed perhaps only tin-
middle portion of the bow (cf. Hab 3 9).

From earliest times the sling, qela', was used by
the Israelites, not only in warfare (II Ch 26 14; cf.

Jg 20 16), but also as a weapon of the

4. The shepherd (I S 17 40) and of the hunter
Sling. (Job 41 20), as was the case with the

Assyrians, Egyptians, and Persians.
It consisted of a leather thong, or was woven from
rushes, or hair, or the sinews of animals. It was
made wider in the middle than at the ends and con-
tained a hollow place (kaph hnqqcla', I S 25 29) in
which to set the stone. The slinger grasped the sling
by both ends and whirled it in a circle about his heai 1
several times, and then hurled the shot by letting go
of one end of the sling. The missile was generally
a smooth, rounded stone (I S 17 40; Zee 9 15). The
Benjamites are said to have been especially cele-
brated as slingers (Jg 20 16).

The maul or war-club, mcphits (Pr 25 18), or bat-
tle-ax, mappets (Jer 51 20), was of no great impor-
tance among the Israelites. The battle-

5. The ax referred to in the marginal reading
Battle-Ax, of Ps 35 3 corresponds probably to the

crdyapts of the Persians (Herod. I, 214).
The chariot, rekebh (Jos 114) and merkabhah (Ex

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Arkitea
Arnon

Hittite War Chariot, Containing Three Soldiers, One of Whom Carries the
Small Shield.

15 4), with which the Israelites had long been ac-
quainted through the Egyptians and Canaanites,
was first introduced in the time of

6. The Solomon. Even David disabled all the
Chariot, chariot-horses which had been captured

(II S 8 4). In the time of Solomon
the number of chariot-horses is said to have been
four thousand (I K 10 26). The chariots were prob-
ably two-wheeled and open behind similar to those
of the Egyptians
and Assyrians.
They were most
likely made of
fig-wood. They
were not pro-
vided with
scythe-blades
a type of chariot
which was first
introduced by
the Persians
but were over-
laid with iron or
bronze (cf. Jg 4
3). Probably
three persons
usually stood in
the chariot
the chariot-
driver, the warrior, and the shield-bearer, shallsh =
'the third man' [?] as among the Assyrians, Hit-
titcs, and others; whereas among the Egyptians only
two occupied the chariot. According to I K 10 29
a chariot imported from Egypt cost, in the days of
Solomon, 600 shekels (about $360), a horse 150
shekels (about $90).

II. DEFENSIVE WEAPONS: The shield was of

two sizes: (a) the small shield, rnagen = acrtris (II S

1 21), often called buckler, which was also borne by

bowmen (I Ch 5 18; II Ch 14 8) ; (b) the

7. The large shield, tsinnah (I S 17 7) = Bvpcos,
Shield, the Homeric O-OKOS, which covered the

greater part of the warrior's body. We
do not know the form of these shields; probably there
were several forms -as among the Egyptians and
Assyrians ; in the Roman period the Jews are said to
have used the oval shield. The material was either
wood or wickerwork, covered with leather, or thick
leather arranged in layers. The latter was treated
with oil to make it pliable, more durable, and
capable of resisting moisture (II SI 21; Is 21 5).
Sometimes the shields were studded with bosses
of bronze (Job 15 26). We are to understand the
shields mentioned in I K 14 26 ff. as probably of this
sort. With such shields Rehoboam replaced the
gold-decorated shields of Solomon which had been
seized by Shishak (I K 10 ;6ff., 14 25 f.) and used
them in solemn processions to the House of God (I
K 14 27 f.). On the march the shield was probably
carried, as among the Greeks, slung from the shoul-
der by a strap, and provided with a cover, which was
removed before battle (Is 22 6). In battle it was
carried on the left arm.

The helmet, qobha' or kSbha', in early times was.
used only by prominent persons, as kings, com-
manders of armies, and similar officers. I S 17 38

mentions helmets of bronze; among the Egyptians
leather helmets also were used. Perhaps the Israel-
ites were acquainted with helmets of
8. The this substantial sort made of leather
Helmet, and protected with bronze or iron
(cf. II Ch 26 14). Possibly the round
caps which are found on the Assyrian monuments
most nearly resemble those of the Israelites; see
also the representations on the temple walls at

Karnak.

The cuirass,
or breastplate,
shirydn (Is 59
17;cf. Eph6l4),
was evidently
not very com-
mon (I S 17 38
["coatofmail"];
I K 22 34 ["ar-
mor"]; Jer464,
51 3 [brigandine
AV]). I S 17
shows acquaint-
ance with a coat
of mail, shirydn
qasqassim, o f
bronze. Among
the Assyrians, as
among the Is-
raelites, only kings and the principal chariot-warriors
wore the long coats of mail reaching to the ankles or
to the knees ; on the other hand , the com-
Q. The mon soldier protected the upper part of
Breastplate his body by means of bands or sleeve-
or Coat of less jackets of felt, linen, or leather.
Mail. Often these jackets were strengthened
with plates of iron, or studded with iron
or bronze bosses. Perhaps something of this sort is
meant in II Ch 26 14, where reference is made to the
preparing of coats of mail for the common soldiery.
Greaves of bronze, mitshah, are mentioned only
in the case of Goliath (I S176).
10. Pro- Military boots, f'dn, are mentioned
tection for only in Is 9 5 (cf. margin). We know
the Legs, nothing more about them. Probably
neither greaves nor boots were widely
used among the Israelites. W. N.

ARMY. See WARFARE, 3-5.

ARNAN, Qr'nan (}F&, 'arnan): One of the de-
scendants of David (I Ch 3 21). E. E. N.

ARNI (Apvei): The NT equivalent of the OT
Ram in the genealogy of Jesus (Lk 3 33, Aram AV).

E. E. N.

ARNON,ar'nen (1^~8, 'arndn) : Ariverof Moab,
formed by the union of many smaller streams spoken
of as the "valleys" of the Arnon (Nu 21 14). It
flows through a deep trench into the Dead Sea and is
one of the three principal watercourses E. of the
Jordan. It is first mentioned in Nu 21 13 as forming
the boundary between the Moabites, and the Amor-
ites who had robbed them of their territory N.
of the river. It was considered, theoretically, as
marking the boundary between Moab and the E.

Arod
Artisan Life

\ ST \\DARI) 1UBLE DICTlnNAliV

.Ionian possessions of Israel, but tlir Moabites were
actually in possession of a large district N. of the
Arnon. See MOAB ami MKSHA, STONE OF.

E. E. N.

AROD, ar'od (~'~8, 'drfx/h): The ancestral head
of one of the Arodites, a clan of Gad (On 46 16;
Nu 26 17). E. E. N.

AROER, a-m'er ("?''" 'ArO'lr): The name of
three cities: 1. On the N. bank of the Arnon, the
modern 'Ara'ir, built by the children of Gad (Nu
32 34), and subsequently assigned to the tribe of
Reuben, marking the S. boundary of Israelitic ter-
ritory E. of the Jordan (Dt 2 36, 312; UK 10 33)
(Map II, J 3). 2. A city of Judah (I S 30 28), prob-
ably the same as the modern 'Ard'ra, about 12 m.
SE. of Becrsheba, Map II, D 5. Possibly the Ada-
dah (q.v. ) of Jos 15 22 is a corrupt ion of Aroer. 3. E.
of Kabbah in Ammon, belonging to Gad (Jos 13 25;
Jg 11 33). The allusion to "the cities of Aroer" in Is
17 2 is both difficult and doubtful. The LXX. reads
"abandoned forever." A reference to one of these
cities is found in the gentilic name Aroerite (I Ch
11 44). G. L. R.

ARPACHSHAD, ar-pac'shad, ARPHAXAD, fir-
fax'ad. See ETHNOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY,
11.

ARPAD, ar'pad, ARPHAD, ar'fad P?"8, 'ar-
pa<lh): A city mentioned in the OT always with
some reference to its overthrow by Assyria (II K 18 34,
19 13 -Is 36 19, 37 13; Is 10 ; Jer 49 23). It lay about
13 m. N. of Aleppo and was once the capital of a
prosperous Aramean kingdom; several times con-
quered by the Assyrians and finally made into an
Assyrian province by Tiglath-pileser III in 740 B.C.

E. E. N.

ARRAY. See WARFARE, 4.

ARROW. See ARMS AND ARMOR, 3.
ARROW SNAKE. See PALESTINE, 26.

ART: In contrast with what was true of the
great nations on either side of them, the people of
Palestine seem to have had but very meager interest
in the arts of design. In their pottery, their textile
fabrics, anil in some architectural fittings there are
traces of attention to form, color, and decorative
treatment. But the rigorous religious ban upon
the making of 'graven images' (Ex 20 4) was in
later times so interpreted as effectually to repress
both sculpture and painting as fine arts. The only
striking exception was the cherubim, said to have
been used in the Tabernacle and the Temple (Ex
26 l; I K 6 23-35, etc.). Though the representation
of plant-forms was unrestricted, yet little of it is
recorded, and this is altogether confined to archi-
tectural ornament. (On the art of building, see
ARCHITECTURE and the references there; for the
particulars regarding the building of dwellings, see
HOUSE; concerning the literary fine arts, see Music
and POETRY.) W. S. P.

ARTAXERXES, Qr"tax-<;rc'si/ (Xrfi'n^-S, ',,r-
tahshast'): A name (Old Persian, Artakhshatra,

'great kingdom') borne by three kings of Persia.
The one referred to in the Bible is A. Longimanus
(465-425 B.C.), third son of Xerxes (Ahasuerus). It
was he who granted the request of his cup-bearer
Nehemiah to visit Jerusalem and rebuild its walls,
appointing him at the same time governor of the
district (Nell 2 1 ff., 5 14). He also (probably later)
patronized the migration of Ezra and his companions
to Jerusalem, and provided supplies for them from
the Syrian satrapy (Ezr7). The mention of his
name in Ezr 4 7 is, along with the whole section vs.
6-23, at best a gross anachronism, to be referred to
the time of the rebuilding of the walls, and in 6 14 it is
simply interpolated. J. F. McC.

ARTEMAS, ar'te-mas ('ApT(fias): A compan-
ion of Paul (Tit 3 12) of whom nothing else is cer-
tainly known. E. E. N.

ARTILLERY : In A V of I S 20 40 this term means
simply weapons, as in RV. E. E. N.

ARTISAN LIFE

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS

1. In General

I. CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIP-
MENT OP HOUSES

2. Tent-making

3. Masonwork

4. Mason's Tools; Mortar

5. Carpenter

6. Carpenter's Tools

7. Potter

8. The Potter's Wheel

9. Pottery

II. METAL WORK

10. Smiths

(a) Coppersmith

(b) Goldsmith
III. OTHER INDUSTRIES

11. Spinning

12. Weaving

13. A Fuller's Work

14. Needlework: Em-

broidery

15. Dyeing

16. Tanning

Artisan industry in Biblical Palestine was mainly
concerned with the construction and furnishing of

the house and with the manufacture

I. In Gen- and care of personal apparel and arti-

eral. cles of adornment. Neither the O T,

however, nor the NT employs a com-
mon term to designate all its different forms. The
nearest approach to a group designation of the arti-
san industries is that in the word "trade," rt^vrj
(Ac 19 25, craft AV; also "art," Ac 17 20; craftsman,
Tixvirr)!, Ac 1924,38, harash, Dt 2715; rendered
smith in Is 13 19). The Hebrew term, however, in-
cludes only those arts which are concerned with the
carving of wood and metal: (1) lifirash 'ets, "car-
penter"; (2) harash n'hdsheth, "coppersmith"; (3)
tiarash barzd, "blacksmith"; (4) harash 'cbhcn,
"stone-mason."

1. CONSTRUCTION AND EQUIPMENT OF HOUSES:
The antiquity of the tent as a shelter from unpropi-

tious weather is beyond dispute. An an-

2. Tent- cient tradition traces it back to the very
making, origin of the human race (Gn 4 20). It

survived to the latest Biblical genera-
tion. Paul, Aquila, and Priscilla were tent-makers
(Ac 183). Just how the art of tent-making was
practised is learned from data outside the Bible. In
the most ancient times the materials used wen- the
skins of animals (Ex 35 23). Later tents were con-
structed out of a special kind of cloth woven
from goat's or camel's hair. The colors brown and
black seem to have been preferred for this purpose

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Arod

Artisan Life

(Song 15). The tends made in apnstolic times were
of Cilician cloth and used in the Roman army. The
cloth was woven to the required width, stitched to-
gether and provided with cords and loops and spread
over poles about 6 ft. in height and securely fastened
to the ground by tent-pins. (See HOUSEH, I, 1
and 2.)

The work of the mason (oftener in KV "builder,"

baiuih, I K518; Ex 3 10; Neh 4 5) in Palestine was

diverse according to the material he had

3. Mason- to use. For very ordinary puqioses
work. (houses for the poor) sun-burnt brick

similar to that used in Egypt was con-
sidered satisfactory. The frailty of such structures,
however, and their liability to the vicissitudes of
weather and to attack on the part of robbers (Mt 6 19,
724f.), rendered them less desirable for those who
could afford better ones (Job 4 19). Public build-
ings, such as the Temple, the royal palace, and many
private houses were constructed of stone. It is to
those who prepared the stone for such structures
that the name mason is more specifically given (hd-
rash 'ebhen, 'cutterof stone,' IIS 5 11; called "en-
graver in stone," Ex 28 n; hdrash qlr, IChl4l;
yiiilhar, 'maker of a wall,' II K 12 12, and hotscbh,
I Ch 22 2; or 'hewer,' IKS 15). Engraving, Ex 28
11, 21, etc., is literally the 'opening' of the stone.

Of the implements used in masonwork occasional
mention is made of the hammer (maqqebheth, I K

6 7), which, however, may be also the

4. Mason's tool used in the quarry in cutting the
Tools ; Mor- stone from its native rock (paftlsh,

tar. Is 417; Jer 2329). The plumb-line
C&nakh, Am 7 7 f.) and plummet (mish-
qoleth, II K 21 13; 'ebhen ha-b'dhll, Zee 4 10) were
evidently employed in securing straight vertical
lines, and the "measuring-line [rod]" (middah, Jer
31 39; Ezk 40 5; Zee 2 1) for the laying out of ground-
plans. The stones built into walls were held to-
gether by mortar (morter AV, homer = bitumen, in
Gnll3). But by mortar is meant probably also
something more than the equivalent to modern ce-
ment, namely, the plaster used to smooth the interior
of the walls of houses (Nah 3 14; Lv 14 42 f.). For this
purpose clay or lime and sand mixed with straw is
known to serve at the present day in the construc-
tion of Oriental houses. (On 21, see also HOUSE.)
Closely associated with the mason in the building
of houses was the carpenter (hdrash 'its, II S 5 11 ; II
K 22 6, T(KT<av, Mt 13 55). Carpenters

5. Carpen- assisted in building and repairing the

ter. Temple, I K 6 ff. ; II K 12 1 1, 22 6. But
the carpenter's art was oftener devoted
to the manufacture of the furniture of the house
and of wooden agricultural implements. The
range of his productions was therefore very wide,
including articles of the crudest form, benches, tables,
plows, and yokes (cf . Justin Martyr, Dial. c. Trypho.
88) as well as the nicest finished carvings, inlaid
work, and veneering (mi/jla'cith, IK618; pitfuhe,
I K 6 29). In the latter type of carpentry, the finer
woods often formed the materials (cedar, fir, and
olive), and opened the way for the development of
taste ami the be<;innings of the fine arts.

liesides the ax and hammer and measuring-line,
mentioned as used by the mason, suitable forms of

which were also used by the carpenter, the saw, the
plane, the pencil, scredh, mg. "redocher " (RV Oxf.
He. Lex. "stylus," Is 44 13), and compasses are dis-
tinctly alluded to. In finer carpentry the Israelites
were dependent not only in the earlier
6. The periods (I K 5 6h), but also as late as
Carpen- the date of Ezra (3 7) on the Phceni-
ter's Tools, eians for the best results. As far as
Palestine is concerned no great devel-
opment took place even to the latest day; and the
work done by Joseph, the husband of Mary (Mt
13 55), and by Jesus (Mk6 3), both called carpenters,
was of the general type above described. In any
case the occupation did not lead to the expectation
of a high degree of culture or intellectual training.

Next in importance to wooden furniture in the
house were earthen vessels (Lv 6 28, 11 33). These
were naturally numerous and of many
7. Potter, kinds and imply the existence of a large
industry. Potters were numerous
enough to organize into gilds (ICh423). The
name given to the potter (yHtser, Jer 18 2; I Ch 4 23;
Kipapfiis, Mt 27 7) also indicates that liis art was
looked upon as preeminently calling into activity
creative skill. Allusions are abundant to the pot-
ter's work in its various phases of progress. He
takes the clay furnished in the soil and treads it with
his feet (Is 41 25; cf. also Wis 15 7); he kneads it with
his hands like dough, puts it upon the wheel (Jer 18
3) and fashions out of it vessels according to his
pleasure. Even God's sovereignty is compared with
the potter's power to make out of the same clay
some vessels unto honor and some unto dishonor (Jer
18 C; Ro 9 21). When the form of the product is
satisfactory to him the potter fixes it permanently
by firing the clay. The process of glazing was also
evidently familiar (Pr 2623; Jer 192; Sir 3829 ff.).
The chief implement of the potter was his wheel,
or rather wheels (Jer 183," frames or seats, " A Vmg.).
These were circular slabs of wood so
8. The arranged that they could be made to
Potter's revolve in opposite directions. The
Wheel. potter controlled their motions by his
feet, thus leaving his hands free to do
the shaping of the clay, while the wheels were chan-
ging the face presented to him.

It is natural to suppose that such a necessary
industry as that of the potter should have had a con-
siderable history even in the simple
9. Pottery, conditions of Palestinian life. This as-
sumption is borne out by the results of
excavations on the site of the ancient Lachish
(Tell-el-Hesy), under the direction of Prof. Flinders
Petrie and Dr. F. J. Bliss in 1890-93 (cf. Petrie,
Tell-el-Hesy, 1901; Bliss, Mounds of Many Cities,
1894). These of late have been enriched by other
excavations at Tell-Zakarya, Tett-es-Safi, and Tett-
ej-Judeideh, especially under Stewart Macalister, at
Gezer (PEFQ, 1899-1900). From the discoveries
made in these places and some in Jerusalem (Bliss
and Dickie, Excav. in Jerus., 1898), it appears that
the history of pottery must be traced back to as
early a date as the 18th cent. B.C. Its first stage of
development has been called the Earlier Pre-Israel-
ite (Amorite). Bowls and jars, which Petrie thinks
show the influence of Libyan art, have been identified

Artisan Life
Asa

A STANDARD BIRI.K DICTIONARY

with this type. The second is the later Pro-Isra-
elite (Phoenician) and shows traces of Phoenician
influence. Its products are dated as between 1400
mid 1000 B.C. The third stage, called the Jewish
([better] Israelite), includes specimens of productions
of the years 1000 to 300. At the latter date the art
fell under the influence of Greek models and was
assimilated to the Greco-Roman type. For pottery

ons of war, such as swords and spears made of iron,
must have been early resorted to. In the later
portion of the period of Judges it was one of the con-
ditions which the victorious Philistines imposed upon
Israel, that no blacksmith should be allowed to ply
his trade in their territory, "lest the Hebrews make
them swords and spears" (I S 13 19).

The use of copper was probably developed in the

THE POTTER AT WORK.

as emblematic of frailty, cf. Is 29 16, 30 14, 41 25; Jer
19 l ff. It was into a piece of pottery that Jeremiah
(32 14) placed a deed of purchase.

II. METAL WORK: The working of metals is
traced back to Tubal Cain (Gn 4 22). Among the Ca-

naanites, it appears to have been com-
10. Smiths, mon in the period of the Judges ("they

had chariots of iron," Jg 1 19). From
there the Israelites may have learned the elements of
work in metals. The materials most commonly
used are gold, silver, copper, and iron (see METALS).
Of the method of working the lower metals nothing
is learned directly from the text of the O T and little
from without. The term forger used in Gn 4 22 ("in-
structor of every artificer," AV and RVmg., "whet-
ter," AVmg.) is in reality too obscure to serve as a
basis for investigation. The manufacture of weap-

Orient even earlier than that of iron. For practical
purposes, however, it was commonly used with some
alloy of tin or zinc (brass, bronze,
10 (a). Cop- n'hosheth, Job 282; Ezk 22l8ff.).
persmith. Brass is enumerated with gold and sil-
ver as if regarded one of the precious
metals (II S 8,10; Ezr 827; "copper" AV, "yel-
low brass" AVmg.); but it is not probable that
such enumeration indicates any great scarcity,
since copper-mines are known to have existed at
Sinai from the 3d dynasty of Egypt downward
(Petrie, Researches in Sinai, 1006). Moreover, the
list of articles manufactured from this metal is long,
including household utensils such as pots and pans
and other implements necessary in the construction
of furniture (cf. Ex 25 ff.; see TEMPLE. 18, 19);
also weapons of war such as shields, greaves,

1. Zir, l:trL'f \vaUT-jar.

2. ///.V//N/// /,.;'..//, Iar-_'f u al.-i -jar.

'.<,. ilishshi froWrt, large water-jar.

4. II i*ti.*fi.' .///.;/>, medium water-jar.

5. Mwihlns, ilnnkiiiL'-iiiiiLV

G. Jnrr:i.j:ii I'll ranynm ".-H'-i.

POTTBHT.

7. Jurril, girl's jar for i-anyiMi; \v:iti-r.

8. Dorak, cimlinK-jar.

9. 'Asli'ui', Hat drinking-flaak.

10. /'wi/;. ilriiikiiiK-jar with spout.

1 1. A" /'/'' l>it/unl<'i' , t\vo-li:tnilh''l pol.

1L>. Kiilri , i'iiokiim-|)"t.

14. .TabAkh, small brazier.

l.'i. it,',.ilnt 1 1 lini,li. milk-jug.
Hi. N//'/7'f. diinkinff-bottle.

17. /ilnlitjf, ili>li for fating.

15. H:'lnt tHuMl, milk-jug.

rmmi Hi- ^nvi.i DITMM i-i..!i C-..I1...-H..11 I" iirir..r.i T tortwl Bmli

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Artisan Life
Asa

javelins, and helmets (IS 175 ff.; IIS2235). InNT
times the mention of Alexander the Coppersmith (II
Ti 4 14) indicates the specialization of work in this
metal. (See also METALS.)

Gold and silver were imported into Palestine by

Solomon from Ophir (I K 9 20-28). But the art of

working them was introduced from

10 (b). Phoenicia. The accomplished gold-
Goldsmith, smith, refiner ('founder,' tsorcph, Jg
17 4), was one who knew how to sepa-
rate the pure metal from its alloy (Is 1 25) by melting
the ore in the refining pot (Pr 17 3) to purify it of
its dross (Pr 25 4, 26 27), and to fashion it into use-
ful and ornamental articles. The various ways of
working the precious metal are beating ("turned
work" RV, Ex 2518,31) with the hammer (ham-
mering), plating, overlaying (Ex 25 11, tsaph&h;
cf. also I K620ff.), soldering, debheq, Is 417,
"the goldsmith and he that smootheth with the
hammer, him that smiteth the anvil, saying of the
soldering [''sodering" AV], it is good." Casting,
i.e., forming into a given shape by pouring into a
mold the heated liquid, is also implied in such ex-
pressions as "molten image" (Nu 33 52; Hos 13 2;
cf. the distinction between "graven image" and
"molten image," Nah 1 14; II Ch 34 3, 4). Finally
gold was beaten into very thin plates, which were cut
into strips, or threads, and these again used in em-
broidering garments or woven into cloth (Ex 39 3,
286). (See also METALS.)

III. OTHER INDUSTRIES: Of the industries

which center about the manufacture of clothing, the

first in point of order is that of spinning.

11. Spin- The materials used were goat's hair,
ning. wool, and flax; but the process is that

familiar elsewhere in the world and the
implement the spindle, or distaff (Pr 31 19). Like-
wise, as among other people, this was work usually
done by women at home rather than in public shops
by men (Ex 35 25 f.).

Cloth for use in making garments was imported

from Egypt and Damascus (linen from the former,

damask from the latter, Ezk 27 7, 18;

12. Weav- II Ch 1 16). Babylon too had a repu-
ing. tation for work of superior quality in

this class. But Israel was not desti-
tute of its home productions. The Egyptian monu-
ments present the art of weaving with somewhat
crude implements. In Palestine these must have
been still more primitive. The shuttle is, how-
ever, especially mentioned (Job 7 6). The weaver's
beam (IS 17 7; IIS21 19), to which Goliath's spear
is compared in size, was the heavy post of the frame
to which the warp of the prospective cloth was fitted
in. Cloth was woven in lengths suited for one gar-
ment, not in large pieces from which parts might
be cut off according to need. When it is said that
Samuel's mother annually made him a robe it is
meant that she wove a single piece as above de-
scribed (IS 2 19). See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS, 4.
The fuller (kobhe?, II K 18 17; Is 7 3,
13. Fuller's 36 2, yvafaiis, Mk 9 3) took charge of
Work. the cleaning and bleaching of cloth.

He washed the material with a prepa-
ration of lye, beat or rubbed it and dried it in the
sun. For this purpose he must own or have use of an

open tract of land ("fuller's field"; cf. Is 7 3). From
samples of fulling work found in Egyptian graves it
is gathered that the art was highly developed,

Of the sewing of garments or the modern tailor's
art nothing is said in Scripture. Sewing (t&phar)
was probably limited to the repairing
14. Needle- (patching) of worn-out or torn ap-
Work : Em- parel (Ec 3 7; Mk 2 21) and the stitching
broidery, of one piece to another in case more
than one was to be used in making a
garment (Ezk 13 18; Gn 3 7). Needlework (ma'&slh
roqem, Ex 2636,2710, etc., "work of the embroid-
erer" RV; riqmah Jg 530; Ps 45 14, "broidered
work" RV) is rather the working in for ornamental
purposes of figures in colored thread or of silver and
gold strands on a background of woven cloth.

The art of dyeing must have been known in Israel;

but the only clear mention of it has reference to the

coloring of the skins of animals (Ex

15. Dyeing. 255, 2614). In AV "dyed attire"

(Ezk 23 15) is a mistranslation for

"flowing turban" (so RV). The "dyed garments"

of the conquering hero in Is 6.3 1 are more literally

his clothes steeped red in the blood of the foes he had

slain (so RVmg. "crimsoned").

The production of leather from the hides of ani-
mals was certainly a common industry in O T times,
but the only leather articles explicitly
16. Tan- mentioned are girdles (II K 1 8; cf. also
ning. Mt 3 4). To these sandals and thongs
must be added (Mk 6 9; Ac 12 8). In
the N T the employment appears distinctly in (he
well-known but unique case of " Simon a tanner "
(Ac 9 43, 10 6).

LITERATURE : Delitzsch, Jewish Artisan Life, etc. (Eng.
transl. 1883); S. Meyer, Arbeit u. Handwerk im Talmud
(1878): Benziger, Hebr. Arch. (1894), pp. 213 ff.. 224 ff.;
Nowack, Hebr. Arch. (1894) I, 239 ff., 251 ff., 265 ff.

A. C. Z.

ARTS, MAGICAL: Ac 19 19, Curious AV. See
MAGIC AND DIVINATION, 9.

ARUBBOTH, a-rub'both (H'r^K, 'drubboth): One
of Solomon's provision districts, probably including
much of W. Judah (I K 4 10). E. E. N.

ARTTMAH, a-ru'ma (H^IIIJ, 'arumah): A town
near Shechem (Jg 9 41). Map III, F 4. E. E. N.

ARVAD, Qr'vad (1J18, 'arwadh): A Phoenician
city on the Med. coast 125 m. N. of Tyre. The
inhabitants (Arvadites, Gn 10 18) are described in
Ezk 27 8, 11 as skilful seamen as well as good soldiers.
The city was in existence as late as the Maccabean
age (Aradus, I Mac 15 23). A. C. Z.

ARZA, Qr'za (S5T58, 'artsa'): Palace-overseer of
Elah, King of Israel (I K 16 9). Possibly an accom-
plice in the murder of the king which took place in
his house. E. E. N.

ASA, e'sa (XCX, 'a?a'): 1. Third king of Judah
(c. 917-876 B.C.), son of Maacah and brother of
Abijah. His reforming energy was great, and by
bringing sacred articles from other shrines to Jeru-
salem (I K 15 15) he enhanced the Temple's preemi-
nence. Fearing Baasha's blockade (I K 15 17 f.), he
purchased Aramean aid, thereby incurring prophetic

Asahel
Ashtaroth

\ STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

censure (II Ch 167), and bequeathing to his suc-
cessors a heritage of war. His defensive works were
long remembered (Jer 41 0). The Chronicler alone
records the invasion of Zenih (q.v.), the Ethiopian
(II('hl49), and perhaps implies a resort to the
Black Art in his final illness (II Ch 16 12). 2. A son
of Elkanah (see I Ch 9 1C). A. S. C.

ASAHEL, as'a-hel (^y;;, 'dsd'el), 'God does':
1. A son of Zeruiah, David's sister (I Ch 2 16).
With his brothers Joab and Abishai he was among
the earliest and most valiant of David's follow-
ers (IIS2324; I Chi 126). A. was especially re-
nowned for his fleetncss (II S2 18). The statement
in I Ch 27 7 that he was the "fourth captain for
the fourth month" in David's army is a mistake,
since A. was slain by Abner before David had organ-
ized his larger army. The death of A. at the hands
of Abner (II S 2 18-23) was an act of self-defense on
Abner's part, but was nevertheless avenged later by
Joab (II S 3 27-30). 2. A Levite under Jehoshaphat
(IIChl7s). 3. A Levite under Hezekiah (II Ch
31 13). 4. Father of Jonathan (Ezr 10 15).

E. E. N.

ASAIAH, Q-se'yfl (";'yi;, 'dsayah): '}" has made
(or done)': 1. A trusted servant of King Josiah
(Asahiah AV, II K 22 12, 14 = II Ch 34 20). 2. A Le-
vite (IChGSO, also 15 6 and 11?). 3. The ancestral
head of a branch of the Simeonites (I Ch 4 36-43).
4. A Shilonite (I Ch 9 5 - Maaseiah, Neh 11 S?).

ASAPH, e'saf : A Levite repeatedly named by the
later historians (Ezr 2 41, 310; Neh 7 44, 11 17, 22,
12 35, 46; I Ch 6 39, 9 15, 15 17, 19, 16 5, 7, 37, 25 1, 2, 6,
9 [26 1 ?] ; II Ch 5 12, 20 14, 29 13, 30, 35 15) as originally
one of the leaders of the Temple psalmody and the
founder of a family or gild of singers. His name
appears in the captions of twelve Psalms (50, 7383).
It is not clear what relation this shadowy personage
bears to the other Asaphs named (under Hezekiah,
II K 18, 18, 37; Is 36 3, 22, and after the Exile, Neh
2 8). The word (", 'asaph) means " collector" and
may be a title. See PSALMS AND Music.

W. S. P.

ASAREL, as'ci-rcl (Vs-'~H. 'dsar'fl, Asareel AV,
a-sfi're-el): An individual or clan (probably Caleb-
ite) of Judah (I Ch 4 16). E. E. N.

ASARELAH, as"n-ri'la. See ASHARELAH.
ASCALON. See ASHKELON.

ASCENT: A word applied to a natural ascent
as from a valley to a hill or mountain (e.g., Nu 34 4;
Jos 10 10; II S 15 30, etc.). In I K 10 5 - II Ch !) 4
we should probably read "the burnt offerings
which he offered" (RVing.). See also JERUSALEM,
23. E. E. N.

ASCENTS, SONGS OF. See PSALMS, 4.

ASENATH, as'e-nath (r^S, 'asnath): The Egyp-
tian wife of Joseph (Gn 4 1 45, 50, 46 20) ; the daughter
of the priest of On (Heliopolis). Her name is usually
explained as standing for Nes-\eith, i.e., who be-
longs to NYith, the goddess of Sais. J. F. McC.

ASER, e'ser ('Ao-ijp): The AV form in the N T for
Asher (q.v.) (Lk 2 36; Rev 7 a).

ASH. See PALESTINE, 21.

ASHAN, e'shan ("y7, '*/<;,), 'smoke': A Levit-
ical city (still unidentified) in western Judah (Jos
15 42; I Ch 6 59, called Ain in Jos 21 16). Bor-Ashan
(Chor-Ashan AV, I S 30 30) probably indicates the
same place. E. E. N.

ASHARELAH, ash"a-ri'la ("^N'tX., 'ishar'flfih,
Asarelah AV, as"a-ri'la): An 'Asaphite' musician
(I('h252). Called Jesharelah in ver. 14.

E. E. N.

ASHBEA, iish'be-a (1'?'^, 'tmhbe'a): The place
or family name of a Judahite family, weavers of fine
linen (ICh42l). E. E. N.

ASHBEL, ash'bel (b3ft<, 'ashbrl): The ancestral
head of the Ashbelites, a clan of Benjamin (Gn 46
21; Nu2638; IChSi). E. E. N.

ASHDOD, ash'ded (TT;-S, 'ashdodh): The mod-
ern Esdwl, located 3 m. from the sea almost mid-
way between Joppa and Gaza (Map I, B 8). It
was one of the five famous cities of the Philistines,
and the residence of Anakim (Jos 11 22). The city
was assigned to Judah (Jos 15 46 f.), but was prob-
ably not occupied until King Uzziah broke down its
walls (II Ch266). Thither the captured Ark of
God was carried by the Philistines and placed in
the temple of Dagon (I S5 l). About 760 B.C. the
prophet Amos denounced its inhabitants (1 8), and
in 711 B.C. the Assyrian tartan, or general, of Sargon
fought successfully against it (Is 20 1). According
to Herodotus (ii. 157), Psammetichus, King of Egypt,
besieged it for 29 years (c. 630 B.C.), only a remnant
surviving (Jer 25 20). When Nehemiah, in 445 B.C.,
attempted to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, the Ash-
dodites were among those who opposed him (Xeh

4 7f.). Both Judas Maccaba5us (c. 165 B.C.) and
his brother Jonathan (c. 148) sacked the city (I Mae

5 68, 10 84). It is mentioned once in the N T by
its Greek name Azotus in connection with Philip
(Ac 8 40). G. L. R.

ASHDOTH-PISGAH, ash"deth-piz'ga. See Pis-

OAH.

ASHER Pi'IJ, 'fisher), popularly taken to mean
'happy,' though possibly an old deity name: A
son of Zilpah, Leah's handmaid, and one of the tri-
bal ancestors of Israel (Gn30i2f.). See TRIBES, 4.

ASHERAH, a-shi'ra. See SEMITIC RELIGION,
111.

ASHES. See MOURNING CUSTOMS. 2.

lin^S, '<i.ihhur, Ashur AV):
father" of Tekoa (I Ch 2 24,
E. E. N.

See SEMITIC RELIGION,

ASHHUR, ash'ur
A Calebite (clan?),
45).

ASHIMA, a-shai'ma.
12.

ASHKELON, ash'ke-len (i*rX, 'ashq'lon): The
modern 'Askelnn, 12 m. N. of Gaza on the seacoast
(.Icr 47 7), was one of the five principal cities of the
Philistines (Map I, B 9). The city was luiilt on a
rocky amphitheater overlooking the sea. Extensive

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Ahtaroth

ruins of the town remain. It was the seat of the
worship of the fish goddess Derceto, with temple and
lake E. of the city. Judah is said to have captured
it (Jg 1 18; cf., however, the LXX reading; also Jos
13 3), but the Philistines still occupied it in the days
of Samson (Jg 14 19), of Samuel (I 86 17), and of
David (II S 1 20). Three prophets predicted its
overthrow (Jer 47 5; Zeph 2 4; Zee 9 5). It was cap-
tured twice by Jonathan the Maccabee (I Mac 10 86,

ASHRIEL, ash'ri-el. See ASRIKI*

ASHTAROTH, ash'ta-reth (nvi^J?, 'ashtOroth):
The plural form of the name of the goddess Ash tore th.
This is found as the name of a city (Jos 9 10, 12 4, 13
12, 31; I Ch 6 71) taken by Israel, before the passage
of the Jordan, from Og, King of Bashan. It is possi-
ble, but not probable, that the same city is meant
by Ashteroth-Karnaim (Gn 14 5), an abode of the

CAPTURE OF THE CASTLE OP ASHKKLON BY RAMEBES II.

11 60), by the Crusaders, and by Saladin. Herod
the Great was born there, and built it up (Jos. Wars,
1,2111). Its name seems to have been derived
from a characteristic product, a kind of onion, which
grew there, called shallot, or escallot, whence Ash-
kelon. Its inhabitants were called Ashkelonites
(Jos 133, Eshkalonites AV). G. L. R.

ASHKENAZ, ash'ke-naz. See ETHNOGRAPHY
AND ETHNOLOGY, 11.

ASHNAH, ash'na (H^rtf, 'ashnah): The name of
two cities in Judah (Jos 1.5 33, 43), not yet identi-
fied. E. E. N.

ASHPENAZ, ash'pe-naz (?i5!y8, 'ashp'nitz):
Chief of the eunuchs of Nebuchadrezzar (Dan
1 3). E. E. N.

Rephaim at the time of the invasion of Palestine by
Chedorlaomer of Elam and his vassals. Eusebius
and Jerome speak of two places bearing the latter
name, five Roman miles apart, in the Decapoh's.
One of these may be the modern Tell Ashtarah, 21
m. E. of the Lake of Galilee (see Map I, H 4). There
is also a Tell Ashari, 5 m. to the N. of the former.
Other sites have also been suggested for one or the
other. It is not known what sense was borne by
Karnaim as an epithet of Ashtaroth (of which Ash-
teroth is merely the construct form), nor is it clear
what was the force here of the plural form of the
name of the goddess. Similar place-names have
been found in Egyptian lists relating to Palestine
and in the Amarna tablets. Be-eshterah, probably
for Beth-eshterah, is mentioned in Jos 21 27 as a Levit-
ical city, and apparently as equivalent to Ashtaroth

Aahterathite
Asia Minor

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

of I Ch 6 71. The coincidence of the form with Tell
Ashtarah (see above) is worthy of attention.

J. F. McC.

ASHTERATHITE, ash'tg-rath-oit (VT/Tf ? 'ash-
frdlln), 'man of Ashteroth': The gentilic of Ash-
toreth, the home of Uzzia, one of David's heroes (I
Ch 11 44). E. E. N.

ASHTEROTH-KARNAIM, ash'te-reth-kflr-nS'-
im. See ASHTAROTH.

ASHTORETH, ash'to-reth. See SEMITIC RE-
LIGION, 14.

ASHUR, ash'Or. See ASHHUR.

ASHURITES, ash'Or-aits ("jl^, 'Ushuri): In
IIS29 the Massoretic text reads "Ashurites" in
the enumeration of districts subject to Ishbosheth.
This is perhaps a textual error for "Geshurites" (so
Vulg. and Syr.), the Aramean people N. of Gilead,
or, more probably, for " Asherites" (so the Targum),
i.e., the Israelites N. of the plain of Esdraelon. In
Ezk276 the AV rendering "company of Ashurites"
is wrong. The correct Heb. reading bith'ashshunm
means "in boxwood" (or some similar wood), as in
RV. E. E. N.

ASHVATH, ash'vath (njp, 'ashwath): A de-
scendant of Asher (I Ch 7 33).

ASIA. See ASIA MINOR, 2.

ASIA MINOR

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS

1. General Introductory

Description

2. Asia

3. Bithynia

4. Cappadocia

5. Cilicia

6. Galatia

7. Lycaonia

8. Lycia

9. Lydia

10. Mysia

11. Pamphylia

12. Phrygia

13. Pisidia

14. Pontus

The meeting-place of the nations, and the scene
of great struggles between the East and the West,
was inhabited in prehistoric times by
I. General the Hittites, whose descendants were
Introduc- later known by the Greeks as "White
toryDe- Syrians." The Hittites have left traces
scription. of cities, palaces, rock-sculptures from
Pteria to Carchemish. They had a
system of writing and worshiped the Asiatic god-
dess or patroness of sexual instinct. True marriage
was unknown, girls gained dowries by prostitution,
which was a religious exercise and respectable. De-
scent was reckoned from the mother. The Hittites
built roads, and their road-system was inherited by
the Persians (see the 'royal road,' under Lycaonia,
| 7, below). The Phrygians and Bithynians began
to invade A. M. in the second half of the second mil-
lennium B.C. The Phrygians settled first in Troas,
then advanced to the Smyrna region, then to the
interior, where Midas-town became the capital.
Here are found indelible traces of Phrygian art and
civilization, in the rock-cut city and tombs of the
kings (Midas, Gordius) who greatly impressed the

Greeks. The invasions of the Cimmerians (8th and
7th cent. ) crushed the Phrygians. The Lydian king-
dom, which became independent of Phrygia about
716 B.C., and lasted to about 546 B.C., was in con-
stant intercourse with the Greeks. The Lydians
were great traders and amassed fabulous wealth
(Lydia, 9, below). Greek colonies, founded every-
where along the Asiatic seaboard (8th cent)., brought
Greek civilization to A. M., which sent back litera-
ture (Homer, Epos), art, and philosophy to Greece.
The colonies, weakened by luxury and intermarriage
with Asiatics, were conquered by Croesus (568 B.C.),
then, along with Lydia, by the Persians (546 B.C.).
Unassimilated by the Persians, they remained Greek
with Greek governors under Persian satraps. The
Ionian Revolt (500 B.C.) proved unsuccessful, but,
owing to the intervention of Athens, brought about
the Persian wars. Alexander destroyed the Persian
Empire (333-331 B.C.), and under his successors
A. M. was the scene of struggles for supremacy. The
kingdom of Pergamum, founded in 283 B.C., was
celebrated for its art and letters, great library, and
the invention of parchment. Its ruins are magnifi-
cent. Attalus III bequeathed the kingdom to the
Romans (133 B.C.). The Gauls under Brennus in-
vaded Greece and A. M. (to Syria), but were defeated
by Attalus I (230 B.C.) and settled in Galatia (below,
6). Seleucid kings founded many cities in A. M.
Their power was broken in 191 B.C. when A. M.
passed under Roman control (Asia, 2, below). The
Mithridatic wars by Lucullus (74-71 B.C.) and the
conquest of the Armenians and Cilician pirates by
Pompey (67 B.C.) completed the conquest by Rome.
The Roman provinces were: Asia, Cilicia, Lycia-
Pamphylia, Bithynia-Pontus, Galatia, and Cappa-
docia. Christianity spread with amazing rapidity
in Central 'A. M., and fixed the general use of the
Greek language.

The Roman Provincia Asia (Ac 16 6, 19 10, 22, 26;
I Co 16 19, etc.), organized after the death of Attalus
III of Pergamum in 133 B.C., com-
2. Asia, prised Mysia, Lydia (probably Caria
also), and the islands of the seaboard
including Astypalaea and Amorgos. Phrygia Major,
temporarily annexed in 116 B.C., was not perma-
nently incorporated until 49 B.C. Sulla reorganized
the province in 84 B.C. (the Sullan Era) ; In imperial
times A. belonged to the Senate, which elected as
annual governor a consularis with the title of pro-
consul (residence at first Pergamum, then Ephcsus),
under whom were three legati and one qiuzstor. The
kingdom of Attalus had included many free cities
(exempted from taxation). The Romans reduced
the number gradually under varying pretexts, until
Ilium alone preserved libertas and immunitas, i.e.,
the jus Italicum. A. was divided into nine judicial
districts (conventus): Laodicea ad Lycum, Syn-
nada, Apamea, Alabanda, Sardis, Smyrna, Ephesus,
Adramyttium, and Pergamum, though courts were
occasionally held elsewhere. A. was further divided
(144 B.C.) into 44 regianes (city districts), responsi-
ble for the taxes (a tenth in kind, exclusive of
customs duties and taxes on pasture-lands), which
were farmed out to Roman knights, until Caesar intro-
duced a fixed tax, less than a third of the former tax,
but producing 16,000 talents annually. Under the

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Aabterathite
Asia Minor

emperors each city paid a stipulated tax based on the
size and productivity of its district. The procurator
Augusti Provincia- Aniin was the tax commissioner
for the whole province; in each city he was repre-
sented by an exactor republican, to whom ten citizens
were personally responsible for the city's taxes.

The cities of A. retained their native institutions
(usually timocratical). But only citizens had a
voice in the eKK\r/<riai and magistrates alone might
introduce bills. The annually elected /SovXij, or coun-
cil, survived. The ytpovtrla, or Senate, had no po-
litical significance.. The \ayurrai (chosen by the
emperor) had charge of the city's finances. The
governor appointed the policemen, from a list sub-
mitted by the jSovXg. Tribal unions (xoivd) for the
worship of the tribal god flourished everywhere; the
KOIVOV 'Atrias (Commune Asia') instituted games and
cared especially for the worship of Roma and AUQUS-
tux: its delegates met yearly, wherever there were
provincial temples, to offer prayers for the emperor,
the Senate, and the Roman people, and to deliberate
on matters affecting the whole province; it might
criticize the proconsul and appeal to Rome ; its presi-
dent (called ap%ifp(i>s '\crias because of the pre-
dominating cult character of the KOIVOV 'Atrlat in
the imperial state religion) alone originated bills.
The games held on these occasions were also called
KOIVOV 'A<rlas, These unions ceased to exist when
Diocletian (297 A.D.) divided A. into seven prov-
inces. The Srifiot were individual cities, while an
f 9ms was a union of cities.

A. suffered greatly during the civil wars, especially
at the hands of Antony, but recovered rapidly and
was immensely wealthy during the first two cen-
turies of our era. Her woolen industries and dyeing
establishments (rugs and seamless garments) were
famous, as also were her banks (cf. Rev. 13).

The boundaries of Bithynia (Ac 167; I Pll)
varied much from time to time, but roughly speaking
it was separated from Asia on the S.
3. Bi- by the Rliyndacus and Sangarius, from
thynia. Pontus on the E. by the Parthenius.
In general mountainous, it has several
broad plains and one large river (Sangarius). It
still abounds in forests. In the Argonaut myth
B. is inhabited by Bebrycians, who were dis-
placed and absorbed by Thynian and Bithynian
Thracians at a time unknown to history. The Thra-
cians crossed the Bosporus gradually and maintained
their language and customs in their new home. The
name Bithynii, alone used in historical times, is an
expansion of Thynii. The Bithynians appear occa-
sionally in early history as an independent, warlike,
inhospitable people. In Persian times they were
still under native chieftains, whose power grew grad-
ually after the death of Alexander, when Zipoetes
defeated Lysimachus (297 B.C.) and Antiochus
(280 B.C.). His son, Nicomedes I, hired Gallic
mercenaries, subdued all Bithynia, founded Nico-
media (264 B.C.), and extended his kingdom. His
son Ziaelas and his grandson Prusias I continued his
policy. Prusias sided with Rome against Antiochus,
but Rome failed to confirm him in his possessions.
In the consequent war Hannibal led the Bithynian
troops, but had to surrender Phrygia Epictetus.
Prusias II, a weakling, was humbled by Rome, and

conquered by Attalus II, who placed Nicomedes II
on the throne. His son, Nicomedes III, was rein-
stated by the Romans, to whom he bequeathed his
kingdom in 74 B.C.

Besides Priapus, the native god of the Bebrycians,
the Bithynians worshiped Zeus on mountain-tops
under the name of Papas, the Phrygian Attis, Ares,
and the Thracian Bendis. B. was organized as a
Roman province (65 B.C.) by M. luncus, governor
of Asia, but after the annihilation of Mithridatcs by
Pompey (66 B.C.) Pontus was annexed to B. (Pon-
tus et Bithynia, 62 B.C.). B. belonged to the Senate,
and was governed in imperial times by a proconsul
of pretorian rank. Both B. and Pontus retained
their KOIVO, presided over by the dp^upevs Hovrov
and the apxitptiis Bti&vvias. The native legis-
lative bodies fiov\al, exfcXijaiaj, apxovra, remained in
power under the Romans, who, however, gave them
a timocratical character (Asia, 2, above).

Cappadocia, an Old Persian word katpa-tuka ('land
of Tucha'), applied by Persians to the country NE.
of the Taurus to the Euxine and from
4. Cappa- Lake Tatta to the Euphrates. The As-
docia. Syrians called all C. Tabal. The inhabi-
tants were also called Syrians, or White
Syrians, as contradistinguished from the darker-
hued natives of Syria (perhaps a folk-etymology).
The Cappadocians were Aryans, though probably
there were Semitic settlements in C. The country
was partially conquered by the Assyrians, probably
by Tiglath-pileser I (1115-1100 B.C.), certainly by
Shalmaneser II (859-825 B.C.), Sargon (722-705
B.C.), and Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.). The Per-
sians divided C. into two satrapies, which ultimately
became kingdoms: Cappadocia ad Taurum and Cap-
padocia ad Pontum (later simply Pontus). The An-
titaurus and the canon of the Sarus divide C. into
two halves: in the western half Mt. Arga;us rises to a
height of 13,100 ft., in Strabo's time a smoldering,
but now extinct, volcano. The whole surrounding
country is volcanic. There are deep beds of pumice-
stone overlain by lava, worn by erosion into lofty
cones (excavated into dwellings; the canon bluffs
are also excavated into thousands of chambers).
Many of these cones have Doric facades (temples),
while others display Byzantine architecture
(churches). The inhabitants are still troglodytes.
The whole region has but little water and few trees
(though it is the home of the apricot), and was always
thinly populated. In earliest times Tyana was the
chief city of western C. The plains of Tyana and the
Halys region are famous for fat-tailed sheep and for
horses (light roadsters, race-horses in Byzantine
times). Mazaca, residence of the Cappadocian
kings, later named Eusebia, was refounded by
Claudius and renamed Caesarea (still Kaisariye).
C. became a Roman frontier province in 1 7 A. D. and
was united with Armenia Minor in 72. Caesarea was
captured by Sapor in 268 A.D. It then contained
400,000 inhabitants, many of whom were massacred.
It was always prosperous, because it lay on the an-
cient and modern trade-routes. It became Christian
at an early period (I P 1 1). To the Church C. fur-
nished Gregory of Nazianzus and St. Basil. N.
of the Halys lies Pteria, a Hittite capital, on the
Persian royal road from Sardis to Susa. Here are

Asia Minor

A STAMiMM) 1UBLK DKTHiXMJV

great rock sculptures. Pteria was supplanted later
by Taviuiii. a trade-emporium and renter of the
Roman road-system. The eastern half of ('. was
known as Melitene, whose earliest capital, also
Melitcne (Assyrian, Melittu) on the Euphrates, was
the center of an Assyrian and Roman road-system.
The later capital of the Cappadocian priest-kings
was at Comana Aurea, in a narrow gorge. It was
tin' seat of the impure worship of the great Asiatic
goddess of fertility, here known as Ma. Six thou-
sand htcrixlinili served in her temple, practically as
religious prostitutes and suffered no disgrace by
such service.

By Cilicia was usually meant a country in south-
eastern Asia Minor, bounded on the E. by the Ama-
nus range, on the N. and the W. by the

5. Cilicia. Taurus range (Lycaonia, Isauria); but
in earliest times C. (Assyrian, Khilaku)
lay N. of the Taurus range, extending N. to beyond
the Halys River (Pteria) and E. to the Euphrates
(Melitene). Cilicia proper ('The Plain') was always
intensely fertile, populous, and wealthy. It is well
watered by the rivers Sarus, Pyramus, and Cydnus.
The coast is marshy. The climate is intensely hot in
summer, very malarious, and deadly to travelers.
The vegetation is rank (cotton, sugar-cane, tobacco,
dyestuffs, sesame, wheat, barley), with semitropical
trees (myrtle, oleander, fig, palm, orange, lemon,
citron). The marshes pasture great herds of cattle
and sheep. Western C., because mountainous, was
called 'Rugged Cilicia' (Tpa^fta, Tpaxa>Ts). Its
chief river is the Calycadnus, where the Emperor
BarbsroBsa was drowned.

C. (Assyrian, Que) was conquered by Assyria in
834 B.C. At that time Tarsus (Assyrian, Tarzi)
was its capital. Que was invaded by people from
Khilaku, who changed the name of the country from
Que to Cilicia, after their own name. C. became
an independent kingdom in 607 B.C., under native
princes, and was not conquered by the Persians till
c. 400 B.C. After experiencing many vicissitudes
C. became, with Lycia, a Roman province, 100 B.C.
It was reorganized by Pompey, 66 B.C., after his
defeat of Mithridates, and the pirates whom he set-
tled at Soli (Pompeiopolis). In 22 B.C. it became an
imperial province. Rugged Cilicia was long inde-
pendent, under native kings, whose residence was at
Olba. In 137 A.D., it formed one province, with
Lycaonia and Isauria, but was finally constituted a
province restricted to its natural limits by Vespa-
sian, with Tarsus as capital. C. is difficult of access
by land: on the N. the Cilician gates (a narrow crev-
asse-like cleft in Taurus 83 m. long) constitute a
dangerous, easily defended passage; on the E. are
the Syro-Cilician gates and the Amanic gates, less
difficult than the Cilician gates. Under Seleucid
kings many Greeks settled in Tarsus, which became
a center of trade and the seat of a school of philos-
ophy. (See TARSUS.)

The Gauls, or Celts, appeared on the Adriatic

coast about 300 B.C., and from 280 B.C. distracted

the Roman world under Belgius and

6. Galatia. Brennus. After the repulse of Brennus

at Thermopylae-Delphi, remnants of

the mutinous army under Lutarius and Leonnorius

crossed the Hellespont (278 B.C.) at the invitation of

Nicomedes I (278-250 B.C.; seeBithynia, 3, above),
helped him subdue Hithynia, then settled in Lydia,
Mysia, and Phrygia, whence they harassed west-
ern Asia Minor as far as Syria, which paid them trib-
ute. They were defeated by Aiitiochus I (281-261
B.C.) in one great battle (hence his title Soter, 'Sa-
vior' [f'fXa<raf]). They were afterward defeated by
Attalus I (about 235 B.C.), who confined them to a
part of Phrygia (from I'esMims to Tavium), thence-
forth known as (lalatia (from rXXot, TaXdroi)-
They were divided into three tribes: Tolistobogii (in
the Pessinus region), Tectosages (in the Ancyra re-
gion), Trocmi (in the Tavium region); each tribe
was subdivided into four tctrarchies; the twelve
tetrarclis were controlled by a Council of 300 to
judge cases of murder. This pasture-region famous
for its Angora goats and cats suited the Gallic pas-
toral nomads, who prospered, and, though defeated,
were independent and continued to be troublesome.
They became amalgamated with natives, and adopt-
ed the Greek language so rapidly though still speak-
ing Celtic in the time of Jerome that the Romans
called them Gallo-Graci. They fought with Antio-
ehus the Great against Rome and after his defeat (180
B.C.) they were conquered by Manlius, who placed
them under the suzerainty of Pergamum (q.v.). In
65 B.C. the tetrarch Deiotarus, Cicero's friend, was
aided by Pompey in return for services rendered
against Mithridates in suppressing the other eleven
tetrarchs; Pompey made Deiotarus king of G. He
died about 40 B.C., when Antony made Amyntas,
secretary and general of Deiotarus, king of G., Pi-
sidia, and parts of Lycaonia and Pamphylia in 36 B.C.
Amyntas annexed Derbe in 35 B.C. At his death
(25 B.C.) G. became a Roman province, with Ancyra
as the residence of the pretorian legate. This Pro-
vincia Galatia comprised G. proper (the kingdom of
Amyntas), and included portions of Phrygia, Lyca-
onia (Iconium, Lystra, Derbe), Isauria, and western
Pisidia to the Pamphylian frontier! Further terri-
tory was annexed to the Provincia Galatia from time
to time: the principality of Deiotarus Philadelphus
(western Paphlagonia) in 7 B.C., Sebastopolis in 2
B.C., Comana Pontica (Pontus Galaticus) in 35 A.D.
All this was the country known by Paul as Gtilatia
(see GALATIANS, EP. TO THE, 4). Pontus Pole-
moniacus was annexed in 63 A.D., Cappadoeia and
Armenia Minor in 72 A.D. About 72 A.D. the Pisid-
ian part of G. was given by Vespasian to Lycia-
Pamphylia, under a pretorian legate, while the
governor of G. was a consular legate. Trajan
(106) divided it into two provinces: (1) G. proper,
Paphlagonia, Lycaonia, and parts of Phrygia, and
Pisidia united under a pretorian legate. (2) Cappa-
doeia, Armenia Minor, Pontus (Galaticus, Polemoni-
acus, Cappadocius) under a consular legate. In 137
A.D. Lycaonia and Isauria were transferred to
Provincia Cilicia. Between 386 A.D. and 395 A.D.
Theodosius divided G. into Prima (capital, Ancyra)
and Secunda, or Salutaris (capital, Pessinus). G. is
now famous for its mohair. The inhabitants still
bear traces in their blue eyes and red hair of their
Celtic descent.

Lycaonia was situated on a high table-land (3,000
ft.) N. of the Taurus range. Its boundaries fluc-
tuated from time to time according to its varying

(Ci

A STANDARD BIHLK 1 >HTI< i\ \I!V

Ar,i;i Minor

political fortunes, but, in general L. was bounded by
Cappadocia, Phrygi:i, I'isidia, Isauria, and C'ilicia.
The northern part, in wliich Iconiuni is
7. Lycaonia. situated , is a vast, treeless, waterless
(wells reach water at a depth of 20-30
ft.) plain or steppe (frequent mirages); the rivers
that flow into this great land-loeked basin disap-
pear gradually and completely; the soil contains
much salt and in places is semi-barren, but in gen-
eral suitable lor pasturing vast herds of fat-tailed
sheep, of which Amyntas, King of Galatia (30-2.)
B.C.), had 300 herds. The Lycaonians were wild,
warlike border-men, who maintained their inde-
pendence in Persian times, but were conquered by
the Macedonians. Their ethnical affinities are un-
known. Luke's mention of the "speech of Lycao-
nia'' (Ac 14 11) means only that they did not speak
< heck in his day, and does not prove that the Lyca-
onians were neither Semitic nor Indo-European, as
has been assumed.

L. belonged to the Seleucids till 190 B.C., when it
was given to Pergamum. In 39 B.C. Polemon was
made king of L. and of a part of Cilicia by Antony,
but was transferred to the kingdom of Pontus in 38
B.C. In 35 B.C. Amyntas, King of Galatia ( 6,
above) defeated Antipater Derbetes, robber prince of
southern L. (see DERBE), and annexed his princi-
pality to Galatia. After the death of Amyntas (25
B.C.), most of L. passed with the kingdom of Ga-
latia into Roman hands, and along with Galatia
proper, parts of Phrygia, and western Pisidia to the
Pamphylian frontier, formed the Provincia Galatia
(see Galatia, 6, above).

The chief cities of L. were Iconium, Lystra, Derbe,
Laodicea Combusts, Laranda, Parlais. The whole
region S. of Iconium abounds in Christian inscrip-
tions and ruins of Christian churches. The Hittite
road from Pteria, via the Cilician Gates, to Tarsus
(the entire Hittite road -system: Sardis - Pteria-
Cilician Gates-Susa was known to Herodotus as the
"Royal Road") left L. to one side, though much of
her exports passed through the Cilician Gates. But
other roads led through the Tarsus passes direct
from L. to the seaboard at Anemurium, Celenderis,
Seleueia, along which the wheat, wool, and salt, the
chief products of L., were transported to the sea.
Said Pasha's new road to Seleueia follows the line of
one of these roads. Salt is made by crudest proc-
esses from the water of Lake Tatta (Tuz Giiil) in
sufficient quantities to supply all interior Asia
Minor.

Lycia (Ac 27 5) was bounded by Caria, Phrygia,

Pisidia, Pamphylia, and the sea. The country is

very mountainous, Mts. Cragus and

8. Lycia. Massacytus being over 10,000 ft. high,
Mt. Solyma (the 'ladder'), between
L. and Pamphylia, 8,000 ft. The views from such
alpine higlilands are the finest in Asia Minor.
The mountain valleys are fertile. There is only one
broad valley, that of the Xanthus, distinguished
for its fertility and its many cities. The ancient
name of L. was Milyas, which persisted only in the
northern highlands.

The first inhabitants of L., known as Solymi, who
were conquered by the Tramili (Tremil<r, Termilce),
were famed among the Greeks as builders of Cyclo-

pean walls in ( irceee; I hey have left proof of their cun-
ning in sculptures and rock-cut tombs which imitate
wood construction. The only mention of writing by
Homer is in connection with Bellerophon and L. The
numerous inscriptions in the Lycian language are
written in an alphabet, peculiar to L., but bused on
the Doric alphabet. Not any of them are very old
and they do not settle the nationality of the Lycians,
though they prove them to have been Aryans. It is
not known why the < .reeks called this |>eople Lycians
(Lcka in the Egyptian inscriptions). In Homer Lyc-
ians (Sarpedon, Glaucus) appear as allies of the Tro-
jans. The Lycians defended their freedom success-
fully against Cro2sus, but were conquered by the
Persians under Harpagus after a heroic resistance,
when the Xanthians cremated themselves and their
property rather than surrender. The Lycians joined
the Ionian revolt, were conquered, and became a Per-
sian satrapy. They sent 50 ships to Xerxes' fleet,
then joined the Athenian maritime league. They
readily submitted to Alexander. For a time they
belonged nominally to the Seleucids of Syria, but
practically from Alexander to 189 B.C. L. was an in-
dependent confederation of 23 republics (70 cities ), at
whose head stood the Lyciarch, assisted by a general
assembly, held at Xanthus, in which the six chief
cities (Xanthus, Patara, Pinara, Olympus, Myra,
Tlos) had two votes each. The internal affairs of
each city were managed by a council and general
assembly (see 2, above). In 189 B.C. L. was
given to Rhodes by the Romans, though it con-
tinued practically free. It is uncertain when L. be-
came a Roman province. It espoused the cause
of Caesar and was conquered by Brutus, when the
inhabitants of Xanthus again cremated themselves.
L. was given freedom by Antony, but in 43 A.D. it
was again a Roman province, under a legate ; about
72 A.D. Vespasian added Pamphylia to L., thus in-
stituting the Provincia Lycia-Pamphylia, under a
pretorian legate, which also included the western
end of Pisidia, that hitherto belonged to Galatia
(see 6, above). In Roman times L. had become
thoroughly Hellenized in speech and manners, and
her people were very prosperous, as the remains of
magnificent theaters and other buildings attest.

Lydia was named from Lydus, son of the sun-god
Attys. ' In Assyrian the Lydians were called Luddi
(660 B.C.). The earliest Greek name
9. Lydia. was Mreonia (in Homer, who calls its
capital Hyde, afterward Sardis). The
Greeks assigned two dynasties to L. in mythical
times: Attyadse and Sandonida;, or Heraclida'.
The Attyadae were descendants of Attys. Eusebius
says that Sardis was taken by the Cimmerians 1078
B.C., but as the Cimmerians did not appear till
about 670 B.C., the Cimmerians of Eusebius were
probably Hittites. With the decay of the Hittite
Empire the second mythical Lydian dynasty came
into power, the Sandonidce, so called because they
were descendants of the god Sandon. The founder
was Ninus, evidently a myth, because the Assyrians
never crossed the Halys River prior to the times of
Asshurbanipal; the same dynasty was called Herac-
lida (from Heracles and Omphale) by the Greeks.
It reigned for about 450 years, and was supplanted
by the Mermnada in the person of Gyges about 690

Asia Minor

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

B.C. Henceforth the name L. wu uied exohnively,

and the term Ma-onia was restricted to the "burnt"
(volcanic) region of the upper Ilennus. During
Gyges' reign the Cimmerian invasion took plaer.
Asshurbanipal aided Gyges (lilil) n.r.) and therefore
claimed suzerainty over L. Gyges was slain by the
Cimmerians (652 B.C.). Ardys, Gyges' son, was
tributary to Assyria. Alyattes (fourth Mermnad,
612-503 B.C.) expelled the Cimmerians, destroyed
the Phrygian Kmpire, and took the Greek cities of
the seaboard, allowing them to retain their native
institutions, though they paid tribute. He made L.
great and wealthy. Alyattes' son Creesus con-
quered all Asia Minor \V. of the llalys River (ex-
cept Lycia). He became famous for his wealth (his
gifts to Delphi alone aggregated $6,000,000). After
ruling 15 years, he was conquered by Cyrus (546
B.C.), who annexed L. to Persia, when Sardis became
the western capital of the Persian Empire. The
Lydians, who hitherto had been brave and warlike,
were made effeminate by the Persians. They were
natural merchants, devoted themselves to commerce,
and became business mediaries between Asia and
Greece. The ' Lydian market' was famous and fol-
lowed every army. They manufactured costly gar-
ments, rugs (Giordiz, Ushak), dyed woolen stuffs
(madder, Turkey red), cast bronze, and were the first
to coin money by stamping a rude ingot of electrum,
which Crcesus replaced by gold and silver. They were
musicians, and also kept the first inns. They grad-
ually lost their nationality and adopted the Greek
language. They inherited from the Hittitcs the
nature-worship of Cybele (also called Ma and the
Ephesian Diana [q.v.]) and the sun-god Attys, the
sun-husband of Cybele (Semitic Tammuz = Greek
Adonis), who mutilated himself and was therefore
served by eunuch priests. His death by a boar
meant that summer was slain by the boar-tusk of
winter.

Mt. Tmolus (6,000 ft. high) divides L. into two
regions. Famous fertile plains are the Cilbian,
Caystrian, and Hyrcanian. The rivers are the Ca-
ystrus, Hermus (tributaries Cyllus, Cogamus, Pac-
tolus). The Gygcean lake was noted; on its bank
were the earliest settlements of the Lydians, who
after their removal to Hyde-Sardis retained it as the
great national cemetery, whose pyramidal grave
monuments are still extant, among them the tomb
of Alyattes (200 ft. high, 381 yards in diameter).
After Alexander's death L. passed first to Antig-
onus (about 320 B.C.). Later, Achaeus was King
of Sardis (about 218 B.C.) until defeated by An-
tiochus (214 B.C.). In 189 B.C. L. was given by the
Romans to Eumenes, and at the death of Attalus
III of Pergamum (133 B.C.) it passed to Rome and
was incorporated into the Provinda Asia. The
plains of L. are very fertile. In ancient times they
produced wine and saffron. At present tobacco,
cotton, famous melons, and Tchaoosh grapes are
grown.

The chief cities of L. were Sardis (the capital and
the terminus of the Persian 'Royal Road'), Philadel-
phia, Thyatira, Magnesia ad Sipylum, Hypa-pa.
L. was Christianized at an early period as a result of
the labors of Paul and his companions.

Mysia, a country in the northwestern corner of

Asia Minor, whose boundaries fluctuated from time

to time, but, loosely speaking, was bounded by

Lydia (Mt. Temnus), Phrygia, and

10. Mysia. Bithynia (Mt. Olympus, 6,000 ft.). It

was divided into Troas (probably the
first settlement of the Thracian Briges, or Phryg-
ians, on Asiatic soil), Phrygia Parvaon the Propon-
tis (so named because subject to Plirygia when the
Greeks were founding colonies), .<Eolis (Greek colo-
nists), Teuthrania (Pergamum region), and M.
proper, which in Lydian and Persian times was con-
fined to the interior. The appellation Mysia was
not applied to all this territory until Pergamenian
and Roman times. The Mysians maintained their
tribal independence under the Persian kings, though
they were never really an independent nation. Their
origin is not positively known, but they are thought
to have been akin to the Lydians and Carians.
Their language was a combination of Phrygian and
Lydian. They appear first as allies of Troy. They
were conquered successively by Crossus, by the Per-
sians (nominally), and by Alexander, after whose
death M. passed to the Seleucids till 189 B.C., when
it was given by the Romans to Eumenes, King of
Pergamum. When in 133 B.C. Attalus III be-
queathed his kingdom to Rome M. became a part of
the Provinda Asia ( 2, above).

The interior of M. is a table-land, stepped by
mountains running E. and W. It was once covered
by forests, and had but few cities, but the whole sea-
board was dotted with cities colonized by Greeks
from EUca in ^Eolis to Cyzicus. The most impor-
tant city of the interior was Pergamum ; among those
on the coast were Cyzicus (on the Propontis, founded
by Miletus), Lampacus, Abydus, Alexandria Troas,
Assos, Adramyttium (now 6 m. inland), Myrina,
lira. The most famous mountains were Ida (5,750
ft.) in Troas, and Olympus (7,600 ft.). The largest
rivers were the Rhyndacus and Macestus, but the
most famous were the Scamander, Simoeis, Grani-
cus, Caicus. The inhabitants of M. were Phrygians,
Trojans, jEolian Greeks, and Mysians proper in the
interior: the latter were a pastoral folk, who played
but a small role in history.

Pamphylia, a name applied originally to the level

coastal plain lying between Lycia and Cilicia, S. of the

Taurus Mountains (Pisidia). The plain

11. Pam- is a chalky soil, being a deposit made
phylia. by rivers, with carbonate of lime,

which here, as in many places in Asia
Minor and Greece, is rapidly discharged, forming
land. The plain is about 75 in. long by 30 m. wii'e.
At an early period Greek colonies were founded at
Olbia (afterward Attalia) and Side, whose sphere of
influence was extended inland to Perga, Sillenus, and
Aspendus. The Pamphylians were never independ-
ent and never made their mark in history; they seem
to have been an admixture of aborigines (probably
of the same stock as the Cilicians ) and Greek colonist s ;
their language and institutions also were partly Greek,
partly barbarian. P. shared the varying fortunes of
Asia Minor; conquered by Alyattes, King of Lydia
(612-563), then successively by Persians, Macedo-
nians, Seleucids. After the defeat of Antiochus III
(190 B.C.) P. was presented by the Romans to At-
talus II, King of Pergamum, who made Attalia

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Alia Minor

(formerly Olbia) the capital of P. It passed, by
the will of Attalus III (133 B.C.), to Rome, but it
is not known just when P. was united with Cilicia
into a Roman province; it is known, however, that
Cicero was governor of Cilicia-Pamphylia-Cyprus.
For a short time P. was a part of the kingdom of
Amyntas of (ialatia (36-25 B.C.). It formed a proc-
uratorial province from 25 to 50 A.D. In 74 A.D.
Vespasian united Lycia and P. into one province, to
which ho addod the western end of Pisidia, the moun-
tainous country hitherto belonging to Galatia. Both
Cilicians and Pamphylians were notorious pirates,
whose chief center and slave-market was at Side.
These pirates were suppressed by Pompey (67 B.C.)
anil settled at Soli (Pompeiopolis) in Cilician terri-
tory. The chief cities were Olbia (Attalia), Side,
Perga, Sillenus, Aspcndus (excellent theater). Fa-
mous rivers were the Eurymedon (the scene of
Cimon's naval battle), the Cestrus (whose ultimate
source is the Egherdir lake, whose water flows under
the Taurus Mountains, and rises as the Cestrus, a
fact discovered by the present writer), Melas, Catar-
rhactes (or Duden Su, 'sinking river' it sinks twice,
a phenomenon common in Asia Minor and Greece).
In winter the Circassians now bring herds of horses
from mountains of Paphlagonia to pasture in plains
of Pamphylia. In summer the climate is deadly,
giving rise to pernicious fever.

The original boundaries of Phrygia were vague, but
in prehistoric times it included the whole western in-
terior of Asia Minor, extending through
12. Propontis to the Hellespont (Phrygia.

Phrygia. Parva). The Greeks considered the
Phrygians the primeval people, who
spoke the original language of man, while her kings
were peers of gods (Tantalus). The Phrygian king-
dom supplanted a part of the Hittite Empire (the
Hittite road, afterward the 'Royal Road' of the Per-
sians, passed near 'Midas-town'). P. was an inde-
pendent kingdom for a long time under Midas-
Gordius. The Cimmerians, 680-670 B.C. (Midas
committed suicide) held P. for about 80 years.
They were expelled by Alyattes (590-585 B.C.), who
annexed P. to Lydia, when the Halys became the
boundary between Lydia and Media (585 B.C.).
After the fall of Sardis (546 B.C.) P. was incor-
porated into the Persian Empire. After its con-
quest by Alexander it fell to Antigonus. After the
battle of Ipsus (301 B.C.), it belonged to the Seleu-
cids of Syria. The quartering of Gauls in P. by At-
talus I brought ruin to the country (see 6, above).
The western part of P. was annexed to Pergamum
in 189 (Phrygia Epictetus). It passed, by the will
of Attalus III (133), to Rome, and was incorporated
(120, after the death of Mithridates) into the prov-
ince of Asia ( 2, above).

The Phrygians were akin to the Greeks, who
thought them akin to the Armenians. They prob-
ably came from Europe via the Hellespont to Asia
Minor, though some may have come overland via
Armenia-Cappadocia. They were most famous in
prehistoric times (Homer, Troas, Sipylus, Sinope)
and made a tremendous impression on the Greek
mind (cf. Midas, Gordius, Marsyas, Olympus, the
flute). Their religion, too, had a great influence on
the Greeks; their chief deities were Cybele (Motor

Kubile [Phrygian designation of Cybele], the 'Asiatic-
Mother,' associated with the nature-worship of pro-
creative power in animals and plants) and hi.-r son-
husband the sun-god Sabazius-AUys (i.e., Tammuz,
the Greek Adonis). The sun-god slain by a boar rep-
resents summer slain by winter. Therefore, his au-
tumnal festivals were sad, accompanied by orgiastic
rites and self-mutilations, while in his spring festivals
frenzied joy prevailed at the reappearance of the god,
expressed by orgiastic dances, bacchanalian wander-
ings in forest to the music of the flute which was
therefore banished by Plato and Aristotle from their
republics. There was no real marriage, only tem-
porary unions. Women gained dowries by prosti-
tution before the deity, without losing caste, there-
fore descent was reckoned from the mother. These
orgiastic, obscene rites were adopted by and main-
tained a hold on common Greeks and Romans till a
late period. Meantime P. was converted to Chris-
tianity at an early period (entirely Christian by 300)
and abandoned what she had passed on to the Greco-
Romans. But their early training in mysticism
bore fruits in Montanism, which was strenuously
opposed by Abercius, the great Phrygian saint (a
real personage).

P. is a high plateau, given chiefly to agriculture
(now wheat and opium) and sheep. The Phrygians
invented not only the flute but farming implements
and wagons. Industries also flourished; especially
embroideries, rugs (still made in the Giordiz-Ushak
region). A rug-pattern appears on the tomb of
Midas. Monuments of Phrygian art are abundant at
'Midas-town,' on the tombs of the kings, on the
Acropolis, and at the fortified town hewn in the
rock (Pidgmish Kale, 'digged castle'). They used
the Greek alphabet, but the inscriptions are not fully
deciphered.

Pisidia was a district of southern Asia Minor. Its
boundaries fluctuated much at different times, es-
pecially in the western end. Loosely
13. Pisidia. speaking, it was bounded by Isauria,
Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lycia, Caria, and
Phrygia. The nationality of the Pisidians (first
mentioned by Xenophon) is uncertain. Some re-
gard them as Milyans (see Lycia, 8, above), others
as Solymi, but Strabo says that the language of the
Pisidians was distinct from that of the Solymi and
Lydians. They were brave, wild, lawless, liberty-
loving border-men, who made frequent predatory
incursions into neighboring territory. Though under
the Persians they nominally belonged to the Lydian
satrapy, they were never really conquered. They
offered a stubborn resistance to Alexander and con-
tinued to be governed by native dynasts, even when
nominally a part of a Roman province. Indeed, up
to 189 B.C. part of the western end of P. formed a
separate principality (capital Cibyra). It belonged
nominally to the Seleucids till 189 (the eastern end
till 102). Under the Pergamenian kings it was
united with Pamphylia. In 36 B.C. Antony made
Amyntas (former secretary and general of Deiotarus)
king of Galatia, western Pisidia, and parts of Lyca-
onia and Pamphylia. At the death of Amyntas (25
B.C.) his kingdom (including western P.) became a
Roman province with Ancyra as the residence of a
pretorian legate. In 44 A.D. the western end of P.

Asia Minor
Assyria

\ STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

was added to Phryiria a.s part, of Asia ( 2, above),
and in 72 A.D. to Lyeia-Pamphylia. (See also Gala-
tia, 6, above.)

In northern P. lies Lake Egherdir (30 m. long,
3,000 ft. above the sea), whose waters sink under the
Taurus Mts. and rise beneath Baulo as the Oestrus.
Other important rivers rising in P. and flowing
through deep narrow valleys are: the Catarrhactes
(Duden Su), the Eurymedon, and the Melas. P. is
a rugged, impassable, alpine country containing the
highest, peaks of the Taurus range with thrilling
scenery, and a salubrious climate on its elevated
table-lands. The memory of Paul's visit (see AN-
TIOCH, 1) is still preserved in a village named Baulo
(corruption of Paulus), on a lofty plateau above the
source of the Oestrus. The name was given to the
place probably because Paul rested some time in the
invigorating climate of Baulo, with its sublime views
(to cure malaria, the "thorn in the flesh"? See
also PAUL, 1). P., strangely enough, had many
important wealthy cities. The chief ones were: An-
tioch (q.v.), Sagalassus (on an elevated plateau at
the foot of an overhanging mountain), Crenma (on
very top of a lofty, inaccessible crag ; streets still clear
and distinct), Termessus, Selge, and Pednelissus (a
fortress on the Lycian frontier).

Educated Pisidians adopted the Greek language,
while the peasantry clung to the native tongue and
had but a smattering of Greek. P. contains many
magnificent ruins and Greek and Latin inscriptions,
chiefly of the Roman period.

Pontus means 'sea.' It is not an ethnic but a ter-
ritorial designation, applied after Alexander to the
country lying between the River Halys
14. Pontus. and Colchis, part of which originally be-
longed to Cappadocia (first known as
Cappadocia ad Pontum, i.e., 'toward the sea,' and
then simply Pontus for short); while the rest re-
mained independent under native dynasts. From
the 4th cent. B.C. P. was nominally Persian, one of
whose satraps, Ariobarzanes, assumed the title of
king, but the real importance of P. begins with the
kings of Persian stock named Mithridates. Mithri-
dates I (337) was expelled from Bithynia and killed
by Antigonus (302). Mithridates II (302-266)
extended his kingdom from Amastris-Ancyra to
the Tibareni. Mithridates III was busied in fighting
the invading Gauls (see Galatia and Phrygia, 6
and 12, above). Mithridates IV annexed Sinope.
Mithridates V (Euergetes), 156-121, rendered aid to
Rome in the third Punic war and received in return
a part of Phrygia. Mithridates VI (Eupator), the
Great, 12163, reigned over a kingdom which in-
cluded most of Asia Minor and extended around the
Black Sea to the Cimmarian Bosporus (Tauric Cher-
sonesus). Defeated and driven out of P. by Pompey
in 66, he retreated to Tauric Chersonesus, where, be-
sieged by his son Pharnaces, he committed suicide
(63 B.C.), which ended the kingdom of P. Nicomedes
III of Bithynia bequeathed his kingdom to Rome
(74 B.C.), and after the annihilation of Mithridates
(66) P. was annexed to Bithynia (62), and the com-
bined province was known as Bithynia et Pontus (a
senatorial province in 27 B.C.). The rest of Mithri-
dates' kingdom was given to native dynasts, and
Deiotarus (see Galatia, 6, above) received the west-

ern interior between the Iris and Halys rivers (Pon-
tus Galaticus). Pontux Polcmoniacus got its name
because it was given by Antony (36 B.C.) to Polemon
Kusesebcs of Laodlcca ad Lycum, part of whose king-
dom went with his widow Pythodoris (granddaugh-
ter of Antony) to Archelaus of Cappadocia (thence-
forth known as Pontus Cappodocius). Polemon II
inherited the throne of Pontus Polemoniacus, but
ceded the kingdom to Nero 63 A.D., when P. became
a separate province, but in 111 A.D. Pliny was con-
sular legate with proconsular power in Bithynia et
Pontus.

The people of P. were rude, warlike, barbarous,
and known in earliest, times by Greeks as "White
Syrians" (see Cappadocia, 4, above). In the 7th
and 6th cent. Greek colonies were established on the
coast, at Sinope, Amisus, Side, Themiscyra, Cerasus
('Cherry'), and Trapezus. The mountainous coun-
try is intersected by fertile plains of the Iris, Lycus,
and Thermodon rivers, in which were many native
cities: Amasia (in the Iris valley) was the birthplace
of Strabo, and capital of Mithridates VI and from 7
B.C. the resilience of the Roman governor. Comana
(in the Iris valley, called Pontica, to distinguish it
from Comana Aurea; see Cappadocia, 4, above)
was a seat of the worship of Ma, and the residence of
independent priest-kings (cf. the Amazon myth).

J. R. S. S.

ASIARCH, e'shi-arc ('Ao-iapx 1 ;*) : Brandis has
proved erroneous the identification (Marquardt,
Lightfoot, Ramsay) with the dp^iepfir 'Aerial and
has shown that the Asiarchs were not officials,
but delegates of individual cities to the provincial
congress (KOIVOV 'A<rias, Commune Asice; see ASIA
MINOR, 2). Therefore there might be several
at the same time in the same city ("chiefs of Asia,"
Acts 19 31 ; see Strabo, xiv, 649). The dignity could
be held along with a civil or religious office. It was
held for one year, not for life. The institution ceased
to exist at the end of the 3d cent., along with the
KOIVOV 'Atrias, when Diocletian divided the Provin-
cia Asia into seven provinces. The dignity was
much sought for and was perpetuated on coins and
inscriptions. Only the wealthy were eligible, for
besides other expenses Asiarchs had to institute
games and gladiatorial contests. J. R. S. S.

ASIEL, e'si-el (^*TS?2, 'dsi'el), 'God is [my] ma-
ker': A Simeonite "prince" (I Ch 4 35). E. E. N.

ASKELON, as'ke-len. See ASHKELON.

ASMOD-S5US, as"mo-dl'0s: An evil spirit men-
tioned in To 37 ff. See DEMONOLOGT, 3.

ASNAH, as'na (~JCS, 'asnah), 'thornbush': The
ancestral head of one of the families of the Nethinirn
(Ezr250). E. E. N.

ASNAPPER, as-nap'gr- See OSNAPPEB.
ASP. See PALESTINE, 26.

ASPATHA, as-pe'tha (S??C8, 'aspatha'): One of
Hainan's ten sons (Est 9 7).

E. E. N.

ASRIEL, as'ri-el ("]'?8, 'asrt'el): The ancestor
of the Manassite clan of Asrielites in Gilcad (Nu 26

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Alia Minor
Asiyria

31; Jos 172). The variant genealogical notice in
I Ch 7 14 (Ashriel AV) is probably a scribal error.

E. E. N.

ASS : The ass was domesticated very early and is
mentioned in the earliest literature of the O T as an
animal with which the Hebrews were well acquainted
and used extensively. The ox and the ass were the
two animals that the ordinary Israelite, as a farmer,
would be most likely to have (Ex 20 17, etc.). The
horse came into use in Israel at a comparatively late
period and then only as an animal for riding or for
war, not as a work-animal (of. the figures for the two
animals at the Return, Ezr 2 68 f.). The ass, on the
other hand, was used both for riding and for work.
The O T distinguishes between (1) the h&mor, the
male animal, the ordinary beast of burden (cf. Gn
42 26 ff., 49 14, etc.), also used for riding, frequently
by women (cf. Ex 4 20; Jos 15 18; I S 25 23). (2) The
'filliBn, the she-ass, a favorite for riding (Nu 22 21 ff.;
II K 4 22) ; white (or nearly so) she-asses were consid-
ered especially valuable (Jg 5 10). (3) The 'aylr or
ass's colt, i.e., probably a young in distinction from
an old, worn-out animal, finds frequent mention (Jg
10 4; Is 30 6, 24; ef. Mk 11 2 and ||; Jn 12 15). The
possessor of large herds of asses was a rich man (cf.
Gn 12 16, 32 15; Job 1 3, etc.).

The wild ass, pcre' and 'arodh, which goes in herds,
but also loves solitude (Hos 8 9), untamable, rejoi-
cing in its freedom (Job 39 S), is at home only in the
desert (Job 245; Jer 224). See also PALESTINE,
24. E. E. N.

ASSASSINS ("murderers" AV): The RV so ren-
ders trueaptoi, Sicarii (derived from sica, a curved
sword, small enough to be carried under the cloak),
meaning strictly 'daggermen.' They were a semi-
political party and were called "assassins" from
their promptly resorting to murder to accomplish

their ends. A band of such men led by the " Egyp-
tian" into the desert is referred to in Ac 21 38.

A. C. Z.

ASSEMBLY: I. In OT: (1) mOedh, an 'appointed'
meeting (I's 74 4; La 1 18, 2 6). (2) mOshabh, 'seat'
(Ps 107 32). (3) miqrn', 'convocation' (Is 1 13,48).

(4) fddh, 'circle of intimate friends' (Jer 6 11, 15 17).

(5) 'MAdA, an 'appointed' gathering (the "congrega-
tion" of Israel) ; in RV only in Pr 5 14. (6) 'dtscreth,
a 'compulsory' meeting, generally rendered "solemn
assembly" (Lv 23 3fi, etc.). (7) qahal, the ' assembly'
of Is. as a theocratic unit, frequently used with 6;
nearly always rendered "assembly" in RV (Kx 12 6,
163, etc.)- A derived word, q'hitlah, is used in Dt 33
4;Neh57.

II. In N T: (1) tVucXiprto, the concourse in the the-
ater (Ac 19 32, 41; cf. vcr. 39). (2) trvvaytay^, 'syna-
gogue,' i.e., church meeting (Ja 2 2). (3) iravriyvpis,
a 'whole assembly' (Heb 12 23). E. 11. X.

ASSHUR, ash'ur. See ASSYRIA, 1,2.

ASSHURIM, a-shu'rim. See ETHNOGRAPHY AND
ETHNOLOGY, 11.

ASSID^ANS, as"i-di'anz. See PHARISEES, 3.

ASSIR, as'er ("5X. Wir), 'captive': 1. The
name of two Levites (Ex 6 24 - I Ch 6 22 and I Cli
23,37). 2. InlChS 17, AV (asonof Jeconiah). But
RV has the more correct reading, "Jeconiah the
captive." I :. i:. \.

ASSOS, as'os ("Ao-o-os, Ac 20 13 f.): A town sit-
uated on a lofty hill on the southern coast of the
Troad. Its ruins are extensive. The docks at Con-
stantinople were constructed from its ancient build-
ings. The mole is still extant. Excavations have
been conducted here by the American Archeological
Institute. It is now called Bekhram, from a Byzan-
tine officer, Machram. J. R. S. S.

1. The Name

2. Earliest History

3. Nineveh and Its Group of Cities

4. National Character

5. Purity of Race

6. Periods of History

I. PERIOD OF DEPENDENCY

7. Dependence on Babylonia

ASSYRIA

ANALYSIS OP CONTENTS

II. STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY

8. Rivalry with Babylonia

9. First Contact with Israel

10. Attempts on the Weatland

III. ASSYRIA SUPREME IN SOUTHWEST

ASIA

11. Reorganization of the Em-
pire

12. Achievements of Tiglath-pileser III

13. The Work Done by Sargon

14. Sennacherib

15. The Acme of Power

16. Fall of Assyria

17. Importance of Assyrian Monu-

ments

18. Art and Religion

Assyria is the Gr. form of Heb. "fl8, Asshur,
which designates in O T, for the most part, the As-
syrian land and people, and also the
i. The extension of the kingdom as embracing
Name. the whole Assyrian Empire. In some
later writings, the empires succeeding
the Assyrian are referred to by the same name, e.g.,
the later Babylonian (Lam 5 6) and the Persian
(Kzr 6 22), the reason being that Assyria was the
original comprehensive type, and therefore a natural
representative of a great Asiatic empire.

Asshur was first of all the name of the patron
god of a community of Babylonian emigrants, who
named after him their first permanent settlement,
founded on the right bank of the Tigris, north of
its junction with the lower Zab. This city remained

for a time the principal seat of the new nation and

was always the chief frontier station toward the

south, the lower Zab being normally

2. Earliest the border of Assyria proper. Gradu-
History. ally the colonists moved northward ,

and passing the upper Zab they estab-
lished several fortresses between that river, the Tigris
itself, and the Zagros chain of mountains to the north.
The chief of these walled cities were

3. Nineveh Calah and Nineveh, which formed the
and Its center of the kingdom. This historical

Group of process is outlined in Gn 10 10, where
Cities. Nimrod (ef. ver. 9) represents the
eponymous founder (Mic 5 6) of Baby-
lonian and Assyrian civilization and history. "Out
of that land he went forth into Assyria, and built

Assyria

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Nineveh mid Rehoboth-Ir and Calah and Kescn be-
tweeu Nineveh ami Calah." In this list Rehoboth-
Ir is probably a .suburb of Nineveh, and the site of
Rescii is unknown. No mention is mudc of the city
of Asslmr in the () T, perhaps because it had ceased
lo have any importance by the time when the He-
brew traditions took shape.

The Assyrians, as contrasted with the Babylonians,
were a more hardy, warlike, independent people,
with less general intellectual talent and
4. National enterprise, but with more political
Character, genius than the Babylonian or indeed
than any other branch of the Semitic
race. Their territory, being almost entirely moun-
tainous or rugged, though fertile, was not, upon
the whole, as productive as the Babylonian. The
struggle for existence was made keener by attacks
from robber bands of the northern and eastern
mountains. Wars on a larger scale with the (!ute
and the Kasshites, or Cosseans, of the S. and K.,
and with many tribes and nations of the N., such as
the Kurds, who still control the same region as of
old, trained them for systematic military operations
and gave these Romans of the East a discipline un-
precedented among Oriental peoples.

The Assyrians, in contrast with the Babylonians,
represented also the idea of Semitic independence
and exclusiveness. Their emigration
5. Purity was made either before or at the time of
of Race, the subjugation of Babylonia by the
Elamites. They successfully resisted
the attacks of the Cosseans, who later ruled in Baby-
lon for nearly six centuries. Then- religion, though

essentially Baby-
lonian, was less adul-
terated with foreign
elements. Their an-
cestors in N. Baby-
lonia were of that
genuine Semitic
stock which has left
no trace of 'Sume-
rian' influence either
politically or in its
oldest literary monu-
ments. Finally, the
numerous sculptured
representations of
Assyrian faces bear
an unmistakable
Semitic stamp.

The history of
Assyria may be divided into three periods marked
respectively: (1) by dependence upon Babylonia,
6 Periods ^ by a long stru &g le for supremacy,
of History ^ ^ *^ e a " ammen *' an ^ mainte-

" nance of preeminent dominion.

I. PERIOD OP DEPENDENCY. The first period

may be regarded also as a section of Babylonian

history, for not only Assyria but the

7. Depend- whole region W. to the Mediterranean

ence on was during most of the time under the

Babylonia, control of Babylonia. The relations of

friendship with the parent country were

undisturbed, as far as we know, during the centuries

between the founding of the colony, perhaps about

Head of an Assyrian.

2300 n.c.. and t lie era of the collapse of the old Baby-
lonian world-empire, about 1050 B.C., when Baby-
lonia proper came under the control of the non-Sem-
itic Cosseans. During this period the supreme rulers
wen? not 'kings.' but 'regents of the god Asshur.'
Such an appellation implies semi-independence of
Babylonia, which was wisely permitted under the
regime of Hammurabi and his successors. Complete
independence and the assumption of kingship on the
part, of the rulers probably came at last without any
violent break.

II. STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY. The second
period (c. 1650-745 B.C.) shows Assyria as a rival of
Babylonia and an increasingly aggres-
8. Rivalry si ve power generally. The Cossean dom-
with ination in Babylonia gave the Assyr-
Babylonia. ians the opportunity and justification
for proclaiming themselves heirs of the
old Babylonian dominion, and the great rulers of As-
syria speak of themselves frequently as successors of
the famous kings of the oldest dynasties of Babylonia.
The inheritance naturally included the right first of
all to the Mesopotamian territory through which
passed the highways of western traffic. This was se-
cured after several centuries of bitter conflict with the
growing Aramean settlements E. of the Euphrates.
Assyria on the whole became continually stronger and
Babylonia continually weaker. Already in the 12th
cent. B.C., under the great Tiglath-pileser I, Assyria
had, in addition to Mesopotamia, subdued the most
formidable nations or the northern and northwestern
highlands as far as Cappadocia, and Assyrian armies
had overrun Syria as far as the Phoenician coast-line.
But these efforts could not be repeated; and it was
not till the 10th cent, that they were systematically
resumed. Meanwhile the Arameans had founded
their great settlements W. of the Euphrates, and
Palestine had come largely under the control of the
Hebrews, while both Assyria and Babylonia were
enfeebled and inactive.

It was in consequence of another revival of As-
syrian power and aggression that Israel first came in
contact with the empire of the Tigris
9. First in 854 B.C. The situation created in
Contact that year was typical. Shalmaneser
with II (860-824 B.C.), whose annals are
Israel. engraved on the famous black obelisk
in the British Museum, was now king of
Assyria. He was repeating and extending the con-
quests of his father, the warlike and cruel Asshur-
nasirpal (885-860 B.C.). He was approaching
Hamath from the N., and a combination of twelve of
the western states was formed against him. The
lead was taken by Ben-hadad II, the king of Da-
mascus, by this time the most powerful nation on
the Mediterranean coast-land. Damascus was also
normally a bitter enemy of northern Israel ; but just
in that year the peace of Aphek (I K 20 36) had been
concluded, and Israel under Ahab is mentioned by
Shalmaneser as contributing a strong contingent
to the defensive force. Other peoples represented
were Ammonites and Arabians from E. of Palestine.
The battle which ensued was indecisive, but Shal-
maneser was interrupted in his march of conquest.

As a result of subsequent campaigns the Assyrians
succeeded in breaking the leadership of Damascus

A STANDARD BI1U.K DKTIOXARY

Assyria

in the W., so that in 842 Jehu, the usurping king of
Israel, found it to his interest to send gifts to Shal-
inancser and thus become an Assyrian
10. At- vassal. Assyria, however, was over-
tempts on straining herself, and Damascus had
the West- a reprieve from attack for forty years,
land. during which time the Syrians were
able to exert their strength, especially
under Hazael, against both Israel and Judah. But
the Aramean capital was at last taken in 797, and
never again became the seat of a first-class power.
The strength of Assyria, however, became exhausted
by strenuous attempts at extension in all directions,
and for nearly half a century it hail enough to do to
maintain its hold even upon Mesopotamia.

III. ASSYRIA SUPREME IN SOUTHWEST ASIA.
A series of insurrections in several important cen-
ters was ended in 745 B.C. by the ac-
ii. Reor- cession to the throne of the most origi-
ganization nal and far-seeing of Assyrian rulers,
of the Tiglath-pileser III (q.v.), also known
Empire, in the Bible by his Babylonian name of
Pul (II K 15 19). His policy was to put
all troublesome states under direct Assyrian adminis-
tration, and to hold the tributaries under a rigid
system of probation whereby sedition or intrigue
with outside peoples was punished with heavy fines
and increase of tribute. Such penalties were usu-
ally so severe that insurrection was resorted to for
relief, and direct annexation was the almost invari-
able reprisal. Thus the work of empire-building
was reduced to a system for the first time in the
world's history. His military policy was to keep in
check the northern and eastern mountain tribes by
occupying their territory, a process which involved
terrible and frequent wars; to make Assyrian prov-
inces of the recalcitrant states ; to make tributaries of
the rest by virtue of his rightful prerogative, since all
of them had at one time or another become vassals
or wards of Assyria; to bring Babylonia under As-
syrian control; and to make Nineveh the capital of
the Semitic world.

By 738 B.C. all northern and middle Syria had been
made an integral part of the Assyrian realm. In
that year Menahem of Israel bought off
12. Achieve- Tiglath-pileser with an immense sum of
ments of money (II K 15 17-20). In 734 the As-
Tiglath- Syrians returned to Palestine, where the
pileser III. new king Pekah had formed an alliance
against the invaders and attempted to
coerce Ahaz of Judah into joining the combination
(Is ch. 7). Ahaz sought Assyrian protection. Tig-
lath-pileser, within the next two years, dethroned
Pekah and put him to death, made a province of
Israel N. of the plain of Jezreel, took the city of Da-
mascus, extorted enormous tribute from the Phoe-
nician seaports, and appointed his own creatures to
rule over the Philistine cities (II K 15 29 fT.).

Hoshea, who was placed over the dismembered
kingdom of Israel, kept up tribute-paying till the
death of the great Assyrian, but he revolted at the
instigation of the Egyptian princes of the Delta in
724, the third year of Shalmaneser IV. Samaria
was at once invaded and was taken at the close of
722. The principal inhabitants were deported to
distant provinces of the empire (II K 17). The fall

of Samaria coincided with Die death of Shalmaneser
and thi' accession of Sargon, the founder of tin
and greatest Assyrian dynasty.

The reign of Sargon (722-705 H.C.) was almost as

important as that of Tigl:ith-pili-ser, since he con-

solidalcd and confirmed the work of

13. The the latter. During his reign the em-
Work pire assumed permanent shape and

Done by substantive existence. The west was

Sargon. carefully watched, and the way to
Egypt prepared and guarded. A re-
bellion in Ashdod was put down in 711 (cf. Is 20),
and Judah, now a recognized vassal state, was
warned against intriguing with Egypt and the Phi-
listines. More important was the work accom-
plished in Babylonia. There the priesthood of
Babylon had been favorable to Assyrian interven-
tion under Tiglath-pileser. But a formidable rival
had arisen in the south, by the Gulf, where the Chal-
dean chiefs were asserting their claims against all in-
truders (see BABYLONIA, 19). The famous Mero-
dach-baladan (q.v.) had, in fact, made himself
king of Babylon, and it was not until the twelfth
year of Sargon that he was dislodged. Sargon then
made himself regent of the country under the gods of
Babylon.

On the death of Sargon and the accession of his

son Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.) a great revolt was

set on foot. It was headed by Heze-

14. Sen- kiah of Judah in the west with the coop-
nacherib. eration of the Philistines and the back-
ing of Egypt. In 701 Sennacherib

invaded the country. The allies of Hezekiah were
defeated, Judah itself ravaged up to the gates of
Jerusalem, and many of its inhabitants carried into
exile, while the capital was saved only after a ter-
rible plague had decimated the Assyrian army when
about to invade Egypt (II K 18 13-19 37).

Politically this disaster to Assyria was only a mi-
nor incident, and Judah remained a vassal of As-
syria until the fall of Nineveh. Esar-

15. The haddon (681-668), the best of the
Acme of Assyrian kings, enlarged the empire by

Power, the annexation of Egypt. Asshur-
banipal (668-626) put down revolt in
Egypt, but had to relinquish its sovereignty in
or about 645 B.C. A great rebellion in Baby-
lonia, headed by Asshurbanipal's brother as vice-
roy, was put down with terrible severity, and Elam,
which had long opposed the Assyrian advances in
Babylonia, was finally conquered.

This rounded out the achievements of Assyrian

empire-building. But the majestic structure soon

began to fall apart through internal

16. Fall strain and the assaults of the Scythians
of Assyria, of the north ; and at last its corner-
stone, the mighty fortress of Nineveh,

was stormed by the soldiers of the new and virile
empire of the Medes (607 B.C.). Their allies, the
Chaldeans, who had already thrown off the Assyr-
ian yoke, succeeded to the headship of the Semitic
world and to the providential mission which Assyria
had unconsciously fulfilled.

The resurrected monuments of Assyria, abundant
and varied as they are, are perhaps of less impor-
tance to the student of civilization than the vast

Assyria
Astronomy

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

and ever-inrriMMiii; array of Babylonian antiquities.
They do, however, supply great defects and gaps
in the Babylonian records, partly be-
17. Im- cause the longer-lived nation had little
portance of taste for the chronicling of political
Assyrian and military events, and partly be-
Monu- cause much of the best Assyrian litera-
ments. ture consists of transcripts of invaluable
Babylonian documents whose originals
have not yet been found. On the other hand, the
Assyrian inscriptions, and especially the royal annals,
are the most valuable material illustrative of the
O T which antiquity has yielded up. By means of
them we have obtained a reliable framework for
Biblical chronology during the most important
period of Hebrew history, and the history itself dur-
ing the same period has been rearranged, read-
justed, and made organically intelligible. More
important still is the commentary upon O T proph-
ecy which they afford. For example, the records of
Assyrian warfare explain and vindicate the most
powerful exposure and arraignment of imperialistic
aggression ever made, and at the same time help us
to understand, better perhaps than any modern in-
stances, the other declaration of prophecy, that
vainglorious national ambition and even interna-
tional strife have a providential mission of chasten-
ing and humiliation. Perhaps most important of
all is that we are now shown by the Assyrian annals
how prophecy itself was conditioned by and shaped
in accordance with the successive movements of
Assyria upon the western lands, and the complica-
tions that resulted therefrom.

The Assyrian people in the arts of architecture
and sculpture alone excelled the contemporary
Babylonians. Of more importance to
18. Art and us is their religion, not only because it
Religion, affected the worship of Israel (II K 23
11 f. ; cf. IClOff.), but also because it
stands in such close causal relation with the political
and military system of the Assyrians themselves.
Just because the empire of the Tigris was a concen-
trated unit, ever striving to realize itself in action,
the cult of Asshur, the patron god of the Assyrians,
became more and more emphasized, as contrasted
with that of the other gods whom they worshiped
in common with the Babylonians, their political and
military rivals. It is true that the foundation of
their religious system was of Babylonian origin, and
certain of the gods, such as the theoretical supreme
triad, Anu, Bel, and Ea, Shamash the sun-god, Sin
the moon-god, Adad the thunder-god, and Ishtar the
deification of the female principle, were retained and
honored. But their own deity, Asshur, who was not
in the Babylonian pantheon, came to be looked on as
tlio potential possessor of all the moral attributes of
the other divinities. Thus there was in Assyria a
stronger tendency toward monotheism than in the
parent state, even when Marduk (or Merodach), the
god of the city of Babylon, became supreme in Baby-
lonia, the chief distinction being that while Marduk
was recognized as specially the patron of the capital
city, Asshur was always the god of the whole state
and indeed of the whole empire. Asshur was also
first and foremost a war-god, because war was the
most genuine and spontaneous expression of the na-

tional religion. Thus it happened that when Assyria
passed away as an empire the cult of Asshur was
ipso facto extinguished, while Marduk of Babylon
survived the political destruction of Semitism under
Cyrus and the Persians.

LITERATURE: For the history and civilization: Hommel,
Geschiehte Babyloniens und Assyriens, 1885-88; Tiele,
Babylonisch-Assyrischc Geschichle, 1886-88; Winckler,
Geschiehte Babylon-tens und Assyriens, 1892; Rogers, Hit-
lory of Babylonia and Assyria, 1900; for relations to the
Bible :Schrader. Die Kci/imti-hrillcn ttndtlasalte Testament
(2ded. 1883, Engl.tr. by Whitehouse, is referred toas COT;
3d ed., a new work, by Winckler and Zimmern, 1903) ;
McCurdy, History, Prophecy, and the Monuments, 1894-
1901 (containing also a connected political history of the
ancient Semites) ; -Price, The Monuments and the Old Tes-
tament, 1900; Pinches, The Old Testament in the Light of
the Records of Assyria and Babylonia, 1902; Delitzsch,
Babel und Bibel, 1903. For the general subject the best
resume's are Murison, Babylonia and Assyria (Bible Class
Primers), 1900, and the articles on "Assyria" and "Baby-
lonia" in EB by King; and for the religion, Jastrow, Ke-
ligion of Babylonia and Assyria, 1898.

J. F. McC.

ASTRONOMY AND ASTROLOGY

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS

1. Scope and Nature

2. The Sun and Moon

3. The Stars

4. Constellations

5. Star of Bethlehem

6. Figurative Usage

7. Religious Interest

8. Star-Worship

9. Astrology

In the current cosmology of Biblical times, the

earth is not a part of the starry universe, but a flat

surface, on which the heavens rest like

I. Scope an inverted bowl. Astronomy does
and not therefore include an account of the

Nature, earth, but only of the heavenly bodies.
These were thought to be fixed in the
firmament, not absolutely, for they move along cer-
tain paths in definite periods (Jos 1012; Is 388),
and can be detached thence and fall (Mt 2429;
Rev 9 1). The whole view is not animated by
scientific interest and therefore can not be called
a theory. It takes cognizance of those facts only
which have practical bearings. This is true both
of the O T and the N T. Winckler's theory, that
the Semitic peoples, including the Hebrews, con-
ceived of the world and human history as con-
stituted upon and ruled by principles resident in
the heavenly bodies (see Winckler, Himmels und
Weltenbild der Babylonier, 1901; Die Babylonische
Weltschopfung, 1906) finds no support in Biblical
data.

The sun (shemesh, ijXios) is the most splendid
of God's works (Ps 19 S-7). Its course is continuous
and includes a section under the earth
2. The Sun traversed at night (Ec 1 5). It. is the
and Moon, source of heat and light for the earth.
Its darkening is the sign and expression
of great calamities. Hence, "the sun shall be dark-
ened at midday " may describe the occurrence of an
eclipse, always an occasion of superstitious dread
among unscientific peoples (Is 13 10; Jl 2 10; Am 8 9;
Mt2429; Mk 1324; Rev G 12). The moon (i/r,/..
poet., I'bhSnah, trf\^vn) is the substitute of the sun
for the night period (Gn 1 16; Ps 121 6, 1369)
Eclipses of the moon may be alluded to in the ex-

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Assyria
Astronomy

prrxsion ''the moon turned into blood" (J1231;
Rev 6 12).

Of the stars (kokhabhlm, aa-rtpes) as objects of

interest in themselves, no account is made. In

a small number of allusions, how-

3. The ever, it is possible to detect current

Stars. astronomical notions. The whole of

the starry firmament as a body is called

"the host of heaven" (Gn 21), though that phrase

does not always convey the same meaning (I K 22 19 ;

II Ch 18 18). Of individual stars, including planets,

Venus is mentioned under the name "Day Star"

("Lucifer, son of the morning" AV, Is 1412).

Saturn appears under the name of Chiun (Am 5 20;

AV and ERV, but ARV,"the shrine"). But the fact

that the star is alluded to as an object of worship

renders the reference to Saturn quite probable (cf.

also Ac 7 43, "Rephan," probably Saturn).

The grouping of the stars into constellations
appears in general (Is 13 10), and in the mention of
individual constellations as follows:
4. Constel- (1 ) Orion (h?ll, Am 5 8), which, ac-
lations. cording to the Semitic conception,
represents a slow-witted giant chained
to the skies; hence the question in Job 38 31, "Canst
thou loose the bands of Orion?" suggesting the im-
potence of man as compared with the omnipotence
of God (cf. also Job 9 9). (2) The Great Bear
('ash, Job 9 9, 38 32, Arcturus AV). In the latter
passage the sons of the Bear ("the train" RV) are
the three stars in the tail of the constellation. By
some, however, this constellation is identified with
the Pleiades, which is compared to a hen with her
brood. Schiapparelli argues convincingly (Astr. in
O T, 1905, p. 54 ff.) for the Hyades. (3) The Plei-
ades (klmah, Job 99) is identified by its desig-
nation as a compact group. From this view we get
the expression in Job 38 31, "Canst thou bind the
cluster ('chain' RVmg.) of the Pleiades?" making
the parallelism of the clauses perfect. (4) Mazzaroth
(Job 38 32). This seems to be not a constellation
(Corona Borealis, Hyades) nor the circle of the zodiac
(Job 38 32; AVmg. and RVmg.), with its twelve
signs, but the planet Venus or the planets collectively
(so II K 23 5, but mg. " the twelve signs"). (.5) The
Chambers of the South (hculhre theman, Job 9 9),
probably some constellation of the Southern hemi-
sphere. (6) The Swift Serpent (nahash barlah,
Job 26 13). There is some uncertainty as to whether
this phrase designates a constellation. It is certainly
the name of a celestial phenomenon, and, if a constel-
lation, it is probably the Dragon located between the
Great and the Little Bear. (7) In Job 37 9, though
EVV read "north," and mg. "scattering winds,"
there is reason to believe that the Hebrew m-zarlm
designates the two constellations of the northern
skies, the Great and the Little Bear (cf. Schiap-
parelli, p. 67 ff.).

5. Star The Star of Bethlehem (Mt 2 2 ff.)

of Bethle- has been sometimes interpreted as a

hem. conjunction of planets (Kepler; cf.

Munter, Stern d. Weisen, 1827), but

was more probably either a comet or a meteor.

Metaphorically, a star stands for a guide because
stars are so often taken as guides in travel at night,
and such expressions as "sun of righteousness"

(Mai 42), "the bright, morning star" (Rev 22 18)
are self-explanatory. The apocalyptic use of astro-
nomical facts includes such instances

6. Figura- as the "seven stars" (Rev 1 16 ff.),
tive Usage, symbols of the protecting spirit of the

Seven Churches; the great star Worm-
wood (Rev 8 10 f.), symbol of distress, and the moon
subjected to the Church (Rev 12 1) with others less
clear.

That astronomy is in the Bible geocentric has al-
ready been intimated. It might better be called

theocentric. It views the material

7. Relig- heavens as the handiwork of God and
ious Inter- the instrument of His pleasure in min-

est. istering to men. He rrcntcd them in
the beginning (Gn 1 1, 14 f.) in order to
be the means of lighting the earth and marking the
beginnings and endings of the seasons. They im-
press the mind by their multitude (Gn 155), their
brilliancy, their elevation above the earth (Pr 25 3;
Jer 31 37; Job 22 12). Poetically, they are conceived
as personal beings, declaring the glory of God (Ps
148 3-5). They sing together for joy and in many
other ways praise their Creator (Job 38 7).

This is in contrast with the ideas of the other
peoples of Biblical lands. These in most cases
worshiped the heavenly bodies. The
8. Star- contrast is all the more significant be-
Worship. cause it is certain that the cosmological
and astronomical ideas of the Hebrews
are vitally connected with those of Babylonia. The
faithful Israelite was taught that the heavenly
bodies as creatures could receive no homage from
men; but lest he should be too dull to perceive
that their creaturehood precluded their being wor-
shiped, he was explicitly forbidden to offer it (Dt
4 19). Violations of this law were severely de-
nounced by the prophets and prophetic writers (Jer
1913; Ezk 810; Zee 1 4f.; cf. also Ac 743, quoted
from Am 5 28, "star of the god Rephan").

Astrology is the art of interpreting the motions of
the heavenly bodies as portents of future events.
It was practised probably among the
9. Astrol- majority, if not all, of the nations
ogy. mentioned in the Bible; but like star-
worship it found no favorable soil in
Israel. Astrologers are spoken of as altogether out-
side of Israel. In Is 47 13 Babylon is challenged to
save herself from the doom merited by her sin and
invited to resort "to the astrologers ('dividers of the
heavens' RVmg.), the star-gazers, and monthly prog-
nosticators. " All these terms appear to be syn-
onymous and, as the words which follow indicate,
are different names of men who professed to foretell
the future by observing the stars. Jeremiah (10 2)
counsels Judah not to be "dismayed at the signs
of the heavens." Astrologers are named also in
Dn 1 20, 22 AV, but RV renders more correctly
"enchanters." The Hebrew word for astrologers
(hobhre shamayim, 'dividers of the heavens ') sug-
gests the method employed, which was the section-
ing of the firmament and assigning a particular
meaning to each section according to its relation to
the object sought to be foreshadowed.

LITERATURE: Schiapparelli, Astron. in O T (1906); M. A.
Stern, Die Slernbilder in Hiob 38". A. C. Z.

Asuppim
Atonement

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

ASUPPIM, d-sup'im (="5^, 'afuppim): In
I Ch 26 15, 17, AV, this word occurs as a proper
noun, but it is given more correctly in RV as "store-
house." E. E. N.

ASYNCRITUS, a-sin'cri-tus ('A<nWpiTor): A
Christian mentioned in Ro 16 14, to whom Paul sends
a salutation. ' M- T.

ATAD, e'tad (~y$v> ha'af&dh): "The[thrcshing]-
floor of Atad" (Gn 50 11 f.). Apart from the state-
ment that it lay "beyond (i.e., E. of) the Jordan"
no information is given of its locution. But this is
more likely a later addition, since to go from Egypt
to Hebron one has no cause to cross the Jordan.

E. E. N.

ATARAH, at'u-ra (~~V*!> 'tyarah): One of the
wives of Jerahmeel, perhaps a clan-name (I Ch 2 26).

E. E. N.

ATAROTH, at'a-roth (M'-y;;, 'itarSlh): 1. A
city of Moab, occupied by Gad (Nu 32 3, 34 and Stone
of Mesha, line 10). Map II, J 2. 2. A town on
the S. border of Ephraim (Jos 16 5, in 16 2 A. Addar).
Map III, E 5. 3. A town on the NE. border of
Ephraim (Jos 16 7). Site unknown. 4. Atroth-beth-
Joab, a locality belonging to the Calebites (I Ch 2 54).
6. A troth - Shophan, a town of Gad (Nu3235).
Site unknown. E. E. N.

ATER, e'ter C 1 ^, 'afer): 1. The ancestral head
of the 'sons' of Ater of Hezekiah, one of the large
families of returned exiles (Ezr 2 16; Neh 7 21, 10 17).
2. The ancestor of a family of gate-keepers (Ezr
2 42; Neh 7 45). E. E. N.

ATHACH, e'thac (T2, 'tthakh): A place in S.
Judah not yet identified (I S 30 30). E. E. N.

ATHAIAH, a-the'ya (~;?S, 'dthayah): A Ju-
dahite, the son of Uzziah (Neh 114). E. E. N.

ATHALIAH, ath"a-lai'a On^SX, ' Othalya.hu) ,' 3"
is great': 1. A daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, and
wife of Jehoram, King of Judah. She introduced the
worship of the Phoenician Baal into Judah. After
the death of her son Ahaziah (q.v.) she usurped the
throne, securing her position by murdering all the
seed-royal except Joash, the infant son of Ahaziah,
who was kept hidden in the Temple, under the tutel-
age of the priests, for six years. Finally Jehoiada,
the high priest, taking advantage of the change of
the palace guards on a Sabbath, assisted by the
guards, proclaimed Joash king and put Athaliah to
death (II Kill ff.). 2. A Benjamite who dwelt in
Jerusalem (see I Ch 8 26 and cf. ver. 28). 3. The
father of Jeshaiah who went up with Ezra from
Babylon (Ezr 8 7). J. A. K.

ATHARIM, ath'a-rim (="?S, 'dtharlm): The
only occurrence of this word (Nu 21 1) seems to
imply that it was a place-name. Its use with the
article, "the way of [the] Atharim," lias led some to
think of it as an appellative, e.g., "the way of the
spies," AV (which rests on a wrong reading), or the
'caravan way' (Dillmann). Both the meaning of the
word and the site remain uncertain. E. E. N.

ATHENS ('fidrjvai): The capital of Attica, first
called Cecropia from Cecrops (autochthonous
founder). Theseus (semimythical) united the out-
lying denies (Panathenaea). The Acropolis was the
seat of worship of Athene and the kings. After
Codrus the kings were replaced by archons chosen
from the family of Codrus, elected for life (1068-752
B.C.); then the archonship was open to Eupatrids
chosen for ten years (752-682 B.C.). Later, there
were nine annual archons chosen from the Eupa-
trids. The chief archon (eponymos) gave the name
to the year; the second (basileus) was chief priest;
the third (polemarchos) commanded the forces; the
other six were thesmothctce (legislators ). The Areopa-
gus was supreme in religious matters. Draco codified
the laws in 621 B.C., and Solon instituted the timoc-
racy in 594; 6,000 judges, chosen by lot, controlled
the officials, and a council of 400 aided the archons,
whose presidents were called prytanes. Pisistratus
the tyrant (561 B.C.) embellished A., patronized
literature and art, built the altar of the Twelve Gods
(center of the state), Enneacrounos, began the Olym-
pieum, finished the old Hecatompedon and other
buildings. Clisthenes reorganized the tribes in 508
B.C. A. sent twenty ships against Darius in 498 and
defeated the Persians at Marat hon in 490. Xerxes de-
stroyed A., but was defeated in 480 by Themistocles.
As head of the confederacy in 474 under Pericles, A.
enjoyed her 'golden age,' when the Parthenon, Pro-
pytea, Erechtheum, and Odeum were built. In spite
of the eloquence of Demosthenes, the liberties of
Greece were crushed at Cheronsea in 338 B.C. A.
was the great home of literature, art, and science and
taught the world everything worth knowing except
the science of government and religion. Paul's
work in A. (Ac 17 16-34) appears not to have been
very significant. J. R- S. S.

ATHLAI, ath'la-ai C/?2, 'athlaij): An Israelite
who had taken a foreign wife whom Ezra induced
him to divorce (Ezr 1028). E. E. N.

ATONEMENT: This word does not occur in the
RV of the N T and in the AV only at Ro 5 11. In
the O T it is often used to translate Hob. kaphar (see
PROPITIATION). The English word simply means
to make two people 'at one' who have been sepa-
rated. In theological discussion it is applied to the
means by which reconciliation between man and God
has actually been brought about (see RECONCILIA-
TION). The N T asserts that the person and work
of Christ, especially His sacrifice on the Cross (see
SACRIFICE), was that means (Mk 1045, 1424; Jn3
Hi., 10 15; Ac 3 26, 4 12; Ro 3 21-26, 8 3 f. ; He 9 14; IP
3 18; I Jn 4 10). The new fact this consciousness
of reconciliation with the living and holy God un-
doubtedly implies the forgiveness of sins. No other
religion has ever offered this as something within
reach of all men, not even the OT. It is the sub-
stance of the Gospel, the essence of Christian expe-
rience, the life of the Church. It was, as a mere
matter of history, produced by Jesus Christ : it is
to-day sustained by faith in His name, and so
spreads over the world.

No one doubts that the N T connects this new life
with the sacrifice of Christ. The problem before the
theologian is a triple one: (1) How does the NT

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Asuppim
Atonement

describe this connection between the Cross and the
forgiveness of sins? (2) What are the principles by
which theology can explain that connection in the
light of tho.se descriptions? (3) What authority
has this whole view over the modern mind and will?

The following classification of passages, not ex-
haustive, indicates the cliief methods of descri-
bing the relation of Christ's sacrifice to
I. N T forgiveness. Some passages belong to
Material, more than one group.

(a) The general idea that Christ
suffered for or in behalf of persons: I Th 5 9f. : Gal
220; IICoSHf.; Ro56-ll; I P 3 18; He29;Jn3
14-17, 10 15, 12 32 (.; I Jn 3 16. (6) The special idea
that His death was related in some way to our sins:
Ro 4 25, 5 8; I Co 15 3; Gal 1 4, 3 13; I P 2 24; He 9 28.
(c) Sacrificial allusions, in which Christ's death is
likened to that of the animals sacrificed under OT
laws, and generally connected directly with sins: Mt
2628; Ro 324-26, 59, 83; II Co 5 21 (cf. Lev 4 21
LXX); Eph 2 13; I PI 19; He 727, 9-10; Jn 129;
IJn 1 7, 2 2, 4 10; Rev 1 5 f., 7 14. (d) Terms imply-
ing purchase or ransom: Mk 10 45; I Th 1 10; Ro 3 24;
I Co 6 20; Eph 1 7; I Ti 2 5, 6; Tit 2 14; He 9 15; Rev
5 '9.

For many centuries little attention was given
by theology to the problems involved here. The
crude notion, founded on passages un-
2. Theories der (d), that a payment was made to
of the devil for man's release was never se-

Atonement. riously worked out and perished as soon
as the subject was earnestly consid-
ered. In the course of discussion, since Anselm
(1033-1109) definitely opened the problem, two
main classes of opinion have emerged: (a) Those,
called moral or subjective theories, which hold that
our dread and selfishness were the only obstacles to
reconciliation, and that Christ so manifested the
righteousness and love of God that men's hearts are
won to faith and obedience, (b) Those, called ob-
jective, or vicarious, or expiatory, which maintain
that in sin there lay an obstacle to God's offer of
mercy, that this obstacle was removed by the
sacrificial death of the God-man. Of course within
these two main groups there are many varieties of
opinions; and of some theories there is dispute as
to whether they belong more properly to (a) or to
(b). (For one of the best classifications of Atone-
ment Theories see Introduction to Dr. Simon's The
Redemption of Man; cf. Stevens, The Christian
Doctrine oj Salvation, Pt. II.)

Two extremes in each direction may well be con-
demned at once. On one side the notion that the
sufferings freely assumed by Christ and inflicted by
God form a quantitative equivalent over against
those due from man as penalty for sin, and that men
are saved by consenting to that transaction; on the
other side the notion that Christ's holy life and mar-
tyr death as of other prophets, but more power-
fully and widely stimulates the acts of repentance
and faith. The former is too shallow in its view of
the problem of forgiveness for God and the latter
too shallow in its view of the problem of repent-
ance for man.

An unhelpful distinction has lately been drawn
between ethical and forensic theories. The only

complete opposition to 'ethical' is 'mechanical.'
Punishment, substitution, vindication of righteous-
ness, etc., are ethical facts even when expressed in
terms of forensic procedure. On the other hand
'ethics' is in danger, if it be maintained that (.
love does not reckon with law, that God's holy char-
acter is not involved in the forgiveness of sin.

All truly Christian theories agree in the following
points: (a) God, the eternal Father in His holy
love, is the source of salvation, the sender of the Son.
(6) Christ in His sinless life, His complete self-sacri-
fice, has revealed God's holy love, (c) The con-
templation of Christ in life and death moves the
human heart to repentance and faith, hope and love.
But the objective, vicarious theories recognize in
the Scripture account elements of vital importance
which must be added to these. The unique empha-
sis on His Cross is due to unique values in His self-
sacrifice. Hence the following additional points are
to be noted: (d) The sinless Son of God did actually
experience the various results of sin in (1 ) the oppo-
sition and hatred of men; (2) His deep sorrow over
human wo; (3) His submission to death; (4) the
mysterious and awful clouding of the Father's face,
both in His various temptations partially (Mt 4 1-11;
Jn 12 27 ff. ; Mk 14 32-39), and on the Cross (Mk 15 34).
(e) This phase of His experience (even His death)
was not an incident in His calling as the revealer of
God, but the crowning work to which He had been
appointed by the Father (Mk 10 45, 14 24, 36; Jn 3
14-16, 10 17, 18, 27, 15 13; Ro 3 25 f., 58, 83; II Co
5 21; Coll 12-14, 20; He 5 5, 10; I P 1 17-21; IJn 4 9, 10)
and the ground of reconciliation on which pardon is
offered. (/) The necessity for this is found in that the
righteousness of God must be vindicated in the very
act of offering His mercy. The vindication is no
mere formality, nor does it consist in setting so
much suffering as equivalent of so much penalty.
It consists in fulfilling the righteousness which man
had broken, and in doing so at all costs to God
Himself in Christ His Son. To be utterly righteous
among men and for men Christ must die. In a
world of sin nothing short of that would be complete.
But to do this was to manifest the supreme holiness
of God's will, (g) This necessity existed on man's
side also. In every covenant the conscience of each
side judges for both sides. Man can not accept sin-
cerely a pardon whose righteousness is not as com-
pletely assured as its love. That which breaks the
heart of the penitent is not only the sight of God's
love, but of that love in all its stern righteousness a
love that sacrifices all not merely for mercy but also
for righteousness. The death on the Cross is there-
fore an act of God in which He dealt with the race as
a whole, with the general and eternal principles of a
righteous mercy, of a holy love. On that objective
basis the message, the call comes to each soul.

On these grounds the various NT forms of de-
scribing the work of Christ are interpretable without
prevarication, and an objective atonement is as di-
rectly applicable and potent to-day as in any past
generation.

LITERATDRE: (1) For Scripture material in addition to
works in Biblical theology, T. J. Crawford, The Doctrine
of Holy Scripture Respecting the Atonement (1871);
R. W. Dale, The Atonement (1880); A. Ritschl, Recht-

Atonement
Azubah

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

ftrtigiing und \'crsi>hnung,Vo\. II (1870-74); W. P. Du
Bose. The Sotcriologv o! the N T (1892); A. Seeberg, Der
Tod Chritsti, vie. (1895); J. Denney, The Death ot Christ
as Interpreted by the N T (1902). (2) For history of dis-
cussion, besides li;-i.ti u-> of the Church and of doctrm<\
A. Hit.-rlil. NfM. u. Vers., Vol. I (translated by John S.
Black. 1872); Geo. B. Stevens, The Christian Doctrine of
Salvation. Ft. II. (3) For direct discussion, besides
those described in the histories above named, the follow-
ing recent works: J. McLeod Campbell. The Nature <if
the Atonement. 5th ed. (1878); R. C. Moberly. Atonement
and Personality; D. W. Simon, Reconciliation by Incarna-
tion ; J. Scott Lidgett, The Spiritual Principle of the Atone-
ment. By various writers: The Atonement in Modern
Beliffious Thought; W. L. Walker, The Cross and the
Kingdom; J. Denney, The Atonement and the Modern-
Mind. (4) The larner works on systematic theology
usually roiitnin a review of (1), (2), as well as (3) see
Charles Hodge, Dorner, Kaftan, Gretillat, F. A. B.
Nitisch. W. D. M.

ATONEMENT, DAY OF. See FASTS AND
FEASTS, 9.

ATROTH-BETH-JOAB, at'reth - beth - j6'ab,
ATROTH-SHOPHAN, -sho'fon. See ATAROTH.

ATTAI, at'a-ai ("P3?, 'attay): 1. A descendant of
Jerachmeel (I Ch 2 35-30). 2. A Gadite (IChl211).
3. A son of Rehoboam (II Ch 11 20). E. E. N.

ATTALIA, Qt"Q-ll'a ('ArraXf.a): A city on the
coast of Pamphylia, founded by Attalus II on the
site of Olbia (159-138 B.C.), the metropolis of Pam-
phylia. It was an important seaport. Its ruins
include a gate of Hadrian and a tower of the Em-
press Julia. J. R. S. S.

ATTIRE. See DRESS AND ORNAMENTS.
AUGURY. See MAGIC AND DIVINATION, 3.

AUGUSTAN BAND ((nrtlpa Se^ao-rij): Prob-
ably the special title of one of the five cohorts of
provincial troops stationed in Csesarea (Ac 27 1;
cf. Jos. Ant. XX, 87; CIL VI, No. 3,508). The
Italian Band (Ac 10 l) consisted of native Italian
troops (CIL III, Suppl. No. 13,483a). As the
presence of the latter in Syria is not attested before
69 A.D. (Arch. Epig. Mittheilungen XVII, 218), the
author of Ac may be guilty of an anachronism in
10 1. J. M. T.

AUGUSTUS, originally Caius Octavius, renamed
Cains Julius Cizsar Octavianus when adopted
by Ca;sar (47 B.C.), born 63 B.C., was the son of
Caius Octavius and Attia (niece of Csesar). He was
a student in Apollonia when Cassar was killed (44).
Though Caesar's heir, his property was refused him by
Antony. He defeated Antony (Mutina 43); became
consul in 43; and forming a triumvirate (with An-
tony and Lepidus), defeated Brutus and Cassius at
Philippi (42). In the distribution of provinces A.
received Italy, and Antony Asia. He defeated
Lepidus (36) and Antony at Actium (31). He was
now master of the Roman Empire. He organized a
standing army of 25 legions (300,000 men). Though
opposed to wars of conquest, he conquered Spain
(27-19), the Parthians (20), and the Germans
(16-9). His stepsons (mother Livia) were Tiberius
and Drusus. He adopted Tiberius (4 A.D.) and
died in 14 A.D., at the age of 76, having reigned 44
years. A. was cautious, mild, just, and forbearing;

founded colonies, built roads, enacted laws in the
interest of religion and morality. His autobiogra-
phy is given on the Monuincntum Ancyranum. On
the decree (Lk 2 l) see CHRONOLOGY OF N T, 1.

J. R. S. S.
AUL. See AWL.

AVA, e'va, AVIM, S'vim, AVITE, e'vait. See
AVVA, etc.

AVEN, 6'ven (})$, 'awen), 'trouble/ 'wickedness':
1. An Egyptian city (Ezk 30 17). Since the LXX
reads Heliopolis ('city of the Sun,' i.e., On), Ezokicl
probably wrote "X (On, cf. Gn 41 45, 50), which was
changed to Avon perhaps because of the meaning of
the word Aven. 2. In HoslOS (cf. ver. 5) "high
places of Aven" means probably 'high places of
idolatry' though many take it to refer to Bethel.
3. In Am 15" Valley of Aven " may indicate some
place in Syria not yet identified, or the name of a
deity. E. E. N.

AVENGER OF BLOOD. See BLOOD, AVEN-
GER OF.

AVITH, e'vith (H'W, ( &wlth~): An ancient capital
of Edom (Gn 36 35; I Ch 1 46). Site unknown.

E. E. N.

AVVA, av'va (X1J? ; HI?, 'awwah): A city some-
where in the Assyrian Empire whence colonists
(Avvites) were imported to Samaria (II K 17 24,
31, called Ivvah [Ivah AY] in II K 18 34, 19 13; Is
37 13). E. E. N.

AVVIM, av'vim, AVVITES, av'vaits (C'l?, 'aw-
wlm}: 1. An ancient people dispossessed of their
territory by the Caphtorim (Dt 2 23). In Jos 13 3
they are counted with the Philistines. 2. The Av-
vim (i.e., 'the ruins'), a place of Benjamin (Jos
18 23). Site unknown. E. E. N.

AWL (y5T32, martse'a, from J?X^!, rats'a. 'to
pierce'): A small boring instrument (Ex 210; Dt
15 17, aul AV). E. E. N

AWNING. See SHIPS AND NAVIGATION, 2.
AX, AXE. See ARTISAN LIFE, 6.
AZAL, e'zal. See AZEL II.

AZALIAH, az"a-lai'u (W^SJ?, 'dtsalyahu): The
father of Shaphan the scribe of Josiah, King of
Judah (II K 22 3; II Ch 34 8). E. E. N.

AZANIAH, az"a-nai'a (~
father of Jeshua (Neh 10 9).

'dzanyah): The
E. E. N.

AZAREL, az'a-rel (^IS, 'dzar'el, Azareel, Aza-
rael, AV), 'God helps': 1. One of David's followers
(IChl26). 2. A musician (I Ch 25 18, Uzziel in
ver. 4). 3. One of the sons of Jeroham, a prince of
the Danites under David (I Ch2722). 4. One of
the "sons of Bani" who had taken a foreign wife (Ezr
10 41). 6. A priest who dwelt in Jerusalem (Neh 11
13, 12 36). E. E. N.

AZARIAH, az"a-rai'a (!~;1U?., 'dzaryahu), '}"
hath helped': 1. KingofJudah. See UZZIAH. 2. A

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Atonement
Azubah

son of the Kohathites, an ancestor of the prophet
Samuel (ICh 6 36). 3. AsonofZadok, priest under
Solomon (I K42;cf. ICh69). 4. Sonof Nathan, an
officer at Solomon's court (I K 4 5). 6. A prophet,
sou of Oded, who met Asa returning from the defeat
of Zerah, the Ethiopian, and exhorted him to perse-
vere in his religious reforms (II Ch 15 1-8). 6. A son
of Jehoshaphat, massacred by his brother Jehoram
(II Ch 21 2 ff.). 7. The father of Amariah, high priest
under Jehoshaphat (I Ch 6 10; Ezr 7 3). 8. A son of
Jehoram (II Ch 22 6). But see AHAZIAH, 2. 9.
Two captains who assisted Jehoiada (II Ch 23 1 ff.).
10. A high priest, who withstood Uzziah's attempt
to desecrate the altar of incense (II Ch 2617, 20). 11.
An elder of Ephraim, who rebuked Pekah for taking
Judtean captives in the Syro-Ephraimitish war (II Ch
28 12 ff.). 12. Two Levites, active under Hezekiah
(II Ch 29 12). 13. Chief priest under Hezekiah (II
Ch 31 13). 14. A son of Hilkiah, and grandfather of
Ezra (I Ch 6 13; Ezr 7 1). 15. A Judsean leader who
opposed Jeremiah's counsels (Jer432). 16. Two
persons in the genealogy of Judah (I Ch 2 8, 38 f.).
17. A common name among the exiles who returned
(Neh 3 23, 7 7, 8 7, 10 2, 12 33). 18. The Hebrew
name of Abednego (q.v.) (Dn 1 6). J. A. K.

AZAZ, e'zaz (H?, 'azaz): A Reubenite, the son
of Shema (or Shemaiah) (I Ch 5 8). E. E. N.

AZAZEL, a-ze'zel (^IKJJJ, 'dza'zel), Scapegoat
AV, 'removal' RVmg. (Lv 16 8, 10, 26): A name used
in connection with one of the goats selected for the
service of the Day of Atonement (Lv 23 26 ff.). It-
is not, however, the name of the goat, for that was
entitled " unto Azazel " just as the other goat was en-
titled " unto Jehovah." Azazel must, therefore, be
the name either of the act of sending the goat away
into the wilderness or, preferably, of the person to
whom it was sent, possibly a demon in the wilderness.

Apart from this ceremony, however, it is not easy to
trace the existence of belief in such a person among
the Israelites, though it was common enough among
other peoples (Wellhausen, Reste Arab. Heid., pp.
135-140). In Israel it survived as a shadowy vestige
of primitive Semitic demonology and was used to
express the thought that sin belongs to a power or
principle hostile to J" and its complete purgation
must include its being sent back to its source.

A. C. Z.

AZAZIAH, az"a-zai'a (^}'S, 'dzazyahu), 'J"
is strong': 1. A musician (I Ch 1521). 2. The father
of Hoshea, prince of Ephraim, in the reign of David
(I Ch 27 20). 3. A Levite overseer of the tithes un-
der Hezekiah (II Ch 31 13). E. E. N.

AZBUK, az'buk (pl2JS, 'azbuq): The father of
Nehemiah, ruler of part of Beth-zur, who assisted
in rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem (Neh 3 16).

E. E. N.

AZEKAH, a-zi'ka (n^TJ|, 'dzeqah): A town in
NW. Judah. It is mentioned with Makkedah (Jos
10 10 f.) as a place to which Joshua pursued the
Canaanites at the battle of Gibeon. It is also men-
tioned with Socoh (Jos 15 35; IS 17l), but these
references are not clear enough to identify the site,

which remains uncertain. A. was fortified by Ilehc-
IMKUII (IlChllo), besieged by Nebuchadrezzar
(Jer 34 7), and reoccupied by the Jews after the
Exile (Neh 11 30). E. E. N.

AZEL, e'zel ("$$, 'atscl): A descendant of Jona-
than, son of Saul (I Ch 8 37 f., 9 43 f.). E. K. N.

AZEM, e'zem. See EZEM.

AZGAD, az'gad p;tj?, 'azgadh), 'Gad is strong,'
or 'fate is strong': The ancestral head of a large
family of post-exilic Jews (Ezr 2 12 = Neh 7 17; Ezr
8 12 = Neh 10 15). E. E. N.

AZIEL, e'zi-el (V?J?, 'tel'tl), 'God is (my)
strength': A Levite who played the psaltery and
who was chosen by David to play before the ark
(I Ch 15 20, Jaaziel in ver. 18). E. E. N.

AZIZA, a-zai'za (XJ'IK, 'Hzlza'), 'strong': One
of the "sons of Zattu" who had taken a strange
wife (Ezr 10 27). E. E. N.

AZMAVETH, az-me'veth (rtyptJ?, 'azmaweth),
'death is strong': I. 1. One of David's heroes (II S
23 31; I Ch 11 33). 2. A descendant of Saul (1 Ch
8 36, 9 42). 3. Apparently the father of certain fol-
lowers of David (I Ch 12 3). It is likely, however,
that a place-name is here used genealogically. See
II, below. 4. One of David's treasurers (I Ch 27 25).

II. The home of a colony of returned exiles (Ezr
2 24; Neh 12 29), called Beth Azmaveth in Neh 7 28.
It lay a little N. of Anathoth, Map II, F 1.

E. E. N.

AZMON, az'me-n (]to22 , 'atsmSn): A town on the
S. border of Judah (Nu 34 4 f. ; Jos 15 4) called Ezem
(Azem AV) in Jos 1529, 193; I Ch 429. Site un-
known. E. E. N.

AZNOTH-TABOR, az"neth-t6'bSr (Tin
'aznoth tabhor), 'ears of Tabor': A place, probably
hills, near Mt. Tabor on the border of Naphtali (Jos
19 34). E. E. N.

AZOR, e'zor ('Af<p): One of Christ's ancestors;
son of Eliakim (Mt 1 13). E. E. N.

AZOTUS, Q-zo'tus. See ASHDOD.

AZRIEL, az'ri-el (VS'I'.S, 'azri'el), 'God is (my)
help": 1. A chieftain of the half tribe of ManassehE.
of Jordan (I Ch 5 24). 2. The official head of the
tribe of Naphtali under David (I Ch 27 19). 3. The
father of Seraiah (Jer 36 26). E. E. N.

AZRIKAM, az-roi'kam (=^"!U', 'azriqam): 1. A
descendant of David (I Ch 3 23). 2. A descendant
of Saul (I Ch 8 38, 9 44). 3. A Levite (I Ch 9 14; Neh
11 15). 4. An officer of Ahaz (II Ch 28 7).

E. E. N.

AZUBAH, a-zu'ba (<i;it;J, 'fcubhah), 'forsaken':!.
The wife of Caleb (I Ch 2 18 f . ). If A. is a place-name,
it may indicate that it was once occupied by Caleb-
ites and afterward deserted. 2. The mother of King
Jehoshaphat (I K 22 42; II Ch 20 31). E. E. N.

Azur
Babylon

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

AZUR, e'zOr. See AZZUR.
AZZAH, az'za. See GAZA.
AZZAN, uz'zun Cjii', 'azzan), 'strong': The
father of Paltiel, prince of Issachar (Nu 34 26).

E. E. N.

AZZUR, az'zur (~VS, 'azzur, 'helped 1 : 1. The
father of Ilaiianiah, the prophet of Gibeon (Jer28 1,
Azur AV). 2. The father of Jaazaniah, a prince of
i he people (K/.k 11 l, Azur AV, same as 1 [?]). 3.
One of the signers of the covenant (Neh 10 17).

E. E. N.

BAAL, be'al or bQ'ql. I. Significance of the
term: The word Ba'al (???) occurs many times in
the Heb. OT with various meanings. 1. In the
sense of ' master ' or ' owner,' as in Ex 21 28, 34; Jg
1922; Is 16 8. 2. In the sense of ' husband, 'as in Ex
21 3; II S 11 26; see esp. Hos 2 16. 3. To denote the
inhabitants or men of a town, as in Jg 9 2 f. 4. To
denote one who is skilled in some practise or inti-
mately connected with some particular thing (cf.
RVmg. at Gn 37 19). 6. As the name of the Sem-
itic deity Baal (see SEMITIC RELIGION, 15).
6. In compound personal or place-names. In per-
sonal names Baal referred to the deity. Such
compounds were very common among the Phosni-
cians and Canaanites. In Israelitic personal names
compounded with Baal the term was used as the
equivalent of Jehovah i.e., Jehovah was called
Baal. He was -the maker, owner, lord. In later
times (after the 8th cent.) such compounds were
viewed with disfavor. Place-names compounded
with Baal are ancient and in such "Baal" stood
for the local deity. II. 1. A Reubenite (I Ch 5 5).
2. A Benjamite (I Ch 8 30=9 36). III. A town in
the S. of Judah, called Bealoth (Jos 15 24), als >
Baalath-beer in the list of the cities of Simeon
(Jos 19 8), where it seems to be identified with
Raman of the South. Aside from the fact that it
was somewhere on the border of Simeon's territory
(ICh433) its site is altogether unknown.

E. E. N.

BAALAH, be'a-la (nVj;2, ba'dlah): 1. A city on
the N. border of Judah (Jos 15 9 f.; I Ch 13 6), also
called Baale-judah (II S 6 2), Kiriathbaal (Jos 15
60), and Kiriath-jearim (q.v.). 2. A city in the S.
of Judah (Jos 15 29), also called Balah (Jos 19 3) and
Bilhah (I Ch 4 29), and counted as belonging to Sim-
eon. Site unknown. 3. A range of hills between
Ekron and Jabneel (Jos 15 ll). For general location
see Map III, C 5. E. E. N.

BAALAH, be'a-la, BAALATH, be'al-ath: Vari-
ant forms of Baal. See BAAL, III.

BAALATH-BEER, be'ol-ath-bi'er. See BAAL, III.

BAAL-BERITH, -bi'rith (rn? bsi, ba'al b'rith),
'Baal of the covenant': The name of the Canaan-
ite deity of Shechem (Jg 8 33, 9 4), called Elberith
in 9 46. What the 'covenant' referred to in the
name was is uncertain. There is no evidence
that it was a covenant between the original (Ca-
naanite) inhabitants of Shechem and the Israelites.
This Baal had a temple at Shechem which, like most
pagan temples, served as the treasury of the com-
munity. E. E. N.

BAALE-JUDAH, be'al-i-ju'da. See BAALAH, I.

BAAL-GAD, -gad (" "?>'2, ba'al gadh), 'Baal of
good fortune': A place in the valley of Lebanon (Jos
11 17, 12 7), "under Mt. Hermon" (13 5). In these
passages it marks the N. limit of Israel's conquest of
Canaan. Though often identified with Dan (Ba-
nios) its site is uncertain. E. E. N.

BAAL-HAMON, -he/mon fi^H bl>2, ba'al
hamdn): A place mentioned in Song 8 11. The
location is unknown. E. E. N.

BAAL-HANAN, -he'nan ()Jn b'jl, ba'al hanan),
'Baal was gracious': comp. the Carthaginian name
Hannibal. 1. The seventh king of Edom (Gn 36 38 f.
= I Ch 1 49 f.). 2. An official under David (I Ch 27
28). E. E. N.

BAAL-HAZOR, -he'zor (TiSn Vl'2, ba'al hatsor):
A town in Ephraim, where Absalom had a sheep-
range (II S 13 23). Probably the hilltop Tett 'Asur.
Map III, F 5. E. E. N.

BAAL-HERMON, -her'men flftnn Vi'2, ba'al
herman): A town or place near Mt. Hermon (Jg3 3;
I Ch 5 23). Perhaps the same as Baal-Gad (cf. Jos
135). E. E. N.

BAALI, be'al-ai: Used as an appellation of S'' in
Hos 2 16. See BAAL, I, 2. E. E. N.

BAALIM, be'al-im. See SEMITIC RELIGION, 15.

BAALIS, be'al-is (C-Vi'2, ba''tt?): A king of the
Ammonites (Jer 40 14). E. E. N.

BAAL-MEON, -mi'on G<r: u i'2, ba'al m-'ore),'The
Baal of Meon' ('the dwelling'?) : A prominent town of
Moab (cf. Ezk 25 9), assigned to Reuben (Nu 32 38;
I Ch 5 8 ; Jos 13 17, where it is called Beth-baal-meon).
It is called Beth-meon in Jer 48 23 and Beon in Nu
32 3. In the inscription of Mesha (q.v.) it is called
Beth-baal-meon and represented as "built" (cf. Nu
32 38), i.e., 'built up' or 'fortified' by Mesha. Map
II, J 1. E. E. N.

BAAL-PEOR, -pi'er (Itti? b?2, ba'al p-'or), 'The
Baal of Peor': The god who was worshiped at the
Moabite town, or place, Peor (cf. Nu 23 28). The
deity was probably Chemosh, the national deity of
the Moabites. During Israel's sojourn in Moabite
territory, the Israelites were drawn away by Moabite
women to the corrupt worship of the deity (Nu 25 3;
Dt 4 3; Ps 106 28; Hos 9 10). See also PEOR.

E. E. N.

BAAL-PERAZIM, -pe-re'zim (C-S'r"^ 1 '?. ba'al
p*ratsim), 'Baal of [the deeds of] breaking through':

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Azur
Babylon

The scene of one of David's victories over the Philis-
tines (II S 5 20; I Ch 14 11). The name is significant
of the use by the Israelites of Baal Jehovah. Is
28 21 refers probably to this event. The site is un-
known. E. E. N.

BAAL-SHALISHA, be/'al-shal'i-sha
ba'al shfillshah): A place in Ephraim (II K 4 42). Map
III, E 4. Perhaps identical with Shalisha (q.v.)
(I S 9 14). E. E. N.

BAAL-TAMAR, -te'mar ("^ Vl'2), 'Baal of the
palm': A place near Gibeali (Jg 20 33), not yet
identified. E. E. N.

BAAL-ZEBUB, -zi'bub. See BEELZEBUB.

ollicrrs of Ishbosheth, son of Saul, who murdered
him and were executed by David's order (II S 4 2 ff.).
3. The ancestral head of a family of returned
Exiles (Ezr 2 2; Neh 7 7, 10 27). I :. K. N.

BAARA, be'a-ra (N'i'2, ba'&rH'): One of the
wives of Shiihuniim, the Benjamite (IChSS).

E. E. N.

BAASEIAH, be"cH3t'ya (n;tj;2, ba'&slyHh): A
Gershonite Levite, ancestor of Asaph (ICh640).

E. E. N.

BAASHA, be'a-sha (K*?2, ba'-shQ.'): The third
king of Israel, who gained the throne by assassinating

vwst L'42 from ftzris

PLAN

of the Ru-ins of

BABYLON

Sftiffgs <*?*?". type 1 "* a "<* fifecAts

roumh^s

// v ^

PLAN OF THE RUINS OF BABYLON.

BAAL-ZEPHON, -zi'fen
'the Baal of Zephon ' : A place near which the Israel-
ites encamped before crossing the Red Sea (Ex 14 2,
9; Xu 33 7). The site is unknown. E. E. N.

BAANA, be'a-na (KJg3, &a'<5rea'): 1. The name
of two of Solomon's officials (I K 4 12, 16). 2. The
father of Zadok, one of those who "builded the wall"
of Jerusalem in Nehemiah's time (Neh 3 4).

E. E. N.

BAANAH, be'a-na (njl'2, ba'&nah): 1. A Netoph-
athite, the father of Heleb (or Heled), one of David's
warriors (II S 23 29 = I Ch 11 30). 2. One of the two

Nadab. His reign of 24 years was spent in continual
warfare with Asa, who forced him to give up Ramah
by forming an alliance with Ben-hadad (I K 15 16 ff.,
16 l ff.; Jer 41 9). J. A. K.

BABEL, be'bel (^3?, babhel): The Hebrew
form of Babylon; used in the EVV only in Gn 10 10,
119. See BABYLONIA, 2, 25. J. F. McC.

BABYLON, bab'i-hm (V??, babhel): The city of
Babylon, as it preceded the making of the kingdom
of Babylonia (see BABYLONIA, 16), so also long
survived its extinction. It undoubtedly owed its
rise at some unknown early period to the develop-

Babylon
Babylonia

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

ment of trade with the western oases and along the

great western canal (Pallakopas) on which lay the

sister city Borsippa, 7 m. to the SW.

I. Origin. Tlu 1 native name Babil meant 'gate of

God.' The form Babbil (Babel) might

also in Babylonian mean confusion' (cf. Gnll 9);

but perhaps both of these words are folk-etymologies.

The city lay mainly on the left bank of the Euphra-

as is indicated by the three great mounds along

with lesser ruins. It was not until the new empire

(see BABYLONIA, 21) that the opposite settlement

on the right bank was built up on a large scale.

As in all other Babylonian cities it was the relig-
ious institutions that chiefly promoted the develop-
ment of Babylon. In the hands of the
2. Influence priesthood were ample lands held in fee
of simple or by mortgage, and great prop-
Religion, erties accruing therefrom as well as
from separate loans and investments.
The priests also were the teachers of youth and the
promoters of learning and research, controlling the
schools, workshops, and observatories which were
connected with the temples. The temple-buildings
themselves were as imposing as the royal palaces
and more numerous. Chief among these in Baby-
lon was E-sagila ('the lofty house') sacred to Bel-
Merodach (see BABYLONIA, 16, and SEMITIC
RELIGION, 16, 25), now lying under the most
southerly of the three mounds that occupy the site
of the city proper. This, and "not the somewhat
smaller temple of Nebo in Borsippa, marked by the
better-preserved lofty ruin Birs Nimrud, was the
original of the 'Tower of Babel' (cf. Gn 11 1-9).

Babylon owed most of its prosperity

3. The and opulence to its two greatest kings.

Babylon Hammurabi (c. 2200 B.C.; see BABY-

of Nebu- LONIA, 16) made it not only the

chadrezzar. political and business but also the

religious center in place of Nippur, and

E-sagila became henceforth the pride and inspiration

of true Babylonians. As enlarged and beautified by

Neliuchadrezzar (605-561 B.C.; see BABYLONIA,
21 ), the city was surrounded by a wall of over 50 m.
in circuit, the largest structure of antiquity. This
was protected by a broad moat with enclosing walls
of its own and pierced by a hundred gates of bronze.
A space of 4,000 cubits intervened between it and
the ramparts, within which was a moat guarding the
inner wall. In the city proper the streets were at
right angles to one another, as in our modern towns,
ami a canal ran through it from N. to S. parallel to
the Euphrates. The temple of Merodach, like the
other great Babylonian sanctuaries, was of two main
parts. There was the temple proper, having a vesti-
bule, a long inner court, and an oracle entered once
a year to learn the will of Merodach. Attached to
it was a ziggurat or 'high tower,' 600 ft. square at
the base, divided into seven stages, for the sun,
moon, and five planets.

Under Cyrus (538-529 B.C.) Babylon was made
one of the Persian capitals. It revolted twice against

Darius Hystaspis (521 and 514 B.C.)
4. Decline and each time was besieged, taken, and
of severely punished. Its religion, how-
Babylon, ever, was encouraged by the Persian

rulers. Under the Seleucida; it was de-
spoiled in favor of Seleucia, which was made their
eastern capital. Parthian misgovernment and neg-
lect of agriculture completed its decay, though its
worship and even its written language survived ti".
within a generation of the Christian era. In the N T
Babylon is referred to directly only in passages
reminiscent of the OT (e.g., Ac 7 43). The other
uses of the name are metaphorical, one instance (I P
5 13) referring to the city of Rome, and the others
(Rev 14 8, etc.) to the Roman world-power as op-
posed to Christianity. In N T times and later there
was no Christian community in Babylon. After the
Parthian regime there was a mere village of Babil;
and the town of Hillah, 3 m. to the S., has long been
the only center of any permanent settlement.

J. F. McC.

INTRODUCTORY

1. Importance of Babylonia

I. NAME AND FEATURES

2. Name

3. Limits of Country

4. Soil and Products

5. River and Canal System

II. DIVISIONS

6. Determined by Waterways

7. Southern Cities

INTRODUCTORY: Babylonia is, upon the whole,
the most important to the Biblical student of all
countries except Palestine. In it is
i. Impor- laid the scene of the creation of man-
tance of kind, of the earliest history of the race,
Babylonia, and of the ancestors of Israel. It was
also the land where in exile Israel was
purified and reformed. It was the source and
nursery of ancient wisdom and knowledge, the pio-
neer of civilization in Western Asia, the proprietor
and educator of Syria and Palestine for thousands
of years before Israel became a nation. Its literature

BABYLONIA

ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS

8. Middle Cities

9. Northern Cities
III. HISTORY

10. Region of Earliest Civili-

zation

11. Progress of Culture

12. Earliest Type of Culture

13. Predominance of Central

Babylonia

14. Northern and Southern Dynasties

15. Rule of the Elamites

16. Babylon and Babylonia

17. The Cossean Dynasty

18. Native Rule Resumed

19. Chaldeans and Assyrians

20. Assyrian Rule and Ruin

21. New Babylonian Empire

22. Decline and Fall

23. Continued Importance

profoundly influenced the form and even the con-
tents of the early portions of the Bible, and it is one
of the main problems of archeology to discover to
what extent the religious institutions of Israel were
tinctured with Babylonian elements.

1. NAME AND FEATURES: The country known
as Babylonia was so called by the Greeks and Ro-
mans, who named it from its capital city

2. Name. Babylon (q.v.), the Greek and the Latin

form of the native Babil. The Hebrew
^P', Babel, which is an exact equivalent of the
latter, is used in the O T for both the city and the

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Babylon
Babylonia

country, and therefore the modern versions also use
Babylon in both senses. After the city of Babylon
had been established and recognized as the capital,
the kingship of Babylon implied sovereignty over
the whole country as though it were a city-state, so
that in an important sense Babylon really stood for
Babylonia.

Babylonia properly embraced all the alluvial land

lying between and beside the lower Euphrates and

Tigris. This included the territory

3. Limits varying greatly in breadth, stretching
of the from Hit on the Euphrates southeast-
Country, ward to the Persian Gulf. The length

of the country thus defined was consid-
erably less in ancient times than it is at present ; for
the detritus brought down by the great rivers from
the Armenian mountains and mingling with the
desert sands has long been gaining upon the sea. In
the time of the earliest known Babylonian kingdom
the seashore was at least 150 m. farther to the NW.
than it is at present, and the Euphrates and Tigris
flowed into the gulf by separate mouths.

The most striking feature of the soil of Babylonia
is the absence of metals and stone of any kind. In

ancient times the land, except where

4. Soil the sand predominated close to the sea-
and shore, was everywhere very fertile. Its

Products, present condition of desolation simply
implies a lack of proper care, skill, and
industry. The inhabitants in the earliest historic
ages drew off the superfluous water into canals and
reservoirs, and in the months when the soil was dry-
est it was constantly and systematically irrigated.
Its productiveness was enormous, especially in
wheat, with other cereals, and dates. A very large
variety of herbs also was cultivated in gardens.

The general aspect of the country was determined

by this level alluvial soil, intersected by innumerable

canals, which in the northern part of

5. River the country above Babylon formed a
and perfect network. South of this system

Canal a long waterway, originally a separate
System, branch of the Euphrates, now known
as the Shatt-en-Nil, ran a course almost
parallel to the main stream. From it were deflected
several canals in its downward course. The Tigris
from Bagdad southward ran nearly parallel to the
Euphrates, till opposite Babylon it began to diverge
rapidly and ran an easterly course. At its point of
farthest removal, over 100 m. from the Euphrates, it
was in its turn relieved of redundant water by a
great canal, the Shatt-el-Hai, running nearly due
S. across to the lowest stretch of the Euphrates.
Lesser watercourses also formed a portion of this
third system.

II. DIVISIONS: These waterways and canals de-
termined the location of the chief settlements
which developed into cities or city-

6. Divi- states; and the three main systems
sions De- above indicated gave rise respective-

termined ly to three well-marked divisions of
by Water- the whole country into what we may

ways. designate North, Central, and South

Babylonia.

Nearly all the many important cities of Baby-
lonia were situated between the Euphrates and

Tigris. An exception was Ur in South Babylonia,
the city of the moon-god, which lay on the right

bank of the Euphrates. E. of Ur and

7. Southern close to the old mouth of the Euphrates

Cities. was Eridu, the most southerly city of

all Babylonia. To the NVV. of Ur was
Erech, the sacred city of Ishtar. E. of Erech was
Larsa (the O T Ellasar), and farther to the NE. La-
gash, the modern Tello. Still farther N. were Iain,
and Adab, the modern Bismya. There does not
seem to have been any general native designation for
the territory embraced by these southern cities.

The middle group of ancient cities begins on the 8.
with Nippur (the modern Nufiar) in the geographical

center of old Babylonia. Of the other

8. Middle cities the most important in later times

Cities. was Babylon. Borsippa, the seat of

the prophet-god Nebo, lay 35 m. NW.
of Nippur and 7 m. SW. of Babylon, on the right
bank of the Euphrates; 15 m. NE. of Babylon, and
half-way to the Tigris, was Cutha, the modern Tell-
Ibrahim, the seat of Nergal, the god of the dead and
the underworld. In that same group lay the im-
portant cities of Kish and Isban, whose sites, how-
ever, are still uncertain. This group of cities from
Nippur to Cutha probably represented the very an-
cient kingdom of Shumer (Shinar).

Proceeding northward we come to the series of
numerous canals running across to the Tigris. On

the northern border of these was Sippar

9. Northern (the modern ruin Abu-Habba), a very

Cities. ancient seat of the sun-god, as Larsa

was in the south. Near it, and prob-
ably to the S., was the still more ancient Agade or
Akkad which gave its name to North Babylonia.
This designation was preserved to the latest Baby-
lonian times, while the combination 'Shumer and
Akkad' seems to have originally designated North
and Middle Babylonia, and not the whole of Baby-
lonia as is generally assumed.

III. HISTORY: The development of early Baby-
lonian civilization was necessarily slow, and a great

antiquity is to be assigned to its begin-

10. Region nings. But it is probable that in no

of Earliest region of the world can the conditions

Civilization, of the first steps in human culture be

so easily inferred. The starting-point
must be assumed to have been not the south but the
central region of Babylonia. It was riparian and not
maritime soil that furnished the occasions of the de-
cisive beginnings of agriculture, and in the most an-
cient times the rivers could have played no part in
the historical lower Babylonia. In those days also
the desert had more numerous and larger oases than
those which have been known to later times, and the
inhabitants of one or more of these, perhaps not far
W. of Babylon, became accustomed to observe that
vegetables and cereals grew luxuriantly in small
areas in the neighborhood of the overflow of the
three-branched Euphrates.

The natural impulse to repeat and multiply the
favorable conditions thus noted led by degrees to
systematic drainage, irrigation, sowing, and plant-
ing. Then fixed settlements were made; private
property in land was conceded; fields and gardens
were set apart in allotments, making earth-measur-

Babylonia

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

ing or 'geometry' and mensuration a matter of
gradual invention and development. When stand-
ards of measurement had been adopted
1 1 . Prog- they were transferred to products of the
ress of soil and other articles of value, whence
Culture, arose a system of weights as well as
measures. From the beginning religion
played a leading part in tribal and family affairs. In
Babylonia it was largely astral and solar, and hence
measurement of the sky and its divisions went hand
in hand with measurement of the earth, while tem-
ple-building employed incessantly all the arts of
primitive science. Perhaps most of the first work-
ing tools were modified weapons; but vessels of
various sorts were readily made from the unsur-
passed potter's clay that abounded everywhere;
while cement was furnished by the bitumen that
here and there welled from the soil. The use of the
hand in thus modeling objects of utility led to skilled
labor and the making of objects of primitive art.
With the growth of agriculture and the increase of
town life came exchange and trade, and therewith
and thereafter the use of marks or rudimentary
writing for record and reference. Such were the es-
sential foundations of Babylonian culture, and, it
may be added, the principal elements of the deriva-
tive science of Babylonia, which found its way to
other peoples and regions in very early days along
with many mythological and religious conceptions
and traditions.

To what race the people belonged who chiefly con-
tributed to this momentous development it is very
difficult to determine. The written
12. Earli- and monumental records for many
est Type hundreds of the earliest years point to a
of Culture, mixture of races. The final determin-
ing element was Semitic, akin to the
Aramean, the Canaanite, and the Arabian. But the
cuneiform system of writing, the chief factor in the
final stage of cultural evolution, gives much striking
evidence in the names and values of its many char-
acters of a non-Semitic origin; and a vast number of
inscriptions, especially in the south, which are partly
ideographic and partly phonetic, at first sight point
the same way. The non-Semitic language, supposed
to be thus indicated, and its speakers and writers,
have been designated 'Sumerian.' The term is a
misnomer (cf. 8, 9); but the theory as a whole is
now accepted by most scholars.

A fixed point in the chronology is afforded by the
date of one of the very ancient dynasties, that of
Sargon, of Agade or Akkad ( 9), about
13. Pre- 3800 B.C. The recent researches on
dominance the site of Nippur, along with excava-
of Central tions made at Tello, the ancient Lagash
Babylonia, in South Babylonia, make it probable
that at a date preceding 4500 B.C. Nip-
pur was an important political and religious center.
The earliest rulers mentioned were apparently not
kings of Nippur, but had made that city their relig-
ious capital and En-lil (the Semitic Bel) the great
object of their reverence. For example, the king of
the city of Kish ( 8), when victorious over his foes,
made acknowledgment in the temple at Nippur.
Kish also allied itself with another city-state, Isban,
apparently situated in the same central region. Aft-

erward Isban secured control of the whole of Baby-
lonia, and its successful king, Lugalzaggisi, even
dominated all the country W. to the Mediterranean.
He in his turn also recorded his thanks and homage
in the temple at Nippur.

The leading place seems to have passed next to
South Babylonia. Lagash ( 7) became supreme

over South and Central Babylonia not
14. North- later than 4000 B.C., and a series of en-
ern and ergetic rulers laid there the foundation
Southern of a great empire. Before 3800, how-
Dynasties, ever, the Semites of the north attained

to power, and for a time eclipsed the
splendor of the southern rulers. Inscriptions found
in various regions show that Semitic communities to
the NE. (cf. 15) were civilized and in close contact
with those in Babylonia. Of the latter Akkad came
to the front under Sargon I, who brought under his
dominion the whole of Babylonia and the western
lands as far as the island of Cyprus. His son, Narani-
Sin, inherited his power and ambition. The building
up of Sippar ( 9) was one of his projects, and in view
of the extent of his dominions he assumed the title of
"king of the four quarters of the world." Soon after
his death the hegemony returned to Lagash, whose
rulers are found not only asserting a wide-spread
authority, but promoting architecture, sculpture,
and other arts of civilization. Abundant inscrip-
tions attest the energy and resources of this dynasty.
But the leadership passed at length from its hands
to the ancient city of Ur about 3000 B.C. Its rulers,
by adding to their own proper title that of "king of
Shumer and Akkad, "showed it to be their purpose
to unify the whole of Babylonia. This dynasty was
followed (c. 2500) by one whose capital was Isin; but
Ur not long after regained the supremacy, after
which Larsa ( 7, c. 2400) took the lead.

The hegemony of Larsa was ere long interrupted
by an invasion of the Elamites (c. 2300), which ended

in their complete subjugation of Baby-

1 5. Rule Ionia, Larsa naturally being made their

of the capital. From Gn 14 we learn that

Elamites. these Elamites (under King Chedor-

laomer) as rulers of Babylonia con-
tinued its role of suzerainty over the 'westland.'
The expeditions there described had as their object
to secure control of the trade route from Damascus
to the peninsula of Sinai (cf. vs. 5-7), which in
those early days was even more important than it is
at present. From the same secondary source we
are informed that the sovereignty of Babylon in-
cluded that of the northeastern country as well
("Goiim," "nations," AV, Gn 14 1 - the Bab. Gute).
The Elamitic yoke was thrown off by Hammu-
rabi, King of Babylon, probably the "Amraphel,

King of Shinar" (Shumer or Central

16. Baby- Babylonia) of Gn 14, who at the

Ion and same time united all Babylonia under

Babylonia, one administration. Babylon, which

thenceforth became the undisputed
capital of the whole of Babylonia and the leading
city of Western Asia, was not by any means a new
city at this era, though its earliest history is as yet
obscure. The dynasty to which Hammurabi be-
longed, though known as 'the first," was not native
but Arabian, and he was the fourth of the line. He

A STANDARD BIBLE DICTIONARY

Babylonia

was the real founder of the Babylonian type of na-
tionality, and one of Jie world's greatest men. His
work was cpoch-mak ig in religion, civic administra-
tion, provincial organization, legislation, irrigation,
and national defense. His paternal care extended to
hundreds of cities and towns from the Persian Gulf
to the Mediterranean coastland. Among his chief
monuments were his temples and palaces, his great
canals, his legislative code, and the city of Baby-
lon itself, of which he was the virtual creator, which
he made the successor of Nippur as the center of
Semitic religion and culture, and whose patron god
Merodaeh was invested with the prerogatives and
attributes of Bel himself and even with his name (cf.
Is 46 1). This first dynasty of Babylon lasted till
about 2100 B.C. The second dynasty ran till near
1700 B.C. Little is known of it, but it must have
been active all over the western country, for the
Amarna letters of the next period show that Baby-
lonian influence had permeated the life and thought
of Palestine and Syria for hundreds of years before
their date (1450-1400 B.C.).

The rulers of this second dynasty, especially
toward the close, had to suffer from inroads of
Elamites and Cosseans, the latter of
17. The whom succeeded in obtaining control
Cossean of Babylon about 1700 B.C. Their
Dynasty, rule was long and on the whole not
very prosperous. Their influence was
mainly political. They conformed to the religion of
Babylonia, and in their measure they were molded
by its civilization. They were not devoid of enter-
prise and daring, but they lacked culture and re-
sources. Their empire was contracted by other
causes also. Assyria was becoming continually
stronger, and was barring the way to the west. Meso-
potamia became a bone of contention between the
two nations, and their rivalry resulted in the loss of
the 'westland 1 altogether. This was also the period
of the expansion of Egypt. By 1000, when the
Asiatic Hyksos were expelled from that country,
no Semitic force was strong enough to keep the
Egyptians from successfully invading Palestine and
Syria. They were succeeded there by Hittites and
Arameans, and finally Assyrians and not Babylo-
nians resumed the empire of the west. Meanwhile
the two powers were engaged in frequent warfare
with occasional treaties of peace; and both of them
cultivated friendship with Egypt in the 16th and
17th centuries while it was a power in Asiatic affairs.
The Cossean intruders were finally expelled by
Nebuchadrezzar I, an early member of the 4th
dynasty, about 1130 B.C. He made
1 8. Native a desperate effort to reclaim Syria, but
Rule had to succumb to the superior power
Resumed, of Assyria. Not long after his time
Babylon itself was captured by the
Assyrians, but not permanently held. Peaceful rela-
tions seem to have been maintained for many years
thereafter. The next dynasty is called that of the
'Sea-land,' which was probably the result of the
first effort of the Chaldeans to assert themselves on
a national scale. The 5th, 6th, and 7th dynasties,
regarding which little is known, were of short dura-
tion. The 7th had at least one Elamitic ruler. After
1000 B.C., the native kings were again in power.

With the revival of Assyrian aggression on a world-
conquering scale Babylonia gradually took an in-
ferior place, but it was not till the era of Tinlath-
pileser III that Assyria gained a permanent footing
in the mother-country. Early in the reign of N'a-
Ixmassar (747-733), the first king of the Canon of
Ptolemy, the Assyrians occupied Akkad, and in 7i".i
Babylon itself was taken by Tiglath-pileser, who as-
sumed the throne under the name of Pulu (the "Pul"
of II K 15 19).

The chief obstacle to the progress of the Assyrians
was presented by the Chaldeans from the shores of
the Persian Gulf, who had now begun
19. Chal- systematic plans for gaining possession
deans and of Babylon ( 18). Their aims seem
Assyrians, not to have been purely ambitious.
They wished to maintain a native
Babylonian dynasty, while the all-powerful priestly
party in Babylon was quite willing to tolerate As-
syrian rule for the sake of its protection and better
chances of settled government. Merodach-baladan
II was the leading spirit of the first great struggle.
He was three times in possession of the capital and
for two periods actual king. For thirty years he
kept intriguing, fighting, or actually reigning in
Babylon. It was in 704 that he sent the embassy to
Hezekiah of Judah seeking help in organizing a gen-
eral revolt against Sennacherib (cf. II K 20 12; Is 39
1). He finally disappeared, embarking in his flight
for the eastern shore of the Persian Gulf. Native
opposition to the Assyrians was still maintained till
in 690 Sennacherib captured and destroyed Babylon
itself, turning the Euphrates over its site. During
these struggles the Elamites rendered faithful and
substantial assistance to the Chaldeans.

Babylon was restored (680 B.C.) by the good
Assyrian king, Esarhaddon, who forebore to assume
the title of "King of Babylon" and
20. Assyr- called himself "viceregent of Merc-
ian Rule dach." Under his regime Babylonia
and Ruin, was prosperous and happy. After his
early death Asshurbanipal became King
of Assyria and his brother viceroy of Babylon. For
fifteen years the brothers kept on good terms, and
when a combination of Chaldeans, Elamites, and
Arameans of the Tigris pasture-lands was made
against Assyria, Babylon held aloof. But the vice-
roy took part in an insurrection which began in
652 and extended through the whole breadth of the
empire. The chief cities of North and Central Baby-
lonia were besieged and yielded only to starvation.
Babylon was the last to be taken, and the viceroy
immolated himself in the flames of his palace (648).
During the rest of his life, till 626, Asshurbanipal
reigned as "king" over Babylon. Within the next
three years (648-645) Elam also was finally sub-
dued, and Susa captured and destroyed.

Yet, after all, the successor of Asshurbanipal in
Babylon was a Chaldean, Nabopalassar (625-605),
who threw off the yoke of the hated
21. New Assyrian, and founded the new Baby-
Babylonian Ionia. As Assyria declined and shrank
Empire, in dimensions the Chaldean regime was
being constantly strengthened. Nabo-
palassar allied himself with the rising power of the
Medes, and after the fall of Nineveh (607 B.C.) the

Babylonia
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whole Assyrian Empire \V. and S. of the mountains
foil to him. His son, Nebuchadrezzar, completed
the reduction of Syria and Palestine, which had fallen
under the dominion of Egypt, by driving out Pha-
raoh Xeeho alter the battle of Carcliemish (005 B.C.).
He became king upon the death of his father (luring
this campaign. Only the western districts furnished
serious trouble to him. Jerusalem rebelled twice
and was finally destroyed in 586. Tyre withstood
a siege of thirteen years, since the besiegers lacked a
competent navy. But Egypt was overrun and for a
time, it would seem, occupied by the Babylonians.
Throughout the ruleof Nebuohadrexzarpeaoe reigned
between his empire and .Media, which extended itself
mainly westward. His career as a ruler was long
and successful. While his outlying dominions were
generally peaceful and contented, Babylonia itself
prospered beyond precedent. Waste lands were re-
claimed; irrigation was extended; new settlements
were formed; commerce, industry, learning, re-
search, architecture, and above all temple-building
were promoted; and the city of Babylon became
more than ever the metropolis of Asia.

The glory of the Chaldean regime was of short
duration. Nebuchadrezzar died in 562. His suc-
cessors were all incompetent. The
22. Decline fourth and last, Nabonidus, a usurper
and Fall. (555) and a religious and antiquarian
enthusiast, was distasteful to his own
people. Cyrus the Great, in 539 B.C., added the
Babylonian to the other empires which he had
acquired and consolidated with magical ease and
celerity. A midsummer campaign of less than a
week ended in the surrender of the capital, after
which the whole Semitic world came under Persian
control. Babylon henceforth had no higher rank
than a province.

But its importance for Biblical history did not
thereby cease; rather it Bet itself in a new relation.
It was because Babylonia was a prov-
23. Con- ince of Persia that the restoration of
tinued Im- Jerusalem and the return of the Baby-
portance of Ionian exiles were made possible and
Babylonia, the maintenance of the precarious set-
tlements in Palestine secured. Even
Persian modes of thought had only a slight influence
on the latest canonical writings. Of Judaism Baby-
lonia was the center and focus for over a thousand
years. After the fall of Jerusalem (70 A.D.), Baby-
lonia took the place of Palestine as a seat of Jewish
schools and the interpretation of the Law. Under
the Parthian, the Sassanid, and even the Moham-
medan rulers, the Jewish scholars and teachers of
Babylon still held a leading place, and it was not till
the Mongolians and Turks converted the country
into a desert that it ceased to