Full text of "The standard cyclopedia of horticulture; a discussion, for the amateur, and the professional and commercial grower, of the kinds, characteristics and methods of cultivation of the species of plants grown in the regions of the United States and Canada for ornament, for fancy, for fruit and for vegetables; with keys to the natural families and genera, descriptions of the horticultural capabilities of the states and provinces and dependent islands, and sketches of eminent horticulturists"

- v

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO
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MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED

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TORONTO

r. Formai gardening, with veronica and phlox in the foreground

THE

STANDARD CYCLOPEDIA
HORTICULTURE

A DISCUSSION, FOR THE AMATEUR, AND THE PROFESSIONAL AND
COMMERCIAL GROWER, OF THE KINDS, CHARACTERISTICS AND
METHODS OF CULTIVATION OF THE SPECIES OF PLANTS GROWN IN
THE REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA FOR ORNAMENT,
FOR FANCY, FOR FRUIT AND FOR VEGETABLES; WITH KEYS TO THE
NATURAL FAMILIES AND GENERA, DESCRIPTIONS OF THE HORTI-
CULTURAL CAPABILITIES OF THE STATES AND PROVINCES AND
DEPENDENT ISLANDS, AND SKETCHES OF EMINENT HORTICULTURISTS

L. H. BAILEY

Illustrated with Colored Plates, Four Thousand Engravings in the Text,
and Ninety-six Full-page Cuts

IN SIX VOLUMES

VOL. Ill F-K

PAGES 1201-1760. FIGS. 1471-2047

THIRD EDITION

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
1919

The rights of reproduction and of translation are strictly reserved

\ q

REWRITTEN, ENLARGED AND RESET

Set Up and Electrotyped. Published May 12, 1915
Reprinted May, 1917; March, 1919

. DEPT.

.rtlount Pleasant P
J. HORACE MOFARLAND COMPANY
HARRISBURQ, PENNSYLVANIA

FULL -PAGE PLATES

Facing page

XL. Formal gardening, with veronica and phlox in the foreground (in color)

Frontispiece

XLI. A good fern in southern California. Alsophila australis '. 1217

XLII. A young Celeste fig tree, as grown in Georgia 1234

XLIII. Floriculture. A house of begonias, with a row of ferns 1242

XLIV. Forcing of grapes. Muscat of Alexandria 1263

XLV. Ferns in a public garden, with springtime bloom (in color) 1307

XLVI. Type of an old-time formal garden. Washington's garden at Mt. Vernon . 1315

XL VII. Fringed gentian. Gentiana crinita 1327

XL VIII. The garden gladiolus, variety "Peace" (in color) . . . ... . 1343

XLIX. The Niagara grape (in color) . 1380

L. The grapefruit. About one-third natural size 1391

LI. A home greenhouse 1410

LII. Heliotrope, an old-time favorite 1452

LIII. Good use of spring flowers. Mertensia virginica 1470

LIV. Herbs and shrubs employed about a pond 1481

LV. Hollyhock .... 1497

LVI. Roman hyacinth. One of the forms of Hyacinthus orientalis . . . .1614

LVII. A night-blooming cactus. Hylocereus tricostatus in Hawaii. Hedge planted by

Sibyl Moseley Bingham between 1831 and 1840 ... ... 1625

LVIII. One of the many beautiful garden irises. Probably one of the hybrid or deriva-
tive forms of the germanica group . 1657

LIX. Japanese irises. Iris Icevigata 1675

LX. The black walnut. Juglans nigra 1717

(v)

4f\ r**i i --, f~\

. 9 i i i 3

FABA (phago, to eat; yields edible seeds). Legu-
minosse. A genus established by Tournefort for cer-
tain plants now referred to Vicia. Faba vulgaris,
Moench, is the horse bean, broad bean or Windsor
bean, now accepted as Vicia Faba. From other groups
in Vicia, it differs mostly in its stiff erect habit and the
very large fleshy seeds and pods. The name Fabacese
is sometimes used instead of Leguminosse, and some-
times for the papilionaceous leguminosa?.

FABIANA (after Francisco Fabiano, Spanish bota-
nist, Valencia). Solandcese. Small heath -like shrubs;
one is sometimes grown in cool greenhouses and in
mild climates for its bloom.

Erect and branching plants, sometimes viscid: Ivs.
small and crowded : fls. usually many, terminal or oppo-
site the Ivs., small; corolla long-tubular, dilated or
ventricose above, often contracted at the throat;
stamens 5, attached on the corolla-tube; disk fleshy,
annular or lobed: caps, oblong, 2-
valved. About 20 species, Bolivia,
Brazil to Patagonia.

imbricate, Ruiz & Pav. Fig.
1471. Height 3-8 ft.: Ivs. ovate,
scale-like, imbricated: fls. sessile or
nearly so, white, with a short
reflexed limb, borne profusely.
Peru. B.R. 25:59. R.H. 1903, p.
291. G.C. III. 32: suppl. Sept.
27; 52:210. Gn. 60, p. 430; 72, p.
511. G.W. 2, p. 511. This plant is
apparently little grown under glass
in this country. It is a rather com-
mon shrub
in S. Calif.,
where it
blooms at
different sea-
sons. In Eng-
land, it is
said to thrive
best near the
sea . Good
bushes produce
a wealth of well-
lasting bloom in
late spring. It
prop, without
difficulty from
potted cuttings
in Aug.

L. H. B.

FAGARA : Xanthoxy-
lum.

FAGELIA (after
Caspar Fagelius, plant
cultivator). Syn. Bolu-
sdfra, Kuntze. Legumi-
nbsae. One species, a fast-
growing, twining sub-shrub from
S. Afr., covered with clammy
hairs, and bearing all summer
axillary racemes of pea-like fls.
which are yellow, the keel
tipped violet; standard reflexed;

keel obtuse, exceeding the wings ; stamens diadelphous :
pod about 6-seeded, turgid. Cult, outdoors in S. Calif,
and abroad under glass. The plant is allied to Caja-
nus, but its seeds are strophioled, pod swollen, not
flattened, and the 2 upper calyx-lobes nearly distinct.
The Fagelia of Schwenke (1774) is Calceolaria.

bitumindsa, DC. Sts. sev-
eral feet long, woody at base:
Ifts. 3, rhomb-ovate, pale and
glandular-dotted beneath, to
1^ in. long: fls. about ^in-
long: pod 1^ in. long: plant
strong-smelling. B. R. 261
(as Glycine, showing fls. also
veined with red) . Blooms
in winter in S. Calif.

L. H. B.

1472.
Fagopyrum

esculentum.
(XI)

1471. Fabiana imbricata.

(XX)

FAGOPtRUM (beech
wheat, from the likeness of
the fruit to a beech-nut).
Polygonaceae. Probably only
2 species, of Eu. and N. Asia.
Quick-growing annuals, with alternate deltoid or
hastate Ivs., small whitish fls. in racemes or panicles,
5-parted calyx, 8 stamens, 1-loculed ovary ripening
into a floury 3-angled achene. Both species are grown
for the grain, from which flour is made; and in
horticulture sometimes used as a catch-crop or green-
crop in orchards and elsewhere for the good effect
on the land.

esculentum, Moench (Polygonum Fagopyrum, Linn.).
BUCKWHEAT (which see). Fig. 1472. Lys. large and
broad, long-petioled : fls. white, fragrant, in panicled or
corymbose racemes: achene or grain with regular angles.

tataricum, Gaertn. (Polygonum tatdricum, Linn.).
INDIA- WHEAT. BUCKWHEAT. Fig. 1473. More slender:
Ivs. smaller and hastate or arrow-shaped, shorter-
petioled: fls. greenish or yellowish, in small mostly
simple racemes from the If .-axils: achene with wavy or
notched angles, smaller than in buckwheat. Useful
in short-season climates and on poorer lands. The Fig.
1473 is made from LinnaBus' original specimens of his
Polygonum tataricum, now deposited in the Linnaean
herbarium, London. L jj g

FAGUS (ancient Latin name). Fagacese. BEECH.
Ornamental trees, chiefly grown for their handsome
foliage, good habit and the conspicuous color of the
bark; also valuable timber trees. There are marked
horticultural forms.

Deciduous: winter-buds conspicuous, elongated,
acute: Ivs. alternate, distichous, dentate or nearly
entire, with caducous small stipules: fls. monoecious,

(1201)

1202

FACTS

FAG US

with tht IVG.: stagnate in sl^nder-peduncled pendu-
lous heads, appearing at the base of the young shoots;
perianth 5-7-lobed; stamens 8-13; pistillate with 3
styles, usually 2 in an axillary peduncled involucre: fr.
a brown, ovate, triangled nut, 1 or 2 in a prickly, dehis-
cent involucre. Eight
species occur in the cooler
regions of the northern
hemisphere. The species
of the southern hemis-
phere, often included
under Fagus (as F. betu-
loides and others), form
the genus Nothofagus,
which see.

The beeches are tall
deciduous hardy trees, of
noble, symmetrical habit,
with smooth light gray
bark and clean dark green
foliage, which is rarely
attacked by insects or
fungi. They are among
the most ornamental and
beautiful trees for park
planting, and attractive
at every season, especially
in spring, with the young
foliage of a tender deli-
cate green, and the grace-
ful, drooping heads of the
staminate flowers. All of
the eight species known,
save one, are in cultiva-
tion and differ compara-
tively little from each
other. The American and
the European species are
especially much alike, but
the first has the bark of a lighter color, the head is
broader and more roundish, and the leaves less shin-
ing, turning clear yellow in fall, while the latter has
a more ovate head and shining foliage, which turns
reddish brown in fall and remains on the branches
almost through the whole winter. It is sometimes used
for tall hedges. In Europe, the beech is a very impor-
tant forest tree, and the hard and very close-grained
wood is largely used in the manufacture of different
articles and for fuel; but it is not very durable in the
soil. The sweet nuts are edible, and in Europe an oil
is pressed from them, used for cooking and other
purposes.

1473. Fagopyrum tataricum.

1474. Fagus grandifolia.

(XH)

The beech prefers dryish situations, and grows best
in sandy loam and in limestone soil. Propagated by
seeds sown in fall where there is no danger of their
being eaten by mice, or dried after gathering and kept
mixed with dry sand until spring. The young plants
should be transplanted every second or third year;
otherwise they make long tap-roots, and cannot always
be transplanted successfully. The varieties are grafted
on seedling stock, usually in the greenhouse in early
spring; grafting in the open usually gives not very
satisfactory results.

Both in Europe and the eastern United States the
beech forms extensive forests. It is today the common
hardwood tree of central Europe, particularly in Den-
mark and Germany, raised as pure growth or mixture.
It requires a loamy, preferably calcareous soil, shuns
poor sand and swamp," ascends to 3,500 feet in the
Alps; prefers north and east exposures, endures much
shade, protects and improves the soil, and produces
large amounts of wood to the acre. The wood is heavy
(specific gravity 0.65 to 0.75) hard, straight-grained, of
close texture, not durable. Beech is not used as build-
ing lumber, but is extensively used for ordinary wooden
ware, furniture, wheelwright and cooperage stock.
(F. Roth.)

grandifdlia, Ehrh. (F. ferruginea, Ait. F. americana,
Sweet. F. atropunicea, Sudw.). AMERICAN BEECH.
Figs. 1474, 1475. Tree,
to 80 ft., rarely 120 ft.:
Ivs. ovate-oblong, acumi-
nate, coarsely serrate, silky
beneath when young, with
9-14 pairs of veins, dark
bluish green above, light
yellowish green beneath,
2%-5 in. long: involucre
covered with slender,
straight or recurved prick-
les, %in. high. E. N.
Amer., west to Wis. and
Texas. S.S. 9:444. Em.
182. G.F. 8:125. A.G.
12:711. F.E.20:586. Var.
pubescens, Fern. & Rehd.
Lvs. soft-pubescent below,
sometimes only slightly so.
Var. caroliniana, Fern. &
Rehd. (F. ferruginea var.
caroliniana, Loud. F. ro-
tundifolia, Raf.). Lvs. broader, of firmer texture,
darker above: involucre rufous-tomentose, with fewer
and shorter prickles: nut smaller, not exceeding the
involucre. From N. J. and S. 111. to Fla. and Texas.

sylvatica, Linn. EUROPEAN BEECH. Fig. 1475.
Tree, to 80 ft., or rarely 100 ft.: Ivs. ovate or elliptic,
remotely denticulate, silky beneath and ciliate when
young, with 5-9 pairs of veins, dark green and glossy
above, pale beneath, 2-4 in. long: involucre with mostly
upright prickles, about 1 in. high. Cent, and S. Eu. to
Caucasus. M.D.G. 1902:579-582. H.W. 2:20, pp. 42,
43. F.E. 33:615. Fig. 1475 contrasts the Ivs.
of the American and European species. A great
number of varieties are in cult., of which the
following are the most remarkable: Var. pen-
dula, Lodd. Fig. 1476. With long, pendulous
branches, the larger limbs mostly horizontally
spreading. G.C. III. 51:114. G.W. 15, p. 662. B.H.
1907, p. 393. Gn. 42, p. 65; 55, p. 267; 64, p. 167.
G.F. 1:32 (adapted in Fig. 1476). Gng. 6:258. G.W.
2, p. 15; 9, p. 510; 15, p. 663. G.M. 52:807. Var.
tortudsa, Dipp. (var. suenteliensis, Hort.). Dwarf
form, with twisted and contorted branches and small
Ivs. M.D.G. 1912:110. Var. pyramidalis, Kirchn. Of
pyramidal habit. Var. purpfcrea, Ait. (var. atropur-
purea, Hort.). Fig. 1477. Lvs. purple. M.D.G. 1901:

1475. Fagus grandifolia (left),
and F. sylvatica. ( X 1 A)

FAGUS

FATSIA

1203

163; 1908:499. G.C. III. 24:305. F.E. 13:472; 14:
874. A.G. 18:837. G.W. 2, p. 539. A form with very
dark purple Ivs. and of compact habit is var. Riversii,
Hort. There are other forms, differing in the shade of
purple, as var. cuprea, Hort., and also some with rosy
pink variegated Ivs. Var. purpftrea pendula, Hort., has

1476. Fagus sylvatica var. pendula.

purple Ivs. and pendulous branches, but is of slow
growth. Var. Zlatia, Spaeth, has yellow foliage. Var.
heterophylla, Loud. (var. asplenifolia, Lodd.). Lvs.
deeply cut, often almost to the midrib, into narrow
lobes. A very graceful variety, forming a dense and
low, shrubby tree. Mn. 1, p. 61. F.E. 18:314. P.G.
3: 163. Less important varieties, but sometimes grown,
are the following: Var. cristata, Lodd., with deeply
toothed, curled, small and clustered Ivs.: of slow
growth. Var. incisa, Hort. Similar to var. hetero-
phylla, but Ivs. less deeply cut. Var. macrophylla, Hort.
Lvs. large, to 5 in. long. Var. quercifdlia, Schelle
(var. quercoides, Hort.). With deeply toothed and
sinuate, rather narrow Ivs. Var. quercoides, Pers.,
often confused with var. quercifolia, is a form with
dark and rough, oak-like bark. M.D.G. 1909:509.

F. asidtica, Winkl.=F. orientalis. F. Engleriana, Seemen.
Tree, about 50 ft. tall: Ivs. obovate or oval-obovate, glabrous
below: stalk of fr. 2-3 in. long, glabrous. Cent. China. F. jap6n-
ica, Maxim. Lvs. small, elliptic, crenate: involucre small, slen-
der-peduncled, half as long as the nuts. Japan. S.I. F. 1:35.
F. orientalis, Lipsky (F. asiatica, Winkl.). Pyramidal tree: Ivs.
elliptic to oblong-obovate, nearly entire: lower prickles of the
involucre changed into linear-oblong lobes. Asia Minor to N.
Persia. F. Sieboldii, Endl. Lvs. ovate, shortly acuminate, cre-
nate, with 9-14 pairs of veins: lower prickles of the involucre chang-
ing into slender linear or obovate-oblong lobes. Japan. S.I.F.
1 : 35. F. sinensis, Oliver (F. sylvatica var. longipes, Oliver).
Tree, about 50 ft. tall: Ivs. ovate or rhombic-oval, finely pubescent
below: stalks of fr. lJ^-2 in. long, pubescent above. Cent. China.

ALFRED REHDER.

FALLUGIA (after Virgilio Fallugi or Falugi, an
Italian botanical writer, end of the seventeenth cen-
tury). Rosdcese. Ornamental woody plant sometimes
cultivated for its handsome white flowers and the
attractive heads of feathery tailed fruits.

Deciduous shrub: Ivs. alternate, small, 3-7-lobed
at the apex, stipulate: fls. 1-3, terminal on elongated
branchlets, perfect or polygamous, with 5 narrow bracts
inserted between the calyx-lobes; calyx-tube cupular;
sepals 5, imbricate; petals 5, suborbicular, yellowish
white; stamens numerous in 3 rows; pistils many, on a
conical torus, pubescent; style slender: achenes with
long persistent plumose styles. One species in S. W.
N. Amer.

This plant is a low divaricate shrub with slender
spreading branches, and conspicuous white flowers at

the tips of slender branchlets, followed by dense heads
of feathery tailed fruits. Hardy as far north as Massa-
chusetts; demands well-drained soil and a sunny warm
position; likes limestone soil; stagnant moisture, par-
ticularly during the winter, is fatal to it. Its best place
is in a rockery of southern aspect. Propagation is by
seeds, which are freely produced.

paradoxa, Endl. Shrub, to 3 ft.: Ivs. cuneate with
3-7 narrow-oblong lobes decurrent into the linear
petiole, revolute at the margin and whitish tomentose
below, M-Kin. long: fls. 1-3, 1-1 K in. across, white:
achenes with feathery tails 1-1 3^ in. long. June- Aug.;
fr. Aug.-Oct. Calif., Nev. and Utah south to Mex.
B.M.6660. M.D.G. 1900:207. ALFRED REHDER.

FARADAYA (Michael Faraday, famous chemist,
1794-1867). Verbenacex. Climbing shrubs, allied to
Clerodendron, with opposite simple Ivs., and fls. in
terminal or nodular panicles; corolla tubular, widened
upward, with a 4-lobed limb of which one lobe is
larger; stamens 4, paired, exserted; ovary 4-lobed
and 4-celled: fr. a drupe. There are about a half-dozen
species in Austral, and S. Pacific islands. They appear
not to be in the trade. F. splendida, Muell., of Austral.,
may occur in choice collections: it is a tall glabrous
climber with ovate, acuminate coriaceous Ivs. 6-12 in.
long, and large white fls. in terminal panicles.

FARFUGIUM: Ligularia.

FATSIA (from a Japanese name). Araliacese. Half-
hardy shrubs or small trees, used for subtropical
foliage effects in the North, and planted permanently
far South.

Fatsia has 2 species, belonging to the Panax series,
in which the petals are valvate, while in the Aralia
series they are more or less overlapping, but the sides
affixed at the base. Within the Panax series, Polyscias
has the pedicel articulated under the fl., while in Fatsia
and Acanthopanax the pedicel is continuous with the
fl. Fatsia is distinguished from the hardier and less

1477. Good specimen of purple beech. Fagus sylvatica

var. purpurea.

familiar but worthy Acanthopanax by the greater
length and distinctness of the styles. This genus is
doubly interesting as producing the famous rice paper
of the Chinese, and two rivals of the castor-oil plant
in bold subtropical effects, made by large Ivs., the
lobes of which spread out like fingers.

While fatsias require more care in the North than the
hardy aralias, their massive subtropical appearance is

FATSIA

FEIJOA

highly distinct. A perfect specimen is figured in Gar-
dening 5 : 133, where W. R. Smith says of F. papyrifera:
"This plant produces the beautiful substance known as
rice paper; it grows to 10 ft. high, with a st. 4 in. diam.,
full of white pith like the elder; in a full-grown speci-
men the pith is about 1 in. diam. It is divided into
pieces 3 in. long, and by the aid of a sharp instrument
is unrolled, forming the thin, narrow sheets known as
rice paper, greatly used by the Chinese for drawing
figures of plants and animals, and also for making arti-
ficial fls. Until about 1850 the source of this substance
was unknown to scientists. The Chinese, on inquiry,
gave very fanciful figures and descriptions of it. ...
It is destined to be a people's plant, as J^in. of the root
will grow and form a good plant the first season. It
has survived most winters for the past 5 years in
Washington, D. C."

As associates in groups of bold-habited plants, F. W.
Burbidge (Gn. 45, p. 321) suggests Polygonum sacha-
linense, Chamaerops Fortunei and Rodgersia podo-
phylla. For contrast with feathery and cut-leaved foli-
age, he suggests bamboos, aucubas, cut-leaved maples

1478. Fatsia japonica.

and various ivies. Fatsia may be grown in the temper-
ate house in the North, outdoors southward. It is
easily grown and propagated. The species are unarmed;
the very spiny plant sometimes referred to this genus
as F. horrida, is treated under Echinopanax, which see.
Siebert and Voss declare that most of the plants sold as
Fatsia japonica are Aralia spinosa. These plants like
shade. Full sunlight for an hour or two in early morning
is enough. They should have a shelter-spot, where the
wind will not whip their foliage.

papyrifera, Benth. & Hook. (Aralia papyrifera, Hook.
Tetrapanax papyri ferum, Koch.). Height 5-7 ft. (accord-
ing to Franceschi, 20 ft. in the open ground in S. Calif.) :
branches and young Ivs. covered with stellate, more or
less deciduous down: mature Ivs. reaching 1 ft. long, cor-
date, 5-7-lobed ; lobes acute, serrate ; sinus very deep : fls.
inconspicuous, white, in sessile, globose clusters. Formosa.
B.M.4897. A.F. 7:385. Gng. 5:133. Gn. 45, p. 321.

japonica, Decne. & Planch. (Aralia japdnica, Thunb.,
not Hort.? A. Sikboldii, Hort.). Fig. 1478. Lvs.
downy at first, finally shining green: fls. in umbels.
Japan, China. Abroad are cult, forms with white or
golden margins and a form reticulated with gold mark-

ings. Var. Mdseri, Hort., is regarded as an improved,
more compact-growing variety which originated with
Moser of Fontainebleau. Intro, into Amer. by Mon-
tarioso Nurseries, Santa Barbara, Calif.

WILHELM MILLER.

N. TAYLOR, f

FEDIA (application doubtful). Valerianaceas. One
glabrous branching annual of the Medit. region, some-
times grown as an ornamental and also as a salad
plant. Lvs. entire or dentate: fls. red, small, in more or
less dense terminal cymes; peduncles thick and fistular;
corolla with an elongated tube and a 2-lipped limb,
irregular at the base; stamens 2; style entire or 2-3-fid.
F. Cornucopias, DC. (Valeridna Cornucopias, Linn.),
a variable species, usually with purplish sts., grows
10-16 in. high: Ivs. nearly all radical, oval-oblong, shin-
ing green. It is sometimes known as African valerian.
The Ivs. are eaten as salad, being related to corn-salad.
The plant seems not to be in the American trade.

FEIJOA. The FEIJOA, or PINEAPPLE GUAVA (Feijba
Settowiana, Berg, family Myrtaceae) is indigenous to
western Paraguay, southern Brazil,
Uruguay, and parts of Argentina,
where it is common in the forests,
and the fruit is highly esteemed by
the natives though not cultivated.
It was introduced to southern
Europe in 1890, and is grown along
the Riviera, both in France and
Italy. From the former country
it was introduced to the United
States about 1900, and is becoming
widely planted in California. Its
distribution in other countries is
very limited.

Feijoa is of 2 species. It is the
Orthostemon of Berg, not of
Robert Brown. F. obovata, Berg
(0. obovatus, Berg), is considered
by Niedenzu to be a variety of F.
Sellowiana. It is a white-tomentose
shrub, with bisexual showy fls.;
petals 4, spreading; stamens numer-
ous, in many series, colored; ovary
4-celled, bearing a thickish style;
pedicels 1-fld., at the ends of the
branches or becoming lateral. The
other species is F. Schenckiana,
Kiaersk., of Brazil, described first in
1891. The genus is closely allied to
Psidium, but is distinguished by the
albuminous seeds and stamens suberect in the bud.

The plant grows to an ultimate height of 15 feet. Its
leaves are similar in form and appearance to those of
the olive, but larger, the upper surface glossy green,
and lower surface silvery gray, forming a contrast that
makes the shrub effectively ornamental. This effect is
much heightened by its flowers which are produced in
late spring and are \ l /2 inches in diameter, composed
of four cupped petals, white outside and purplish crim-
son within, surmounted by a tuft of crimson stamens
1 inch long. The oval or oblong fruits, 2 inches in
length and 1 Y^ inches in thickness, ripen in autumn and
early winter. The skin is dull green, with sometimes a
touch of crimson on the cheek; it incloses a layer of
whitish, granular flesh, which surrounds a quantity
of translucent, melting pulp, containing twenty to
thirty seeds. The flavor bears a pronounced resem-
blance to that of the pineapple, this being enhanced by
the fact that the seeds are so small that they cannot
be felt in the mouth. While commonly eaten fresh, the
fruit may be cooked in several ways, crystallized, or
made into jam or jelly.

The feijoa does not seem to thrive under strictly
tropical conditions, preferring a climate such as that

FEIJOA

FENDLERA

1205

of southern California or the Riviera, free from exces-
sive humidity, and cool at least part of the year. In
France, the plants have passed uninjured through
temperatures of 12 F. A good loam, rich in humus, is
the ideal soil for the feijoa. It has been successfully
grown on heavy clay, by working in a quantity of light
material, but it does not do well on light or sandy soils.
The situation seems to be of little importance, provided
the land is well drained. While the plant is notably
drought-resistant, for best results in growth and fruit-
ing a liberal supply of water is necessary. During the
dry season, irrigations should be as frequent as for
citrous trees. Fertilizers must be applied with caution,
or they will stimulate growth at the expense of fruit.
A small quantity of bone-meal, or other fertilizer not
too rich in nitrogen, may be advantageously applied
each year, while well-rotted manure will supply the
much-needed humus, if it is lacking in the soil. The
plants should be set 15 or 18 feet apart, and require very
little pruning. Seedlings usually come into bearing at
three to five years; grafted or layered plants will some-
times bear the second year.

In some instances, seedling feijoas fruit sparingly or
not at all, either through the failure of the flowers to be
properly fertilized or because of unfavorable soil or sur-
roundings. Although isolated plants are often productive,
it has been suggested that the feijoa is sometimes self-
sterile, and two or more bushes should be planted
together to permit of cross-pollination. The difficulty can
probably be obviated, in a measure at least, by propa-
gating asexually from strains of known productiveness.

The fruits fall when mature, and must be laid in a
cool place until they are in condition for eating, which
can be detected by a slight softening, and also by the
odor, a fragrance most delightful. If picked before
fully mature and ready to fall, the fruits lack much of
the delicate flavor of a perfectly ripened specimen.
Very little care is required in packing, and the fruits
can be shipped long distances without difficulty. They
spoil quickly in a hot, humid atmosphere, but if stored
in a cool place they can be kept for a month or more
in perfect condition.

The shrub is attacked by a very few insects, the only
one noted in either California or southern Europe
being the black scale (Saissetia oleae), which rarely
requires combative measures. No fungous diseases
have been observed on mature plants.

Propagation is usually by seed, but some vegetative
means must be used to perpetuate named varieties.
Fruits for seed should be selected with a view to desira-
bility in every character, as in precocity of bearing and
productiveness of the parent. While the feijoa does not
come absolutely true from seed, fairly good results are
usually secured from selected seeds.

One of the best mediums for germinating the seeds
is a mixture of silver-sand and well-rotted redwood
sawdust. This gives an almost sterile medium, in which
there is little danger of damping-off, to which fungus
the young plants are very susceptible. With care in
watering, however, any light porous soil, not too rich
in humus, may be used. Sow the seeds in pans or flats,
covering them to the depth of ^ inch. Germination
will usually take place within three weeks. A glass-
house is not necessary, but the flats containing the
seeds should be kept in a frame with lath or slat cover-
ing to provide partial shade. The seeds will retain
their vitality a year or more, if kept dry. As soon as
the young plants have made their second leaves they
should be pricked off into 2-inch pots; after attaining
a height of 4 inches they should be shifted into 3-inch
pots, from which they can later on be transplanted
into the open ground.

Cuttings can be successfully rooted under glass.
They should be of young wood from the ends of
branches, and about 4 inches in length. Inserted in
clear sand over bottom heat they will strike roots in a

month or two; without bottom heat they root very
slowly. It is sometimes advised to keep them covered
with bell-jars until they have formed roots.

Layering is used in France to perpetuate choice
forms. It is somewhat tedious, but more certain than
any other vegetative means of propagation. Those
branches which are closest to the ground are bent
down and covered with soil for the space of 3 to 6
inches. They require no care except to keep the soil
fairly moist, and they will root in six months.

Whip-grafting and veneer-grafting are successfully
practised under glass, using as stocks seedling feijoas
of the diameter of a lead pencil. The cions should be
of about the same diameter and of young but firm wood.

Several named varieties have been established, of
which the most prominent are Andre and Besson.

F. W. POPENOE.

FELICIA (for Herr Felix, a German official). Com-
posites. Herbs or sub-shrubs, grown under glass or as
pot specimens.

Leaves alternate, entire or dentate:
heads usually long-peduncled, the
corolla blue or white, the disk yellow.
Much like Aster, from which it differs
in having pappus bristles
in one series, and in
other technical charac-
ters. Forty to 50 species '
in Afr.

amelloides, Voss, not
Schlechter 1898 (Cin-
eraria amelloides, Linn.
Aster rotundifblius,
Thunb. A. capensis,
Less. Agathsea caelestis,
Cass. A . rotundifolia,
Nees. A. amelloides,
DC.). BLUE DAISY.
BLUE MARGUERITE. Fig.
1479. An old green-
house plant, 1-2 ft., with
roundish ovate opposite
Ivs. and large, solitary
heads of an exquisite
sky-blue. S. Afr. B.M.
249. A.F. 13:657. F.R.
1:674. Gng. 6:149.
There is a variegated-
Ivd. variety (I.H. 8: 296).
Grown easily from cut-
tings. Handled like a
cineraria; or, if grown
from spring cuttings
for winter bloom, like
a chrysanthemum, but
with more heat in the
fall. An elegant pot-plant, and useful for bedding in a
protected place. Var. monstrdsa, Hort. Fls. double the
size of the type.

petiolata, N.E. Br. (Aster petiolatus, Harvey). An
undershrub more or less prostrate and useful for
hanging-baskets: Ivs. obovate or lanceolate, wedge-
shaped at the base, rather papery: fls. at first rose-
colored, gradually changing to aster-blue. S. Afr.
B.M. 8370. F.E. 33:503. G.C. III. 42:82. Intro, in
S. Calif, in 1912. jj. TAYLOR-!

FENDLERA (after Augustus Fendler, a German
naturalist, botanical explorer of New Mexico). Saxi-
fragaceas. Ornamental woody plant grown for its hand-
some white flowers.

Deciduous shrub: Ivs. opposite, short-petioled,
entire, 3-nerved: fls. solitary or rarely 2-3 at the end of
short lateral branchlets; calyx-lobes and petals 4;
stamens 8; ovary almost superior: fr. a 4-celled, dehis-

1479. Blue daisy. Felicia
amelloides.

1206

FENDLERA

FENUGREEK

cent caps., with flat, oblong seeds. Two species from
Texas to Mex. Allied to Philadelphia, but differing
in its 8 stamens and superior ovary. They are grace-
ful ornamental shrubs with small, grayish foliage,
covered in June along the slender, arching branches

1480. Fendlera rupicola. ( X

with graceful white fls., resembling in shape a Maltese
cross. Hardy in New England, and growing best in a
well-drained, sandy or peaty soil and sunny position.
A very handsome and graceful plant for sunny rock-
eries or rocky slopes. Prop, by seeds or by greenwood
cuttings under glass.

rupicola, Engelm. & Gray. Fig. 1480. To 4 ft. : Ivs.
linear-lanceolate or linear-oblong, 3-nerved, revolute
at the margin, grayish tomentose beneath, 3^-1 in.
long: fls. milky white, 1 in. across; petals rhombic-
ovate, with distinct claw, spreading; stamens erect.
June. G.F. 2:113 (adapted in Fig. 1480). G.C. III.
36:410. B.M. 7924. R.H. 1891, p. 42; 1899, p. 129.
M.D.G. 1899:231. G. 28:601. ALFRED REHDER.

FENNEL. Species of Fasniculum (Umbelliferae),
annuals or treated as such, used as salad or condimental
herbs. Native of southern Europe. The common
fennel (F. offidndle, Linn.) is grown mostly for its young
leaves, which are used in flavoring, and also for its
aromatic seeds. Leaves sometimes eaten raw. Sow
seeds in late fall to ensure early germination in spring,
or sow in early spring. In any good soil, the plant
comes to maturity quickly. This plant has become in
California one of the most widely naturalized Euro-
pean weeds. It is a pest in pastures, said at times to
attain 12 or 15 feet.

The Florence or sweet fennel is F. duke, DC. The
bases of the crowded leaf-stalks are much thickened,
making a bulb-like enlargement above the ground. This
thickened base has an oval form in cross-section.
Earthing-up blanches these thickened leaf-bases, and
after boiling they are fit for eating. A good fennel
bottom may be 3 or 4 inches high. This is an Italian

vegetable, but is in the American trade. Easily culti-
vated annual; matures quickly. Sow in spring, and
later for succession.

Giant fennel is cultivated for ornament, and is
described under Ferula. Fennel-flower is a name of
Nigella. L H B

FENUGREEK ( Trigonella Fcenum-Grxcum, literally
Greek hay). An annual legume indigenous to western
Asia, cultivated for human food, forage, and for medi-
cinal qualities; widely naturalized in Mediterranean
countries; little grown in America.

Fenugreek is an erect little-branched plant with 3-
foliolate leaves. The seeds are 1 or 2 lines long, brown-
ish yellow and marked with an oblique furrow half
their length. They emit a peculiar odor, and contain
starch, mucilage, a bitter extractive, a yellow coloring
matter, and 6 per cent of fixed and volatile oils. As
human food they are used in Egypt, mixed with wheat
flour, to make bread; in India, with other condiments,
to make curry powder; in Greece, either boiled or raw,
as an addition to honey; in many oriental countries, to
give plumpness to the female human form. The plant
is used as an esculent in Hindostan; as an early fodder
in Egypt, Algiers, France, and other countries border-
ing the Mediterranean. Formerly the seed was valued
in medicine; now it is employed only in the prepara-
tion of emollient cataplasms, enemata, ointments and
plasters, never internally. In veterinary practice it is
still esteemed for poultices, condition powders, as a
vehicle for drugs, and to diminish the nauseating and
griping effects of purgatives. It is commonly used by
hostlers to produce glossy coats upon their horses and
to give a temporary fire and vigor; by stockmen to
excite thirst and digestion in fattening animals; by
manufacturers of patent stock foods as a flavoring
ingredient.

Fenugreek does not succeed on clays, sands, wet or
sour soils. It yields most seed upon well-drained loams
of medium texture and of moderate fertility; most
fodder upon rich lands. For seed-production, potash
and phosphoric acid should be applied; for forage,
nitrogenous manures. Deep plowing and thorough
harrowing are essential. Ten to twenty pounds of
seed should be used broadcast, or seven to ten pounds
in drills 18 inches apart. Thinning when the plants are
2 or 3 inches tall, and clean culture throughout the

1481. Fern-balls as received from the dealer.

season until blossoming time, are necessary for a seed
crop. The crop may be mown, dried and threshed four
or five months after seeding. An average yield should
be about 950 pounds an acre. As a green manure,
fenugreek is inferior to the clovers, vetches and other
popular green manures of this country. It possesses

FENUGREEK

FERNS

1207

the power of obtaining nitrogen from the air by means
of root-tubercles. For description of the plant, see
Trigonella. M. G. KAINS.

FfeNZLIA: Gilia.
FERDINAND A: Podachxnium.

FERN-BALLS (Fig. 1481) are the dried rhizomes of
ferns, imported from Japan. Dealers often start them into
growth, and sell them when the mass is well covered
with its delicate vegetation. To start them into growth,
the balls are drenched in a tub of water and then hung
in a warmhouse, not in direct sunlight. When the
plants are well started, gradually expose them to more
light and to a copier air. Give liquid manure if they
do not grow satisfactorily. The species are mostly
Davallias, apparently D. bullata and D. Mariesii.

Fern-balls (Davallia bullata) are of Japanese origin.
They are natives of deep mossy forests (the mosses
on trees as well as on the ground), with abundant
humidity in the air, as in Kiso or some parts of

1482. Ferns in formal shapes.

Fukushima districts. Toward the end of every
winter, an expert goes into these forests and gathers
the vines of such ferns. They should be carefully kept
in the bamboo baskets in which a large quantity of
mosses are contained, which must be sprinkled with
water on the way to the metropolis. The people out-
side of large towns or cities do not care much for this
plant. When the plants arrive in the cities or towns,
they fall into the hands of gardeners who make many
shapes with the vines (Fig. 1482). This is done before
any leaves appear. Then the balls or other shaped
articles are hung from the ceiling beam quite near to
its end but not exposed to rain or hot sunshine. The
ferns should not be subjected to pouring rain or showers,
although they like dew. They should have some
sprinkling of cool water once every day after sunset.
The plant dislikes dust or warm impure water. The
best fertilizer is the extract of fish-meal or cake ("abura-
kasunazumi"). Prices run from 20 cents to 50 cents
United States money according to the shape of balls
and general excellence. (Issa Tanimura.)

1483. Sporan-

FERNELIA (Jean Francois Fernel, 1497-1558,
physician to Henry II of France). Rubiacex. Four
small evergreen trees or shrubs of the Mascarene Isls.,
rarely grown in choice warmhouse collections. Lvs.
small, opposite, coriaceous, short-stalked, ovate-oblong
or nearly orbicular : fls. small, solitary or in 2's, provided
with a 4-toothed calyx-like involucre; corolla short-
tubed, salver-shaped, with 4 spreading lobes; stamens
2, affixed in the corolla-throat; disk annular; ovary
1-celled below and 2-celled above: fr. a small berry.
F. buxifblia, Comm., is the species likely to be in cult.
It is a much-branched shrub 4-5 ft. high, with pbovate
or oblong Ivs. }^in. or less long, and many whitish fls.
in the axils of the Ivs.: berry dry, size of a pea, red,
borne inside the involucre. Mauritius. L H B

FERNS. The plants included under this name com-
prise an entire order, made up of several distinct fami-
lies. They include plants varying in size from a hair-
like creeping stem bearing a few simple, moss-like
leaves, to tall trees 80 or more feet in
height, with a stem or trunk nearly a
foot in diameter. Singularly enough,
the extremes in size are both found in
tropical regions, in which most of the
species abound. Most of the ordinary
native species, as well as the larger part
of those in cultivation, consist of an
erect underground stem or rootstock
with leaves, often called fronds, clustered
in dense crowns, or in the cases of creep-
ing stems with scattered leaves. In
gardening parlance, other plants are
sometimes called ferns, as species of
lycopodium and selaginella, as well as ^ t s f > a fem 6 "
Asparagus plumosus.

In the life of an individual fern plant, two distinct
phases occur, represented by two separate and unlike
plants. The ordinary fern plant represents the asexual
phase of growth (sporophyte), producing its spores
normally in spore-cases (sporangia, Fig. 1483), which
are borne in masses (son, Fig. 1484) on the back or
margin of the leaf, or in a few cases are grouped in
spikes or panicles, or in rare cases spread in a layer over
the entire under surface of the leaf. The sexual stage
(gametophyte) develops from the germinating spore,
and consists of a tiny usually scale-like green heart-
shaped prothallus (Fig. 1485), which bears the sex-
organs (archegonia, female, and antheridia, male) on the
under surface. After fertilization in the archegonium,
the egg develops directly into a young fern plant (Fig.
1485). Many ferns also propagate vegetatively by
runners or offsets, by bulblet-like buds, and in certain
species the tips of the leaves bend over and take root,
as in our common walking-leaf (Camptosorus, which
see).-

Ferns frequently hybridize. The crossing takes place
naturally in the prothallium stage. They are not
crossed by hand, as are the seed-plants, but from the
accidental mixing when prothallia of allied species are
growing together. Fig. 1486 (G.F. 9:445) is a hybrid
between two native species; it has been found in the
wild in several parts of New England.

Great diversity has existed in the matter of the
separation of the ferns into
genera. Hooker, relying mainly
on artificial characters drawn
largely from the sorus, recog-
nized about seventy genera
only, many of them heterogene-
ous groups of plants with little
resemblance in structure, habit
or natural affinities. John
Smith, relying on stem charac-

1484. A sorus or fruit- ters, Presl on variation in vena-
dot of a fern. tion and habit, Fe"e, Moore,

1208

FERNS

1485. Prothallus of a
fern, with a young leaf
arising.

and others, have recognized a much greater number of
genera, ranging from 150 to 250, or even more. In
the very unequal treatment by Diels in Die Natiir-
lichen Pflanzenfamilien (Engler & Prantl), some 120
genera are recognized. A somewhat similar differ-
ence prevails in regard to the number of species.
The Synopsis Filicum of Hooker
and Baker (1874), supplemented
by Baker's New Ferns (1892),
recognizes some 2,700 species.
It is the too prevailing tendency
in this work (1) to fail to recog-
nize many valid species which
have been described by German
and French botanists, and (2)
to mass under one name very
diverse groups of species from
distant quarters of the world
from 8 to 10 species not infre-
quently appearing as a single
so-called "variable species." The
most recent book dealing with the
whole order of ferns, the Index
Filicium by Carl Christensen,
recognizes approximately 150
genera and 6,000 species, and this
number is continually increased
as the result of further tropical
exploration and more careful
study. New forms are constantly coming in from the
less-explored parts of the world, and within the last few
years several new species have been described from the
United States, including some from the better-known
parts. Of this number some 200 species are in occa-
sional cultivation in America, but the species that
form the bulk of the fern trade do not exceed two
dozen. In Europe several hundred species have long
been in cultivation. Most of the species thrive best
in the mountain regions of the tropics, the mountains
of Jamaica and Java having nearly 600 species each,
and the Andes also a large number. About 165 species
are native in the temperate United States, representing
some thirty-five genera; our native species are so widely
distributed that usually not more than twenty-five to
fifty will be found within the limits of one state, and
the common species of the best locality do not number
more than twenty. Recent explorations in southern
Florida have discovered in that state the presence of a
considerable number of West Indian species not found
elsewhere in the United States.

The ferns are commonly classified as part of a group
of spore-bearing plants, with vascular (woody) tissue
in stem and leaves; this group is technically known as
the Pteridophytes, and is ordinarily divided into three
orders; viz., the Equisetales, including the horsetails
and scouring rushes; the Lycopodiales, including the
selaginellas and the club mosses, or ground pines; and
the Filicales, including the true ferns and their nearer
allies (see pp. 7-9, Vol. I) . The Lycopodiales and Equi-
setales are really not as closely related to ferns as this
grouping would indicate.

It should be noted that neither the family nor the
generic limitations are in a settled condition. The
researches of Bower, Lang, Jeffrey, and others have
resulted in some changes of classification which are
not included below because they are not complete
enough. Their conclusions are undoubtedly correct
but are not at present usable.

The families of the order Filicales may be distin-
guished as follows:

A. Spores of one sort. (Isosporous.)

B. Sporangia fleshy, with no ring, rising from the interior

tissues of the If. (Eusporangiate ferns.)

1. Ophioglossaceae. ADDER'S-TONGUE FERNS. Her-
baceous small ferns with the sporangia borne in spikes

or panicles on highly modified divisions of the large
fleshy foliage Ivs.; prothallium tuberous, subterranean,
without chlorophyll.

2. Marattlaceas. Coarse ferns with large fleshy
sporangia on the under surface of the If., arranged in
circular or boat-shaped receptacles; prothallium above
ground, green.

BB. Sporangia rising from an epidermal cell, with an
elastic ring of peculiar cells, which assist in scat-
tering the spores by rupturing. (Leptosporangiate
ferns).

c. Lvs. filmy, usually only 1 cell thick between the veins.

3. Hymenophyllaceae. FILMY FERNS. Sporangia
attached to a thread-like receptacle arising in a cup at
the end of the If. : ring complete, horizontal or oblique.

cc. Lvs. herbaceous or leathery.

D. Ring incomplete or rudimentary: sporangia in

panicles.

4. Osmundaceae. FLOWERING FERNS. Coarse swamp
ferns developing copious green spores early in the
season: sporangia in panicles at the apex or middle of
the If. or on separate Ivs.

DD. Ring apical: sporangia usually single under a scale,
or in panicles.

5. Schizaeaceae. Upright or climbing ferns with
ovate sporangia, which open vertically.

DDD. Sporangia sessile, either single or in
clusters of 3-6.

6. Gleicheniaceae. Terrestrial
ferns with Ivs. of firm texture and
usually of indetermi-
nate growth: sporangia

opening vertically, in
clusters of 3-6.

7. Ceratopteridaceae.
Aquatic ferns with
succulent foliage:
sporangia very
large, scattered,
with a broad ring:
Ivs. of 2 sorts, the
sterile usually float-
ing.

I486. An example of a fern hybrid. Dryopteris

cristata X D. marginalis.

FERNS

1209

DDDD. Sporangia numerous, collected in definite serve to indicate not only the relatively great age of

clusters (sori) . the plant but its slow rate of continuous development,

8. Cyatheaceae. Mostly tree ferns with sessile or as well.

short-stalked sporangia in conspicuous receptacles, ree fern s are primarily forest dwellers and occur

opening obliquely (Fig 1179 Vol II) either as component parts of the dominant forest

9. Polypodiacese. Ferns ' with stalked sporangia ^ ro ^ h , or ' more commonly, as a sort of thicket or

AA. Spores of two sorts: minute microspores and con- change; they reach, therefore, their best development,

spcuous macrospores. (Heterospor-
ous.) These spores develop into two
sorts of prothalli, those from the micro-
spores developing only antheridia, and
those from the macrospores only arche-
gonia.

10. Marsiliaceae. Small plants rooting
in mud, the Ivs. either quadrifoliate or
reduced to mere filamentous petioles:
sporangia borne in oval conceptacles on
the leaf-stalks. Often aquatic, with the
leaves floating on the surface of water in
pools or lakes.

11. Salviniacese. Small or minute plants
with the aspect of liverworts, floating on
the surface of pools: sporangia in mostly
spherical conceptacles.

The literature on the ferns is very ex-
tensive, since they have ever been attrac-
tive plants in cultivation. Many of the
species have been illustrated in elaborate
treatises by Schkuhr, Kunze, Hooker,
Greville, Blume, F4e, Mettenius, Moore,
and others. Our native species have been
illustrated in the two quarto volumes of
D. C. Eaton, "The Ferns of North Amer-
ica." A valuable summary of the more
common fern species is found in Dr.
Christ's "Die Farnkrauter der Erde"
(1897), and a recent structural and
morphological treatment is by Sadebeck,
in Engler & Prantl: "Die Naturlichen
Pflanzenfamilien." Schneider's "Book of
Choice Ferns" is the most complete treat-
ise on the species under cultivation. A
useful American horticultural manual is
Robinson's "Ferns in Their Homes and
Ours." An excellent little handbook for
the wild species of this country is Under-
wood's "Native Ferns and Their Allies."
L. M. UNDERWOOD.

R. C. BENEDICT.f

Tree ferns.

The term "tree fern" is applied com-
monly to ferns of the family Cyatheaceae,
to distinguish them from species of other
families of ferns which, for the most part,
are not at all arborescent. A compara-
tively small number of Cyatheaceae, it is
true, have the trunk short, and oblique or
decumbent; but in most species the trunk
is erect and greatly elongate (commonly
3 'to 40 feet high) and the whole plant
so unmistakably tree-like in size and pro-
portion, that the name "tree fern" is a
most appropriate one for the family. The
leaves are usually large and are borne in
a radiating palm-like crown at the apex of
the trunk, or caudex, as it is often called.
The trunk itself, in the case of an ordinary
mature individual, is marked by numer-
ous close-set leaf-scars (Fig. 1487); these

f -'- '

1- -*. t-

1487. The trunk of a tree
fern. Cyathea arborea.

both as to species and number of indi-
viduals, upon lofty mountains and upon
the seaward side of ranges which are
drenched constantly by cool moisture-
laden winds from the ocean.

The successful cultivation of tree ferns
under glass is predicated upon these facts,
although not all the species here men-
tioned are horticulturally known in this
country. It is found that most species
should be grown at a temperature of about
60 F. and in a rather shallow soil; that a
continuously wet but well-drained sub-
stratum is essential; and that in general a
tolerably high atmospheric humidity also
is requisite for best growth. Very bright
sunlight must be guarded against in all
but a few species, among these being the
common tropical American Cyathea
arborea, which grows naturally in rather
open places, and C. furfuracea, a native
of Cuba and Jamaica which assumes a not
unattractive form in drier open situations.
As in other groups of ferns, there are cer-
tain species which demand unusual care
and minor variations of treatment, such
as wrapping the trunk in sphagnum as
a safeguard against drying out. These
special requirements can be determined
only by experience.

The Cyatheaceae are divided technically
into three tribes: Thyrsopterideae, Dick-
sonieae, and Cyatheae. The first mentioned
consists of a single species, Thyrsopteris
elegans, Kunze, from Juan Ferndndez. The
two latter tribes may be distinguished as
follows:

Sori terminal upon the veins, at or
near the margin of the segments;
indusia at least bilobed, the outer
lip formed of the more or less modi-
fied lobule of the leaf Dicksonieae.

Sori borne upon the back of the veins ;
indusium (if present) not formed of
the leaf -margin in any part . . Cyatheae.

The Dicksonieae consist of three genera:
Culcita (often known as Balantium), with
about six species, all of small stature and
nearly devoid of trunk; Dicksonia, with
five tropical American species and several
hardy Australasian species, the latter not
uncommon in cultivation and capable of
enduring unusually great extremes of cold ;
and Cibotium, with four North American
species and several which occur in Asia
and the islands of the Pacific. (See under
Cibotium and Dicksonia.)

It is in the Cyatheae, however, that the
greatest variety and extremes of leaf form
are noted, and consequently the species
of this tribe are most highly esteemed in
cultivation. They are commonly asso-
ciated under three genera: Cyathea,
Alspphila, and Hemitelia, distinguished
mainly by characters of the indusia. One

1210

FERNS

of the most graceful species of all is Cyathea
arbor ea, introduced into England from the West
Indies by Admiral Bligh in 1793. There are numer-
ous species almost equally fine, many of which are
not in general cultivation. The species with clean
trunks, from which the leaves are freely deciduous
after maturity, are the most pleasing; and among
those which deserve especial notice are the following:
Cyathea minor, a very slender Cuban plant with trunk
6 to 12 feet high and 1 to IK inches thick, its several
slender bipinnate leaves borne in a spreading crown;
C. portoricensis, a tall Porto Rican species with large
nearly tripinnate leaves, its rachises dark, lustrous,
purplish brown; C. elegans, of Jamaica, a close ally of
C. arbor ea, often attaining a wide spread of leaf at an
unusually early age; C. Werckleana, C. hemiotis, and C.
hastulata, of Costa Rica, a peculiar subgroup charac-
terized by having the leaves fully tripinnate, the ulti-
mate rachises discontinuously alate; C. diver gens, extend-
ing in one form or another from the Andes to Costa
Rica, its huge fronds exceedingly lax and sometimes
even in large plants recurved nearly to the ground; C.
insignis of the Greater Antilles, in technical characters
allied to the well-known C. princeps of Mexico; C.
suprastrigosa and C. conspersa of Costa Rica and Pan-
ama, delicate graceful tripinnatifid plants of the high
mountains; C. punctifera of Nicaragua and Costa Rica,
a plant of lower range, its huge tripinnatifid fronds
remarkably beautiful from the strong contrast afforded
by the slender rich brown rachises and the unusually
vivid green leaf -segments; C. aureonitens of Costa Rica
and Panama, a lofty plant with leaf -scars in distant zones,
having the unusual habit also of shedding piecemeal all
its large tripinnatifid fronds, seasonally.

Of Alsophila, the two best-known species in cultiva-
tion are doubtless A. australis and A. aspera, the latter
a common West Indian plant. A. myosuroides, of Cuba,
Mexico, and Central America, has lately been reintro-
duced to cultivation. It is a remarkably handsome
plant, its rather harsh, heavy, gray-green, tripinnatifid
leaves borne from a copious mass of slender, glossy
brown scales. Another beautiful species, A. Salvinii,
from Mexico and Guatemala, has very large tripinnate
fronds, with woody castaneous rachises in striking
contrast. A favorite species in cultivation also is A.
quadripinnata (A. pruinata), native in the West Indies
and from Mexico to Chile, its short trunk bearing huge
four-pinnate fronds, bluish or silvery white beneath.

The genus Hemitelia includes not only plants of the
above sort, with tripinnatifid fronds (as, for example,
the well-known H. capensis), but also plants of a dis-
tinctly different type known as the subgenus Cnemi-
daria. These are H. horrida, of the West Indies, and
numerous related species of the American tropics,
many of which have long been cultivated in European
conservatories. They are characterized mainly by
short trunks and large, leafy, simply pinnate or bipin-
natifid fronds, and make a beautiful display in cultiva-
tion. Among them may be mentioned H. speciosa, H.
bella, H. grandifolia, (H. insignis), H. spectabilis, and H.
subincisa. Their characters have recently been dis-
cussed at some length. (See Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb.
16:25-49, 1912.)

Considering the wealth of material available in the
American tropics and the comparative ease with which
it may be secured, it is remarkable that so little atten-
tion has been given to the introduction of recently
described species. The novelty and beauty of many of
these render an effort to this end exceedingly desirable
and advantageous from a horticultural point of view.
Costa Rica in particular has yielded many interesting
new species within late years. This region, which has
been called the richest in the world, will doubtless be
equaled by certain parts of the Andes of South
America, when that immense territory shall have been
adequately explored. WILLIAM R. MAXON.

Cultivation of tender ferns.

To grow commercial varieties of ferns profitably,
the first care should be to secure the necessary number
of properly built and equipped houses, with a con-
veniently arranged workshop. The house which gives
the most general satisfaction runs north and south, has
an even-span roof, and with a fall to roof of 6 inches
to the foot. Its benches should be arranged to be about
7 feet wide, with a 24-inch path on either side. In an
18-foot house this will permit of having a 7-foot center-
table, two SH-foot side benches and two 24-inch paths.
Benches should not be more than 3 feet above the
walks, as this will bring every part of the bench within
easy reach, and will permit of every plant being in
constant sight and easily cared for, which fact is
essential in the profitable cultivation of trade ferns.

The width of house is immaterial, but when houses
adjoin, a width of 27 feet has been found to be very
satisfactory, as this permits the construction of three
7-foot benches, two 24-inch paths, and two paths 2%
feet wide under each gutter.

Thorough provision should be made for ventilation.
For a 27-foot house, a continuous row of ventilators of
at least 3 feet in width should be provided, with some
reliable apparatus for raising same. Heating is the
next important consideration. Either steam or hot
water will give equally good results if properly installed.
The safest way for the average grower is to give the
heating contract to some reliable firm. Water-taps
should be so arranged that a 25-foot hose attached to
same will easily reach any part of the house. A 25-
foot hose can easily be carried about without injuring
either itself or benches and plants; and iron pipe is of
only half the cost of good hose. In most fern-houses
drip is a source of great annoyance, and should be pre-
vented by the use of drip-bars, by having a drip-groove
plowed into the headers immediately under the ven-
tilating-sash, and also by having a groove in sides of
gutter-plates. This very slight additional expense will
very soon pay for itself by saving a great number of
plants, especially when growing very small ferns in
houses, such as have been transplanted from spore-
pots into boxes. Ventilators should fit into a groove
in ridge of house and be hinged to the ridge. When
ventilators are so arranged, air, which is very desirable
on a good many warm rainy days in the summer, can
be given without having plants in the houses suffering
from excessive moisture. Burning of the foliage will
also be avoided, as the plants will at no time be exposed
to the direct rays of the sun. Ventilators hinged on
header and opening on ridge will always give trouble.
No matter what kind of covering is put over the open-
ing, if it efficiently excludes the burning sun's rays it
will also prevent the ingress of air.

A propagating-room should be provided; and in the
case of general trade ferns raised from spores, it is a
very safe rule to calculate on having from 60 to 70
square inches of room in the propagat ing-frame for
every 1,000 plants desired. The propagating-frame
should be 3J^ feet wide, have sides 9 inches high, and,
to insure an even moisture, its bottom should be cov-
ered to the thickness of 1 inch with fine cinders with
the fine ashes removed, which make very clean and
efficient drainage material. 'The frame should be
covered with light sash constructed with drip-bars, to
carry off condensation.

Shading of fern-houses should have close attention.
It is best effected by the application of a suitable wash
to the outside of glass on roof. The following composi-
tion for a wash has given excellent results for a number
of years: To two gallons of benzene or turpentine add
one pint (or more, according to time the shading is
desired to remain on houses) of linseed oil, five pounds
of pure white lead and enough whitening to make
proper thickness (which can very easily be ascertained

FERNS

1211

by applying some of it to a piece of glass while adding
the whitening) ; thoroughly mix and apply to outside of
glass with a soft brush of the same width as glass.
This shading, by the addition of more or less linseed
oil, may be made to stay on houses up to one year. If
properly applied in spring, it will be just right during
the hot days of summer, and in the fall and winter,
when more light is gradually required, the frosts gradu-
ally will have reduced the shading, thus admitting
more light at the necessary time.

Much time, annoyance and expense will be saved by
a careful arrangement of the workshop, or potting-room,
a thing which in most cases is totally neglected. It
should be so built that potting-benches are about 3 feet
above the floor and 5 feet wide. They may be perma-
nently constructed of substantial material, in order that
a number of pots of different sizes can be conveniently
stored, and that potting material can be thrown from
cart or wagon directly onto potting-benches. By an
improper arrangement of workshop great expense, loss
of time and material are incurred by having to handle
material repeatedly in small quantities.

Propagation by means of spores.

To grow ferns from spores successfully, it is advisable
to sterilize soil on which they are to be sown, which
can best be done by subjecting it to a high temperature
by means of steam under a pressure of ten to fif-
teen pounds; and for this purpose a properly equipped
workshop should be provided with a tight box about 3
by 3 by 8 feet or larger if an uncommonly large number
of ferns is to be grown. It should be fitted with a
grating made of 2-inch laths spaced 1 inch apart
and placed 2 inches from bottom of the box. This
grating may be covered with burlap, and if a %-inch
steam pipe is fitted between bottom of box and grating,
and connected to highest point of steam boiler (to
insure getting perfectly dry steam), the soil is ready
to be sterilized. After having cooled off, the soil is in
practically the same condition as before so far as moist-
ure, friableness, and the like are concerned, and this
cannot be said of soil that has been sterilized by burn-
ing and by other methods. This steaming process will
effectually destroy all forms of life in the soil and leave
it for the use of spores alone. In most localities, the
water used for moistening spores is impure and full of
the spores of low forms of plant life, which are very
destructive to the prothalli of ferns. To prevent this,
the workshop should be provided with a receptacle in
which the water intended for use on ferns while in the
prothallus state can be raised to a boiling temperature,
which will effectually destroy all spores that may be
present in the water. This is best done by leading a
1-inch steam-pipe to within 6 inches of the bottom of
the receptacle and turning on a reasonable pressure
of steam. If boiled twelve hours before intended for
use, it will be cool enough to be applied, and will be
pure. A fern workshop should also be provided with a
dry closet, having a number of shelves about 12 inches
apart, for storing fern-spores.

In beginning the cultivation of ferns, it is advisable
to purchase the spores from some reliable firm which
makes fern-growing a specialty, until a sufficient num-
ber of stock plants can be grown to supply spores for
home demand. Spores will do about equally well in
pots or pans. Pans 12 inches square and 4 inches deep
are used for that purpose, as also are the 6-inch com-
mon flower-pots. The 12-inch pans should be supplied
with IV-j inches and the 6-inch pots with 3 inches of
coal cinders for drainage. Soil for sowing spores on is
best composed of five parts, in the proportions of two
parts good garden soil, two parts of finely screened peat
and one of sharp clean propagating sand. Leaf -mold
may be used instead of peat, if easier to procure. This
soil should be thoroughly sterilized, as already directed.
The spore-pots should be filled with the soil to within

1488. A fern pan.

% inch of the top; press firmly. The rest of the pots
should be filled with the same composition after it has
been passed through a screen of about J'g-inch mesh, then
made absolutely level, firmly pressed and thoroughly
watered with sterilized water. Three or four hours
after watering will be the best time to sow spores. The
spores should be thinly scattered over the surface of
the soil, a quantity that can be held on a surface of
% square inch being abundant to sow one 12-inch pan.
Spores should not be covered with soil. Immediately
after sowing, the sash of the propagating-frame should
be tightly closed and kept so until spores show signs of
germination, when a small quantity of air should be
given and gradually increased, so that by the time
the first small fronds have made their appearance they
may have been sufficiently hardened off to have the
sash removed entirely. In sowing spores, great care
will be necessary to prevent them from getting mixed,
fern-spores being very minute and so light that the
slightest movement of air will carry them long dis-
tances. While sowing spores, all spore-pots should be
kept tightly covered. Being kept in a very close and

humid atmosphere after
sowing, the spores should
not require any watering
for one or two weeks, by
which time they will
have sufficiently settled
not to be dislodged by
a very gentle overhead
watering, which should
be given whenever soil
shows the least sign of
being dry. Sterilized
water should be used
until after the first
delicate fronds have been formed. As soon as the first
little fronds have made their appearance, care should
be taken to weed out all undesirable varieties, which,
even with the very best of care, will occasionally
creep in. A temperature of 65 F. should be main-
tained in the propagating-house.

As soon as the first small fronds are evenly formed
all over the surface of the pot, the little plants should
be transferred in clumps of four or five plants each, to
well-drained pans (Fig. 1488) or boxes filled with soil
composed of one-half rich garden soil and one-half
peat or leaf-mold, finely screened. In transplanting,
great care should be exercised not to cover the remain-
ing prothalli, but to have them just level with the sur-
face of the soil. The clumps of plants should be kept
as loose as possible, as this will give each individual
plantlet a better chance to form the necessary number
of rootlets, and it will, later on, also be easier to separate
the plants. Boxes for transplanting ferns are most
convenient when 4 inches deep, 14 inches wide and 22
inches long. These boxes will hold about 200 plants
placed about 1 inch apart. As soon as the little plants
have formed two or three fronds each, they should be
separated and transplanted singly into boxes similarly-
prepared as before, where they may remain until
sufficiently strong to be potted into 2- or 2J^-inch
pots.

Times of sowing fern-spores are the first weeks of
March, July and October. When making three sow-
ings a year, and allowing a sufficiently longer time for
slower-growing varieties, a constant supply of plants will
be assured. In calculating on time of sowing spores of
commercial varieties of ferns, it will be helpful to
divide them into two classes, as some varieties are con-
siderably slower of growth and will consequently have
to be sown earlier, in order to be ready for sale at the
same time as the more rapid-growing ones. The follow-
ing popular commercial kinds will require from nine
to ten months between times of sowing and potting.
The names are those that the plants bear in the trade:

1212

FERNS -

FERNS

Doodia caudata.
Doryopteris nobilis.
Lastrea aristata.

variegata.
chrysoloba.
opaca.

" Sieboldii.
Lygodium japonicum.

scandens.

Nephrodium hirtipes.
Nephrolepis exaltata.

cordata compacta.
Platyloma Bridgesii.

" falcata.
Polypodium aureum.

fraxinifolium, etc.
Polystichum coriaceum.

setosum.
Pteris Victoria.

" tremula Smithiana.

Adiantum cuneatum.

' variegatum.
" grandiceps.
" Bausei.

decorum._
Fergusonii.
gracillimum.
mundulum.
tenerum.
Wiegandii.
Cibotium Schiedii.

regale.

Cyathea medullaris.
Cyrtomium caryotoideum.

Fortune!.
" falcatum.
Davallia tenuifolia stricta.

" Veitchiana.
Dicksonia antarctica.
Doodia aspera.
Doodia aspera multifida.

The following trade ferns will develop into plants
large enough to be potted in about six months after
sowing spores:

Adiantum pubescens. Pteris cretica albo-lineata.

hispidulum. magnifica.

Alsophila australis. Mayii.

Gymnogramma calomelanos. nobilis.

chrysophylla. hastata.
decomposita. adiantoides.

peruviana. internata.

sulphurea. Sieboldii.

Lomaria ciliata. leptophylla.

gibba. Ouvrardii.

platyptera. palmata.

Nephrodium immersum cris- serrulata.

tatum. cristata.

Nephrodium molle corymbif- nana.

erum. tremula.

Onychium japonicum. Wimsettii.
Pteris argyrsea.

It should also be borne in mind, when calculating
time of sowing, that spores sown in the autumn will
require about four weeks longer for development than
those sown at other times of the year.

Fern-spores are borne on the back or under side of
fronds. In some cases they are borne naked on under
surface of frond, while in others they are produced
under a scale-like membrane or indusium. In some
cases, as in Pteris, the edge of the pinnae is folded back
over the spores, while in adiantums a small part of the
leaflet is folded back over each little fruit-dot to serve
as a shield or indusium. Davallias form a small sack-
like receptacle at the extremity of the pinnae. The
proper time of gathering spores is when they assume
a light brown, rather dry appearance, or in the indu-
sium-bearing kinds when the indusium or shield begins
to open. Spores should be gathered on a dark day when
the fronds are slightly moist, as they will be better
retained in that condition, and will not be so liable to
get mixed when disturbed. Fronds, or parts of them,
should be cut off entirely in most cases, put up in tight
paper bags and stored on shelves in a dry closet for a
week, by which time, in most cases, they will be suffi-
ciently dry to have spores removed from them by rub-
bing the frond in a sieve which has about twenty meshes
to the inch. When thus separated from fronds, the
spores should be put up in small seed-bags and placed
in air-tight jars until required for .sowing. Cared for
in this manner, perfect success has been invariably
secured, even after keeping spores for years.

Propagation by other means.

Some ferns form little plants at the ends of pinnae
and of fronds, which upon attaining to sufficient size
may be detached from parent plants, planted into
shallow, well-drained seed-pans, and for a week or
two left in the propagating-frame, where they will
soon form roots, when they can be potted. Among
such are Adiantum caudatum, A. Edgeworthii, A.
lunulatum var. dolabriforme, Asplenium Belangerii,
A. bulbiferum, A. salicifolium, Polystichum angulare
var. proliferum, and many more.

A very useful decorative fern is Nephrolepis daval-

lioides var. furcans, and it will make a beautiful speci-
men plant in a comparatively short time. To grow
large quantities, the old plants should be cut back to
within 6 inches of surface of soil and placed in a house
where a bottom heat of 90 F. may be secured, when
they will soon form a large number of short, strong
fronds. At this time they may be divided into a number
of small plants, potted off and placed in the same posi-
tion as the parent plants. A somewhat slower method
is to plant put a number of plants on a bench into 5
inches of soil, in which soil the rhizomes, running over
the surface, will form a number of small plants, which
may be detached and grown on.

A beautiful fern is Adiantum Farleyense, and it
deservedly ranks as the greatest favorite among fern-
lovers. It is best propagated by division. From old
plants, cut off all fronds down to the rhizomes, wash
off soil, cut rhizomes into pieces ^ inch long, insert
same into well-drained fern-boxes about Yi inch apart,
in \ l /i inches of clean, sharp propagating sand. Place
same in propagating-frame in a temperature of 70 F.
In this position each little fragment of rhizome will
form two or three little fronds in about fifteen or
twenty days, when they may be potted off singly into
2-inch pots and kept in a temperature of 70 F. The
soil best adapted to A. Farleyense is finely chopped sod
which has been piled for about six months, with one-
fifth well-decomposed cow-manure added. To attain
perfection in growth and coloring, A. Farleyense should
be kept in a light, airy and sunny house, in which every
condition of moisture and atmosphere can be kept
under absolute control. In a house of this kind, the
greatly admired and beautifully pinkish tint may be
easily obtained and fronds will be hardy and of good
substance. A temperature of 70 F. is at aU times
desirable.

General culture.

To grow ferns such as are used for jardinieres and
decorative work and mentioned in the two preced-
ing lists, a temperature of no less than 55 F.
should be maintained at all times at night in coldest
weather, with a rise of temperature in the daytime of
10 or 15. To keep ferns in a healthy and growing
condition, to prevent and to kill insect pests and dis-
eases, a proper condition of atmosphere should be care-
fully maintained at all times. Extremes in heat, moist-
ure or dryness should never be allowed. On a warm,
dry, sunny day, when a great deal of air has to be
admitted, much of the moisture of the house is conse-
quently carried off; it will be of great benefit then to
syringe the ferns once or twice a day, also occasionally to
dampen floor of houses. An excessively dry atmosphere
induces the development of the very troublesome pests,
thrips and red spider. On damp and rainy days a
saturated atmosphere should be prevented by supply-
ing a little artificial heat, even if some air has to be
admitted at the same time. This slight expense of
heating on damp days will abundantly pay for itself
by causing the growth of strong, thrifty plants. An
excessively moist atmosphere causes parts of fronds
of a great many plants to turn black and to rot off,
besides inducing the development of almost incurable
fungoid diseases.

The soil for deep-rooting ferns should be as follows:
Three parts fibry loam, one part fibry peat, one part
leaf-mold, one part sand, one part sphagnum moss,
one-half part broken crocks and one-half part broken
charcoal. These ingredients should be thoroughly
mixed and ample drainage provided. For shallow-
rooting ferns the following compost should be used:
One part fibry loam, one part peat, one part leaf-
mold, one part sphagnum moss, one-half part broken
crock, one part sand, one-half part broken charcoal.
If the charcoal cannot be readily secured, half the
amount of sand and finely broken crocks will answer,

FERNS

1213

although the composition as prescribed is preferred, as
charcoal keeps the soil sweet and may spare time for
repotting.

In potting ferns after they pass 4-inch pots, a pottmg-
stick should always be used as the potter cannot very
well firm them with his fingers, and it secures eveness in
potting. Ferns should be potted tight, especially old
plants. Also old plants should be partly shaken out
and the roots shortened somewhat, and if carefully
handled will quickly reestablish themselves and make
better plants. A potting-stick is very handy also for
pressing the compost between rhizomas, and it can be
done much more neatly than with the hand.

In the selection and growing of stock plants, the care-
ful grower should always be on the watch for types
t which are most perfect in shape, in character of indi-
uvidual fronds, in coloring, freedom of producing spores,
/and exemption from the attacks of insects and fungous
' diseases. In a large number of ferns a great difference
between the different plants of the same species will be
apparent to the careful observer. Some plants of same
species have beautifully developed fronds, but are
carried on long, weak stems, which makes them unfit
for general use. Others may be of compact, sturdy
habit of growth, but with poorly shaped
individual fronds. In some individuals
the coloring will be greatly superior. By

i closely studying all these points and by
continually selecting only the most per-
fect types of ferns from the young plants,
one can in a few years work up a very
desirable and superior stock. The same
stock plants of the rapid-growing varie-
ties of ferns should not be carried over
for more than three or four years, but
young and more desirable plants should
continually be selected and grown to
take their places.

The stock should be shifted into larger
pots whenever necessary, and placed in
a light, airy house, in which all neces-
sary conditions are under perfect con-
trol, and in which a temperature in cold-
est weather of 55 F. at night, with a
rise of 10 or 15 in daytime, can always
be maintained. The house should be
shaded just enough to prevent fronds
from turning yellow. Proper attention to atmospheric
conditions of stockhouse should never be neglected.
Stock plants should not be permitted to remain pot-
bound for too long a period of time, except with a few
kinds, such as alsophilas, dicksonias, cyatheas, cibo-
tiums, Pteris tremula, P. argyrsea, some davallias, and
Polyslichum coriaceum, which, if given too much nour-
ishment, will often be very slow in setting spores.

Insects which are most troublesome to ferns are
thrips, red spider, scale and mealy-bug. They are
mainly present in a too-dry atmosphere. Thrips, red
spider and mealy-bug are easily prevented by a prop-
erly moistened atmosphere, also by spraying of foliage
once a week with tobacco water. As tobacco greatly
varies in strength, every grower will have to determine
to his own satisfaction how strong to make his solution.
The preparation known as "Rose-leaf tobacco extract,"
has proved very efficient in destroying these insect
pests. To fifty gallons of water add one quart of the
extract, and apply with some good insecticide sprayer
and a force pump. Fifty gallons of this solution will be
enough to spray 100,000 ferns in 2J4-inch pots.

Bearing in mind the foregoing advice, the amateur
fern-grower may determine the proper way in which to
raise his plants. He may not have a fern-house, but he
can have a tight glass box or Wardian case. The bot-
tom should be a zinc tray, to prevent drip on the floor
and to prevent too rapid drying out of the soil. The
top or roof of the box should be hinged, so that it can

be raised. In this miniature greenhouse many interest-
ing ferns can be grown. Lycopodiums and selaginellas
(which see) are treated in much the same way as ferns.

NICHOL N. BRUCKNER.

X. E. E. ScHMITT.t

List of tender ferns. (X. E. E. Schmitt.)

Acrostichum. A widely distributed class of ferns found in tropics
of both hemispheres; some have fronds that are solitary, while
others are pinnatifid; some are deep-rooting and require a loamier
soil, while others are shallow-rooting and require a very shallow
and porous soil. They -are a class varied in many respects; the
fertile fronds are totally covered on the under side with the spores,
generally brown in color, and when ripe, after shedding the spores,
will perish and be succeeded by the barren fronds. Propagated by
division and spores. Winter 55 to 60 night. They should have a
perfect drainage, the deep-rooting ones of ordinary depth, but the
shallow-rooting are best grown in a depth of about 2 inches of soil
and very porous, as for davallias, the shallow-rooting species; they
all love a moist and shady atmosphere except A. aureum, which
will stand sun with its roots in 2 inches
of water; it is found in Florida and
tropical America.

Actinopteris. A low -growing and
charming class of ferns with palm-like
or rayed fronds. They thrive best in a
compost of loam, peat, chopped sphag-
num moss, coarse sand and crocks
(broken small), in equal parts; they
should have ample drainage, filling the
pots about half-full with crocks. They require
a good light and plenty of moisture; they are
best propagated by spores; they can also be
divided. Winter temperature, 58 to 60.

Adiantum. The maidenhair ferns with fronds,
the individual pinnae of which vary from not
more than J^inch in width in A. gracillimum
to the large A. peruvianum with pinnae 2J^ to
3 inches long. They are hardy, stove and tem-
perate ferns, and require a deep rich soil and
plenty of water during the growing season, and
less during the resting-period, which is usually
from December to the latter part of February.
They should be allowed to get fairly dry but
not wilted before they are watered again. In
most species or varieties of garden origin, re-
move part of the old fronds just as growth
commences; with some of the denser-growing
sorts, all the fronds may be cut away just as the
new growth is commencing, as it is very tedious
and there is not much gained thereby. It should
be cut close, but with sparser or large-growing
sorts as A. trapeziforme and many other strong-
foliaged sorts, it is better to leave all the good
foliage possible to stimulate the new growth;
turn the plants out of the pot, cut away the
lower half of the ball and trim in the sides
of the old ball close to the rhizomes with a
large knife, then loosen slightly the edge of
the ball with a sharp-pointed stick so that the roots will feel the
effect of the new move readily; never round off the sides in a
slant or sloping manner as the old crowns are very closely knit
together and trouble would be experienced in getting them wet
through again. Should they become too dry, give a little water
every few minutes until they are given enough to penetrate the
old ball. The crowns should be let down a little deeper than
they were when turned out of the pot. The surface should be
slightly pointed here and there which will help the water
more readily to penetrate. Have the pots well drained, placing
a thin layer of sphagnum moss over the crocks which will keep
the drainage clean. Fill in the soil, pack firmly with a potting
stick up to the height required to receive the ball, which should be
low enough to give a light covering of soil; they throw out their
new roots from top, bottom and sides; then place in a layer of soil,
tightening it with the potting stick, place layer after tightening as
before until it has reached the required height ; give a fair watering,
fill about twice the space left from the top of the soil to the rim of
the pot. They will not require any water for two or three days,
then give a light sprinkling with a watering-pot with a rose on.
They will require to be looked over every other day or so. In about
a week's time they will require a moderate watering, but not so
heavy as at first. After potting, an increase of 8 to 10 in tempera-
ture, both by night and by day, is necessary. Some of the smaller-
growing sorts will require a deeper drainage and smaller pots.
Adiantums with a few exceptions will not tolerate syringing at any
time, particularly during dull or cloudy weather, as damp may
settle in the foliage and ruin several plants, but care must be taken
that they have sufficient water at the roots, as in the growing season
they take a good supply of water. The temperature in winter for
greenhouse ferns should be 52 by night, adding 6 to 8 by day;
stove should be 56 to 58 by night, adding about 6 by day.
Adiantums require a mixture of chopped or hand-broken fibry sod
that has been stacked about six months, one-half part peat, one-
half part leaf-mold, one part well-decayed cow-manure preferred
(as they are good feeders), one and one-half part sand, one part
chopped sphagnum, one-half part broken crocks and one-half
broken charcoal about % inch in size, using fine and all; place in

1489. Cyrtomium f alcatum.
Young plant.

1214

FERNS

even layers in the order above stated, then turn three or four times
which will leave the whole evenly mixed, when it will be ready for
use. For cult, of A. Farleyense, see p. 1212.

Alsophila. Tree ferns, natives of tropical America and Australia.
A. australis and A. excelsa will stand sun with a copious supply of
water. Soil as for Dicksonia. Winter temperature for Australian
species, 50 to 55; for West Indian, 58 to 60 night.

Anemia. A pretty class of small-growing ferns, sometimes
called the flowering ferns, as the fertile sprays appear along with
the sterile frond. They require an open porous soil and are not
deep-rooted. Moderate temperature, 52 to 55 winter temperature
by night. Propagated by spores.

Angiopteris. Giant ferns, more resembling a cycad than a fern,
were it not for the spore cases. They are native of tropical Africa,
tropical Asia and the Philippines. They are deep-rooting, with
heavy and fleshy roots, and enjoy a rich deep and porous soil.
They require a high and moist temperature, not less than 60
by night in winter and will stand 90 or more in summer. They
require shade during summer, with more light during winter. A
soil as for dicksonias, with the addition of a little manure is satis-
factory. They should be potted just as growth is commencing.
Care should be taken not to bruise their fleshy roots; should any be
damaged they should be cut off with a sharp knife. Propagated
by spores and division, both a slow process, but more readily by
the large and fleshy scales carefully removed from the old plants,
laid between sphagnum moss, sand and broken crocks in a case
with a bottom heat of 80 or a little more; they should be laid on a
slant with inner side of scale facing upward. When they have
formed buds, emitted roots, and made two or three leaves, they may
be detached and potted singly in as small pots as their roots will
permit; return to case and inure to more light and air gradually;
each scale may bring four or five plants.

Blechnum. Ferns of easy culture, requiring moderate shade.
Allied to Lqmaria. Several of them are dwarf tree ferns; others
have spreading rootstock. They will not stand dryness; require a
moderately strong soil containing a small amount of manure.

Cheilanthes. A class of dainty and graceful ferns. They require
an open and porous soil; will not tolerate syringing, and require a
good light at all times. Propagated by spores and division, spores
preferred. They will not stand an overabundance of moisture at
any time, but will well repay proper care, as they are all very
beautiful. Some have fronds resembling the palmate fronds of
Doryopteris, while others are very much divided. The soil should
consist of one part fibry loam, one part peat, one part leaf-mold,
one part sand, one-half part broken crocks, one part sphagnum
moss and one-half part broken charcoal, broken quite small, the
whole thoroughly mixed together and the pots well drained. A
temperature of 50 to 55 suits them best in winter.

Cyathea. Beautiful tree ferns, native of New Zealand and tropi-
cal America. C. medullaris will grow to a great height, from 60 to
75 feet, and is often seen in its wild state far above the surrounding
vegetation. Will stand full sun. Temperature for New Zealand
species, 50 to 55 winter; tropical American, 55 to 60 nights.
Soil as for Dicksonia.

Cyrtomium. Fig. 1489. Ferns of easy culture. Require a
greenhouse temperature of 48 to 50 by night in winter; will
stand a strong light and partial shade. Useful for fern-dishes.
Allied to Aspidium. General culture for ferns.

Davallia is a beautiful class of ferns found both in the tropical
and subtropical zones. The smaller-growing forms can be grown
in shallow baskets or pans and have a fair amount of rest in
winter. The Japanese fern-balls are probably D. bullata and D. Mar-
iesii, and can be laid out in the garden and frozen down to zero and
when the growing season returns watered and they will begin to
grow again. Dayallias with heavy rhizomes or any of the surface
creeping sorts will want to be kept a little on the dry side during
the resting period, which is from the beginning of December to about
March, when they will gradually recommence, and water should
be given accordingly. They must be syringed at least twice daily
t in winter, as black thrip is liable to attack them; should they be
attacked, dip in a medium solution of aphine or fresh tobacco water.
Should the plants be too large to handle, syringe them with aphine
or tobacco water at night and give a thorough syringing with clear
water the next day; apply two or three times, then stop for two or
three days, then repeat, after which the troubles will be over.
The cooler kinds will commence their growth about a month later
than stove kinds. They should be repotted or top-dressed just as
growth commences, if they require it.

D. pallida is a fern which rests from December to March, at
which time gradual increase of water may be given it and by the
end of March it will be commencing its growth. It should be care-
fully separated, taking care not to injure the points of the rhizomes.
Many of them will be found all the way to the bottom of the pots
or pans m which they have been growing. It is well to leave an old
specimen undisturbed for three or four years and only give a light
top-dressing in the spring as growth is commencing, and weak
liquid manure about every two weeks as the fronds are unfolding;
but always water with clear water first, then follow with liquid
manure. It requires a stove temperature of 58 to 68 by night,
adding 6 to 8 by day on bright days, during its resting period,
with corresponding increase during the growing season of about 20.
It needs a good strong light but also shade. It requires a good
supply of water during its growing season and only a small amount
once a week, but must be syringed twice daily. The composition
of the soil should be an open and porous material consisting of the
following: two parts fibry loam which had been stacked about
six months and broken up by hand (not sifted or pulverized), one
part hbry chopped peat, one part leaf-mold, one part sand, one-
half part broken charcoal, using in the same manner as the crocks,
one part sphagnum moss chopped roughly, all the parts of this

- . j"w *" ^. A 11^ 1^1.0 vi ^anw sauting ue wen drained oy

placing a flat piece of crock over the holes flat side down. The
soil should be hand-picked so as to be free of worms and insects.
Ihis process is slow and tedious, but when there is taken into con-
sideration the length of time a plant is to remain undisturbed, too much
care cannot be taken. Place the curved pieces one against the other
until the entire bottom is covered, then place a good sprinkling
of clean % inch soil (no dust), and cover the whole with a thin
layer of sphagnum moss, covering the crocks evenly so that no
soil will pass through. The receptacle is now ready for the soil
Place some of the roughest of the soil directly over the moss, then
falling up to within 2 inches of the top, pack down evenly with a
wide potting stick so that they will not sink afterward; now put
m the rhizomes one by one, setting the points so that they will be
evenly distributed, and firm the soil tightly with the fingers, as a
potting stick cannot well be used on account of bruising; let them
be about even with the top on the sides and slightly rounded in
the center; stake the fronds with light stakes to keep them steady,
which will give them a neat appearance as they will have to remain
until the new growth has developed and the plant is reestablished
with new roots, when they will sustain themselves without any

given as when first potted, but after this the plants will require
water more frequently as they will be making roots rapidly as will
be indicated by the foliage that has developed. Directly after pot-
ting keep the house close and increase the air gradually until full
air can be given. Hard-leaved ferns like davallias can stand a light
syringing three or four times a day on all bright days but none on
cloudy days unless there is artificial heat on. Decrease syringing as
the cool nights of the end of summer and autumn approach; the
temperature may also be lowered until it falls to the winter tempera-
ture with the declining season. The foregoing soil is suitable for
most shallow-rooting ferns.

Dennstsedtia. With creeping rootstock. Winter temperature,
52 to 55. Propagated by spores and division. Culture as for
Microlepia.

Deparia. A small group of ferns with arching fronds. Stove
winter temperature, 55 to 58. Propagated by spores or bulbils
that form on the fronds. Culture, see main article (p. 1210).

Dicksonia. An interesting class of tree ferns from Australia.
They require a cool temperature and partial shade in summer,
but their stems must be syringed frequently. They must never
be allowed to dry at the roots, and even more copiously watered in
summer. Winter temperature, 45 to 48; can be stood outside in
summer. Can be propagated by spores or side growths carefully
removed from the parent stem without injuring the heel. Require
a soil of taree parts loam, one part peat, one part leaf-mold, a little
more than one part sand, some broken crocks and sphagnum moss
with the whole, and well drained.

Didymochlxna. An interesting group of ferns of distinct habit
and growth. Winter temperature, 55 to 58.

Diplazium. A rather coarse-growing but interesting class of
ferns, grown mostly in the greenhouse. Allied to Asplenium. A
fairly porous soil suits them best. Propagated by spores or division.
Winter temperature, 55 to 60.

Doodia. A small and distinct class of ferns of cool temperature,
48 to 52. Propagated by spores and division. For culture, see
main article (p. 1210),

Drynaria. Plants with a thick and downy rhizome. Propagated
by spores and division. All stove ferns allied to Polypodium.

Dryopteris. Small stove ferns. Require' a winter night tem-
perature of 55 to 58.

Gleichenia. A genus of most beautiful and graceful ferns, natives
of Australia, New Holland and tropical America. They thrive
best in a compost of one part loam, one part peat, one-half part
sand, one-half part broken crocks, one part sphagnum moss; in pot-
ting, the center of the plant should be dropped a little below the rim
of the pot so that the outer rhizomes can rest on the new soil, leav-
ing the center a little deeper than the outer edge; pin the rhizomes
down carefully but do not cover; pot firmly; give a gentle water-
ing; syringe several times a day, but take care not to oyerwater.
They love a cool, moist atmosphere; the tropical American ones
can stand a little more heat, also a little sun; winter temperature
for New Holland ones, 48 to 52; American, 50 to 55. Care
should be taken at all times not to ovorwater or let them get too
dry; the best way is to sound them with your knuckles, and in
fact almost any plant of careful treatment should be treated the
same way.

Goniophlebium. Mostly a deep and free-rooting class of ferns,
demanding culture as for Polypodium.

Hemionitis. An interesting class of low-growing stove ferns
requiring a porous soil. Winter temperature, 55 to 58. Propa-
gated by spores, or by pinning a mature frond having formed buds,
on a surface of porous sandy material, which readily form new
plants.

Hemitelia. A distinct and striking class of tree ferns, native of
tropical America and the Philippines. They are all stove ferns
requiring 60 winter night temperature and ample moisture and
shade at all times; soil as for Dicksonia, as they are heavy and
deep-rooting.

Hymenophyllum. A class of ferns of most graceful and delicate
structure; native of tropical America. They require a deep shade
and a shallow compost to grow in as they are found growing on
tree ferns and sandstone; the following will suit them best: sandy,
lumpy peat with very small pieces of sandstone and live sphagnum

FERNS

1215

moss, carefully placed between the small rhizomes and grown in a
dense shade. Their foliage should never be allowed to become dry;
they should be grown in a case. Winter temperature, 52 to 55.

Hypolepis. A class of ferns with creeping rootstock, of easy
culture, requiring shade. Propagated by spores and division.
General culture of ferns.

Leucostegia. A class of ferns allied to Microlepia and Davallia,
which see. Deep-rooting ferns of easy culture. Winter temperature.
52 to 55.

Lygodium. A class of ferns of easy culture, requiring a deep
rich loamy soil. L. palmatum is hardy. For culture, see main
article (p. 1210).

Marattia. A bold, distinct, and interesting class of ferns. Allied
to Angiopteris, which see for treatment.

Meniscium. A small class of interesting low-growing ferns.
Require a medium temperature of 52 to 55 in winter. General
culture of ferns (p. 1210). Propagated by spores.

Microlepia. A class of mostly strong-growing and graceful
ferns of easy culture; M. hirta var. cristata, being crested, makes a
beautiful specimen. They like a strong open soil with a little cow-
manure added and a fair supply of water at all times. They require
good light but shady. Propagated by division or spores.

1490. Pteris cretica var. albo-lineata. (X H)

Nephrolepis. A large group of ferns having more garden forms
than any other class of ferns, and the end is not yet in sight, as
every year or two another form appears; the type N. exaltata will
grow fronds 4 to 5 feet long, while some of the variations will
grow them as short as 8 inches long. All the forms of N. exaltata
will stand sunshine under glass. A compost of three parts good
fibry loam, one part manure, one part sand, a small sprinkling of
leaf-mold and sphagnum moss thoroughly mixed, suits them best.
They like a fair supply of water at all times. When potting, always
drop the plant down so as to cover % inch, as the young fronds
will readily push through the soil. N. Bausei is deciduous. N.
Duffii is a small frpnded and beautiful species. Propagated readily
by runners, of which they furnish an abundance; pin the runners
down over the surface of the soil; in a short time they will make a
lot of young plants which can be taken up when they have made two
fronds, potted up into 2-inch pots, kept close for about two weeks,
when more air can be given them; then pot on as required.

Notholcena sinuata. Native of Mexico; an interesting and grace-
ful fern of downy foliage. Grows well in a medium temperature.
Care must be taken in watering; it will not stand syringing. An

open porous soil suits it best. Propagated by division or spores,
spores preferred.

Onychium. A class of interesting and graceful ferns of easy cul-
ture for which see main article. Winter temperature 48 to 52.
Propagated by spores or division.

PeUaea. A very interesting class of low-growing ferns of neat and
graceful habit. Winter temperature 55 to 58 at night. Requires
a porous soil and good light ; will not stand very much moisture on
foliage. Thrip and mealy-bug are the worst enemies. Readily
propagated by spores or division.

Phlebodium. Ferns of strong-growing habit. See Polypodium.

Phyllitis. A class of shallow-rooting ferns of easy culture. Allied
to Polypodium, which see.

Phymotodes. Somewhat shallow-rooted, but fairly strong-grow-
ing ferns, of easy culture. Best grown in pans. Require partial
shade and a porous soil as for shallow polypodiums or davallias.
They may also be used to cover walls in greenhouses, and to grow
on trunks of tall tree ferns.

Platycerium. The stag and elk's-horn ferns. A distinct and
most interesting class of ferns. They naturally grow in the forks
of trees and on rocks. They are best grown on blocks or rafts; fibry
peat and live sphagnum moss suit them best. They should have
plenty of water in the growing season and a moist atmosphere at
all times. Winter temperature at night, 58 to 60, adding 5.to 7
by day.

Polypodium. Comprising many divisions and many of them in
common cultivation. They are native of all climes. Some are hardy
with hardly any protection, white some require stove temperature.
Some are deep-rooting, while others are very shallow-rooting and
require a very porous soil. They are mostly evergreen excepting
the hardy species, which are deciduous. Some of the shallow-rooting
species will grow on a surface of very shallow material composed
of peat and moss, while others require an addition of loam. They
are varied and distinct and can be employed for many purposes, to
cover walls in a greenhouse or conservatory or rockwork out-of-
doors. Some are very decorative and bold in habit, while others
are graceful and beautiful. The deep-rooting kinds require a com-
post of two parts loam, one part leaf-mold, one part peat, one part
sand, one part sphagnum moss, one-half part broken crocks and
one-half part broken charcoal; they require ample drainage and
an ample supply of water when growing, and reduced amount when
at rest in winter. The shallow-growing sorts will require ample
drainage and a compost of one part fibry loam, one part peat,
one part sphagnum moss, one-half part broken crocks and one-half
part charcoal. Some of the sorts will grow on a mossy surface or
can be employed to cover walls or unsightly places in a greenhouse
and by receiving an occasional syringing will do well, while others
are better grown in pots or pans. Pans for many are preferred.

Polystichum. Many of these are hardy or will winter out-of-
doors with moderate protection. Propagated by spores or by pin-
ning down the fronds on a porous surface until small buds are
fairly well rooted, when they may be detached and potted singly.
A moderate soil suits them best.

Pteris. Fig. 1490. A various group, some of them hardy,
others suitable for greenhouses and for stoves. They are not par-
ticular as to soil; a mixture of two parts peat, one part loam and
one part sand will suit them. The variegated forms should be pro-
tected from very strong light. Some of the species propagate
readily by division of the creeping rhizomes. Most of the tender
species thrive in an intermediate or greenhouse temperature.

Selaginella. A class of plants of decorative and useful character
and varied in form of growth as S. csesia, S. arborea and S. Witt-
denovii; will grow to 15 or more feet, while others will not rise over
2 inches or so. Propagated by cuttings in the larger-growing kinds,
division in most kinds, and pegging in some tall - growing species.
Take down a tall-growing sort and peg it to mossy and sandy surface
and in a short time when fairly well rooted, it may be potted sepa-
rately in the regular mixture for Selaginella. Compost for Selagi-
nella, two parts loam, one part fibry peat, one part leaf-mold, one
part sand, one part sphagnum moss, one-half part broken crocks
and one part charcoal. Mix the whole thoroughly, drain well as
recommended for ferns. S. grandis and S. Lyallii require a Wardian
case and will need a very moist atmosphere at all times, also a tem-
perature of 60 by night, with corresponding increase by day in
winter; in summer, 80 to 90 by day.

Todea. The filmy ferns of New Zealand are T. superba, the
finest of them all; they are rare and seldom met with; they love a
deep shade and coolness at all times; a temperature of 40 to 45 in
winter suits them best. Their fronds should never be allowed to
become dry. The strong - fronded ferns are stove ferns, requiring
a winter temperature of 55 to 60.

Trichomanes. A class of filmy ferns of great beauty, requiring
a cool and moist atmosphere. They should be grown in fibry peat,
sphagnum moss, sand, and broken crocks in equal parts. They are
very shallow-rooting and must be handled with the utmost care in
repotting. They must be potted tight, and if small broken sand-
stone can be had, all the better; the depth of the soil need not be
more than 1 to 1 K inches. Temperature 45 to 50 in winter. They
should be grown in a Wardian case, kept close except an opening
on the coolest side. The fronds should never become dry; but
should be sprayed several times a day if there is danger of their
becoming dry.

Vittaria lineata. A very unusual fern growing naturally on trees
in southern Florida. It does best fastened on a block in a mixture
of fibry peat and sphagnum moss or in shallow baskets in the fore-
going materials with a portion of sand, broken crocks and charcoal
broken small. Pot firmly but let the material be shallow. It loves
plenty of water at all times and a good light. Propagated by divis-
ion and spores. Winter temperature 55 by. night.

1216

FERNS

Cultivation of hardy ferns.

The hardy ferns are easy to transplant and tenacious
of life under adverse conditions, but since the beauty
of fern foliage is brought out only by luxuriance of
growth, it should be the aim to plant only where such
can be secured.

Ferns in general require positions in which the soil
retains an even amount of moisture at all times. Most
species do not grow well in a cultivated border or where
the space between the plants is not mulched or given a
ground cover of mosses or other plants which hold
the temperature and moisture of the soil surface more
evenly and allow the ferns to grow roots near and on
the surface of the ground. Also when the earth is
bare between the plants, the rains dash mud on the
under side of the fronds a condition under which no
fern can thrive. However, some of the stronger-grow-
ing species, as the osmundas, because of their height
and strong deep roots will do well in a cultivated border.
A study of the soil surface where the fern is growing
well in the wild will show about what is necessary.

Some ferns, as the maidenhair (Adiantum), have
strong wiry stems which will push up through a very
heavy covering of leaves, while other species, as all of
the evergreen ferns, grow in positions in which the
annual fall of leaves does not remain on their fronds.
The larger number of ferns prefer no heavier mulch
than is made by the death of their own fronds, which
naturally fall away from the center of the plant, mulch
the surrounding soil but leave the crown of the plant
uncovered and unhindered for its growth in the spring.
Many of the smaller ferns which have neither deep nor
strong creeping roots require a ground cover of other
plants or simulated conditions to prevent their being
heaved out of the ground during the winter. A number
of species with strong creeping roots as Dennstsedtia
punctilobula (Dicksonia pilosiuscula) and Dryopteris
(Aspidiwri) novaboracensis eventually form thick
masses which completely coyer and fill the ground
with roots. When this condition has been attained, no
soil mulch or cover is needed, and even the old fronds
had best be removed before growth starts in the spring.

Ferns may be separated into two classes by their
stems: (1) those with creeping stems; and (2) those
having a central crown or cluster of crowns.

Those with creeping stems spread and form large
masses. They not only send up a crop of fronds in the
spring but continue to grow new fronds during the
season. This class of ferns may be transplanted at any
season with ordinary care, in fact the fronds may be
mowed off and the roots taken up in sods and relaid
like turf, but better results will be secured with more
care to preserve the younger and newly started fronds.

Those ferns with distinct crowns naturally send out
only one set of fronds each year. This class of ferns is
best moved after the plants have ceased growth in the
fall or before growth starts in the spring. Especially
is this the case with those species having deciduous or
fragile fronds which easily become wilted or broken.
When transplanting while in leaf, it is necessary to
preserve fully half of the fronds to insure a good growth
the following year. The evergreen species, as the
Christmas fern (Polystichum or Aspidium acrosti-
choides), Dryopteris (Aspidium) marginalis and others
with hard coriaceous foliage, can with reasonable care
be transplanted at any season of the year.

In general, the soil for ferns should be rich in humus
and mineral matter and sufficiently friable to allow
penetration by the fine roots. A heavy clay is not
satisfactory but may be corrected by the addition of a
sandy soil and thoroughly rotted manure or leaves.
A pure leaf-mold is not a good fern soil because it is
lacking in minerals and is too light and loose for
any fern except the Adiantum. A good sandy loam
with too little clay to bake and not enough vegetable

matter to be spongy will suit the larger part of ferns.
It will be noticed that most species of ferns with
crowns grow in the wild where their roots reach through
the surface mold to a more mineral soil underneath; in
fact they often grow in apparently poor yellow loam.

The following ferns grow luxuriantly in full sunlight
with suitable conditions of soil and moisture: Pteris
aquilina, Onoclea sensibilis, Dennstsedtia punctilobula
(Dicksonia pilosiuscula), Dryopteris (Aspidium) nova-
boracensis, and the osmundas.

Practically all the remaining species prefer more or
less protection from the direct rays of the sun, but
darkness or dense shadow is not required. Even the
species which grow in deep, dense shade apparently
need only the humid atmosphere found there, since

1491. Dryopteris simulata.

near waterfalls and springs they grow in the open. In
mountainous regions in which the atmosphere is cool
and not drying, many species grow in full sunlight
which require more or less shade in drier climates.
Among such might be mentioned Asplenium Filix-
foemina, A. acrostichoides, Phegopteris hexagonoptera,
D. polypodioides, Dryopteris (Aspidium) Thelypteris,
D. cristata, Onoclea Struthiopteris, Woodwardia vir-
ginica, and W. angustifolia.

There are about seventy-five native American species
which can be grown in northern gardens, and also a
good number of quite distinct varieties. There are
hardy species in foreign countries so that a complete
collection of hardy ferns would probably reach 150
species.

The following species not natives of the United States
are hardy at Philadelphia: Dryopteris chrysoloba, D.

XLI. A good fern in southern California. Alsophila australis.

FERNS

1217

dilatata, D, Filix-mas, D. pseudo-mas Pinderi, Nephro-
dium hirtipes, Polystichum Braunii, P. lobatum and P.
setosum.

The following notes are drawn from experience in
cultivation of these native ferns in the neighborhood
of Philadelphia.

Adiantum pedatum prefers light, loose, rich soil in cool, moist
shade, with yearly mulch of leaves. Soil conditions are more
important than shade. Where established in a wild state will
endure the full sunshine coming with the removal of trees until
soil conditions change or it is crowded out by stronger plants.

Adiantum Capillus-Veneris. Soil conditions about the same. See
that leaf-covering is not of too large and heavy leaves.

Asplenium acrostichoides. Culture as A. Filix-foemina.

Asplenium angustifolium thrives on rich rather moist soil in
shade. Avoid complete removal of fronds when planting in early
fall, as this fern quickly sends up new fronds to the weakening of
the following season's growth.

Asplenium Bradleyi. A small rare fern. See Camptosorus and
A. pinnatifidum for cultivation.

Asplenium ebenoides. Culture same as for A. pinnatifidum or
Camptosorus.

Asplenium Filix-foemina. Give good rich loam, moist, with
drainage, with some shade. Endures full sunlight in cool climate.
A beautiful and extremely variable fern. A number of forms are
catalogued.

Asplenium montanum. Cultivated as Camptosorus or A.
pinnatifidum.

Asplenium pinnatifidum. A small evergreen fern found in the
wild in cool shaded places in which there is an uniform amount of
moisture in the soil and when the air is not given to quick extremes
of temperature and humidity. Ferns of this character need about
the same careful placing as do real alpine plants. Planting between
stones is advisable. No winter cover, no bare soil and no plant
stronger-rooted than a moss near it.

Asplenium platyneuron prefers partial shade. Care must be
taken to prevent smothering by leaves, and to plant where the least
likely to be heaved by frost. It is found most plentifully as a native
on banks growing with grass and other plants in partial shade. The
fronds are evergreen, but become discolored in severe weather.
Any good loam suits it. Easy to move at any season but difficult
to maintain in masses.

Asplenium resiliens (A. parvulum). Culture of A. platyneuron,

Asplenium, Ruta-muraria. Culture same as A. pinnatifidum.

Asplenium Trichomanes. A small fern growing well where A.
platyneuron does. The shade of a small rock will suit it.

Asplenium viride. See A. pinnatifidum for culture.

Camptosorus rhizophyllus. WALKING-LEAP FERN. In wild state
is found in cool, shaded positions not subject to excessive drought
or moisture. It prefers a moist atmosphere but this is not necessary
for good growth but where the best soil and atmospheric condi-
ditions prevail the leaves often attain a length of 18 inches before
rooting. Avoid all winter covering.

Cheilanthes. Low-growing rock ferns generally doing well in
fairly dry positions. C. lanosa prefers deep shade and more moist
soil. C. lanosa, C. tomentosa and C. Fendleri at least of the species
are perfectly hardy at Philadelphia.

Cryptogramma acrostichoides should have shade throughout year.

Cystopteris bulbifera. Will do well in usual deciduous shade in
any loam, but grows best and produces far more numerous bulblets
when planted on a moist bank of gravelly soil in the shade of
kalmia.

Cystopteris fragilis should be planted in shade in positions where
it will receive no covering of leaves. The fronds die in early August
in the drier situations. It will grow in positions which become
exceedingly dry in midsummer. It forces well in a coolhouse.

Dennstxdtia punctilobula (Dicksonia pilosiuscula) prefers shady,
moist situations where it does not receive any covering by falling
leaves of large size. Grows well in sunshine. May be transplanted
at any season, and takes kindly to heavy enrichment. The best
fern to grow in quantity for cutting during the summer. Can be
readily grown as a north border to a shrubbery in any medium to
light loam.

Dryopteris Bootti is found in a wild state in moist, shaded posi-
tions, but will grow well in shade in quite dry positions. Does not
need shade in winter. Use good loam.

Dryopteris cristata prefers moist to wet soil in shade. Will often
burn with direct sunlight. Evergreen, quite variable. Var. Clin-
toniana is larger. The fern and variety appear to need swamp
conditions to grow well.

Dryopteris Filix-mas. Practically the same conditions as for
D. marginalis.

Dryopteris Goldieana prefers deep, moist, rich soil in cool shade.
Grows finely in shaded places and soil suited to rhododendrons.

Dryopteris marginalis wants rich soil in rather deep shade dur-
ing the entire year, but will grow well in partial shade and endure
even full sunlight, though not growing so luxuriantly. This is one
of the native ferns commonly sold by collectors in city markets.
It is evidently seldom established by purchasers of plants in full
leaf. Once wilted the plants will not recover.

Dryopteris noveboracensis does best in rather moist, rich soil in
partial shade, but will endure full sunlight with good soil con-
ditions. Prefers light rich loam. One of the common field ferns
growing in large masses either alone or with Dennstsedtia puncti-
lobula. When cut it wilts quickly so is of little value for bouquets.

Easily transplanted at any season. Will not endure heavy mulch
of leaves. Not evergreen.

Dryopteris spinulosa is less common in America than the var.
intermedia, which occurs wherever conditions favor its growth. It
has the finest cut or divided fronds of any of the large evergreen
ferns, being almost the equal of the deciduous fern, Dennstsedtia
punctilobula, in this respect. The fronds are gathered extensively
for florists' use. In culture, give the same conditions as for Poly-
stichum acrostichoides, with heavier shade and more moisture.
The best fern to grow under coniferous trees.

Dryopteris simulata (Fig. 1491) is much like the following and
requires similar conditions. It occurs in boggy woods from Maine
to Maryland and perhaps westward.

Dryopteris Thelypteris prefers quite moist situations with at
least partial shade. With congenial soil and moisture does well in
sunlight. A distinct and pleasing deciduous fern.

Lygodium palmatum is rather difficult to establish. Give a
deep rather moist light loam in partial shade.

Onoclea sensibilis prefers a rich, moist soil in partial shade or
full sunshine. It will also grow in shade. It likes a heavier soil
than most ferns and uniform moisture. Does poorly in dry soils.
Onoclea Struthiopteris should be given a rich, moist soil with at
least partial shade. The fronds will "burn" in fierce sunlight. A
good fern to grow north of a wall or building where specimen
plants are desired.

Osmunda cinnamomea prefers moist, partially shaded situa-
tions, but will grow well in full sunshine in rich soil not exceedingly
dry. Perhaps the most beautiful of the osmundas. Best to move
while dormant.

Osmunda Claytoniana, a native of low ground, both in shade and
sunshine, but will grow equally well in rich soil only fairly moist.
Best transplanted when dormant.

Osmunda regalis prefers a peaty soil in very wet, boggy posi-
tion in partial shade, but will grow as well in full sunshine if soil
is rich and not dry. A very distinct fern.

Pellsea atropurpurea prefers rather dry positions in partial
shade, winter and summer. It will not endure heavy mulching.
Will grow in full sunshine, but not to its full size. It may be
transplanted at any season.

Phegopteris Dryopteris prefers good soil in shade not over moist
or dry. Avoid coating of leaves. It is a beautiful species and useful
for planting on rockwork in shade. The fronds die in August.

Phegopteris hexagonoptera needs good soil in shade. Fronds die
down rather early. Will not grow well through a leaf mulch.

Phegopteris polypodioides prefers moist, shaded positions, but
will grow in any good soil not too dry. The fronds die down in
late summer, especially in the drier positions. Any winter cover-
ing of leaves must be removed.

Polypodium vulgare prefers good, light soil in well-drained but
moist situations in shade, with no other plants growing with it.
It will endure very dry places, but will be dwarfed. Will also do
well in full sunlight if soil conditions are good. As a native it
grows in positions in which it does not receive any yearly coating
of fallen leaves, and, wherever planted, should not be covered with
coarse material. Plant perfectly evergreen; height 6 to 10 inches.
Polypodium incanum of Virginia and the South is hardy but not
vigorous at Philadelphia.

Polystichum Braunii. This fern needs good deep light loam,
not spongy, with humus and shade winter and summer. A distinct
and beautiful evergreen fern open to improvement by selection
and culture, although belonging to the class of "crown" or "tree"
ferns which do not have the chance to vary or "sport" which the
species with vegetative roots do.

Polystichum (Aspidium) acrostichoides should be given shade
both summer and winter for best results, and in no case can shade
in summer be omitted. The plants will endure sunshine for a few
years but will not be thrifty, and will eventually die. One of the
more common florists' ferns the Christmas fern the sterile
fronds of which are gathered and stored by the million for winter
use by florists. They are found on the north side of the hills and
the best grade grows not in low ground nor where the soil is shallow
but where good loam with no winter leaf covering are the condi-
tions. The planting of this fern for the sale of the fronds may
become profitable as demands increase and its wild habitats become
forbidden grounds to pickers. In culture give (1 ) northern exposure;
(2) good corn land; (3) no loose or bare earth between plants; (4)
no grass; (5) no real cover of leaves in the fall. Give with these a
good supply of moisture such as the lower half of a hillside can
easily be made to receive from the overflow from rainfall on the
upper half. There must be good drainage.

Polystichum fragrans. Positions in the wild suggest dense cool
moist shade with good drainage.

Polystichum Lonchitis. Grows well under conditions for P.
acrostichoides as far south as Philadelphia.

Pteridiumaquilinum, to be grown to perfection, should have con-
siderable sunlight, with moist, rich soil, kept cool and loose with a
coating of leaves or other material. In such a position it should
grow to 4 to 5 feet high, with other dimensions corresponding.
However, it will grow in almost any position. It has strong, creep-
ing rootstocks, so that attention is necessary to keep a healthy
group within bounds. The earliest fronds put forth die in late
summer, but those of later growth remain green until frost, so
that with attention to the removal of dead fronds a group will look
well until fall. The rootstocks break or crack easily so that plants
are injured by transplanting and grow poorly until again estab-
lished. Early spring is the best time to move plants.

Woodsia. Small rock ferns mostly requiring winter shade and
doing best on rock banks facing the north.

1218

FERNS

Woodwardia angustifolia wants a moist situation in deep shade.
Does well in moist peat north of a bank or wall. Will endure full
sunlight in positions where it has become established, but will
not grow well when transplanted to sunny position. W. mrginica
needs more moisture. p^ ^y^ BARCLAY.

Culture of asparagus fern (Fig. 1492).

The sprays of Asparagus plumosus look so much like
certain ferns or selaginellas, that the plant is commonly
known as asparagus fern; and the cultivation of it is
therefore treated at this place. (For the botanical
account, see p. 407, Vol. I.) The first and all-impor-
tant factor in the cultivation of asparagus fern is the
construction of the bed. To meet with any degree of
success, the bed must have perfect drainage. The
house should be 25 or 30 feet high, and wired at the top
and bottom. The wires beneath are made fast to each
side of an iron trellis about 8 inches apart and at the
top an equal distance apart, in order that the strings
may be as nearly straight as possible.

1492. A house of "Asparagus ferns." Asparagus plumosus.

The early growth of Asparagus plumosus var. norms
is very slow; but as soon as it is transplanted and well
rooted in a rich soil, the growth is more rapid, the tender
shoots developing into a vine which will be ready to cut
for the market in about a year. There is great difficulty
in securing the seed of the nanus. In a whole house,
there may be only a few seed-bearing strings. After
being picked, the berries are allowed to dry for a month,
and are then ready for planting. A good, rich soil, cov-
ered with a thin film of sand, serves very well to start
them. The temperature should be about 65, and as
nearly constant as possible. When the plant is well
rooted, it is removed to a deeper soil or potted in 3-
or 4-inch pots and placed on a bench. Here it remains
a year, and is then placed in the bed.

Up to this time a small amount of labor suffices to
keep the plant growing in a healthy condition; but from
now on great care must be taken and much labor
expended to produce the best crop. The bed into which
the young plant is set should be carefully laid with
rocks at the bottom, so the water can escape freely.
Over this place 2 or 3 feet of soil, manure, and

dead leaves. It is but a short time now that the roots
have room to expand before the shoots appear above
the trellis, and the stringing begins. Strong linen thread
is used for strings.

The first crop will not be ready to cut before the end
of the second year, that is, from the time the seed is
planted. As soon as this crop is exhausted, new strings
are put in place of the old, and another crop is started.
This goes on year after year. Now that the plant has
gotten its growth, it is more hardy, and is constantly
sending up new shoots. If the bed is well made in the
beginning, the asparagus need not be disturbed for
eight or ten years. However, at the end of that time it
is well to take the plants up and fill the beds with fresh
soil and manure.

In the spring, when the sun gets high, the asparagus
houses are shaded with a light coating of white lead,
whiting and kerosene oil. This is absolutely necessary,
as the summer sun would in a very short time burn the
tops of the vines. The vine flowers in the fall, and only

on strings that have
been matured six
months or more.

The vine alone is not
the onlysourceof profit.
When the plant is a
year old, a few of the
most nearly perfect
sprays may be taken
without injuring its
growth . These are very
desirable in the market.
There is, of course,
some waste in working
up the Asparagus to
be shifted, but on the
whole, it is very slight.
The different forms in
which it is sold utilize
by far the greater part
of it.

Insects destroy the
shoots and sprays. This
is prevented to a great
extentbyinsectpowder.
The cut-worms do the
most damage. About
the only way to get rid
of them is to pick them
off the strings during
the night, as they gen-
erallyseek shelterunder
the thick clusters of
the plant at daylight.

There are many drawbacks in growing asparagus, among
which are expensive houses, the slow growth of the plants
(which makes it necessary to wait at least two years
before receiving any return from the expenditure), injury
from insects, and the great amount of labor involved in
looking after the houses. WILLIAM H. ELLIOTT.

FERNS, POPULAR NAMES OF. Adder's Tongue
F., Ophinglossum vulgatum. Asparagus F., Asparagus
plumosus. Beech F., Phegopteris. Bird's-nest F., Asple-
nium Nidus. Bladder F., Cystopteris. Boston F., Neph-
rolepis exaltata var. bostoniensis. Brake, Pteridium.
Bristle F., Trichomanes. Buckler F., Dryopteris. Cali-
fornian Gold F., Ceropteris triangularis. Chain F.,
Woodwardia. Christmas F., Polystichum acrostichoides.
Cinnamon F., Osmunda cinnamomea. Climbing F.,
Lygodium. Dagger F., Polystichum acrostichoides.
Deer F., Lomaria. Elk's -horn F., Platycerium alci-
corne. Female F., Asplenium Filix-foEmina. Filmy F.,
Hymenophyllum. Floating F., Ceratopteris. Flowering
F., Osmunda; sometimes also Anemia. Gold F.,
Ceropteris. Grape F., Botrychium. Hart's-tongue F.,

FERNS

FERONIELLA

1219

Phyllitis Scolopendrium. Hartford F., Lygodium palma-
tum. Hay-scented F., Dennstsedtia punctilobula. Holly
F., Polysiichum Lonchitis. Lace F., Cheilanthes gracil-
lima; also Dryoptcris intermedia. Lady F., Asplenium
Filix-fcemina. Lip F., Cheilanthes. Maidenhair F.,
Adiantum; more particularly A. Capillus-Veneris
abroad and A. pedatum at home. Male F., Dryopteris
Filix-mas. Marsh F., Dryopteris Thelypteris. Oak F.,
Phegopteris Dryopteris. Ostrich F., Matteuccia Struth-
iopteris. Pod F., Ceratopteris thalictroides. Rattlesnake
F., Botrychium virginianum. Royal F-, Osmunda regalis.
Sensitive F., Onoclea sensibilis. Shield F., Dryopteris
F., and Polystichum. Stag-horn F., Platy cerium. Sun F.,
Phegopteris. Sweet F., Myrica asplenifolia; abroad,
various Dryopteris. Sword F M Nephrolepis exaltata.
Venus' Hair F., Adiantum Capillus-Veneris. Walking
F., Camptosorus rhizophyllus. Wall F., Polypodium vul-
gare. Wall-rue, Asplenium Ruta-muraria. Washington
F., Nephrolepis exaltata var. washingtoniensis.

FERONIA (from Feronia, Roman goddess of forests).
Rutdcese, tribe Citreas, subtribe Feroninse. Spiny
deciduous tree with hard-shelled fruit; related to
Citrus, for which it can perhaps be used as a stock.

Leaves odd-pinnate, deciduous: fls. small, perfect
or by abortion male in terminal or axillary panicles;
petals 5 (rarely 4 or 6) ; stamens twice as numerous as
the petals; filaments much longer than the anthers,
dilated at base and densely pubescent on the sides and
within; ovary at first 5-celled, later becoming by
confluence 1-celled: fr. with a hard, compact woody
shell; seeds oval, lenticular, with a thin hairy brown
testa immersed in an acid edible pulp; cotyledons
fleshy, aerial in germination. Only 1 species is known.

Limonia, Swingle (Schlnus Limbnia, Linn. Limonia
acidissima, Linn. F. elephdntum, Corr.). WOOD-
APPLE. Spiny deciduous tree, native to India, Ceylon
and Indo-China: bark gray, rough: Ivs. odd-pinnate,
3-7-foliate; Ifts. opposite, obovate, blunt at the apex,
sometimes emarginate, entire-margined with a short
petiolule; rachis margined, articulate, spines long and
straight, axillary: fls. (sometimes male by abortion of
the ovary) dull red, small, in terminal or axillary long-
pedicelled panicles; petals 5 (rarely 4 or 6); stamens 10
(rarely 8 or 12), filaments short, dilated at base and
densely pubescent on the sides and within; anthers
large; ovary 5-celled, with many ovules in each cell;
stigma cylindrical, sessile: frs. globose or oblate, 23^-3
in. diam., having a hard, woody
rind filled with a pinkish edible
pulp in which the numerous woolly
seeds are immersed. For discus-
sion of name and synonomy, see
Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 4:325 (n.
12, June 19, 1914). 111. Roxbg., PI.
Coromandel., PL 141. Gt.
34:1206. Wight, Ic. PL Ind.
Or., PL 45; Beddome, Fl.
sylvat. South Ind., 1:121;
f albot, For. Flor. Bombay,
fig. 124; Engl. & Prantl, Nat.
Pfl.-fam. III. 4, 193, fig. 112.
The pulp of the fr. which is
acid, is used for making
jellies somewhat similar to
black currant jelly. It is also
made into a kind of chutney
with oil, spices and salt by
the natives of India. The fls.
and Ivs. of this tree have an
odor of anis and are used as a stomachic. The com-
monly cult, species of Citrus can be grafted on this
plant and wood-apple seedlings are now being tested
as stocks by the U. S. Dept. of Agric. in Calif, and
Fla. and also in the greenhouses in Washington, D. C.

WALTER T. SWINGLE.

FERONIELLA (diminutive of Feronia, Roman god-
dess of forests). Rutacese, tribe Citreas, subtribe Fer-
oninse. Small much-branched spiny tree, related to
Feronia and suggested as a possible stock for citrous
fruits.

Leaves odd-pinnate, persistent, 3-6-paired; rachis
cylindrical, sometimes narrowly winged; spines soli*

1493. Flower and fruit
of Feroniella oblata. (FL
nat. size, fr. X %.)

1494. Feroniella oblata. ( X %)

tary, in the axils of the Ivs.: fls. in much-branched
axillary infl., perfect or by abortion male, usually 5-
parted, having 4 times as many stamens as petals;
filaments much longer than the anthers, dilated at base
and having a hairy appendix on the inner side; style
long, stigma cylindric, caducous; ovary at first 5-6-
celled, later becoming by confluence 1-celled : fr. spher-
ical or depressed globose, with a hard shell composed
of radially arranged prismatic elements; pulp edible;
seeds numerous, oblong or elliptical, with a smooth
crustaceous testa; cotyledons aerial in germination.
Two species are known.

oblata, Swingle. KRASSANG. Figs. 1493, 1494.
Spiny tree, 25-65 ft. high, native to Cambodge and
Cochin-China: Ivs. odd-pinnate, 3-4-paired; Ifts.
covered with small whitish hairs, especially when young,
pellucid-punctate, oval or obovate, crenulate when
young, often emarginate, with a very short petiole;
rachis pubescent; fls. in many-fld. panicles, white, very
fragrant, usually 5-parted, with lanceolate pointed
petals; stamens 4 times the number of petals, anthers
large, oval, filaments joined together at the base by the
woolly pubescence of the appendices occurring on their
inner side: fr. borne in clusters of 3 or 4, flattened
spheroid, 2 to 2 1/3 m - diam.; pulp subacid, pinkish,
edible. 111. Swingle in Bui. Soc. Bot. de France,
59, pi. 18 and fig. a, p.. 778. Lecomte, Fl. gen. Indo-
Chine, 1 : 685, fig. 72, 1-5. This species occurs commonly
in the forests of Cambodia and is sometimes cult, by
the natives for its frs. which, when young, have a pro-

1220

FERONIELLA

FERTILITY

ttoiincod orange odor :ind are used as a condiment in
sauces. Young plants of this species are growing in the
greenhouses of the Dept. of Agric. at Washington, D.C.
lucida, Swingle (/'V/Ywia lucida, Schcff.). KAVISTA
MATH. Small spiny tree, native to Java: Ivs. odd-
pinnato, .'{ (i-p.'iin-tl; Ifts. oval or obqvatc, coriaceous,
shiny above, margins entire or slightly crenulato,
obtuse or omarginato at the apex; petioles pubescent,
the terminal 1ft,. sessile; rachis pubescent, articulated:
(Is. perfect or by abortion male, fragrant, white, rather
large; sepals small, linear, pubescent; petals pointed-
oval; stamens 4 times as many as the petals: fr. globose
2)^-2^i in. diain.; seeds small, with a thin hard testa,
immersed in the glutinous pulp. 111. Iconos Hogor. 2 : 149.
The pulp is sometimes eaten in Java, like that of the
wood-apple (Feronia Limonia), It grows wild in the
drier parts of Java and has been intro. into the U. S.
where it is being tested by the Dcpt. of Agric. as a stock
for citrous fruits. WALTER T. SWINGLE.

FERRARIA (Giovanni Battista Ferrari, 1584-1653,
Italian Jesuit, botanical writer and collaborator with
the celebrated artist Guido Reni). Iriddcex. Half-
hardy bulbous plants from the Cape of Good Hope
(and recent species from other parts of Africa), rarely
growing more than 6 inches high.

Corm large and irregular: foliage glaucous; lowest
lys. long ana linear, the others ovate, clasping, succes-
sively smaller, and topped by inflated sheaths from
which emerge the fugitive fls.: these have 6 triangular,
spreading, crisped, petal-like lobes, marked with many
dull colors, as yellow, green, purple and brown; each
spathe contains several fls., and the fls. are united at
tne very base, connivent and cup-shaped below the
spreading lobes; the fls. lost only from morning to
afternoon of a single day { but there is a fair succession;
some are visited by carrion flies: fr. an ellipsoid mem-
branous caps. Only one species, F. undulata, is much
known in cult., but the other 5 or species of the Cape
are doubtless of equal interest. This was known to pre-
Linnamn authors as Flos indicus and Gladiolus indicus.
The bulbs should be stored like gladiolus in a dry,
warm place, away from mice.

A. F Is. dull brownish purple.

undulata, Linn. St. stout, erect, sometimes exceed-
ing 1 ft: basal I vs. sword-shaped, 1 ft. and more long,
flat, clasping and dilated at base; upper Ivs. and
spathes lyfc-2 in. long: fls. 2 in. across, largely dull pur-
ple; anthers oblong, with parallel cells. B.M. 144.

AA. Fls. greenish.

uncinata, Sweet. St. short, little branched: Ivs. 2-3,
linear: fls. 2, the perianth greenish and with narrow
very acuminate scgms. 1 in. long; anthers small, the
cells nearly parallel.

AAA. F Is. dark purple.

atrata, Lodd. St. about 6 in.: Ivs. about 1, sword-
shaped, firm, strongly ribbed, twice longer than st.:
fls. 3-4, bright dark purple, 1^-2 in. diam. when
expanded; anthers oblong, with cells parallel.

Other names arc advertised by Dutch bulb-growers, as /'.
iviminVii.s-ix. F. calettit, F. conchiflora, F. grandiflora, F. immac-
iilnin, F. liliacca, F. rosea, F. Pavonia: these are to be sought under

WILHELM MILLER.

FERTILITY of soils: that condition of soils which
makes them productive. The elements of productivity
are, a full supply of available plant-food, a suitable and
continuous supply of moisture, good physical conditions
of the soil, coupled with suitable seed and climate.

Land may contain vast quantities of potential nitro-
gen, potash, phosphoric acid and other plant-food,
and yet be unfruitful, infertile. Most of the potential
plant-food in the soil is lazy, or not available in sufficient
quantities in a single season to produce maximum crops.
Average arable land which contains from 3,000 to 4,(XX)

pounds of nitrogen, an equal amount of phosphoric
acid and four times an much potash in the first 8 inches
of an acre, may produce only fifteen bushels of wheat
to the acre, which requires, with the straw, but twenty-
four, thirteen and twenty pounds of these three ele-
ments respectively. Therefore, land may contain a
great abundance of potential plant-food, and yet not
contain enough of that which is available for a full crop.
To make land more fertile, one or more of the follow-
ing means may be employed. Usually deeper and more
thorough tillage should first |>e resorted to, since most
lands, by reason of careless fanning, cunt. 'tin much inert
plant-food. Superior tillage is almost certain to produce
fruitfulncss, and therefore should lie resorted to before
more expensive methods are tried. Tillage not only
makes plant-food more available, but it improves tin-
physical conditions of the soil, thereby making it more
adaptable to the plant; it may also assist in relieving
the land of surplus water, and give to the soil the
power of retaining stores of moisture by capillary
action.

Moisture plays such an important part in productive-
ness that it may be said to constitute its prime factor.
Clay soils are usually composed of such fine particles
that water percolates through them slowly, hence tin-
larger part of the rainfall must either run off over the
surface, or remain to be evaporated. The aim should
be so to prepare the land by subdrainage, plowing and
surface tillage, and by introducing at least one crop of
tap-rooted plants in the rotation, that the surplus
water will filter through the soil in a reasonable time.
Percolation of rainwater through soils makes them more
friable and warmer in spring, aerates the land, pro-
motes beneficial biological and chemical changes, and
brings to the soil the nitrogenous compounds contained
in the rainwater. Soils that are reasonably porous have
the power of retaining more moisture, and of giving it
up to plants, when needed, to a greater extent, than
either open sandy or close clay soils. Fertility, which
results in fruitfulness, is governed very largely by the
water and moisture conditions of the soil, and these,
in turn, are to a considerable extent governed by the
texture of the land and the amount of humus that it
contains.

Legumes, used either as a harvest or cover-crop, pro-
mote fertility. A cover-crop of clovers planted August
1, and analyzed sixty-four days after planting, con-
tained nitrogen, in roots and tops, to the acre as
follows:

Tops Roots Total

Pounds Pounds Pounds

Crimson clover 125 30 155

Red clover 63 40 103

Mammoth clover 07 78 145

Clovers and other legumes may be used to fix and
store up the uncombined nitrogen of the air and to
digest and make available the mineral constituents of
the land, thereby greatly increasing the fertility of
the soil.

In most of the semi-arid districts of the United
States, except where irrigation can be successfully
undertaken in the rich valleys, the problem of perma-
nently maintaining and increasing the productivity of
the soil is as yet unsolved. Better tillage may serve
in many coses to prolong the time of profitable culti-
vation, but unless something is done toward restora-
tion it only postpones for a short period (ho day when
the land must be left to the tooth of time and to the
growth of such hardy plants as can maintain them-
selves on a depleted soil. All such posture lands may
be greatly ln-nefited by sowing, even in small quan-
tities, in 'early spring with red and alsiko clover in
humid districts, and bur clover in the rainloss-sum-
mer regions. Lands adopted to orcharding that, have
become depleted and that have a tenacious subsoil
may be benefited by exploding a charge of dynamite

FERTILITY

FERTILIZATION

1221

in a hole about 1 inch in diameter and 2 feet deep at
each plae:e> where :i tree is to he set. Sueli t rent rnent
tends to promote filtration, to set, free plant-food by
aeration and to improve! the physical condition of
the adjacent soil, while at the same time it lessens
the labor necessary to prepare the ground for tree-
setting.

Hani manures, when properly oared for and intelli-
gently applied, not only furnish acceptable plant-food
but iunnus as well. Fertility and high productivity
usually may be maintained many years by means of
superior tillage, leguminous harvest, and cover-crops,
and the manures of the farm. In some cases a high
slate of fertility can be maintained only by occasional
applications of commercial mineral fertilizers, such as

Khosphates and potash, but too often expensive ferti-
/ers have been substituted for tillage, leguminous
plants and barn manures.

Fertility may frequently be promoted by light
applications (ten to twenty bushels to the acre) of
quicklime. Lime serves to make plant-food more
available, to improve soil texture and to correct acidity.
It may also be applied beneficially to a green-manure
fallow. Lime tends to sink into the soil, therefore
it should be applied after the last plowing preceding
the seeding, and should be covered and mixed with the
soil by tillage. Hydrated, or biting lime, not only tends
to set free plant-food but to flocculate the soil, thereby
improving its physical condition. Its use is especially
recommended on clay and moist lands and in orchards
where the ground is much shaded. Applications of
gypsum and salt are sometimes beneficial in main-
taining fertility, but they, as well as lime, usually act
indirectly, as the soil is seldom deficient in these con-
st it nt cuts so far as they are required as plant-food. On
high-priced lands, especially those; devoted to horti-
culture, the soil should be made and kept fertile well
up to its highest productive power.

A bare summer fallow of one to three plowings and
suitable surface tillage will not only destroy weeds, but
liberate plant-food as well, while storing moisture in
the soil for the immediate use of young plants. Hut a
bare fallow, if not accompanied by the addition of some
plant-food, may hasten the depletion of the soil. It
is a mat I er of judgment, then, as to whether the particu-
lar soil contains such abundant supplies of plant-food
that some; of them may be removed; or whether it is
very deficient. In the latter case a green fallow would
be i'ar preferable to a bare one. In many cases a bare
fallow is merely a method of mining-farming which
hastens the time when the land must be turned out
to pasture for economic reasons. Often productivity
is increased more satisfactorily by means of green-
manuring than by bringing plant-food to the land
from outside sources. In most of the humid districts
early sowed pe;is (which withstand late frosts) followed
by buckwheat, and both plowed under some time
before they mature, can be grown in time to fit the
land for seeding in September to wheat, rye or timothy,
the nurse crop being omitted. When the land might,
be made too porous by this method, rye sowed in the
fall, plowed under before coming to head and followed
by peas, would greatly improve; the light and sandy
soils by bringing stores of nitrogen and humus.

Nature, in producing and storing fertility, provides
a great variety of plants and an infinite number of
ways of multiplying them so that the land is fully
covered with vegetation except in desert regions.
Upon the best of these Jands a vast animal life is main-
tained while the remainder produces other plants to
feed other animals. In the densely settled agricul-
tural districts of China, for the last two thousand
years the farmers have been returning as much to the
land as they have taken from it; and the soil is now
more productive than it was when first brought into
cultivation. The problem of conservation and resto-

ration erf se>ils is nenv in America the most, serious one
the; agriculturist has te) solve.

Sometimes soils are; re;nele;re;el unfruitful by the
presence of delete-riems substances, as e>rganic aciels or
alkaline salts, or a superabundance of se>me one or
more of its usually useful ingredients, as water or
nitre>ge;nous compemnels. An e>xce>ss of nitrogen stimu-
lates the growth erf stalk anel straw at the e-xpe-nse of
grain, or in the orchard it tends to the; fetrmatiem of
wood rathe'r than to fruitfulness. The ae;ielity shoulei
be corrected by lime 1 , as noted abe)ve, the surplus water
removed by elrainagc, the nitre)ge;ne)iis matter reduced
by the production of such crops as are; not harmfully
aifect,e;el by its superabundance, such as forage crops
which are; prized for their foliage; rather than for their
seeds, while; the alkalinity may sometimes be overcome
by deep tillage*, irrigation or application of gypsum in
suitable amounts. J. p. ROHKKTB.

FERTILIZATION is the: fusion of sexually differ-
entiated cells, anel with spe;cial reference to the seed
plants it me;ans that a cell (a fertilized egg, or zygote)
is thus formed which is capable of developing into the
e-mbryonic plant later recognized in the plantlct of
the; se;ed. The fusing cells, or gametes, are (1) the; egg
(female cell), which is organized in the ovule, as
describee! below, and (2) a sperm-cell, or nucleus (male
cell), devele)pe;e! in the germi-
nating pollen-tube. Fertiliza-
tion is a process which may not
be reaelily observed in the se;eel-
plants except through the; use
of careful histological methods.
both m the fixation of material
and in the subsequent pro-
cesses of imbedding anel stain-
ing. The phenomena are illus-
trated in Figs. 1496-1497.

The term "fertilization" has
always implied the union of
male and female cells; but
formerly, when less was known
regarding the details erf the
phenomenon, " fertilization "
included the mere mechanical
process whereby pollen from
1495. A pollen-grain of tnc an ther was transferreel by
Lilium philadelphicum . t to thc gti of thc

Section of a single gram a o ' _ y nr *u: s ro ,,Bon "fer-
before the anther opena; t, nowc r: J
the tube-cell; g. the genera- tllization by insects Or fer-

nv. ...|i. The large Bpheri- tilization by wind" meaning

oul Ixxly in each cell in the ^i +___(,. n c nnttan u v thoao
nucleus: ( Magnified 500 tnc transl l)v U " '

agencies arc freouent expres-
sions in the work of Darwin
and Wallace. In this last-mentioned sense, the wore!
pollination is appropriate, and now commonly em-
ployesd. If the silks of corn are pollinated with corn
ix)llen, fertilization normally ensues and seeds are
produced; but if the corn-silks are pollinated by the
pollen e>f the lily, no seeds will be formed. It is obvious
that cross-pollination has no limits; but cross-fertiliza-
tion is limited to those cases in which the sexual cells
unite and a new organism develops.

The development of some structures essential in
fertilization are of interest in this connection. The
mature; pollen-grain consists of a large tube-cell and
nucleus and a small generative cell and nucleus. When
lodgeel upon a suitable stigma the pollen-grain germi-
nates by the development of a tube which enters the
loose; tissue of the stigma and grows further into the
conducting parts of the style. In some cases, definite
stylar canals are present, but usually the tube we;elge>s
itself between the yielding e;e:lls, absorbs nutrient in
its course, anel force;s or dissolves its way to the ovule;
or sceel-case, where, as a rule, it enters the micropyle
anel approaches the embryo-sac and egg-cell. In its

1222

FERTILIZATION

FERTILIZERS

course the pollen-tube is doubtless "directed" by the
distribution of food. Meanwhile, the generative
nucleus of the pollen-tube divides into two sperm
(male) nuclei, and these migrate to the growing end
of the tube.

With the formation and
opening of the flower, the
embryo-sac attains its devel-
opment. This structure is too
complex to require full treat-
ment here, but it is sufficient
to say that, when approaching
maturity, it consists of one
large cell containing eight
nuclei, four of which collect at
each end of the cell. One
nucleus from each end marches
to the center, and the fusion
which then commonly results
gives a nucleus the divisions
of which ultimately organize a
so-called food, or endosperm,
tissue, which may surround the
embryo when formed.

At the micropylar end of the
embryo-sac, another nucleus
organizes the egg-cell a
prominent cell with consider-
able protoplasm and the other
two degenerate or form the
subsidiary cells of an "egg ap-
paratus." The cells at the an-
tipodal end of the embryo-sac
are also of little present sig-
nificance. At about the time of
the maturity of the egg-cell
the tip of the pollen-tube
reaches and penetrates the wall

1496. Outline of a pistil of
Lilium philaddphicum.

A lengthwise view of pistil of the embryo-sac, then dis-
almost through the center; solves and liberates the two

S 'rain gma haslbeeii lodged" ma ^ e nuc l e i- One of these fuses
The course of the pollen- with the egg-cell, and this is
tube, pt, is indicated by the important act under con-
sideration. The other sperm
nucleus often fuses with the
indicated by the arrows: /, endosperm nucleus, .but that

the stigma; 2, S, the style, Jr. nn f ofTWt thf> pharaptf>r<3
show the triangular canal aoes , BCt HJ^ cnaract

which leads into the three Of the embryo. The fusion of

chambers of 4, the ovary, in egg and male nucleus unites,
on the other hand, the charac-
ters of the ovule-bearing and
pollen-bearing plants in the
may proceed immediately to

B. M. DUGGAR.

, ,

broken line. At the right,
1,2, 3,4, are cross-sections
of the pistil at the levels

each chamber of which are

two rows of ovules. (Nat-
ural size.)

fertilized egg, which
develop the embryo.

FERTILIZERS. It is now well recognized that
shade trees, ornamental shrubs, small fruits, and
flowering perennials, as well as annual flowering and
foliage plants, are often as greatly benefited by the
use of proper fertilizers and manures as vegetables and
ordinary farm crops. There are, nevertheless, occa-
sional soils on which fruit trees, and shade trees in
particular, require little or no artificial fertilization or
manuring. For example, it was not found profitable
to fertilize apple trees at the Agricultural Experiment
Station in Geneva, New York, whereas at the Pennsyl-
vania Agricultural College the use of fertilizers was not
only strikingly helpful, but practically vital to success-
ful orcharding. Instances of such contrasts in con-
nection with trees and shrubs are always to be expected.
On this account the giving of rule-of-thumb directions
for fertilizing, in a work of reference which is designed
to be generally applicable to the entire United States, is
not only well nigh impossible, but may, if followed,
lead to the most unreasonable procedure on the part
of those not sufficiently conversant with their own

particular soil conditions. For this reason this dis-
cussion will be confined largely to the general principles
involved, since they not only fail to mislead the novice,
but may serve as a safe and rational basis for general
procedure for all.

Shade trees, ornamental trees and shrubs.

Because of the fact that trees have an extensive
root-system, and hence possess a wide feeding range,
they often stand less in need of artificial manuring
and fertilizing than certain shrubs, especially if the
la.tter have already been set for a long time.

It is to be presumed that most soils contain enough
iron and magnesia to meet the needs of trees and shrubs,
yet since these substances are just as essential to their
growth as any of the three so-called "essential elements,"
it is well to bear in mind that very rare cases may be
met with in which even iron or magnesia may be help-
ful. In this connection it may be mentioned that the
soil in a section of northern Michigan is said to con-
tain so little iron that certain farm animals, if fed exclu-
sively on the plants which grow there, cannot be
reared successfully. It has even been found that
manganese compounds are sometimes helpful to plants,
and if the supply of iron is insufficient, they aid in pro-
moting chlorophyl formation in the leaves, without
which the higher plants cannot exist.

Some soils are relatively deficient in magnesia as
compared with lime, and when such is the case, growth
is likely to be restricted until enough magnesia is
added to create a proper balance between the two. A
much more frequent lack, in soils of the humid regions,
is lime.

Unfortunately, an extended and systematic study of
the lime requirements of trees and shrubs has not yet
been made, although many valuable isolated observa-
tions are on record. It
would be of great value
if such experiments
were conducted on an
extensive scale. Such
experiments as were
made in this direction
in Rhode Island
showed, for example,
that the American
elm ( Ulmus americana)
and the basswood
(Tilia americana) were
both greatly helped by
liming when grown on
the very acid granitic
soil of that state.
From this it may be
inferred that benefit
from liming would also
follow on many of the
soils of the humid re-
gions which are derived
chiefly from granite
and from certain of
the sandstones, shales,
slates, gneisses, schists
and conglomerates.

The sugar or rock
maple was found to be
but little helped by
lime, even where the
elm and basswood

1497. Section of an ovule of

Lilium philadelphicum.
Cut lengthwise; i, i, inner integu-
ment, inclosing except at a narrow
orifice (micropyle) where the pollen-
tube, pt, enters the body of the ovule,
which is chiefly occupied by the large
embryo-sac with three nuclei, one
Showed Striking bene- much disorganized, e, the endosperm
fit. The common white nucleus, just being formed by fusion
u;-~u ^J +~ K f two nuclei from the respective ends

birch seemed to be of the em bryo- S ac. d\ male nucleus.
even less responsive to which has just migrated from pollen-
liming than the sugar tube and is about to fuse with 9 , the
1 egg nucleus. The synergidse, or "egg

, apparatus," have disappeared. (Mag-

The Use of much nified 670 diameters.)

FERTILIZERS

1223

lime may sometimes interfere with the growth of the
Norway spruce. It is also unfavorable to at least
some of the pines. The effect of liming on certain of
these conifers is observable not only by way of its
lessening the growth of the tree, but also by its causing
a shortening of the needles.

The chestnut tree is reputed not to need liming, but
even to be seriously injured, if lime is used.

Among the flowering shrubs, general experience
points to the fact that lime should be avoided in con-
nection with the growth of the laurels, rhododendrons,
azaleas and the Ericace generally. There is, however,
no doubt as to the benefit to be derived from the use
of lime in connection with many of the other ornamental
and flowering shrubs. Experiments by Hogenson
appear to show that sulfate of magnesia may some-
times be very helpful to certain shrubs which are
ordinarily injured by lime, although this work needs to
be extensively supplemented before being accepted as
a sure basis of procedure.

In general, the need of nitrogen for trees and shrubs
is indicated by insufficient limb and leaf growth,
although any other lacking essential ingredient may
ultimately have the same limiting effect.

Whenever trees or shrubs are being set in poor land,
it is well to work into the soil generous amounts of
ground, steamed bone or superphosphate. The latter
phosphate possesses, however, a very distinct advan-
tage for subsequent application, due to its high con-
tent of soluble phosphoric acid. Basic slag meal should
be avoided for those trees and shrubs likely to be
injured by lime, whereas for others it may be employed
at the time of planting. These materials may be used
when the trees or shrubs are set, if well mixed with the
soil, and from one to four pounds may be used for
a tree or shrub, according to their size.

High-grade sulfate of potash or muriate of potash
may be similarly worked into the soil at the rate of
half a pound to a pound a tree when potash is known
to be deficient, but even in such cases it is sometimes
advisable to withhold it until a year after setting, and
then make the application alone, in conjunction with
superphosphate, or in a complete fertilizer. Twice
as much double manure salt or four times as much
kainit is required to replace either the sulfate or the
muriate of potash.

If the growth is not satisfactory, after the trees or
shrubs have been set for some time, a complete fertilizer
containing from 2 to 4 per cent of ammonia, from suita-
ble sources, may be worked into the soil about the trees
or shrubs, or it may even be scattered on the surface
of the ground, in case the land is kept in grass.

Care should be taken to keep the fertilizer away
from the base of the trees or shrubs, and it should be
applied for at least a considerable distance beyond the
reach of the branches. For this purpose, quantities of
fertilizers, ranging from two to thirty-five pounds, may
be used for each tree, according to its kind, size and age,
although even for large shrubs, from two to six pounds
will usually be sufficient.

Just as the keen observation of the feeder is neces-
sary in the fattening of the animal, so also the judg-
ment of the experienced gardener is essential to the
proper gaging of the amounts of fertilizer for trees
and shrubs of all kinds.

Much is claimed, by those who have had experience
in renovating old trees, for the plan of making a large
number of holes under the tree, to a depth of 1 foot to
2 }/2 or 3 feet, and placing the fertilizer in these holes.
This procedure has much justification, owing to the
great "fixing" power of the soil, especially for phos-
phoric acid and potash salts which are otherwise pre-
vented from being quickly and readily carried down in
large quantities to points where the deeper roots can
immediately reach them. Even if fertilizer is employed
in this manner it is also well to apply some of it to the

surface, in order to insure an even lateral distribution
of at least a part of it.

Another drastic method of procedure in renovating
old trees is to trench around a part or the whole of the
tree, at a suitable distance from the trunk, to a depth
of several feet, and then fill the trenches with new soil
mixed with manure and a complete fertilizer contain-
ing slowly-acting phosphatic and nitrogenous materials,
and suitable amounts of potash salts. In such a case it
is a part of the plan to cut off many of the ends of the
old roots in order to make them branch and thus
increase their feeding capacity.

Apples and pears.

Apple trees, as a rule, respond to liming rather
better than pear trees; nevertheless, on very acid soils
there are several good reasons for liming even pear
trees. An occasional application of magnesian lime
may be desirable, but if used it should be alternated
with applications of purer lime.

On land known to be very rich naturally, or which
has been highly manured for a series of years, neither
fertilizer nor manure will be required for newly set
apple or pear trees, and in only exceptional cases
will they be needed, even for those just coming into
bearing. When such exceptional conditions do not exist,
it is usually a safer plan to fertilize the land with liberal
amounts of potash, phosphoric acid, and rather slowly
available sources of nitrogen, or else to employ such
small amounts of quickly available nitrogen as will
surely be used up before or by midsummer. If, on the
other hand, excessive amounts of farmyard manure or
nitrogenous fertilizers are applied, or if the application
is too long delayed, late growth is promoted, with the
result that the wood remains too soft. In such cases
cracking and other serious injury is likely to follow
during the winter season.

As a rule, the orchard may be used to advantage for
some years after the trees are set, for the growing of
quick-maturing crops, such as peas, early cabbages,
radishes, and potatoes, or even for tomatoes, melons,
or squashes. These crops may be well fertilized, and
many of the earlier ones can be followed in the late
summer by a cover-crop of crimson (scarlet) clover, or
hairy vetch. If the soil is already rich enough, or is
too rich, in nitrogen, barley or rye may be substituted
for the legumes. These cover-crops can then be plowed
under the next spring. Some growers even prefer weeds
to any of these cover-crops because of saving the outlay
for seed.

When the stage is passed in which extended cropping
between the trees is possible, and the burden of fruit
becomes great, especial care should be taken to apply
an abundance of potash and phosphoric acid annually,
and only enough nitrogen from legumes or fertilizers to
insure adequate foliage, satisfactory wood-growth, and
abundant fruit-spurs. For this purpose a suitably com-
pounded complete fertilizer may be employed. If
legumes are found to supply enough nitrogen one may
employ annually from 200 to 600 pounds an acre of
acid phosphate or basic slag meal, and from 50 to 400
pounds an acre of the muriate or high-grade sulfate
of potash. If the double manure salt is used as the
source of potash instead of the muriate or the high-
grade sulfate of potash, the total application should
amount to approximately twice as much an acre,
because of its lower potash content.

The nitrogen for the orchard may be supplied in one,
or, on light open soils, in two applications of nitrate
of soda at such a rate that the total application for a
season will not exceed from 100 to 300 pounds an acre,
dependent upon the slowness of the growth of the
trees. It is usually much simpler to make a single
application of a complete fertilizer, in which the nitro-
gen is present in nitrates, ammonium salts, soluble
organic compounds and in less quickly available

1224

FERTILIZERS

organic forms, than to apply nitrates at two or more
different times. When such complete combinations
are used the danger of loss by leaching is greatly les-
sened and a satisfactorily continuous but properly
decreasing supply of nitrogen for the trees is assured.
The fertilizer application should not be made later
than just after the time the fruit has set. Many good
authorities even advise waiting until this time in order
to gage the application according to the probable
yield and requirement of the trees.

At the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment
Station, far better results were secured with double
manure salt (sulfate of potash and sulfate of magnesia)
than with muriate of potash, but in experiments else-
where the muriate of potash has given as good results
as the high-grade sulfate of potash. It is probable, in
view of the known lack of carbonate of lime in the
Massachusetts soil, that this rather serious deficiency
was responsible for the poorer results with muriate of
potash, for in soils elsewhere where the lime supply was
sufficient, muriate of potash has acted well. It is, of
course, possible that the magnesia of the double manure
salt was helpful in the Massachusetts experiments.
The results furnish, however, no positive evidence to
that effect, but indicate strongly that the chlorin of
the muriate of potash was probably injurious because
of a lack of carbonate of lime.

The idea that the proportion of the various fertilizer
ingredients affects the color of apples in a direct way
has little to support it. It is rather tenaciously claimed,
nevertheless, that basic slag meal has special value in
adding color to apples, but this may be due solely to
its adding a proper balance of mineral ingredients
which could perhaps be equally well supplied by other
phosphates. There is abundant evidence, however, that
over-fertilization with nitrogen leads to the develop-
ment of exceptionally heavy and abundant foliage;
and the excessive shading lessens the color of the
fruit. Direct exposure of the apple to the sunlight also
lessens its tendency to shrivel. This is due, probably
to its effect either on the proportion of the various
chemical constituents of the skin, or to its thickness,
by which evaporation of water is hindered. In order to
insure even distribution of the color on the individual
apples, severe thinning is essential, for otherwise one
apple will partially shade another.

In some European countries the fertilizer for orchards
is placed from 4 to 5 inches deep in holes 20 inches
apart, at the rate of about an ounce and a quarter a
hole. This method is, however, probably too expensive
to employ in this country, though it may be especially
effective for orchards which are in sod. If the work
were capable of being done by machinery or by some
suitable implement the method might possibly prove
of economic value.

Peaches.

Peach trees are less in need of lime than apple trees,
yet liming is nevertheless often desirable, even for its
indirect benefits. The fertilizer required for peaches
is much more than fof apples, for the reason that
the trees grow far more rapidly and bear early and
abundant crops. On poor soils generous fertilizing
must be provided from the outset, but if the land is
very rich or heavily manured, fertilizer may be omitted
for the first year or two. If a soil is very poor it should
receive at the outset from 300 to 500 pounds an acre
of a fertilizer containing a moderate amount of nitrogen
derived from appropriate materials, a fair quantity of
available phosphoric acid, and a generous amount of
potash in muriate of potash. On soils in which potash
is naturally very abundant, the supply can be greatly
lessened.

When the peach trees come into bearing, more nitro-
gen will be required than at the outset, and the total
quantity of fertilizer may then be increased one-half,

or even more than doubled. In the case of peach trees,
constant watchfulness is required to make sure that
neither too little nor too much nitrogen is used. An
excess of nitrogen will prevent proper ripening of the
fruit, and of the wood in the autumn, whereas too little
will mean abbreviated crops, loss of vigor, and at the
same time the lack will create conditions favorable to
disease. In any case, ample supplies of phosphoric
acid and of potash, as muriate, should be provided to
meet any possible need. If a little extra nitrogen is
required in the spring, it may be applied in nitrate
of soda, or, if the soil is properly limed, sulfate of
ammonia may be substituted for the nitrate of soda if
desired.

In case one wishes to stock the land with phosphoric
acid in advance, large applications of bone or basic
slag meal may be made, ranging from 400 to 1,000
pounds an acre of the former and from 500 to 1,200
pounds an acre of the latter. The old plan of heavily
stocking the soil and waiting a long time for the
returns is, however, giving way to the frequently more
economical plan of more nearly meeting the fertilizer
needs from year to year, instead of tying up a large
amount of money hi a long-tune investment.

Plums, cherries and apricots.

The plum and cherry, regardless of whether the latter
is a sour or sweet variety, are certainly far more in
need of liming than the peach, but data are not at hand
as to the relative requirements of the peach and apri-
cot. The fertilization of these fruits should not vary
widely from the treatment required for peaches, except-
ing that the quantity may be rather less, and the same
care should also be exercised not to use excessive
amounts of nitrogen.

Blackberries, raspberries, gooseberries and currants.

The blackberry is especially at home on very acid
soils and a very light application of lime will meet all
possible requirements of the plants, if indeed it is
needed at all. The blackcap raspberry is more likely
to be helped by liming than the blackberry, although
it is well adapted to moderately acid soils. The Cuth-
bert raspberry is appreciably helped by liming on quite
acid soils, and the same is probably true of most or all
of the red and yellow varieties. The gooseberry and
currant, including the white and various red varieties
are greatly benefited by liming. As much as two to
four tons of ground limestone an acre, or its equiva-
lent of slacked lime, are often very helpful to these
plants. Raspberries, in particular, thrive well on a
heavy, freshly rotted sod, as for example, on old grass
land plowed the autumn before the plants are set. In
many cases all that is required on such land is to supply
an adequate mixture of an available phosphate and a
potash salt, but whenever the cane growth is weak and
unsatisfactory, or, when gooseberries and currant
bushes do not show satisfactory growth, a moderate
amount of complete fertilizer containing a fair amount
of nitrogen in gradually available forms is likely to be
beneficial. The use of heavy applications of nitrogen
for raspberries, currants and gooseberries is not advised,
for it will induce too great a growth of canes and foliage
and interfere with the maturing and ripening of the
fruit. The plants will also be rendered more readily
subject to mildew.

Strawberries.

The strawberry grows well on moderately acid to
very acid soils, and if lime is used the application should
be light, rarely exceeding 1,000 to 2,000 pounds of
ground limestone an acre.

An important point to be recognized by strawberry-
growers is, that weak plants are not likely to be heavy
bearers the next year. In consequence, the plants when
set should be supplied with a fertilizer reasonably

FERTILIZERS

1225

rich in available nitrogen. This fertilizer should
usually be applied at the rate of 1,000 to 1,500 pounds
an acre at the time of setting, and in the later years
just after picking the crop of fruit, fertilizer may be
scattered in a furrow turned away from each side of
the bed, after which the furrow may be turned back
again. Early each spring fertilizer should be applied
broadcast over the beds. This should contain liberal
quantities of soluble phosphoric acid and potash but
only enough nitrogen to promote reasonable growth.
This nitrogen should, however, be largely in readily
soluble and available form. If too much nitrogen is
used in the spring the fruit will lack color, and it may
be soft and unsatisfactory, especially for distant ship-
ment. It may even be necessary to omit all nitrogen
in the spring, if the soil is exceptionally rich in humus
or has been well manured previously. This can only
be decided by the observant grower.

On many soils superphosphate is preferable to basic
slag meal as a source of phosphoric acid for straw-
berries, for the reason that too much lime is to be
avoided, and furthermore, the phosphoric acid is
largely soluble and better adapted to top-dressing. On
an exceedingly acid soil the use of basic slag meal may
be permissible for application at the time of setting,
for the action of the soil aids in rendering it available
to the plants.

Grapes.

Grapes may show some gain from the use of lime
under certain circumstances, but they do not require
it in even approximately the same degree as the cherry,
plum, currant, and gooseberry. The chief need of this
crop is available phosphoric acid and potash. If
nitrogen is used, the quantity must be carefully regu-
lated, and in Europe slow-acting forms of organic
nitrogen are in special favor. Basic slag meal or bone-
meal may be used as sources of phosphoric acid when
the grapes are set, but later, superphosphate is to be
preferred, especially if it is not most thoroughly worked
into the soil. Sulfate of potash is often considered
preferable to the muriate of potash for grapes, for it is
alleged to give a better quality of fruit.

Quinces.

The quince responds to liming in about the same
degree as the cherry and plum. It should receive enough
nitrogen to insure reasonable growth, but no more;
and on exhausted soils a moderate amount of available
phosphate and muriate or sulfate of potash will be
helpful.

Cranberries.

The cranberry thrives better at the outset, even on
certain very acid soils, than after its acidity has been
lessened by liming. If more nitrogen is needed than
that naturally available from the humus of the bog,
it is usually recommended that it be applied in small
quantities, as nitrate of soda or preferably as nitrate
of potash, provided the bog is already fairly dry and
is likely to remain so; but if wet, sulfate of ammonia
may be better The chief need of the cranberry vine
is usually phosphoric acid and potash. The phosphoric
acid for top-dressing may be in superphosphate, but
if applied just before the plants are set one may
employ bone-meal, or, if on very acid peat or muck
soil, even raw rock phosphate.

In case spring applications of fertilizer are made, it
must not be expected that they will always affect the
cranberry yield of that particular season as much as the
yield of the crop which follows. Such applications
should ordinarily be made after the water is drawn
off and the land has dried out to a reasonable extent.
It is often helpful to apply fertilizer just after the cran-
berry crop is harvested, but late spring applications
develop stronger vines for the next season.

Pineapples.

The requirements of the pineapple crop vary widely,
dependent upon the rainfall and soil conditions. Where
the winter season is likely to be fairly cold, nitrogenous
fertilizers should not be applied in the autumn, for
otherwise injury from frost may follow. Neverthe-
less, potash salts have sometimes been used at that
tune with good effect. On certain acid soils, liming is
necessary at fairly frequent intervals in order to bring
out the best effect of superphosphates. If lime is not
used, bone-meal or basic slag meal may sometimes be
preferable to superphosphate as sources of phosphoric
acid. From one and three-fourths to two tons of fer-
tilizer an acre, annually, have been recommended for
pineapples by the Agricultural Experiment Station
of Florida. It is said that the fertilizer should con-
tain 5 per cent of nitrogen, 4 per cent of available
phosphoric acid and 10 per cent of potash, in order to
meet the conditions in that state. During the first
year and a half the applications of fertilizer are made
four times a year, but after this period of time is passed,
the first application of the year is made either in Feb-
ruary or March, and the second after cutting the sum-
mer crop. It is obvious that this rule might require
modifications on other soil and also as influenced by
different climatic or other local conditions.

Table beets, mangels, sugar beets and Swiss chard.

These plants are among the vegetables most in need
of liming. Certain of them also have much greater
ability than the cabbage and turnip to appropriate
from the soil the required supply of phosphoric acid,
for beets have been found to yield fair crops where
cabbage plants, on account of a lack of available
phosphates, failed to develop salable heads.

These plants are able to profit to a considerable
extent, as concerns physiological functions, by the
soda of nitrate of soda, provided the supply of potash
is insufficient, yet it is unwise to limit the supply of
potash intentionally, in order to bring out this action,
for if this is done the net loss in crop due to insufficient
potash may more than offset the advantage of attempting
to make the soda fully effective.

All of these plants and many others take up, in vary-
ing degrees, considerable more mineral matter than is
represented by the sum of the minimum requirements,
as determined for each essential ingredient in the
presence of an abundance of all of the others. If, there-
fore, the fertilizer contains soda, it will be taken up in
considerable amounts by the plant to satisfy this "lux-
ury" or "excess" consumption in conjunction with
the potash physiologically necessary to the plant. Thus
the extra potash which would otherwise be taken up
to satisfy this excess in the mineral requirement is
conserved in the soil for future crops. The use of
nitrate of soda, therefore, as one of the ingredients of
a fertilizer for these crops, results in insuring the crop
against a shortage of potash and prevents the plants
from taking up an unnecessary excess of potash, pro-
vided an abundance is already present in the soil or is
supplied in the fertilizer.

In Europe, beets of all kinds, and especially mangels,
have been found to respond very favorably to nitrate
of soda in comparison with the results with sulfate of
ammonia, yet with certain cereals the yields, under
similar conditions, have been larger with the latter.
Notwithstanding this favorable action of nitrate of
soda on these crops, it is so subject to loss by leaching
that it is often better on very open soils to use it in
conjunction with several other forms of nitrogen,
rather than alone. This is especially true in conse-
quence of the frequent occurrence, in certain sections
of the country, of very sandy and gravelly soils and
especially in view of the long period of growth of the
chard, sugar-beets and mangels.

These crops all require generous supplies of nitro-

1226

FERTILIZERS

gen, a fair amount of available phosphate, and high
percentages of potash. In the case of sugar-beets, if
grown for their sugar-content, the proper relationship
of these fertilizer ingredients to one another is of great
importance.

Cabbage, kale, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, turnips and
kohlrabi.

These crops are all remarkably helped by liming on
soils which are fairly acid. Liming, especially with
caustic or slaked lime, has a tendency to lessen the
development on these plants and on turnips, of the
disease known as "club-foot" and "finger-and-toe."

What has been said of the action of the soda of the
nitrate of soda, in connection with beets, is true also
to a considerable degree of these crops; nevertheless,
when the period of growth is long and the soil is either
a heavy silt or clay, or exceptionally open and sub-
ject to leaching, a combination of several sources of
nitrogen in the fertilizer, is usually preferable. The
reference to heavy silt and clay soils is made in con-
sideration of the fact that sodium carbonate is left as a
residual product after the plant has taken up the nitric
acid of the nitrate of soda; and this sodium carbonate
tends to deflocculate such soils and make them stiffer
and more difficult to work than before.

Heavy applications of nitrogen are required for all
these crops and some of them, as shown at Rothamsted
and elsewhere, are more dependent than beets upon
generous supplies of soluble and available phosphoric
acid. These plants require also large quantities of
potash.

The Swedish turnip, or rutabaga, usually responds to
liming rather more than the flat turnip, although lime
is often very helpful to the latter.

Several of these plants are especially dependent for
their quality on rapid growth; hence, the nitrogen
and phosphoric acid must be derived, to a large extent,
from readily available materials.

One or two experimenters in this country who have
grown turnips in pots and boxes claim to have found
that the turnip can utilize rather unavailable forms
of phosphoric acid, yet these results need further sub-
stantiation in the field before their final acceptance,
and in the light of the past field evidence, generous
fertilizing with soluble phosphates appears to be desir-
able. These plants, like the group described previously,
respond to liberal amounts of potash salts, yet these
salts seldom give very satisfactory results unless they
are used in conjunction with liberal amounts of super-
phosphate and nitrogenous fertilizers.

Carrots and chicory.

The carrot is less likely to show benefit from liming
than most root crops, and chicory is even subject to
injury by lime when carrots are slightly benefited.
Owing to their long period of growth the nitrogen
supply for these plants should not only include small
amounts of nitrates and ammonium salts, but also
soluble and insoluble organic nitrogen, in order that
some of the nitrogen may be continually at the dis-
posal of the plant throughout the growing season.
These plants are dependent upon reasonable supplies
of phpsphatic manures, and generous amounts of potash
are likewise highly essential. The carrot responds in
a less degree than mangels, to applications of soda.

Spinach, lettuce, endive and cress.

These plants are all likely to be greatly benefited by
liming, even on soils of moderate acidity. Because of
the fact that the quality and market value of these
plants depends upon their making a rapid growth,
large amounts of immediately available plant-food
are essential. Some of the nitrogen should be present
in the fertilizer in nitrates, some in ammonium salts
and some in quickly available organic forms. No

attempt should be made to economize unduly in the
use of readily available phosphates and potash salts,
for the reason that these crops must have ample sup-
plies of both. The growth of early lettuce, and of
spring spinach in particular, may often be pushed
forward with remarkable rapidity in the early spring
by the use of fertilizers containing generous amounts
of nitrates. In fact, these crops may be brought to
maturity by such means much faster than by the sole
employment of farmyard manure, especially if the
manure is poor in nitrogen and not thoroughly rotted.

Onions.

The onion will not thrive and mature properly on
highly acid soils which are extremely deficient in car-
bonate of lime. It is often possible, where fairly good
crops can still be grown without the use of lime,
nevertheless to hasten the maturity of the onion crop
from ten days to three weeks, by its employment. A
lack of lime is often one of the causes of thick necks
and of failure to ripen properly.

Since the onion crop is planted very early in the
season, and because of the consequent opportunities
for the loss of nitrogen if too large a part of it is
applied in nitrates, appropriate proportions of nitrogen
in ammonium salts and in suitable organic forms
should also be employed in order to insure an adequate
supply as needed.

Generous amounts of potash are required by these
crops and it is of vital importance to use for the onion
a large amount of superphosphate, because of the fact
that it, like lime, hastens the maturity and the proper
ripening of the crop. It is also equally important not to
use such a large amount of nitrogen as to make it
out of balance with the potash, and in particular with
the phosphoric acid, for if this is done growth will be
unduly prolonged, the onions will have thick necks,
and they will not ripen satisfactorily nor quickly.

Potatoes.

Fertilizers for potatoes must be very different
according to the section of the country in which they
are grown. For example, in the North, where the sea-
son is short, the nights cold, and where the crop must
be hurried along to the utmost, unusually large pro-
portions of nitrates and of ammonium salts are indis-
pensable, whereas in warmer regions, organic sources of
nitrogen may be employed more largely, or perhaps in
some favorable cases, they may be used exclusively.
The potato crop is in need of quite large quantities
of nitrogen, ranging usually from forty to ninety pounds
an acre.

The percentages of potash required in potato fer-
tilizers should be adjusted more particularly with
reference to the locality, and whereas in many of the
potato regions of New England 200 pounds of potash
(equivalent to 400 pounds of muriate of potash) are
considered necessary for each acre, the quantity could
be reduced to one-half or even less in certain portions
of the Middle West, or it might perhaps in some excep-
tional cases be omitted altogether.

For several reasons it is important to insure high
percentages of soluble and available phosphoric acid
in potato fertilizers, since it often becomes the limiting
factor in potato-production over large areas of the
United States.

The effect of the fertilizers may be somewhat nulli-
fied or intensified, according to the choice of seed. In
all cases, seed which has heated or which has been
exposed to frost, should be avoided. It has also been
shown at the Agricultural Experiment Station in Rhode
Island that, if other things are equal, seed tubers which
are rich in nitrogen will usually give larger crops than
those in which the nitrogen-content is low. The advan-
tage of the high nitrogen-content of the tuber becomes
magnified in case they are sprouted once or twice

FERTILIZERS

1227

before planting. No amount of nitrogen applied in
the field appears to be able to offset finally and fully
the disadvantage of the tubers with the low nitrogen-
content. This doubtless explains the advantage of
early dug potatoes, for seed purposes, as compared
with those which are allowed to mature, for the former
are usually richer in nitrogen.

Asparagus.

Sandy soil is ideally adapted to the growing of aspara-
gus. Nevertheless, whenever it is intended to estab-
lish a plantation on land of this character, it is wise to
turn under considerable stable manure or else a heavy
leguminous crop such as hairy vetch. If this is done,
the general soil conditions are rendered much more
favorable and the asparagus has a better chance to
gain a good foothold. Wherever the land needs liming,
some lime should be plowed under and a further appli-
cation should be made on the surface after plowing.
The land should then be thoroughly harrowed or
otherwise tilled.

Fine ground bone and basic slag meal have been
used for asparagus very successfully when worked into
the soil at the outset, although the latter is rather better
adapted to it on account of the greater availability of
the phosphoric acid and the fact that it contains con-
siderable lime.

Some of the best growers of asparagus, on sandy
eoils, have found that muriate of potash is a better
source of potassium than the sulfate.

In humid regions fertilizers for asparagus should
contain a considerable amount of nitrogen in nitrates,
though other forms of nitrogen are also particularly to
be desired on light soils, such as those usually employed
for this crop, because of the danger of the loss of
nitrates by leaching. It is obvious that, for top-dress-
ing, superphosphate is preferable to any other form of
phosphoric acid, because of its greater solubility. An
ideal fertilizer for asparagus should contain super-
phosphate, potash salts, and high percentages of nitro-
gen, a part being derived from nitrates, some from
ammonium salts, and also some of it from organic
sources.

Sandy soils are likely to be very deficient in phos-
phoric acid; hence, the quantity of this ingredient
should be high. The fertilizer should likewise carry a
high percentage of potash on sandy soils, excepting
in regions in which it is known not to be needed.
Although potash is usually the least deficient element
in the sandy soils of humid regions, the demand of the
asparagus plant on this ingredient of fertilizers is so
great as to make its use profitable, whereas on other
sandy soils in semi-arid regions, potash might not be
required.

Mefaru.

On soils that are very acid, it is imperative to use
considerable quantities of lime for canteloupes and
muskmelons. Such soils will, nevertheless, produce
good crops of watermelons, even if liming is omitted,
and heavy liming with slaked or burned lime may,
in some cases, even decrease the yield.

Owing to the fact that these crops are generally
grown on light, gravelly or sandy soil, a fertilizer is
demanded for humid regions containing a fairly high
percentage of nitrogen. This should be represented by
nitrates, to a still greater extent by ammonium salts,
and a part should be from suitable organic sources.
It should also contain a high percentage of soluble
and immediately available phosphoric acid .and gen-
erous amounts of potash in order to bring the crop to
maturity as rapidly as possible. Plants of this character
which have an extensive amount of foliage, usually
require high percentages of potash. Special care should
be taken to keep the fertilizer from coming in contact
with the seed.

Squashes and pumpkins.

The common summer squash, as well as the Hubbard
and crookneck varieties, are less in need of liming than
canteloupes or muskmelons. Nevertheless, on very
acid soils liming is decidedly helpful. These crops are
all heavy feeders on nitrogen, a considerable part of
which should be in immediately available nitrates and
ammonium salts. Moderately high percentages of
soluble and available phosphoric acid are necessary,
although the summer squash, at least, responds much
less to phosphoric acid and more to potash than the
cereals and most other cultivated crops. On this
account, the percentage of potash in fertilizers for
squashes should be high, excepting, of course, where
the soils are already rich in available forms of this
ingredient.

Celery.

Celery is a crop that will thrive well on slightly acid
soils. Nevertheless, where the acidity is great, liming
is very beneficial. The quality of this crop depends
very largely upon its making a rapid and steady growth.
On this account a constant water-supply is one of the
most important features connected with its culture.
It is of the highest consequence that celery should
have a large supply of nitrogen embracing suitable
proportions of nitrate nitrogen, ammonium salts and
organic materials. Fair amounts of soluble and avail-
able phosphates are desirable, and on. the muck or
peat soils where this crop is frequently grown, espe-
cially large quantities of potash should be employed,
since this is the fertilizer ingredient which they lack
to the greatest extent. The form of potash usually
preferred on such soils is the muriate, although fre-
quently kainit is said to have given excellent results.
Either is perhaps preferable to the high-grade sulfate
of potash or to the double manure salt.

Cucumbers.

Cucumbers are considerably more in need of liming
than squashes. In other respects they should have
essentially the same fertilizer treatment. Great care
should be taken in connection with squashes and
pumpkins, as well as with cucumbers, not to allow the
seed to come in close contact with the fertilizer, or,
indeed, with soil into which large quantities of fertilizer
have been introduced. If fertilizer is used in the hill it
is well to have it thoroughly incorporated with the
soil. Subsequently, this soil should be covered with
fresh earth before the seeds are planted.

Tomatoes.

The tomato will grow quite well even on soils that
are distinctly acid. Nevertheless, moderate liming is
often helpful. When tomatoes are grown in green-
houses it has been found that very large quantities of
lime are helpful, by virtue of lessening the tendency to
certain diseases, but the necessity for it is less in the
field because of the lower temperatures and less humid
conditions.

In order to hasten the ripening of this crop, it is very
important to have large quantities of soluble and
available phosphoric acid, and abundant potash in the
fertilizer. One of the most important features is to
have the nitrogen supply so regulated as to bring about
at once a rapid and vigorous growth of the plants, but
the quantity must not be so great as to prolong the
growing period unduly, since this will prevent early
ripening; and it is a well-known fact that the early
fruit generally sells for a much higher price than that
which matures later. Furthermore, a large proportion
of the nitrogen should be present as nitrates and
ammonium salts which can be readily utilized. It is
also desirable to apply the entire amount at the time
when the plants are set, or, at least, very shortly after-
ward, for if successive applications are made at a later

1228

FESTUCA

date they will result in prolonging the growing period
and delay the ripening of the fruit.

Peas and beans.

Peas are usually much more helped by liming than
beans. The latter vary widely in their lime require-
ment as shown by the fact that on a soil so greatly in
need of lime that the Golden Wax and Low's Champion
(a green-podded variety) will scarcely produce half a
crop, the pole Horticultural bean is only slightly
benefited, and the lima bean is practically indifferent
to it.

Notwithstanding that these plants are capable of
assimilating atmospheric nitrogen, it is nevertheless
usually desirable, especially when they are grown to
be marketed in the green state, to employ a fertilizer
containing a small or moderate amount of readily
available nitrogen. This will aid in developing a root-
system until such a time as the plants can draw their
nitrogen supply to a considerable extent from the air.

Peas and beans also require moderate amounts of
potash and phosphoric acid, in fact much more than
would be the case if they did not grow so rapidly, and
hence reach the crop-producing stage in a short inter-
val of time. The common white field bean has been
found to require potash more than phosphoric acid,
under conditions in which the cereals and the common
farm crops showed a greater response to the latter.

H. J. WHEELER.

FERULA (old Latin name, perhaps from the verb
to strike; possibly the stems were anciently used as
ferules). Umbelliferae. GIANT FENNEL. Hardy strik-
ing herbs, prized for their spring and early summer
foliage.

Stout perennial glabrous usually glaucous thick-
rooted herbs, of perhaps 50 species in S. Eu., N. Afr.,
and W. Asia: Ivs. pinnately decompound, the ultimate
segms. filiform or small (rarely broadish and dentate) :
fls. small, in elevated compound many-radiate umbels;
petals broad, mostly ovate-acute, the point often
inflexed: fr. orbicular or ovate, piano-compressed,
membranous-bordered. The giant fennels are valued
for the excessive fineness with which their foliage is cut,
and their clusters of perhaps 40-50 umbels of minute
yellow fls. borne on stout sts.. which rise far above the
foliage. In spring the masses of foliage are very
refreshing. The bold fl.-sts. make the plants useful
for bordering plantations and for stream sides. The
ferulas yield gum-ammoniac, galbanum and asafetida.
The genus is now held to include Narthex, Scorodosma
and Euryangium. These plants are not to be con-
founded with the true fennels, which belong in Fceni-
culum. Ferula is closely allied to Peucedanum. The
species are difficult to represent in herbaria, and they
are confused.

communis, Linn. COMMON GIANT FENNEL. Robust,
8-12 ft.: Ivs. light green, very numerous, forming a
fine mound or clump, the segms. linear-setaceous; lf.-
sheaths very large: fls. yellow; central umbel on a
branch nearly sessile, and the surrounding ones stalked
and mostly male. S. Eu. to Syria. Presumably the
F. gigantea of trade lists belongs here, although F.
giganiea, Fedtsch., of Cent. Asia, is recognized botani-
cally.

Var. brevifdlia, Mariz. (F. brevifolia, Link. F.
Unkii, Webb & Berth. F. nodiflbra, Guss.). Ulti-
mate If.-segms. shorter than in the type. The gum-
ammoniac of Morocco comes from this plant. B.M.
8157. See history in Kew Bulletin, 1907, pp. 375-388.

tingitana, Linn. (F. sdncta, Boiss.). Robust, the st.
leafy below, paniculate-corymbose above: Ivs. triangu-
lar-ovate, quarternate pinnatisect, the segms. narrow-
oblong and cut: fls. orange, in globose umbels. N. Afr.
B.M. 7267. Long supposed to be the source of gum-
ammoniac. Probably not in the trade.

glauca, Linn. (F. neapolitana, Tenore). Very tall
(to 14 ft.), branching: Ivs. large, pinnately decom-
pound; segms. flaccid and broad-linear, obtusish and
1-nerved, green above and glaucous beneath: bracts
at base of peduncles membranaceous, oblong, deciduous :
fls. yellow, in many umbels. S. France to Dalmatia.
G.C. III. 32:441, 442.

F. Assafoetida, Linn. (Assafcetida disgunensis, Kaempf. Scoro-
dosma foetidum, Bunge). St. 6-12 ft., very stout and much-
branched: Ivs. puberulous and minutely glandular or somewhat
tomentose, the radical ones large and ternatisect with segms. oblong-
lanceolate and obtuse: umbels on fleshy peduncles, 20-30-rayed,
the fls. yellow. S. W. Asia. G.C. III. 32:443. An evil-smelling
plant, one source of the drug asafetida. F. Ndrthex, Boiss. (Narthex
Asafoetida, Falconer). St. 6-8 ft., with large sheaths: Ivs. pubescent
when young, 1-2 ft. long, ovate, the segms. either entire or
irregularly serrate. S. W. Asia. B.M. 5168. A source of asafetida.
A specimen described in G. F. 3, p. 523, required 16 years to attain

sufficient strength to bloom.

L. H. B.

FESTUCA (ancient Latin name for a kind of grass).
Graminese. FESCUE-GRASS. Annual or perennial grasses
grown for ornament or as pasture grasses.

Blades narrow: infl. few-fld., paniculate; spikelets
2- to several-fld.; lemmas firm, rounded on the back,
usually acute or awned from the tip. Species about
100, in the temperate and cooler parts of the world.

A. Spikelets awnless: blades flat, 2-4 lines wide.

elatior, Linn. TALL or MEADOW FESCUE. One to
3 ft.: spikelets 5-8-fld., about ^in. long. G. 8:179.
Gn. 25, p. 428. Frequently cult, as a meadow or pasture
grass. The form called F. pratensis is rather smaller
and has narrower panicles (Dept. Agric., Div. Agrost.
20:155), sometimes sold under the name Bromus
pratensis, meadow brome-grass. Eu.

AA. Spikelets awned: blades narrow involute.
B. Sts. loose and decumbent at base.

rubra, Linn. RED
FESCUE . One - half
to 2 ft. : base of sts.
usually red. Eu.
Occasionally used
in mixtures for pas-
tures.

BB. Sts. in close

erect tufts.

c. St.-blades flat, the basal
blades long and slender.
heterophylla, Lam.
VARIOUS - LEAVED FES-
CUE. Fig. 1498. One to
3 feet., slender: panicle
rather loose; spikelets
4-6-fld. Eu. Cult, as a
lawn grass in shady
places.

cc. St.- and basal blades
involute.

ovina, Linn. SHEEP'S
FESCUE. Fig. 1499. Six
to 20 in.: panicle con-
tracted after flowering,
2-4 in. long. Eu. Dept.
Agric., Div. Agrost. 20:
281. Sown in mixtures
for pastures.

glauca, Lam. (F. ovina
var. glauca, Hack.).
BLUE FESCUE. Resem-
bles F. ovina but has
silvery blue, or glaucous
foliage. Eu. Used for
borders.

duriuscula, Linn. (F.
1498. Festuca heterophylla. ( X YZ) OlAna var. duriuscula,

FESTUCA

FICUS

1229

Koch). HARD FESCUE. Blades firm and comparatively
thick, 3^1inediam., often rough. Eu. Pasture mixtures,
vaginata, Waldst. & Kit. (F. amethystina, Hort.,
not Linn.). Sheaths and panicles purplish: foliage
bluish: panicle 8 in. long. Eu. Used for ornament.

A. S. HITCHCOCK.

FETTICUS. Another name for Corn-Salad.
FEVER-BUSH: Benzoin.
FEVERFEW: Chrysanthemum Parlhenium.
FEVER-TREE: Pinckneya jiubens.
FEVERWORT: Triosteum.

FIBER PLANTS are treated only incidentally in this
work, and with particular reference to the horticultural
values of the groups to which they belong. See Cyclo.
Amer. Agric., Vol. II, p. 281.

FICUS (ancient Latin name). Moracex. The fig,
the India rubber plant, the banyan tree and the creep-
ing fig of conservatory walls belong to this vast and nat-
ural genus, which has over 600 species scattered through
the warmer regions of the world.

Ficus has no near ally of garden value. It is a genus
of trees or shrubs, often climbers, with milky juice. In
the common fig the Ivs. are deeply lobed, but in most
of the other species they are entire or else the margin
is wavy or has a few teeth or an occasional small lobe.
The Ivs. are nearly always alternate, F. hispida being
the only species of those described below which has
opposite Ivs. The foliage in Ficus varies from leathery
to membranous, and is variable in venation, so the
veins are very helpful in telling the species apart.
Ficus is monoecious or rarely dioecious, the apetalous
or sometimes naked minute fls. being borne inside a
hollow more or less closed receptacle ; stamens 1-3,
with short and united filaments ; pistillate fls. with 1-
celled sessile ovary, ripening into an achene that is
buried in the receptacle. What the horticulturist calls
the fig, or fruit, is the fleshy receptacle, while the fruit
of the botanist is the seed inside (Fig. 1500). In the
following account, fruit is used instead of receptacle.

The fertilization or caprification of the fig is one of
the most interesting and complicated chapters in nat-
ural history, and is of great practical importance. See
Fig, where the culture of F. Carica is discussed.

The most important ornamental plant in the genus
is the India rubber plant (F. elastica), which ranks
amongst the most popular foliage plants for home
use indoors. This is not the most important rubber-
producing plant, both Hevea brasiliensis and Castillo,
elastica being producers of more and finer rubber.

The creeping fig (F. pumila, better known as F.
repens or F. stipulata) is one of the commonest and best
climbers for covering conservatory walls. It clings close
and makes a dense mat of foliage, which is about as
dark in color as the English ivy. The plant has been
cultivated since 1771, but within the last half-century
has come to be recognized as the best plant for its special
purpose. Once in a long while it fruits in conservato-
ries, and the fruiting branches are very unlike the bar-
ren ones. They stand out from the conservatory wall
instead of lying flat and close. The leaves of the barren
branches are less than an inch long and heart-shaped,
with one side longer than the other at the base and a
very short petiole; the leaves of fruiting branches are 2
to 3 inches long, elliptic-oblong, narrowed at the base,
and with a petiole sometimes % inch long (Fig. 1501).

Among the many wonders of the genus Ficus are
the epiphytal habit of some, the huge spread of the
banyan tree (F. benghalensis) , and the fact that some
species ripen their fruits under ground. Some of the
tallest tropical trees are members of this genus, and
often they begin life by climbing upon other trees.
The ficus often overtops and outlives the other tree,

which may be seen in every stage of decay, or may have
entirely disappeared, leaving the giant climber twined
spirally around a great hollow cylinder. The banyan
tree sends down some of its branches (or aerial roots)
into the soil, these take root, make new trunks, and
eventually produce a great forest, in which it is impos-
sible to tell the original trunk. The banyan in the

botanic gardens at Cal-
cutta sprang from a seed
probably dropped by a
passing bird into the
crown of a date palm a
little more than a century
ago. The main trunk not
many years ago, was 42
feet in circumference, with
232 additional trunks,
many of them 8 to 10 feet
in circumference, and the
branches extend over an
area 850 feet in circum-
ference, forming a dense
evergreen canopy through
which sunlight never pene-
trates. The banyan under
which Alexander camped,
and which is said to have
sheltered 7,000 men, now
measures 2,000 ft. in cir-
cumference and has 3,000
trunks. Other species
have the same method of
propagation, but F. beng-
halensis is the most
famous.

The various species are
cultivated both indoors
northward and as shade
and fruit trees in Florida
and California. In this
country the most impor-
tant commercially is the
fig, Ficus Carica, now
widely grown in Califor-
nia. For the botanical
treatment of this difficult
genus recourse has been had to King's "The species of
the Indo-Malayan and Chinese countries" in Ann.
Bot. Gard. Calcutta 1 :185 pp. + 232 plates, 1888, and
wherever possible below reference is made to the
splendid illustrations of that work, thus, K. 130.=
King, plate 130. For the African species the recent
treatment of Mildbraed and Burret on Die afrika-
nischen Arten der Gattung Ficus. Engler's Bot. Jahrb.
46:163-269 (1911), has been consulted.

The cultivation of Ficus elastica. (H. A. Siebrecht.)

The rubber plant (Ficus elastica) which is known
all over this country, is perhaps the most popular and
satisfactory house plant that has ever been cultivated.
It is a plant for the million. Some florists have several
houses especially devoted to the propagation and culti-
vation of this tough and thrifty plant. There are also
thousands upon thousands of young plants or rooted
cuttings from thumb-pots imported into this country,
especially from Belgium and Holland, for marketing
every spring. It is estimated that from 80,000 to
100,000 rubber plants are sold in America in a single
year. There are several varieties of the rubber plant,
but the true Ficus elastica is the best, both for grow-
ing and for selling. It can be easily told from the
smaller-leaved variety, which is smaller and lighter
colored in all its parts, the stem being smoother, and
the sheath that covers the young leaves lacking the
brown tint, which often runs into a bright Indian red.

1499. Festuca ovina.

1230

FICUS

The method of propagating now popular in America
employs old bushy stock-plants, either in pots or tubs,
or planted out into a bed where the night temperature
can be kept from 60 to 75 F. As soon as the young
shoots are 5 to 6 inches long they are operated upon.
An incision is made at the place where it is intended to
root the young plant, cutting upward on a slant mid-
way between two eyes, making the cut anywhere from
1 to 2 inches long, according to the thickness and
length of the young shoot or branch. A small wedge,
as a piece of match, is then inserted to keep the cut
open. A large handful of clean, damp, well-prepared
moss is then placed around the branch to cover the
cut and is tied moderately firm with twine or raffia.
Some use a small piece of charcoal for a wedge in the
cut; others coat the two cuts with a mixture of char-
coal dust and lime. The latter practice is beneficial in
that it expedites the callusing of the cuts and the root-
ing of the young plant after being cut and mossed. The
moss should be kept constantly moist, and the higher
the temperature, within reasonable limits, the quicker
the rooting process goes on. The roots of the young
plant usually appear on the outside of the oval-shaped
bunch of moss. A complete cut can then be made below
the moss and the young plant potted. The smaller the
pot at first the better. The leaves of the young plants
should be tied up in order that they may not be injured
by coming in contact with one another or by lying
flat on the pots. The young plants now require a gentle
bottom heat and frequent syringing, a dozen times on
clear days. As soon as the young plants are taken from
the stock-plant, a little wax should be put on the end of
the cut to prevent the milky sap from escaping. The
best time of the year to propagate and root ficus is from
the first of January to May. The European growers
never start much before the Christmas holidays; and
from then until spring they make all their cuttings.

The older method of propagating rubber plants is
Btill the favorite one abroad; it employs single-eye cut-
tings. Sometimes, if the branches
are very thick, only one-half the
stem is taken with the eye and a
single leaf, the leaf being curled up
and tied with raffia, and the small
piece with the eye set into the prop-
agating-bed. This is a bed of sharp
sand, or sometimes of sand and
chopped sphagnum moss or fine
cocoa-fiber. Frequently the single-
eye cuttings are put at once into the
smallest -sized thumb-pot, with a
mixture of very finely ground pot-
sherd and charcoal filling about one-
half the pot, and either soil or sand
for the remainder. A small stick is
used to hold the leaf upright. These
pots are plunged into the propaga-
ting-benches in either sand, moss
or fiber, and a steady bottom heat
of 75 to 80 is apph'ed and kept
up until the plants are rooted. As
a rule, such beds are inclosed in a
glasshouse, in order to keep about
them a close, warm and moist at-
mosphere. Only ventilation enough
to permit the moisture caused by
the evaporation to escape is allowed
on these beds. In this country, propagation by the first
described method can be continued nearly all the
year round. From experience of both methods, the
writer can say that the top-cutting and mossing pro-
cess is better by far, especially where plenty of stock
plants can be maintained.

After being shifted from the smaller-sized pots into
3- or 4-inch pots, the young plants will stand a great
deal of liquid manure as soon as they are rooted through

1500. Young figs.
Showing how they
arise from the axis
of the leaves.

or become somewhat pot-bound. Many propagators
plant out the young plants from 3- and 4-inch pots into
coklframes after the middle of May, or when all danger
of night frost is past. They do very well in the bright,
hot, open sun, but must receive plenty of water. After
being planted out in frames, they should be potted not
later than September, and for early marketing as early
as August. The plan of planting out and potting in
the later part of summer or early autumn is a very prac-
ticable one, as the plants do not suffer so much from the
severe heat during the summer.

altissima, 28.
aurea, 12, 30.
australis, 26.
Barter!, 9.
Bellinger!, 27.
benghalensis, 32.
Benjamina, 13.
brevifolia, 16.
Carica, 1.
comosa, 13.
Cunninghamii, 23.
diversifolia, 18.
Duvivieri, 12.
elastica, 12, 26.
erecta, 17.
glabella, 15.

glomerata, 25.
heterophylla, 11.
hispida, 6.
humilis, 11.
indica, 31.
infectoria, 22.
Krishnse, 8.
lutescens, 18.
macrocarpa, 3.
macrophylla, 19.
minima, 4.
nitida, 29.
opposite folia, 6.
Palmeri, 21.
pandurata, 10.

Parcellii, 7.
populnea, 16.
Pseudo-Carica, 2.
pumila, 4.
quercifolia, 11.
radicans, 5.
religiosa, 14.
repens, 4.
retusa, 29.
Roxburghii, 24.
rubiginosa, 26.
Sieboldii, 17.
stipulata, 4.
variegata, 5, 12.
villosa, 20.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

A. Fr. large, edible: Ivs. deeply lobed, decid-
uous for at least 5 months: plants almost
hardy from N. Y. southward.

B. Lrs. wavy-margined or lobed 1.

BB. Lvs. deeply lobed: fr. roughish 2.

AA. Fr. not usually edible, at least not as the
fig is edible: Ivs. entire or toothed, but not
deeply lobed and not deciduous for such a
long time: plants, with exception of F.
macrophylla, not hardy, and cult, in green-
houses or outdoors in frostless areas of
Fla. and Calif.
B. Habit climbing or trailing, often clinging

to walls,
c. Plant a climbing shrub or tree: Ivs.

about 5 in. long 3.

cc. Plant a creeping vine: hs. less than 4 in.

long.
D. Lrs. unequally heart-shaped at base... 4.

DD. Lvs. only slightly notched at base 5.

BB. Habit erect or straggling, shrubs or trees;
not climbing or trailing.

c. Lvs. usually opposite 6.

cc. Lvs. always alternate.

D. Foliage variegated 7.

DD. Foliage not variegated, except in a
variety of F. elastica.

E. The Ivs. cup-shaped 8.

EE. The Ivs. not cup-shaped.

F. Length of Ivs. more than 4 times

the breadth 9.

FF. Length of Ivs. less than 3 times

the breadth.
Q. Form of Ivs. fiddle-shaped or

banjo-shaped, very large 10.

GG. Form of Ivs. not as above.

H. Lvs. lobed, much as in the

native oaks: a shrub 11.

HH. Lvs. not so lobed.

I. Primary lateral nerves more
than 8 pairs, usually much
more.
j. The primary lateral nerves

50 pairs or more 12.

K. Sheath rosy, showy: Ivs.

4-12 in. long 13.

KK. Sheath inconspicuous: Ivs.

2-4% in. long.
33. The primary lateral nerves

less than 50 pairs.
K. Color of fr. purplish.
L. Tree 100 ft. or less: Ivs.

very long-acuminate. . . . 14.
LL. Tree small: Ivs. short -

acuminate 15.

KK. Color of fr. not purplish.

Carica
Pseudp-
[Carica

macro-

icarpa

pumila
radicans

hispida
Parcellii

Krishnse
Barteri

pandu-

(rata

querci-
[folia

elastica

Benja-
[mina

religiosa
glabella

FICUS

1231

L. Fr. globose and stalked. .16.
LL. Fr. if stalked, pear-shaped,

often nearly sessile 17.

n. Primary lateral nerves less

than 8 pairs.

3. The primary veins dis-
tinctly bifurcating .18.

jj. The primary veins not bi-
furcating
K. Stipular sheaths large and

showy, rosy 19.

K.K. Stipular sheaths not large

and showy.

L. Whole plant brown-hairy. 20.
LL. Whole plant not brown-
hairy: Ivs. often hairy
or villous.

M. Frs. white or whitish.
N. Young Ivs. densely
woolly beneath; ma-
ture Ivs. not abruptly

acuminate 21.

NN. Young Ivs. not densely
woolly; mature Ivs.
abruptly acuminate . 22.
23.

MM. Frs. red or yellowish.
N. The frs. on scaly leaf-
less branches.
o. Lvs. almost orbic-
ular 24.

oo. Lvs. ovate to ovate-
lanceolate 25.

NN. The frs. sessile or

short-stalked.
o. Young Ivs. woolly or

rusty.

p. Lvs. cordate at base.
Q. Diam. offr. about

y 2 in 26.

QQ. Diam. offr. 1 %-

!Y 2 in 27.

pp. Lvs. not cordate at

base 28.

oo. Young Ivs. not woolly

or rusty.

p. Base of Ivs. nar-
rowed.

Q. Stipules glabrous.
R. Lvs. 2-4 in.
long: fr. yellow
or reddish .... 29.
HR. Lvs. 3-414 in.
long: fr.
or a nge-yellow . 30 .
QQ. Stipules not gla-
brous 31.

pp. Base of Ivs.

rounded 32.

brevi-

[folia
erecta

diversi-
[folia

macro-
[phylla

villosa

Palmeri

[toria
infec-
Cunning-

[hamii

Rox-

[burghii
glomer-
[ata

rubigi-

[nosa
Bellin-

[geri
altissima

retusa

globose, in cauline clusters. India. K. 208. This name
was once advertised as a shrub with leathery Ivs. The
true species is a climbing shrub.

4. pfcmila, Linn. (F. stipulata, Thunb. F. repens,
Hort., not Rottl.). CREEPING FIG. Fig. 1501. Pros-
trate or climbing shrub, clinging close to conserva-
tory walls and then flattened: Ivs. more or less 2-ranked,
on very short petioles, ovate, obtuse, entire or slightly
wavy, rounded or cordate at the base, often un-
equally; veins prominent below. Japan, China,

aurea
indica

benghal-
[ensis

1. Carica, Linn. Figs. 1500, 1505, 1506. Height
15-30 ft.: Ivs. 3-5-lobed, the lobes more or less wavy-
margined or lobed, and with palmate veins, whereas
nearly all species mentioned below are pinnately
veined: fr. single, axillary, pear-shaped. Supposed to
be a native of Caria, in Asia Minor. Makes a fine
pot-plant, and fruits freely in northern conservatories.
For cult, see Fig.

2. Pseftdo-Carica, Miq. Resembling the fig of com-
merce, but the Ivs. more deeply cut than in F. Carica,
3- or sometimes 5-nerved: fr. axillary, round, roughish.
Abyssinia. Franceschi says of the Calif, cult, specimens
"fr. said to contain very much sugar, but so far (1914)
it has never come to perfection in Calif., where, how-
ever, it is now attracting considerable attention, it
having proved to be the very best home for. . . .
small wasps ( Blastophaga) which are indispensable
for the fertilization of the so-called 'Smyrna figs'."

3. macrocarpa, Wight. Becomes a large, climbing
shrub, very rarely a small tree: Ivs. 5 in. long, mem-
branous, broadly ovate; petiole 2-2^ in. long; primary
lateral nerves about 3 pairs: fr. 1-2 ^ in. thick, spotted,

1501. Ficus pumila, fruiting branch.

Austral. B.M.6657. R.H. 1891:448. K. 158. G.C. II.
14:560, 561, 717. H.U. 4, p. 359 (the last two as F.
stipidata) . Var. minima (F. minima, Hort.) has smaller
Ivs. The species is sometimes used for hanging-
baskets.

5. radicans, Desf . Garden plant, with green, oblong-
acuminate Ivs. and trailing habit. Imperfectly known.
Habitat unknown. Var. yariegata, Hort. W. Bull., has
Ivs. irregularly marked with creamy white, the variega-
tion beginning at the margin. G.C. III. 22:185. A.G.
19:527. R.B. 28:37. Useful for hanging-baskets.
Intro. 1897.

6. hispida, Linn. f. (F. oppositifolia, Willd.). Shrub
or small tree, all the parts mostly hispid-pubescent:
Ivs. entire or toothed, opposite, rough-hairy: fr. clus-
tered on old wood or leafy branches, hispid, yellowish.
Asia, Trop. Austral. K. 154, 155. Scarcely cult, in
Amer. outside of botanic gardens.

7. Parcellii, Veitch. Lvs. thin, membranous, light
green, mottled with cream-white, more or less in the
manner of mosaic, oblong-oval, acuminate, dentate.
Islands of Pacific. F.S. 22:2273. F.M. 1874:124.
A.F. 29:1290. G.C. III. 35:13. Intro, by Veitch
about 1874. A warmhouse shrubby plant; probably the
most popular of the variegated forms of Ficus. Readily
prop, by cuttings of half-ripened wood placed in sand
in brisk bottom heat. Also cult, in S. Calif., where it
bears tricolored fr.

8. Krishnae, DC. KRISHNA BOR. Small tree with
gray bark, the branches puberulent: Ivs. cup-shaped,
the limb of the cup containing the mid-rib, with 4-5
pairs of lateral nerves: fr. axillary, sessile, solitary or
sometimes in pairs, yellow, about J^in. diam. India.
B.M. 8092, where there is also an account of the super-
stitions in regard to the tree among the Indians. The
large showy and extraordinarily cupped Ivs. of this
most distinct fig will undoubtedly make it popular.
Little known as yet in U. S.

9. Bdrteri, Sprague. A shrub or small tree 6-25 ft.
tall in nature, lower in cult., smooth, with thick ridged
branches: Ivs. petiolate, the blade the narrowest of
almost all the figs, 6-14 in. long, and less than 1% in.
wide, bright green above, paler beneath ; primary lateral

1232

FICUS

nerves 16-18 pairs: frs. in axillary clusters of 2-3,
almost round, orange-colored when mature, and edible.
S. Nigeria. Little known in U. S. as yet, but worthy
of cult.

10. pandurata, Hort., not Hance, which is an acumi-
nate-lvd. Chinese fig, apparently not in cult. A showy
shrub or tree with distinctive fiddle-shaped or banjo-
shaped Ivs. frequently a foot long, decidedly emarginate
at the apex, cordate at the narrowed base, dark glossy
green, the prominent nerves whitish: fr. unknown.
G. 28:682. G.C. III. 33: 284. Gng. 16:34. Gn. M.
8:268. A.F. 23:239; 26:203. A showy stove fig now
widely grown. Intro, in 1903.

11. quercifdlia, Roxbg. The oak-lvd. form is the
typical one, but King includes F. humilis, Roxbg., in
which the Ivs. are serrate or nearly entire and not
lobed. 'Lvs. 2-5 in. long, "thickly membranous;"

nerves 5-7 pairs; petiole
Kyi in. long: fr. in axillary
pairs, egg- or pea-shaped.
Burma, Malaya, where it is
a shrub. L.B.C. 16:1540.
K. 95. (The plant fruit-
ing soon after importa-
tion, when 2 ft. high.)
Advertised in 1895, and
grown for years at the
Montaripso Nurseries. Voss
refers this, with many other
synonyms, to F. hetero-
phylla.

12. elfistica, Roxbg. (F.
Duvivieri, Hort., a form with
thinner Ivs.; otherwise the
same) . INDIA RUBBER
PLANT. Figs. 1502, 1503.
Lvs. 4-12 in. long, shining,
leathery, oblong to elliptic,
with an abrupt, dull point;
nerves parallel, running at
nearly right angles from
midrib to margin: fr. in
pairs, sessile, in axils of
fallen Ivs., covered at first
by a hodded involucre,
when ripe greenish yellow,
Kin. long. Damp forests
of Trop. Asia. G.F. 2:547.
H.U. 6, p. 108. K. 54.
Becomes 100 ft. high in
tropics, but becomes un-
sightly under glass at 8 or
10 ft. Cult, plants mostly
have a single st., but there
is a growing demand for
compact and branching
plants. Var. variegata (var. aitrea, Hort.) is much
less popular. Lvs. creamy white or yellow near the
edges. Liable to fungous diseases. This species is also
grown S. as a shade tree. The nervation is very
characteristic. So, also, is the handsome rosy sheath
which incloses the young Ivs., and which soon drops
off. This is regarded as a stipule of exceptionally
great size.

13. Benjamina, Linn. A rather unimportant tree
horticulturally, with small Ivs., and smooth throughout:
Ivs. thin, not much coriaceous, shining, ovate-elliptic,
entire, the apex sharply acuminate, 2-4 K in. long;
lateral primary nerves very numerous, freely inter-
mingling near the margins of the Ivs.: frs. in pairs,
axillary and sessile, smooth and blood-red when ripe.
Malayan Penins. K. 52, S3h, Var. comosa, Kurz.
Fig. 1504. Sepals lanceolate-acuminate rather than
spatulate: fr. % in. diam., narrowed at base rather
than globose or ovoid.

1502. Leaf of rubber plant,
Ficus elastica, showing vena-
tion.

14. religiosa, Linn. PEEPUL TREE of the Hindoos.
Lvs. ovate-rotund, at the apex produced into a long,
linear-lanceolate tail-like appendage; petiole 3-4 in.
long; stipules minute: fr. in axillary pairs, sessile, dark
purple, Kin. thick. India. Gn. 1, p. 435. K. 67a.
Grows 100 ft. high, and the lys., suspended on their
long, flexible petioles, rustle in the slightest breeze.
"Quite hardy in S. Calif, but not attaining very large
size. " Franceschi.

15. glabella, Blume. A small tree, ultimately glabrous
throughout: Ivs. petioled, thin, not very leathery,
obovate-oblong, acuminate, entire, 2-4 in. long, 3-
nerved, and with 8-^10 pairs of primary lateral nerves:
fr. all lateral, sometimes axillary, usually not so, sessile,
or very rarely stalked in cult, specimens, dark purplish,
sometimes with yellow dots, less than Kin. diam.
Malaya Penins. K. 60.

16. brevifdlia, Nutt. (F. populnea, Willd.). An ever-
green tree, sometimes epiphytic in nature, 10-30 ft.:
Ivs. thin and only slightly leathery, ovate or rarely
obovate, 1K~4 in. long, acute at the apex, broad at the
base; primary lateral nerves 14-16 pairs: fr. distinctly
stalked, yellow when young, ultimately bright red,
about Kin. diam., and nearly globose. Fla. Of little
value horticultu-
rally, except for the

frs.

17. erecta,Thunb.
Extraordinarily va-
riable: shrub to
small tree, gla-
brous, pubescent, or
almost strigose: Ivs.
broadly ovate, obo-
vate or elliptic
(lanceolate in var.
Sieboldii), entire or
with here and there
a lobe, or rather
coarsely dentate
above the middle:
fr. single or in pairs,
peduncled or sub-
sessile, and either
globose and not
stalked or pear-
shaped and long-
stalked. Himalayas,
China, Japan. B.
M. 7550 (where the
Ivs. look rather
leathery ). K. 178.
Procurable through
dealers in Japanese
plants.

18. diversifdlia, Blume (F. lutescens, Hort.). MIS-
TLETOE FIG. A smooth shrub or small tree with short-
stalked or sessile Ivs. : Ivs. broadly obovate, the much-
narrowed base glandular, 1-3 in. long, midrib branched
once or twice, glandular at the joints: fr. axillary, soli-
tary, or rarely in pairs, always stalked, dull yellow or red-
dish when ripe. India and Malay Penins. R.B. 30:156.
K. 174. The small Ivs. and usually solitary fr. suggest
the mistletoe, and in nature the plant is often an epiphyte.

19. macrophylla, Desf. MORETON BAY FIG. Lvs.
6-10 in. long, 3-4 in. wide; stipules 2-4 in. long: fr.
nearly globular, 9-12 lines thick, axillary, in 3's or 4's,
on short, thick peduncles. Austral. Much planted in
S. and Cent. Calif., where, however, it does not perfect
seed. F. yon Mueller says it is perhaps the grandest
of Australian avenue trees. Ernest Brauntpn claims
for this species partial or perhaps complete immunity
from frost. He cites a specimen in Calif, which leaved
out after a heavy frost and is still (1914) healthy after
more than a year has elapsed since the frost.

1503. Ficus elastica, the rubber plant
of florists.

FICUS

1233

20. villosa, Blume. A straggling shrub, the whole
plant brown-hairy: Ivs. thick and leathery, petioled,
oblong-ovate, sharply acuminate, the base cordate,
3-5-nerved at the base, the primary lateral nerves 5-6
pairs, 5-6 in. long: fr. short-stalked, in axillary clusters.
Malaya. K. 172. A good stove climber, but little
known in Amer.

21. Palmeri, Wats. Tree, 8-12 ft. high, branching
near the ground: Ivs. 3 in. long, 2-23/2 m - wide; petiole
1 in. long: fr. in pairs, axillary, globose, J/in. thick,
white, according to Franceschi needing much heat to
develop. Discovered on San Pedro Martin IsL, N. W.
Mex., 1887. Perhaps the best adapted to severely hot
and dry places. Franceschi says it attains 30 ft.

22. infectdria, Roxbg. A low tree, all the parts
smooth; often deciduous for some weeks at a time:
Ivs. 33^5 in. long; nerves 5-7 pairs, not prominent:
fr. in axillary pairs, sessile, globose, %'m. thick, whitish,
flushed and dotted. Trop. Asia, Malaya. K. 76-79.
Grows 60 ft. high, and is one of the best shade trees.

23. Cunninghamii, Miq. A large
tree, resembling F. infectoria and
differing only in the form and acumi-
nation of the If. from that species:
in F. infectoria the primary lateral
nerves are easily detected; in F.
Cunninghamii they are fine and so
much intermingled as to be almost
indistinguishable. Austral. Recom-
mended as a shade tree for extreme
S. Fla. by Rea-
soner Bros. Cult.
in temperate
house north-
ward. Decidu-
ous for several
months each
year.

24.R6xburghii,

Wall. A low tree,
10-20 ft.: Ivs.
broadly-ovate or
rounded, 5-15 in. long,
4J^-12 in. broad, some-
times cordate at the
base; primary lateral
nerves 5-7 pairs, promi-
nent on both sides :fr. 2 in. diam.
on short leafless cauline branch-
lets, reddish. India. K. 211.
The Ivs. are frequently almost
orbicular; very ornamental.

25. glomerata, Roxbg. CLUSTER FIG. Lvs. 4-7 in.
long; nerves 46 pairs: fr. clustered on leafless, scaly
branches, pear- or top-shaped, 1J^ in. thick, reddish.
India, Burma. K. 218, 219. "A quick-growing, ever-
green shade tree." Reasoner. "A dense shade tree:
Ivs. have a peculiar metallic luster and are deciduous
for a short time at the end of winter: small frs., much
relished by cattle and children but dry and woody."
Franceschi.

26. rubigindsa, Desf. (F. australis, Wllld.). Lvs.
leathery, rounded or cordate at base, notched at tip: fr.
mostly in pairs, globular, 5-6 lines thick, usually warty.
Austral., where it throws out aerial roots like the
banyan tree. B.M. 2939. The rusty color is a beauti-
ful feature. Voss considers this a form of F. elastica.

27. Bellingeri, C. Moore. Tall glabrous tree: Ivs.
ovate, sharp-pointed, leathery, 5-6 in. long, dark green
and shining above, light green and paler underneath;
petioles 2-3 in. long: fr. !%-!% in. diam., marked with
small scattered warts. New S. Wales. According to
Franceschi it grows faster than F. rubiginosa, its near-
est relative. Rare in cult., but advertised in 1914.

1504. Ficus

Benjamina var.
comosa.

28. altissima, Blume. A tall tree with only a few
aerial roots, when mature wholly glabrous: Ivs. petio-
late, thick and leathery, broadly ovate, sometimes
inequilateral, but not cordate, shining, 3-5-nerved and
with 5-6 pairs of lateral primary nerves, 4-7 in. long:
fr. axillary, sessile, in pairs, yellowish when ripe. India.
K. 30, 30a. Said by an American dealer to resemble
F. pandurata, but this must be an error. Franceschi
says it is taller-growing and finer than F. elastica.

29. retfisa, Linn. (F. nitida, Thunb., and Hort., not
Blume). Lvs. 2-4 in. long; nerves 5 or 6 pairs; petiole
3-6 lines long: fr. sessile, in pairs, axillary, 4 lines thick,
yellow or reddish. Trop. Asia, Malaya. K. 61, 62.
A large evergreen tree with a few aerial roots.

30. aftrea, Nutt. Branches pale, smooth, furrowed:
Ivs. 3-4 in. long, smooth, oblong, entire, narrowed but
obtuse at each end, stout-petioled : fr. orange-yellow,
globose, 4 lines thick. S. Fla. Reasoner . say s it is a
handsome decorative plant for the florist, and that it
grows 60 ft. high. Chapman describes it as a small
tree; he says nothing about stipules. Too tender for
outdoor cult, in S. Calif .

31. indica, Linn. Not the banyan tree. Glabrous
throughout, except stipules: Ivs. 4-7 in. long; nerves
about 4r-6 pairs, not very prominent; petiole 4-12 lines
long; stipules 6-9 lines long: fr. in crowded pairs, ses-
sile, globose, smooth, yellowish red, 4 lines thick. Trop.
Asia, Malaya. K. 45. This species is greatly confused
in botanical literature with F. benghalensis, but F.
indica does not take root from its branches, as does the
banyan tree. In recent writings, F. indica is often given
as a synonym of F. benghalensis, but the distinctions
here given are those made by King, in Flora Brit.
India 5:499 (1890). Tree grows 50 ft. high.

32. benghalensis, Linn. BANYAN TREE. Also written
bengalensis. Young parts softly pubescent: nerves
prominent; petiole 6-18 lines long; stipules 9-12 lines
long: fr. in pairs, sessile, globose, puberulous, red,
about the size of a small cherry. Trop. Air., India.
A tree, 70-100 ft. high, rooting from the branches, thus
forming accessory trunks and extending the growth of
the tree indefinitely. For an explanation of the confu-
sion between F. benghalensis and F. indica, see Hooker's
Flora Brit. India 5:499, 500. K. 13. There are vigor-
ous specimens growing outdoors at Miami, Fla.

F. Afzelii, Don, is a plant from S. Afr., never described by Don.
The plant in the trade is said to be F. eriobotroides. Once adver-
tised for indoor ornament. F. carndsa, Hort. Advertised 1895 for
indoors. F. Chauvierii, Hort. In Eu. this is said to be second only
to F. elastica. Franceschi says it has broader and more oval Ivs.,
large red figs, not edible, and comes from New Caledonia, where it
attains 60 ft. J. D. Eisele says that it has oval Ivs. with creamy
white veins, is strong-growing, and "should be valuable for sub-
tropical gardening.' The name is unknown in botanical literature.
A plant cult, at N. Y. Bot. Card, as this species has orange fr. F.
Codperi, Hort., is cult, indoors from Trop. Amer. Advertised 1895.
The name is unknown in botanical literature. G. 1:757. F.
Dryepondtia, Hort., is a striking shrub with long-stalked Ivs. that
are silvery green above and dark purple beneath. Probably not a
Ficus. R. B. 32, p. 85. Said to be a native of Afr. F. eetveldiana,
Hort., is a species "with large broadly oval Ivs. and with the veins
and nerves colored," something as in Caladium. The name is
unknown in botanical literature. G.C. III. 28:303. F. eriobotroi-
des, Kunth & Bouchg. Habitat unknown. See F. Afzelii. F. fal-
c&ta, Miq., is cult, but not advertised. A creeper, with Ivs. often
of 2 forms, leathery, tesselately dotted and colored beneath. It is
a form of F. punctata, with Ivs. oblong or subrhomboid, obtuse,
not tapering below. India. F. Lucidnii, Hort., "has large Ivs."
Intro. 1900. Otherwise unknown. F. liicida, Dry. From India,
but not described in Flora of British India. Advertised 1893 for
indoors. F. maculata. Linn., described by Franceschi (1914) as
with Ivs. "large, oval, light green, not glossy. Cochin-China."
must be some other plant than the true F. maculata, which is a
serrate-lvd. fig from Santo Domingo. F. nemoralis, Wall., is a
"small tree or bush" with smooth, petioled Ivs. which are 3-nerved
and dark-colored beneath: fr. smooth axillary, about Min. diam.
India. K. 206, 207. There are many forms. F. princeps, Kunth
& Bouch6. Brazil. Cult, by Franceschi, who says it grows 60 ft.
high and has magnificent foliage, which is bronze and copper-col-
ored when young. F. pyrifdlia may be F. Benjamina, F. erecta,
F. Fontanesii, or F. rubra. The name is advertised by Yokohama
Nursery Co., who also advertise F. erecta. F. rugdsa is a trade
name for some fig as yet undeterminable. The true F. rugosa,
Don, is perhaps a Trop. African species, but was not character-
ized by Don, and the status of the name is uncertain. F. Syco-

1234

FICUS

FIG

morus, Linn. (Sycomorus antiquorum, Gasp.), is a tree with peti-
oled, ovate, entire 8-10-ribbed Ivs. which are deciduous for some
months each year: fls. greenish or yellowish in pedunculate ra-
cemes: fr. small but abundant, extensively used for food: it is a
branching tree 30-^0 ft. high, the Ivs. smaller than those of the fig,
more or less angular or even lobed. Egypt and Syria; the sycamore
of the Bible; Pharaoh's fig. Intro, in U. S., but not in the trade.
F. vdstd, Hort.=F. populifolia, an Abyssinian species not in cult.
F. Wendlandii has Ivs. "10-12 in. long by 8-10 in. wide, of a
dark green color, and light green ribs and veins." Its habitat and fr.
are unknown. F. Wrightii, Benth., a creeping or climbing fig not
cult, in Amer. outside of fanciers' collections: Ivs. 3-4 in. long,
wedge-shaped, 3-nerved. Probably=F. foveolata, Wall. China.

N. TAYLOR, f

FIG (Plate XLII) is Ficus Carica, a native of Asia.
It is a warm-temperate fruit, although it will stand 10
to 20 of frost under favorable conditions. It was
early introduced into North America, but until recent
years it has been little grown commercially. It has
been known to fruit in the open in Michigan without
other protection than a high board fence inclosure, but
usually, if grown north of Philadelphia, the plants are
lifted in early November, with good balls of earth,
kept in a dryish cellar over winter, and planted out the
next spring. From Philadelphia to the Carolinas it
may be bent to the ground and covered with earth or
pine boughs. The fruit is borne on the young wood,
and often on young trees. This fruit is really a hollow
pear-shaped receptacle with many minute seeds
(botanically fruits) on the inside; it grows like a branch
from the side of the shoot. Inferior, run-wild forms are
frequent in the southern states, where they are some-
times called "old man and woman" by the negroes.
Figs may be grown under glass, being planted per-
manently in a border after the manner of hothouse
grapes. They usually bear better if the branches are
trained more or less horizontally. Two or more crops
may be expected in one year under glass. Eastern nur-
serymen sell fig trees. As early as 1833 Kenrick ("New
American Orchardist") described 23 varieties. Popular
varieties for amateur cultivation in the East are Turkey,
White Genoa, Black Ischia and Celeste. In order to
facilitate the ripening of the fruit in cool climates or
under glass, it is a custom to dress the surface of the
nearly full-grown figs with sweet oil. As a dessert fruit
figs are usually eaten in the fresh state, in which con-
dition they are scarcely known to people in cool cli-
mates. They are also cooked, and preserved. The
commerical fig is the dried fruit.

The fig is propagated very easily from hardwood cut-
tings, as grapes are. Take cuttings in the fall, remov-
ing just below a bud. If wood is scarce, single-eye cut-
tings may be used, being started preferably in a frame.
From cuttings, bearing plants may be expected in two
to four years. New varieties are obtained from seeds.
Various fruit books give directions for the growing of
figs. Publications in California and of the United
States Department of Agriculture discuss them. But
the only independent American writing seems to be
James T. Worthington's "Manual of Fig-Culture in the
Northern and Middle States," Chillicothe, Ohio, 1869.
Although regularly copyrighted, it is a pamphlet of only
ten pages. It recommends the laying down of the trees
in late fall and covering them with earth. This practice
gave better results than covering with other material,
or carrying the trees over winter in cellars, either in tubs
or transplanted from the open (p. 1552). L. jj. B.

Figs in the southeastern and Gulf states.

In the southeastern Atlantic and Gulf states the fig
has been cultivated since the days of the earliest set-
tlements. The exact time of introduction and indeed
the exact origin of many of the more important varie-
ties are unknown. For many years the trees, or more
properly bushes, found a place as dooryard or garden
plants, and to this day some of the finest specimens are
to be found near the shelter of buildings in country,
town or village. The fruit was used by the owners of

the bushes and the surplus found its way into the
local market.

Within the last ten to twenty years, attention has
been given to the fig as a commercial fruit and it has
found a place as an orchard fruit in many localities.
Its culture may be said to extend from Norfolk, Vir-
ginia, southward along the Atlantic coast, and around
the Gulf of Mexico into Texas. In proximity to the
water it is grown without protection, but inland, par-
ticularly in the northern limits of its range, the bushes
are protected during the winter months, by bending
them down and covering with boards, straw, heavy
paper, in fact anything that will cover them. With
some care in protecting the plants by laying them down
and covering in winter, the fig is grown beyond the
region in which it has a place as an orchard fruit. Most
of the orchard plantings have been made in close
proximity to the ocean or gulf.

The propagation of the fig in this region is almost
entirely by cuttings made from well-ripened wood and
planted during winter or in early spring. The hardened
wood from old bearing trees gives the most satisfac-
tory results. The cuttings should be 4 to 5 inches long,
and cut through the nodes. In planting, the cuttings
are set with the upper ends level with the surface of
the earth.

Soils best adapted to the growing of the fig are clay
soils, or heavy soils, which are or may be kept uniformly
moist. No greater mistake can be made than to
attempt the culture of the fig in light sandy soils, more
or less deficient in moisture in the lower South. Under
these conditions, the nematode (root-knot) works
serious damage to the roots of the trees and the plant-
ing soon dies out. But on heavy soils, the nematodes
are not able to work such havoc and the fig thrives in
spite of their limited attacks. On light soils, the fig
may be grown in the well-packed earth of yards or
planted against buildings where the roots may find
their way into the soil beneath the buildings, where the
nematode has been starved out for lack of food plants.
The shaded condition of the soil is also beneficial. It is
doubtful whether a successful planting can be made on
any large scale on light soils in the lower South for
the reasons just indicated

Varieties.

The varieties which may be grown successfully in
the area indicated belong to the group which will carry
good crops of fruit without pollination. On account
of climatic conditions, it is doubtful whether figs of
the class requiring caprification can ever be success-
fully grown.

The more important varieties are the following:

Black Ischia. Size medium to large; color of skin
bluish black, almost entirely covered with delicate
bluish bloom; flesh creamy white; quality good.
Strong grower, not a heavy bearer but quite hardy.
Season late.

Brunswick. Fruit very large, broadly pear-shaped
with short, rather slender stalk; ribs well marked, eye
large, open with rosy scales; skin tough, dark brown
in color; pulp thick, pink, soft, quality fair. Midseason
and late.

Celeste. Small to medium, pear-shaped, ribbed;
violet -colored, sometimes shading purplish brown,
covered with bloom about half way up from the neck;
stem short, stout; flesh whitish, shading to rose-color
at center, firm, juicy, sweet, excellent quality. One of
the hardiest varieties of figs, and can be grown far
outside of the usual limits of culture; very desirable
for canning and preserving. Season early.

White Ischia. Fruit of medium size, turbinate;
skin greenish yellow; pulp rosy, red, soft, melting;
quality rich, sweet; a variety of high quality. Very
productive. Season late.

Lemon. Fruit medium to large, flattened, faintly

XLII. A young Celeste fig tree, as grown in Georgia.

FIG

1235

ribbed, light yellowish green; stem short, stout; flesh
white, sweet, rather soft; quality fair to good. Vigorous
and prolific. Early.

Magnolia. Fruit of large size; amber-colored; flesh
pinkish amber, handsome. Vigorous grower; prolific;
excellent for canning. Midseason and late.

Turkey (Brown Turkey). Size medium to large;
broadly pear-shaped, with short, thick stalk; ribs few
in number; color coppery brown; flesh white, or slightly
amber-colored, shading to pink about the seeds; flesh
solid, excellent quality. It is very hardy and prolific.
Midseason and late.

Of the varieties just described, the more important
commercial sorts are Celeste, Turkey, Brunswick
and Magnolia.

Magnolia is the favorite variety along the coast in
Texas from Beaumont southward. In the eastern
Atlantic states it is not so favorably regarded, as the
fruit splits and sours on the trees during the rainy
weather which so often comes when the crop is matur-
ing. It is entirely distinct from the Turkey fig. Turkey
or Brown Turkey is very hardy, of dwarf growth and
therefore a favorite in the colder sections in which the
trees must be protected during winter. Celeste equals
Turkey in hardiness, but it is a more robust grower.
It is the most commonly planted variety from Beau-
mont, Texas, eastward, and in the southeastern states
should generally be given preference for orchard plant-
ing. Brunswick, on account of its large handsome
appearance is a desirable variety for the production
of fresh fruit for market.

General cultivation.

In setting the fig in orchard, the trees are com-
monly placed 10 by 15 feet or 12 by 20 feet in thor-
oughly plowed and pulverized soil. January and
February in the lower South are favorite months for
planting, but in the colder sections it is usually better
to delay planting until after spring opens. While
setting the trees, great care should be taken to prevent
the roots from becoming dried out. This point must
be strongly emphasized, as the character of fig roots is
such that they will not stand drying.

It is not best to attempt to train the figs to tree form,
but to allow them to develop with three or four trunks.
To start them in bush form it is necessary to cut the
plants back hard at time of planting. In case of severe
weather during winter there is much less danger of
losing whole trees if grown with several stems or trunks
than if grown with single trunks. Subsequent pruning
should be done to remove any sprouts or suckers that
come up from the ground, to remove dead or injured
branches, and to shape the form of the trees during the
first few seasons. Branches that have to be removed
for any cause should be cut back entirely rather than
to stubs. The fig will not stand severe pruning year
after year, such as has sometimes been attempted, and
it is best to prune as little as. possible to keep the trees
in good shape.

As the fig is a shallow-rooted tree, deep tillage is
impossible. The orchard should not be plowed and
implements for shallow cultivation only should be
used. There is no better tillage tool than an ordinary
hoe, but its use is too expensive on large plantings. It
may, however, be used in the garden plot. Cultivation
should begin in spring just in advance of the starting
of growth and should continue at weekly or ten-day
intervals until about July 1. Cover-crops of cowpeas
or beggarweed should then cover the ground until
autumn. In the handling of plantings of the later-
ripening sorts, cultivation should be continued later
in the season, and a winter cover-crop used instead of a
summer one. Stable manure and commercial fertilizer
should be used liberally to supply the necessary plant-
food.

A considerable amount of fruit can be and is handled

in the markets as fresh fruit. It should be carefully
cut from the trees early in the morning, selecting only
well-colored but firm fruit, packed in strawberry carriers
and shipped by express. When the work is properly
handled in this way, its marketing presents no serious
difficulties within a radius of 100 miles or so in the
lower South and even greater distances in the northern
area of its possible culture. By far the greater quantity
of fruit is used by the canneries in the manufacture of
preserved figs. A very delicious product is manufac-
tured in the lower South, and meets with a ready sale.

H. HAROLD HUME.

The fig in California.

The fig, as grown in California at the present time,
illustrates, perhaps more than any other fruit, the
difficulties that arise in the course of the introduction of
any new and highly specialized industry. Years of
time and the united labors
of many persons have at
last resulted in the perma-
nent establishment of fig-
culture on a large scale in
some parts of California.
The successive steps by
which this has been accom-
plished form one of the
most remarkable chapters
in our horticultural history.

The edible cultivated fig
is a native of southwestern
Asia and undoubtedly ranks
as one of the most ancient,
beautiful and valuable of
all fruit trees, forming a
large part of the daily food
of the people in those coun-
tries in which it thrives.
The common name fig comes
from Ficus, and that from
the Hebrew "feg." The importation of figs, dried,
canned or preserved, into regions unsuited to their
growth, forms an immense and increasing group of
industries. The literature of the fig, always very large,
is receiving continual additions, as new varieties are
introduced, as new values are found for the varied
products and as its culture is being extended far
beyond what were thought, twenty years ago, to be its
inflexible climatic limitations.

The botanical varieties of the edible fig (Ficus
Carica) as generally recognized include the following:
(1) Ficus Carica var. sylvestris, the all-important wild
fig of Asia Minor; (2) Ficus Carica var. smyrniaca;
(3) Ficus Carica var. hortensis; (4) Ficus Carica var.
intermedia.

The first of these, commonly known as the Capri
fig, is not edible, but it was discovered ages ago that
the famous little fig-wasp, formerly called Blastophaga
psenes but now determined as Blastophaga grossorum,
breeds within it and is able to cross-pollinate the
flowers of the invaluable Smyrna fig which otherwise
will not perfect fruit. This process is termed "caprifica-
tion" and is absolutely necessary for the maintenance
of the highest grades of commercial orchards. The
third of these groups includes all the self-fertilizing
table and preserving varieties of the common fig. The
fourth variety (intermedia) has the ability to mature
one crop without cross-pollination, but not a second.
The best figs for drying are all of the second class
(var. smyrniaca) and three crops are the usual thing in
average seasons. In fact, nearly all the cultivated figs
bear three more or less distinct crops; in many orchards
and gardens of California one may gather ripe figs
every day from late July until frost and rains destroy
the very perishable fruits.

3JV

1505. White Adriatic fig.

1236

FIG

Figs have been cultivated on the Pacific coast for
more than two centuries, as it is thought that they were
in the Mission gardens at Loreto, Lower California,
before 1710. Father Zephyrin's monumental "History
of the Franciscan Missions in Calfornia," three volumes
of which have now been issued (1913), contains many
facts about the first Mission gardens from San Diego to
Dolores and Sonoma. The fig was in them all, and was
spoken of by the early visitors to California, such as
Malaspina, Menzies, Mocino and Vancouver. Santa
Clara Mission had rows of very large fig trees before
1792.

At the present time (1913), the fig has become
established over almost the entire horticultural area of
California, wherever the temperature does not fall
below 18 F. It does not thrive where there is much fog
or where the summers are cold and windy, but even in
such places if somewhat protected by walls or build-
ings, it matures fruit. When planted close to its cli-
matic limits, a young tree needs special protection the
first few years until the wood is mature and the growth
less rapid. The fig is most at home in southern Cali-
fornia, over the Coast Range Valleys, the San Joaquin
and Sacramento Valleys
to Northern Shasta, and
up the lower slopes of
the Sierras to about
the elevation of 2,500

1506. Young fig tree, and fig-drying in open air, California.

feet in central California to 3,000 feet and upward
farther south. Magnificent single trees and stately
avenues abound in various places. Many trees now
standing have trunks 3 feet in diameter. One in
Stanislaus County is 80 feet in height; another in Butte
County has rooted from drooping branches until it
seems a whole grove. This is the notable General Bid-
well tree at Chico (Mission Black variety) which covers
a circle of 200 feet in diameter and has long been the
pride of the region. Superb fig trees are found in all
the old foothill and valley towns of California. A
magnificent grove is on the old Thurber farm near
Vacaville. Large commercial fig orchards have been
planted, especially in Nesuo, Los Angeles, Butte,
Santa Barbara, San Bernardino, Tulare, Merced,
Sonoma, Placer, San Joaquin and Shasta Counties.
The Maslin orchard near Loomis and the Roeding
orchard east of Fresno are two of the most famous and
successful ones in California. Fresno County now has
220,000 bearing fig trees, and Los Angeles nearly
100,000.

Varieties.

There are many horticultural varieties known to
the markets and catalogues under innumerable syn-
onyms. Their classification is by shape, color of skin
and color of flesh. The shape is round or turbinate in
some sorts, pyriform or obovate in others. The skin
varies in color in different varieties from green through
pale yellow, buff, light brown, reddish brown and purple,
to black. The flesh is almost white, opaline, or various
shades of red; it can be described as melting, spicy,
juicy, coarse or even dry in a few old sorts. The size
varies from those hardly as large as a green gage plum
to others that sometimes weigh four or five ounces
apiece. Eisen, in his useful and thorough monograph

on the fig published by the Department of Agriculture
(Division of Pomology, Bulletin No. 9, 1901) lists and
describes nearly 400 varieties from different parts of
the world. Eleven of these are Smyrnas, and twenty
are varieties of the Capri or wild fig, differing in season
so as to afford a succession and thus increase their
value in caprification. Baja California, and Sonora,
fine regions for the fig, have produced some varieties
of promise, and others have been reported from South
Africa, New Zealand, Australia, Tasmania, northern
India, Algiers and many other places.

When the earlier California nurserymen began to
grow figs, they first secured the Black Mission variety
which the padres had brought from Mexico, and the
little White Marseilles, which was at Santa Clara and
Santa Barbara before the discovery of gold. They also
obtained from Ellwanger and Barry, of Rochester, and
from Berckmans, of Georgia, between I860 and 1870,
all the varieties then grown in America, principally for
pot and greenhouse culture, not more than twenty-five
sorts in all, chief among which were the Brown Tur-
key, Celeste, the Green and Black Ischias and the
large Brunswick. Georgia and the Gulf coast were cul-
tivating in gardens these sorts for home use, especially
Celeste, which is fine for canning and preserving.
There was therefore, much early correspondence be-
tween California nurserymen like William B. West,
John Rock, Felix Gillet, James Shinn and others, and
the fig-growers in the South, whose main drawback
was in the frequent summer rains. Almost immedi-
ately, however, the Californians began to import trees
from France, Italy, Spain, and later began to study
the Smyrna fig industries. The catalogues of Califor-
nia nurserymen, by 1880, contained about 150 named
varieties with plenty of duplications, as was natural.
The University of California experiment stations, by
1890, had about seventy-five varieties under trial and
distributed them with great energy. The late John
Rock, one of the most ardent horticulturists of his
time in America, made many trips abroad and seldom
failed to send back new kinds of figs. The inevitable
and essential sifting down continued for over thirty
years from 1880 until the nurseries of today list not to
exceed thirty varieties. The principal sorts now in
general cultivation, besides the very important Smyrna
and Capri varieties sent out chiefly by George Roed-
ing of Fresno, are the following:

Adriatic (Grosse

Col di Signora Nigra.

Pingo de Mel.

Verte).

Dauphine.

Ronde Noire.

Agen.

Doree.

Ronde Violette

Angelique.

Drap d'Or.

Hative.

Black Ischia (Black

Du Roi.

Royal Vineyard.

Marseilles; Black

Lardaro.

San Pedro (white).

Provence; the Re-

Madeline.

Smyrna (common

culver of England).

Mission (California

type).

Bourjasotte Blanche.

Black).

White Genoa.

Brown Turkey.

Negro Largo.

White Ischia.

Brunswick.

Pastiliere.

White Marseilles.

Celeste (Celestine).

A large amount of new experimenting has been done
in California with fig varieties by the Bureau of Plant
Industry which took up the work so well begun by
Hilgard and others at the California Station. Lack of
means and a general change of the University policy
toward the sub-stations (where the fig orchards were
located) led to the abandonment of those useful trials
about 1902. Fortunately, the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture had become deeply interested in
the Smyrna fig problem, and soon established plant
gardens in California. Beagles, who has charge of the
one near Chico, furnishes the following list of the varie-
ties being tested there in 1912, in addition to a great
many seedlings and crosses under numbers and not
yet in bearing. The list, as furnished by Beagles, is
arranged in the order of securing the varieties, not
alphabetically, and the first forty-four sorts are from
the well-authenticated collection at Chiswick, England :

FIG

1237

De 1'Archipel.

Arbal.

Brown Turkey.

Bontard.

De Jerusalem.

Pastiliere.

Grosse Marseilles.

Nebian.

Negro largo.

Peau dure.

Vigasotte Bianco.

De la Madeleine.

Negronne.

Grise Savantine

Col di Signora Bianca.

Bourjassotte noire.

bifere.

Doree Nobis.

Poulette.

Quarteria.

Pingo de Mel.

Ceil de Perdrix.

Douro Vebra.

Black Ischia.

Du Roi.

Reculver.

Toulousienne.

Grosse Violette de

Gourand Rouge.

Gouraud noir.

Bordeaux.

D'Agen.

Doree.

Datte.

Lampa.

Brunswick.

Monstrueuse.

Large Black Douro.

Gentile.

Bourjassote grise.

Adam.

White Adriatic.

A' Bois Jaspee.

De Constantine.

Pacific White.

Royal Vineyard.

Biberaeo.

Vendome.

De Grasse.

Grosse Verte.

Barbillonne.

Euscaire Preto.

Violette Sepor.

Figuires Blanch.

Trois recoltes.

Dr. Hoggs Clare.

Warren's Brown Tur-

Monaco bianco.

Hardy Prolific.

key.

Bondance Precoce.

Figue d'Or.

Capri Milco.

Trifer.

Recousse noire.

Trojano.

Green Ischia.

Black Douro.

Capri Solms No. 1.

Hirta du Japon.

Grassale.

Capri Solms No. 2.

St. Johns.

Martinique.

Capri Solms No. 3.

Vebra.

Crave.

Capri Solms No. 4.

Datte Quotidienne.

White Ischia.

Dauphine.

The California Experiment Station, under Hilgard,
found that several varieties which are no longer in
ordinary cultivation were important. Chief among
these was a French fig of compact growth, Hirta du
Japon, a medium-sized, turbinate, dark purple fig of
high quality. It is excellent for house culture and for
small gardens.

Smyrna figs.

The story of the introduction of the fig-wasp, the
indispensable Blastophaga, to California fig orchards
is one of the amusing, pathetic and fascinating romances
of outdoor life. Smyrna figs were planted early, and
they did not bear; the trouble was indistinctly charged
to "the climate;" growers laughed at the absurd "book
notion" that the Asia Minor Greeks depended on
"some sort of an insect" to secure abundant crops of
fruit. The late John Bleasdale, who had been in Por-
tugal, told many persons about fig-caprification early
in the 1870's. Some of the nurserymen took it up with
energy and managed to secure cuttings of Smyrna figs
and of Capri figs, but no insects. The San Francisco
"Bulletin," between 1880 and 1882, secured and dis-
tributed over California about 14,000 cuttings. The
fig-growers in Asia Minor became anxious to prevent
importation of the insects to California or of the Capri
fig cuttings, and the difficulties grew worse. Eisen and
Rixford cross-fertilized figs by hand as soon as the
wild fig trees blossomed. This was done on the James
Shinn farm at Niles and at the California Nursery
(managed by John Rock) in the same neighborhood.
Then the Roedings of Fresno became interested,
through Eisen, and planted a Smyrna fig orchard, but
had no Blastophaga. Meanwhile the Department of
Agriculture took hold. Walter Swingle was detailed
and in 1899 secured the Algerian Blastophaga for the
Californians. James Shinn, of Niles, had also obtained
the Blastophaga in 1891, but his location was not
suitable so that it perished and the work was done
over again by both Swingle in 1899 and George Roed-
ing, of Fresno, in 1896, working separately at different
points of the problem. But all this time, the fig-wasp
had accidentally become established near Modesto,
about 1869, on the Gates farm. The wild fig tree there
was, possibly, imported by West, of Stockton, in the
form of cuttings carrying some of the "mamme" or
winter generation of fruits containing the Blastophagas.

The literature of this whole subject is fascinating.
It may be studied in the reports of the Department
of Agriculture and in the following papers: "Some
Points in the History of Caprification and in the Life
History of the Fig," Walter T. Swingle, before the
Thirty-fourth Fruit-Growers' Convention of Cali-
fornia (1908); also his paper on the Maslin seedling
fig orchard in the report of the thirty-fifth convention;

also papers of his in the thirty-sixth and thirty-eighth
reports; an essay by G. P. Rixford, read before the
Forty-first Convention of California Fruit-Growers,
in Santa Barbara, in 1912. His botanical and entomo-
logical paper, read in 1911 before the Pacific Associa-
tion of Scientific Societies, on the "Fructification of
the Fig by Blastophaga" traces the whole subject
down from the days of Linna?us. A practical paper on
the subject is to be found in George C. Rpeding's
"California Horticulture," a pamphlet issued in 1909.

Caprification.

The work of study and experimentation has gone
forward steadily since the first importation of the
Blastophaga; it is likely that more has been done in
this line in California in the past twenty years than in
all the rest of the world put together. The practical
methods of keeping the fig insect prosperously estab-
lished so that every fruit can be fertilized are now well
founded, and as the profits of the industry are gen-
erally recognized, large plantings can be expected.
There are some obscure problems still undetermined
relating to the different crops of figs and the fructi-
fication of some of the non-Smyrna types. But in
California the industry as a whole finds possibly the
most favorable soil and climate known to exist any-
where. It seems probable, therefore, that fig-growing
will soon rank in importance with the growing of
citrous fruits. The cultivated varieties of Smyrnas are
doubtless capable of much improvement as regards
size, crop and season.

Only thirty Capri figs are needed to caprify a large
fig tree, so abundant are the insects and the pollen in
good seasons, and one tree of the wild fig is sufficient
for one hundred Smyrna trees. The male of the fig-
wasp is without wings, but the female has wings and
saw-like mandibles; she cuts her way through scales
which interlock over the apex of the half-grown Smyrna
fig. She loses her wings in entering, dies in the fig and
is absorbed by the vegetable cells. If she lays her
eggs they also perish and the continuance of the spe-
cies depends upon those individuals that remain upon
the wild fig trees.

Propagation.

The fig grows readily from cuttings. Use well-
ripened wood of the previous season's growth, cut at
the joint, and give them the same treatment required
for grape cuttings. They will even grow from single-
eye cuttings. Bottom heat is not necessary in Cali-
fornia where the cuttings are set in nursery in Decem-
ber or January and are ready for the orchard in a year.
In the eastern states, winter-made cuttings can be
started with bottom heat, or, in April, in the open air.

Budding is best done by the annular or ring method,
so useful for the chestnut and walnut. The fig can be
cleft-grafted in February in California, but extreme
care must be taken to exclude the air. Seedlings are
easily grown from the fertile seeds of the imported
Smyrna figs, and from the few fertile seeds occasionally
appearing in common varieties. Maslin, of Placer
County, began to raise seedlings from imported dried
figs in 1885 and these are now bearing.

Forcing.

The fig requires more heat under glass than does the
grape. The temperatures preferred are, at first, 50 F.
at night and, 65 for the day; later increase to 60 or
65 at night and 75 or more in the day. Figs must have
mu,ch air and moisture till the crop is set. The best
varieties for forcing are Early Violet, the White and
Brown Ischias, White Marseilles, Hirta du Japon and
Negro Largo. A soil of turfy loam with plenty of top-
dressing is suitable for pots and tubs. Brown Turkey,
Marseilles and Brunswick are the standard varieties
for walls.

1238

FIG

FILIPENDULA

Cultural methods in California.

The fig tree in California requires much space, hence
it is used as an avenue tree or if in orchard form other
trees are set between, to be afterward removed. In
good soil, fig trees, like walnuts, should finally stand
not less than 40 feet apart, and 50 feet is considered to
be better.

Little pruning is required for the fig. Trees grown
for table figs are headed low, about 18 inches from the
ground, to facilitate picking. Trees grown for drying
figs are headed higher so that they can better be kept
smooth and clean, as the figs are usually allowed to
ripen and fall. Cultivation is necessary until the trees
completely shade the ground.

Figs begin to bear early in California, often the
second or third year. Some trees prove barren or very
poor bearers and must be replaced by others. The tree
appears to be as long-lived as the olive, has very few
insect enemies, and is not subject to disease. It is a
good ornamental tree.

The fruit in some districts, in some seasons, ferments
on the trees ("fig-sour"). This sometimes seems to
come from over-irrigation, sometimes from lack of
vitality, and most often occurs in very tender and
juicy varieties.

The very dangerous fig moth (Ephestra cautella) is
now widely distributed in America, although not yet
in California. During the last few years, many cargoes
of imported figs have been seized in New York and
destroyed on account of this insect, which fills the fruit
with eggs and ultimately with its larva? (Bulletin No.
104, 1911, Bureau of Entomology). Asiatic dried figs
are not only subject to this pest but contain less sugar
(1^4 per cent less) and less proteids (1^ per cent) than
do the California dried figs.

Fig-drying. The fig crop is handled with much care
and cleanliness in California, and labor-saving methods
are used in all cases. The figs must remain on the trees
till fully ripe; then they shrivel and drop off, are picked
up, dipped in boiling brine (three ounces salt to one
gallon water), placed on trays exposed to the sun and
turned once. The later drying is done in the shade.
The figs are next placed in the "sweat boxes" and
"mixed" so as to equalize the moisture. They aye then
washed clean in a weak brine, drained off and taken
to the packing-room. Exceeding care, cleanliness and
much experience are required to produce high-grade
results.

Fig avenues. There is a growing interest felt in the
fig as an avenue tree in California, since it is deciduous
and so does not shade the road in winter, and since it
thrives without culture or pruning where the moisture
is sufficient and the soil deep.

Culture in other places.

While California probably offers the best climate on
the continent for commercial fig-growing, the industry
has a future over much of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas,
the extreme South, Hawaii, Australia, large portions of
South Africa, Mexico and the west coast of South
America.

Fig-culture in the northern and middle parts of the
United States is essentially different, of course, from
the outdoor and orchard methods. The tree can be
grown as a bush and protected each winter by cover-
ing the branches with several inches of soil. In the
southern middle states, fig bushes are grown by cover-
ing in winter with matting and straw. One crop, or at
most two, is all that can be expected. See the discus-
sions on pages 1234 and 1235.

The crop.

Statistics are not well kept at present in the fig
industry, but the annual California crop exceeds 4,000
tons (dried figs) while the local consumption of fresh
figs is large and increasing. The fig pastes, conserves,

and the like, and the use of figs in wafers and other
forms is also general. As Smyrna exports about 30,000
tons in good years, there is evidently room for the
California industry. The dried Smyrnas of Califor-
nia are equal to the best of Asia Minor and contain
64 per cent of sugar (Roeding's Calimyrna variety,
the Erbeyli variety of its native country). Besides this
variety, persons at Fresno are planting on a large scale
the Kassaba, the Checker Injir of Scios, the Bardajic
and what is called in California the purple Bulletin
Smyrna.

Related species of Ficus.

The famous and useful "Sycamore fig" of the Orient
(Ficus Sycomorus) produces fruit in racemes on the
older branches. It is too tender for outdoor culture in
America. (See page 1234.) The beautiful peepul tree
of India is the sacred fig (Ficus religiosa) of the Brah-
mans and Buddhists, and it is now found in many
private collections in southern California. Ficus elas-
tica, the India rubber tree, is often seen in the warmer
parts of California. In 1914 a tree of F. elastica fruited
heavily at Niles and the children seemed to like the
figs. The true banyan fig has not yet been successfully
grown in the state, but ought to be tested. In the
American tropics many interesting kinds of Ficus may
be expected. CHARLES H. SHINN.

FIG. Adam's Fig: Musa paradisiaca. Barbary Fig: Opuntia
vulgaris. Devil's Fig: Argemone mexicana. Hottentot's Fig:
M esembryanthemum edule. Indian Fig: Opuntia vulgaris. Keg Fig:
Diospyros Kaki. Pharaoh's Fig: Sycomorus antiquorum.

FIG-MARIGOLD: M esembryanthemum.
FfLAGO: Gifola.

FILBERT. One of the group of nuts produced by
species of Corylus. The nuts of Corylus are variously
grouped or classified; those are usually known as
filberts that are provided with a tubular husk much
longer than the nut itself; as cobs, if the husk is little
or not at all longer than the nut; and as hazels if the
husk is much shorter than the nut. The filbert nuts
are usually oblong in shape; the cobs roundish and
angular; and the hazels rather small, roundish and
thick-shelled. These are derived from different species
and hybrids of Corylus (which see) of the Old World;
and these vernacular names do not seem to be very
definitely or accurately used. The name filbert is of
disputed origin; the idea that it comes from "full-
beard," in allusion to the long husk, is undoubtedly
erroneous.

Filberts are grown in many parts of Europe, and they
are exported to America in large quantities. Many
attempts have been made to grow them in this coun-
try but without success owing, apparently, to lack
of hardiness, to fungous disease, and to the want of
varieties bred for American conditions. Probably
some of the failure is due to lack of discrimination
in soils and to unskilled methods of growing. See
Hazel-nut. L. jj, g t

FILIPENDULA (Latin filum, thread, pendulus,
hanging; alluding to the numerous small tubers
hanging together by thread-like roots). Syn., Ulma-
ria. Rosacese. MEADOW-SWEET. Hardy herbs grown
for their showy panicles of white, pink or purple
flowers.

Perennials with fibrous or tuberous rootstock: Ivs.
stipulate, interruptedly odd-pinnate, the terminal 1ft.
often much larger and palmately lobed: fls. in cymose
corymbs; calyx-lobes and petals usually 5; stamens
20-40, with the filaments narrowed toward the base;
carpels distinct, 5-15, 1-seeded, indehiscent. Nine
species in N. Asia and Himalayas, N. Amer. and Eu.
Filipendula has usually been united with Spiraea, but

FILIPENDULA

FITTONIA

1239

is very distinct in its herbaceous habit, pinnate stipu-
late Ivs. and indehiscent 1-seeded achenes.

The meadow-sweets are hardy plants with rather
large pinnate or palmately lobed leaves and white,
pink or purple flowers in showy terminal corymbs,
borne on erect leafy stems rising 1 to 10 feet from a
rosette of radical leaves. They bloom in early summer
or midsummer and are very handsome border plants.
Most of them delight in a rather moist and rich soil
and are especially decorative if planted on the borders
of ponds and brooklets, but F. hexapetala prefers drier
situations and likes full sun, while most of the others
also thrive well in partly shaded positions. F . purpurea
should be mulched during the winter in the North.
Propagated by seeds sown in fall in pans or boxes and
kept in the cool greenhouse, or sown in spring; also by
division of older plants.

A. Lfts. numerous, almost alike, small, pinnately lobed.

hexapetala, Gilib. (F. Filipendula, Voss. Ulmaria
Filipendula, Hill. Spiraea Filipendula, Linn.).
MEADOW-SWEET. DROPWORT. Fig. 1507. One to 3
ft. high, with tuberous rootstock, glabrous: radical
Ivs. 6-20 in. long; Ifts. sessile, oblong, pinnately lobed
and serrate, 1 in. long: fls. in a loose
corymb, white, about %in. across,
with usually 6 petals: achenes about
12, pubescent, semi-cordate. June, July.
Eu., W. Asia and Siberia. Var. fl6re-
pleno has double fls., and is common.

AA. Lfts. few, the terminal one much
larger and palmately 3-9-lobed.

B. Lateral Ifts. 3-5-lobed.

rftbra, Rob. (Spiraea lobdta, Gronov.
Spiraea palmdta, Linn. F. lobdta,
Maxim. Ulmaria riibra, Hill). QUEEN
OF THE PRAIRIE. Height 2-8 ft., gla-
brous: terminal 1ft. large, 7-9-
parted, with oblong, acuminate
incisely serrate lobes; lateral Ifts.
smaller, 3-5-lobed, on the upper
Ivs. missing, green on both sides,
only pubescent on the veins
beneath: fls. pink, in a rather
large paniculate cyme: achenes
6-10, glabrous. June, July. Pa.
to Ga., west to Mich, and Ky.
Mn. 2:145. B.B. (ed. 2) 2:249.
Beautiful. Var. venusta, Voss.
Fls. deep pink or carmine. Var.
albicans, Hort. Fls. light pink,
or almost white. R.B. 3 : 169.

palmata, Maxim. (Spiraea
palmdta, Pall. Ulmaria palmdta, -
Focke. Spirsea digitdta, Willd.). Height 2-3 ft.: Ivs.
whitish tomentose beneath or glabrous; terminal Ifts.
7-9-parted; stipules large, semi-cordate: fls. pale pink
at first, changing to white : achenes 5-8. July. Siberia,
Kamchatka and Saghalin. This species is but rarely
cult. ; the plant common under the name Spiraea palmata
belongs to F. purpurea.

\ BB. Lateral Ifts. none or few and ovate.
c. Achenes usually 5, ciliate: lateral Ifts. none or few.

camtschatica, Maxim. (Spirsea camtschdtica, Pall.
Spiraea gigantea, Hort. Ulmaria camtschdtica, Rehd.).
Height 5-10 ft. : Ivs. glabrous or villous beneath, often
with rufous veins; terminal 1ft. very large, cordate,
3-5-lobed, with broadly ovate, doubly serrate lobes;
lateral Ifts. usually none; stipules large, semi-cordate:
fls. white. July. Manchuria, Kamchatka.

purpftrea, Maxim. (Spiraea palmdta, Thunb. Ulmaria
purpurea, Rehd.). Height 2-4 ft., glabrous: terminal
1ft. very large, cordate, 5-7-lobed, with oblong, acumi-

1507. Filipendula hexapetala (plant about 2 feet
high) . Commonly known as Spiraea Filipendula. Qne
of the plants called meadow-sweet.

nate, doubly serrate lobes; lateral Ifts. none or few,
oblong-ovate; stipules narrow: fls. carmine or deep
pink, in large paniculate cymes with crimson peduncles
and sts. June- Aug. Japan. B.M. 5726. I.H. 15:577.
F.S. 18:1851. J.H. III. 51:201. F.W. 1869:33. Gn.
W. 23: suppl. June 16. Gn. 17:36. This is undoubt-
edly the finest species of this genus. It is also some-
times grown in pots and forced. Var. alba, Hort.,
has white fls. and var. elegans, Voss, white fls., with
red stamens and usually several lateral Ifts.; the latter
is said to be a hybrid. R.B. 4:7. G.Z. 22:25.

cc. Achenes about 10: lateral Ifts. present, ovate.

Ulmaria, Maxim. (Spiraea Ulmaria, Linn. Ulmaria
pentapetala, Gilib. U. palustris, Moench). QUEEN OF
THE MEADOWS. Height 2-6 ft. : Ivs. glabrous or puberu-
lous above, whitish tomentose beneath; terminal Ifts.
3-5-lobed, 2-4 in. long, lateral Ifts. smaller, ovate,
coarsely doubly serrate: fls. white, in rather dense pani-
culate cymes: achenes about 10, semi-cordate, almost
glabrous, twisted. June-Aug. Eu., W. Asia to Mon-
golia; naturalized in some places in the eastern states.
B.B. (ed. 2) 2:249. Var. denudata, Maxim. (F.
denuddta, Rydb.). Lvs. green beneath and nearly
glabrous. Var. adreo-variegata, Voss, has the
Ivs. variegated with yellow. Var. plena, Vosa
(var. flore-pleno, Hort.). Fls. double.

F. angustifdlia, Maxim. (Spiraea angustifolia, Turcz.
Ulmaria angustifolia, Rehd..). Similar to F. lobata: fls.
white: Ivs. glabrous or whitish tomentose beneath.
Dahuria, Manchuria. F. vestita, Maxim. (Ulmaria
vestita, Rehd. Spiraea vestita, Wall.). Similar to F.
camtschatica, but only 1 ft. high and Ivs. grayish
tomentose beneath: fls. white. Himalayas. B.R. 27:4
(as S. kamschatica var. himalensis) .

ALFRED REHDER.

FINGER-GRASS. Species of Chloris and Panicum.
FIORIN: Agrostis stolonifera and A. alba.

FIR. Strictly, species of the genus Abies,
but popularly it includes many trees known
to nurserymen and others as
Picea, and by some it is applied
to Pinus, Larix, and others.

FIRE-CRACKER, FLORAL: Bre-

wortia.

FIRE-ON-THE-MOUNTAIN : Eu-
phorbia heterophytta.

FIRE-PINK: Silene virginica.

FIRE -PLANT: Euphorbia hetero-
phylla.

FIRE- WEED : Epilobium angusti-
folium and Erechtites hieracifolia.

FISH-GRASS: Cabomba.

FITTONIA (Elizabeth and Sarah Mary Fitton,
authors of "Conversations on Botany," and friends of
Robert Brown). Acanthdceae. Low-growing herbaceous
perennials, valued for the brilliant variegation made by
red or white venation of their large heart-shaped leaves.

Leaves prominent or rather large, cordate, beauti-
fully veined: fls. borne singly in the axils of the over-
lapping bracts, which form a peduncled, terminal
spike; calyx-segms. linear-bristly; corolla-tube slen-
der; hp long, narrow, shortly lobed at the apex; sta-
mens 2, affixed near the throat; style filiform, truncate
at apex: fr. an ovate-acute 4-seeded caps., some of the
seeds likely to be aborted. Species 3, in Peru. Fit-
tonias may be grown with philodendron, Cissus dis-
color, Episcia cupreata, nephthytis and selaginellas.
There is often a bare, unsightly space under the
benches that can be transformed into a tangle of
tropical creepers by the use of such plants. A board
may be placed slanting toward the walks and covered
with rotten stumps, chunks of peat, and moss for the
plants to run in. The open borders near the walks have

1240

FITTONIA

FLACOURTIA

hardly sufficient drainage. They may also be pegged
down in mossy coverings for tubs of palms, as they can
stand much watering.

Fittonias are most useful and ornamental plants for
growing in a deeply shaded place in the tropical green-
house. The beautiful markings of their foliage always
attract attention; and being of easy culture, they can
be used effectively for places in the foliage house in
which no other plant would thrive. The best time to
root fittonias is early spring, as after a year's growth
they are likely to have a rather straggling appearance,
and need a general overhauling. Remove the points
of the shoots, with two leaves attached, and one joint
to insert in the sand. These make the best cuttings,
but any part of the stem will root and grow provided
there is a joint on it. After cuttings are rooted, which
will be in two or three weeks in a temperature of 65,
pot them singly in 2-inch pots, in equal parts of loam
leaf-mold, and sand. When they are well rooted in
these small pots, choose the size of pan they are
intended to grow in, and fill it with the same propor-
tion of loam, leaf-mold and sand, as advised for the
first potting. This time, however, the loam is better
to be more of fibrous and in a rather lumpy state, and
the leaf-mold should not be too well rotted, but rather

flaky in texture.
In filling the pan
with the com-
post, raise it in
the center above
the rim. This
gives the plant a
mound appear-
ance, which adds
to its beauty.
The small
plants should be
planted in the
large pan about
2 inches apart;
water them
gently with a
fine rose, so as
not to disturb
the earth in the
receptacle. As
stated above,
these plants re-
quire, at all
times, to be
grown in a shady position, and except in the dead
of winter should never be in a temperature of less than
60 by night. In severe zero weather, it will not harm
them to drop as low as 55. Pyramid-shaped plants
of some of the fittonias can be grown. Pot them along
singly and tie them to a stake. When about four or
five pairs of leaves are formed, pinch out the heart of
the plant. This will encourage side breaks to start,
which should be pinched after they have made three
pairs of leaves. After the leading shoot has been
pinched, two breaks will start away, and after two
leaves have been well formed, one of the shoots should
again have the heart taken out of it. The other must
now be taken for the leader and allowed to make three
or four more joints before it is stopped again by remov-
ing the heart. In this way the desired height will be
attained, and at the same time plenty of side breaks
will be encouraged to start. The side shoots must be
carefully watched; pinch back all the strong shoots, so
that a plant of symmetry may be formed. When these
plants are well rooted in the pans, or have attained the
desired size in pyramid form, water them occasion-
ally with soft-coal soot, a handful to an ordinary
watering-pot, which generally contains about two and a
half gallons. Water twice in between with clean water.
The soot tends to bring out the brilliancy of the mark-

ings, making the whole plant have a glossy appear-
ance. Scale, and other insect pests are sometimes
found on these plants, but if fumigated with hydro-
cyanic gas, as advised for other plants, will give very
little trouble. (George F. Stewart.)

1503.

( X \i)

A. Habit erect: height
gigantea, Lind. (Gymnostachyum gigantea, Hort.).
Sub-shrubby, branching, 1% ft.: sts. reddish violet
only between the joints, with 4 ranks of silky, white,
erect hairs: Ivs. opposite, elliptical, not notched at the
base, with 2 ranks of hairs, tapering rnore than in the
other species, dark, shining green; veins carmine-red:
fls. pale, with a reddish brown band in the middle of the
side and upper lobes, and a dark yellow spot in the mid-
dle of the lower lip. R.H. 1869, p. 186. I.H. 16:611.

AA. Habit trailing or dwarf: height about 6 in.

B. Veins of If. red.

Verschaffeltii, E. Coem. (Fittbnia and Erdnthemum
rubronervum and rubrovenosum, Hort. Erdnthemum
riibro-venium, Veitch. Gymnostachyum Verschaffeltii,
Lem.). Lvs. ovate, notched at the base, dull green,
often yellowish, veined carmine. F.S. 15:1581. I.H.
10:372. Var. Pearcei, Hort. (F. and G. Pearcei, Hort.).
Lvs. light, bright green; veins light, bright carmine;
under surface somewhat glaucous. Var. Daveana,
Hort. (F. Daveana, Hort.). "Foliage with light cen-
ter, bordered very dark green." More robust than the
type and with veins of stronger red.

BB. Veins of If. white.

argyroneftra, E. Coem. Fig. 1508. Dwarf: Ivs. dark,
shining green. F.S. 16:1664. Gn. 36, p. 527; 2, p. 319.
G. 11:7. The velvetiness of the upper surface of F.
Verschaffeltii is due to large projecting epidermal cells
with an apical nucleus. Instead of these characteristic
cells, F. argyroneura has small cells and conical hairs,
which are partitioned off and have tubercles at the base.

WILHELM MILLER.

FITZROYA (Capt. R. Fitzroy, of the British Navy;
died 1855). Pinacese. Two evergreen trees or shrubs,
one of the mountains of S. Chile (F. patagonica^Hook.
f. B.M. 4616), and one of Tasmania (F. Archeri,
Benth.). Lvs. small, 3-verticillate or decussate-oppo-
site, imbricated: catkins very small, globose. They are
little known in this country, and may be expected to
thrive only in the milder parts. The former species is a
tree, has Ivs. mostly verticillate, ovate-oblong, in 2-4
rows, anthers commonly 4-celled, 3 ovules, and seeds
2- winged; the latter is bushy, has opposite decussate
keeled Ivs., anthers 2-celled, ovules 2, seeds 3-winged.
The Biltmore Nursery, N. C., lists F. patagonica, "a
tree of variable dimensions, native of the Andes, from
Chile to the Straits of Magellan. Lvs. dark green above,
with 2 white lines beneath. ... Its value in cult, in
the U. S. has not yet been fully proved;" but it is said
to possess sufficient hardiness to withstand the winters
in the S. It is reported as being hardy in S. England.
It is monoecious, the small cones consisting of about 9
scales; the Ivs. on small trees are reported as varying
much in the way in which they stand on the st., but
they are 4-rowed and decurrent; pollen-sacs mostly 4.

T TT T)

FIVE-FINGER: PoteniiOa.

FLACOURTIA (Etienne de Flacourt, 1607-1660,
General Director of the French East India Company,
Governor of Madagascar and author of a history of
Madagascar) . Flacourtidceae. One of the species, a shrub
with edible fruits, is cultivated in the tropics and has
been introduced in southern California and perhaps
elsewhere.

Shrubs and small trees, often spine-bearing: Ivs.
short-stalked, toothed or crenate, simple, alternate:
fls. small, dioecious, in small racemes or glomes or
panicles (the fertile ones sometimes solitary); sepals

FLACOURTIA

FLORICULTURE

1241

4-5, scale-like, ciliated, overlapping; petals none;
stamens many; styles 2 to many; ovary 2-5-celled: fr.
a berry, often edible, usually with 1 seed in each cell.
Fifteen to 20 species in Trop. Afr., Asia, and islands.

Ramontchi, L'Her. GOVERNOR PLUM. BATOKO
PLTJM in the Zambesi region. Fig. 1509. An excessively
variable shrub or small tree, as customarily defined,
native in Trop. Afr. and Asia, and planted in the
American tropics: glabrous or nearly so, spiny or
spineless (spines axillary) : Ivs. oblong to elliptical and
obovate, obtuse or pointed, variously crenate-dentate,
short-petioled : sterile fls. in short racemes, the fertile
few or solitary or in pairs, all small; styles 5-7, very
short, radiate: fr. cherry-like, to 1 in. diam., roundish
and pulpy, with 8-10 seeds, purple, red, or blackish,
bearing on top the remains of the stigmas; edible,
ripening in the farther West Indies early in the year
but some specimens sometimes remaining till Sept.
There are various forms, as var. inermis and yar. macro-
carpa. Hooker & Thomson in "Flora of British India"
recognize 5 marked varieties, and include within the
species F. sapida of Roxburgh. The species is reported
as "common throughout India, wild or cult." and as
having a distribution from Madagascar to the E.
Archipelago. Duthie, in "Flora of the Upper Gangetic
Plain," says that the var. sapida (with pubescent
branchlets, elliptic or suborbicular Ivs. which are gla-
brous or puberulous only on the veins beneath) produces
fr. that is eaten raw or cooked, and twigs and Ivs.
that are used as fodder. "Ramontchi" is said to be the
native name in Madagascar. L. H. B.

FLAG: Iris. Cat-tail Flag: Typha. Corn Flag: Gladiolus.
Sweet Flag: Acarus Calamus. Yellow Flag: Iris Pseudacorus.

FLAMBOYANT: Poinciana.
FLAME-TREE: Sterculia acerifolia.

FLAX: Linum. False Flax: Camdina. New Zealand Flax:

Phormium tenax. Toad Flax: Linaria.

FLEABANE: Erigeron.

FLEMINGIA (John Fleming, Pres. Medical Board of
Bengal; author of "A Catalogue of Indian Medicinal
Plants and Drugs," 1810). Legumindsse. Of this
genus, two shrubs are cultivated in southern California
and southern Florida.

Herbs, sub-shrubs or shrubs of the Old World tropics,
erect, prostrate or twining: Ivs. mostly with 3 digitate
Ifts., rarely 1; stipules striate, often caducous: fls.
papilionaceous, red or purple and mixed with yellow,
in crowded racemes or panicles, or sometimes solitary;
standard obovate or orbicular, auricled at base; wings
obliquely obovate or oblong, often adhering to the
incurved or nearly straight keel; stamens 9 and 1:
pod short, oblique, swollen, 2-valved. Species above
20, mostly of Trop. Asia, but occurring also in Trop.
Afr. and to the Philippines. Allied to Dalbergia and
Rhynchosia.

congesta, Roxbg. Shrub, 4-6 ft., erect: Ifts. oblong or
broadly lanceolate, the side ones 2-nerved, middle one
3-nerved: racemes axillary, dense, shorter than the
If .-stalks; fls. purple, with a silky-hairy calyx and a
scarcely exserted corolla: pod ^in. long, 2-seeded. A
variable species of India.

strobilifera, R. Br., has been intro. in S. Fla. It
is an erect shrub, 8-10 ft., with slender velvety
branches: Ivs. simple, oblong, subacute, rounded at
base, somewhat silky beneath: racemes zigzag, 3-6 in.
long, with very large bracts that hide the fls. ; calyx J^in.
long, hairy and with lanceolate teeth; corolla purple:
pod less than J^in. long. India. L, jj. B.

FLOATING HEART: Limnanthemum.
FLOERKEA DOUGLASD: Limnanthes.

FLORA'S PAINT-BRUSH: A common name for Emilia
flammea.

FLORICULTURE, or the growing of plants for
ornamental purposes, particularly for flowers, is yearly
assuming larger proportions in the United States. The
industry consists in growing annual, biennial and peren-
nial plants either under glass or outdoors, and in the

1509. Flacourtia Ramontchi.

disposal of the same in wholesale or retail markets.
These products are sold as cut-flowers or potted plants
to be used for indoor or outdoor home ornamentation,
or for planting in public parks, about schools and
other puolic buildings, or in cemeteries for ornamental
purposes. (For home flower-gardens, see p. 1747.)

Importance of the industry.

The floricultural statistics taken from the census of
1910 show a marked increase in the importance of
this branch of agriculture within the previous decade.
The acreage, as given for this census, was 18,248 as
compared with 9,307 as given for the census of 1900.
The total valuation, as given in this census, was
$34,872,000, an increase of 85.9 per cent as compared
with the report of the census for 1900. The figures were
compiled in nine large geographical divisions of the
United States. These were New England, Middle
Atlantic, South Atlantic, East North Central, West
North Central, East South Central, West South
Central, Mountain, and Pacific.

From its beginning the industry has centered around
such large cities as Boston, New York, Philadelphia,
Baltimore and Washington. The business is now assum-
ing considerable importance in Chicago, St. Louis and
other large cities in the Middle States, the South and
West. Statistics show that the largest floricultural
output comes from the Middle Atlantic section. The
states which compose this section are New York, New
Jersey and Pennsylvania. The total valuation of prod-
ucts from this section is $11,810,076. The second
section of importance is the East North Central,
composed of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and
Wisconsin, in which the figures given were $9,029,125.
The third important section was New England, where
the total valuation was $4,677,316. The smallest out-
put comes from the Mountain section, composed of
Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico,
Arizona, Utah and Nevada. Here the output was
$753,914. The most rapid increase in the industry dur-
ing the decade seems to have been in the Pacific sec-
tion, composed of Washington, Oregon and California,
where the valuation of flower products sprang from
$726,968 in 1899 to $2,175,572 in 1909. New York
leads other states in floricultural products, having an
output of $5,110,221. The rank of other important
states is Pennsylvania, Illinois, New Jersey, Massachu-
setts and Ohio.

Floriculture is intensive agriculture; consequently
the acreage devoted to the industry is not so large as
in other branches of agriculture. The amount of capital

1242

FLORICULTURE

invested in glasshouses and their equipment is con-
siderable. The return from the products, however, is
immediate. Commercial growers and men making a
business of greenhouse construction, estimate that
it costs from 60 to 90 cents a square foot of ground
covered to build and equip a modern range. The
growers estimate that the products from such an area
the first year should cover the cost of construction.

The flower-growing industry in the United States
has not yet assumed the large proportions that it has
in many European cities. The early colonists were an
extremely practical people and paid little attention to
the distinctly ornamental features about the home. As
wealth increased, however, there came to be a more
liberal use of flowers and plants; hence a larger demand
for them in the industrial world.

Floricultural statistics for the Dominion of Canada
are less complete than for the United States. The fol-
lowing are figures furnished through the courtesy of
W. T. Macoun, Dominion Horticulturist:

Capital invested, approximately $1,500,000

Square feet of glass 6,000,000

Annual output $1,000,000

Area covered 120 acres

History of the industry.

The early history of the floricultural industry is
obscure. It was merged to such an extent with other
branches of horticulture and other industries that it
could hardly be called a distinct industry. Previous to
1825 there is record of but few commercial flower-
growing establishments. From 1830 to 1840, rapid
progress was made in all branches of the work. The
demand for glasshouse products increased to a con-
siderable degree. Better houses were built, better sys-
tems of heating were devised, and consequently better
products were put on the market.

Even the glasshouses of this period were extremely
crude affairs. The framework was of large dimensions,
the glass small in size, heavy and thick. The roofs
were largely portable, being made of sash. About 1855
the first house having permanent sash-bars was built
by Frederic A. Lord hi Buffalo. The wooden super-
structure of this house was heavy and the interior light
conditions correspondingly poer, but it was a vast
improvement over sash-houses. This type of construc-
tion was met with favor by glasshouse men, and many
houses of a similar type soon were built. Glass of
larger size was used, and this was embedded in putty
instead of being placed on the outside as in sash-houses.

Previous to 1870 the principal business of the florist
was the growing of potted plants. The flowers from
these were often sold as cut-flowers, but the business
centered about growing potted plants for outdoor
bedding and other ornamental purposes. The cut-
flowers of that early period were comparatively of a
small-flowered, short-stemmed sort heliotrope, camel-
lia, tuberose, bouvardia and those of a like nature.
Although the carnation was introduced as a florist
crop about 1852, it was of little commercial importance
previous to this date. About 1865, Dailledouze &
Zeller of Flatbush, Long Island, began to breed the
carnation, and between 1866 and 1872 several new
varieties were introduced by this firm. Garden roses
had been popular for many years, but few attempts
were made to grow them under glass previous to 1870.
They then came rapidly into public favor.

From 1870 to 1880 the demand for both potted
plants and cut-flowers increased rapidly. More atten-
tion was paid to city and home ornamentation, and
consequently more park and private conservatories
were built. Each year witnessed improvements in
construction, and consequently better grades of
florists' products. In the last twenty years the ad-
vances which have been made in cultural conditions

and the improvements in florists' crops have completely
revolutionized the industry.

Improvements in glasshouse structures, and their heating.

The tendency among flower-growers now is to build
large houses in preference to smaller ones. It has been
proved that the cost of construction is cheaper and that
these may be more easily heated, that plant-growth is
healthier because of a more uniform temperature, that
they are easier to construct and can be cared for with
greater economy of labor. Glass of larger size is now
used, and more attention is given details of construc-
tion to increase the light factors in the house. There
have been many changes in methods of heating glass-
houses during their history. From the crude methods
of flues, various devices for heating with hot water
and steam have been devised. Both of these methods
have then- advantages. In the earlier methods of hot-
water heating, the pipes were large and the system waa
an expensive one to install. Steam, therefore, came
into popular favor, especially in large commercial
establishments. It is still generally used. In some
sections of the country and in the growing of some
species of plants, hot water is still used; but here
better systems for forcing the circulation of water have
been installed so it is possible to use pipes of smaller
dimensions.

Improvements in flower crops.

The work of the plant-breeders began to produce results
in the the early nineties of last century. Many new varie-
ties of chrysanthemums and carnations were put on the
market. The violet then became an important florist
crop. The early part of the twentieth century, however,
witnessed a deluge of new varieties in practically all
species. Breeding and improved cultural methods
brought the qualities of the products far above any-
thing produced in the previous century. Large-flowered
carnations on long, stiff stems, violets of much larger
sizes, and improved strains of chrysanthemums, roses
and other species gave a remarkable impetus to the
industry.

Previous to the beginning of the twentieth century,
the American florist had interested himself in the cul-
ture of a wide variety of plants. In many cases the
larger part of the products were sold at the range.
The business, however, assumed such proportions that
many up-to-date florists found that they could not
profitably raise and dispose of their products at retail;
consequently the retail flower-stores became more
and more important factors in the disposal of the prod-
ucts. Wholesale commission houses and wholesale
flower-markets were established in the larger cities so
that the grower could devote nearly his entire time to
the production of his crop. Many of the more progres-
sive florists came to feel that they could not afford to
grow a wide variety of plant species, but that it paid
them better to grow one or two crops and to devote
their whole attention to growing these in the finest
manner possible so that they could produce flowers
which were first quality in every respect; hence men
came to be known as carnation, rose, violet, chrysan-
themum, fern, palm and other specialists. This led to
a wonderful improvement in the quality of flowers
produced, and there was no call in the market for the
inferior grades.

The buying public has had its influence in producing
a better quality of florists' products. It has demanded
not only better quality but something out of the ordi-
nary. People tired of roses, carnations, violets and bulb-
ous stock continually. The early part of the twentieth
century witnessed a remarkable interest in orchids.
The commercial man had to meet this demand. Twelve
years ago an orchid could hardly be found outside of
private conservatories. They were considered impossi-
ble to grow with financial success. Today nearly every

FLORICULTURE

FLORISTS' PLANTS

1243

up-to-date retail grower has his section of orchids,
and nearly every large floricultural center has its orchid
specialist. For many years it was considered impossible
to get satisfactory results from sweet peas under glass.
The introduction of new strains and careful study of
cultural conditions made the culture of this crop pos-
sible. The forcing of hardy herbaceous perennials like
antirrhinums, delphiniums, and the like, and the forcing
of hardy shrubs and other rare, hardy stock has fur-
nished the flower-grower with a wonderful range of the
more unusual plants.

Many large American flower-producers are now
managing their business on a departmental scale.
There are retail and wholesale departments; palm,
carnation, orchid, rose, chrysanthemum and bedding
departments, each in charge of a specialist in growing
that particular crop.

The flower exhibitions held from time to time in
the larger cities have had a beneficial effect on the
uplift of the business. These exhibitions have been
viewed by thousands of retail buyers. The choicest
products of the flower-grower's skill have been exhib-
ited, and the public has become dissatisfied with the
inferior grade of commercial flowers offered for sale
in the average flower-shops. They have demanded
better products, and it has been the work of the flower-
grower to produce these qualities.

Literature.

Within the last ten years there has been a remarkable
increase in literature on flower-growing. Such papers
as "The Florists' Exchange," "The American Florist,"
"Florists' Review," "Horticulture," "Gardening,"
"Gardener's Chronicle of America," have kept the
grower closely in touch with the work in the gar-
dening world. Many publications for the amateur,
like "The Garden Magazine," "Country Life in Amer-
ica," "House & Garden," "Suburban Life" have
assisted in giving the American people much valuable
information regarding flower-growing about the home.

A long list of books might now be given, dealing
with commercial and home flower-growing. Among
these, valuable for the commercial man, are: "The
American Carnation," C. W. Ward; "Commercial
Rose-Culture," Eber Holmes; "Chrysanthemums for
the Million," Charles H. Totty; "Violet-Culture," B.
T. Galloway; "Orchid Culture," William Watson;
"Florist's Manual," William Scott; "Plant-Culture,
G. W. Oliver. Excellent books for the amateur are:
"The Rose," H. B. Ellwanger; "Window-Gardening,"
H. B. Dorner; "The Garden Month by Month," Mrs.
M. C. Sedgwick; "Making a Bulb Garden," Grace
Tabor; "Roses and How to Grow Them," Doubleday,
Page & Co.; "House Plants and How to Grow Them,''
Parker T. Barnes. E. A. WHITE.

FLORIDA ARROW-ROOT: Zamia integrifolia.
FLORIDA SWAMP LILY: Crinum americanum.

FLORISTS' PLANTS. A half-century ago the
florist plant trade, although perhaps relatively of
greater importance than at present, was not a promi-
nent feature of the holiday trade. At Christmas there
was some acceleration in the business, but this was
overshadowed by the trade in cut-flowers. Easter was
not a time of great plant sales. Church decorations in
Protestant churches were not common. The sales of
plants were more evenly distributed throughout the
year, and the variety of plants sold was greater because
the grower and consumer came in contact with each
other, thus enabling the grower to dispose of plants
which would not withstand the handling experienced
by the plants of the present day. With the changing
conditions in the family life of city residents, plants are
no longer largely desired for window-gardens, but for
temporary decoration of the living-rooms. The old type

of plant-grower with his botanical collection has
passed away, and in his place is the large commercial
grower of a few staple plants which are grown in per-
fect condition. These growers produce a large quantity
of plants for Christmas and then begin operations for
Easter, as both of these dates now are times for the
sending of gifts.

The trade in florist plants in the U. S., including bed-
ding plants, is not less than $10,000,000, and it is encour-
aging that it is annually increasing without any dimuni-
tion in the volume of the cut-flower business. Every
up-to-date florist makes Christmas and Easter displays,
and often special exhibits of chrysanthemums, and so
on, are made when in season. The most successful of
these displays are made in houses arranged for the
purpose, for when made in an ordinary greenhouse
with high benches, the taller plants are above the level
of the eye and the effect is sacrificed. The best houses
for displays are those of the conservatory type such as
are seen in connection with some of the best flower

1510. Pot-plants being packed for shipment.

stores. An ordinary greenhouse is often adapted for
the purpose by constructing low benches, 18 to 20
inches high, for displaying bulbous plants and omitting
them entirely for tall plants. The object sought in all
cases is to have the plants placed so that the buyer
looks down upon them. The show house is not very
large for the reason that it is not always advisable to
have too many plants of a kind in sight and also
because at Easter the occurrence of warm, bright,
unseasonable weather prevents keeping the plants in
good condition. It is generally recognized that the
display must be maintained in good condition by
removing all unsightly plants and faded flowers. The
stock should be replenished and rearranged every day.
The good salesman is one who has a knowledge of
the care of plants, as well as their good points, their
appropriateness for special occasions, and so on.
Judicious advice on these points has much to do in
winning and retaining customers. When a sale is made,
the plants are carefully tagged with the correct address
and the time it is to be delivered. If the plant is
intended as a present, the sender's card is usually

1244

FLORISTS' PLANTS

placed in a waterproof envelope which is fastened to
the delivery tag. Deliveries of Christmas and Easter
plants particularly should be promptly made, for
nothing creates more dissatisfaction than late delivery.
This requires skill in systematically arranging the
plants according to the delivery routes, thus avoiding
traversing the same territory a second time. It is
axiomatic that the plant should be at its best on the
day or at the function for which it is to be used. The
weather has much to do with the condition of plants
upon delivery. At Christmas, stock may be sent out
twenty-four hours in advance, while at Easter stock
delivered thus far in advance may not be satisfactory
on Sunday.

All plants in pots, with the possible exception of the
woody kinds, are staked and tied before handling.
Plants are neatly wrapped with several thicknesses of
paper to insure safe delivery. Plants with flowers
which are easily bruised are usually wrapped with a
sheet of cotton batting or waxed paper and then six to
eight thicknesses of newspaper with clean plain paper

1511. The completed crate for shipment.

outside. When plants must be shipped in cold weather,
they must be wrapped as indicated and then set in
strong wooden boxes. These boxes are approximately
4 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 8 inches deep. The corners
are strengthened by the use of extra cleats. The box
is first lined with corrugated paper, and then several
thicknesses of newspaper which are left hanging over
the edges of the box all around. Slightly dampened
excelsior is used around the pots to prevent breakage
and to make the package secure. The paper is then
brought up over the plants and fastened (Fig. 1510).
Over the top a frame is built of H x 4-inch cleating
lumber which prevents damage to the plants (Fig. 1511) .

The number of plants that can be had in perfection
at Christmas is limited and does not change from year
to year. Among the leading flowering plants are
poinsettias in pots and pans, azaleas, cyclamen and
Lorraine begonias. The more expensive plants are
ericas (E. melanthera) and camellias.

The berried plants commonly grown are the Jerusa-
lem cherry (Solanum Capsicastrum), Christmas pepper
(S. Pseudo-Capsicum'), aucubas, ardisias, holly and
Otaheite oranges.

The foliage plants include araucarias, boxwood,
crotons, nephrolepis, Pandanus Veitchii, Ficus pan-
durata and F. elastica, Dracaena (D. terminalis, D. fra-
grans, D. Mand&ana, D. Godseffiana, D. Lord Wolseley)
and Adiantum.

Easter is a great plant day and there is a great variety
of suitable plants. The leading flowering plant is, of
course, Lilium longiflorum.

It would be difficult to determine the relative mar-
ket value of the different plants, but among the bulbs
tulips, hyacinths, narcissi and lilies-of-the-valley are
staples. These are sold in pots or pans, singly or
in plant combinations. A very large amount of bulbous
material is sold at Easter. Cinerarias, Primula obconica
and P. sinensis are a smaller factor than formerly on
the large city markets, but still remain an important
item in the smaller cities. Marguerites and spirea
(Astilbejaponica), when well grown, find a good sale in
New York. A number of violets and pansies planted in
low dishes, and small blooming geraniums, from 3-inch
pots, planted in 6- to 12-inch bulb pans, are salable
plants in many localities. Among the shrubs the azaleas
are most important, although in some cities they show a
decline in popularity. Following these are genistas,
which have been for many years a popular Easter
plant. Hydrangea rosea and H. Otaksa were long stand-
ard varieties, but now will probably give way to the
new French varieties. In some cities hydrangeas are
less used for Easter than for Memorial Day. Lilacs,
Charles X, Marie Legraye and Madame Lemoine are
among the best. The lilac has the disadvantage of a
great display of wood and leaves before the terminal
flowers charm the eye. It therefore requires acces-
sories to relieve this effect, and the demand for this
plant is limited. Rhododendrons are slowly gaining in
popularity. Acacias and ericas are becoming more
common each year. Acacia longifolia and A. paradoxa
are now grown for market. Erica Cavendishii is used
for individual plants, while E. cupressina is used in
making up baskets of plants. Bougainvillea Sanderiana,
like the rambler roses, may be made to assume definite
forms which are especially beautiful when the bracts
are well colored. Among the other shrubs more or less
common are Azalea mollis, Deutzia gracilis, Spiraea
Van Houttei, double almond, hawthorns, and Wistaria
multijuga. In the last decade the rambler roses have
taken a prominent place among Easter plants and each
year a larger number are grown. The crimson rambler
was first used, but is now superseded by the more
beautiful Dorothy Perkins, Tausendschon, Lady Gay,
Newport Fairy and Hiawatha. The rambler roses
possess the advantage that they can be trained into
pleasing forms. The polyantha roses are popular also,
and among the varieties used are Madame Norbert
Levavasseur (Baby Rambler), Mrs. Cutbush and
Orleans. The latter are very satisfactory when sold
either as individual plants with waterproof crepe paper
pot-covers or in baskets with other plants. The hybrid
perpetuals are still grown, but not in so large quantities
as formerly. The varieties now grown are Frau Karl
Druschki, Mrs. John Laing and Magna Charta.

Easter brings a demand for some of the larger sizes
of foliage plants for decorations in churches, retail
stores, and the like. The small -sized ferns, dracenas
and palms are required in making up baskets of plants.

The florist of fifty years ago thought that a good
blooming plant did not need any aids to make it
attractive. This has changed, and the florists are
seeking every means to make their plants more attrac-
tive. The most inexpensive method of doing this is to
use pot-covers of waterproof crepe paper in color suited
to the subjects. Porto Rican or raffia matting in color
is used in a similar manner.

The trade of the present day disposes of a great
many plants in baskets or boxes. Individual plant-
baskets, with handles, to hold even as large as 6- to
8-inch pots are often used. Baskets, usually of the
peach-basket shape, are also utilized for an endless
variety of combinations of flowering and foliage plants
(Fig. 1512). The baskets are supplied with a metal
receptacle or lining so that the pots may be removed
from the plants, giving them the appearance of having
been grown together. Formerly these receptacles were
filled by the retailers, but now many are prepared at

FLORISTS' PLANTS

FLOWER

1245

the greenhouses according to order and sent to the stores
where all that is needed is to add the basket and
the ribbons. The latter plan relieves the store of much
work in the busy season, but may not result in as artistic
combinations as can be secured by a person trained in
the work. The manufacturers of florist supplies are
striving to meet the demand for something new in
baskets and boxes. New material, weaves and shapes,
are seen every year. There is also a great variety of
coloring. There are green, gilt, white, red, ivory, bronze
and copper shades as well as two-tone effects, as red
and green, white and green, blue and white, pink and
white, and yellow and white. The variety offered is
such that baskets can be secured in sizes to suit either
the high-class or popular trade. The small florist

1513. Longitudinal section
of a buttercup flower.

1512. A made-up basket of living plants.

usually begins by using some of the willow, rattan or
splint baskets which are filled with inexpensive plants.
Cedar tubs, wood and terra-cotta boxes are also used.
The demand for pleasing arrangements of flowering
and foliage plants in boxes, jardinieres, hampers,
baskets, pans and dishes of fanciful design, light and
airy, dainty and graceful, is increasing and is receiving
the attention of the growers of holiday plants. It is
generally recognized that the work offers as wide a
scope for inventive genius and artistic discernment as
any phase of the florist business. A. C. BEAL.

FLOWER is a popular or semi-technical term for the
aggregate of structures having to do with sexual
reproduction in the higher plants. The concept
usually includes color, and a definite organization as
outlined below; therefore, gymnosperms, ferns, and
the lower plants are said not to have true flowers. As
ordinarily understood, the flower is a showy structure
useful for esthetic purposes, gratifying in color and often
in odor, and in some way intimately connected with
the production of seed; but analogous although incon-
spicuous structures are sometimes popularly recog-
nized as "flowers." To the layman, many of our com-
mon herbs, shrubs and trees are said not to bear flowers
at all, although the botanist recognizes that at least
inconspicuous greenish flowers are borne by all of these
plants unless they be ferns or gymnosperms.

Botanically considered, the flower when complete
consists of four sets of organs from the center outward :
the gyncecium, andrcecium, corolla, and calyx, to which
may possibly be added a fifth,
the disk (Figs. 1513-1516).

The gynoscium Figs. 1517-
1519). In the center are one
or more small flask-like or
pouch-like organs (pistils) which
are hollow and contain tiny
bud-like growths (ovules) . The
pistils collectively are termed
the gyncecium (female house-
hold). The hollow ovule-bear-
ing part of the pistil is the ovary. At the summit of the
ovary is a more or less sticky or roughened
surface, the stigma, which may rest directly
on the ovary (sessile) or may be raised aloft
on a stalk (the style) . From the ovules seeds
are developed (see Fertilization).

The fundamental or unit foliar organ of
the gyncecium is termed a carpel. In the
simplest case there is but one carpel, folded
to form a pouch with the upper ventral leaf-
surface within, and the margins forming a
suture down one side. The structure thus
formed is a simple pistil. The suture bears
the ovules and is termed the placenta, and
is normally ovuliferous throughout, but fre-
quently only the uppermost or basal ovule
of the row is present (apical and
suspended, or basal and erect). In
other cases there are several or
many carpels but these remain dis-
tinct, then forming many simple
pistils. In most cases, however, the
carpels are more or less fused, at
least below, and the resulting pistil is said to
be compound. The sutures are axially placed
and the midribs are outward (anterior), the
ventral surface of each carpel lining the
ovarian cavity. There are, therefore, nor-
mally as many cells or locules in a compound
ovary as there are carpels. Through the
partical opening-out of each carpel while the
margins of adjacent carpels still remain
united, the ovary may become one-celled
though still compound, as in the violet.
The placenta will in this case be parietal (on the
walls). In certain families (Caryophyllaceae, Primu-
laceae) the compound ovaries are one-celled but have
a basal placenta, or this basal placenta may project
upward into the single chamber of the ovary as a
central post on which the ovules are borne (free-central
placenta) (Fig. 1515). To determine the number of
carpels in a given pistil is often difficult. If there are
several separate stigmas or styles, it is usually safe to
infer that each represents a carpel. If the ovary is sev-
eral-celled, each

cell usually de- 6J ^^^

notes a carpel and
in one-celled ova-
ries the placentae,
if parietal, denote
the number of car-
pels. In the case
of a pistil with a
one-celled ovary,
basal placenta,
one style and one
stigma, only de-
velopmental or
phylogenetic
studies will show
how many carpels
are present.

1514. Structure of flower. The plum.

se. sepals; p. petals; sta. stamens; o.
ovary; s. style: st. stigma. The pistil con-
sists of the ovary, style, and stigma. It
contains the seed part. The stamens are
tipped with anthers, in which the pollen is
borne. The ovary, o, ripens into the fruit.

1246

FLOWER

Ovaries are sometimes raised on a stalk within the
flower, as in the caper family (gynophore) and in Coptis
(thecophore) . The styles and stigmas are frequently much
modified for pollination purposes, as in the orchids and
in the pitcher plant (Sarracenia) .
The andrcecium (Figs. 1520-
1522). Surrounding the pistils
are found one or more whorls of
organs called stamens, collec-
tively termed the andrcecium
(male household). A stamen
normally consists of a slender
stalk (filament) capped by an
enlarged part (anther), although
this stalk is often wanting. The
anther contains one, two or four
cavities (locules or "cells") in
which a powdery mass (pollen) is
located. The so-called cells are
not to be confused with the cells
of the plant tissue. The gynce-
cium and andrcecium, which are

1515. Section of a flower
of corn-cockle.

Showing torus, ovary,
styles, stamens and floral
envelopes.

1519. Compound pis-
til of a St. John's-wort.
It has five carpels.

1516. Parts of flower in
the trumpet-creeper.

both necessary for the production of good seed, are
termed the essential organs of the flower. Ordinarily
each stamen represents one foliar unit. When many
stamens are present, this increase in number is brought
about in one of three ways : by an increase in the num-
ber of whorls of stamens (Caryophyllacese, Rosacese)
or an increase in length of the spiral (Ranunculus), by
the conversion of petals into stamens, or by a breaking
up of each individual stamen into many (St. John's-
wort). The first method is by far the most common.
In the last method, the origin is usually betrayed by
the aggregation of the stamens in fascicles. Normally
both filament and anther of each stamen is
free from its neighbors, but in some cases
the filaments are all joined into a tube
around the pistil (monadelphous) as in the
hollyhock, or into two groups (diadelphous)
as in the pea family. These two groups are
usually very unequal in the pea tribes,
nine stamens being united while the tenth
is free. In other cases the anthers may be
coherent while the filaments are free (synge-
necious), as in the Composite. In the Ster-
culiaceae, the filaments or tube of filaments
are variously toothed, crested or otherwise
modified; while in the Orchidacese they are
fused with the style to form the so-called
column or gynandrium of the flower. In
the milkweeds, each stamen bears a cornu-
copia-like appendage
which together form
the crown. In Viola,
two of the filaments
bear nectar-spurs.

The anthers are
usually oval or oblong
bodies fixed to the
filament by the base
(basal), or by the
center (versatile). At
maturity they con-
tain normally two
1518. Head of simple pollen-sacs separated
pistils in hepatica. by a sterile tissue

(connective) which is a prolongation of the filament.
The anther-sacs are sometimes four in number, some-
times reduced to one through fusion. The walls of the
sacs contain a peculiar fibrous
layer by the hygroscopic proper-
ties of which they are enabled to
curve back, thus opening the pol-
len-chamber along definite prear-
ranged lines and allowing the pollen
to escape. The dehiscence is usu-
ally by a longitudinal slit, but it
is frequently by terminal pores as
in the Ericaceae, or rarely by
transverse slits. In Vaccinium, the
pores are carried aloft on long
tube-like extensions of the anther,
while in Berberis the pores are
provided with an uplifting trap-door.

The pollen-grains are normally spherical or oval cells
in which the two or three nuclei representing the male
gametophyte are found. The wall consists of a deli-
cate inner layer (inline), surrounded by a thicker
cutinized layer (exine) which is either smooth or
externally sculptured in various ways. Specialized
places in the extine serve as germ-pores through
which the pollen-tubes easily emerge. These
pores are sometimes provided with actual
lids (pumpkin and squash) which pop off at
the proper time. The pollen in the
Orchidaceae and Asclepiadacese is
more or less waxy and coheres into
one or several masses (pollinia). The
pollinia are in many cases produced
into minute stalks which connect with
a sticky gland that is designed to be-
come attached to visiting insects. On
the departure of the insect the gland,
together with the attached pollinia,
is carried away to the next flower.
The pollen-grains of orchids, heaths
and a few other plants are composed
of two to four cells (compound).

Corolla (Figs. 1523-1527). Outside the stamens is
found a whorl of flat leaf-like usually colored organs
termed petals or collectively the corolla. The petals are
usually in one whorl and follow the numerical plan of the
flower closely; rarely are they fewer or numerous. They
are normally flat or concave colored bodies distinct

1520. Anthers,
showing d e h i s-
cence; azalea on
left, barberry on
right.

1517.

Compound
pistil of
catnip.

Showing
4-par ted
ovary, long
style, 2 stig-
mas (s).

1521. Transitions from stamens to petals in the water-lily.

from one another (polypetalous) and regularly spread-
ing from the receptacle. But in many plants the petals
are connate (gamopetalous) into one structure for a
greater or less distance toward the apices. The united
part is the tube, the lobed border the limb of the gamo-
petalous corolla. The lobes or segments are either all
alike and equally placed (regular corolla) or they vary
much among themselves (irregular corolla) . If the lobes

FLOWER

1247

are united higher up into groups of two and three, as
in many mints, the upper more or less erect, the lower
spreading, the corolla is bilabiate (Fig. 1526). A partic-
ular type of irregular polypetalous corolla is the so-
called papilionaceous corolla (Fig. 1527) found in the pea.

1522. Stamens
of erica (left) and
vaccinium.

1523. A salver-shaped corolla.

family and consisting of a standard, two lateral wings,
and a keel. A regular corolla is radially symmetrical,
possessing an infinite number of planes of symmetry
(actinomorphic), while most irregular flowers possess
but one plane of symmetry (zygomorphic) . A few pos-
sess no such plane (as Canna). Gamopetalous corollas
fall into certain types based on the shape of the tube
and limb. The more common types are rotate, salver-
form, funnelform, bell-shaped, tubular, and urceolate.

The corolla may be vari-
ously colored. White flow-
ers owe their color to light
reflected from air which is
between the cells of the
petals, as shown by the
fact that when waterlogged
these petals become trans-
parent. Yellows and oranges
are usually due to abun-
dant minute color bodies
(chromoplasts) located
within the cells of the petal.
Reds and blues are due to
colored cell-sap.

Calyx. Surrounding the
1524. Funnelform corolla of corolla is another set or
morning-glory. whorl of organs, the calyx,

the individual organs of

which are sepals. The calyx is usually composed of as
many sepals as there are petals, but in the Portulacaceae
there are but two sepals, while in some plants there are
many. In many of the Ranunculaceae and other fami-
lies they are colored like petals and replace these organs.
In the Easter lily and tulip they are similar to the
petals. In the Compositae the calyx is reduced to
scales or bristles or is absent entirely. The sepals are
frequently connate (gamosepalous) , and the resulting
structure is often irregular. The calyx and corolla are
together termed the floral envelopes. If they are simi-
lar in appearance, and, therefore, difficult to recognize,
as in the Easter lily, they are collectively termed
perianth.

Disk (Figs. 1528, 1529). In many
plants a glandular disk, or series of
glands corresponding to such a disk,
is found. When present, this disk
may lie either between the stamens
and pistil (intrastaminal) as is the
common case, or more rarely be- 1S2 s Rotate co-
tween the stamens and petals ro ii a and connivent
(extrastaminal). The genus Acer is stamens of solanum.

peculiar in having some species with an intrastaminal
disk while in others it is extrastaminal. By some
morphologists this disk is considered a fifth set of organs
in the flower, while by others it is considered merely as
an outgrowth of the floral axis or receptacle on which
all other parts of the flower are in-
serted. The disk is in many cases
characteristic of whole families, which
led Bentham and Hooker to place
these families together in the series
Disciflora3. The disk also occurs in
other families not obviously related.
It forms a ring about the styles in
some Rubiacese. The glandular cup of
Populus and the finger-like gland of
Salix are probably to be referred here,
although by some they have been
interpreted as a reduced perianth. The
disk usually functions as a nectary. In corolla of salvia.
shape and structure it is very diverse.
It may be cup-shaped, saucer-shaped, annular, regular,
or irregular; or it may be of separate glands, either
simple or variously lobed. It may line the cup of the
perigynous flower or it may be adnate to the surface
of the ovary.

Receptacle (Figs. 1530, 1531). The apex of the
stem on which the various floral organs are inserted is
termed the receptacle or torus. This is normally a
simple club-shaped thickening of the summit of the
stem. In the strawberry it is much enlarged and fleshy,

1526. Labiate

1527. A papilionaceous
corolla. The sweet pea. s,
standard; w, w, wings; ft,
keel.

1528. Showing the disk in the
willow flower. Pistillate flower
at a; staminate flower at b.

forming the greater part of the fruit. In the raspberry it
remains on the plant when the "fruit" is removed. In
the Compositae there is a common receptacle for all
the flowers of the head, as well as for each individual
flower. In the caper family the receptacle is often pro-
longed upward, forming a stalk for the ovary within
the flower (gynophore).

In the Rosacese, Onagraceae, Saxifragaceae, and in
various other plants, the stamens, petals and sepals
are perigynous, that is they are inserted on the edge of a
cup-shaped organ which springs either from below the
ovary or from its summit. The view has been held
that the gamosepalous calyx here bears the stamens
and petals on its tube. Another early proposed view
has in recent years gained ground rapidly and is now
widely accepted. This view interprets
the cup as a hollowed receptacle
likened to a glove-finger when the apex
is slightly pushed in.
The ovary at the
bottom of the cup is
really apical as usual,
while the sepals,
petals and stamens,

located at the higher 1529 Disks in flowers of

margin of the cup, maple family.

1248

FLOWER

are as usual inserted morphologically lower on the
receptacle. While in most flowers the ovary is
inserted on the summit of the receptacle (superior
ovary), in others, as in the Orchidacese, Onagracese,
Umbelliferse, Rubiacese, and Composite, the ovary
appears to occupy the center of
the club-shaped structure (inferior
ovary) below the insertion of the
calyx, corolla, and stamens which
seem to spring from the summit
of the ovary (epigynous). The
view has been held that in such
cases a gamosepalous calyx similar
to that described above in the
perigynous flower has grown fast
to the surface of the ovary,
and that the other organs are
borne on the calyx-tube at the sum-
mit of the ovary. The opinion is
now becoming general that the true
explanation of the phenomenon is
that the cup-shaped receptacle of
the perigynous flower, and not the
calyx, has grown fast to the surface
of the ovary. In the Onagraceae
and some other plants, the hollow
receptacle has not only grown fast
to the whole surface of the ovary
but projects beyond it so that such
flowers have an inferior ovary and
are also perigynous (Fig. 1530).

Bracts. The leaves on the peduncles and upper
parts of the stem adjacent to the flower deserve a word.
They are often much modified in size, shape and color
from the normal foliage leaves, being often much
reduced. They sometimes form an involucre around
the flower, and are calyx-like, as in hepatica and straw-
berry. In other cases, they form a showy corolla-like
involucre, as in Cornus and Poinsettia, and are then
often mistaken for a corolla. In the Arum, a single
huge bract (spathe) envelopes the entire flower-cluster
(spadix); these are well shown in Figs. 1532, 1533.

1530. The fuchsia
flower in longitu-
dinal section.

1531. a, epigynous flower; b and c, perigynous flowers.

Incomplete flowers. Not all of the floral sets described
above are always present. The flowers may be incom-
plete. Thus the corolla may be wanting (flower apetal-
ous) as in hepatica and anemone, or both calyx and
corolla may be absent (naked or achlamydeous) as in
willow and pepper, or the stamens may be wanting
(imperfect or unisexual, pistillate flower) as in willows
and oaks, or the pistils may be absent (staminate
flowers of willows and oaks). At least one set of essen-
tial organs is necessary for a functional flower, but in
some cases, through specialization for other purposes,
both sets may be absent. Thus the marginal flowers of
the hydrangea are enlarged and showy for insect attrac-
tion, but are neutral. In the case of unisexual flowers,
. the stamens and pistils may be borne in different flowers
on the same plant (monoecious) as in the oak and birch,
or on separate plants (dioecious) as in the willow and
poplar. In some plants, as in the maple, certain
flowers are unisexual while others are perfect, a con-
dition termed polygamous.

The plan of the flower. If the numbers of parts in
each set are counted, a certain number will be found
to be common to many or all of the sets of the same

flower. This is the numerical plan of the flower (Fig.
1534). Thus in geranium there are five sepals, five
petals, ten stamens, and five parts to the pistil. The
stamens, when numerous, are often in multiples of this
numerical plan. The parts of the pistil, on the other
hand, frequently show a reduction from the numerical
plan as exhibited by other parts of the flower. The
number of parts in some flowers is so irregular that a

1532. The great white spathe (and the spadix) of the garden calla.

numerical plan can be made out only with difficulty,
while in some flowers such a plan is apparently wanting.
The members of each floral set are usually inserted
all at the same height on the floral axis (receptacle),
and are therefore in whorls, although frequently more
than one whorl occurs in the andrcecium and rarely
in other sets. The parts of one set normally fall between
those of the set next outside and next inside, and are
said to alternate with these. In some families, as for
example in the Ranunculacese and Magnoliaceae, some
or all of the organs of the flower are inserted spirally
on the receptacle like scales on a pine cone. In such
cases there is often a marked intergrading between the
organs of the adjacent sets at the boundary line. The
relative position of parts of the
flower may be graphically indicated
by means of a diagramatic cross-
sectional plan, called the floral dia-
gram (see Fig. 1534.). Information
in regard to the number and union
of parts may also be indicated by
so-called floral formulae as follows:

K
5

GAG

5 5+5 2

In this formula, the letters from
left to right indicate calyx, corolla,
androecium, and gynoecium respec-
tively. The brackets over the letters
indicate a fusion of parts in the
same set, while the bracket under-
neath indicates a fusion of different
sets. The above flower would be
polysepalous with five sepals, gamo-

1533. Spathe and
spadix of Jack-in-
the-pulpit.

FLOWER

1249

petalous of five fused petals, have ten stamens in two
whorls all inserted on the corolla, and two carpels
united into one pistil with a superior ovary.

Double flowers. Occasionally in nature and very
frequently in cultivation, the number of petals becomes
very greatly increased, often to the exclusion of the
stamens and pistils, so that the flower presents a full
rosette-like appearance. Such flowers are popularly
said to be "full" or "double." The increase in petals
is apparently a mutation, but is stimulated by changes
in nutrition due to cultivation. Most double-flowered
varieties tend strongly to run out. The origin of the
extra petals is not always the same. In most cases, as
in double hollyhocks and carnations, the stamens and
even carpels have been transformed into petals; in
rarer cases the extra structures are interpolated organs.
Double "flowers" in the sunflower, golden glow, and
the like, are simply heads in which all disk-flowers are
converted into ray-flowers (see next paragraph).

False flowers of the Composite (Figs. 1535, 1536). The
so-called flowers of such plants as the white daisy, sun-
flower, aster, goldenrod, and dandelion are found on
close study not to be flowers at all, but flower-clusters
of the type termed heads. These heads are remarkably
specialized for economy and division of labor. This
community of flowers functions as does one individual
flower in other cases, and the whole make-up of the
head simulates a flower to a remarkable degree.
Around the head is a calyx-like involucre of bracts,
functioning like a calyx as a protection in the bud. In

1534. Diagrams of the flower of drosera, vismia and viola.

daisy, sunflower and others there is a corolla-like part
consisting of highly modified ray-flowers or ligulate
flowers. The central part of the head in these plants is
occupied by disk-flowers. The aster, goldenrod, cone-
flower and many others are like the daisy, while in the
dandelion, chicory, hawkweed and sow thistle the head
consists of ligulate flowers only, and in the thistle, bone-
set and iron weed the head contains only disk-flowers.
The morphology of the less specialized disk-flower is as
follows: A one-celled, one-seeded inferior ovary is sur-
mounted by a variously modified calyx, which is often
wanting, and a tubular five-toothed gamopetalous
corolla. On the corolla-tube are borne five syngenesious
stamens, and from the summit of the ovary projects a
single style which is two-branched above. The ray-
flowers have been developed from the disk type in the
course of evolution by greatly increasing the size of
such a tubular corolla, and by splitting the tube down
one side, at the same time flattening out the slit por-
tion. In the sunflower, there was no great change in
color as the ray-flowers evolved, while in the daisy and
the asters the rays are of a different color from the
disk-flowers. Since the involucre performs for the whole
head the same function that the individual calyx does
normally for each flower, there is no longer any neces-
sity for the calyx. Therefore, following the general
rule that a useless structure tends either to disappear
or take on a new function, the calyx has become
obsolete in some cases while in others it has become
modified into scales, awns or bristles (pappus) which
aid the fruit in dissemination. In many cases the ray-
flowers have been sacrificed entirely for insect attrac-
tion and have become sterile. By this massing of the
flowers, more flowers may be pollinated by one insect
visitor, and more easily pollinated. Efficiency and

economy run through the whole organization of the
composite head to a remarkable degree.

The biology of the flower. The flower is a structure
developed by plants to promote and safeguard sexual
reproduction, primarily in land plants, and to bring
about cross-pollination in these plants. The three
definite agents of
cross - pollination
with which the
flower is con-
cerned are water,
wind and insects.
The agent for
which the flower
is adapted exerts
a profound influ-
ence on the struc-
ture of the flower.

1535. Head of composite, showing re-
ceptacle at e, bearing the disk-flowers.
The long rays are shown, and beneath
them the hairy involucre. Rudbeckia.

Only insect - pol-
linated flowers are
normally showy.
Water- and wind-
pollinated flowers
are usually green and small, with often a total loss of
corolla or of both corolla and calyx. The pollen in such
plants is produced in abundance to make up for great
loss, as it is wafted indiscriminately through the air.
Water plants usually flower at the surface and are
wind- or insect-pollinated. The true water-pollinated
or hydrophilous plants are few in number. Naias,
Zannichellia, Zostera and Ruppia may be mentioned,
all of which belong to the Naiadacese. In Zostera, the
pollen-grains are long and spiral as a further adapta-
tion to water-pollination.

Wind-pollinated or anemophilous flowers (Figs. 1537,
1538) are very numerous. Elodes and Vallisneria (eel-
grass) among aquatic plants may be mentioned. Val-
lisneria is remarkable because the staminate flowers
break off before anthesis, rise to the surface, expand,
and are floated about by the wind, the three reflexed
sepals acting as floats which cannot be upset. The pis-
tillate flowers are attached to long peduncles which
extend to the surface of the water, whether it is shallow
or deep. The pistillate and staminate flowers are so
shaped that when the two float together the stamens are
in exactly the right place to touch the stigmas. After
pollination, the peduncle coils up and the fruit matures
under water. The catkin-bearing trees are all ane-
mophilous and have very much reduced flowers. The
willows are both wind- and insect-pollinated. Among
herbs the grasses, sedges, rushes, and sorrels (Rumex)
are wind-pollinated. Interesting in this respect is
Thalictrum (meadow-rue) of the Ranunculacese, the
flowers of which are wholly green and insignificant
with large exserted anthers and abundant pollen and
feathery stigmas. It thus exhibits perfectly the various
adaptations to wind-pollination in a family that is
normally insect-pollinated and has showy flowers. The
time of flowering of wind-pollinated flowers often shows

1536. Parts in the head of a coreopsis.

a distinct relation to efficiency. The wind-pollinated
trees and shrubs bloom in early spring before the leaves
interfere with the passage of pollen through the air.
The grasses and other herbaceous anemophilous plants
bloom before the tall growth of late summer has
matured, at which time plants are mostly insect-pol-
linated. The pollen-grains of anemophilous plants are
nearly always smooth and very light, and usually con-

1250

FLOWER

1537. Wind-pollinated flower
of juncus. (Enlarged)

tain starch as a reserve food instead of oil. This pol-
len is capable of withstanding greater desiccation than
is the pollen of most insect-pollinated flowers. In the
pines, each grain is provided with two air-sacs to
increase the buoyancy and to expose greater surface
to the wind.

Insect-pollinated or ento-
mophilous flowers must meet
two distinct problems: they
must entice the insect to the
flower; and they must guide
the insect in such a way that
cross-pollination will be as-
sured. The attractive agents
are four in number, color,
honey, scent, and abundant
pollen (for pollen - eating
insects), but they are not
usually all found in one
species. Color is provided
mainly by the corolla, but
the calyx (in Anemone) or
even the bracts around the
flowers (in Cornus and Poin-
settia) may function thus instead. Attempts have
been made to show that certain colors are more attrac-
tive than others to certain groups of insects. Yellow
has been designated as the color for flies and beetles,
blue and red for hymenoptera, browns for carrion
insects and wasps, and whites for night-flying insects
especially. Honey (nectar) is produced in a great
variety of flowers and it is a reward for the insect visit.
The honey-secreting glands (nectaries) are borne either
on the disk or on the petals, but more rarely are they
staminal or ovarian. In order that the honey may not
be appropriated by undesirable insects which would not
effect cross-pollination, it is frequently placed at the
end of spurs or grooves which are adapted to the pro-
boscis of the insects for which the flower is adapted.
Various markings of the corolla, such as bright eye-
spots and dark converging lines, called honey-guides,
often direct the insect accurately to the honey, and in
such a way that cross-pollination will be accomplished.
An interesting case is the violet, where the honey is
produced by staminal nectaries but is collected and
stored in the spur of the lower petal. To this storehouse
honey-guides in the form of purple lines lead. The beard
in the throat of the violet flower protects the pollen
from rain and also discourages the insect from entering
the flower on the wrong side. Scent as a means of
attracting insects is very general, and is especially
frequent in nocturnal and crepuscular (twilight)
flowers. The scent is due to
volatile oils produced mainly by
the petals. These oily compounds
are comparatively few in number
and often re-occur in plants that
are wholly unrelated. Thus the
clove scent is found also in some
orchids, and the violet scent is
found with slight modification in
the flowers of several plants. Flow-
ers that attract pollen - eating
insects are often yellow, as butter-
cups and dandelion, but flowers of
other colors are frequently visited
at least by bees that carry away
quantities of pollen in their femoral
pollen-pockets.
Most pollen is injured by exposure to rain and dew.
The grains tend to swell and burst owing to the exces-
sive osmotic pressure. It is for this reason that pollen
when studied or germinated in the laboratory must be
mounted in a sugar solution approximating the density
of the stigmatic fluid. It is not a surprise, therefore, to
find that nature has protected the pollen of many

1538. Wind -pollin-
ated flower of a grass.
Poa. (Enlarged)

flowers from rain, by structural means. Thus, bell-
shaped hanging flowers, salverform corollas with a
small eye which requires pressure to force a drop of
water in, closed corollas of the snapdragon type, beard
in the throat, flowers that droop only in wet weather,
flowers that close up during rain, and many other con-
trivances, are adaptations, in part at least, for the pro-
tection of the pollen.

The protection of the honey and pollen from unbid-
den insect guests and the safeguarding of the flower
from self-pollination by such insects, has led to various
protective devices. The closed throat of the toadflax
and snapdragon, the small eye of the salverform corolla,
the beard in the violet, setose peduncles and stems over
which insects can walk with difficulty, glandular pedun-
cles and bands of viscid matter which serve as a sort
of sticky fly-paper to prevent wingless insects from
reaching the flower, are all adaptations of this nature.
Remarkable in this respect is the teasel, which has
connate-perfoliate leaves. These leaves form a basin
around the stem at each node. The basins fill with
water during each shower, and, as the water will not
evaporate for several days, there is a veritable moat
around the stem at each node which climbing insects
cannot pass.

Cross-pollination is frequently rendered more cer-
tain by various mechanical devices. Thus a device of

1539. Dimorphic flowers of primula.

great efficiency found in many plants is the separation
of stamens and pistils in different flowers (diclinism)
which renders self-pollination impossible. In this
respect, the dioecious plant is the most perfect type.
Diclinism is especially common in anemophilous plants,
in which the pollen is blown about indiscriminately.
Another efficient device consists in the early matura-
tion of the stigmas (proterogyny) or of the stamens
(proterandry) before the other sex in the same flower
(condition of dichogamy). Still another, although much
less common device, is the production of two or three
types of flowers in the same species in which the styles
and stamens are of different lengths (heteromorphism) .
Thus in the primrose (Fig. 1539) one flower may have
long stamens and short style, and another flower short
stamens and long style (dimorphic), so that an insect
coming from a long-stamened flower will have pollen
on his proboscis at exactly the right height to brush
the stigma of the long -sty led flower. In Ly thrum
Salicaria, the various combinations between the length
of style and of each of the two sets of stamens furnish
three types of flowers (trimorphic) . Other devices are
often found. Thus in some flowers the pollen of another
plant is prepotent in fertilization over that of the same
plant if both are placed on the stigma at the same time.
There are also many special structural mechanisms in
individual species, a study of which forms one of the
most interesting chapters in biology. Here may be

1251

mentioned the wonderful adaptations of the orchid
flowers, the catapulting of the pollen of the orchid
Catasetum against the insect, the lever-hammering
stamens of Salvia, the deliberate stuffing of the Yucca
stigma with pollen by the Pronuba moth as she deposits
eggs in the ovary, the gall flowers and caprification of
the fig, and many other equally extraordinary cases.

Although most plants seem to need cross-pollina-
tion and to have structures adapted to this end, there
are some in which definite preparation is made for
close- or self-pollination. Thus certain plants, as violet,
barley, Polygala, Dalibarda (Fig. 1217) and others,
produce cleistogamous flowers, which are small green
apetalous structures often hidden by the leaves or are
even subterranean. The calyx of these flowers never
opens. The anthers lie against the stigma, and on open-
ing, the pollen is immediately applied to the stigma of
that same flower. Seeds produced by such flowers are
often much in excess of those produced by the showy
flowers of the same species. In the violet (Fig. 1540),
cleistogamous flowers are produced in abundance
through the summer after the showy flowers have
disappeared. Incidentally it is interesting that these
flowers in violets are more important in classification
than are the showy ones.

Evolution of the flower. In the Thallophyta, Bry-
ophyta and Pteridophyta there is no flower as that
term is here used. The sporophyte shows an increas-
ing complexity through these groups, but there is no
differentiation into an organ that could popularly or
even technically be called a flower. Among the Gym-
nosperms, the cones of the Pinacea? have been likened
to a flower with many carpels but with no calyx or
corolla, while those of the GnetaceaB are still more
flower-like. The true flower, however, is a structure
characteristic of the Angiosperms.

There are two prominent theories in regard to the
origin of the flower. First, the foliar theory holds that
sepals, petals, stamens and carpels are real leaves
modified in the course of evolution from the foliage-
leaves of their ancestors. Floral parts are, therefore,
metamorphosed leaves. The evolution in this case
would have been from below toward the apex of the
floral shoot, or from the foliage leaves toward the
carpels. Certain teratological conditions have been
cited in support of this theory, especially when petals,
stamens and sometimes carpels have been replaced by
green leaves. This has been considered merely a
reversion to ancestral conditions. Trillium grandi-
florum frequently furnishes cases of this sort. This
theory has been exclusively held in the past. Recently
another wholly different theory has been proposed by
Bower, and is now accepted by very many botanists.
This has been termed Bower's sterilization hypothesis.
It holds that the foliage-leaves together with the sepals
and petals are sterilized sporophylls and that evolution
has been from above downward. Specifically it holds
that although the simple sporophyte of the mosses
consisted as at present of a capsule and seta undiffer-
entiated into stem and leaves, in some special groups
of mosses, however, the spore-bearing region around
the columella of the capsule became segmented into
transverse belts separated by sterile belts. Coincident
with this, the exterior of the capsule became lobed in
such a way that each fertile belt came to lie in the axil
of a lobe. From this it is easy to postulate an increase
in size of the lobes to form the scale-leaves of the club-
mosses and selaginellas, and an increase in specializa-
tion of the fertile belt to form the axillary sporangium
of these plants. It is but a step now to the angiosperm-
ous flower, in which some of the sterile sporophylls
have become modified into petals and sepals instead of
leaves. The demand for a large independently growing
sporophyte is thought to have led to the sterilization
of the sporophylls. According to this theory, leaves are
recent rather than primitive structures. The steriliza-

tion theory has the advantage of being more in accord
with modern knowledge of the evolution of organs in
these groups.

Floral evolution within the angiosperms is also diffi-
cult to follow and botanists differ as to its course. It is
by many held that the most ancient type is the acyclic
type as represented by the Ranunculacese, Magnolia-
cea3 and the like. Another although gradually dimin-
ishing school holds that the simple flowers of the
Graminea3 among the monocotyledons and the Amen-
tifera among the dicotyledons are the most primitive.
The high specialization of other parts of these plants
and the likelihood that the flowers have been simplified
because of the adoption of the wind method of pollina-
tion, strongly suggests that these flowers are not primi-
tive but specialized.

The flower from standpoint of comparative mor-
phology. The newer evolutionary morphology has
brought about changes in viewpoint in regard to floral
parts, and a new
terminology has
arisen. Accord-
ing to present
knowledge, there
is in some algse
and in all bry-
ophytes, pterid-
ophytes and
spermophytes a
definite alterna-
tion of two gen-
erations or

Ehasesinthelife-
istory of each
plant, separated
by a unicellular
condition of the
organism. One
of these, the
more primitive,
bears only sex-
cells (eggs and
sperms) called
gametes and is
termed the gam-
etophyte, i while
the other bears
spores only and
is termed the
sporophyte.
These genera-
tions have ex-
actly reversed their relative size, complexity and
degree of independence as evolution has progressed.
The originally independent carbon-assimilating gam-
etophyte of the mosses has become in the higher
plants wholly parasitic on the sporophyte and is
entirely lacking in green color. On the other hand the
sporophyte, represented in the mosses and liverworts
by the dependent capsule and seta stalk, has become
the real plant, bearing leaves and flowers in the higher
group. The thalloid reduced gametophyte of the ferns
is termed a prothallium, bearing sperm-cells in antheri-
dia and an egg-cell in an archegonium. This prothal-
lium has become differentiated in the more specialized
family Selaginellaceae into two types differing in size
and complexity of structure, and originating from spores
of different size. The large type of spore (megaspore or
macrospore) gives rise to the large female prothallium
which bears the archegonia; and the small spore (micros-
spore) gives rise to the small male prothallium bearing
only a single antheridium. The prothallia of both
sexes are very much reduced and permanently inclosed
within the spore wall. In the flower-bearing plants, the
reduction and dependence of the gametophyte have
been carried much farther. The male gametophyte or

1540. Common blue violet.

The familiar flowers are shown, natural
size. The corolla is spurred. Later in the
season, cleistogamous flowers are often
borne on the surface of the ground. A small
one is shown at a. A nearly mature pod is
shown at 6. Both a and 6 are one-third
natural size.

1252

FLOWER

FONTANESIA

male prothallium is inclosed in the pollen-grain and
the female prothallium within the embryo-sac. The
spore-bearing chamber or chambers (sporangia) corres-
ponding to the capsule in the mosses are borne on
leaves (sporophylls) in the ferns and fern allies. If
these terms used for the mosses and ferns are now
applied to the organs of the higher plants the termi-
nology will be as follows: Stamens, microsporophylls;
anther-chambers, microsporangia; pollen-grain, micro-
spore; nuclei within pollen-grain, male prothallium
(male gametophyte) ; carpel, megasporophyll; ovule,
megasporangium; embryo-sac, megaspore; cells within
embryo-sac except embryo, female prothallium (female
gametophyte); the embryo growing from the fertilized
egg is the daughter sporophyte. A mature seed, there-
fore, contains parts of three generations; seed-coats
and nucellus, if present = sporophyte; endosperm
(according to one interpretation) =gametophyte; and
embryo = daughter sporophyte . This terminology is now
gaining ground over the old in morphological circles
for it shows the relation of the flower to organs in the
lower groups. K. M. WIEGAND.

FLOWER-DE-LUCE. The origin of the Fleur-de-lis
of the French coat of arms is not known. By some it is
supposed to represent the head of a spear, by others the
flower of a lily. It has also been derived from the
points of a crown and from several animal forms, as
bees and toads. Apparently, the iris has nothing to do
with the heraldic Fleur-de-lis. This name as applied
to iris is of later origin and of a purely botanical sig-
nificance, referring chiefly to I. germanica. See under
"Fleur," Larousse, Dictionaire du XIX Siecle, 8:450.

H. HASSELBRING.

FLOWER-FENCE, BARBADOES: Poinciana pulcherrima.
FLOWER-OF-AN-HOUR: Hibiscus Trionum.
FLOWERING MAPLE: Abutilon.

FLtJGGEA (for Fluegge, a German botanist of early
19th century). Euphorbiacese. Tropical shrubs, some-
times cult, in the greenhouse: Ivs. alternate, simple,
entire: fls. apetalous, the staminate in axillary clusters,
with imbricate calyx and rudimentary pistil, the pis-
tillate borne singly, and with a lobed disk present,
styles slender ovules 2 in each of the 3 cells: seeds
grooved on the inner face. Six species in the Old
World tropics. Related to Phyllanthus. One species,
F. leucopyrus, Willd., with orbicular to obovate Ivs. and
edible white berries has been intro. to cult, in Eu. It
is a bushy shrub from Asia south to Austral, and is
said to need rich mold and moist high temperature.
Prop, by cuttings. j. B. S. NORTON.

FCENICULUM (diminutive from the Latin for hay,
because of its odor). Umbelliferse. About four species
of annual, biennial and perennial herbs, spread from the
Canaries to W. Asia, one being the FENNEL of gardens
(which see). Glabrous, often tall: Ivs. pinnately decom-
pound, the segms. linear or filiform: fls. yellow, in
compound umbels, the calyx-teeth obsolete, the petals
broadish, emarginate: fr. oblong or ellipsoidal, not
laterally compressed, the carpels half-terete, ribbed
and flattened. F. vulga\re, Hill (F. officinak, All. F.
Famiculum, Karst.), of S. Eu., the fennel, is a perennial
of short duration, cult, as an annual or biennial for
its aromatic seeds and Ivs.: erect and branched, 3-5
ft.: Ivs. 3-4 times pinnate, the ultimate segms. very
narrow and thread-like and rather stiff in the wild and
in dry places but very slender when cult., the petioles
broad and clasping: umbels large, of 15-20 or more
rays. Often run wild. Under cult., the petiole has
become broad and sheathing and other changes have
taken place. What are considered to be horticultural
forms have been described as distinct species: var.
piperitum, Hort, (F. pipmtum, DC.), the carosella of S.

Italy, the young sts. of which, inclosed in the sheathing
petioles, are eaten raw in the early season; var. dulce,
Alef. (F. dulce, Mill.), the finocchio or Florence fennel,
a low-growing condensed plant, with very large If .-bases.

L. H. B.

FOKIENIA (named after the Chinese province
Fokien where the tree grows). Pinacese. A tree inter-
mediate in its characters between Chamaecyparis and
Libocedrus, resembling the latter in the foliage and in
the seeds having 2 very unequal lateral wings; the cone
is subglobose and composed of numerous peltate scales,
each bearing 2 seeds. One species in Fokien. F.
Hodginsii, Henry & Thomas (Cupressus Hddginsii,
Dunn). Tree to 40 ft.: branchlets much flattened, the
lateral Ivs. with spreading acute apex, green above and
with white markings below: cone 1 in. long, ripening
the second year. G.C. III. 49:66, 67. Suited only for
cult, in warmer temperate regions. ALFRED REHDER.

1541. House constructed without rafters.

FOLIAGE PLANTS. A term used to designate plants
that are grown for the general effect of their foliage
rather than for their flowers. The term is indefinite.
In some cases, and more correctly, it is used for plants
with unique or interesting leaves usually colored as
coleus, Rex begonia, peperomia, calathea, farfugium.
In other cases it is used to designate plants of full
foliage and graceful habit, plants that are prized for
their general habit quite as much as for the characters of
the individual leaves. Of this latter class, ferns, palms,
grevillea, screw pine, araucaria, fatsia, ricinus, are
leading examples. The latter class contains the most
popular commercial subjects, and they are much used
in room and table decorations. The plants are often
rented for use in temporary decorations. For the cul-
ture of foliage plants, refer to the various genera.

FONTANESIA (after Rene Louiche Desfontaines,
prominent French botanist, 1752-1833, director of the
botanical garden at Paris). Oleacese. Shrubs grown for
their handsome foliage.

Deciduous, glabrous: branches quadrangular: Ivs.
opposite, short-petioled, entire: fls. perfect, small, in
axillary clusters forming terminal leafy panicles;
calyx minute, 4-parted; petals 4, narrow, small; sta-
mens 2, exceeding the petals; ovary superior, usually
2-celled; stigma 2-lobed: fr. a flat, winged nutlet. Two
species in W. Asia and China.

These are slender -branched shrubs with rather
narrow leaves and small whitish flowers in short ter-
minal panicles. They retain the foliage unchanged until
late in fall, and are well adapted for shrubberies, grow-
ing in any good garden soil. F . Fortunei is hardy as
far north as Massachusetts, F. phillyraeoides only half-
hardy. Propagation is readily effected by greenwood
cuttings under glass in early summer; also by layers
and by seed.

FONTANESIA

FORCING

1253

Fortunei, Carr. (F. phillyrxmdes var. sinensis,
Debeaux. F. calif arnica, Hort. ). Shrub, to 15 ft.:
Ivs. lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, shining,
quite entire, 2-4 in. long: fls. in axillary and terminal
clusters, forming a narrow, leafy panicle: fr. broad,
oval or ovate, ^-^in. long. May, June. China.
R.H. 1859, p. 43. Sometimes united with the fol-
lowing, to which it is superior by its more vigorous
growth, the darker and larger foliage, and by the
greater hardiness. In China it is used as a hedge
plant and may be recommended for trial in this
country.

phillyraeoides, Lab. Shrub, to 10 ft.: Ivs. ovate-
lanceolate or narrow-elliptic, mostly with rough,
minutely denticulate margin, 1^-2^ in. long: fls.
and frs. like those of the preceding species. W. Asia.
L.B.C. 14:1308. Var. angustifolia, Rehd. (F. angusti-
folia, Dipp.). Lvs. narrow-lanceolate or oblong-
lanceolate. ALFRED REHDER.

FORAGE PLANTS are mentioned only incidentally
in this work, as they belong to agriculture rather than
to horticulture. They are mostly grasses and legumi-
nous plants, and have a very large special literature,
much of which can be secured from the United States
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., the
various experiment stations, and separate books. Some
of the forage plants are of interest to horticulturists as
green-manures and cover-crops.

FORCING. The word forcing is variously used.
Properly, it should designate the growing of plants
outside their usual or normal season. This distin-
guishes forcing from the ordinary purpose of the glass-
house, which is to imitate the usual season in which
plants grow. For example, begonias are not forced: we
endeavor to protect them and to give them the season
and the conditions under which they grow in the wild.
Carnations when flowered in the winter are forced,
because we transpose their seasons. Chrysanthemums
blooming in October and November are not forced:
they are only protected. Sometimes the word forcing
is used in a very special sense, to denote the produc-
tion of flowers from bulbs or tubers in a very short
time under the influence of a very high temperature.
Thus, the lily-of-the-valley may be placed in a tempera-
ture of 90 or above, and the large buds be forced to
throw out their flowers before the plant secures a firm
foothold on the soil.

A forcing-house is a building in which plants are
forced; but the term has come to denote a simple glass-
house in which plants are grown only for sale, in dis-
tinction from private conservatories, or more elab-
orate structures used for the display of plants. See
Greenhouse.

The forcing industry in America is very large. At
first it was confined mostly to cut-flowers (which see),
but pot-plants, vegetables and fruits are receiving more
and more attention. The staple forced flowers are the
rose, carnation, violet, lily-of-the-valley, and various
bulbs. These are treated under their respective names.
Of vegetables, the most important forcing species is
lettuce. This is followed by tomato, cucumber and

radish. Other
vegetables are of
very minor im-
portance as forc-
ing products.
The growing of
fruits under glass
is receiving in-
creasing atten-
tion in this coun-
try. Very little
of this fruit-rais-
ing is really forc-

ing, however, since the glass inclosure is used chiefly to
protect the plants and to enable better care to be given :
the fruit does not ripen much ahead of its normal season.
Of this category are glasshouse grapes. Strawberries
are really forced, however, the whole period of vegetation
and bloom being greatly forwarded. Much attention
is now given by florists to the forcing of hardy plants;
and this is one of the most delightful of horticultural

1542. Even span forcing-house, 20 feet
wide, heated by steam.

1543. Uneven span forcing-house, 20 feet wide, on a side hill.
Heated by steam.

operations for the amateur. Many of our native plants
can be forced with the greatest satisfaction, but the
business is usually confined to imported stock of florists'
plants.

The forcing-house should be of the simplest construc-
tion. The plan should secure the greatest amount of
light, economy of space and of heating, and directness
and simplicity in every operation. The simple sash-bar
frame, without rafters (Fig. 1541), is most satisfactory
when properly constructed. The side walls should be
low and the roof comparatively flat. Often there is
no glass on the side walls. Under most conditions, the
house should run north and south, particularly if
even in span (Fig. 1542), but the lay of the land and the
location of existing features usually determine the direc-
tion. If the house runs east and west, or if it stands on
sloping land (Fig. 1543), an uneven or broken span is
usually advisable. The widely different opinions respec-
ing the merits and demerits of the different spans are
proof that each is good under certain circumstances.
It is the prevailing opinion that, in broken spans, the
long roof should be to the south; yet formerly some
glasshouses had the short span which is then very
steep facing the south (Fig. 1546).

In America, all forcing-houses are heated by means
of small wrought-iron pipes, which fit together with
threads. The old-time cast-iron flues may be employed
for conservatories, but they are too bungling for forcing-
houses. They do not admit of sufficient modification in
layout to adapt them to the long and often crooked
runs of forcing-house establishments. The wrought-
iron pipes are heated either by steam or water. Each
system has its advocates, which means that each has
its merits. Steam is less costly to install, since less pipe
is required. It also admits of greater variation in the
layout. Crooks and obstacles are more easily over-
come. In a large establishment, the place may be
heated up sooner. Hot water gives a milder heat
because the pipes are less hot. Of itself, it is less liable
to fluctuations. Theoretically, it is less expensive in
fuel; but in practice, the cost of running is found to
depend more on the character of the particular system
and the operations of the fireman than on the medium
itself. When properly installed, steam is as uniform in
action as water, and it is adapted to larger areas and to
higher temperatures (p. 1403).

Very good shape for a forcing-house in the propor-
tion of breadth to length is probably as 1 is to 4 or 5.
The best houses are rarelv less than 18 or 20 feet wide,
and rarely more than 30 to 35 feet. From 400 to 800 feet
is considered to be a good range of profitable length.

1254

FORCING

Houses of greater length are constructed, but they
must be considered as special cases. Parallel houses
are often "nested" with good results, the adjoining
houses resting on a common wall. When the various
houses are to be used for one kind of crop, the partitions
between them may be omitted; a very large space may

WORK ROOM FOR

LEAN-TO

^ ~~' l ~

| BEO

1544. Uneven span forcing-house, 30 feet wide. Hot water.

then be covered with practically one house without
the necessity of rearing a high roof. The size of house
tends constantly to increase.

The accompanying illustrations (Figs. 1541-1548)
show old and recent styles of American forcing-houses.
For further discussion of glasshouses, see Greenhouse.

L. H. B.
The forcing of vegetables.

The title "vegetable-forcing" may be applied to any
method of growing vegetables which will cause them
to mature or to become suitable for use in a shorter
time or at a different season than when grown under
normal conditions. This includes the growing of vege-
tables in coldframes, hotbeds and vegetable forcing-
houses.

Coldframes.

Coldframes are box-like structures about 6 feet in
width and of any desired length. They usually are
built to run east and west and with the north side a
foot or so higher than the south side. These frames
are sometimes covered with muslin but usually with
sash in which glass is fastened. The frames serve not
only as a protection against cold winds and frost but
as a means of catching the sun's rays which may pass
through them. In this way, a higher temperature can
be maintained in these frames than that which prevails
in the open at the same time. Coldframes are used for
the purpose of starting crops early and thus growing
them to maturity earlier than they can be grown out-
side, and also for the growing of plants for the field-
crops.

Hotbeds.

Hotbeds are similar in construction to coldframes.
The chief difference is that in the hotbeds fresh horse-
manure is used to supply heat. The manure
is firmly packed to a considerable
depth, in a pit dug for that
purpose inside the
frame. Rich garden
soil is placed over
the manure to a
depth of about 6
inches. As the ma-
nure ferments, the
heat thus formed
penetrates the soil
above, thus fur-
nishing a satisfac-
tory medium for
plant-growth.

Hotbeds are in common use in connection with
private gardens in all sections of the country except
where freezing weather does not occur. They are
used extensively in a commerical way in and near
most of the large cities in northern latitudes, and
especially such cities as Philadelphia, Cincinnati and
St. Louis. Crops are grown to maturity more commonly
in hotbeds than in coldframes.

Vegetable forcing-houses. Figs. 1547, 1548.

The growing of vegetables in vegetable forcing-
houses has become a very popular and profitable line
of work in many sections of the coun-
try. The area of glass devoted to vege-
tables has increased with great rapidity
during the last few years. The first
section of the country to become noted
as a forcing center was Boston, Massa-
chusetts. Soon afterward Grand Rapids,
Michigan, became an important vege-
table - forcing locality. The Grand
Rapids growers did not copy after the
Boston growers, however, as their soil,

*-J\J\3\j\JH gj.1 \J ^A Oj ilVy VV V^ V V^l j GfcO LUl^JLJ. DVMj

houses, varieties and methods in general differed very
materially from those used by the Boston growers.

Vegetable-forcing, as conducted by the Boston
growers, was rapidly extended to other places in the
eastern part of the United States. The development
of the industry was even more rapid and became more
extensive in Michigan and nearby states. Grand
Rapids methods, with modifications, were followed
very largely in this section of the country. The great-
est development has occurred in northern Ohio,
especially at Ashtabula, Toledo and Cleveland. How-
ever, nearly every city of much size, in the northern
part of the United States, has in or near it one or more
vegetable forcing-houses. The amount of money
invested in these houses is enormous. A single acre
under glass represents an expenditure of $15,000 to
$25,000, depending on the kind of material used and
the cost of the material at the time the building was
done.

Success in the growing of vegetables under glass
does not depend upon climate. Vegetables can be
grown in greenhouses in any state of the Union and in
any country on the earth in which vegetation flour-
ishes. However, vegetables can be grown under glass
more cheaply in moderately warm climates than in
cold regions, and more easily where much sunshine
occurs than where cloudy weather is prevalent.

As the gardener makes his own soil for the forcing-
house, to a considerable extent, the character of the
native soil is not so important as is the case with most
field-grown crops. However, a sandy soil can
be prepared for the forcing-house more
easily than can a heavy clay soil.
A good vegetable-forcing
soil should con-

1545. Lean-to lettuce house, 26 feet wide. Hot water.

FORCING

1255

tain an abundance of plant-food, should have a good
water-holding capacity, be capable of easy working
and be as free as possible from weed seeds and disease
germs.

A very important factor in determining the financial
return from vegetable-forcing is nearness to market.
Other things being equal, the closer the grower can
get to the consumer the greater the profit. Cheapness
of fuel for heating purposes is also very important. If
coal is to be used, the hauling should be considered
when estimating the cost.

No one thing has more to do with the success or
failure in vegetable-forcing than the man who runs the
business. To be a success he must enjoy the work. He
should have an understanding of the requirements of
the crops to be grown and ability to apply himself
diligently to his work. Careful attention to details
is of greater importance in connection with vegetable-
forcing than with any other line of vegetable-growing.
Besides being a good grower, he should be a good
salesman.

The forcing of lettuce. Fig. 1548.

Head lettuce. As this crop has special treatment
elsewhere^ it will need but brief mention here. The
Boston growers grew head lettuce from the beginning.
They were successful in the growing of it and the mar-
kets in which they sold demanded head lettuce. The
soil used by the Boston growers is of a very loose tex-
ture, being well filled with organic matter. In working
over the soil in the houses it is spaded to a depth of
1H to 2 feet. Large quantities of manure are added at
frequent intervals. Some growers practise steam
sterilization. Heavy watering is done before the plants
are set in the beds. The water-holding capacity of the
soil is so great that usually no further watering is
necessary until the following crop is to be put in. The
lettuce is allowed to develop until the heads become
large and solid, when they are cut, trimmed, washed
and carefully packed in boxes, three dozen heads in a
box. If the lettuce is to be shipped some distance it
is put up in cases holding one barrel. It is sold by the
dozen heads.

Leaf lettuce. It was not until Eugene Davis, of
Grand Rapids, Michigan, originated and introduced
the Grand Rapids leaf lettuce that lettuce-forcing
became popular in the middle West. The growing of
head lettuce under glass did not prove a success in
this region. The cry of "over-production" was heard
soon after the forcing of leaf lettuce began and has con-
tinued until the present time. With the exception of
short periods during the fall months of some years,
there has been no over-production of this crop.

Cultural methods.

When leaf lettuce is sold by the pound, the usual
practice is to grow three crops of lettuce followed by
one of cucumbers .or tomatoes. When the lettuce is
sold by the dozen, more than three crops are commonly
grown before the ground is given over to the other
crop. Lettuce sold by the pound is usually grown to a
much larger size than when it is sold by the dozen.

The seed for the first crop of lettuce is sown from the
first to the middle of August. It is sown in flats or in
solid beds, usually broadcast but sometimes in rows.
It is sown very thickly and if covered at all with earth
the covering is very shallow, not enough soil being
used to hide the seeds entirely from view. In warm
weather one thickness of heavy brown paper or burlap
is thoroughly moistened and placed over the seed as
soon as it has been sown and watered. The covering
is left on until the seed germinates which will vary
from two to five days according to the amount of sun-
shine and degree of heat in the house. It should not be
left on too long as spindling, nearly worthless plants
will result. In cold, cloudy weather seeds sown in

flats will germinate best if covered with glass for a few
days after sowing.

In about a week, in bright weather, and from ten
days to two weeks in cloudy weather, the seedlings will

1256

FORCING

be ready to prick off. This operation is tedious and
requires deft hands and practice to do it well and
rapidly. The plants are separated one from another,
care being taken not to injure them, and transplanted
into other flats or beds. They are spaced about 2
inches apart each way. All diseased and poorly rooted
plants are discarded. The number of plants that can
be pricked off in a day of ten hours will vary from 5,000
to 10,000 according to the skill of the operator. Some
of the best growers sterilize the soil in which the seeds
are sown and the seedlings grown. This not only
insures plants free from disease but eradicates all
weeds by destroying the vitality of the weed seed.

All the care that is required for the seedlings is to
keep the planthouse at the proper temperature, see
that the soil is supplied with the right amount of
moisture, remove all weeds which appear and stir the
soil when necessary to keep it from crusting. The
house in which the plants are grown should be well
ventilated in order to guard against the damping-off
of the seedlings. An occasional smudging with some
form of tobacco is necessary to keep the green aphis
under control. The cabbage butterfly frequently
deposits eggs on fall-grown plants and these hatch into
green worms which feed upon the lettuce in the beds.
The butterflies should be killed when seen flying near
the plants and should be guarded against as much as
possible.

In the fall when the days are long and many of them
bright, lettuce will be large enough to set in the per-
manent beds about four weeks after it is pricked off.
When lettuce is sold by the pound it should not be set
closer than 7 by 7 inches or farther apart than 8 by 8
inches for best results. When sold by the dozen it can
be set as close as 5 by 5 inches, although the best dis-
tance will depend upon the size of plants which are
found most profitable to grow. The first crop of let-
tuce will be ready to cut, when sold by the pound, in
six to eight weeks from the time the plants are set
in the permanent beds. It should give a yield of at
least three-quarters of a pound a square foot.

The prices that the growers have realized for the
first cuttings of lettuce have, during recent years, been
rather low. The cost of growing this crop is small,
however, as little fuel is needed for heating purposes.
The second and third crops will require more time for
their proper development than the first. They should
give a heavier yield, however, and the prices secured
are usually better.

It is very important to have plants of the right size

to set in the beds as soon as the ground can be prepared
after a crop is out. To be able to do this, it is neces-
sary to make frequent sowings of seed. In large green-
house establishments, seeds should be sown every
day or every other day, while in a small forcing-house
a sowing should be made once a week throughout the
season. No time should be lost between crops as time
is money in the vegetable-forcing business. Con-
siderable time can be gained by making a second trans-
planting for the second and third crops. The plants
should be removed from the flats before they begin
to crowd and placed in 2-inch pots. These pots should
be plunged in the soil between the newly set plants in
the permanent beds. The pots should be placed in the
beds as thick again as the permanent plants are set.
By following this plan, the plants can be grown to a
much larger size without injury than is possible when
they are grown only in the flats.

Grand Rapids lettuce will stand a wide range of
temperature without serious injury, but the lower the
temperature the slower the growth and tougher the
leaves, and the higher the temperature the more rapid
the growth and more tender the leaves. A low tempera-
ture will produce heavy lettuce and a high temperature
light lettuce. As long as thorough ventilation is given,
little danger of injury from high temperature will
occur, but high temperature and closed ventilators
invite disaster. The best results are secured when the
temperature is held at 45 to 50 at night until the
lettuce has attained sufficient height, 8 to 10 inches,
when it should be kept as near 45 as possible. The
lowering of the temperature at the finishing of the
crop will increase the weight considerably. If the
houses are arranged so that it is possible to keep but
one temperature, a night temperature of 45 to 48 is
most satisfactory. The day temperature may vary
greatly without injuring the lettuce if the ventilators
and heating pipes receive proper attention. Ventilation
should be given at all times during the day except
when the weather is very cold or stormy. The heating
pipes should be turned off whenever the heat from the
sun is sufficient to give the proper temperature in the
houses.

Sub-irrigation is the most satisfactory method of
watering lettuce. The water can be applied at any
time through the tile without wetting the foliage.
This method is not in general use because of the ex-
pense of installation. Water-tight benches or beds
are essential for its successful operation.

The overhead or Skinner system of watering is in

1547. A range of forcing-houses.

FORCING

1257

common use, especially in large establishments. It is
a great improvement over the old method of watering
with the hose. It is not only more efficient but requires
much less time and labor than the hose method. With
it, water can be applied in any quantity desired and
so gently that no baking of the soil wUl occur.

Whatever the method of watering, the
soil should be thoroughly soaked as soon as
the plants are set. It should not be allowed
to dry out, as the plants will be damaged
by the resulting check in growth. When
the water is applied to the surface, the
watering should be done only on bright days
and early enough in the day so that the
lettuce leaves will dry off before night.

Insects and diseases of lettuce.

The one insect that is always ready to
make its appearance is the green aphis.
Fumigating regularly, at least once a week
with tobacco stems or extract of tobacco
will keep this insect under control. In case
it secures a foothold and one smudging does
not do the work, a second the following night
will put the aphis under control. Tobacco
dust scattered on the surface of the soil
before the plants are set will help to repel
the aphis.

The cabbage worm is often troublesome,
especially on the fall crop. Poisoning when
the plants are small, and hand-picking when
the crop approaches maturity, are the most practical
remedies. Snails and slugs sometimes do damage, but
do not as a rule appear when clean methods of cul-
ture are practised. Other insects, such as the white fly
and black aphis, make their appearance on lettuce
occasionally but seldom become serious.

Among the more common diseases affecting lettuce
is the drop or stem-rot. This rot acts very much like
the damping-off of the seedlings. It is a fungous trou-
ble and can be controlled to a large extent by thorough
ventilation. Sterilization of the soil with steam some-
times becomes necessary in extreme cases. There are
other less serious forms of rot affecting leaf lettuce, all
of which can be kept under control, as a rule, by proper
ventilation. Watering at night or during cloudy
weather and high temperatures with closed ventilators
are practices which will tend to induce attacks of rot.

Another lettuce trouble of common occurrence is
"rosette." This is a disease which attacks the roots,
retarding and in some instances stopping the growth of
the plants. Sterilizing with formaldehyde, used at the
rate of two pounds to fifty gallons of water and apply-
ing one gallon of the mixture to each square foot of
space, has frequently given good results. Sterilizing
with steam, while more expensive, is more certain to
prove effective. When the lettuce is allowed to suffer
from the lack of sufficient moisture in the soil, it will
often have the appearance of lettuce rosette. The
grower should examine the soil carefully -when the
lettuce appears stunted in growth to be sure that the
trouble is not lack of water instead of a diseased con-
dition before going to the expense of sterilizing.

Cutting and packing lettuce.

There is a certain time in the development of leaf
lettuce when it is of just the right size and of the proper
degree of maturity to cut for market. This can be
determined by the feeling and appearance of the let-
tuce. When ready to cut, the lettuce plants will feel
firm when the hand is pressed gently on the top. If the
edges of the leaves show a few brownish spots, the cut-
tings should be done without delay. The ability to
judge just when the lettuce should be cut will be
acquired by practice.

Some of the large growers who make a business of

shipping lettuce, pack it in barrels. It is placed with the
top of the lettuce plants toward the outside of the
barrel and, when filled, the barrel is covered with bur-
lap. Fifty pounds are usually packed in an apple or
cracker barrel and from seventy-five to ninety pounds
in a sugar barrel. The lettuce is protected from frost

1548. A modern house of lettuce.

in cold weather by lining the barrel with paper. In
warm weather, holes are cut in the sides of the barrels to
admit air and thus prevent heating.

Boxes of different sizes but usually holding about a
bushel are used by many growers. When the lettuce
is to be shipped, the boxes are covered with wooden
covers. When it is to be sold on a local market the
lettuce is covered with paper or left uncovered. At
Ashtabula, Ohio, all of the growers pack their lettuce
in small baskets with stationary handles. Three and
one-quarter pounds is packed in each basket and the
lettuce and basket are covered neatly with paper.

The kind and size of the package and the amount of
lettuce put in is not of so much importance as the
quality of the lettuce and the care with which it is
prepared for market. Bright, clean, crisp lettuce will
sell much more readily than tough, dirty lettuce. All
dead or yellow leaves should be removed and all dirt
washed off.

Marketing.

At some of the large forcing centers the growers are
organized for the purpose of marketing their crops.
One man is selected to do the selling of the entire out-
put. The growers endeavor to put up a uniform grade
of produce, and inspection is provided to see that no
inferior stock goes in with that which is up to the
standard. This plan insures better feeling among the
growers and secures better returns for them than is
possible when each grower sells his own products in
competition with the other growers.

A grower who has a local demand for all the lettuce
he can grow has a decided advantage over the man who
is obliged to ship his lettuce some distance. The per-
son having a market within easy driving distance can,
if he grows good stock and puts it up neatly, not only
cut out the cost of shipping, the commission and much
of the package cost that the man who must ship is
obliged to pay, but he can also get a higher price
for his lettuce, as he can put it on the market in better
condition than is possible with shipped lettuce.

Forcing of cucumbers.

Cucumbers are forced very commonly as a spring
and early summer crop in many regions. The New

1258

FORCING

England growers devote a considerable area under
glass to cucumbers in the fall and winter months.
Eastern-grown cucumbers are sold in western markets
at the time of the year at which most of the western
growers are devoting all of their glass to lettuce or
tomatoes. Some of the vegetable forcers in Illinois
and farther west grow cucumbers in the fall and winter.

Varieties.

The long English type of cucumber is not popular for
commercial purposes in this country although it is
grown to some extent in private greenhouses. The
American forcing-man prefers a type of cucumbers
for forcing which is of the White Spine order. The
first requisite of a good forcing cucumber is prolificacy.
It should be from 8 to 10 inches long, even a foot in
length not being objectionable, of regular and uniform
diameter, not too thick, and free from what some term
"neck" ends. It should be dark green in color. The
fewer the seeds and the more poorly they are developed
the better it will please the consumer.

Cultural methods.

Cucumber seed is planted in pots or flats about
four weeks before the plants are to be set in the per-
manent beds. When planted in pots two to four seeds
are placed in each pot. When planted in flats the seeds
are sown rather thickly in rows about 2 inches apart.
The flat-grown plants are pricked off, when large
enough to handle, into pots, one plant in a pot, or into
flats about 4 inches apart each way. The plants which
are started in pots are not pricked off but they are
thinned, when necessary, to not more than two in a pot.

Cucumbers should be kept growing all of the time to
get best results. In order to do this, they must be
kept in a warm house. The night temperature should
be above 60 and may run as high as 70. The day
temperature should run at least 10 higher than the
night temperature and on bright days it can go still
higher if the ventilators are open. The seedlings should
never be allowed to dry out nor should they be watered
too heavily as damping off is liable to occur when the
soil is too wet. The watering should always be done
on bright days. Cold draughts should be avoided as
they induce attacks of mildew. Judicious ventilating
will insure hardy plants.

The distance apart the cucumbers should be planted
depends on the method of training to be used. There
are two distinct methods of training, the "A"-shaped
trellis and the upright. When the trellis is to be used,
the plants are set in rows from 10 to 16 feet apart and
from 10 to 15 inches apart in the rows. When the vines
are to be trained upright, the plants are set from 2 to

3 feet apart each way, one plant in a place.

The trellises are made of wire or slats and wire which
are run across 2 by 4 pieces of timber placed at wide
intervals. When the vines are trained upright, strings
are fastened to wires which are run above each row,
one string to each vine. When training, the vines are
simply twisted around the strings and the "feelers"
attach themselves and thus hold the vines in place.

Some growers use slender sticks, made especially for
the purpose, on which to train the vines. The sticks are
IK by % inches and from 6 to 8 feet long. A piece about

4 inches in length is nailed across the bottom to keep
the stick from sinking into the soil. The tops of the
sticks are fastened to wires run parallel to the rows,
one wire above each row. The vines are held in place
by pairs of nails driven into the sticks at intervals of
12 to 15 inches. One of the nails of each pair is bent at
right angles after being driven into the stick and the
bent part is dropped onto the other nail after the vine
has been placed between the nails.

The pruning of the vines is similar, no matter which
method of training is used. All laterals are cut back
more or less. One to three female flowers are left on

each lateral. Best results are usually secured when the
laterals are cut beyond the first female bloom.

Cucumbers in fruiting use an enormous amount of
water if it is available. As soon as the supply of water
in the soil becomes reduced below the amount required
for the maximum growth of the plants and fruit, the
number of short runty cucumbers will increase in
proportion to the number of long ones. The Skinner
system or any other similar system of overhead water-
ing is ideal for cucumbers. Care should be taken to
do the watering at a time when the foliage will dry off
quickly, especially if mildew or any other fungous
trouble makes its appearance. Aside from the fact
that the soil must be rich in plant-food, there is no
other matter of as great importance as the water-sup-
ply. Whether the water be applied a little at a time
and frequently or in larger quantities and at longer
intervals is not of so much impo tance as the supply
itself, which should be sufficient for the needs of the
plants at all times.

Pollination.

Some form of artificial pollination is necessary for
best results with the White Spine type of cucumber.
Hand pollinating is very tedious and is seldom em-
ployed in large houses. The usual method is to place
a hive of honey bees in the house and let them do the
work. In large establishments several hives are re-
quired. One strong hive for each half -acre of cucum-
bers will be ample. When first put in, the bees are
quite uneasy but they soon quiet down and make
themselves very much at home.

Insects and diseases of cucumbers.

One of the most formidable insects attacking forc-
ing-house cucumbers is the red spider. Some growers
are obliged to fight this insect every season. The best
way to combat it is to prevent its making an appear-
ance. This can often be done by keeping all of the
soil, walks and other places where there is enough dirt
to permit of their breeding, moist at all times. When
these little animals appear on the plants they can be
driven off by spraying the plants thoroughly with
water. To be effective, the water must be applied with
force and directed against the under side of the leaves.

Another insect which causes much damage to cucum-
bers is the striped cucumber beetle. The stink-bug
may be included with it, as the work of the two insects
is very similar in its effect upon the plants. The most
serious trouble with these insects does not occur
when the plants are small, as they can be protected
then, but when they are large. The vines which are
damaged by these enemies resemble those injured or
killed by the bacterial wilt. If the vines are killed by
the wilt, all of the plant dies at one time. When the
damage is caused by the bugs, the upper part of the

Elant or a lateral branch will wilt and dies first, usually
ut not always followed in a few days by the wilting
of another branch or the remaining part of the plant.
No effective means has as yet been found for combat-
ing these insects. Some growers claim that by keeping
the side ventilators and doors closed most of the time
the bugs will not get into the houses. To keep them
out in some places the ventilator openings would have
to be screened. No crops which the bugs work on
should be grown near the forcing-houses. When the
insects once gain admittance to the houses, they are
very difficult to eradicate. The stink-bugs lay their
eggs in clusters on the leaves and these should be
gathered and destroyed.

The white fly is occasionally serious on cucumbers.
The remedy is to fumigate with hydrocyanic acid gas,
but as this gas is dangerous to both plant and animal
life it is used only in extreme cases.

The green and black aphis occasionally attack
cucumbers in the forcing-house. The green aphis can

FORCING

1259

be controlled by fumigating with tobacco. The black
aphis usually occurs in patches and can be destroyed
by applying strong solutions of tobacco or soap.

Nematodes (eel-worms) often become very destruc-
tive to cucumbers. As they work entirely on the roots,
their presence is indicated by a weak and stunted
growth of the vines. There is no cure for a vine once
attacked. Sterilizing the infested soil with steam is the
usual method of eradicating them. It is not safe to set
plants in an infested soil which has not been sterilized.

Cucumber wilt is a bacterial trouble which often
destroys a crop in a few days. There are no satisfac-
tory means of combating it when it becomes estab-
lished. It is most likely to occur on plants which are
weakened in some other way, as by having too much
water applied or too little heat. Plants which are kept
growing vigorously are seldom attacked by the wilt.

The downy mildew is very partial to cucumbers
and often does serious damage. Cold draughts should
be avoided as much as possible. Frequent spraying
with bordeaux will keep the trouble in check. Another
less common but sometimes serious cucumber dis-
ease is anthracnose. Bordeaux is the remedy for this
disease. Root rot of cucumbers is of occasional occur-
rence and may be prevented by sterilizing the soil
with steam.

Grading and packing cucumbers.

In sorting cucumbers for market they are made
into at least two grades. The culls are seldom placed
on the market. About the same kinds of packages
are used in which to pack cucumbers as are used
for lettuce. They vary in size from the sugar barrel
to the small basket holding from two to two and
one-half dozen specimens. When handled in winter
they are usually packed in paper-lined boxes or
baskets.

Forcing of tomatoes. Fig. 1549.

Tomatoes are forced under glass at all seasons of
the year except during the time they are ripening most
freely in the field. The largest area of glass is devoted
to this crop in the spring and early summer. There is
also quite a large area grown during the fall and early
winter. Only a very few growers force tomatoes in
the midwinter months.

Varieties.

There is a difference of opinion among growers as
to which varieties are best for forcing. In a general
way it may be said that for the fall crop the varieties
having medium to small fruits are most desirable.
Some growers also prefer these kinds for the spring
and early summer crop. Other growers like the large
fruiting sorts, such as the Stone and Globe for the
summer crop. Some markets prefer pink or purple
varieties and others red sorts.

Some of the requirements of a good forcing variety
are: prolificacy, smoothness in form, meatiness and
good flavor. If the fruit is to be shipped it should not
be too tender of skin. Some varieties crack more
readily than others and those that are inclined to crack
should be avoided. Other qualities not lacking, those
kinds which are most resistant to disease are to be
preferred. Some varieties need less attention in the
matter of hand pollinating than others. This is a
desirable character and should be given consideration
when selecting a variety for forcing purposes.

Cultural methods.

For the fall crop the seeds should be sown in June.
The best results are secured from this crop when the
fruit is all set and well grown before cold weather
begins. The crop should begin ripening about the time
killing frosts occur and the bulk of the crop should be
off by the first of January.

For the spring and early summer crop the seed should
be sown in time so that the plants will be ready to set
in the permanent beds by the first of March. If a
temperature of 60 can be maintained at night, the
plants can be grown in two months from the time of
the sowing of the seed. Plants set in the permanent
places the first of March should ripen fruit about the
first of June and should be through fruiting by the
middle of August or a little before.

The care of the seedling plants is about the same
for the fall and spring crops, except that owing to the
difference in the amount of sunshine they can be

grown more quickly
and easily in summer
than in winter. For
either crop the seeds
are sown thickly in
flats or beds and in
rows about 2 inches
apart. As soon as
they are sown the
seeds should be
covered with glass,
paper or burlap to
keep the surface of
i>v the soil moist. When
') large enough to
handle, the seedlings
should be pricked off
into flats or beds, spacing
the plants 2 inches apart
each way. Before they
begin to crowd, they
should be transplanted
again, this time into 2-
inch pots. A third hand-
ling should be made in
about three weeks when
the plants should be trans-
ferred to 4- or 5-inch pots.
From these pots they
should be transplanted to
the permanent beds.

A. temperature of 60
or 65 should be main-
tained in the plant house
at night and at least 10
higher on bright days.
Careful attention to water-
ing and ventilating is very
important. Plants which
are given too much water
or which grow in a house
in which the ventilators
are seldom open will be
readily attacked by dis-
eases. Plants which are
properly grown are dis-
ease-resistant to a con-
siderable extent.

The spacing of tomato
plants which is practised by different forcers is much
more nearly alike than is the case with cucumbers.
The plants are seldom set closer than 1J^ feet nor
farther apart than 4 feet. Two by 2 feet or 1J^ by
3 feet are good distances. Nearly all tomatoes are
trained upright and usually to one stem. When two
stems are used, the tops are trained apart a foot or
more, making the plant form the shape of a partly
opened fan. Strings run from the foot of the vines
to wires run above the rows are the usual means of
support. By twisting the vines around the support-
ing strings, only a small amount of tying will be neces-
sary. All laterals or side branches should be removed
when small if the plants are trained to one stem.
If they are to be trained to two stems, the lowest

1549. Strand of winter
tomatoes.

1260

FORCING

strong lateral should form the second stem. The
lateral just above the first blossom cluster is usually
the strongest. All other side branches should be
removed. The pruning requires careful attention and
consumes much time. If the laterals are allowed to
grow to a large size before they are removed, it will,
not only require more time to cut them off but they will
take needed strength from the main branch.

Pollination.

As honey bees do not work on tomato blossoms it is
necessary to do more or less hand pollinating, the
amount depending on the time of the year, the number
of blossoms open and the varieties grown. If the
weather is such that the ventilators can be kept open
wide most of the time during the day, frequent and
systematic jarring of the plants will be fairly satisfac-
tory. Artificial pollination is more necessary when the
plants first begin to bloom than when the amount of
bloom is abundant. Some of the English types of for-
cing tomatoes do not require much attention in the
matter of pollinating. However, it is better to be on
the safe side and do more pollinating than necessary
rather than not enough. The camel's-hair brush is
used by some growers and the wooden spoon and
spatula with handles 15 to 18 inches in length are used
by other growers as a means of transferring the pollen
from one flower to another.

Grading and packing tomatoes.

Unless they are to be shipped a long distance, forc-
ing-house grown tomatoes should not be picked until
they show considerable color. The more nearly mature
the fruits are when taken from the vines, the better
the quality. Picking should be done every other day
or at least three times a week. The fruit should be
handled with care to avoid bruising, as injuries impair
the keeping quality of the fruit.

In grading, unless the fruit is unusually rough or too
variable in size, only one grade need be made for the
average market. All very rough and otherwise inferior
fruits should be withheld from the market. Some growers
make a fancy grade for special trade. This stock should
be of medium and uniform size, even in color and very
smooth. The hotels and clubs which give orders for
such stock are willing to pay an extra price for it.

Tomatoes are handled mostly in baskets. These
are seldom larger than a half bushel and usually con-
siderably smaller. The basket used by the Ashtabula
growers is the same as they use for lettuce and holds
ten pounds of tomatoes. A very satisfactory package
for use in warm weather is the four-basket carrier or
crate. The baskets which are put in this carrier hold
five pounds each. When properly selected as to size,
color, and smoothness, tomatoes packed in this con-
tainer are very attractive. The chief objection to their
use is that they are too much like the package used by
the southern tomato-growers and thus not distinctive
enough for the forcing-house tomatoes. During cold
weather or when the tomatoes are to be shipped a long
distance, each fruit should be wrapped in paper to
protect it from the frost and to prevent bruising.

Dealers who have not handled forcing-house-grown
tomatoes are sometimes slow to pay the price which
the stock, if well grown, graded and packed, should
demand. When they have once learned that forcing-
house-grown tomatoes are of superior quality and will
stand up much better than those which have been
shipped a long distance and of necessity must be
picked green or nearly so, they are usually willing to
pay much more for the forcing-house-grown than for
the outside-grown tomatoes.

Forcing of radishes.

Radishes have been forced by many growers but
they have not become generally popular. This is no

doubt due largely to the fact that the growing of them
and preparation for market necessitates a large amount
of hand labor; and the requirements of the crop are
exacting.

The turnip-shaped sorts are most satisfactory for
forcing in the forcing-house. The seed should be sown
thickly in rows which should be marked 4 inches apart
and about % inch deep. The Skinner system of water-
ing is very satisfactory for radishes if the watering
is properly done. The soil should be kept moist but
not too wet on the surface. The watering should be
done only when the weather is bright. Some growers
have found it more satisfactory to allow the radishes
to remain quite thick in the rows until a part of them
are large enough to market and then pull the market-
able ones and allow the others to develop, than to
thin them enough when they are small to permit the
radishes to mature nearly at one time. This method
of thinning will enable the gardener to grow many
more radishes in a given area than when the old
method is used.

Some of the essential factors in successful radish
forcing are: good seed, carefully sown; an abundance
of light; plenty of ventilation; sufficient water and
heat to keep the plants growing rapidly but not enough
to cause damping-off ; neatness and cleanliness in bunch-
ing, washing and packing.

Other forcing crops.

Space will permit only of a classification of other
forcing crops than those previously mentioned. Nearly
all kinds of vegetables which are grown in the open
can be grown in the forcing-house. Whether it is
practicable or not to force a vegetable in a commercial
way depends principally on two things: cost of produc-
tion and market demand.

The following lists include practically all vegetables
which are forced commercially, either extensively or
to a limited extent. The vegetables included in these
lists are divided into two classes, the "cool" and the
"warm" plants.

By cool plants is meant those for which the proper
night temperature is from 40 to 55 and by warm
plants those for which the night temperature should
be from 55 to 70. With either class of plants the day
temperature on bright days should be at least 10
higher than the night temperature.

"Cool" forcing vegetables:

Asparagus Cress Pea

Beet Lettuce Radishes

Carrot Onion Rhubarb

Cauliflower Parsley Spinach

Celery

"Warm" forcing vegetables:

Bean Eggplant

Cucumber Muskmelon

Pepper
Tomato

C. W. WAID.

The forcing of fruits.

The forcing of fruits under glass has increased con-
siderably in recent years and particularly so in the
private establishments. Grapes probably occupy more
space than any other class of hothouse fruits. Records
of cultivating the vine may be traced back some thou-
sands of years. Nevertheless, the greenhouse grape-vine
has not been improved to the same extent through
systematic hybridizing that many other fruits have
been. Some of our oldest varieties still hold a promi-
nent place in the forcing-houses. Some worthy claimants
have been added to the list from time to time. Madres-
field Court was raised over forty years ago by crossing
Muscat of Alexandria with Black Morocco, producing
a distinct Muscat grape with the Morocco coloring.
Of later introduction may be mentioned Lady Hutt,

FORCING

12G1

Appley Towers and a few others which have been
tested and have found favor with many growers.
Another account of raising grapes under glass will be
found in the article Grape.

Forcing of grapes.

The vine is of easy propagation. Different methods
may be applied for reproducing young vines, such as
cuttings or by eyes of ripened wood. Inarching and
grafting may also be resorted to. However, the general
method of raising young vines is from single eyes. It is
advisable to choose wood of the previous season's
growth or, when pruning back the vines, to take
thoroughly ripened wood with plump eyes. If not
ready for propagating, the wood may be heeled in a
cool house until needed. The month of January is
best for this purpose, for then there is usually a steady
bottom heat, which is necessary. A bottom heat of
70, with a temperature in the house of 65, is most
satisfactory. Furthermore, January-propagated plants
allow for a long season to
grow on the canes. In pre-
paring the eyes for propaga-
tion, about Yz inch of wood
on each side of the eye is
sufficient. Make a cut on the
opposite side from the eye a
trifle deeper than the bark,
which will callous in a short
time after it is placed in heat
and roots will emit in two or
three weeks. These eyes may
be placed in pans, flats or
singly in 3-inch pots; when
time is no serious object, the
pots are decidedly to be pre-
ferred, as the young vine roots
are very brittle. In prepar-
ing the pots to receive the
eyes, half fill them with
fibrous soil and fill the top
with a fairly sharp sand,
enough to cover the wood
with the eye just level with
the sand. The advantage of
having the soil in the bottom
is that the roots will strike
down and the plants may be
repotted, when ready, with-
out a check. They must be
kept growing through the
summer in a warm moist house and repotted when
necessary.

Inarching may be found valuable at times, partic-
ularly if there is a variety in the house that is not
desirable. The operation is fairly simple. There are
different methods of inarching, although the most
successful is with the young growing wood. For
example, to inarch a variety with a permanent vine,
preparations should be made the year previous. Grow
the variety desired in a pot, then ripen off as for plant-
ing. Whenever the vines are started into growth,
bring in the pot vine intended for inarching, about ten
days after the heat has been placed in the grapery.
Otherwise the pot vine will start into growth before
the permanent vine. It is advisable to select shoots
of about the same strength, if possible. The shoot that
is operated on should be as near the base as possible.
To inarch them is just a matter of bringing the two
shoots together and tying with raffia. When the cion
has united with the green growing shoots, which will be
in a short time, gradually cut it away from its own
root; also pinch the stock back by degrees to increase
the strength of the cion. Usually the cion will grow
away rapidly and produce a strong cane by fall so that
when pruning time comes the following winter the

1550. Pot-grown apple tree
in bearing.

old cane may be cut away and the new variety will
take its place.

Hybridizing.

In hybridizing with the aim to produce new varie-
ties, it is best to select a fairly strong-growing variety
for the female parent, choosing the rich Muscat pollen
for the male parent. No estimate can be formed as to
results from a true cross, as many different varieties
will appear. Grapes will produce an abundance of
pollen and great care must be taken to avoid self-
fertilization. Nature protects the pollen of the grape-
vine by a cap that surrounds the pistils and stamens,
and when the pollen is ripe for distribution the caps
are pushed off by the expansion of pistils and stamens,
insuring pollination. To cross-pollinate one variety
with another, measures should be taken in advance of
natural development to prevent self-pollination. Select
the bunch to be operated upon a few days before it
would begin to flower. Cut away the larger part of the
flowers, leaving a dozen or fifteen to be crossed with
other pollen. Then secure this bunch in a fine muslin bag,
which will prevent any insects from distributing unde-
sirable pollen upon it. The muslin will allow sufficient
air for the berries to set, after which it may be removed.
The bag is placed around the bunch a day or so before
the cap is ready to be dislodged, and careful watch must
be kept when the cap begins to loosen. Have a pair of
very fine plyers or pincers ready and remove the
cap by force, then immediately cut away the stamens
before the pollen has time to ripen. This must be
executed with great care as the flowers are very deli-
cate. Sometimes the flowers cannot all be operated
upon at the same time. If so, place the bunch again
in the bag and repeat the above process. When the
stamens have been removed, apply the pollen chosen
for the cross. This is best applied to the stigma with
a camel's-hair pencil. Repeat until the whole have
been gone over carefully. By using these precautions,
the bunch cannot become contaminated with undesir-
able pollen. Grape seed will germinate very readily,
although it should be sown soon after ripening as
its germinating power is weakened .if kept any great
length of time.

Vine borders.

Good drainage is absolutely necessary for the suc-
cessful cultivation of grape-vines. They will not resent
an abundance of water while in active growth, in fact
they demand it, but a border which the water cannot
pass through freely will be found a serious difficulty. It
is well in finding a location to choose, if possible, a
site on elevated ground, as the drainage from the border
can be carried off with less expense than in a low place,
without the trouble of the drain-pipes becoming stopped
up. A vine border will last for years and the advantage
of a well-made border, even though expensive in build-
ing up, will be manifest in the better fruit produced.

A grapery may be supplied with both outside and
inside borders, although it is not necessary. Neither
would it be advisable for early forcing, for the reason
that many of the roots would be out in the cold soil
at quite a contrast from the ones inside. But for mid-
season or late, there is no objection to this method.
In fact, vines that have access to an outside border
will keep healthy and vigorous several years longer
than when confined wholly inside. However, an inside
border will last for at least ten or fifteen years. This
must be decided before the house is built as, for an
outside border, the walls must be erected on arches to
allow the roots access outside. One advantage of this
method is that the vines do not require such close
attention as when depending entirely upon the inside
border. However, at present the larger number of
graperies are built with inside borders only. The first
thing to be done is to excavate at least 3^ to 4 feet for

1262

FORCING

the border. Assuming it to be a span-roof house, lay
a drain down the center, allowing enough fall to carry
off the water. Use 3-inch pipes and provide openings
along every 20 feet or so to take away the water. After
the drain is complete, a coat of rough concrete may be
placed over the bottom, which will prevent any of the
vine roots from penetrating into the subsoil. Over this
add a foot or 18 inches of drainage, such as broken stone
or brickbats, anything that will insure a free passage
for water. From the drainage to the surface level, there
should be about 2^ feet or a trifle over for soil. In
some localities it is difficult to secure a grade of soil
best adapted for vine-growth, although grape-vines
will thrive in different kinds of soil, if not too sandy or
too clayey. A good loamy soil is best, virgin loam pre-
ferred; or loam that has been in pasture three or four
years may be plowed and placed directly into the bor-
der. The grass fibers are of great benefit. The vines
would make a very satisfactory growth for a year or
so without any fertilizing ingredients added. However,
this would not be a wise policy and fertilizers of a last-
ing quality should be used. On that
account, farmyard manure should
not be used. All fruits require
potash, phosphoric acid and nitro-
gen and therefore these manures
should be applied. Do not apply
the fertilizers too heavily. It is a
simple matter when the vines be-
come thoroughly established to feed
from the surface. Bone is one of
the very best ingredients to place
in the grape border. This may be
used in a coarse state or that known
as J^-inch bone at the rate of
forty or fifty parts of solid to one
of bone. Potash may be used in
the shape of hardwood unleached
ashes, a trifle less in quantity than
that recommended for the bone.
Toward the surface, a quicker-acting
complete fruit - fertilizer may be
used. Such a border should grow
and produce grapes for many years.
A span-roof house running north
and south is recommended, as a cer-
tain amount of sunlight will be had
on both sides, whereas in a house
running east and west, very little
sun will strike on the north side.
Either curvilinear or straight span answers the purpose
for a private establishment.

Planting vines.

Vines may be planted either in fall or early spring.
Early fall-planted stock appears to come away more
freely and break stronger than spring planting. Plant
the canes about 4 feet apart; there is nothing gained
by too close planting. It is immaterial whether one-year-
old plants are selected or two-year-old, providing they
are thrifty strong canes. They should be shortened
back to 2 feet to insure strong growths from the
remaining buds, since, if a much longer length of cane
is left, they will break away unevenly and weakly.
Before planting, all the soil from a ball should be
removed and the roots straightened out. Spread the
roots out evenly on the border, cover with about 3
inches of soil and firm the soil well around them.

General treatment for forcing.

Grape-vines respond to the forcing treatment readily,
although a newly planted grape-house should be
brought along with little or no forcing the first season.
There would be no advantage in forcing them, as they
should not be allowed to produce fruit until the second
year, when they will be thoroughly established. How-

1551. Pot-grown pear
tree in bloom.

ever, assuming that the vines are established and grapes
are needed from the first to the tenth of May, the house
must be started by the middle of December with a
temperature of 45 to 50 at night, with a rise of 10
to 15 by day, according to weather conditions, and
gradually increasing so that when the grapes are in
bloom the temperature will be 65 at night and 75
to 80 by day. If a supply of grapes is demanded up to
Christmas or the New Year, three compartments must
be accommodated, the midseason house being started
two months later and the late house about the first of
April. A very important point to be considered is to
give the border a thorough watering, for while the
vines are at rest they are kept fairly dry. Ventilation
or airing is very important, for unless this is attended
to carefully serious trouble will follow, such as mildew,
red-spider and the like. The heat should be allowed to
rise gradually until the maximum is reached in the
morning, then kept as steady as possible and toward
evening gradually lowered to night temperature.

The best method of growing vines under glass is the
single-rod spur system. The spurs should be 15 or 18
inches apart on each side of the rod. Then disbud to
one shoot for each spur. As the young growth advances,
it must be trained in place by degrees, as the young
shoots are very brittle and if brought down too quickly
are liable to snap off. The next step is pinching the
shoots. The aim is to allow enough growth to cover
the trellis with foliage but to avoid crowding. A fairly
safe method is to stop the shoot at the second or third
leaf beyond the bunch, also pinch all lateral growths
at the first leaf.

Probably one of the most anxious times with the
man in charge is while the vines are in bloom or setting
their fruit. Certain varieties will set their fruit much
more freely than others. The Muscat family, as a rule,
is a bit backward in that respect. A safe method to
follow is a steady temperature with a fairly dry bracing
atmosphere so that the pollen can distribute itself
freely. By gently tapping the bunches around mid-
day, they should set freely. When the berries are about
the size of garden peas, they are in condition for thin-
ning. This is a tedious operation, requiring time and
Eatience. The bunch must never be handled with the
ngers. Either a stick with a fork or a straight stick
to lift the shoulders of the bunch while thinning should
be used. The aim is to cut away enough surplus ber-
ries to allow the remainder to swell to full size, so that
when full grown and ready to cut the bunch will keep
the same perfect shape when set on the dinner-table.

Grape-vines, when in a healthy, vigorous condition,
are rank feeders. There is no better time to apply food
than just after the grapes are thinned and again as
they take on their second swelling after the stoning
period. This may be applied in the shape of liquid
manure water or a complete chemical fertilizer. The
grower must use his own judgment in regard to quan-
tity, as so much depends on conditions. A healthy vine
can withstand more food than one less robust. Never-
theless, it is much better to feed lightly than too
heavily.

A moist humid atmosphere is necessary for grapes
while they are growing or from the time they are
started into growth until they begin to color, from which
time a drier bracing air will be of advantage. At this
stage, bottom air may be admitted by degrees during
the day, and later, or when ripe, keep bottom air on
day and night.

Pruning.

There are two objects in pruning: first, to keep the
vines in submission and second, to encourage vigor.
For the first season after planting, it would be well to
allow the vines to grow freely with very little stopping
of shoots. This encourages root-action and if every-
thing has progressed satisfactorily, the canes will

XLIV. Forcing of grapes. Muscat of Alexandria.

FORCING

1263

reach the top of the house the first season. When
pruning time comes, this cane must be shortened back,
allowing only about 5 feet of the season's growth to
remain. The same method should be adopted the fol-
lowing year and so on till the full height of vine is
secured. Before beginning to prune a grape-vine, one
should be absolutely sure the wood is thoroughly ripe.
This may easily be ascertained from well-ripened wood,
for after pruning the cut will remain perfectly dry
and in a few days have the appearance of an old cut.
On the other hand, if the wood cuts soft with a fluid
on the cut, then the wood is not ripe enough. To pro-
duce well-ripened wood from the time the crop is
gathered till pruning time, an abundance of air should
be allowed in the house and when the foliage has com-
pleted its functions a dry atmosphere should be main-
tained and the vines kept fairly dry at the roots. In
the long-rod spur system, it is necessary to prune hard
back, otherwise in a few years long ungainly spurs will
result. One or two eyes to each spur is sufficient and,
with thoroughly ripened wood, there is no danger but
that a bountiful crop 'will follow.

Varieties.

There are many varieties for forcing purposes,
although only a selection of the best varieties, early and
late, is given here. The Muscat grapes are the finest
of all u the hothouse kinds. Unfortunately they require
a longer season to ripen. Consequently one must rely
on earlier-maturing varieties for early forcing. A few
canes of Muscats may be planted in an early house and
they will be useful after the early kinds are exhausted.
It is not wise to depend on thin-skinned Muscats for
late use, as there would be difficulty in keeping them in
condition any length of time. The following varieties
are recommended for early, midseason and late:

Early. Black Hamburg, Appley Towers, Madres-
field Court, White Buckland Sweetwater, Foster Seed-
ling, Royton Muscat.

Midseason house should be devoted wholly to Mus-
cat of Alexandria, which is one of the finest of all
indoor grapes. It thrives better in a compartment
by itself, requiring a trifle more heat.

Late house. Gros Colmar, Gros Maroc, Barbarossa
or Gros Guillaume, Alicante, Diamond Jubilee, Prince
of Wales, White Lady Hutt.

Many others may be added to the list, but these
will be found to cover the season and varieties suffi-
ciently for all purposes.

Forcing of peaches and nectarines.

These fruits come next in popularity to the grape
and considerable space is devoted to their culture
under glass. Great improvements have been brought
about in recent years with both peaches and nectarines
and a large number of new varieties are constantly
appearing for forcing. One of the handsomest forcing
peaches is Peregrine. The color is magnificent and
flavor all that could be desired, with size sufficient to
please the most exacting. Others might be mentioned
to show the progress of time.

Cultural methods.

The same style of house that has been recommended
for grape-culture will be found ideal for peaches and
nectarines, although instead of having the walk down
the center of the house, it is better along each side.
This will allow planting the trees crosswise of the house
on trellises about 6 feet apart, which affords ample
space for a well-balanced tree. Also the same arrange-
ments in regard to borders, drainage and so on should
be carried out, although a slightly shallower border
would be satisfactory. From 2 to 2^ feet of soil would
be sufficient; nor is it necessary to make the border
quite so rich for peaches and nectarines as for grapes,
as the trees would have a tendency to rank growth, a

condition that should be guarded against. Peach trees
budded on plum stock are superior for forcing purposes.
Choose the best trees obtainable for this work. In our
climate, if everything goes well, the trees will grow
into large proportions in three or four years. There-
fore, space should be considered with this in view. A
tree that is planted in such a way that the branches
are evenly balanced on both sides, causing an equaliza-
tion of the sap, will insure better results. Assuming
the peach-house to be 25 feet in width with the trellis
crosswise the house, allowing a walk on each side, each
tree would have a spread of about 18 feet. One tree in
the center of each trellis is sufficient, which allows
ample room for development. If desired, a tree may be
planted on each side of the permanent one for two or
three years, but must be cut away as the space is needed
for the permanent tree. Still another method may be
adopted and probably the best, which is placing trees
in tubs on each side, then as space is needed they may
be moved away, whereas when planted in the border
one is likely to leave them too long and crowd the
main tree out of shape.

It would not be wise to force newly planted trees to
any extent, but rather to bring them along gradually
for the first season, when they will be in condition for
forcing. If ripe fruit is in demand about the first week
in May, the house must be started about the middle
of December. The peach tree will come on and develop
its blossoms in a comparatively moderate temperature
and it would not be wise to submit it to extreme heat
artificially. Peach trees delight in fresh air, and will
resent a too close humid atmosphere. A temperature
of 40 to 45 at night and 50 to 55 by day will suit
their requirements at the start. Gradually increase
this so that the temperature will range from 50 to 55
at night and 60 to 65 by day or 70 with sun heat
when in bloom. After the fruit is set, another 5 may
be added. Give plenty of air without lowering the
temperature, particularly in cold weather. Give the
house a light spraying two or three times a day when
the weather is clear until they come into bloom. Do
not spray while they are in blossom. After the fruit is
set, spraying may be resorted to again once or twice
a day according to weather conditions.

Peaches are subject to greenfly. As a precaution
after the fruit is thoroughly set, syringe every ten
days or so with a solution of whale-oil soap, enough
just to color the water. This is an excellent remedy for
both greenfly and red spider, both deadly enemies to
peach foliage.

The peach tree will produce many more shoots than
are needed to furnish the trellis, therefore the surplus
will have to be removed. This is best done by degrees
rather than removing them all at once, which would
be likely to cause a check. A number of shoots may be
pinched at the third leaf, which in all probability would
form spurs or fruit-buds for the following season. The
aim is to allow enough wood to remain to cover the
trellis, but to avoid crowding. As the crop advances
or before the fruit becomes of much size, thinning of
the fruit would be in order. It is a serious mistake to
overcrop. If a tree has a tendency to rank growth, a
fairly heavy crop would be of advantage. The grower
must be governed according to conditions.

Watering and feeding are important. Potash is neces-
sary for all stone-fruits and should be applied in some
form, or a complete fruit-fertilizer may be recommended.
It is better to feed light and often rather than too much
at once. Enough water must be supplied to give the
border a thorough watering from top to bottom. Then
no more should be given until necessary, for if the soil
is not allowed to sweeten up it would be impossible to
keep the trees healthy. It is not a good policy to have
the trees or borders saturated just as the fruit is ripen-
ing. It is better to give them a watering a week or so
in advance, which will usually last until the fruit is

1264

FORCING

gathered. The object of this is to improve the flavor
of the fruit.

One should not think that after gathering the fruit
the house needs little or no attention. The temperature
will not need close watching, but the fruit-buds have
to form and develop, and good attention to watering
and spraying the foliage is a wise step toward success
for the following season. Cut away any useless wood
after the crop of fruit has been picked, thus allowing the
remainder of the wood to become well ripened. Well-
ripened wood will withstand any reasonable amount
of frost during the dormant state, and fruit-buds will
respond when called upon with
abundance of healthy strong blos-
soms. Winter-pruning may be
done any time after the trees have
cast their foliage. This means
removing any weak growths,
shortening back extremely strong
growth and training the young
wood so that it will spread over
the space about 5 inches apart.

Varieties.

For forcing there are many
varieties to choose from. The
peach crop may be extended at
least seven weeks for one house,
but if the compartments are at
command a season of five months
or more may be had by planting
early, midseason and late varie-
ties. The following varieties may
be relied upon for early, mid-
season and late:

Early forcing peaches. Duch-
ess of Cornwall, Duke of York,
Peregrine. .

Early forcing nectarines.
Cardinal, Early Rivers, Advance,
Lord Napier.

Midseason peaches . P e r e-
grine (Alexander, Noblesse),
Bellegarde, Grosse Mignonne.

Midseason nectarines. Stan-
wick - Elruge, Rivers, Orange- _
Chaucer.

Late-house peaches. Crawr
ford Late, Thomas Rivers,
Princess of Wales.

Late-house nectarines. New-
ton, Spencer, Humboldt, Vic-
toria.

Numerous other varieties
could be added to this list. How-
ever this will be found sufficient
for all practical purposes.

Pot-fruits.

1552. Pear in fruit under glass. The
Hardy.

This method of producing fruit has found favor with
many growers throughout the country, particularly
in private establishments. It requires no specially
built houses for the purpose, providing the house
receives full sunlight with abundance of ventilation.
There are two or three advantages of this concentrated
method of growing: first, the house may be used for
other growing crops after the fruit is gathered, as the
trees may be placed outside or, as severe winter sets in,
they may be stored away in a coolhouse close together
until such time as they are needed for bringing into
growth again; second, a large variety of fruits is
adapted to this method of culture, such as peaches,
nectarines, pears, plums, figs and the like. These
trees may be grown into either pyramid or half-stand-
ard forms. Pyramids, as a whole, make a more attrac-
tive appearance in a house than any other form of

training. A house for pot-fruits requires about the same
treatment as that recommended for peaches planted
in a permanent border. Care and watchfulness are
required as to watering, particularly when first start-
ing into growth, as at that stage there is not much
foliage, consequently an over-abundance of water
would have a tendency to sour the soil. Potting the
trees is very important. There is no better time for this
operation than early fall, or just as they are casting
their foliage. Also a serious error is placing them in too
large pots or tubs. They should be repotted every fall,
but it is not always necessary to give them a larger
tub. Often the ball may be re-
duced and placed into the same-
sized tub. The soil should consist
of a good fibrous loam used in
a fairly rough state, if possible,
as this will allow free action for
. the water to pass off. Firm pot-
ting is of great importance-.
Three parts of soil to one of
thoroughly decayed rich manure
with a little bone mixed in would
be an excellent compost for the
purpose. Careful watering after
repotting is very important.

When the trees come into
bloom, keep a fairly dry bracing
atmosphere. Pears and plums
will refuse to set their fruit other-
wise. As the growth advances,
frequent pinching or stopping
the shoots should be attended to.
Some growths will doubtless be
much in advance of others.
When the young growths reach
the length of 5 or 6 inches, they
should be pinched and again
when they have extended another
similar growth and so on. Usu-
ally in the case of pyramid trees,
growth will be found more ad-
vanced at the top, hence those
shoots should be stopped, result-
ing in more vigor for the lower
branches.

Surface-dressing when the fruit
is swelling is of great benefit.
Either manure or a concentrated
fertilizer may be mixed with the
soil and added as a top-dressing,
but by all means do not apply
this until the fruit is swelling
away freely.

Pot-fruit that has been
properly cared for during the
season of growth in regard to
pinching and summer-pruning
requires little winter -pruning

aside from removing the very weakest growths.

Varieties.

The following varieties are the best:

Pears. Souvenir du Congres, Madame Treyve,
Hardy, Fondante d' Automne, Louise Bonne, Con-
ference, Magnet, Pitmaston Duchess, Durondean,
Princess.

Plums. The Czar, Blue Rock, Oullins Golden,
Early Transparent, Gage, Mallard, Denniston Superb,
Belgian Purple, Golden Esperin, Transparent Gage,
Green Gage, Grand Duke.

Figs. Brown Turkey, Negro Largo, White Mar-
seilles, Violet Sepor.

Apples and apricots also may be added, although they
are not so profitable as the others mentioned.

WM. TURNER.

FORCING

1265

Forcing hardy plants.

Forcing is an economical method of securing large
quantities of flowers in winter; it is extensively used by
commercial florists for cut-flowers and flowering plants.
Plants usually forced are hyacinths, tulips, narcissi and
other Dutch bulbs, lily-of-the-valley, astilbe, dicentra,
hybrid perpetual and rambler roses, Deutzia gracilis,
hybrid rhododendrons (R. sinense) and Ghent azaleas,
tender hydrangeas and lilacs.

This mode of procuring flowers at small cost has
always been more or less in vogue among plantsmen,

and of late years
has received fresh
impetus, owing to
the heavy demands
for decorative
plants at Easter. It
is not only an in-
expensive method of
getting flowers, but
with most plants,
after a little experi-
ence, the time of
blooming can be

flower-buds. Close pruning is necessary, and root-
pruning is helpful. Grafting, which has a tendency to
dwarf and hasten maturity, is also used with strong
growers. Sometimes both growing in pots and grafting
are employed, as in lilacs.

A plant fit for forcing must be compact, both top and
roots; economy in space is essential. It is now possible
to secure from the French, Dutch and Belgian nurseries
many plants grown for this purpose. A few come pot-
grown, but most of them are from the open ground:
very little of this work is done in American nurseries.
Figs. 1553-1555 show the methods of preparing woody
plants for forcing.

Herbaceous plants should be prepared for forcing
with equal care, and the process may require several
years. The removal of the flower-buds and growth,
under high cultivation, in close, compact clumps,
apparently produces the same results that pruning
and grafting accomplish for trees and shrubs. Fig.
1556 shows the root-clump of an herb prepared for
forcing.

Plants that have once been forced are commonly
thrown away. It is generally cheaper to buy new stock,
but lilacs, azaleas, and the like, can be planted out
and will recover sufficient strength in two years for a
second forcing, or for other use.
Some species, like Viburnum
plicatum, staphylea, and xantho-
ceras, if grown on in pots after
forcing, may be again forced, and
seem to do better the second year.
This is probably explained by
the fact that insufficient prep-
aration was given for the first

1553. Azalea, received from Europe, now
pruned for forcing.

easily calculated. The process has
limitations, at any rate with our pre-
sent knowledge of the matter, inasmuch
as, with the exception of "retarded
plants" and a few bulbs, it is not
practicable in late autumn and early
winter without the use of ether. It is
possible, however, that by using "re-
tarded plants," i.e., plants held over
their natural time of flowering by
keeping them in cold storage at a temperature suffi-
ciently low to prevent growth, this difficulty may
eventually be overcome. Except, however, with lily-
of-the-valley, which is admirably adapted to this prac-
tice, little is known of the possibilities of this form of
forcing; it is hoped that other plants, equally useful,
may be treated in this way. It is evident that, on
account of the cost of storage, bulky plants could not
be handled.

The requirements for successful forcing are: (1) a
good knowledge of the plants; (2) proper preparation;
(3) a period of rest; and (4) proper care after the plants
are brought into heat.

Those plants force most easily which bloom in spring
and early summer. Late-blooming kinds, like Rhodo-
dendron maximum, clethra and Hydrangea paniculata
var. grandiflora, do not give good results. No success is
obtained with asters and goldenrod, unless they are
retarded. These points must be studied out by the
grower.

Trees and shrubs should be specially prepared for
forcing by careful cultivation for one or two years
before use. They can be planted out-of-doors, with
plenty of room to develop, or they can be grown in
pots, the latter method being used with vigorous plants,
which are apt to run to growth without developing

1554. Rhododendron, received from Europe,
ready for forcing.

trial, the first forcing
being really "proper pre-
paration" for the second
forcing.

Hardy plants must
have a period of rest for
successful forcing, the
time required vary-
ing in different
species. One can-
not tell, except by
experiment, that
Paper White nar-
cissi will force easily

1555. Lilac pruned for forcing.

in November and December, while the double Von Sion
will not; the individual equation of each kind is an
element which must be considered. There is a popular
notion that freezing will shorten the time for resting,
or, at any rate, is conducive to the welfare of the plant.
This idea does not seem to stand any practical test.
After potting, do not subject the plants to severe
frosts (10 to 12 F.), or else the roots, now much
exposed, may suffer. The large buds of lilac and
rhododendron may also be injured if frozen hard.

Pot the plants as soon as they ripen their growth in
autumn, beginning in September with herbaceous stock,

1266

FORCING

and continuing until severe frost. It is possible, but
not desirable, to lift some things after the ground is
frozen hard. Plants received from abroad are potted on
arrival, or, if furnished with a ball like azaleas (Fig.
1553), they can be stored and not potted until brought
into heat. Dutch bulbs are boxed or potted as they are
received, and buried in the earth or piled in stacks
and covered with enough leaves and
litter to exclude frosts. Lily-of-the-
valley, astilbe and dicentra may be
kept in their packing-cases in a cool
pit until ready for use. Large plants
in tubs and boxes can be
covered with leaves and
kept out-of-doors, but most
plants should be stored in
a cool cellar, pit or frame
kept at a temperature of
35 F.; a temporary varia-
tion of 5 either way does
no harm. It is well to delay
this storage until as late in
the season as possible, but it
must be done before severe
weather. Plants may be
stowed compactly in several
tiers if necessary. It must
be remembered that no
growth is to be allowed while stored; it is their period
of rest, and this must be enforced. Good ventilation
must be given on bright days and every precaution
taken against an accumulation of moisture : if the plants
are well watered when put away very little will be
required afterwards. Dampness is most serious with
evergreens, like kalmia, and such things as Phlox
subulata. This stock should have the airiest positions;
sometimes it can be placed in shallow frames 2 feet
deep, which are drier than deep pits. In severe weather
the pits are often covered with snow a week or more,
but the plants will not suffer if this happens but once
or twice during the winter. At such times mice and
squirrels will make trouble unless trapped or poisoned.
Nothing except retarded plants, a few bulbs and one
or two kinds of prunus should be brought in before
November. December 15 to January 1 is as early as it is
safe to begin forcing most hardy plants; it will be found
that as the days lengthen the results will be more satis-
factory. At first the plants must be kept cool, 45 F., or
thereabout. Syringe twice a day until the buds swell:
after growth starts the treatment is the same as that

1556. Dicentra roots prepared
for forcing.

1557. Forcing lily-of-the-valley in pots.

given greenhouse plants, and they can be put in a much
warmer house if so desired. It is at this time that care
in handling, particularly in the matter of heat, makes it
possible to time the period of blooming so accurately,
but it is impossible to give any general rules satisfac-
torily to cover these matters.

A few plants, like lily-of-the-valley, can be placed
directly in a forcing-box, generally made over the

pipes in the hottest house, where a temperature of
80 or more can be maintained. They are first soaked
in water for a day or two and then kept in this heavy
heat until flower-buds are well developed (Fig. 1557).

Tulips, hyacinths and other bulbs, sometimes an
azalea or lilac, can also be hurried up in such a box, but
it is dangerous, and not good practice ; better and more
lasting flowers come with ordinary treatment. Trilliums
(Fig. 1558) and various early-flowering wild plants may
be forced with satisfaction.

Although no rules can be given for the time required
in forcing, it is knowledge not hard to acquire with
even surprising exactness. Nothing is likely to require
more than three months in houses ranging from 45
to 55 F. i.e., after bringing in from the pits. A month
or six weeks is good time to allow in February and
March, but with the same plants and temperatures,
more time would be needed earlier; with the advance of
the season, the work is quicker and less uncertain.
There is a great difference in plants. Rhododendrons
(the hybrids) require eight weeks or more, but one
species will often bloom in March, within twenty-four
hours. Plants like the rose, which must make a growth

1558. Forced trillium.

before the buds form, take more time than Rhododen-
dron sinense. The difference between dull and bright
weather is an important factor, but with extra firing,
or the use of the forcing-box, these matters even up,
and the average time of flowering is wonderfully even.
In this work, a man with good plant sense is most
likely to succeed.

The use of anesthetics in forcing.

In the latter part of the last century and early in the
present, experiments were begun in Germany, and
confirmed in France, England and the United States,
in subjecting plants to the influence of ether and
chloroform for the purpose of securing better results
in forcing. Ether seems, for many reasons, the most
practical agent, but, owing to its cost and the extra
expense of handling the plants, this process does not
appear to be in common use among florists. For a
detailed treatment of this subject, the reader is referred
to an article by M. Emile Lemoine in the Journal of the
Royal Horticultural Society (London), Vol. XXVIII,
1903-4, p. 45. See, also, the article Etherization, p.
1146, Vol. II.

In the main, the treatment of plants for this purpose
is as follows: A container, which can be hermetically
sealed and of the proper size is provided. In it are
placed the plants "as dry as possible, in equally
dry sand." The temperature of the box is 62 to 65 F.
Under the lid is a vessel into which the ether can be
poured and the hole sealed at once. It is important to
have the ether at the top as its vapor is heavier than
air and consequently gravitates downward. Ether,

FORESTRY

1267

particularly when mixed with air, is very inflammable
and lighted matches, cigars or pipes must be kept
away. "Thirty or forty grammes of ether are enough
for one hundred cubic litres of air: one gramme equals
fifteen and one-half grains, one litre equals sixty-one
cubic inches." The ether used is "pure sulfuric
ether which boils at 95 F." The plants are kept under
the influence of the ether for two days; sometimes they
are removed for two days and the etherization repeated
for the same length of time. Afterwards they are
placed in a coldhouse and "treated in the usual man-
ner." Lilacs "were in full flower eighteen days after
being placed in the greenhouse," one, "Marie Legraye
still earlier." Johannsen made lilacs "flower regularly"
the first two weeks in September which had been
etherized the first week in August." With other
shrubs, such as Rhododendron sinense (Azalea mollis).
Viburnum Opulus, Prunus triloba, Deutzia gracilis and
some of the spireas, the results were more or less
favorable."

Trials with chloroform apparently have been less
successful and other anesthetics and stimulants have
been found failures. g M > WATSON.

FORESTIERA (after Forestier, a French physician).
Syn. Adelia. Oleacese. Sometimes grown as ornamen-
tal shrubs.

Deciduous, rarely evergreen trees or shrubs: Ivs.
opposite, entire or serrate: fls. dioecious, apetalous,
with or without calyx, in small, axillary clusters in
early spring, before the Ivs.; stamens 2-4: fr. a small,
mostly black, 1- or 2-seeded drupe. About 15 species
from 111. south to Brazil and the W. Indies.

The species in cultivation are shrubs with rather
small leaves, inconspicuous yellowish flowers before
the leaves and small dark purple or black, berry-like
fruits. F. acuminata is hardy in sheltered positions as
far north as Massachusetts, while F. ligustrina is some-
what tenderer. They prefer moist soil and are suited
for planting along streams. Propagation is by seeds
and layers.

acuminata, Poir. (Adelia acuminata, Michx.). De-
ciduous shrub, to 10 ft. high, sometimes spiny, glabrous:
Ivs. slender-petioled, ovate-oblong or ovate-lanceolate,
remotely serrate, 1^-4 in. long: staminate fls. in dense
clusters; pistillate fls. in short panicles: fr. narrow,
oblong or cylindrical, deep purple, falcate, acute, K m -
long. W. 111. to Texas. Michx. Fl. Bor. Amer. 2:225.
B.B. (ed. 2)2:728.

ligustrina, Poir. (Adelia ligustrina, Michx.). Decidu-
ous shrub, to 6 ft., pubescent: Ivs. elliptic-obpvate to
oblong, obtuse, appressed-serrulate, about 1 in. long:
fls. in fascicles: fr. sessile, ovoid, obtuse, K m - long.
Tenn. to Fla. and Ala.

F. neo-mexicana, Gray (A. parvifolia, Coville). Shrub, to 10
ft.: Ivs. spathulate, almost entire, usually glabrous, grayish green
and rather small: fr. ovate or short-oblong, obtuse, } m - Texas to

ALFRED REHDER.

FORESTRY is the rational treatment of forests; this
treatment may vary with the object in view. Forests
may subserve various objects, giving rise to three
classes of forests: they furnish wood materials for the
arts supply forests; they furnish a soil cover, which
may prevent the blowing of the soil and formation of
sand-dunes, or may retard the erosion and washing
of the soil and may regulate the waterflow, or act as
a barrier to cold or hot winds, and exercise other bene-
ficial influences on climate and surroundings protec-
tion forests; or, finally, they furnish enjoyment to the
esthetic and sporting elements in man, as game-pre-
serves and parks luxury forests. Any two or all three
objects may be attained simultaneously in the same for-
est. In the end, and in a more limited sense, forestry
is the art and business of making revenue from the
growing of wood crops, just as all agriculture is finally
concerned in producing values from food crops and

other crops. In the economy of agriculture, wood crops
may be grown on land that is too poor for field crops.

This art is divided into two distinct and more or less
independent branches, namely silviculture, the techni-
cal branch, and forest management, the business
branch. Silviculture is a branch of the larger subject
arboriculture, and comprises all the knowledge and
skill applied in producing the wood crop, relying
mainly on natural sciences. While horticulture and
silviculture have both to deal with trees, their object
and with it their treatment of trees are totally different:
the orchardist works for the fruit of the tree, the land-
scape gardener for the pleasing form; in both cases the
object is attained by the existence of the tree and its
single individual development; the forester is after
the substance of the tree, the wood; his object is finally
attained only by the removal of the tree itself. He
deals with masses of trees rather than individuals: it
is logs in quantity and of desirable quality, clear of
knots, not trees, that he is working for; hence, his
treatment differs from that of the horticulturist.

The clear long boles free of knots are secured by a
dense stand, when by the shade of neighbors the lower
branches are made to die and break off. When in this
way clear boles to a certain height are secured, the
stand is opened up by thinnings in order to secure
expansion of crown and thereby more rapid increase
in diameter of bole. There are several ways of repro-
ducing the crop, namely artificially by sowing or plant-
ing, the latter being done with one- to four-year-old
plants, at the rate of 1,500 to 4,000 to the acre; or by
natural regeneration, either by sprouts from the stump,
the so-called coppice, which is applicable to hardwoods
and for the production of fuel wood and small-dimen-
sion material, or else by seed from mother or nurse
trees. There are various procedures of securing a crop
by seed, a so-called timber forest, which differ by the
rapidity of the removal of the old crop or nurse trees, and
by the size and progress of the opening strip system,
group system, selection system, and, the most refined,
shelterwood system.

Since the crop takes many years to mature some-
times a century and more in order to carry on a con-
tinuous forestry business, from which to secure annual
returns, special arrangements peculiar to this business
must be made : these arrangements, naturally influenced
by the economic conditions of the country, form the
subject of forest organization or management.

The ideal of the forester to which he attempts a
gradual approach with his actual unregulated forest
is known as the "normal forest." It supposes that a
rotation has been chosen, i.e. a year or period when
the timber will be ripe (determined in various ways);
that as many stands are at hand as there are years in
the rotation, differing by one year from each other, so
that each year a mature area can be harvested a
normal age-class gradation; that the increment on
the whole area is the best attainable for species and site
a normal increment; that the amount of wood stand-
ing, the stock on which the increment is deposited, is
the proper one for each age-class a normal stock.
This is the standard with which the actual forest is
compared to judge its abnormalities, which by the
management are to be, as far as practicable, removed.

Since the forest crop takes from thirty to one hundred
years and more to mature, i.e., to produce desirable
size, highest value, or best interest rate on the invest-
ment, it is a business which does not appeal to private
enterprise: the long-time element, as well as the influ-
ence of forests on water-flow and other cultural con-
ditions make forestry particularly a business to be
conducted by the state or other long-lived corporation.

The horticulturist, as such, is mainly interested in
the rational treatment of such forests as have a pro-
tective value, influencing climatic, soil and water con-
ditions in general and locally.

1268

FORESTRY

FORSYTHIA

The raising of trees for shade, for ornament, and for
avenues is not forestry, but a branch of arboriculture
(which see); the ornamental utilization of forests, as a
part of grounds, is discussed
under Woods.

B. E. FERNOW.

FORGET-ME-NOT: Myosotis.

FORMAL GARDENING : Land-
scape Gardening.

FORSf THIA (after William
Forsyth, prominent English
horticulturist, director of the
Royal Garden at Kensington,
1737-1804). Oleacex. GOLDEN-
BELL. Shrubs grown for their
wealth of bright yellow flowers
appearing early in spring, also
for their handsome dark green
foliage.

Deciduous: Ivs. opposite,
petioled, serrate or entire,
simple or partly 3-parted to
3-foliolate: fls. 1-6, axillary,
pedicelled, heterostylous; calyx
and corolla deeply 4-lobed,
lobes of the corolla oblong,
longer than the campanulate
tube; stamens 2, included, in-
serted at the base of the corolla;
ovary superior; style slender
with 2-lobed stigma: fr. a 2-
celled, dehiscent caps, with
many winged seeds. Four
species in China, Japan and
S. E. Eu.

The golden -bells are highly
ornamental, free -flowering
shrubs, with simple or ternate
leaves and showy yellow flow-
ers, borne in great profusion
along the slender branches in
early spring before the leaves.
They belong to the showiest
early - flowering shrubs, and

have handsome, clean foliage, remarkably free from

insects or fungi, remaining unchanged until late in fall.

The upright forms are well adapted

for the borders of 'shrubberies and

the pendulous form for covering

walls, fences, arbors or porches.

They grow in almost any kind of

garden soil, and are hardy North

except F. viridissima, which is

somewhat tenderer. Propagation is

readily by greenwood and hard-
wood cuttings; also by seeds. The

branches of the pendulous form

often take root at the tips when

touching the ground, and send

forth vigorous shoots, like some

brambles or the walking-fern.

A. Lvs. often S-parted or 8-foliolate:

branches hollow between the
nodes (except in the hybrid).

B. Branches always hollow between

the nodes: Ivs. usually ovate,

often 8-foliolate.

suspensa, Vahl. Shrub, to 8 ft.,
with slender branches often lopping
on the ground and taking root: Ivs.
broad-ovate or oblong-ovate, ser-
rate, 3-4 in. long: fls. 1-3, rarely
to 6, about 1 in. long, golden yellow,
tube striped orange-yellow within;

1559. Flowers of For-
sythia suspensa var. For-
tunei.

1560. Forsythia suspensa var. Sieboldii.
(Xjfl

calyx about as long as tube: caps, ovate, about 1 in.
long. China. S.Z. 3. Gn. 73, p. 243. Var. Fdrtunei,
Rehd. (F. Fortunei, Lindl.). Fig. 1559. Of upright
habit with finally arching branches:
Ivs. often ternate, ovate or oblong-
ovate: corolla with straight and
spreading twisted segms. R. H.
1861:291. G. 4:79; 13:87. G.M.
50:227. F.E. 31:421. Var. decipiens,
Koehne. A vigorous form of the
preceding: fls. always solitary, on
pedicels usually %\o.., sometimes
nearly 1 in. long, deep yellow, known
only in the macrostylous form. Gt.
55, p. 203. Var pallida, Koehne.
Fls. always solitary, pale yellow.
Var. variegata, Butz. Lvs. varie-
gated with golden yellow: fls. deep
yellow. Var. atrocaulis, Rehd. A
form of var. Fortunei with dark
purple branches and the young
growth purplish. Cent. China. Var.
pub esc ens, Rehd. Similar to the
preceding, but Ivs. soft and short-
pubescent on both sides or only
below. Cent. China. Var. Sieboldii,
Zabel (F. Sieboldii, Dipp.). Fig.
1560. Low shrub, with very slender,
pendulous or trailing branches: Ivs.
mostly simple, broad-ovate or ovate :
corolla-lobes flat and broad, slightly
recurved. B.M.4995. F.S. 12:1253.
Gn. 33, p. 563. A.G. 13:94. G.F.
4:79. Gt. 55, p. 205. F. suspensa
is an excellent shrub for the margins
of groups, because it finally rolls
over and meets the greensward. It
can also be trained over an arbor.

BB. Branches usually, particularly
above, with lamellate pith be-
tween the nodes, pith at the
nodes usually solid: Ivs. only on
vigorous shoots partly 2-3-parted
or sometimes 3-foliolate, usually ovate -lanceolate.

intermedia, Zabel (F. suspensa x F. viridissima).
Shrub, with slender, erect or arching branches: Ivs.
oblong to ovate-lanceolate,
sometimes 3-lobed or ter-
nate, usually coarsely ser-
rate, 3-4 in. long: fls. almost
like those of F. suspensa var.
Fortunei. Gt. 1885 : 1 182 ;
40, p. 397. Gn.W. 22:181. Var.
vi tell in a, Koehne (F. vitettlna,
Koehne). With upright or spread-
ing branches: fls. deep yellow, little
over 1 in. long. Gt. 55, pp. 227,
228. Var. spectabilis, Spaeth (F.
spectdbilis, Koehne). Upright with
spreading and somewhat arching
branches: fls. somewhat paler than
of the preceding, 1 Jxj in. long, often
5-6-merous. Gt. 55, p. 229. G. 35:
255. Var. densifl&ra, Koehne (F.
densifldra, Koehne). Upright shrub
with divaricately spreading and slen-
der arching branches: fls. crowded
at the base of the branches, rather
pale with flat slightly recurved
corolla-lobes. Gt. 55, pp. 230, 231.
Var. priinulina, Rehd. Upright
shrub, with spreading and arching
branches: fls. crowded at the base
of the branches, pale yellow; lobes of
the corolla revolute at the margin.

1561. Flowers of
Forsythia viridissima.

FORSYTHIA

FORTUNELLA

1269

1562. Forsythia viridis-
sima. (X 1 A)

F . intermedia is often confounded with forms of F.
suspensa. In foliage it resembles much the following,
which has the Ivs. narrower, always simple, usually
serrate only above the middle, with smaller teeth. It
is as hardy as F. suspensa and very floriferous.

AA. Lvs. always simple:
branches, at least in
their upper part, with
lamellate pith through-
out, including the
nodes: habit upright.
viridissima, Lindl. Figs.
1561, 1562. Shrub, to 10 ft.,
with green,
erect bran-
ches: Ivs. ob-
long-lanceo-
late or lanceo-
late, always
simple, and
generally ser-
rate only above the
middle, very dark
green, 3-6 in. long:
fls. 1-3, about 1 in.
long; corolla with
rather narrow, twisted lobes of
bright, somewhat greenish yel-
low; calyx about half as long as
tube. China. B.M. 4587. F.S.
3:261. B.R. 33:39. H.F. 1852:
97. J.H. 111.65:423. Gn. 33, p.
563. G.2:65;28:39. A.G. 13:94.
Var variegata, Hort. Lvs. varie-
gated with white. Less hardy
and graceful than the preceding forms.

europaea, Degen & Baldacci. Upright shrub to 6 ft.:
Ivs. usually ovate to ovate-lanceolate, entire or at the
end of vigorous shoots with shallow teeth, 2-3 in. long:
fls. 1-3, about 1 in. long, short-pedicelled, golden yel-
low; calyx-lobes ovate-ciliate, shorter than the corolla-
tube: caps, ovoid, about J^in. long. Albania. B.M.
8039. Gt. 54, p. 291. G.C. III. 36:123. J.H.S. 29:
663. F.E. 18:348.

F. Giraldi&na, Lingelsh. Upright shrub: Ivs. elliptic to oblong,
long-acuminate, broadly cuneate at the base, entire or serrulate,
glabrous or hairy on the veins beneath, 2-5 in. long: fls. short-
stalked: caps, ovoid with a long and slender beak. N. W. China.

ALFRED REHDER.

FORTUNEARIA (after Robert Fortune, who trav-
eled during the years 1843-61 in China and Japan and
introduced a large number of highly ornamental plants).
Hamameliddce3e. Ornamental shrub, grown for its
handsome foliage.

Stellate-pubescent: Ivs. deciduous, alternate, serrate,
with small caducous stipules: fls. small, short-pedicelled,
in terminal racemes; calyx turbinate with 5 short
lobes; petals 5, subulate, slightly shorter than sepals;
stamens 5, with short filaments; ovary partly superior
with 2 filiform re volute styles: fr. a dehiscent woody
caps., separating into 2 valves bifid at the apex; seeds
glossy, dark brown; embryo with large cotyledons revo-
lute at the margin. One species in Cent. China. Very
similar in habit and foliage to Sinowilsonia, but the fls.
and the embryo are very different. In general appear-
ance it suggests the hazel; fls. and frs. insignificant.
Has proved hardy at the Arnold Arboretum. Prop, is
by seeds and possibly by grafting on Hamamelis.

sinensis, Rehd. & Wilson. Shrub to 6 ft.: Ivs. obo-
vate or obovate- oblong, short -acuminate, usually
rounded at the base, sinuate-denticulate, glabrous
above, pubescent on the veins below, 3-5J^ in. long:
fls. scarcely J^in. across in racemes about 2 in. long:
caps, ovoid, less than >in. long. May. Cent. China.

ALFRED REHDER.

FORTUNELLA (named for Robert Fortune, who in
1846 introduced the first kumquat into Europe).
Rutacex, tribe Citreae. KUMQUAT. Evergreen shrubs,
grown for then* small ornamental fruits, which are also
preserved and eaten fresh. See Kumquat.

Leaves unifoliate, thick, pale and densely glandular-
dotted below: stamens 4 times as many as the petals,
polyadelphous; ovary 3-6- (rarely 7-) celled, ovules 2
in each cell; stigma cavernous: frs. like Citrus but
smaller, 1-1 y% in. diam., globose or oval, skin usually
thick, sweet and edible; seeds green in section, cotyle-
dons hypogeous in germination: first fotiage-lvs. broadly
ovate, opposite. Differs from Citrus in having a few-
celled ovary with only 2 ovules in a cell, and a cav-
ernous stigma; from Atalantia in having 4 times as
many stamens as petals. Four species are recognized.

The two commonly cultivated species of kumquats
have been referred by botanists to Citrus, but the
obviously related Hongkong wild kumquat has been
referred to Atalantia. The kumquats are, as a matter
of fact, out of place either in Citrus or Atalantia and
constitute a separate genus about midway between these
two. See Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 5:165-176 (No. 5,
March 4) 1915.

A. Subgenus Eufortunetta. Fr. 4~, 5-, 6- (or rarely 7-)
celled, pulp vesicles abundant, their stalks arising
from the smooth ovary wall, peel of fr. thick and
fleshy. The kumquats proper.

margarita, Swingle (Citrus margarita, Lour.). Figs.
1563, 1564. OVAL KUMQUAT. NAGAMI KUMQUAT. A
shrub or small tree, thornless or nearly so: twigs slen-
der, angled when young, often somewhat tufted: Ivs.
lanceolate, tapering toward both ends, the tip abruptly
rounded, sometimes emarginate, the base cuneate,
margin usually obscurely crenate above the middle,
dark green above, veins scarcely visible, pale green and
densely glandular-punctate below: fls. arising singly
or in few-fid, clusters in the axils of the Ivs., small,
%-^in. diam.; pedicel short, 1^-2^ lines long; bud
more or less angular in cross section; pistil short, 2-2 J^
lines; style persistent, scarcely longer than the ovary;
stigma capitate, cavernous, with large, deep-seated oil-
glands between the stylar canals; ovary 4- or 5-celled,
ovules 2 in a cell, usually collateral: frs. oval or oblong,
1-1 y*> x f-1 in., rarely 1 J^-l ^ in. long, yellowish orange
with large translucent oil-glands imbedded in the thick
and fleshy skin; pulp-vesicles abundant, fusiform, pulp
acid ; seeds large, 5-6 x 3-3 % x 2-2 }/ lines, oval ; embryos
one or several, pistache-green in section; germination
with hypogeous cotyledons: first foh'age-lvs. opposite,

1563. Leaves of Fortunella. (X}^)1, F. margarita; 2, F. japonica;
3, F. crassifolia; 4, F. Hindsii.

1270

FORTUNELLA

FOTHERGILLA

oval, narrowed at the base but without a sharply delim-
ited jointed petiole. B.M. 6128. G.C. II. 2:336. Hume,
Citr. Fr. p. 129. The oval kumquat, the type of the
genus Fortunella, is the most vigorous member of the
genus, the branched shrub or tree attaining a height
of 10-12 ft. and the Ivs. sometimes reaching 6 in. length

1564. Fruits with cross-sections of Fortunella. ( X 1 A) I, F.
margarita; 2, F. japonica; 3, F. crassifolia; 4, F. Hindsii.

and 2 in. width. It was the first kumquat to reach Eu.,
having been brought to England by Robert Fortune in
1846. Because of its superior vigor it is the one most
commonly grown commercially, but the frs. are inferior
to those of the following species, the skin being harsh
hi flavor because of the biting quality of the oil.

japonica, Swingle (Citrus japonica, Thunb.). ROUND
KUMQUAT. MARUMI KUMQUAT. Figs. 1563-1565. A
much-branched shrub with very short spines or none:
differs from F. margarita in the broader and blunter
pointed smaller Ivs., 1JHH4 x %-!% in., paler and vein-
less below, round frs. | l^in. diam., not showing any
persistent rudiment of the style, and usually with 5-6
segms.: seeds small, 3J^~5 x3-3J^ x2-2J^ lines, oval,
blunt-pointed, the empty testa not projecting beyond
the end of the embryo. 111. Rumph. Herb. Amb. 1 : 110,
pi. 31. Thunb. Icon. PI. jap. 2, pi. 5. Hume, Citr. Fr.
p. 129. The round kumquat is perhaps the most hand-
some of the citrous frs. because of its dwarf habit, much-
branched twigs, and small, bright orange-colored frs.

crassifolia, Swingle. MEIWA KUMQUAT. Figs. 1563,
1564. A much-branched shrub with very short spines
or none: differs from F. margarita hi the more rounded
frs. 1-1 ^2 x 1-1 % in., with 6 or 7 cells, not 4 or 5, and in
the thicker trough-shaped Ivs. sometimes more abruptly
pointed toward the tip, and paler green below : petioles
narrowly winged, not merely margined. It differs from
F. japonica in the If. characters and the slightly oval
frs. with 6 or 7 cells and a thicker peel. It differs from
both species in having much broader oval or ovate pulp-
vesicles. This kumquat recently intro. into the U. S. by
Japanese nurserymen is as yet but little known.

AA. Subgenus Protodtrus. Fr. S-4-ceUed, having
between the stalks of the pulp-vesicles many minute
wart-like, pale yellow cellular masses, peel of fr.
thin and but slightly fleshy. The Honakong wild
kumquat.

Hindsii, Swingle (Sclerostylis Hindsii, Champ. Ata-
Idntia Hindsii, Oliver). HONGKONG WILD KUMQUAT.

Figs. 1563, 1564. A spiny
shrub or small tree:
twigs slender,
angled when
young: Ivs.
oval-ellipti-
cal, tapering
sharply at
both ends, dark green
above and faintly venose,
paler and venose below,
petioles winged, often
merging into the lamina

1565. Buds and flower of of the If. without a sep-
Fortunella japonica. arative joint: fls. short,

broad; pistil very short; style shorter than the ovary,
stigma large, cavernous; ovary 3- or 4-celled, ovules 2
in a cell: frs. small, K-^in. subglobose, bright orange-
red; pulp- vesicles very few, small, fusiform; seeds thick,
oval or ovate, plump, 4*^-5^ x 3*4-4 x2>-3 lines,
pistache- green in section. 111. Seeman, Bot. Voy. H.
M. S. Herald, 1852-1857, pi. 82. The Hongkong wild
kumquat grows commonly on the dry hills about Hong-
kong and on the mainland of China opposite. It is the
most primitive of the true citrous frs. and doubtless the
species of Citrus have evolved from such a plant.

WALTER T. SWINGLE.

1566. Fothergilla. Leaves of F. Gardenii and flowers of
F. major.

FOTHERGILLA (after John Fothergill, eminent
English physician, who introduced and cultivated
many new plants, 1712-1780). Hamamelidacese. DWARF
ALDER. Shrubs, chiefly grown for their showy spikes of
white flowers and also for the handsome foliage.

Deciduous, more or less stellate -pubescent: Ivs.
alternate, short-petioled, coarsely toothed, stipulate:
fls. in terminal spikes, perfect, apetalous; calyx cam-
panulate, 5-7-lobed; stamens numerous, with the fila-
ments thickened toward the end: caps, dehiscent,
2-celled and 2-seeded. Four species in the southern
Atlantic states.

These are hardy ornamental shrubs with simple,
dull green leaves, and showy spikes of white flowers in
spring with the leaves: the distinct foliage resembles
somewhat that of the alder, or more that of Hamamelis,
and turns yellow late in fall. They grow best in moist,
peaty or sandy soil. Propagation is by seeds, not ger-
minating until the second year, or by layers, which
take two years to root; the first species also by suckers
and root-cuttings.

A. Lvs. rarely exceeding 1 in., stellate-pubescent above:
low shrub.

Gardenii, Murr. (F. alnifolia, Linn. f. F. Carolina,
Brit.). Fig. 1566. Low shrub, with generally spreading
branches, to 3 ft.: Ivs. oblong or obovate, rounded
or cuneate at the base, coarsely dentate above the
middle, pubescent above, pale or glaucous and tomen-
tose below, 1-2 in. long: spikes ovate or oblong, 1-2
in. long, leafless at the base; stamens Y^va. long, some-
times pinkish. April, May. Va. to Ga. B.M. 1341.
L.B.C. 16:1507.

FOTHERGILLA

1271

AA. Lvs. 2-5 in. long, glabrous or glabrescent above:
shrubs to 10 ft. high.

monticola, Ashe. Fig. 1567. Upright shrub with
spreading branches: Ivs. roundish oval to broadly obo-

vate or obovate,
remotely dentate,
often from below
the middle, light
green and sparingly
pubescent below,
often only on the
veins, 2-4 in. long:
spikes lJHj-3 in.
long with 1-3 Ivs.
at the base; sta-
mens Kin- long:
caps. J^in. long.
April, May. N. C. to
Ala. Has proved
hardy at the Arnold
Arboretum, like the
preceding and the
following species.

major, Lodd. (F.
alnifolia var. major, Sims). Fig.
1566. Upright shrub of dense
pyramidal habit: Ivs. oval or
obovate, cordate or truncate at
the base, sinuately dentate
above the middle or nearly
entire, dark green and somewhat
glossy above, glaucous and more
or less stellate-pubescent below,
at least on the veins, of firm
texture, 23^-5 in. long: fls. like
in the preceding species. April,
May. Known only from cult,
plants. B.M. 1342. L.B.C. 16:
1520. G.F. 8:445 (excl. Ivs. and
frs.). M.D.G. 1902:395, 396.
This species is superior to the
former on account of its dense,
pyramidal habit.

F . parvifldra, Kearney. Closely related to F. Gardenii. Lower
and stoloniferous: Ivs. nearly orbicular, rounded or cordate at the
base, toothed from below the middle. N. C. to Fla.

ALFRED REHDER.

FOUQUIERIA (Pierre Ed. Fouquier, professor of
medicine at Paris in the first part of the nineteenth
century). Fouquieriacese. CANDLEWOOD. Four species
from the deserts of Mexico and one extending into the
United States and sometimes cultivated in the larger
rockeries of California. These plants are interesting
as being an example of an order far removed from the
Cactacese in flowers and fruit but reduced to something
of their habit by the desert conditions.

Small trees or shrubs, becoming leafless in dry
weather, with showy tubular fls. in terminal racemes
or panicles: Ivs. fleshy, obovate, fascicled in the axils
of thorns: sepals 5; corolla with a spreading 5-lobed
limb; stamens 10-ao; styles 3, separate or united:
seeds with a membranous wing or fringed with long
hairs. Fouquieria is by some authors retained in
the Tamaricaceae.

splendens, Engelm. COACH-WHIP. VINE-CACTUS.
JACOB'S STAFF. OCOTILLO. Shrub, 6-25 ft., branch-
ing near the base : branches long, gray, furrowed, erect :
Ivs. obovate, rounded at apex, wedge-shaped at base,
K-l in. long: fls. scarlet or brick-red, exceeding 1 in.
long, in racemose or thyrsoid elongated clusters;
stamens 8-12, exserted: caps, %-%'m. long, the seeds
white, with a long fringe of spirally thickened hairs.
W. Texas and Ariz, to S. Calif. B.M. 8318. A.G.
13: 759. A hedge plant in Mex., making an impentra-
ble barrier. The plant is a conspicuous object in the

1567. Fothergilla
monticola. (X%)

deserts from Texas westward, standing on the open
exposed places and slopes, the rod-like stiff canes look-
ing like lifeless sticks in dry weather and in its season
crowned with masses of showy bloom. L. jj_ g +

FOURCROYA: Furcrsea.
FOUR-O'CLOCK: Mirabilis Jalapa.
FOXGLOVE: Digitalis.

FRAGARIA (Latin, fragrance, from the smell of the
fruit) . Rosacese. STRAWBERRY. Low perennial creeping
herbs grown for the excellent fruit, and one or two
species for ornament.

Plant stemless, with scaly rootstock or crown, and
rooting runners: Ivs. palmately 3-foliolate and toothed,
all from the crown : fls. white or reddish, in corymbose
racemes on slender, leafless scapes, sometimes lacking
stamens; calyx deeply 5-lobed and reinforced by 5
sepal-like bracts; petals 5, obovate, elliptic or orbicular;
stamens many, short; pistils many, on a conical recep-
tacle, becoming small and hard achenes and persist-
ing on the enlarging receptacle, which becomes pulpy
and edible. The fragarias are exceedingly variable.
About 150 specific names have been applied to them,
but Bentham and Hooker would reduce them all to
3 or 4 species, and Focke (in Engler & Prantl) to about
8. Rydberg, however, accepts 27 N. American species
(N. Amer. Flora, XXII, part 4. 1908). Of the true
fragarias, about 4 species-types are interesting to the
horticulturist as the parents of the garden strawberries :
F. chiloensis, the probable original of the ordinary cul-
tivated strawberries of Amer. ; F. virginiana, which was
early domesticated, and of which some trace still remains
in cult, varieties; F. moschata, the Hautbois, and F.
vesca, the alpine and perpetual strawberries, which are
little cult, in this country. The classical work on straw-

1568. Fragaria chiloensis.

1272

FRAGARIA

1569. Fragaria virginiana, showing the profuse runners.

berries is Duchesne's "Histoire Naturelle des Frais-
iers," 1766. See Strawberry. For Fragaria indica, see
Duchesnea.

A. Lfts. distinctly petiolulate, few-toothed.
Daltoniana, Gay (F. sikkimensis, Kurz). Small plant
with red sts. to the very slender runners, offered as a
rock-garden subject or carpeter: hairy or nearly gla-
brous: fls. solitary; calyx-lobes and bracts toothed: fr.
long (1 in. long by half as broad), bright scarlet, with
little flavor. Himalayas, 10,000 ft. and upward.

AA. Lfts. sessile or nearly so, many-toothed.

B. Lvs. normally overtopping the fls. and fr.: achenes
mostly sunken in the flesh of the berry.

chiloensis, Duchesne. Fig. 1568. Low, but stout in all
its parts: Ivs. thick, more or less glossy above, bluish
white below, blunt-toothed: fl. -clusters fork-
ing and long-rayed, the peduncle short, soon
lopping on the ground: runners mostly
appearing after the fr. is gone: berry large
and firm, dark-colored, more or less musky
in flavor, reinforced by a very large calyx or
hull. Pacific coast region Peru to Patagonia.
A common wild strawberry of the Pacific
slope from Alaska to Calif., is considered to
be the same species.

Var. ananassa, Hort. (F. anandssa, F.
tincta, F. calyculata, Duchesne. F. grandi-
ndra, Ehrh. F. vesca var. ananas, Ait.).
PINE STRAWBERRY. COMMON GARDEN STRAWBERRY.
Taller growing: Ivs. larger and thinner, mostly lighter
green on both sides: fr. larger, running into very
many kinds.

virginiana, Duchesne. SCARLET or VIRGINIAN
STRAWBERRY. Figs. 1569, 1570. More slender: Ivs.
thinner, light green above and below, the upper sur-
face with sunken veins: fl. -clusters small, with a few
hanging frs. at the top of a rather long peduncle: run-

ners usually appearing with the fr. : berry small,
light scarlet, globular or oblong-conical, usually with
a constriction or neck underneath the moderate-
sized calyx or hull. E. N. Amer. Variable. A few
early varieties of strawberries, as Crystal City, seem
to be wholly or partly of F. virginiana origin. Var.
illinoensis, Gray (F. illinoensis, Prince. F. Grayana,
Vilm. F. virginiana var. Grayana, Rydb.). A large
and more robust form, more hairy, the hairs on
the pedicels spreading whereas on the type they are
more appressed.

BB. Lvs. normally shorter than
the fl.-clusters: achenes
usually not sunken in
the flesh of the berry.

vesca, Linn. (F. semper-
fldrens, Duchesne) . ALPINE
and PERPETUAL STRAWBER-
RIES. Erect and dark green,
only sparsely hairy, the Ivs.
thin and light green as com-
pared with the foregoing
species, very sharp-toothed:

fl.-cluster small, forking, erect: fr. firm, small, usu-
ally hemispheric, the achenes very prominent; hull
spreading. Eu. The American more slender form
of this group-species, common in woods from Va.
north, is var. americana, Porter (E. americana,
Brit.), Fig. 1571, with ovoid or somewhat conical
fr. usually with a distinct neck, and sparingly hairy
rather than hairy-pubescent petioles and scapes,
and thinner Ivs. The true F. vesca is thought to
be sparingly naturalized eastward, and probably
native in many parts, particularly the white-fruited
form (forma albicdrpa, Brit.). The cult, forms are
rarely seen in this country, but the quality is high,
and they are deserving of more attention in home
grounds. Variable in cult. There is a form with
Ifts. reduced to 1 (F. monophylla, Duchesne. B.M.
63). This type of strawberry bears more continu-
ously than F. chiloensis arid F. virginiana in its cul-
tivated forms.

1570. Fruit of Fragaria
virginiana. (Nat. size)

1571. Fragaria vesca var. ameri-
cana. (Separate fruit nat. size)

FRAGARIA

FRASERA

1273

moschata, Duchesne (F. elatior, Ehrh.). HAXTTBOIS.
Taller, usually dioecious, more pubescent, the calyx or
hull strongly reflexed from the fr.: berry dull red,
musky. Eu. Cult, forms rarely seen in Amer.

mexicana, Schlecht. Lvs. few and scape solitary:
Ivs. rather thin, soon becoming smooth above, the
slender silky petioles 2-3 in. long; Ifts. oblong-obovate
or cuneate, coarsely serrate: fls. usually less than ^in.

1572. A frame. It accommodates four sashes.

diam., on scapes 2-4 in. high; sepals and bracts silky;
petals obovate: fr. nearly hemispheric, small, the
achenes superficial. Cent. Mex. The "everbearing
strawberry," frequently advertised, is said to belong
here. F. calif ornica, Cham. & Schlecht., is similar
but has much longer petioles and broadly rounded or
rhomb-ovate Ifts., somewhat larger fls. and fr., and the
achenes in shallow pits. Calif., New Mex., Lower Calif.

L. H. B.

FRAGRANT BALM: Monarda didyma.

FRAME. Fig. 1572. A box without permanent top or
bottom which is designed, when covered with glass or
other transparent material, as a place in which to grow
plants. When supplied with artificial bottom heat, the
frame is part of a hotbed ; when supplied only with sun
heat, it is part of a coldframe. The frame may be of
any size, but the normal size is 6 by 12 feet, an area
which accommodates four 3- by 6-foot sashes; and
this 6 by 12 area is understood when one speaks of "a
frame." . See Hotbed.

FRANCfSCEA: Brunfelsia.

FRANCOA (Fr. Franco, Valencia, sixteenth century,
promoter of botany). Saxifragdcese. Two or three
species of Chilean perennial herbs, with lyrate leaves
and terminal dense racemes of white or pink flowers
borne in summer, suitable for outdoor planting in
mild climates.

Plants erect, scapose, the Ivs. basal or nearly so.
2-3 ft. high, and in the N. could perhaps be wintered
in a coldframe: glandular-pilose or tomentose: rhi-
zome thick, many-headed: Ivs. glandu-
lar-dentate: fls. 1 in. across, in racemes
6 in. long; floral parts in 4's rarely 5's;
petals obovate, clawed; stamens 4:
caps, coriaceous, elongated, 4-angled
and 4-celled.

A. Fls. white.

ramdsa, D. Don. (F. glabrata, DC.).
Taller, woodier and more branching
than the others, and distinguished by
pubescent infl. : If .-stalks not margined:
fls. smaller. Hardy at Washington,
D. C., with spikes 2 ft. long and 1 in.
thick. Forms are known under the
names F. ramosa hybrida (G.W. 7:230,
a robust plant with pure white fls.
larger than the type); and F. ramosa
Candida. F. ramosa is an attractive
species. Gt. 60: 1590. Gn. 69, pp. 271,
343; 70, p. 283. G.L. 24:177. G. 7:
741; 13:307. G.M.49:127.

AA. Fls. mostly pink.

sonchifSlia, Cav. Fig. 1573. Lf.-stalks broadly
winged at the base; lower lobes continuous with the
broad margin at the base of the If .-stalk: petals deep
rose, dark-spotted. B.M. 3309. By some considered
to be a variety of F. appendiculata.

appendiculata, Cav. Lf.-stalks not winged at the base ;
lower lobes distant from the base of the stalk:
petals pale rose, rarely spotted. B.M. 3178
(shows a white longitudinal band on petals).
B.R. 1645. L.B.C. 19:1864, erroneously
named F. sonchifolia. R.H. 1906, pp. 428, 429.
G.W. 12, p. 260. L. H. B.f

FRANGLPANI: Plumeria*

FRANKENIA (John Frankenius, Swedish
botanist, 1590-1661). Frankenidcese. Low
perennials, evergreen, sometimes woody,
mostly in saline soils, more or less heath-like :
Ivs. opposite or in 4's, thickish, entire, small
and numerous on the sts., often fascicled on
short branchlets: fls. small, perfect and complete, sessile
or nearly so, solitary or in dichotomous clusters; calyx
and corolla 4-5-merous, the sepals united, the petals
with a crown at the base of the blade; stamens usually
same number as petals and alternate with them; style
3-4-cleft; ovary 1 -celled, with parietal placentae, ripen-
ing into a caps, inclosed in the calyx. Probably 30 spe-
cies in many parts of the world, a very few of them in the
S. W. U. S. The family Frankeniacese is closly allied to
Caryophyllaceae, from which it differs in the parietal
placentae, and to Hypericaceae, from which it differs in
habit, in the definite stamens
and the valvate calyx. The
family has 3 other genera,
as it is defined by Niedenzu,
these being Hypericopsis with
1 species in S. Persia, Beat-
sonia with 1 species in St.
Helena, and Niederleinia with
1 species in Patagonia. The
frankenias are practically
unknown as cult, plants,
although sometimes men-
tioned as carpeters and for
rock-gardens. F. tievis, Linn.,
the sea-heath, is offered. It
is a diffusely much-branched
plant, spreading 6-8 in., gla-
brous or nearly so:
Ivs. revolute and
thereby appearing
linear, crowded in
opposite clusters:
fls. few, sessile in
terminal leafy clus-
ters, pink. Eng-
land and the Medit.
region. F. pulveru-
lenta, Linn., is a
closely allied hairy
species; it has been
reported in ballast
at New York.

L. H. B.

FRASERA (John
Fraser, English
botanist, collected
in Amer. 1785-96
and published
Walter's "Flora
Caroliniana"). Gen-
1573. Francoa sonchifolia. ( X \) tianaceas. CoLUMBO.

1274

FRASERA

FRAXINUS

Large stout glabrous herbs, all N. American, and all but
1 far- western with a single st. from thick bitter mostly
biennial roots, opposite or whorled lys., and cymose
panicled clusters of dull white, yellowish or bluish fls.
which are commonly dark-spotted; calyx deeply 4-
parted; corolla wheel-shaped, 4-parted, persistent, the
lobes glandular within; stamens 4, the filaments often
united at the base; ovary 1 -celled, the stigma entire or
2-lobed. Species 8, mostly in woods or dry soils.
Three of the species have been offered in the trade, but
are probably very little planted. F. carolinensis, Walt.,
of the eastern states and Ont., is a biennial or short-
lived perennial, 3-4 ft. tall, with lance-oblong or
spatulate veiny Ivs. mostly in 4's, and greenish yellow
purple-dotted fls.

A. Lvs. in whorls of 4~6, not white-margined.
speciosa, Douglas. Stout, 2-5 ft., very leafy, the Ivs.
ovate to oblong: fls. greenish white or barely tinged
bluish, dark-dotted; 2 glands on each corolla - lobe.
Wyo., S. and W.

1574. Fraxinus Bungeana. ( X K)

AA. Lvs. in 2's or 3's, white-margined.

Parryi, Torr. Height 2-3 ft.: Ivs. opposite or in 3's:
fls. whitish, dark-dotted; 1 notched gland on each
corolla-lobe. Ariz., S. Calif.

Cusickii, Gray. Slender, height 3-8 in. : Ivs. opposite:
fls. bluish; 1 gland reaching from near the base to near
the middle of each corolla-lobe. Ore. L > jj. g.-j-

FRAXINfeLLA: Dictamnus.

FRAXINUS (ancient Latin name). Oleacese. ASH.
Interesting trees grown chiefly for their handsome
pinnate leaves and some species also for the conspicu-
ous panicles of white flowers.

Deciduous: Ivs. opposite, odd -pinnate, without
stipules: fls. in panicles, dioecious or polygamous, with
or without calyx or with calyx and a 2-6-parted corolla
with generally linear segms.'; stamens generally 2; ovary
2-celled: fr. a 1 -seeded, winged samara. About 50
species in the temperate regions of the northern hemi-
sphere south to Cuba; 16 of them occur in the U. S.

The ashes are ornamental trees, most of them hardy,
with rather large leaves and small flowers in panicles,
either appearing before the leaves and greenish, or in
the subgenus Ornus after or with leaves and whitish in
showy panicles: the winged fruit is insignificant. They
are valuable as street and park trees, and grow mostly
into tall, pyramidal or broad-headed trees, with rather

light green foliage, which turns yellow or dark purple
in fall or remains green, as in F. excelsior and F. Ornus.
The ash is seldom severely injured, though a number of
insects and fungi prey on the leaves and wood, of which
two borers, and a fungus attacking the leaves are per-
haps the most obnoxious. Most of the species are hardy
North except those from the southern states, southern
Europe and Himalayas; of the subgenus Ornus, F.
Bungeana and F. longicuspis seem to be the hardiest.
The ashes are important forest trees, and the straight-
grained and tough wood is much used for handles of
tools, in the manufacture of carriages and wagons, for
the interior finish of houses, and for furniture, for
baskets and also for fuel. From F. Ornus manna is
obtained as an exudation of the trunk, and some
Chinese species, especially F. chinensis and F. Mariesii,
yield the Chinese white wax.

The ashes grow in almost any moderately moist soil,
F. nigra being somewhat more moisture-loving, while
F. oxycarpa, F. Ornus, F. syriaca and F. cuspidata grow
well even in drier situations. They are usually
readily transplanted and grow rapidly when young.
Propagation is by seeds gathered in fall and sown
immediately, or stratified and sown in spring, covered
with about 1 inch of good soil; sometimes they
remain dormant until the second year. The varieties
and rarer kinds are budded in late summer or grafted
in spring on the seedlings of any of the common species.

INDEX.

acuminata, 9.

globosa, 20.

polemoniifolia, 20.

alba, 9.

heterophylla, 80.

potamophila, 24.

albo-marginata, 9, 20.

iodocarpa, 9.

pubescens, 12.

albo-variegata, 20.

jaspidea, 20.

quadrangulata, 17.

americana, 9.

juglandifolia, 1, 9.

Regelii, 24.

angustifolia, 1.

laciniata, 20.

rhynchophylla, 8.

anomala, 16.

lanceolata, 11.

rotundifolia, 1, 23.

argentea, 20.

latifolia, 1.

rufa, 20.

asplenifolia, 20.

lentiscifolia,23.

sambucifolia, 18.

atrovirens, 20.

longicuspia, 4.

sambucina, 4.

aucubsefolia, 12.

lutea, 20.

scolopendri folia, 20.

aurea, 20.

mandschurica, 19.

serratifolia, 6.

aurea-pendula, 20.

Mariesii, 5.

Sieboldiana, 4.

Biltmoreana, 10.

monophylla, 20.

simplici folia, 20.

Bungeana, 2, 3.

nana, 20,

sogdiana, 21 and

caroliniana, 15.

nigra, 18, 19.

suppl. list.

chinensis, 8.

novse-angliae, 9.

Spaethiana, 6.

crispa, 20.

obovata, 3.

syriaca, 21.

cucullata, 20.

oregona, 14.

tamarisci folia, 22, 23.

cuspidata, 7.

Ornus, 1.

Theophrastii, 1 and

diversifolia, 20.

oxycarpa, 22.

suppl.

elegantissima, 20.

oxyphylla, 22.

Toumeyi, 13.

epiptera, 9.

parvifolia, 2, 23.

triptera, 15.

erosa, 20.

pendula, 20, 23.

turkestanica, 21.

excelsior, 20.

pennsylvanica, 11, 12.

velutina, 13.

floribunda, 1.

pistacise folia, 13.

viridis, 11.

glauca, 9.

platycarpa, 15.

A. F Is. in terminal panicles on leafy shoots, perfect or
polygamous, with or after the Ivs. (Ornus.)

B. Corolla present, divided nearly to the base; stamens
with long filaments.

c. Petioles not conspicuously enlarged at the base.

D. Lowest pair of Ifts. not much smaller than the others.

E. Lfts. stalked.

1. Ornus, Linn. (Ornus europasa, Pers. F. flori-
bunda, Hort., not Wall.). Small tree, becoming 25 ft.:
winter-buds gray or brownish tomentulose: Ifts. gen-
erally 7, stalked, oblong-ovate or ovate, irregularly
serrate, rufously pubescent on the midrib beneath,
2-3 K in. long: fls. whitish, fragrant, in dense, terminal
panicles 3-5 in. long: fr. erect, narrow-oblong, truncate
or emarginate at the apex, about 1 in. long. May, June.
S. Eu., W. Asia. Gn. 22, p. 117; 34, p. 78; 48, p. 286;
31, pp. 354, 355. F.E.22:61. G. 18:541. G.M. 54:860.
H.W. 3:60, p. 120. Var. juglandifdlia, Tenore (var.
latifolia, Dipp. F. rotundifolia, Hort.). Lfts. ovate or
broadly ovate-oblong. Var. rotundifdlia, Tenore (F.
rotundifolia, Lam.). Low tree: Ifts. roundish-elliptic
to roundish-obovate. Var. angustifdlia, Tenore (F.
Theophrdstii, Hort., partly). Lfts. lanceolate.

FRAXINUS

1275

2. . Bungeana, DC. (F. parvifolia, Lingelsh. F.
Bungeana var. parvifolia, Wenzig). Fig. 1574. Small
tree, to 15 ft., or shrub: winter-buds nearly black: Ifts.
generally 5, stalked, ovate, obovate or roundish, obtuse
to short-acuminate, serrate, glabrous, 1-1K in. long:
panicles to 23/2 m - l n g> many-fld.; calyx with narrow
acute lobes; filaments longer than the linear petals: fr.
narrow-oblong, obtuse or emarginate. May. China.
G.F. 7:5 (adapted in Fig. 1574).

EE. Lfts. sessile.

3. obovata, Blume (F. Bungeana var. obovata,
Lingelsh.). Tree: petioles often slightly winged; Ifts.
5-7, oval or obovate, short-acuminate to obtusish,
cuneate at the base, crenate-serrate, dull green above
and slightly pubescent on the veins, grayish green below
and pubescent toward the base of the veins, 2-4 in
long: infl. small; petals linear, longer than the stamens:
fr. with narrow-oblong obtuse wing. Japan.

DD. Lowest pair of Ifts. much smaller than the others;
Ifts. long-acuminate.

4. longicuspis, Sieb. & Zucc. Slender tree, to 30 ft.,
with rufously pubescent winter-buds: Ifts. 5-7, stalked,
oblong-lanceolate, long-acuminate, obtusely serrate,
almost glabrous, 2-4 in. long: fls. in rather slender, nar-
row panicles, to 4 in. long; petals linear-oblong, about
as long as stamens: fr. oblanceolate, obtuse. May.
Japan. S.I.F. 1:81. Var. Sieboldiana, Lingelsh. (F.
Sieboldiana, Blume). Lfts. oval to oblong-ovate, short-
stalked, usually pubescent below along the midrib.
Japan, Korea. Var. sambucina, Lingelsh. (F. Sieboldiana
var. sambucina, Blume). Lfts. sessile.

5. Mariesii, Hook. f. Shrub or small tree: winter-
buds grayish black: petiole minutely glandular-pubes-
cent; Ifts. 5-7, nearly sessile, close, touching each
other, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, acute or acuminate,
entire or finely crenate-serrate, yellowish green below
and glandular-puberulous on the midrib toward the
base, otherwise glabrous, 1H-3 in. long: panicle upright,
5 in. long; petals linear-spatulate about as long as
stamens. Cent. China. B.M. 6678. Handsome and
free-flowering; blooms even as a small shrub.

cc. Petioles distinctly enlarged at the base; Ifts. sessile,
the lowest pair smaller.

6. Spaethiana, Lingelsh. (F. serratifolia, Hort.,
partly). Tree: young branchlets glabrous: winter-buds
dark brown: Ivs. 6-12 in. long; petiole grooved, reddish
brown at the enlarged base, glabrous; Ifts. 5-9, oblong
to oblong-obovate, deeply crenate-serrate, dark green
above, lighter green below and glabrous except along
the midrib toward the base, 3-7 in. long: fls. and frs.
unknown. Origin unknown. Handsome tree with
large Ivs.

BB. Corolla with a short tube or wanting.
c. The corolla with short tube; anthers almost sessile.

7. cuspidata, Torr. Shrub or small tree, to 20 ft.,
with dark, reddish brown buds: Ifts. usually 7, slender-
stalked, lanceolate or oblong- lanceolate, acuminate,
coarsely serrate, almost glabrous, l%-2 in. long: fls.
fragrant, in 3-4-in. long panicles: fr. spatulate-oblong.
April. Texas to Ariz, and New Mex. S.S. 6:260.
Handsome flowering tree for temperate regions.

cc. The corolla wanting, or occasionally present; calyx
often irregularly toothed. (Ornaster.)

8. chinensis, Roxbg. Tree, to 40 ft.: branchlets
glabrous: winter-buds brownish black, conspicuous
with a rufous woolly tomentum when opening: Ivs.
5-8 in. long; petiole enlarged at the base, nearly gla-
brous; Ifts. 5-7, short-stalked, elliptic to elliptic-oblong
or ovate-oblong, acuminate, cuneate at the base, ser-
rate, dark green above, light green below and hairy
along the lower part of the midrib, 2-5 in. long: pistil-
late panicle 3-6 in. long: fr. oblanceolate, obtuse or

emarginate at the apex, \Yi in. long and J^in. broad.
China. May. Var. rhynchophylla, Hemsl. (F. rhyn-
chophylla, Hance). Lfts. entire or irregularly crenate-
serrate, on slenderer stalks. Cent, and W. China. G.F.
6:485.

AA. Fls. from leafless axillary buds, before the Ivs.; without
corolla; filaments usually shorter than anthers.

B. The fls. dioecious, with the calyx persistent on the fr.;
anthers linear or linear-oblong: Ifts. generally 6-7:
buds brown. (Leptalix.)

c. Lvs. always pinnate.

D. Fr. oblanceolate or lanceolate; its body terete.
E. Lfts. stalked.

F. Under side of Ifts. glaucous: wing of the fr. not
decurrent.

9 americana, Linn. (F. nbvse-dnglix, Mill. F. diba,
Marsh.). WHITE ASH. Fig. 1575. Tall tree, to 120 ft.:
branchlets and petioles glabrous: Ifts. gen-
erally 7, stalked, ovate to ovate-lanceo-
late, entire or denticulate, dark green above,
glaucous beneath, 3-5 in. long: fr. linear-
oblong, with terete body, the wing not decur-
rent, \Yi in. long. From Canada to Fla.,
west to Minn, and Texas. S.S. 6:268. Em.
377. G.F. 7:405. F.E. 23:427. Very vari-
able. Var. acuminata, Wesm. (F. acumi-
nata, Lam. F. eplptera, Michx. F. ameri-
cana var. glauca, Hort.). Lfts. dark green
and shining above, very glaucous and
almost glabrous beneath, usually entire.
Var. juglandifdlia, Rehd. (F. juglandifolia,
Lam.). Lfts. less shining above, usually
broader, more or less pubescent beneath,
serrate at least above the middle. This is
the northern form, while the former is more
common in the southern states. Var. iodo-
cdrpa, Fern. Frs. conspicuous by their red- "r^^f '
dish purple color. Var. albo-marginata, aize)
Hort. Lfts. edged white.

10. Biltmoreana, Beadle. Tree, to 50 ft.: branch-
lets and petioles pubescent: Ifts. 7-9, ovate-oblong
to lanceolate, often falcate, acuminate, rounded or
broadly cuneate at the base, entire or obscurely toothed,
dark green and glabrous above, glaucous below and
pubescent, particularly on the veins, 3-6 in. long:
panicles pubescent: fr. linear-oblong, with terete body,
the wing not decurrent, emarginate at the apex, \}^r
1% in. long. May. Pa. to Ga., west to Ala., Mo. and
111. S.S. 14:716.

FF. Under side of Ifts. green or grayish green: wing of
the fr. decurrent, hence body margined.

11. lanceolata, Borkh. (F . viridis, Michx., in part.
F. pennsylvdnica var. lanceolata, Sarg.). GREEN ASH.
Tree, to 60 ft: branchlets and petioles glabrous: Ifts.
5-9, stalked, ovate to oblong-lanceolate, irregularly
serrate, green on both sides, almost glabrous, 2-5 in.
long: fr. oblanceolate, with decurrent wing, hence
body margined, about \Yi in. long. Canada to Fla.,
west to Rocky Mts. S.S. 6:272.

12. pennsylvanica, Marsh. (F. pubescens, Lam.).
RED ASH. Tree, to 60 ft.: branchlets and petioles
pubescent: Ifts. 5-9, stalked, ovate to oblong-lanoeo-
late, acuminate, crenately serrate or entire, pubescent
beneath, 3-6 in. long: fr. linear-spatulate, about 2 in.
long, with somewhat decurrent wing. Canada to Fla.,
west to Dakota and Mo. S.S. 6:271. This species
varies considerably in the amount of pubescence and
the shape of the Ifts., and many forms under different
names are grown in European nurseries and gardens.
Var. aucubaefolia, Hort., is a form with less pubescent
Ivs., blotched yellow. There are also variegated forms
with the Ivs. blotched white or edged white.

1276

FRAXINUS

EE. Lfts. sessile or short-stalked: branchlets and petioles
pubescent.

13. velfttina, Torr. (F. pistacixfdlia, Torr.). Tree, to
40 ft., with velvety pubescent, rarely glabrous branches:
Ifts. 5-9, sometimes reduced to 3 or even 1, short-
stalked, oblong to lanceolate, usually
acuminate, narrowly cuneate at the base,

entire or remotely serrate, yellowish green,
firm and thick at maturity, pubescent or
nearly glabrous beneath, 2-4 in. long: fr.
spatulate, with marginless body. Texas to
Ariz, and New Mex. S.S. 6:267. G.F.8:15.
F. Toumeyi, Brit., with narrower more
distinctly stalked Ifts., is probably only a
variety of this species. M.D.G. 1913:556;
also S.S. 6:267 represents this variety.
Particularly recommendable for saline and
alkaline soil, where but few trees will grow;
not hardy N.

14. oregdna, Nutt. Tree, to 80 ft.: peti-
oles sometimes glabrous at length; Ifts.
7-9, almost sessile or short-stalked, oblong
or elliptic, acuminate, entire or obscurely
and remotely serrate, light green, 2^-6 in.
long, thick and firm at maturity: fr. ob-
long-obovate, with decurrent wing, about
Wash, to Calif. S. S. 6:276.

1576. Key
of Fraxinus
nigra. (Nat-
ural size.)

in. long.

DD. Fr. elliptic or broadly spatulate, body compressed
with the wing all around.

15. caroliniana, Mill. (F. platycdrpa, Michx. F.
triptera, Nutt.). WATER ASH. Tree, to 40 ft., with
pubescent or glabrous branches: Ifts. 5-7, stalked,
ovate or oblong, acuminate, broadly cuneate or some-
times rounded at the base, serrate, rarely entire, pubes-
cent or glabrous beneath, 2-5 in. long: fr. 1-2 in.
long, with pinnately veined wing, often 3-winged. Va.
to Fla., west to Ark. and Texas. S.S. 6:274, 275.

cc. Lvs. usually simple, occasionally 8-5-foliolate:
branchlets quadrangular.

16. an6mala, Wats. Shrub or tree, to 20 ft.: Ifts.
broadly ovate or roundish at the apex, rounded, acutish

1577. Fraxinus excelsior. ( X H)

or emarginate, entire or sparingly crenate-serrate,
glabrous and dark green above, paler and pubescent
below while young, 1^-2 in. long: fls. polygamous:
fr. obovate-oblong, rounded or emarginate at the apex,
%in. long. Colo., Utah, Nev. and S. Calif. S.S. 6:266.

BB. The fls. without calyx (only No. 17 has a deciduous
minute calyx); anthers cordate, rarely broadly
oblong: Ifts. generally more than 7, nearly glabrous.
(Fraxinaster.)
c. Branches 4-angled and usually winged.

17. quadrangulata, Michx. BLUE ASH. Tree, to 80,
rarely 120 ft.: Ifts. 7-11, short-stalked, ovate to lanceo-
late, acuminate, sharply serrate, yellowish green on
both sides, 3-5 in. long: fls. perfect: fr. oblong, emar-
ginate, winged all around, 1-2 in. long. From Mich, to
Ark. andTenn. S.S. 6:263.

cc. Branches terete or nearly so.

D. Rachis at the base of Ifts. with thick rufous tomentum:
fls. dwecious.

18. nigra, Marsh. (F. sambucifolia, Lam.). BLACK
ASH. Fig. 1576. Tree, to 80 ft.: Ifts. 9-11, sessile,
oblong-lanceolate, rounded at the base, acuminate,
sharply serrate, green on both sides, dark above, 3-6
in. long: anthers broadly oblong: fr. narrow-oblong,
with decurrent wing. From Canada to Va., west to
Mo. S.S. 5:264,265. Em. 382.

19. mandsch&rica, Rupr. (F '. nigra, var. mandshurica,
Lingelsh.). Tree, to 100 ft., with obtusely quadrangular
branches and dark brown buds: Ifts. 9-11, almost sessile,
ovate to oblong-lanceolate, sharply serrate, pubescent
or hispid on the veins beneath, 3-6 in. long: fr. oblong-
lanceolate, 1-1 J^ in. long. Manchuria, Korea, Saghalin,
Japan. S.I.F.2:62 (as F. Sieboldiana) .

DD. Rachis without conspicuous rufous tomentum: fls.

perfect or polygamous.

E. Buds black.

20. excelsior, Linn. Fig. 1577. Tall tree, to 120 ft.:
Ifts. 9-13, almost sessile, oblong-ovate or ovate-lanceo-
late, acute or acuminate, serrate, dark green above,
paler beneath, 2-5 in. long: fr. oblong, often emargi-
nate, about \}/2 in. long. Eu., W. Asia. H.W. 3:59,
pp. 115, 116. Gn. 22, p. 273. F.E. 24:395. Many
different varieties are cult., some of the most distinct
being the following: Var. albo-marginata, Hort. Lfts.
edged white. Var. argentea, Loud. (var. dlbo-variegdta,
Hort.). Lfts. blotched white. Var. lutea, Loud. Lvs.
variegated with yellow. Var. jaspidea, Desf. Bark of

the young branches striped pink-
ish white. Var. aurea, Pers. With
yellow branches. Var. aftrea-pen-
dula, Loud. With pendulous yel-
low branches, but a somewhat
weak grower. Var. erosa, Willd.
(Var. asplenifdlia, Kirchn. Var.
laciniata, Hort. Var. elegantissima,
Hort. Var. scolopendrifplia, Hort.).
Lfts. very narrow, incisely serrate
and often almost linear. Var.
crispa, Willd. (Var. atrovirens,
Var. cuculldta, Hort.), with
very dark green curled and
twisted Ivs.; of slow growth.
Var. diversifdlia, Ait. (F.
heterophylla, Vahl. F. sim-

plicifolia laciniata, Hort. F. rufa, Hort., not Bosc).
Lvs. simple or 3-parted, usually incisely dentate. Gn.
22, p. 273. Var. monophylla, Kuntze (F. monophylla,
Desf. F. simplicifdlia, Willd.). Lvs. simple, ovate,
serrate, rarely with 1 or 2 small Ifts. at the base. Var.
nana, Loud. (Var. polemoniifolia, Var. globosa, Hort.).
A compact, slow-growing, dwarf form with very
small Ivs. M.D.G. 1904:380. Var. pendula, Ait. V/ith
pendulous branches. One of the best pendulous trees

FRAXINUS

FREESIA

1277

for forming arbors and shady seats. Gn. 39, p, 451;
68, p. 400.

EE. Buds brown.

F. Lfts. sessile or nearly so.
G. Number of Ifts. 3-5, rarely 7.
21. syriaca, Boiss. (F. sogdiana, Dipp., not Bunge.
F. turkestdnica, Carr.). In cult, usually small tree, the
branches with short internodes and Ivs. therefore
crowded, often in whorls of 3: Ifts. lanceolate, acumi-
nate, cuneate at the base, serrate, bright green and
quite glabrous on both sides, 1^-2}^ in. long: panicles
\Yi in. long: fr. usually obovate-oblong, obtuse. Syria
to Kurdistan.

GG. Number of Ifts. 7-13.
22. oxyciirpa, Willd. (F. oxyphylla, Bieb.

usually 9, ovate to oblong-ovate, serrate with incurved teeth, pubes-
cent on the veins below, 3-5 in. long: fr. oblanceolate. Japan. F.
raibocdrpa, Regel. Shrub: Ifts. 3-7, oblong or oblong-obovate,
usually entire, obtuse, 1-2 in. long: fr. strongly falcate with obo-
vate not decurrent wing. Turkestan, Bukhar. F. retiisa, Champ.
Allied to F. Mariesii. Tree: Ifts. about 5, ovate to ovate-lanceo-
late, glabrous, reticulate, 2-3 in. long. Hongkong. Var. Henryana,
Oliver. Shrub or tree, to 35 ft.: Ifts. slender-stalked, oblong to
lanceolate, serrulate, 3-5 in. long: panicle dense, 4-6 in. long: fr.
%-\ in. long, emarginate. Cent. China. H.I. 20:1930. Only the
variety is in cult. F. sogdi&na, Bunge. Allied to F. potamophila.
Lfts. 7-11, ovate-lanceolate, bright green: fr. 1 J in. long, obtuse or
emarginate. Turkestan. F. texensis, Sarg. Allied
to F. americana. Tree, to 40 ft. : Ifts. 5, broadly
oval or ovate, rounded or acute at the apex,

... v^ijrv*ai/a, vv IXJLU. y.* is^/yjjib t^M-fr, A^JTCW.

tamariscifblia, Hort., partly). Tree: Ifts. 7-11, ovate-
oblong to oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, cuneate at
the base, sharply serrate, light green on both sides and
glabrous except along the midrib below, 13^-3 in. long:
fr. obovate-oblong, acute or obtusish, narrowed at the
base. May. S. Eu. to Persia.

23. rotundifdlia, Mill. (F. parvifolia, Lam. F. len-
tiscifolia, Desf. F. tamariscifblia Hort., partly). Shrub
or small tree, to 15 ft., with slender, often purplish
branches: Ifts. 7-13, sessile, broadly oval to elliptic,
rarely obovate, acute, or rounded at the apex, ser-
rate, y<z-^Yi in. long: fr. oblong, obtuse or acute. W.
Asia, S. Eu. Var. pendula, Rehd. (F . parvifolia var.
pendula, Dipp.), with pendulous branches, forming a
graceful small weeping tree.

FF. Lfts. distinctly stalked; stalk y*>-%in. long.

24. potamophila, Herd. (F. Regelii, Dipp.). Small
tree, to 30 ft., with rather stout, upright branches: Ifts.
7-13, stalked, rhombic-ovate or ovate-lanceolate, ser-
rate, acute or acuminate, glabrous or sparingly pubes-
cent on the midrib below, 1-2 1 /% in. long: fr. oblanceo-
late-oblong, with decurrent wing, acute, 1 in. long.
Turkestan, Songaria. Handsome tree with round
head and dense small foliage.

F. angustifdlia, Vahl. Closely related to F. oxycarpa. Lfts.
7-13, elliptic-lanceolate to lanceolate, serrate, ty-1% in. long: fr.
obtuse at the base. S. Eu., N. Afr., W. Asia. Var. australis,
Schneid. (F. australis, Gay). Lfts. below and rachis hairy. F.
argentea, Loisel., is a variety of F. Ornus, not in cult., but in gar-
dens often other ashes, especially variegated forms, are cult, under
this name. F. australis, Gay=F. angustifolia var. australis. F.
Berlandieriana, DC. Allied to F. lanceolata. Tree, to 70 f t. : Ifts. 3^5,
ovate or obovate, serrate, downy along the veins beneath, to 4 in.
long. Texas to Mex. 8.8.6:273. F. bracteata, Hemsl.=F. Griffithii.
F. coriacea, Wats. Allied to F. velutina. Tree, to 30 ft. : Ifts. 5, sub-
coriaceous, ovate to oblong, acute, broadly cuneate or rounded at the
base, glabrous or pubescent below. S. Calif, to Utah, Ariz., Nev. S.S.
14:713. F. dimorpha, Coss. & Dur.=F. xanthoxyloides var.
dimorpha. F. dipetala, Hook. & Am. Allied to F. cuspidata. Shrub:
Ifts. 5-7, elliptic or ovate, serrate or entire, H~2 in. long: fls. with
2 obovate petals. Calif., Mex. S.S. 6:261. Tender. F. floribiinda,
Wall. Allied to F. longicuspis. Tree, to 40 ft.: Ifts. 5-7, ovate-
lanceolate, serrate, reticulate beneath, 2-4 in. long: panicles large,
to 10 in. long; petals oblong. Himalayas. Tender. F. floridana,
Sarg.=F. pauciflora. F. Greggii, Gray. Allied to F. cuspidata.
Small tree: Ifts. 3-7, oblong-obovate, crenately serrate, or entire,
Yy-l in. long: fr. linear-oblong, emarginate. S.S. 6:262. G.F.
2:451. F. Griffithii, Clarke (F. bracteata, Hemsl.). Allied to F.
Mariesii. Tree, to 40 ft. : Ifts. 5-7, subcoriaceous, elliptic to ovate-
lanceolate, lustrous above, bright green below and pubescent on the
veins, 2-4 in. long: infl. 6-8 in. high, with persistent lanceolate
bracts; petals 4: fr. spatulate. Cent. China, Himalayas, Java.
F. holotricha, Koehne. Allied to F. potamophila. Tree: Ifts. 9-13,
ovate-lanceolate or lanceolate, pubescent on both sides, 1 J^-3 in.
long: fls. in 10-fld. racemes; ovary pubescent. Origin unknown.
F. hybrida, Lingelsh. =F. pauciflora. F. pauciflora, Nutt. (F.
floridana, Sarg. F. hybrida, Lingelsh.). Allied to F. caroliniana.
Tree, to 40 ft.: Ifts. 3-5, oblong, acuminate, cuneate at the base,
tomentose below: fr. oblong-lanceolate, rounded or emarginate at
the apex. Ga. to Fla. S.S. 14:717. F. Paxidna, Lingelsh. Allied
to P. longicuspis. Tree, to 40 ft.: Ifts. 7-9, sessile, ovate, crenulate,
4-7 in. long: panicle large and dense: fr. 1-1 J4 in. long, J^in.
broad. Cent. China, Himalayas. F. platypoda, Oliver. Allied to
F. americana. Tree: petioles enlarged and winged at the base;
Ifts. 5-7, ovate-lanceolate, finely serrate, hairy along the midrib
below, 24 in.: fr. narrow-oblong, acute. Cent. China. H.I.
20:1929. F. pro/undo, Bush. Allied to F. pennsylvanica. Lfts.
7-9, oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, entire, 3-6 in. long, tomentose
beneath: fr. 2-23^ in., with decurrent wing. Ind., Ark., to Fla. S.S.
14:714-5. F. pubinSrvis, Blume. Allied to F. longicuspis. Lfts.

1578. Freesia refracts,
as it was in 1816, with a
modern flower of var.
alba at the left. (XI)

l^-2^in. long. Texas. S.S.
6 : 270. F . Theophrdstii, Nouv.
Duh., is a variety of F. Ornus,
but in gardens other forms are
sometimes cult, under this
name. F. xanthoxyloides, Wall.
Shrub or small tree, to 25 ft.:
rachis narrowly winged; Ifts.
5-9, oblong, crenulate-serrate,
glabrous, Yr-\Yi in. long: fls.
from axillary leafless buds, usu-
ally perfect, with calyx: fr.
oblong. Himalayas. Var. di-
morpha, Lingelsh. (F. dimorpha,
Coss. & Dur.). Lfts. sessile,
roundish oval to oblong, pubes-
cent on the midrib below. N. Afr. Var. dumdsa, Lingelsh. (F. dimor-
pha var. dumosa, Carr.). A low shrubby form of the preceding
variety, with small Ifts. This species belongs to the section
Sciadanthus, having perfect apetalous fls. with calyx.

ALFRED REHDER.

FREESIA (name unexplained, perhaps personal).
Iridacese. Popular "bulbs" for fall planting and winter
blooming, and next to the Chinese narcissus, which may
be grown in water, they flourish in home windows with
less care than most other bulbs; they are also much-
prized florists' plants; easily grown, attractive, and
fragrant.

Cormous plants, with plane narrow Ivs. at the base
and somewhat on the sts., and showy fls. in small clus-
ters at the top of the slender st. : perianth tubular and
funnel-shaped, the segms. more or less unequal; sta-
mens 3, inserted in the tube, the anthers linear; ovary
ovoid or oblong, 3-celled, with crowded ovules, the
style filiform and the branches 2-fid (Tritonia, closely
allied, has simple style-branches): fr. a loculicidal 3-
valved caps., bearing turgid seeds. ^S. Afr., probably
2 or 3 original species, but the specific limits difficult
of determination.

Freesias have well-shaped tubular flowers, white or
pale yellow. The five to seven flowers are upright and
attached along a jointed axis which is suddenly bent
back almost at right angles to the vertical peduncle.
The popularity of freesias is a growth of the last
quarter century or more, although they have been in
cultivation since 1816 or earlier. Conservative botanists
now suppose that the usual garden freesias are all origi-
nally of one stock, which species should be called F.

1278

FREESIA

FREMONTIA

refrada. Extremes of variation in form are shown in
Figs. 1578 and 1579, from the long and slender tube of
var. alba to the short and broader tube of var. Leicht-
linii. One of the earliest pictures of the plant is that in
the "Botanical Register" for 1816 (Plate 135, as Tri-
tonia refracta), a part of which is reproduced in Fig.
1578 to show the great irregularity of the corolla-lobes
at that early period, and the straggling habit of the
flowers, some pointing down and others up. The gar-
den evolution of the freesias has proceeded along two
lines. The greatest effort has been expended to pro-
duce a pure white flower, and in the best strains the
white color is mostly associated with a long and slen-
der tube. The ideal of a yellow flower is less popular,
and is mostly associated with the shorter and broader

1579. Freesia refracta var. Leichtlinii.

tube. In both cases the forms with straggling inflores-
cence and irregular corolla-lobes have been suppressed.
One may readily see how strongly two-lipped and gaping
were the flowers of 1816, and how much the tube
was bulged on one side. Any tendencies toward such
forms in modern bulbs are signs of undesirable charac-
ters. In pedigree plants the lobes are rounded and the
flowers symmetrical.

These plants are much forced by florists, chiefly for
cut-flowers at Christmas. If cut when only two flowers
are out, the others will open. They may be had in
flower from Christmas until June by successional
plantings from August to February. For the best
results the largest and highest-priced bulbs should be
planted as early as August. Under good care, the
bloom may be secured in ten to twelve weeks after
the bulbs are planted ; it is not necessary that the bulbs
be kept cool or stored for a time after potting, as is the
case with hyacinths and tulips, for they root quickly
and start rapidly into growth. For holiday bloom, the
bulbs are planted in October. One of the strong points
of freesias is that planting may be delayed longer than
with many other bulbs. Bottoms may be dried off
gradually in the pots and then be shaken out and kept
dry during summer. Repot; the larger bulbs will
bloom, but will not give so good results as medium-sized

imported bulbs not previously forced. When the plants
are growing, keep them cool and moist. Provide good
drainage, and let the potting earth contain a little sand
and more or less fibrous material. Usually several
bulbs are planted together in pots or boxes (about six
bulbs in a 5-inch pot). Offsets are freely produced and
these may be used for propagation; or seeds may be
employed, giving blooming plants in two or three
years, or sometimes the recent hybrid forms are said
to give bloom in six to seven months from seeding.

refracta, Klatt. Fig. 1578. Weakly erect, 1-1^ ft.,
from an ovoid reticulated corm, the st. more or less
distantly branched and bearing a few reduced Ivs: the
basal Ivs. about 6, linear, firm, about 6 in. long: fls.
in loose secund spikes on a flexuose rachis, the spathe-
valves oblong-lanceolate and acute and not covering
the ovary; perianth greenish yellow or bright yellow, to
1^2 in. long, the tube abruptly constricted below the
middle, the limb distinctly labiate and the segms.
unequal. B.R. 135 (as Tritonia refracta). The original
type is probably no longer in cult. Var. alba, Baker
(F. dlba, Hort.). Lvs. broader: infl. less branched;
spathe-valves broader, toothed, covering the ovary;
fls. large, clear white, with a gradually narrowing tube,
the perianth-limb not bilabiate (or only indistinctly so),
the segms. obtuse and nearly equal. G. 5:97; 8:575;
27:88. G.M. 50:927. Gn.W. 15:10. J.H. III. 43:272.
The common garden form, much prized. F. virginalis
grandiflora is a seedling of this, the fls. being much
larger, ground-color white and less yellow in throat.
G. 31: 215. Var.odorata, Baker (F.odorata, Klatt). Lvs.
broader than in the type, less rigid, and infl. less
branched and fls. fewer: spathe-valves broader and
more obtuse, toothed at the apex, covering the ovary;
fls. bright yellow, the tube abruptly constricted, the
limb not distinctly bilabiate and the segms. obtuse and
nearly equal. L.B.C. 19:1820' (as Tritonia odorata).
Var. Leichtlinii, Hort. (F. Leichtlinii, Klatt), (Fig..
1579), differs in its shorter abruptly constricted tube
and large pale yellow fls.; by many considered to be a
distinct species.

Armstrongii, W. Wats. Differs from F. refracta in the
color of the fls. and absence of purple from the lf.-
bases: 16-20 in.: tube white with orange at base, the
segms. markedly bordered with rose-purple: about
one month later in blooming then F. refracta alba.
Named for W. Armstrong, of S. Afr. Gn. 59, p. 374.
G.M. 48:833.

hybrida, Hort. Here belong many hybrid forms, some
of them known as the "colored freesias," as: F. Chdp-
manii, a cross of the typical F. refracta (F. aurea, Hort.),
with var. alba, producing a soft yellow flushed with
deeper yellow and with an orange blotch (Gn. 71, p.
165. G.M. 50:164. G. 31:175); F. Tubergenii, being
a cross of F. refracta alba, and F. Armstrongii (G.W.
13, p. 199. G. 28:215. Gn. 69, p. 184. J.H. III.
52:299); F. kewensis, hybrid probably between F.
Armstrongii and F. Leichtlinii; F. Mdidenii, being F .
refracta alba x F. Armstrongii; F. Ragionieri, a race
resulting from the crossing of F. refracta, F. Leichtlinii
and their hybrids with F. Armstrongii, described as
producing scented fls. tinted in shades of pink, rose,
purple, blue, brown, orange, and spotted and veined.

L. H. B.f

FREMONTIA (after John Charles Fremont, dis-
tinguished western explorer, who discovered it in 1846).
Syn. Fremontodendron. Sterculiaceas. Ornamental
woody plant, grown chiefly for its showy yellow flowers.

Deciduous shrub or small tree with stellate pubes-
cence: Ivs. alternate, slender-petioled, palmately lobed:
fls. solitary on short, lateral branchlets, apetalous;
calyx large, deeply 5-parted, with 3 small bracts at the
base; stamens 5, connate toward the base into a tube;
ovary superior, inclosed by the staminal tube; style
filiform: fr. a 5-celled, hirsute, dehiscent caps, with

FREMONTIA

FRITILLARIA

1279

many seeds. One species in Calif., allied to the Mexican
Cheiranthodendron. Its bark is sometimes used as a
substitute for that of the slippery elm and the plant
is therefore locally known under this name.

This is a beautiful free-flowering shrub, with rather
small, palmately lobed leaves and large yellow flowers
appearing in great profusion in June. It is not hardy
North, and in cooler regions it should have a sunny
and sheltered position, preferably against a wall of
southern aspect; it prefers well-drained, rather dry soil,
and dislikes, especially during the winter, an excess of
moisture. Propagation is by seeds or by greenwood
cuttings under glass in summer.

californica, Torr. (Fremontodendron californicum,
Coville). To 20 ft.: Ivs. generally roundish ovate, cor-
date or rounded at the base, obtuse, 3-5-lobed or
almost entire, whitish or ferrugineous pubescent
beneath, %-lK in. long: calyx lj^-3 in. across, deep
yellow, with stellate hairs outside, villous at the base
within; lobes orbicular: caps, densely beset with hispid
hairs, 1 in. long. S.S. 1:23. B.M. 5591. Gn. 3, p. 55;
22, p. 115; 29:8; 33. p. 566. G. 5:397; 32:457. G.M.
50:29. F.S. 22:2349. R.H. 1867:90. I.H. 13:496.
B.H. 17 : 13. ALFRED REHDER.

FREYCINETIA (Chas. Louis de Freycinet, 1779-
1842, French navigator). Pandanaceae. Climbing or
straggling shrubs sometimes seen under glass and per-
haps planted far S., but apparently not in the American
trade. The sts. are often prolonged, rooting: Ivs.
sheathing at base, the free part long and narrow, cari-
nate, serrate or entire: fls. dioecious, in terminal fas-
cicled spadices surrounded by fleshy leafy often colored
bracts; males consisting of several stamens with short
filaments; females of many 1-celled many-ovuled
densely packed ovaries: fr. an oblong mass of fleshy or
hard drupes. Species above 50, islands of the Pacific,
Austral., New Zeal. F. Bdnksii, Cunn., is a tall climber,
sometimes attaining the tops of high trees, with many
stout branches, the arching Ivs. to 3 ft. long and most
abundant toward the ends of the branches: fl. -bracts
numerous and leafy, the inner ones with thick succulent
bases, sweet, and often eaten in New Zeal., where the
plant is native: fr. rather fleshy, brown at maturity,
Hiii. long, edible. B.M. 6028. F. Cumingiana, Gaud.,
of uncertain nativity, is more slender, Ivs. not arching
and divaricate. The freycinetias are little grown
indoors as they require much room. They may be
used as pillar plants. Prop, by offsets. L. H. B.

FRINGE-TREE: Chionanthus virginica.

FRITILLARIA (Latin fritillus, commonly understood
to be a checker-board, but may have meant dice-box).
Liliacese. FRITILLARY. This group includes the crown
imperial and the fritillaries, hardy bulbous plants,
mostly low-growing and spring-blooming, with drooping
or nodding flowers which are often checkered or tessel-
lated with dark purple and green, but some also with
brighter colors.

Various leafy-stemmed simple herbs, the st.-lvs.
narrow, sessile, alternate or whorled, the bulb mostly
of few fleshy scales: perianth deciduous, mostly bell-
shaped or sometimes bowl-shaped, the segms. nearly
or quite equal, oblong or ovate, all or the inner ones
with a nectar-bearing cavity or area at the base ; sta-
mens 6, with slender filaments and linear or oblong
anthers; ovary 3-celled, nearly or quite sessile: fr. an
ovoid or subglobose loculicidal winged or angled caps.,
with numerous seeds. Species perhaps 70, widely dis-
tributed in the north temperate zone. Fritillaries
resemble lilies in having drooping or nodding fls. but
their anthers are fixed at the base, while those of the
lilies are fastened on the back but are free to swing
about. Lilies have funnel-shaped fls., while fritil-
laries and tulips have bell-shaped fls., and tulip fls. are

erect. Nearly all the Old World fritillaries resemble
tulips in having coated bulbs, while the American
fritillaries resemble lilies in having scaly bulbs.

The most popular kinds are the checkered lily (F.
meleagris) and crown imperial (F. Imperialist . Figs.
1582, 1583. These are hardy, easy to cultivate, and
variable. The crown imperial is one of the most
characteristic plants of old-fashioned gardens, but it has
been banished from many modern gardens because of
its strong fetid odor. It is the most robust species, and
until lately was supposed to be the only one with its
flowers in umbels, all the others being solitary or in
racemes. It rejoices the children early in every spring
by its pearly drops of nectar, which seem never to fall.
F. meleagris, the most popular of the purple kinds, is
the common snake's-head or checkered lily, so called
from the tessellation of purple and green, which is
prettiest when as sharply and regularly defined as
possible. This plant grows wild in moist English mead-
ows, and can be naturalized in large quantities in such
situations. Other ancient inhabitants of European

Gardens are F. latifolia, F. lutea and F. persica. Other
inds are apparently less known in gardens. As a rule,
the kinds that are chiefly purple or green, or mixtures of
both colors, are dull, unattractive and curious compared
with the few kinds that have brilliant yellow or red.
Of the duller and purple kinds, two of the choicest,
next to F . meleagris, are F. tulipifolia (which is flamed
like a tulip and never checkered) and F. camtschat-
censis, great masses of which in Alaska make one of
the "summer sights" remembered by the tourists.
The white in fritillaries is perhaps always more or less
greenish, and the white color in F . meleagris is as good
as in any species. A most brilliant species is F. recurva,
which is also difficult of culture. Next in brilliancy
come such species as F. lutea, F. aurea, F. Moggridgei
and F. pudica, all highly individual and all yellow,
some checkered, others not.

The culture of fritillaries is rather various, as some
species are capable of being naturalized, some culti-
vated in borders, some in rockeries and others in pots.
The crown imperial, being exceptionally vigorous,
requires deep planting, rich soil and much room. The
earth should be trenched. Well-rotted manure may be
worked into the soil 6 inches below the bulbs and the
bulbs set on a level 6 inches from the surface of the
ground. If possible it should be shaded from the mid-
day sun, as southern exposures are said to make the
flowers smaller and shorter-lived. In border cultiva-
tion of fritillaries the essential peculiarities are a
sheltered shady site, early fall planting, division every
two or three years, and, as a rule, a warm, deep, sandy
loam, which is not top cold or too retentive of moisture.
Bulbs of the taller kinds may be planted 3 to 4 inches
deep; bulbs of the dwarf kinds may be set at half that
depth. As all fritillaries increase rapidly by offsets, it
is desirable to lift and divide the plants at least every
three years, or the small bulbs will rob the big ones.
For the same reason, fritillaries are rarely propagated
by seeds. The dwarf and rare sorts require more care
and some leaf-mold in their soil, and some kinds require
an evergreen carpet through which they may spring,
as Sedum hispanicum or its var. glaucum.

Our native fritillaries, which include the bright-
flowered F. recurva and F. pudica, are confined to the
Pacific coast. Of these Carl Purdy makes two cultural
groups, based on the character of bulb, the kind of soil
and the conditions of shade. The first group contains
F. biflora, F. liliacea, F. pluriflora and F. Purdyi; the
second F. atropurpurea, F. coccinea, F. lanceolata, F.
parviflora, F. pudica and F. recurva. The former grow
in the sun in open fields in heavy clay soils; the latter
in shady woods in well-drained soils, but F. pudica
does not need so much shade as the others of its group,
and must have sandy loam and slight shelter. The bulbs
of the first group are composed of thick, heavy scales

1280

FRITILLARIA

attached to a thin rhizomatous base, and the stems
are 4 to 12 inches high and very leafy at the base;
in the second group the bulbs are of one piece, and low-
conical in form, their sides thickly covered with small,
round, white rice-like offsets, and the slender stems
are 1 to 3 feet high and leafy above the base. For
the first group Purdy recommends a rich loam, and a
slight shade to draw out the stems and prolong the
bloom; for the second group a light, loose soil, rich in
mold, a sheltered place and considerable shade. At
the best these are not profuse in their bloom.

The key to the various subgenera here given is
essentially Baker's in his monograph in Jour. Linn.
Soc. 14:251 (1875); it rarely happens that the botanical
and horticultural interests agree in using such simple
and obvious characters as those of the bulb and style.
The nectaries or glands are less useful and reliable, but
they help to explain the natural groups in this varied
genus.

INDEX.

alba, 1.

kamschatcenais, 30.

persica, 19.

armena, 16.

lanceolata, 22.

pluriflora, 21.

atropurpurea, 24.

latifolia, 7-9.

pudica, 17.

aurea, 7-9.

leucantha, 4.

Purdyi, 21.

biflora, 29.

libanotica, 20.

pyrenaica, 12.

Burnatii, 3.

liliacea, 28.

Raddeana, 26.

camtschatcensis, 30.

longipetala, 26.

recurva, 27.

chitralensis, 26.

lutea, 7 T 9.

ruthenica, 6.

coccinea, 25.

meleagris, 1.

Sewerzowi, 18.

contorta, 1.

meleagroides, 11.

Thunbergii, 4.

delphinensis, 3.

minor, 11, 19.

tubseformis, 3.

Elwesii, 14.

Moggridgei, 3.

tulipifolia, 15.

floribunda, 22.

mutica, 22.

verticillata, 4.

fusco-Iutea, 16.

oranensis, 13.

Walujewi, 5.

gracilis, 22.

pallidiflora, 10.

Whittallii, 2.

Imperialis, 26.

parviflora, 23.

KEY TO THE SUBGENERA.

A. Bulbs tunicated (i.e., coated).
B. Style 3-cut.

c. Glands distinct and promi-
nent, equal.

D. Glands long

DD. Glands wide

cc. Glands obscure, equal, long. .
BB. Style undivided.

C. Glands equal, obscure

cc. Glands unequal, prominent.

D. Glands long

DD. Glands short

AA. Bulbs scaly.

B. Style undivided

BB. Style 5-cut.

c. Caps, acutely angled.

D. Fls. solitary or racemose..

DD. Fls. in umbels

cc. Caps, obtusely angled

Species. Subgenera.

1. EUFRITILLARIA
2-14. MONOCODON
NOTHOLIRION

15-17. AMBLIRION

18. KOROLKOWIA
RHINOPETALUM

19-21. THERESIA

22-25. GONIOCARPA

26. PETILITJM
27-30. LILIORHIZA

1. meleagris, Linn. CHECKERED LILY. SNAKE'S-
HEAD. Figs. 1580-1582. St. 1 ft. or more high: Ivs.
3 or 4, linear or lanceolate, typically 1-fld. : fl. dull red
with the inside checkered and spotted with higher
color; segms. oblong, narrowed at both ends, about
1^ in. long, the inner ones bearing an oblong or linear
cavity; fls. sometimes white or yellowish, or purplish
and more or less checkered. England and Norway,
through Cent. Eu. to Caucasus. Gn. 32:536; 47, p.
330; 52, p. 243. The Dutch bulb-growers keep several
kinds distinct. The extremes of color-range are (1)
a greenish white, (2) a sufficient degree of purple to
make the checkering as distinct as possible, and (3)
an approach to yellow. Some kinds bear 2-3 fls.; some
are double; some fls. spread so widely as to be almost
funnel-shaped. Var. alba, Hort. White. G. 29:355.
Gn.W. 21:221. Var. cont6rta, an old monstrosity,
instead of segms. free all the way, and a shouldered
base, has the lower third of the perianth united into
a funnel-shaped tube. The yellow of some fls. is con-
jectured to be the result of a cross with F. lutea made
before Gerarde's time. In England the species flowers
toward the end of April. G. 18:182; 35:273. J.H. III.

1580. Stamens

and pistil of

Fritillaria

Meleagris.

From Flora
Danica, show-
ing the 3-cut

52:329. Gn.M. 10:117; 12:228. Gn. 61, p. 306 (vars.)
G.M. 52:770.

2. Whittallii, Baker. Height 1 ft.: st. 1-fld.: Ivs.
linear, glaucous: fls. checkered green and brown; nec-
taries orbicular. Mt. Taurus.

3. tubaeformis, Gren. & Godr. (F. delphinensis,
Gren.). St. 6-12 in., often only 1-fld.: Ivs. above mid-
dle of st. oblanceolate to linear: fls. wine-
purple, spotted yellow and somewhat
checkered, inodorous; segms. obtuse.
Alps. Distinguished by the glands 3-4
lines long and stigmas very short. Baker
gives the same color-range as for F.
meleagris. The most desirable form is
var. M6ggridgei, Boiss. (F . Moggridgei,
Hort.), with bright yellow, checkered
inside with bright red or reddish brown.
This is a dwarfer form from the mari-
time Alps with wider Ivs. (6-9 lines),
longer stigmatic cusps, approaching F.
lutea, and essentially yellow-fld. G.C.
II. 13:533. Gn. 18:132. F.M. 1880:
405. It blooms early. Var. Burnatii,

stigma, an im- Planch., bright plum-color, checkered
acter n in this greenish yellow: fl. solitary, broadly bell-
genus, shaped, smaller, earlier and with smaller
glands.

4. verticillata, Willd. (F. leucdntha, Fisch.). Height
1^ ft.: sts. simple, often 1-, sometimes 2-5-fld.: Ivs.
near the middle of the st., ovate and tapering toward
the apex: fls. white or yellow, with small darker spots
at the base. Altai Mts. B.M. 3083. In the type the
Ivs. are numerous, 20-40: anthers barely half as long
as the filaments : style no longer than the ovary, but in
var. Thunbergii, Hort. (F. Thunbergii, Miq.), the upper
IVs. are often sparse: anthers as long as the filaments;
style lJ^-2 times as long as the ovary. G.C. II. 13:532.
It is doubtful whether the yellow-fld. form is cult.

5. Walujewi, Regel. Probably belongs here, as its
linear Ivs. have tendrils: st. 1 ft.: fls. silver-white or
lead-colored outside and crimson-brown spotted white
or yellow inside. Turkestan. Gn. 52:243.

6. ruthenica, 'Wikst. Height 1-2 ft.: st. 1-3-fld.:
Ivs. 6-20, linear-lanceolate: fls. livid purple, obscurely
checkered. Caucasus.

7-9. lutea, Miller, and its allies F. latifdlia, Willd.,
and F. aurea, Schott. These 3 names may be taken as
representing the 3 well-marked types of color: F. lutea
an intermediate form, essentially yellow, but greenish,
and with the purple checker-marks duller in color and
not so sharply defined and regular. F . latifolia repre-
senting the extreme of dark purple and
green without yellow; F. aurea, at the
other extreme, being essentially yellow,
the checker marks smaller and more
sharply defined, and the colors bright. In
this sense the pictures may be referred to
the types as follows: B.M. 1538 to F.
lutea; B.M. 853 and 1207 to F. latifolia;
B.M. 7374, R.H. 1878, p. 287, Gn. 42:
72, J.H. III. 28:357, to F. aurea. F.
latifolia represents the extreme width of
Ivs., and F. aurea is said to differ in
having the lower Ivs. often whorled. All
these grow 3^-1 ft. high. One of the most
anciently cult, of all fritillaries is F. lutea,
which is found promiscuously mingled with the wider-
Ivd. form, both wild and cult. At present the most
popular of the 3 is probably F. aurea. The Dutch bulb-
growers advertise several varieties of F. latifolia. These
3 species are fom S. W. Asia. F. lutea. St. often 1-fld.:
Ivs. alternate, linear-lanceolate: fls. yellow, more or
less marked or suffused with purple; segms. oblong-
lanceolate. F. latifdlia (F. lutea var. latifolia) has

1581. Strange

form of doub-
ling in the

checkered lily,
pictured as

early as 1613.

FRITILLARIA

1281

lanceolate Ivs., the upper ones opposite: fls. purple.

F. aurea. Lvs. 10-12, lower in 3's, linear, somewhat

glaucous and fleshy: fls. solitary, bright yellow.

10. pallidifldra, Schrenk. Height 6-15 in. : Ivs. many,

large and broad, glaucous-blue: fls. 1-6, yellow, hand-
somely tessellated in-
side. Siberia. B.M.
6725 (green, with a few
dark purple spots) .
Gt. 6:328. R.H. 1880,
p. 215. G.C. II. 19:
573. Gn.W. 23:397.

11. meleagroides,
Patrin. (F. minor,
Ledeb.). Height 1-2
ft.: st. very slender,
mostly 1-fld. : Ivs. 3-6,
narrowly linear: fls.
dark purple, spotted
green; anthers a third
"the length of the fila-
ments. W. Siberia.
B.M. 3280.

12. pyrenaica, Linn.
Height 1-1H ft.,
mostly 1-fld.: Ivs. 6-10,
linear, glaucous: fls.
dark purple, spotted
green ; anthers two-
fifths the length of the
filaments. Pyrenees.
B.M. 664, not 952 or
1216.

13. oranensis, Baker.
Height 1-1 Yi ft.: lower
Ivs. lanceolate; upper
Ivs. linear : fls. dark pur-
ple, obscurely check-
ered green. Mt. Oran.

1582. Common Snake's-Head or
Checkered Lily (Fritillaria melea-

gris).

Faithfully redrawn from Dealer's
Hortus Eystettensis, published in
1613. (Incorrect as to stamens and
some other characters.)

G.C. II. 13:341.

14. Elwesii, Boiss.
Lvs. 5-6: fls. green,
flushed purple on back
and tips, not checkered.
Lycia. B. M. 6321
Gn. 65, p. 307. Gn.W.

(erroneously, as F. acmopetala) .
21:445.

15. tulipifolia, Bieb. Height 2-8 in.: st. 1-fld.: Ivs.
3-4, elliptic, concave, nerveless, 1^2-2^2 m - long: fls.
solitary, inside rusty brown-purple, not checkered,
outside dark glaucous-blue, streaked with the same
purple. Caucasus. B.M. 5969. One of the choicest
and daintiest kinds. Very distinct. Foliage glaucous
blue: fls. resembling a tulip in shape, and with a chalky
look outside.

16. armena, Boiss. Height 6-12 in.: st. 1-fld.: Ivs.
4-5, lower lanceolate, upper linear: fls. between funnel-
and bell-shaped, dark purple, not checkered. Armenia.
B.M. 6365. J.H. III. 35:83. Var. fusco-mtea, Hort.,
tawny yellow.

17. pudica, Spreng. St. 2-10 in.: Ivs. 3-8, lower ones
strap-shaped, often opposite (while in F. tulipifolia
and F. armena they are alternate), upper ones linear:
fl. usually solitary, pale or dark yellow, rarely purple,
never checkered; segms. oblong-spatulate and obtuse,
more or less spreading. N. W. Amer. Gn. 13:598; 61, p.
337. R.H. 1895, p. 229. G.C. III. 19:403. J.H. III.
32:295. Mn. 4:49. The stamens (as in Nos. 14 and
15) are nearly as long as the perianth. "Deep orange-
yellow, fragrant." Van Tubergen.

18. Sewerzowi, Regel. Height 1-1 ^ ft.: lowest Ivs.
lorate-lanceolate, 1 in. wide, often opposite, upper Ivs.
lanceolate, 6-7-nerved, 3-4 in. long: pedicels 3-6 lines
long; fls. 6-10, green, not checkered, but with a few

purple spots outside; filaments purple; anthers green.
Turkestan. Gt. 760. B.M. 6371. J.H. III. 30:319.
G.C. III. 1:457. Gn. 69, p. 133.

19. persica, Linn. Robust, 2-3 ft. high: Ivs. 40-60,
glaucous, linear, 4-6 in. long, 6-9 lines wide: raceme
10-50-fld.; fls. small bell-shaped, slightly odorous, lilac-
purple, sometimes chalky outside and lined with purple
but never checkered; stamens a trifle shorter than the
perianth. Orient. Fls. end of April or beginning of May.
B.M. 1537. Var. minor, Sims, B.M. 962 (excluding
synonymy), has smaller fls. and anthers barely exserted.

20. libanotica, Baker. Closely resembling No. 19, but
with 6-30 strongly odorous fls., pale lilac, with darker
vertical veins; stamens a third shorter than the peri-
anth; anthers purplish. Palestine, rocky and shady
parts of Mt. Lebanon.

21. plurifldra, Torr. PINK FRITILLARY. Height 6-12
in.: Ivs. few, mostly at the base, oblong-lanceolate,
about 4 in. long: raceme 4-12-fld.; fls. rosy purple, not
checkered, the glands not evident; stigma shortly
3-lobed. Calif. G.C. III. 21:231. Blooms early. F.
Purdyi, Eastw., differs in the fl. being white beauti-
fully tinged purple. Humboldt Co., Calif.

22. lanceolata, Pursh. Sts. 1-3 ft. : Ivs. 4-10, lanceo-
late, whorled on the upper part of st. (or sometimes
scattered), ovate-lanceolate, 1-4 in. long: fls. 1-4,
bowl-shaped, dark purple mottled greenish yellow,
somewhat variable in color; segms. ovate to oblong,
concave, with large' gland. Calif. Var. gracilis, Wats.
Fls. very small with narrow and more acuminate segms.,
deep purple or almost black. Var. floribunda, Benth.
(F. miitica, Lindl.). Fls. 3 to many, dark purple or
greenish and conspicuously spotted or checkered, the
segms. crisped or erose. The bulbs of F. lanceolata
live one year; the scales are few or none, and the bulb
is covered with

rice-like bulblets
(whence the
name "rice-root
lily").

23. parvifldra,
Torr. St. 5-20-
fld. : Ivs. about 9,
mostly whorled,
linear: fls. pur-
ple, suffused
green, not check-
ered, on short
and strongly re-
curved pedicels;
segms. with
shallow nectar-
ies. Sierra Ne-
vadas in Calif .

24. atropur-
pftrea, Nutt. St.
1-6-fld., lower
and more slender
than in No. 23:
Ivs. 12-20, scat-
tered or imper-
fectly whorled :
fls. dark purple
obscurely check-
ered with green,
on slender pedi-
cels. Wyo. and
Utah, to the
Sierras and the
Columbia River.

25. coccinea,
Greene. SCAR-
LET FRITILLARY. 1533. The Crown Imperial. Fritillaria
St. 1 4 -fid., Imperialis.

1282

FRITILLARIA

slender, 12-18 in. high: Ivs. 3-7, in 2 or 3 whorls
at middle of st., narrow-linear: fls. scarlet, slightly
mottled within with yellow. Calif. Said to be very
like F. recurva, but lower and less leafy and the fls. of
different color; it has a smaller bulb and takes more
readily to cult.

26. Imperialis, Linn. (Imperialis coronata, Dum.
Cours.). CROWN IMPERIAL. Fig. 1583. Height 2-3 ft.:
Ivs. numerous, crowded, ascending, %-l in. wide, high-
est often in whorls of 8-10: fls. end of March. B.M. 194
and 1215. Gn. 46, p. 101; 52, p. 243. A.G. 13:488.
R.B. 20:196. There are single and double forms in
yellow and red, and kinds with foliage striped white,
and with gold. There are varieties Aurora, Maximus,
and William Rex, red; Sulphureus, sulfur-yellow; and
Crown upon Crown, Couronne Orange, Red Slagz-
waard and others. Var. longipetala, Hort. Gn.
56:358, with long segms. Var. chitralensis, Hort., has
rich yellow fls.: said to be a common form in Chitral
(British India). G.C. III. 47:171. G.M. 54:682. F.
Raddeana Regel, from Turkestan, is somewhat dwarfer,
blooms earlier, has floral Ivs. recurved-spreading, fls.
straw-colored or greenish yellow and shorter than the
pedicels.

27. recurva, Benth. Height 6-24 in.: st. 2-8-fld.,
purple, mottled green: Ivs. 6-12, lower ones in whorls of
3-4, linear, ascending: fls. narrow, bell-shaped. Calif.,
Ore. B.M. 6264. Gn. 18:458; 59, p. 415; 61, p. 336.
This has stamens only a little shorter than the
perianth, while in the next 3 species they are only
half the length of the perianth. Distinct by the color
of the fls., which are bright red outside without a
trace of purple, and brilliant yellow inside, spotted
with red.

28. liliacea, Lindl. WHITE FRITILLAKY. Height
3-12 in.: st. 1-6-fld.: Ivs. on st. few, linear-oblong or
linear, those of the radical tuft narrowly or broadly
oblong: fls. between funnel- and bell-shaped, whitish,
veined green, not checkered; gland at base of segms.
greenish and purple-dotted. Calif, in Coast Range
from San Francisco south. Gt. 1871:715.

29. bifldra, Lindl. BLACK LILY. CHOCOLATE LILY.
Height 6-18 in., stout: st. 1-3-fld.: Ivs. 2-6, most of
them near the base, scattered or whorled, oblong:
perianth greenish or dark purple or lined with purple;
segms. elliptic-obovate, with a greenish longitudinal
band. S. Calif. Fls. often described as dark chocolate-
brown to nearly black.

30. camtschatcensis, Ker-Gawl. Mostly written
kamtschatcensis and variously misspelled. (Lilium
camtschatcense, Linn.). BLACK LILY. Height 6-18 in.:
st. 1-3-fld.: Ivs. 10-15, lanceolate, the lower ones
whorled: fls. livid wine-purple, not checkered, 1^4, in.
or less long. Siberia, Alaska. Gt. 5:290. Gn. 25:232;
52, p. 242. F.S. 12:1232. G. 14:362.

F. agrestis, Greene. Bulbs very deep-seated: sts. 1-1% ft.:
Ivs. 8-12, oblong-lanceolate to linear-lanceolate: fls. 3-8, on abruptly
recurved pedicels, yellowish green, with prominent midnerve on
each segm. Calif. Said by Purdy to occur in 2 forms, one a dainty
plant a few inches high with fls. having light green or yellow base-
color and heavily lined with brown (Mendocino Co.); the other a
foot or two tall and similarly marked, so fetid as to be called
"stink bells" (edge of San Joaquin Valley, Contra Costa Co.).
Probably not in cult. F. askabadensis, Mich. St. about 3 ft.:
upper Ivs. linear-lanceolate, whorled: fls. 5-8, hanging amongst
the uppermost Ivs., about 1 in. long, bell-shaped, pale yellow-green.
Cent. Asia. B.M. 7850. G.C. III. 31:238; 45: 184. Gn. 61, p. 256.
G.M. 45:745. R.H. 1903: 180. J.H. III. 44:293. F. S. R. 1: 134. F.
cdnica, Hort. Lvs. in a rosette: fls. bell-shaped, pale yellow outside
and bright yellow inside. Greece. F. p6ntica, Wahl. St. tall, 1 %
ft., leafy at middle, the Ivs. broadly lanceolate, lower ones opposite:
fls. yellow-green, margined and tipped red, the segms. bearing
nearly orbicular nectaries. Asia Minor. Gn.W. 21:407. F.
tuntdsia, Heldr. St. 8-10 in.: Ivs. long and glaucous: fls. 4-6, bell-
shaped, about 1 in. across, intense dark maroon. Greece. Gn.W.
23:435. F. Zdhnii, Hort. Fls. bell -shaped, rather large, brown,
checkered with green inside and streaked with yellow outside.
Greece. I TT T.,

WILHELM MILLER.
L. H. B.f

FROST

FRCELICHIA (J. A. Froelich, physician of Ellwangen,
Germany, monographed Gentiana in 1796; died 1841).
Amarantdcex. About a dozen species of woolly or hairy
American annuals, found chiefly in W. Indies, Mex.
and Brazil, scarcely planted: Ivs. opposite, entire or
nearly so: spikes opposite, terminal; fls. perfect, 3-
bracted; calyx tubular, 5-cleft, hardened and spiny-
crested in fr.; stamens 5, with united filaments: fr. an
indehiscent utricle, inclosed in the filament-tube. F.
floridana, Moq., has been advertised for sale in Amer.
It is cult, abroad. Height 1-4 ft., leafless above: Ivs.
linear to oblong or lanceolate: spikes 2 in. long or more;
fls. white and woolly, set off by small blackish bracts:
fr. broadly winged and irregularly toothed. July-Sept.
B.M. 2603 (as Oplotheca floridana) . Dry sandy areas,
Del. to Fla., and west. F. campestris, Small, is by
some authors considered not to be distinct.

L. H. B.f

FROST. Hoar frost or white frost is ice deposited
upon the surface of plants or other objects. Sometimes
it consists of frozen dew-drops, sometimes of feathery
spinelike ice-crystals, but usually both formations are
present. The moisture from which the deposit of ice is
formed comes partly from the ground, partly from the
air, and in the case of plants, probably partly from the
plant itself.

The term "black frost" is used when plants are
frozen without the appearance of any deposit of ice
upon them. It occurs when the temperature falls below
the freezing-point (32 F.), but not low enough to cause
the moisture in the air to come out in the form of hoar
frost.

The term "frost," when unqualified, means simply
temperatures that are injurious to vegetation without
regard to any deposit of ice. It is in this sense that
the term "frost" is used in this article.

Degrees of frost.

With respect to the effect of frost on vegetation, the
Weather Bureau recognizes three degrees of frost
light, heavy, and killing. A light frost is recorded when
only the tenderest plants are injured; a heavy frost,
when the injury to tender plants is more marked and
the hardier plants are damaged; and a killing frost,
when the staple products of the region are injured
severely or are killed. When no deposit of frost occurs
and the temperature of the air as indicated by the
thermometer falls during the night to 32, a killing
frost is recorded also. Frost charts and frost tables,
published by the Weather Bureau, are based on the
records of killing frosts only.

How plants are injured by frost.

When ice appears on the leaves or blossoms of the
plant, it is evidence that the temperature of the plant
is at or below the freezing-point; but if the temperature
does not go below 32 F., or does not remain at that
point too long, little injury will result to any temperate-
zone plants. In fact, the phenomenon that we usually
have in mind when we speak of killing by low tempera-
ture occurs only when ice forms within the tissue. Care-
ful observers have found that the ice formed in the
tissue is nearly always in the intercellular spaces, the
water being withdrawn from the cells to form these
crystals. Whether the withdrawal of water from the
cell is the cause of death or is merely associated with it,
is not certain. In case of winter dormant tissue, that
is very resistant to low temperature, the injury at a
given temperature is much greater when the tempera-
ture-fall is very rapid. In the case of a few tissues, like
ripe apples and pears and leaves of Agave americana
and of lettuce, the rapidity of thawing influences the
extent of injury at the highest killing temperature of
the tissue. However, it is not a determining factor,
since, if the temperature be carried somewhat lower,
the tissue will kill regardless of the rate of thawing.

FROST

1283

Varieties as well as individual plants differ greatly
in their ability to withstand cold, and a temperature
that may destroy a plant at one time may cause little
injury at any other time. Hence, no general statement
can be made with regard to injurious temperatures
that will apply in all cases.

The following table indicates the temperatures (Fahr.)
that have been found injurious to tree fruits during the
blossoming period:

Fruits

Petals
closed

In
blossom

Setting

Later

Peaches

Pears

General atmospheric conditions that cause frost.

The loss of heat that brings the temperature of
plants to the freezing-point occurs in two ways, (1)
loss by conduction, and (2) loss by radiation. Loss of
heat by conduction occurs when the air in contact with
the plant is colder than the plant itself. This allows
the heat to flow directly from the plant into the colder
air about it. Frosts due to this cause alone result
almost invariably from the importation of large masses
of cold air, brought down from the upper atmosphere
by descending currents, or from higher latitudes by
northerly winds, both of which movements usually
are active when the weather clears after a storm.

Frosts, particularly in the late spring or early fall,
result also from loss of heat by radiation. Plants radi-
ate heat continuously. During the day more heat is
received by them from the sun than they give off, and
the plant becomes warmer; at night plants pour more
heat into the atmosphere than they receive from it,
hence they become colder.

Radiation proceeds most rapidly when the sky is
clear and the atmosphere is quiet. Clouds check radia-
tion, because the heat given off from the earth does
not penetrate them easily. Much of it is reflected
back toward the earth, warming the whole stratum
of air between the earth and the clouds.

A quiet atmosphere allows the colder, therefore
heavier, particles of air to settle to the surface of the
earth. Thus, on quiet, clear nights, when frost is likely
to occur, the air near the ground may be 10 colder
than the air 10 or 15 feet above the ground. The wind,
by stiring up the atmosphere, prevents the settling
of the cold air, and in this way maintains the stratum
of air near the surface at a more nearly uniform tem-
perature.

Frost results seldom from conduction or radiation
alone. Both usually are active when frost occurs.

Forecasting frost from weather maps.

Frosts that injure vegetation are a part of the regu-
lar weather sequences. The weather comes to us in
what may be termed waves that travel with more or
less regularity in the middle latitudes from west to
east. The weather map is a survey of the atmosphere.
It charts the daily progress of these weather waves.
By the aid of such a chart it is possible to foresee in a
measure the coming of a frost, and to judge its probable
extent and severity.

The weather map is based on observations of pres-
sure, temperature, cloudiness, wind, and precipitation,
made at many places scattered over a large area. Low
atmospheric pressure indicates the trough of the
weather wave, and high pressure its crest. The low-
pressure area is called the cyclone, because the winds
whirl or eddy about its center, the direction of rota-
tion being counter clock-wise in the northern hemi-
sphere. In approaching the center, the winds have an

ascending as well as an inward component of motion.
The cyclone also is called a storm, because it is attended
on its eastern side by southerly or easterly winds,
cloudiness, rain or snow, and comparatively high tem-
perature, and on its western side by northerly winds,
clearing weather, and a decided fall of temperature.

2 '9.6 3 ao

1584. Weather map, 8 a.m., June 7, 1913.

The crest of the wave is indicated by increased pres-
sure, and is called the anti-cyclone. It is so named
because its structure is exactly opposite to that of the
cyclone. The winds of the anti-cyclone blow outward
from its center, and have a downward component of
motion; the sky is clear; the precipitation is scanty or
absent; and the temperature is comparatively low.

Frosts are most likely to occur in the rear (western
side) of the cyclone, and just in front (eastern side) of
the crest or center of the anti-cyclone. Here is found
the mass of cold air, imported from the north by the
northerly winds, and augmented by the cold brought
down from above by the gently descending currents;
the sky is clear; and as night comes on the air becomes
quiet. Thus, the conditions that cause frost are ful-
filled.

A weather wave, in which frost was the most pro-
nounced characteristic, moved from North Dakota to
the Atlantic coast from June 7 to 10, 1913 (Fig. 1584).
The general conditions on the morning of the 7th and
8th (Fig. 1585) are shown by the accompanying weather
maps for those dates. The eastward progress of frost
from day to day is indicated by the dotted lines on the
map of the 7th. The relative position of the cyclone

1585. Weather map, 8 a.m., June 8, 1913.

(low) and the anti-cyclone (high), on the 7th, indicates
clearly that frosts will occur over the Upper Mississippi
Valley and the Upper Lakes on the following morning,
while the conditions shown by the map of the 8th
make it certain that the frosts will spread eastward
over New York and the New England states by the
morning of the 9th.

The Weather Bureau issues frost warnings when
frosts are indicated for any part of the United States.

1284

FROST

The warnings are distributed by mail, telegraph and
by telephone. They are telegraphed at Government
expense to many telephone companies.

Forecasting frost from local observations.

It is not possible to forecast frost twenty-four or
thirty-six hours in advance without the aid of the
weather map; but, by observing the local conditions
during the late afternoon and early evening, it is pos-
sible often to determine whether a frost will occur
before morning. Assuming that it is the frost season,
the conditions to be considered are: (1) the character
of the preceding weather, (2) the state of the sky,
whether cloudy or clear, (3) the direction and force of
the wind, (4) the trend of the temperature, and (5)
the atmospheric pressure.

Preceding weather. Since the weather comes in
waves, an abnormally warm period is likely to be fol-
lowed by the opposite extreme.

State of the sky. A clear sky increases loss of heat
by radiation, as explained already.

Direction and force of wind. A southwest to west
wind indicates that the cyclone is passing (except per-
haps on the Pacific coast, where other conditions may
modify the directions), and that the anti-cyclone is
approaching, while a northwest to north wind indicates
that the anti-cyclone is near. If the wind dies away it
will become colder near the ground.

Trend of the temperature. If the temperature falls
steadily during the late afternoon, reaching 40 by 6 or
8 P. M., with a clear sky and a light wind, frost is
indicated before morning.

Atmospheric pressure. The actual stage of the
barometer is not important, except if the pressure has
been very low during the day it indicates the passage
of a deep depression which is likely to be followed by
a high crest. If the barometer rises rapidly during the
late afternoon or early evening it indicates the rapid
approach of the anti-cyclone.

The influence, of local conditions on frost.

Everyone who has lived in the open country is
familiar with the fact that some places are more sub-
ject to frost than other places. Crops in one part of a
field may be destroyed by frost, and in another part of
the same field remain uninjured. The explanation for
this seeming discrimination is found in the influence
of local conditions.

There are five factors that determine the frost risk
at any place: (1) location, city or country, (2) ele-
vation and topography, (3) proximity to bodies of
water, (4) exposure to the sun, (5) soil and soil cover-
ings.

Location. Frosts are much more likely to occur in
the open country than in cities. Many investigations
confirm this. The higher night temperatures of cities
is attributed to the heat given off from buildings and
pavements, and to the smoke from the many city
fires that collects over cities on quiet nights.

Elevation and topography. The average tempera-
ture decreases with elevation above sea-level at a rate
of 1 for each 300 feet of ascent. From this it might
be expected that hilltops would be more frosty than
adjacent lower lands. Such is not the case. On clear
quiet nights the colder air that settles to the surface
drains away from the hilltops and hillsides and accumu-
lates over the low lands, decreasing the temperature of
the vegetation and sometimes causing frost. If the val-
ley into which the cold air drains is closed, so that it
cannot flow away as rapidly as it accumulates, a "frost
pocket" results. Some farms have many such "frost
pockets." A walk over a farm on a clear quiet night
often will reveal their location and extent. Low hill-
tops and hillsides, but not too near the valley floor,
should be chosen for fruits or other crops that are
liable to be injured by frost.

Proximity to bodies of water.Under similar condi-
tions, land warms and cools about five times as rapidly
as water. During the season of spring frosts, the water
is relatively cool, although considerably above the freez-
ing-point. Therefore, it tends to cool the air over
adjacent lands during the day and to warm it at night.
The influence of a body of water on nearby vegetation
is twofold: by lowering the day temperature it retards
growth, and by increasing the night temperature wards
off frost. The fruit-belts along the various lakes are
examples of this twofold influence. The cool air from
the lake by day retards the blooming period, and also
gives immunity from frost at night. The influence of a
body of water is more marked in the fall than in the
spring, because of the heat stored up by the water dur-
ing the summer. It also increases the length of the
growing season over adjacent lands by warding off
frost both in spring and fall. The distance to which
the influence of a body of water will extend inland
depends upon the volume of water, its temperature
relative to that of the land, the area of its free surface,
the slope of its shores, and the prevailing winds. The
prevailing winds in the middle latitudes are from the
west. Thus, the influence of a lake extends farthest
on its east side, and farthest also when the land slopes
gently away from the water. The influence of Lake
Michigan, mainly because of the gentle slope of its
eastern shore, extends nearly half way across the state
of Michigan, while the influence of Lake Erie, because
of the abrupt rise of its eastern shore, extends inland
only a few miles.

Exposure. Hillsides exposed toward the south are
warmest; next come those facing east, then west, and
finally north. Frost liability follows in the reverse
order, being greatest on the north side. In the eastern
states many fruit-growers prefer the northern slope for
an orchard site, notwithstanding its greater liability
to frost. This preference is based partly on the opinion
that the colder soil and air of northern slopes tends to
retard the blooming time until the period of spring
frosts is passed.

Soil and soil coverings. Dark-colored, sandy soils,
because good absorbers of heat, are least liable to
frost. Many cranberry-growers cover the surface of
the bogs with an inch or two of sand as a means of
protecting from frost. The sand stores up heat by day
with which to combat frost at night. Well-drained
soils are less frosty than poorly drained soils, because,
when the soil is wet, the heat from the sun is expended
in evaporating the water, and not in warming the soil.
Good tillage reduces the frost risk, because a loose,
porous soil absorbs more heat than a hard, compact
soil- WILFORD M. WILSON.

The protection of orchards against frost-injury.

Although much interest has been manifested in the
prevention of frost-injury to orchards in recent years,
it is well known that the protection of plants and
fruits from such injury dates back more than 2,000
years. Pliny the Elder, one of the most noted of Roman
writers, who lived from 23 to 79 A.D., states that the
Romans practised heating and smudging as a protec-
tion against frost-injury. We have no doubt that the
practice was successful, since it was recommended by
Pliny whose one surviving work, his "Natural History,"
is considered a storehouse of facts. Smudging was also
recommended by Olivier de Serres, a French agricul-
turist, in the sixteenth century. He recommended the
use of wet straw and half-rotten manures so as to pro-
duce a heavy smoke. In the latter part of the eighteenth
century, the practice of smudging was compulsory
in parts of Germany, and failure to comply with certain
regulations resulted in prosecution before an officer
of the law. According to Boussingault, the celebrated

FROST

1285

French chemist, smudges have been used for centuries
on the plains of Cuzco, Peru, on still clear nights by
Indians, to retard the loss of heat from the soil. This
practice was inherited by them from the pre-Spanish
civilization. From the fragmentary pieces of literature
we are able to find concerning the matter of frost-pre-
vention, there is no doubt that the practice has been
more or less common from the most remote times to
the present day.

It is only in recent years, however, that the matter
of frost-prevention has been scientifically investigated.
The literature on the subject has been, until very
recently, of very little importance, because the methods
advocated were very crude and could not be used by
the commercial fruit-grower. However, during the
1880's and early 1890's, the French vine-growers did
some remarkable work. Even at that time, they used
heavy oil and tar as fuels, placing these in flat ironware
dishes much the same as the modern practice of using
smudge -pots with
crude-oil. There had
also been devised sys-
tems of automatic
lighting operated by
a mercuric column,
not very much unlike
some of our more re-
cently patented auto-
matic alarm thermom-
eters and self-light-
ers. About the same
time that the French
vine - growers were
perfecting their
work in frost-preven-
tion, the California
and Florida orange-
growers were also
making experiments
along the same line.
The first successful
attempt to prevent
frost -injury by the
use of heating de-
vices on a large scale
occurred in California
about 1896. Edward
Copely is credited with inventing the wire coal-basket
as well as a machine to make it cheaply. These bas-
kets were filled with kindling and about twenty-five
pounds of coal, twenty-five to thirty baskets being pro-
vided to the acre. They were suspended 'by wires to
limbs of trees. The first use of oil of which there is a
record was by Everett at Arlington, California ; and the
first use of hot water was by Meacham, at Riverside,
California. Later, J. P. Bolton, of the United States
Weather Bureau, stationed at Fresno, California,
devised an oil-pot for use in the vineyards during .the
period of spring frosts.

The occasion for considerable activity in the matter
of frost-fighting at this time was due to a very severe
frost in December, 1895, causing great damage to the
orange and lemon groves in the Riverside section. It
may be said that the beginning of frost-fighting in a
commercial way dates from this time. The Riverside
Horticultural Club in the winter of 1897-98 took
an active interest, and many experiments were con-
ducted, using all sorts of devices for adding moisture to
the air by means of fires of damp straw and stable
manure, evaporation of water by means of evaporating-
pans, sprayers and sprinklers, and by irrigation of the
orchards. Boilers were also used with connecting pipes
whereby steam was generated and carried to the dif-
ferent parts of the orchards. Direct heating of the air
by means of fires was also tried and proved to be the
most successful method of preventing frost-injury.

1586. Method of protecting windward side of an orchard by doubling the
number of orchard-heaters.

The deciduous fruit-growers of the Sacramento
Valley, California, also practised orchard-heating more
or less successfully, adopting the methods employed
by the citrus fruit-growers of the South. It is remark-
able that some of this work did not bear so good
results as it should. Fully ten years passed without
any advance having been made in the methods of
orchard -heating. About 1906, a renewed interest
was taken in the work and since that time orchard-
heating has been given scientific study. Within
the last four or five years the fruit- and vegetable-
growers throughout the United States have taken
much interest in the practice of protecting their
crops from frost-injury, and it has become a recog-
nized part of orchard work in districts in which frosts
regularly occur.

The literature on the subject has now assumed con-
siderable importance since it is the result of scientific
investigation of frost-injury and frost-prevention at

the hands of scientific
men. There are many
important articles
and bulletins on the
subject.

The losses occa-
sioned by frost in the
citrus and deciduous
fruit districts of the
United States often
reach enormous pro-
portions. It has been
impossible to secure
accurate information
as to what the aver-
age annual loss has
been over a period of
years; but it is safe
to say that the loss
would approximate
$10,000,000 a year.
If one takes into con-
sideration the freezes
which occurred in the
citrus belt in Florida
during 1880, 1884,
1886, 1894, and 1895,
where not only the

fruit but the trees themselves were killed, the loss
would average still greater. It is estimated that the
freeze of 1894-95 destroyed 3,000,000 boxes of oranges
in the Florida groves. Although the citrus industry in
California had not yet reached large proportions, the
losses were correspondingly heavy. In January, 1913,
the losses in the southern California citrus district
reached the enormous sum of $50,000,000, all of which
might have been saved by means of the present methods
of frost-prevention. Deciduous fruits have suffered quite
as heavily from frost-injury. Very often almost the
entire crop of fruit throughout the eastern and southern
states is a complete failure. In the middle West,
especially in Colorado, the one great drawback to
fruit-growing has been the danger of damage by frost.
This has also been true of the deciduous fruit districts
of the inter-mountain and Pacific coast states. How-
ever, since the advent of the present methods of pro-
tecting against frost-injury, much security has been
added to deciduous fruit-growing.

The problem of preventing injury to plants from
frost may be classified under the following heads:

1. The prediction of frost, and the issuance of
adequate frost-warnings.

2. The construction and use of devices and appa-
ratus to be used in frost-prevention.

3. The cost of orchard heating.

4. The physics of orchard-heating.

5. The use of electricity in frost-prevention.

1286

FROST

The prediction of frost and issuance of frost-warnings.

The prediction of frost and issuance of adequate
frost-warnings necessarily belong to the United States
Weather Bureau. It is wholly impossible accurately
to predict frost locally without a knowledge of general
weather conditions over a considerable area. However,
a local observer with a complete knowledge of the
climatology of his district and a knowledge of the air-
currents, humidity, maximum and minimum tempera-
tures, and the like, is capable of making very accurate
forecasts in cooperation with the United States Weather
Service. For careful work, a detailed mapping of the
climatological features of each district should be made.
It is known that temperatures vary greatly within any
district, dependent upon elevation, contour, proximity
to large bodies of water, and so on.

Frosts usually occur during periods of high baro-
metric pressure, following a period of low pressure in
which there has been some precipitation. Under such
conditions the air is very dry and dust-free, producing
conditions favorable to intense radiation, and conse-
quently causing rapid cooling of both plants and soil.

1587. Orchard-heating with fifty coal-heaters to the acre. Each heater
holds from twenty-five to thirty-five pounds of soft coal.

It has been stated more or less empirically that the
temperature of the dew-point is a safe guide in the
local forecasting of frosts, but recent investigations
have shown that it is not dependable when used alone
and in disregard of other important factors, such as the
daily maximum temperature, temperature-curve, wind-
direction, barometer, and condition of the sky. To
this should be added a complete knowledge of general
weather conditions as obtained from the nearest Dis-
trict Weather Bureau Office.

In 1882, Lieutenant (now Brigadier General) James
Allen published a pamphlet entitled "To Foretell Frost
by the Determination of the Dew-point." He said
that if the dew-point is above freezing in the early
evening the minimum temperature next morning will
be above freezing; if the dew-point is below freezing,
the minimum temperature next morning will also be
below freezing. If the prediction of frosts were so
simple, anyone with the aid of the psychrometer, or
wet-and-dry bulb thermometer, might easily make
independent forecasts. However, it has been found
that the dew-point is an aid only when used in com-
bination with a perfect knowledge of the other weather
factors and a knowledge of the climatology of the
district. The dew-point temperature is used in the
Rogue River Valley, Oregon, because it has been found
a very safe guide in combination with the above factors

which were determined by several years of observa-
tion and study. From 1909 to 1913 the average
departure of the minimum temperature of the follow-
ing morning from the previous evening's dew-point
temperature during periods of spring frosts has been
0.10 F. It is possible that every district, by a careful
study of all the factors governing frost conditions, may
be able to predict accurately not only the minimum
temperature that will occur, but also the time when
the firing in the orchards must begin. This is now done
in the Rogue River Valley, Oregon, and has been prac-
tised for several years without a single error.

The several ways of preventing fall in temperature.

In order to prevent the fall in temperature, the fol-
lowing methods have been practised: (1) Direct heat-
ing of the air. (2) Adding water-vapor. (3) Adding
both heat and water-vapor. (4) Ventilation or mixing
the air. (5) Irrigation, or use of water. (6) Use of heated
water and steam. (7) Use of screens or covers to pre-
vent loss of heat by radiation. (8) Spraying with water.
In the discussion of preventing frost-injury, all
the methods excepting that of adding heat
will be omitted, as recent experiments have
shown that direct heating of the stratum of
air in contact with the trees and fruits is the
only practicable way of handling frost-preven-
tion on a large scale. All the other methods
have been given extensive trials, and, while
practicable for small gardens, cannot be used
over large areas on account of the large
amount of labor necessary, and the further
fact that their application cannot be made
general. Direct heating is not only simple,
but is the least costly, and has, therefore,
the advantage of general application.

Methods of direct heating in frost-preven-
tion. As stated above, it has been demon-
strated beyond question that adding heat
directly to the air through the agency of fires
distributed throughout the orchard is the
most successful and practicable way to handle
the frost problem in commercial orchards.
A multitude of devices and many kinds of
fuel have been experimented with, and it is
now the opinion among growers who have
fought frost that the best heat-producing
material so far demonstrated is crude-
oil or distillate burned in some form of
sheet-iron receptacle or smudge-pot. In the first
place, oils are easy to handle, may be readily stored,
and, compared with other fuels, produce more heat
in proportion to the cost. The cost of handling and
igniting such fuels as coal and wood, together with
the disadvantage of so much bulky material dis-
tributed throughout the orchard which interferes with
cultivation, decidedly places these fuels at a disad-
vantage, excepting in very small tracts. No matter
how remote a fruit district may be from an oil-field,
there is no question but that oil is the best fuel to be
used, especially in large commercial orchards when
the labor problem is one of more than ordinary impor-
tance. There is very much difference in the oils as
secured in different parts of the country. For the
most part, eastern crude-oils have a paraffine base,
while those on the Pacific slope have an asphaltum base.
The crude-oil, or petroleum, as it comes from the wells
is very rich in gases and the lighter oils, such as ben-
zene, gasolene, kerosene, and others, and, therefore, is
not used as such for orchard-heating. The gases and
lighter oils are all removed by fractional distillation,
leaving behind the heavier oils and the asphaltum or
paraffine base, as the case may be. The fuel-oils on the
market are, therefore, residuals, and as such are used
for orchard-heating. A residual oil with a paraffine
base will burn in the common smudge-pot without

FROST

1287

leaving behind anything but a little soot; but the oils
with an asphaltum base do not. For this reason it is
found necessary to remove the asphaltum base in so
far as is practicable. Asphaltum does not burn readily
in a simple smudge-pot, and, therefore, remains
behind after the lighter oil has burned. Upon cooling,
it becomes very hard, and reduces the capacity of the
pot for future fillings. The best oil for orchard-heating
purposes is one of approximately 20 Beaume test,
considering the matter of cost as an item. A lighter oil
up to 32 Beaume may be used, but being lighter, it
will burn more rapidly and reduce the effective burn-
ing time of the orchard-heater.

The orchard-heater. During recent years, large num-
bers of types of orchard-heaters have been placed
upon the market. As stated elsewhere in this article,
the first smudge-pot devised for orchard-heating was
the invention of J. P. Bolton, of Fresno, California,
and the object of this invention was to produce a
device which would effect fairly complete combustion.
In fact, the idea in all of the more recent types of
orchard-heaters has been to bring about more perfect
combustion of the fuel-oil and a consequent reduction
in the amount of soot given off. Also, there has been
an effort to increase the burning time of the pot by
increasing the capacity for fuel-oil. This has been
partially effected by several interesting devices, but
the perfect pot producing complete combustion of
fuel-oil has yet to be invented. The so-called soot-
arrester of some types is a misnomer. Very extensive
experiments have been made with all the devices on the
market, and it has been shown that the plain sheet-iron
pot holding approximately five quarts of fuel-oil is
just as effective as the more complicated and expensive
types. This pot is inexpensive, and when made of No.
29 or 26 sheet-iron will cost from 5 to 8 cents. In
using a heater of such small size, the number to the
acre should not be less than 100, and preferably more
in districts in which periods of low temperature con-
tinue more than four or five hours. Owing to the
cheapness of such pots, a very large number may be
used in preference to using a few expensive heaters
of the reservoir type. Many small fires give better
results than a few large ones, as the heat is better dis-
tributed and convectiye air-currents are not produced.
It must be understood that any orchard-heating device
that is in any way complicated by dampers, cocks,
valves, and the like, must be avoided. At best, an
orchard-heater is roughly handled and the more expen-
sive and complicated types would find a very short
existence in actual orchard-heating practice. Further-
more, the matter of storage must be considered. The
simple pot which will nest easily and occupy very little
space will be more desirable. There is no objection to
the high-priced reservoir heater providing it is not
complicated, but the same results may be secured by
the more simple lard-pail type, holding about five
quarts and having a burning time of four and five
hours, depending upon the quality of fuel-oil used.

Equipment for orchard-heating. The equipment
absolutely necessary for effective orchard-heating con-
sists of the following:

1. Storage reservoir.

2. Distributing wagon tank.

3. Orchard-heaters.

4. Lighters for igniting the fuel-oil.

5. Thermometers.

6. Frost alarm thermometers.

(1) The storage reservoir should be built of con-
crete or steel and should have a capacity sufficient to
provide for at least five fillings of the orchard-heaters
that is to say, for five frost-periods. Such a reservoir,
if built of concrete, should be constructed in such a
way as to make the walls and floor one continuous
pouring, so as to provide against leakage of oil. Resid-
ual oils have no effect upon the concrete, and all leakage

is due to improper pouring of the cement. A rich cement
mixture should be used. The reservoir should be so
placed that it may be filled and emptied by gravity.
At best, it is expensive to handle oil, and there should
be no pumping. Oil should be secured in tank-car lots,
and, if the proper arrangements are made, all the hand-
ling may be done by gravity. The reservoir should
have an outlet pipe 2J^ to 3 inches in diameter and
supplied with a close-fitting valve. A cover to keep out
dust and rain should also be provided. (2) The supply-
tank should be placed upon a heavy low truck and
should hold between 300 and 400 gallons. It should be
provided either with two heavy gate valves at the
rear or with two lines of hose with valves for the pur-
pose of distributing the oil into the orchard-heaters.
This tank may be the ordinary supply-tank used to
carry spray material. (3) The number of orchard-
heaters to be used to the acre will depend upon a knowl-
edge of the conditions under which they are to be used.
If the simple one-gallon type of heater is used, at least
100 to 120 should be provided to the acre. Besides, a
double row should be placed around the side from which
the prevailing air-movement comes in the periods of
frosts. In fact, it is best to reinforce all sides of the
orchard. After filling the heaters, they should be cov-
ered so as to prevent the entrance of moisture or to
provide against evaporation of the oil. In placing the
heaters, it is best to arrange them somewhere near
the intersections of the diagonals made by the trees;
but any arrangement which will not place a pot directly
under a tree will suffice. (4) Fuel-oil is rather difficult
to ignite, and a small amount of gasolene must be used
so as to provide for quick lighting. The best method
of lighting is to use a machinist's oil-can filled with
gasolene, and a torch made of two pieces of thin iron
pipe. The larger piece is fitted with a screw cap and is
filled with a mixture of kerosene and lard oil. A sec-
tion of small pipe through which is drawn a piece of
waste is then fitted by a reducer to the other end. The
waste is kept saturated with the mixture of lard and
kerosene and when lighted provides a very good torch.
This iron torch is very useful in taking off fids or caps
of heaters when lighting. The machinist's oil-can
filled with gasolene is carried in the left hand and
about two tablespoonfuls are poured on the surface
of the fuel-oil in the pots. The torch is applied and
the gasolene ignites, firing the heavy fuel-oil. A simpler
and lighter torch is easily made by wiring a piece of
waste into a ball and twisting the wire into a handle.
The waste is kept saturated by plunging it into the oil
of the heater, igniting it from the surface flame as it
is removed. (5) A most necessary part of any orchard-
heating equipment is a sufficient supply of fairly accu-
rate thermometers. There should be at least one ther-
mometer to the acre. The thermometers should be
hung with the bulb about 4 to 5 feet from the ground,
depending, of course, upon the relative position of the
fruiting area of the tree. In many orchards the ther-
mometers will be placed higher, in others, lower. All
thermometers should read correctly to within J^, and
if the correction be greater it should be placed upon a
tag attached to the thermometer. In reading the
thermometers, a pocket electric flashlight is much
better than a lantern. The heat from a lantern will
cause the mercury to rise before it can be read and the
thermometers will, therefore, not give the true atmo-
spheric temperature. The thermometers should be in
the open in order to get the approximate temperature
of the plants to be protected. This temperature is
always slightly lower than the true atmospheric
temperature. Besides the thermometers in the orchard,
other thermometers placed at a safe distance from the
heated area should be provided. A self-registering
thermometer, while not necessary as a part of the
equipment, would be very useful in determining the
actual minimum as well as the rate at which the tern-

1288

FROST

perature is falling. (6) The frost-alarm thermometer is
a device for sounding an alarm when a certain tempera-
ture is reached. This point is usually a degree or two
above the danger point, and serves the purpose of
giving notice of approaching danger. The thermometer
is placed at a point any distance away and where the
lowest temperatures usually occur. Wires are led from
the thermometer to the house. When the mercury
falls below a certain point, the electric circuit is broken
and a relay causes a bell to ring. If a thermograph is
at hand, the man on duty may easily note by the
character of the temperature curve whether or not it
may be necessary to prepare for lighting the fires. There
are several types of frost-alarm thermometers on the
market, but the simplest and most trustworthy of all
is the one in which the mercuric column breaks an
electric circuit which in turn operates a relay con-
nected with an electric bell.

Besides the above necessary devices for orchard-
heating, there have been invented certain automatic
devices for lighting a large number of pots at the
same time, either
by hand or elec-
trical control. Such
devices are always
complicated, and, dis-
regarding their cost
which is an item of
considerable impor-
tance, they are im-
practical in large
operations. If the
means be electrical or
mechanical, an expen-
sive cartridge must
be used, the cost of
which is greater than
the cost of the labor
for lighting the pots
by hand. Besides, all
automatic devices re-
quire that a large
number of wires be
strung through the
orchard, which would
interfere with other
orchard practice. As

1588. Using wood for orchard heating fifty fires to the acre.

a rule, the period over which frost-injury may occur
may be a month or six weeks, and during this time
various orchard work must be in progress.

Injurious temperatures. The temperatures at which
the principal orchard fruits are liable to be injured
cannot be accurately stated, since weather conditions
previous to a freeze determine to a very great extent
the ability of plants to withstand low temperatures.
Not only do the different degrees of cold produce dif-
ferent effects on the same plant, but the same plant
will often behave differently when subjected to the
same degree of cold. It is well known that plants or
parts of plants in active growth are more easily killed
by low temperatures than the same plants or parts of
plants when dormant. Actively growing plants con-
tain large quantities of water; that is to say, the pro-
toplasm or cell-sap is watery, and, as a rule, the larger
the proportion of water contained within the plants
the more likely they are to be injured by low tempera-
tures. Injury to plants is due to changes or disturb-
ances produced in the protoplasm by low temperatures
and, because of the unlike specific characters of dif-
ferent plants, is not always produced in exactly the
same way. Some plants are injured at temperatures
above freezing, while others are injured by the forma-
tion of ice at temperatures which they can withstand if
the formation of ice is prevented. Again, some plants
are not injured if the formation of ice does not progress
too far, while some are resistant to the lowest tempera-

tures. As yet we do not know the nature of the peculi-
arities which determine the different powers of resist-
tance of individual plants or of the same plant at
different stages of growth. It is well known that the
resistance to injury can be increased to a certain extent
by raising the concentration of the cell-sap. Cold, in
itself, acts as a stimulus, inducing an increased produc-
tion of sugar in many plants. The presence of an
increased amount of sugar in a plant acts in such a way
as appreciably to lower the freezing-point While tables
giving injurious temperatures to fruit when in bud,
blossom, and so on, have been prepared, it is safe to say
that these temperatures are not entirely reliable. This
is because conditions are never the same in any frost
period. It may be stated that in the practice of orchard-
heating the safest plan is to keep the temperature just
above the freezing-point no matter what the variety
of fruit. No doubt, this will often be 2 to 3, or even
more, higher than necessary, but the practice is on the
safe side. In orchard-heating practice the temperature
should never be allowed to go much below the danger

point, as it is usually
difficult to bring it
back without some
chance of injury to
the fruit.

Effect of orchard-
heating on pollination.
That pollination
and subsequent fertil-
ization of the orchard
fruits is in any way
affected by orchard-
heating is yet to be
proved. It has been
contended by some
that the smoke or
soot incident to the
use of fuel-oil has a
tendency to prevent
the normal activities
of such insects as visit
the blossoms of fruit
trees. However, there
is no proof that the
presence of soot on
the trees has any

effect in keeping insects, especially the honey-bee, away
from the newly opened blossoms. Under normal con-
ditions, the blooms which bees visit open during the
early part of the day and, therefore, only such blossoms
attract them. These blossoms have been closed during
the time when smudging was being done, and, therefore,
the nectaries, pistils and stamens have no soot deposited
upon them. With citrus fruits, soot may have an inju-
rious effect upon the fruit, but it has been found that
such fruit may be freed from soot by a washing process
which does not materially increase the cost of handling.
The cost of orchard-heating. The cost of orchard-
heating is such a variable quantity that it is almost
impossible to make a general estimate which will be
of any value. Equipment, cost of fuel, length and
number of firing periods, and so on, will vary in differ-
ent localities and seasons. Orchard-heaters will cost
all the way from 6 cents to 50 cents each, and from
fifty to two hundred heaters, depending upon condi-
tions, will have to be used to the acre. The quantity
of oil will vary with the season, and the cost will be
all the way from 1 to 5 or 6 cents a gallon. Usually,
no less than 300 gallons an acre should be provided. At
least one wagon-tank will have to be provided for each
10 acres at a cost of $25. Lighters and torches will
cost from $1 to $2 an acre; thermometers 75 cents to
$1 an acre. The cost of a storage- tank charged to each
acre will depend upon its size, but will not be far from
$10 an acre for large tracts. It is possible to get at the

FROST

1289

actual cost of fuel-oil to the acre in the following way:
The quantity of fuel-oil necessary to raise the tempera-
ture 5 F. above the surrounding air in an orchard in
full bearing with wide-spreading trees will be approxi-
mately twelve and one-half gallons an hour to the
acre. This will be true if the air remains calm or does
not move more than 1 or 2 miles an hour. In young
orchards with the fruiting area low, practically double
the quantity of fuel-oil as given will be necessary. The
simple lard-pail type of heater, or, for that matter, any
type of orchard-heater providing a burning area of
about 44 square inches, will burn about one quart of fuel-
oil an hour. Fifty one-gallon heaters will burn approxi-
mately twelve and one-half gallons of fuel-oil an hour,
and if this oil costs 4 cents a gallon, the cost of an acre-
hour will be about 50 cents when all the pots are burn-
ing. In other words, under the above conditions, it
will cost approximately 1 cent an hour for each heater
used, providing this heater does not have a burning
surface greater than 44 square inches. It will require
less fuel to heat an orchard in the square form than
one of any other shape. The more the orchard-heaters
are massed in the form of a square, the better the
results. In fact, it is almost impossible to protect an
orchard of only a few rows because there is no mass-
ing of the heat generated on account of the lack of
braking effect on air-movement.

The physics of orchard-heating.

By common consent, the one-gallon or ten-pound
lard-pail type of orchard-heater has been made the
standard. This heater has a top diameter of 7J^ inches,
a bottom diameter of 6% inches, and a depth of 8
inches. It has a top burning surface of about 44 square
inches, an average burning surface of 40 square inches,
and under actual field conditions will hold five quarts.
As will readily be seen, the rate of burning fuel-oil
will not remain con-
stant owing to the
form of the pot. Since
the rate of burning
does not remain con-
stant, it is natural to
suppose that a cor-
responding change in
the orchard tempera-
ture-characteristic
takes place. In other
words, the difference
in temperature be-
tween the air outside
the heated area and
that in the heated
area does not remain
constant. The char-
acteristic for any
orchard-heater having
sloping sides will be
approximately the
same as for the standard lard-pail type.

By repeated experiment it has been shown that the
standard lard-pail type heater will burn about two
pounds (two pints) of fuel-oil an hour, providing the
oil is neither too heavy nor too light gravity. A very
simple rule which will determine the burning time of
any fuel-oil in the standard pot is to divide the weight
of a gallon (in pounds) by two. This will give the num-
ber of hours a gallon will burn under actual conditions
in the field.

For any other size heater of the lard-pail type, the
burning time will vary in accordance with the following
law: K=T (DH) 2 , in which T=the time of burning,
D=the mean of the top and bottom diameters, and
H=the depth, K=a constant. In other words, it has
been found that if the mean diameter times the depth
be squared and multiplied by the burning time (in

1589. Smudging used to prevent frost-injury.

hours) of a unit quantity (one gallon) of fuel-oil, the
product will be the constant for the same fuel-oil
burned under the same conditions, no matter what the
size of the pot may be, providing it is not too much out
of proportion.

The calorific power of fuels. Analyses of various
fuel-oils on the market have shown that the heating
power averages about 18,000 British thermal units
to the pound. A pound of dry pine wood, or, for that
matter, the best oak wood, if perfectly dry, will generate
about 6,000 B.T.U.'s under perfect combustion; bitu-
minous coal under the same conditions will generate
12,000 B.T.U.'s. It will be seen, therefore, that the
ratio of wood, coal and fuel-oil is about as 1:2:3. A
cord of well-seasoned pine will weigh about 2,000
pounds and that of oak about 4,000 pounds. These
figures are, of course, only approximate, but will serve
as a basis for calculation in case anyone should desire
to use wood or coal for orchard-heating purposes.
Since the calorific power of fuel-oil is about 18,000
B.T.U.'s to the pound, the standard fuel-pot burning
two pounds of fuel-oil an hour will generate 36,000
B.T.U.'s. This is largely theoretical as, owing to the
character of the heater, combustion is by no means
perfect. Nevertheless, the amount of oil, as indicated,
is consumed, and will, therefore, be accounted for on
the basis of complete combustion. By repeated experi-
ment, it has been shown that the quantity of fuel-oil
necessary to raise the temperature 5 F. above the
surrounding air in an orchard in full bearing with the
trees forming a protective covering and the air calm
or moving not more than 1 or 2 miles an hour, is approxi-
mately twelve and one-half gallons or 100 pounds an
hour to the acre. This quantity of fuel-oil is approxi-
mately the amount which would be burned in one
hour by fifty standard orchard -heaters. In very
young orchards, or with a wind of 10 to 15 miles

an hour, fully two or
three times as much
fuel-oil will be neces-
sary to maintain a
temperature 5 F.
above that of the sur-
rounding air. Under
average orchard con-
ditions, with the trees
in good bearing, the
maximum height at
which the bulk of the
fruit crop is borne is
usually not more than
12 to 15 feet above the
surface of the ground.
In many cases frost-
injury does not occur
above this height, the
cold-air stratum being
relatively thin. Dur-
ing periods of injuri-

ous low temperatures, the atmosphere is very dry and,
therefore, calculations may be based upon the heating
of the air only, since the small amount of water-vapor
present at such times is of little importance. Taking an
acre as the unit area, and assuming that the height to
which the air must be heated to protect the crop is 12
feet, the total weight of the air inclosed within this space
would be 42,000 pounds. As stated above, a pound of
fuel-oil has a thermal capacity of 18,000 B. T. U.'s,
and since it will require 100 pounds of fuel-oil an hour
to the acre to maintain the temperature of the air 5 F.
above the surrounding atmosphere, 1,800,000 B. T.
U.'s or about 700 mechanical horsepower will be
expended an hour to the acre on 42,000 pounds of air.
But 1,800,000 B. T. U.'s would raise the temperature
of 360,000 pounds of water 5 F., and since the specific
heat of air is 0.24, it would raise the temperature of

1290

FROST

FRUIT-GROWING

1,500,000 pounds of air 5 F. However, it is seen that
1,800,000 B. T. U.'s are just capable of maintaining
42,000 pounds of air 5 F. above the surrounding
atmosphere when there is no wind-movement. This
means that even with large trees having the ability of
reflecting back a considerable amount of heat, and with
the soot and smoke acting more or less as a blanket, the
loss by radiation, convection and absorption is enor-
mous. As a matter of fact, irf of the heat generated by
the orchard-heaters is lost, and the efficiency is, there-
fore, less than 3 per cent. Though effective and well
within the financial possibility of application, the
orchard-heater is nevertheless a wasteful appliance.

In the above calculations, the effects of wind-move-
ment have not been taken into consideration. Take
the case of a pot placed in an outside tree row heating
a space 25 feet square and 12 feet high. This space
contains in round numbers 600 pounds of air. The
standard pot will generate 600 B. T. U.'s a minute, or
sufficient heat to raise the temperature of 600 pounds
of air about 4 F. This will be true if there is no wind-
movement and if there is very little radiation of heat.
However, if the air moved only 100 feet a minute, or a
little more than 1 mile an hour, the temperature could
never rise more than 1 above the temperature of the
incoming cold air. At 4 miles an hour it could rise but
34 F. This will be true only in the outside tree rows,
on the side from which the air-movement comes. This
shows why it is often difficult to protect the outside
rows from frost-injury. Naturally, with the orchard in
the form of a square, all the rows beyond the first, on
account of air-movement, would receive a certain
amount of heat from the first row. However, with a
high wind of 18 to 20 miles an hour and a temperature
of 10 F. or more below the danger-point, the problem
of frost-prevention becomes a serious one. The num-
ber of fuel-pots must be three or four times the number
required for ordinary orchard-heating.

The value of smoke. The discussion so far has con-
sidered mainly the value of fuels from the standpoint
of heating. There is some value in the smoke which is
generated but very much less than there is in the heat.
When it is calm there is little difficulty in maintaining
a heavy smudge with only fifty orchard heaters, or
fires, to the acre, but a very light breeze will quickly
drive it away. Experience has shown that the smudge
is valuable when the temperature drops somewhat
below the danger-point about sunrise. In cases of this
kind, the smoke acts as a screen and prevents the too
sudden warming up or thawing of the frozen fruit.
However, it is unsafe to depend on smudge alone.

The use of electricity in frost-prevention. During
recent years much thought has been given the matter
of frost-prevention by electrical engineers. However,
let it be said that some other means than that of direct
electrical heating must be employed. If we take the
above figures indicating the amount of heat energy
which must be expended to the acre to raise the tem-
perature 5 F. in an orchard and maintain it above
that of the surrounding atmosphere, we find that this
is equivalent to approximately 700 H. P. of mechanical
energy. In the transmission of electrical energy from
the source of power, there is always a heavy loss, so
that fully 1,000 H. P. of mechanical energy would have
to be generated in order to raise the temperature 5
F. in an acre of orchard. From this it will be seen that,
although our large electrical power plants are carrying
a very light load during the hours of 1 A.M. to 7 A.M.,
the amount of reserve power would be so small in
comparison with the demands that the largest power
plant would cover but a very small area. Of course,
this consideration takes into account the conversion
of mechanical energy into heat energy. In actual
practice, the electrical heater is so inefficient that it is
wholly beyond the range of possibility for orchard-
heating. The problem of frost-prevention by electrical

methods must be attacked from a different side, either
by the use of high tension discharges or by the use of
large electric fans that will tend to stir the air or pro-
duce a chimney effect so as to carry the cold air
upward. Even the latter will be useless when very
low temperatures are accompanied by high winds.

A simple method of estimating the quantity of fuel
necessary to raise the temperature of the air in an acre
of orchard any number of degrees Fahrenheit under
every condition is as follows : In a full bearing orchard
there are approximately 500,000 cubic feet of air to the
acre which must be heated continuously, it being con-
sidered that the height to which heat must be added
is about 12 feet. By experiment, it has been shown that
it will require about 0.75 to 1.00 B. T. U. to the cubic
foot an hour to maintain the temperature 1 F. above
that of the surrounding atmosphere. Therefore, it
will require 375,000 to 500,000 B. T. U.'s an hour, under
average conditions to maintain the temperature of an
acre of orchard 1 F. above that of the surrounding
atmosphere. Since one pound of crude-oil or distillate
contains approximately 18,000 B. T. U.'s, the number
of pounds of fuel-oil required to the acre-hour will be
twenty to twenty-eight pounds. Since a pound of oil
is approximately one pint, the quantity of oil an acre-
hour for 1 F. rise will be two and one-half to three and
one-half gallons. As shown above, the ratio of wood,
coal and oil is about as 1:2:3, wood having 6,000, coal
12,000, and oil 18,000 B. T. U.'s to the pound.

Bibliography. Some recent publications on frost
protection are: "The Protection of Orchards in the
Pacific Northwest from Spring Frosts by Means of
Fires and Smudges," P. J. O'Gara, Farmer's Bulletin,
No. 401, U. S. Dept. Agric. "The Prevention of Frost
Injury in the Orchards of the Rogue River Valley,
Oregon," P. J. O'Gara, Bulletin No. 5, Office of the
Pathologist and Local United States Weather Bureau
Station, Medford, Oregon. "A comparative Test of Fuel
Oils and Appliances Used in Orchard-Heating to Prevent
Frost Injury," P. J. O'Gara, Bulletin No. 6, Office of the
Pathologist and Local United States Weather Bureau
Station, Medforcl, Oregon. "Forecasting Frosts in the
North Pacific States," E. A. Beals, Bulletin No. 41, U.
S. Weather Bureau. p. j. O'GARA.

FRUIT-GROWING comprises all the knowledge
and practice that are directly concerned in the produ-
cing and handling of fruits. Pomology (literally,
science of fruits) is synonymous with fruit-growing.
There has been an effort to divorce the terms pomology
and fruit-growing, making the former to comprise the
scientific and classificatory subjects and the latter the
practical subjects; but such division is arbitrary and
is opposed to usage. The word "growing" can no longer
be held, when used in such connection, to designate
merely the planting and care of fruit-plants, for all
good practice is necessarily associated with scientific
knowledge and theory. Fruit-growing is a more familiar
and homely term than the Latin-Greek word pomology,
and for that reason it has seemed to some persons to
be less adaptable to the formal presentation of the
knowledge connected with fruits. It is significant,
however, that with the exception of Prince's "Porno-
logical Manual," the fruit books that have done much
to mold public opinion in America have not been known
as pomologies, notwithstanding the fact that the greater
number of them have given great attention to formal
descriptions of varieties. The term pomology is founded
on the Latin pomum, a word that was used generically
for "fruit." In later Latin it came to be associated
more particularly with the apple-like fruits. The word
is preserved to us in the French pomme, meaning
"apple," and in other languages of Latin derivation.
In English we know it as pome, a botanical term used to
designate fruits that have the peculiar morphological
structure of the apple and pear. This use of the term

FRUIT-GROWING

1291

is explained under the article Pyrus, However, the
root of the word pomology is derived from the Latin
ppmurn rather than from the botanical pome.

The limitations of fruit-growing, as art and discussion,
depend on the use of the word "fruit." This word, as
used by the horticulturist, is impossible of definition.
Products that are classed with fruits in one country
may be classed with vegetables in another. To the
horticulturist a fruit is a product that is closely asso-
ciated, in its origin, with the flower. As used in this
country, it is the product of a bush or tree or woody
vine, the most marked exception being the strawberry.
Most fruits may be grouped under three general heads,
orchard or tree fruits, vine fruits (of which the grape
is the type), and small-fruits or "berries." Of the
orchard fruits, the leading groups are the pome-fruits
(apple, pear), drupe-fruits (peach, plum, cherry), and
the citrus-fruits (orange, lemon) . Of the small-fruits, we
may distinguish the bush-fruits (raspberry, blackberry,
currant, gooseberry, blueberry), cranberry, and the
strawberry. There are many fruits, particularly in the
tropics, that do not fall within these groups. The spe-

1590. A vineyard of American grapes (New York).
Picking-crates are shown in the foreground.

cies of fruits that are fairly well known in North Amer-
Jca are not less than 150, but the important commer-
cial species are not more than forty.

Fruit-growing is the most important and charac-
teristic horticultural interest of North America. It is
of high excellence as measured by commercial stand-
ards, quantity of product, and the quickness with which
scientific theory and discovery are applied to it. Most
remarkable examples of the quick assimilation and
application of theoretical teachings are afforded by the
readiness with which fruit-growers within recent years
have adopted the ideas associated with tillage, spray-
ing, pollination, fertilizing, pruning, inter-planting,
and the modifications in conditions of marketing. Yet,
great as have been the advances, progress has only
begun; and in the precise and painstaking application
of the best teaching the American fruit-grower has
much to acquire.

The American ideals in fruit-growing are quite
unlike the European. The American aims at uniform-
ity over large areas. The European gives more atten-
tion to special practices, particularly in training of
fruit trees. This is well illustrated in American nur-
series as contrasted with European nurseries (see
Nursery). The American merely prunes his fruit
trees in the nursery: he does not train them. The
American is likely to give most attention to the fruit
by the bushel or by the barrel; the European is likely
to consider his fruits singly or in small numbers, and
often to sell them by the piece or by the dozen.

In many parts of North America, the extension of

fruit-growing is the most radical change of base tak-
ing place in farming operations. This growth of the
fruit business is possible because the consumption of
fruit is increasing, the facilities for transportation have
been improved, scientific discovery has insured the
production of good crops, and also because many other
kinds of farming have been relatively unprofitable.

While the phenomenal development of American
fruit-growing has been due in great measure to climatic
and economic conditions, it also has been hastened by
book writings. More than fifty authors have contribu-
ted books of greater or less size, either on the general
subject or on special fruits, beginning with Coxe's
"View of the Cultivation of Fruit Trees" in 1817, and
followed by Thacher's "American Orchardist" in 1822.
These pioneer writings gave much of their space to
orchard management, with little mere compilation of
descriptions of varieties. Subsequent volumes, for
nearly fifty years, were in large part compilations and
collations of accounts of varieties. To this latter class
belong the works of Prince, Kenrick, Downing, Thomas,
Warder. It is only in the present time that we have
come to treat the subject fundamentally, by giving the
weight of discussion to principles of orchard manage-
ment. (For lists of books, see the article Literature.)
In recent years, the bulletins of the United States
Department of Agriculture and of the many experiment
stations, and the extensive discussion in the rural press,
have greatly spread the knowledge of fruit-growing
and have undoubtedly stimulated its practice.

The sources of American fruits of the species and
races that are cultivated on this continent are chiefly
four: (1) Original or early importations of western
Asian and European fruits; (2) oriental types, from
the China-Japanese region ; (3) the introduction within
fifty years of fruits from the Russian region; (4) the
development of native species. In the first group are
included the prevailing types of apples, pears, quinces,
cherries, domestica plums, olives, currants, some of the
gooseberries. In the second group are citrous fruits,
peaches, apricots, Japanese plums, kaki, and others,
many of them having come to us by way of Europe.
In the third class the Russian fruits are types of
orchard fruits of such recent introduction that we have
only recently ceased disputing violently about their
merits and demerits; therefore a special review of the
subject is given at the close of this article. The fourth
class the native fruits includes the grapes of the
eastern states, blackberries, dewberries, raspberries,
many gooseberries, stra,wberries (of Chilean origin),
many plums, cranberries, blueberries, and a few
apples.

Recently, there has been much interest in fruit-
growing on the part of persons who desire to establish
themselves on the land. The attractiveness of fruit
appeals to them, and they think that the raising of it
is not laborious and that the business is adaptable to
beginners. This is one expression of amateurism. Fruit-
growing entails continuous, active and often hard, dis-
agreeable labor, and, in the case of most orchard fruits,
it requires long waiting for perfect results. The busi-
ness demands much special knowledge, quick action,
and first-rate salesmanship. The competition is sharp.
Persons should enter the business with caution, and
only with a full comprehension of the elements of
failure and success. The business has additional risk
when one must leave the property to be managed and
cared for by hired labor. Usually, the most profitable
results are secured when part of the farm is devoted to
other products than fruit, for one is then able to employ
help and equipment more advantageously, to raise
produce for the teams and other live-stock, and to have
secondary sources of revenue.

In North America, it is chiefly the commercial large-
area fruit-growing that is most highly developed. The
amateur phase, for fancy and for home use, was

1292

FRUIT-GROWING

once relatively more important, as explained in a sub-
sequent paragraph. The "fruit garden" is now little
seen. It is very desirable, however, that the growing
of the choicest fruits in the most painstaking personal
way shall be encouraged amongst us; and with the
further development of the country this will take place
if writers do not overlook the subject.

In Canada, the total yields of fruits for thirty years
have been as follows, in quantities (Canada Yearbook,
1910):

Canada

1871

1881

1891

1901

Apples (bushels) .
Peaches (bus. ) . . .

6,365,315

13,377,655

7,519,913
43,63?

18,626,186
545,415

229,240

531,837

Plums (bushels) .

266,350

. 557,875

Cherries (bus. ). . .

192,369

336,751

Other fruits (bus. ).
Grapes (pounds).
Small-fruits (qts.)

358,963
1,126,402

841,219
3,896,508

320,641
12,252,331

70,396
24,302,634
21,707,791

The exports of fruits from Canada to all countries
has been as follows :

1906

1908

1909

1910

Apples, green or
ripe (barrels) . .
Apples, dried (Ibs)

1,217,564
3,651,260

1,629,130
6,939,088

1,092,066
4,973,562

1,604,477
8,186,984

Of the green apples, the most part went to Great
Britain, but the dried fruit went largely to other
countries than Great Britain or the United States.
Ontario was far in the lead of any other province in
fruit-production in 1901, in grapes, small-fruits and
apples exceeding all the other provinces combined.

In the United States, the value of fruits (including
small-fruits or berries) and nuts produced in 1909 (as
reported in the thirteenth census) amounted to $222,-
024,000, or 4 per cent of the total value of farm crops.
The value reported for 1899 was $133,049,000, the
increase for the decade amounting to 66.9 per cent.
While it is impossible to reduce the quantity of the prod-
uct to a single total, the statistics for individual
classes show that in general the value increased by a
much larger percentage than the production. Of the
total value in 1909 of fruits and nuts, $140,867,000
was contributed by orchard fruits, $29,974,000 by
small-fruits, $22,711,000 by citrous-fruits, $22,028,000
by grapes, $4,448,000 by nuts, and $1,995,000 by tropi-
cal and sub-tropical fruits (other than citrous). In
both acreage and quantities, strawberries far exceeded
any other class of small-fruits; similarly, apples are far
in excess of any other orchard fruit; oranges far exceed
in value all other citrous-fruits taken together. In
nuts, the production in pounds in 1909 was, Persian
or English walnuts 22,026,524; black walnuts 15,628.-
776; pecans, 9,890,769; almonds, 6,793,539; unclassified,
7,988,402. The values of fruits and nuts in 1909, by
states, are displayed in Fig. 1593.

The progress in fruit-growing.

The development of American fruit-growing is well
illustrated in the radical change of ideals within recent
time. These new points of view may be arranged con-
veniently under seven general heads:

(1) The most important shift is the fact that there
is a horticultural industry as distinguished from a
general agricultural industry. At the opening of the
nineteenth century American agriculture was more or
less homogeneous, largely because the extent of it was
limited and because there was little demand for other
than the few staple commodities. The horticulture of

that time was confined chiefly to a small area about the
homestead. A few vegetables, flowers and fruits in a
small plantation, with here and there a single green-
house, represented the horticultural effort of the time.
At the present day we conceive of great geographical
areas as horticultural regions. Persons now buy farms
with the explicit purpose of devoting them to the pro-
duction of fruits or other horticultural products. Even
sixty years ago horticulture was largely an amateur's
avocation, but today it is one of the leading commer-
cial occupations of the country, and the most important
single factor in it is fruit-growing. With this rise of the
horticultural industries came a demand for new knowl-
edge on a host of subjects which were unheard of even
as late as a half-century ago. The contemporary prog-

1591. Young plum orchard, showing clean tillage and high-
heading.

Some growers head-in vigorous young trees like the above;
others prefer to let them take their natural course, keeping the
heads open rather than thick and close. Neither method is best
under all circumstances.

ress in pomology is largely a breaking away from the
old ideals. Practices that were good enough for amateur
purposes, or for the incidental and accidental fruit-
growing of our fathers, may be wholly inadequate to the
new-time conditions.

A century ago there was practically no commercial
orcharding. The apple was grown somewhat extensively
in many parts of the country, particularly in New Eng-
land, but it was used chiefly for the making of cider.
Small-fruit growing, as a business, had not developed.
In fact, commercial strawberry-growing (the most
readily developed of the fruit-growing industries) may
be said to have begun with the introduction of the
Hovey in 1836, although previously there were market
plantations of small extent about some of the larger
towns. The commercial culture of blackberries and
raspberries, although it began about the middle of the
century, did not acquire distinct importance until
after the reaction from the Civil War. The fruit-grow-
ing industries now constitute a distinct branch or
department of our agricultural condition, in the newer
regions as well as in the old. In fact, great areas of
virgin lands are now put at once into orchards.

(2) With the rise of commercial fruit-growing, there
have developed novel questions related to market-
ing. The new marketing revolves about three centers:
(a) The necessity for special products for special uses,
(6) the growing demand for small packages, and (c) the
remarkable development of transportation facilities and
of pre-cooh'ng, handling, and storage. There has arisen
an increased desire for special grades and for particular
kinds of fruit. The fruits that were current fifty years
ago may not be good enough for the markets of today.
Commercial fruit-growing rests on the fact that more
persons are consuming fruits. Many of these persons
buy only in small lots for present consumption. They
go to the market often. They have no facilities for
storing the fruit, and they do not buy for the purpose
of selling. Therefore, the small package has come to
be increasingly more important. There has been a

FRUIT-GROWING

1293

widespread demand for a package that can be given
away with the fruit. This demand for the small and
individual package may be expected to increase with
all the better kinds of fruits or with those that appeal
to the personal customer. This is true in all lines of
trade. Not so long ago, boots and shoes were distributed
in large board cases, but now each pair is sold in a neat
cardboard box. We are still conservative in respect
to the handling of apples in barrels. In the general
trade and for the staple varieties of apples, the barrel
may continue to be the best package, but for the per-
sonal customer and particularly with all the finer or
dessert varieties, a small package must come into use.
In most parts of the world, except in the central and
eastern part of the United States, apples are not
handled in barrels. The fact that the grower must
give attention to his package as well as to the growing
of his crop, forces him to adopt a new point of view
in his fruit-growing and to visualize his market or
even his customer.

(3) Modern commercial orcharding has developed
the tillage ideal. Under the old regime, the tree was
able to take care of itself and to bear a product good
enough to meet the uncritical demands. Nowadays,
however, the tree must receive the very best of care,
for annual crops of great quantity and of the best
quality are desired. Therefore, the plant must be sup-
plied with abundance of plant-food and moisture.
Time was when it was thought that the mere appli-
cation of chemical plant-food to the soil would be
sufficient to make a plant productive. It is now under-
stood, however, that plant-food is only one of the
requisites of good growth. The soil must be deep and
loose and fine, so that it will hold moisture and pro-
mote all those chemical and biological activities that
make the land to be productive. In former times the
best attention in tillage was given to the annual crops.
The orchard was usually in neglect. This was because
the fruit plantation had small commercial importance.
Now that the fruit plantation has risen to first impor-

tance, in many cases, it must be given as good care as
any farm crop. In recent years there has been great
development of special tools and implements for the
tillage of orchard lands. Greater attention is given to
the original preparation of the land, so that planters
no longer ask how large the hole must be to receive a
tree, but accept Warder's advice that the hole should
be as large as the orchard. The philosophy of orchard
tillage, as understood by the best teachers and for
most parts of the country, is (a) to prepare the land
thoroughly at the outset, (6) to give frequent light
surface tillage in the early part of the season or until
the crop is nearly or quite grown, and then (c) to
cover the land with some crop that will remain on the
ground over winter and be plowed under in spring. If
the land has been well prepared, it is not necessary to
plow it deep after the first two or three years, unless
one is turning under a heavy cover-crop. The surface
tilth may be secured by breaking the top-soil early in
spring with a cutaway harrow, gang-plow or other
surface-working tools. This may not be possible, how-
ever, on very heavy lands. The cover-crop adds
humus and protects the land from puddling and bak-
ing in the winter. If it is a leguminous crop it also
adds a store of available nitrogen. It is possible, per-
haps, to use cover-crops so freely that the land be-
comes too full of vegetable matter, but all such dangers
are easily avoidable. Usually the cover-crop is plowed
under in spring at the very earliest opportunity in
order to save the soil moisture. It is by no means the
universal practice to use cover-crops on fruit lands, but
the practice is now accepted, and the grower may
adopt it or not as his judgment dictates.

To facilitate the economical and efficient tillage of
fruit lands, it is coming to be the practice to devote
the land wholly to the fruits. The fertility of the land
is not permanently divided between trees and hay, or
trees and other crops. With plums and pears and some
other orchard fruits, it is often allowable to use the
intermediate land for the first two or three years
for annual crops, but these crops should grad-
ually diminish and every caution should be
taken that they do not interfere with the care
of the trees. Apple orchards, when the spaces
are 40 feet apart, may be cropped for six or
eight years without injury, providing good tillage
and other efficient treatment are given. One

iii

1592. Peach-growing on a large scale in Georgia; also a scene at a shipping-station in the North, showing fruit in small gift packages

1294

FRUIT-GROWING

reason for allowing orchards to stand in sod in the old
times was the difficulty in plowing beneath full-grown
trees. Those persons who desired to plow and till
their orchards, therefore, advocated very high pruning.
The difficulty with these old orchards was the fact that
the land was allowed to run into dense sod. Heavy
plowing in an old orchard indicates that the plantation
has been neglected in previous years. Orchards that
have been well tilled from the first do not require much
laborious tillage, and the roots are low enough to escape
tillage tools. There has been a development of tillage
tools which will do the work without necessity of prun-
ing the tops very high. The practice of tilling orchards
has increased rapidly. At first it was advised by a few
growers and teachers, but the movement is now so
well established that it will take care of itself, and in
the commercial orchards the man who does not till
his orchard is the one who needs to explain. On the
Pacific coast, the importance of tillage is universally
recognized because of the dry summer climate. The
necessity of tilling orchards has forced a new ideal on
the pomologist; and when he goes to the expense of
tilling he feels the necessity of giving sufficient care in
other directions to insure profitable returns from his
plantation. It is true, to be sure, that orchards some-
times thrive under sod treatment, but these are special
cases.

Of the same purpose with tillage is irrigation, the
purpose to fit the land for its work. Great fruit regions
in the western half of the continent are on an irrigation
basis and a special literature on fruit-raising under
such conditions is now appearing. This irrigation

that trees will bear without pruning. This, therefore,
puts a premium on neglect. The old practice allowed
the tree to grow at will for three or four years and to
become so full of brush that the fruit could not be well
harvested, and then the top was pruned violently.
The tree was set into redundant growth and was filled
with water-sprouts. This tended also to set the tree
into wood-bearing rather than into fruit-bearing. By
the time the tree had again begun fruit-bearing, the
orchardist went at it with ax and saw and a good
part of the top was taken away. It is now under-
stood that the ideal pruning is that which prunes
a little every year and keeps the tree in a uni-
formly healthy and productive condition. The prun-
ing of trees has now come to be a distinct purpose,
and this ideal must gain in definiteness and precision
so long as fruit trees are grown. The practice pro-
ceeds on established principles, and is not of the nature
of discipline.

(5) Now that there is demand for the very best prod-
ucts, it is increasingly important that fruits be thinned.
The thinning allows the remaining fruits to grow larger
and better, it saves the vitality of the tree, and it
gives the orchardist an opportunity to remove the
diseased specimens and thereby to contribute something
toward checking the spread of insects and fungi. Thin-
ning is exceedingly important in all fruits that are
essentially luxuries, as peaches, apricots and pears. It
is coming also to be important for apples and for others
of the cheaper fruits. In the thinning of fruits, there
are two rules to be kept in mind: (a) Remove the
injured, imperfect or diseased specimens; (6) remove

$1,000,000

9 1760,000 to $1,000,000

O $500,000 to $750,000

O $250,000 to $500,000

O Less than $250,000

The heavy lines ( ) show geographic divisions.

1593. Value of fruits and nuts in the United States in 1909, as displayed by the census.

practice for fruit is another expression of the idea that
in the future nothing is to be left to chance so far as it
is within the power of the grower to prevent it. For
certain intensive fruit-culture, particularly of berries,
special irrigation practices are appearing in the East,
and often they make the difference between failure
and success.

(4) As competition increases, it is necessary to give
better attention to pruning. It is unfortunately true

sufficient fruit so that the remaining specimens stand
at a given distance from each other. How far apart
the fruit shall be, depends on many conditions. With
peaches it is a good rule not to allow them to hang
closer than 4 or 5 inches (sometimes 7 or 8 inches),
and in years of heavy crops they may be thinned more
than this. This extent of thinning often removes
two-thirds of the fruits. It nearly always gives a larger
bulk of fruit, which brings a higher price. Thinning is

FRUIT-GROWING

1295

usually performed very early in the season, before the
vitality of the tree has been taxed, and after the normal
"drop" from non-pollination has occurred.

(6) Spraying of fruit plantations has now come to be
a definite purpose and an established orchard practice;
no good orchardist is now without his spraying appa-

that considers characters of flowers as well as of fruits,
but such schemes are usually impracticable because
fruit-growers cannot secure flowers and fruits at the
same time. For examples of classificatory schemes
the reader may consult the various fruit manuals, but
the following examples from the older literature will

^**

1594. Various spraying rigs. 1. A tall platform rig, to enable one to spray very high trees. 2. A simple barrel outfit for small
orchards and small trees. 3. Compressed air outfit. 4. A low rig, with barrel. For larger machines, and other patterns, see pages
1058-1060 (Vol. H).

show something of the range and method connected
with the problem:

John J. Thomas' scheme for classifying peaches:

Division I. FREESTONES or MELTERS.
Class I. Flesh pale or light-colored.

Section 1. Leaves serrated, without glands.

Section 2. Leaves crenate, with globose glands.

Section 3. Leaves with reniform glands.
Class II. Flesh deep yellow.

Section 1. Leaves crenated, with globose glands.

Section 2. Leaves with reniform glands.
Division II. CLINGSTONES or PAVIES.
Class I. Flesh pale or light-colored.

Section 1. Leaves serrated, without glands.

Section 2. Leaves crenate, with globose glands.

Section 3. Leaves with reniform glands.
Class II. Flesh deep yellow.

Section 1. Leaves serrate, without glands.

Section 2. Leaves with reniform glands.
Class III. Flesh purplish crimson.

Section 1. Glands reniform.

ratus any more than he is without his tillage tools.
When spraying was first advised, the practice seemed
to be so revolutionary that great emphasis had to be
laid on its importance to induce people to undertake
it. How and when to spray and what materials to use
are matters that will always be discussed, because the
practices must vary with the season, the kind of fruit,
the geographical region, the insects and fungi to be
combated. Spraying may not be necessary every year,
and certainly not equally necessary in all geographical
regions; but the fact that spraying is necessary as a
general orchard practice is now completely established.
A proof of the firm hold that spraying has taken of the
fruit-growing business is afforded by the great numbers
and the mechanical excellence of the machinery and
devices now on the market; and this fact also attests
the vitality of fruit-growing as an occupation. A special
literature has developed on fruit diseases and fruit
insects and the means of combating them, and the
grower must keep fully informed by means of the
government, state and provincial publications.

(7) Perhaps the most gratifying modern develop-
ment in fruit-growing is the demand for instruction in
fundamental principles, or in the reasons why. Years
ago, the grower was satisfied if he had definite direc-
tions as to how to perform certain labor. He was told
what to do. At present, the pomologist wants to be
told what to think. There seems to be a tendency in
horticultural meetings to drop the discussion of the
mere details of practice and to give increasingly more
attention to the underlying reasons and the results that
are to be expected from any line of practice. Knowing
why a practice should be undertaken and what the
results are likely to be, the grower can work out the
details for himself, for every fruit plantation and every
farm is, in a certain way, a law unto itself. There must
be a rational procedure; the details and the applica-
tions are complex: therefore the fruit-growing sub-
jects become effective means of education.

Systematic pomology.

The classifying and describing of the kinds of fruits
is a particular kind of pomological knowledge that is
left to specialists, who are for the most part writers.
With the increase in numbers of varieties, it becomes
increasingly more important that the most careful
attention be given to describing them and to assem-
bling them into their natural groups in order that
similar kinds may be compared and also that it may
be possible to determine the name by analyzing the
specimen. Necessarily, all classificatory schemes for
varieties are imperfect since the varieties often differ
by very slight characters, and these characters may
vary in different regions and under varying conditions.
Theoretically, the most perfect classification is one

Following is John A. Warder's scheme for classifying
apples, adopted "after a long and careful consideration
and study of this subject." See Figs. 1595, 1596.

Class I. Oblate or flat, having the axis shorter than the trans-
verse diameter.
Order I. Regular.
Order II. Irregular.
Section 1. Sweet.
Section 2. Sour.

Subsection 1. Pale or blushed, more or less, but self-
colored and not striped.
Subsection 2. Striped or splashed.
Subsection 3. Russeted.

Class II. Conical, tapering decidedly toward the eye, and be-
coming ovate when larger in the middle and tapering to
each end, the axial diameter being the shorter.
Orders I and II, as above.
Sections 1 and 2. as above.

Subsections 1, 2 and 3, as above.

Class III. Round, globular or nearly so, having the axial and
transverse diameters about equal, the former often shorter
by less than one-quarter of the latter. The ends are often
so flattened as to look truncated, when the fruit appears
to be cylindrical or globular-oblate.
Orders, Sections and Subsections as above.

Class IV. Oblong, in which the axis is longer than the trans-
verse diameter, or appears so. These may also be trun-
cate or cylindrical.
Orders, Sections and Subsections as above.

Robert Hogg's classification of 'pears ("Fruit Man-
ual," 5th ed., London) :

A. The length from the base of the 'stalk to the base of the cells

greater than from the base of the cells to the base of the eye.
Section 1. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the

eye greater than the lateral diameter.
Section 2. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the

eye less than the lateral diameter.
Section 3. Length from the base of the stalk of the base of the

eye equal to the lateral diameter.

B. The length from the base of the stalk to the base of the cells

less than from the base of the cells to the base of the eye.
Section 1. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the

eye greater than the lateral diameter.
Section 2. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the

eye less than the lateral diameter.
Section 3. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the

eye equal to the lateral diameter.

1296

FRUIT-GROWING

c. The length from the base of the stalk to the base of the cells equal

to that from the base of the cells to the base of the eye.
Section 1. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the

eye greater than the lateral diameter.
Section 2. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of the

eye less than the lateral diameter.
Section 3. Length from the base of the stalk to the base of

the eye equal to the lateral diameter.

A stable and attractive systematic pomology must
give careful attention to the names of varieties. In
North America much has been done, particularly under
the auspices of the American Pomological Society, to

1595. The forms of fruits, showing, respectively, spherical, conical,
ovate, oblong and oblate forms.

usually apple-form. In Fig. 1596 are shown special
parts of the fruit : basin, the depression at the apex, in
which is the calyx or eye; cavity, the depression at the
base, in which is the stem or stalk; suture, or the
groove on the side of plums and other fruits ; corrugated or
furrowed sides. The outline shape of an apple or pear is
best seen by cutting the fruit in halves lengthwise; the
flat side may then be used to print the form on paper.
If descriptions are to be accurate and comparable,
they should characterize all the leading or designative
attributes of the fruit, and to a less extent of the
plant as a whole. Many per-
sons who are called on to des-
cribe varieties have adopted
"forms" or regular outlines, in
order that all characterizations
in any one fruit shall be com-
parable. The following forms,
adopted by the late John Craig,
illustrate the points that a good
description should cover:

simplify and codify the ideas associated with the
nomenclature of fruits. The current rules or code of
nomenclature of the American Pomological Society are
as follows:

Priority.

Rule 1. No two varieties of the same kind of fruit shall bear the
same name. The name first published for a variety shall be the
accepted and recognized name, except in cases where it has been
applied in violation of this code.

(a) The term "kind," as herein used, shall be understood to
apply to those general classes of fruits which are grouped together
in common usage without regard to their exact botanical relation-
ship; as, apple, cherry, grape, peach, plum, raspberry, etc.

(6) The paramount right of the originator, discoverer, or intro-
ducer of a new variety to name it, within the limitations of this
code, is recognized and emphasized.

(c) Where a variety name through long usage has become
thoroughly established in American pomological literature for two
or more varieties, it should not be displaced nor radically modified
for either sort, except in cases where a well-known synonym can be
advanced to the position of leading name. The several varieties
bearing identical names should be distinguished by adding the
name of the author who first described each sort, or by adding
some other suitable distinguishing term that will insure their
identity in catalogues or discussions.

(d) Existing American names of varieties which conflict with
earlier published foreign names of the same, or other varieties, but
which have become thoroughly established through long usage,
shall not be displaced.

Form of names.

Rule 2. The name of a variety of fruit shall consist of a single
word, whenever possible, or compatible with the most efficient ser-
vice to pomology. Under no circumstances shall more than two
words be used. When the exigencies of a case make it appear expedi-
ent, such words as early, late, white, red, and similar ones may be
used as a part of a name.

(a) No variety shall be named unless distinctly superior to exist-
ing varieties in some important characteristic nor until it has
been determined to perpetuate it by bud-propagation.

(6) In selecting names for varieties the following points shou'd be
emphasized: distinctiveness, simplicity, ease of pronunciation and
spelling, indication of origin or parentage.

(c) The spelling and pronunciation of a varietal name derived
from a personal or geographical name should be governed by the
rules that control the spelling and pronunication of the name from
which it was derived.

There are relatively few special technical terms used
in the descriptions of pomological fruits. The greater
part of them pertain to the pome fruits. The diagrams
(Figs. 1595, 1596) illustrate some of
these terms: Spherical, nearly or quite
globular, the two diameters being approx-
imately equal ; conical, longitudinal
diameter equaling or exceeding the trans-
verse diameter, and the shoulders or
apex somewhat narrowed; ovate, broad-
conical, the base more rounded; oblong,
longitudinal diameter distinctly the
longer, but the fruit not tapering; oblate,
distinctly flattened on the ends. In the
true Japanese or sand pears, the fruit is

Name ,

form size. . . .

cavity stem . . .

suture apex. . .

skin >color. . .

flesh juice. . .

stone quality.

flavor season .

TREE

GENERAL NOTES...

Specimens received from Described by Date

CHERRY... ...Group.

Name

size form . . .

color skin

cavity stem. . .

basin calyx. . .

flesh quality.

texture core. . . .

seed ...

TREE

GENERAL NOTES. .

Specimens received from Described by Date

APPLE. . .

1596. Illustrating special terms used in describing fruits, showing, respectively,
basin, cavity, suture, corrugation.

FRUIT-GROWING

1297

At present, the scoring or judging by points is a
favorite exercise in classroom and at exhibitions. The
score-card with points or attributes totaling 100
indicates the perfect fruit: the judge puts against the
perfect score such percentage of perfection as he thinks
the specimen in hand may deserve. This judgment
of course varies with the person, as the marks are not
mathematical; but experienced judges make very simi-
lar or uniform returns on given specimens.

Following are examples of score-cards:

SCALE OF POINTS FOB JUDGING FRUITS.
Established by the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture.

No. of points Score

Quality 20

Form 15

Color 15

Size 10

Uniformity in size 20

Freedom from imperfections 20

CALIFORNIA SCORE-CARD FOR ORANGES.

Size

Form

Color (bloom, 2; peel, 10; flesh, 3)

Weight

Peel (finish, 3; protective quality, 7)

Fiber

Grain

Seed

Taste

Perfection 100

SCORE-CARD FOR A COMMERCIAL VARIETY OF APPLE.
From "Productive Orcharding," by F. C. Sears.

Tree

General
market
40

1. Heavy bearer

2. Early bearer

3. Health and vigor. . .

Fruit

4. Fair size

5. Good color

6. Good quality

7. Keeps well

8. Ships well...

Totals 100 100

SCORE-CARD FOR APPLES.
F. A. Waugh.

100

Form

Size 10

Color 15

Uniformity 20

Quality 20

Freedom from blemishes '.'. 20

Total 100

SCORE-CARD FOR PEACHES.
F. A. Waugh.

Form 15

Size 10

Color ......,,,.!! 15

Uniformity 20

Quality " 20

Freedom from blemishes 20

Total 100

ONTARIO SCORE-CARD FOR GRAPES.

Value of points Score

Flavor 30

Form of bunch 10

Size of bunch 15 ......

Size of berry 15

Color .' jo

Firmness 5

Bloom ..'..'.'.'. 5

Freedom from blemishes '. 10

Perfection 100

SCORE-CARD FOR STRAWBERRIES.

J. R. Reasoner, 111. Scale of

points.

Rootage 5

Stock and foliage ............'. '. 5

Vitality, drought-proof 7

Plant-maker ! 10

Healthfulnesa, rust-proof ........../...... 5

Blossoms 5

Staminate.

Pistillate.

Productiveness 25

I" 6 10

fehape 5

Color 5

Flavor 8

Firmness, shipping quality . 10

10
5
15
10
10
8
4
8
30

Total .............................................. 100

L. H. B.

Russian fruits.

The Russian apples and their close relatives, the
Siberian crabs and their hybrids, constitute the har-
diest types of pomaceous fruits in cultivation. It was
the demand for hardy varieties for the northwestern
states and Canada that led to their introduction.

There are four varieties of Russian apples that may
be looked on as American pioneers; these are Alexander,
Tetofsky, Duchess (Borovitsky) and Red Astrachan.
These varieties were imported by the Massachusetts
Horticultural Society from the London (England)

Total .

.100

1597. Longfield, one of the Russian apples. ( X M)

Horticultural Society about 1835. They were brought
to England from Russia in the early part of the last
century by the executive of the latter society. Dr. Hogg
is authority for the statement that Alexander was
cultivated for 50 years in England prior to 1808. Robert
Manning, superintendent of the test garden of the
Massachusetts Horticultural Society at Salem, de-
scribed these varieties from home-grown American
specimens in 1839. Their productiveness and the
handsome appearance of the fruit attracted attention.
Through the efforts of Warder and other western
pomologists they were rapidly distributed throughout
Ohio, Wisconsin and Minnesota. It would appear that
in the last half- or three-fourths-century which prac-
tically covers the pomological history of the West the
periodicity of "hard" or "test" winters has been more
or less regular. When the normal or "mild" winter
obtains, the apples of the New England states or their
descendants do not, as a rule, suffer injury except in the
colder parts of Minnesota. These mild winters have fol-
lowed each other with delusive regularity for periods of
ten, fifteen or eighteen years. Under these conditions,
fruit-growers have been prone to efface from their memo-
ries the effects of the last "test winter" and have planted
freely of the American type. With this type have been
usually mingled Alexander, Oldenburg and Red Astra-
chan. It has been invariably noted that after the visita-
tion of an exceptionally cold winter varieties of the
Oldenburg or Alexander types were usually unharmed,
while Greening, Janet, and Baldwin were killed. "Test
winters" the name has more or less local adaptation

1298

FRUIT-GROWING

in the West visited the northwestern states in 1855-6,
1872-3, 1885-6, and also in 1898-9. Thus it is that
Oldenburg (Duchess) has become a standard of hardi-
ness among apples in the colder parts of the United
States and Canada. Importations of cions were made
by nurserymen and fruit-growers between 1867 and
1875, but the main introduction was made by the
United States Department of Agriculture in 1870 at
the urgent request of the State Agricultural Society of
Minnesota, which began the agitation as early as 1867.
This importation consisted of young trees secured
through the cooperation of Edward Regel, director of
the Imperial Botanic Gardens at St. Petersburg. The
trees were planted on the grounds of the Agricultural
Department at Washington. The collection consisted
of about 300 varieties. They were taken charge of by
William Saunders, superintendent of gardens and
grounds. All available cions were cut and distributed
annually for five years. They attracted considerable
attention in the colder apple-growing regions. Subse-
quent importations of cions and trees were made by the
Iowa Agricultural College between 1875 and 1880.
In 1882 Charles Gibb, of Abbotsford, Canada, accom-
panied by J. L. Budd, of the Iowa Agricultural College,
went to Russia and spent the summer in investigating
these fruits. Large importations of apples, plums,
pears and cherries followed. In these later importa-
tions the east-European fruits were collected without
discrimination, and in most instances have been
erroneously regarded in this country as authentic
Russians.

Russian apples: characteristics and nomenclature.

It is now very difficult to say which are Russian
apples, which German, Polish or Swedish. If we
were to choose the Astrachan variety as a type of the
Russian apple, which in all probability would be a
correct basis, only a comparatively small number of
varieties could be grouped about it. But this is only
one of the several apparently authentic groups which
might be erected upon certain characteristics of tree.
In addition to Astrachan might be cited (1) Hibernal
type: trees vigorous growers, with open spreading tops,
and very large, leathery leaves. (2) Oldenburg type:
moderate growers, with compact, round-topped heads;
leaves of medium size. (3) Longfield type: slow growers;
branches horizontal or pendulous; leaves whitish and
woolly underneath. The Longfield apple, one of the
best known of the Russians, is shown in Fig. 1597.
(4) Transparent and Tetofsky type: trees pyram-
idal; bark yellow; spurs numerous; leaves large, light
green. (5) Anis type: trees upright, spreading or vase-
shaped; leaves medium, veins reddish. It would seem
reasonable to suppose that the Anis family was derived
from the Astrachan type. The flesh of the fruit of the
various types is very similar.

These represent the principal types of Russian apples.
The fruit they bear in the prairie climate matures in
the summer, autumn or early winter. It does not
appear that any of the especially hardy varieties of
undoubted north or east Russia origin are winter kinds
when grown in the Mississippi Valley. Such late-keep-
ing kinds as give promise of commercial value appear
to have originated in the Baltic provinces or to have
been transported at an early date from .the countries to
the west. These types the Synaps for instance have
characteristically small leaves, slender twigs, and are
less hardy than members of the groups cited above.

The "bloom," or glaucous covering, of the Russian
apple is characteristic. It does not persist to the same
extent, however under all climatic conditions. In east-
ern Quebec it fails to develop to the same extent that it
does under the drier atmospheric conditions of the east-
ern states. As additional proof that this pruinose bloom
is an immediate climatic effect, one has but to com-
pare the Colorado Spy with that grown in New York.

The smooth, thin skin and abundant bloom of the Colo-
rado apple is characteristic in a greater or less degree
of all varieties produced in the dry regions adjacent
to the Rockies, as it is of the Russian apples in the
more arid portions of that country.

The names of Russian apples are much confused.
There is no pomological society in Russia to assist the

1598. Vladimir, one of the typical Russian cherries. The fruit is
somewhat tapering to the stem. ( X 2i)

fruit-grower in eliminating synonyms; on the other
hand, the factors conducive to confusion are strongly
in evidence. These are illiteracy on the part of the
grower and the practice of propagating fruit trees from
the seed instead of by grafting. Gibb says "nomencla-
ture in Russia is hopelessly confused. Different names
are given to the same apples in different localities, the
same name to different apples growing in adjacent
districts."

Fruit-growers of the West, realizing that Americans
should have a uniform system, at least in the nomen-
clature of these varieties, called a meeting made up of
interested representatives of the fruit-growers' asso-
ciations of South Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa and Wis-
consin. These delegates, collectively styled the "Rus-
sian Apple Nomenclature Commission," met at La
Crosse, Wisconsin, August 30, 31, 1898. They decided
that it would be wise to attempt a grouping to be based
upon "family resemblance." In accordance with this
the following statement was adopted: "The varieties
here grouped as members of the same families, while in a
few cases differing somewhat in characteristics of tree,
are so nearly identical in fruit that for exhibition and
commercial purposes they are practically the same and
should be so considered." It is to be regretted that a
commission on nomenclature should take such a radical
stand as this, because the characteristics of a variety
cannot be changed by voting to call it by the same
name as the other member of the group which it most
resembles and almost, though not quite, duplicates.
The trend of modern pomology is to preserve small
differences, to differentiate rather than blend. The
work of the future will consist in large part in studying
small differences with a view of finding closer adapta-
tions. The propriety of ignoring Russian nomencla-
ture and the rule of priority is questionable, but in a
measure is defensible on the grounds of a confused
Russian nomenclature and the unpronounceableness of
Russian names. The findings of the committee have on

FRUIT-GROWING

FUCHSIA

1299

the whole met with the approval of those interested in
Russian apples.

Russian cherries.

. These, next to the apples, constitute the most
clearly defined group of Russian fruits; yet many
cherries commonly called Russian are in reality Polish,
Silesian or German. The typical cherry of northern
Russia is represented by the Vladimir type (Fig. 1598).
This was first introduced into America as a distinct
variety. Later importations and experience demon-
strated that Vladimir was a type, not a variety. This
type appears to have been grown in Russia for centuries
from seeds and sprouts. In this way a special class has
been developed. The Vladimir type is characterized by
its dwarf stature 5 to 8 feet high its peculiarly
rounded and compact top, its dark red, meaty-fleshed
fruit. Koslov-morello is evidently a light-colored juicy
variety of Vladimir. The characteristics of the tree are
the same as Vladimir, although when grown from seed
in this country the seedlings exhibit considerable varia-
tion. The amarelles and weichsels of Germany have
been grown in Russia for centuries, generally from seed,
and have become specialized forms. Cherries of the
Vladimir and Koslov-morello types are the hardiest of
the cherries. The Vladimirs have not, as a rule, been
productive in this country. The fruit-buds appear to
be sensitive to cold and as easily injured as some of the
recognized tender types of cherries. Although the trees
are hardy, the introduction of this type has not extended
the area of commercial cherry-growing in this country
farther north than the regions already outlined by the
profitable cultivation of Early Richmond.

Russian plums.

The plums imported from Russia do not differ
materially from those of the domestica type in culti-
vation in this country. The trees are probably some-
what hardier than Lombard or Green Gage, but the
fruit-buds are subject to winter injury wherever Lom-
bard is uncertain. In the main they have been unpro-
ductive. Among the most widely tested varieties
are Early Red, Moldavka and Merunka, all of the
Lombard type.

Russian pears.

These are hardy handsome trees, but none bears fruit
of good quality. Where blight is prevalent they are
extremely susceptible. Among the hardiest of the class
are Bessimianka (meaning seedless, which is only partly
true), Gakpvsky and Tonko-vietka. These thrive wher-
ever the climate admits of the cultivation of the Olden-
burg apple. The fruit ripens in August, and rots at the
core if allowed to mature on the tree.

Russian apricots.

Apricots were brought to Nebraska and Kansas by
Russian Mennonites about twenty-five years ago. A
few of those named and distributed are likely to be
retained in the fruit lists of the West.

Russian mulberries.

Russian mulberries have been widely sold as fruit-
bearing plants by enterprising agents, but their use to
the fruit-grower should be restricted to hedging and
the formation of windbreaks. For these purposes they
are valuable in the colder and more rigorous regions.

Russian peaches.

So-called hardy Russian peaches are sold, but they
really belong to Bokara or Turkestan. The peaches of
the Baltic provinces do not differ essentially from the
ordinary Persian strain in form or hardiness.

In general.

The introduction of the Russian fruits has given us
hardy types from which to breed varieties for northern

latitudes. In Iowa, Minnesota and Wisconsin this work
is under way. Seedlings and hybrids are appearing
each year, which may be considered valuable additions
to the fruit lists of these regions

Literature.

But two books appear to have been written on Rus-
sian pomology up to 1868, one by Nicolai Krasno
Glasov, 1848, the other by Regel, director of the
Imperial Botanic Gardens, St. Petersburg, in 1868.
The latter is called "Russkaya Pomologaya." It con-
tains a description of 225 varieties of apples, nearly
all of Russian origin. A wood-cut of each appears, in
addition to 144 colored plates. Gibb calls it "a grand,
good fundamental work." American literature on Rus-
sian fruits is mainly confined to three sources; the
reports of the Montreal Horticultural Society, publica-
tions of the Division of Pomology, Department of
Agriculture, Washington, and Bulletins of the Horti-
cultural Department of the Iowa Agricultural College.
To Charles Gibb, Abbptsford, Canada (Quebec), we
are indebted for the faithful and accurate translation
of the names given in the collection imported by the
Department of Agriculture in 1870. This was adopted
by the American Pomological Society in 1885.

JOHN CRAIG.

FUCHSIA (Leonard Fuchs, 1501-1565, German
professor of medicine, and a botanical author).
Onagracese. Handsome and popular flowering plants
of greenhouses, conservatories, window-gardens and
open grounds, blooming most freely in spring and
summer.

Shrubs and small trees, with opposite, alternate or
verticillate simple Ivs.: fls. mostly showy, axillary or
sometimes racemose and paniculate, usually pendu-
lous, in shades of red and purplish and with some of
the parts often white; tube prolonged beyond the ovary
and bell-shaped to tubular, with 4 spreading lobes;
petals 4, sometimes 5, or in some species wanting;
stamens usually 8, often exserted;
style long-exserted, the entire or 4-
lobed stigma prominent: fr. (seldom
seen under glass) a 4-loculed soft
berry. Seventy or eighty species, the
greater part in Trop. Amer., but 3
or 4 in New Zeal. They are very
variable in character. The common
fuchsias are known to us as small
herbs, but most of them are
shrubs in their native countries.
F. excorticata, of New Zeal., is a
tree 30-40 ft. high, whereas F.
procumbens, of the same coun-
try, is a weak, trailing plant. Of
the many species, less than half
a dozen have en-
tered largely into
garden forms. The
common garden
kinds have come
mostly from F.
magellanica. This
species was intro.
into Great Britain
from Chile in 1788,
or about that time.
It is variable in a
wild state as well
as in cult., and
plants subsequently
intro. from S. Amer.
were so distinct as
to be regarded for
a time as separate

species. Even at the i 599 . Fuchsia mage ii an i ca van

present day some of globosa. ( X H)

1300

FUCHSIA

the forms of F. magellanica are commonly spoken of as
species, so much do they differ from the type. As early
as 1848, 541 species and varieties mostly mere gar-
den forms were known and named (Porcher, "La
Fuchsia, son Histoire et sa Culture"). The fuchsia
reached the height of its popularity about the middle

1600. Fuchsia magellanica var. Riccartonii.

of the past century. At present it is prized mostly for
window-gardening and conservatory decoration. The
garden forms of the present day are with difficulty
referred to specific types. The long-tubed or so-called
speciosa forms are probably hybrids of F. magellanica
and F.fulgens (Figs. 1603, 1604). Others are evidently
direct varieties from the stem types. There are many
full double forms. For the history and the garden
botany of the fuchsia, see Hemsley in the Garden
9:284 and 11 :70; also Watson, the Garden 55:74.

In mild climates, fuchsias make excellent outdoor
shrubs, some of them withstanding frost.
These are of the F. magellanica group. They
are familiar to travelers in Ireland, and they
may be seen as far north as the Shetland
Islands. In California, many of the fuchsias
are excellent and popular subjects for plant-
ing in the open. Under glass, forms of F.
magellanica may be grown into large rafter
shrubs, where they produce great abundance
of bloom.

Fuchsias are among the most ornamental
and popular of the cool greenhouse flowering
plants. They may also be used in summer as
bedding plants, and they are among the very
few flowering plants that will bloom in the
shade. If fair-sized specimen plants in 10-
or 12-inch pots are desired, the best time to
root them is the end of August. The best
cuttings are secured from suckers that start
from the base of the plants that are bedded
out. The cutting should be 3 inches in length,
and if the intention is to grow large speci-
mens, pot them singly in 2-inch pots, in three
parts sand, one part loam, and another of
leaf-mold. Place the cuttings when potted in
a shady position in a temperature of not less
than 60 at night. When the very small
plants are well rooted, shift them along into
a pot 2 inches larger, using this time a com-
post of equal parts of loam, leaf-mold, and
sand and add a third part of well-rotted
manure. In this size of pot, the shoot will
have made four or five joints, and should
now be pinched to encourage side breaks.
The plant, where it is stopped, will start
into two breaks, and the strongest should be
taken for a leader; pinch the weaker one
when two leaves are well formed. Strict
attention from now on should be paid to keep
the plants in good shape. The side shoots
must be kept in bounds, so that the sym-
metry of the plant is preserved, pinching the

stronger ones hard and allowing the weaker to grow a
little longer so that they gain more vigor. The leader
may be allowed to make six pairs of leaves, and then
be stopped, always choosing the strongest breaks to
increase the height of the plant. Potting should be
strictly attended to, never allowing the plant to form a
mat of roots around the ball before it
gets a shift into a larger pot. The
potting material for all future pottings
may be composed of two parts good
fibrous loam, with an equal amount of
well-rotted horse-manure, one part flaky
leaves, and one part sharp sand. The
whole should be as rough as can be
conveniently used when working it
equally around the ball of the plant,
in the potting operation. It is neces-
sary to have a good straight stake
down the center of the plant to support it in an up-
right position. When the plant is well established
in the pot in which it is desired to flower it, manure
waterings will be in order, as these plants are gross
feeders when in active growth. Green cow-manure,
fertilizers, and soot secured from soft coals agree well
with fuchsias. The amount to be used is an ordinary
handful to two and a half gallons of water. Water
twice in between with clean water. Give the last pinch
to the plants about six weeks before they are desired
to be in full flower. For bedding-out purposes, cut-
tings may be rooted in the spring, and grown on into
5- or 6-inch pots. Old plants may be kept through the
winter, in a cool light pit, from which frost is kept.
Keep them rather dry during October, November, and
December, only giving enough water to maintain the
wood plump. In January they may
be removed to a temperature of 50
by night, allowing a rise of 10 or
15 during the day. This tempera-
ture, by the way, is most suitable
for fuchsias after they are rooted
until they come in flower. After it
is seen where all the live eyes are
on the old plants, trim them into
shape, and remove all the dead
wood. Turn them out of the pots,
and remove all the loose dirt from
the ball with a hose with a gentle
pressure of water on it. They may
be potted in the same size of pot,
and when well rooted in that, give
them a shift two sizes larger. Pinch
the plants two or three times during
the winter, and one will be rewarded
with better plants the second year
than the first. If well attended to
every year, fuchsias may be kept for
many years, attaining an enormous
size. Fumigate with hydrocyanic
gas, during winter, and that, with
syringings on all bright days, until
they come in flower, will keep down
insect pests. (George F. Stewart.)

INDEX.

1601. Fuchsia magellanica var.
discolor. (XM)

alba, 9.

arborescens, 10.
boliviana, 8.
coccinea, 1, 3.
conica, 1.
corallina, 1.
corymbiflora, 9.
decussata, 1.
discolor, 1.
elegans, 1.
exoniensis, 2.
fulgens, 5.
globosa, 1.
gracilis, 1.
hybrida, 2.

Lowei, 1.
macrostema, 1.
macrostemma, 1.
magellanica, 1.
pendulxflora, 5.
procumbens, 11.
Riccartonii, 1.
speciosa, 2.
splendens, 4.
syringseflora, 10.
tenella, 1.
Thompsonii, 1.
triphylla, 6.
variegata, 1.
venusta, 7.

FUCHSIA

1301

A. Fls. drooping (Nos. 1-9).

B. Tube of fl. mostly shorter than the calyx-lobes (or in
F. speciosa sometimes as long again); petals obo-
vate and retuse, convolute in the bud. LADIES'
EAR-DROPS.

1. magellanica, Lam. (F. macrostema, Ruiz & Pav.
F. macrostemma, Auth. F. coccinea, Curtis, not Ait.).
Tube little longer than the ovary, oblong or short-
cylindrical; petals normally blue, and shorter than the
red and oblong-lanceolate calyx-lobes; stamens long-
exserted: Ivs. opposite or in 3's, lance-ovate, very short-
petioled, dentate. Peru and south to Terre del Fuego.
B.M. 97 (F. coccinea). The leading types are as
follows:

Var. globosa, Bailey (F. globdsa, Lindl. F. macro-
stemma var. globosa, Nich.). Fig. 1599. Lvs. opposite,
short-petiolate, ovate, acute, lightly dentate, glabrous :
fls. red-purple, axillary on slender peduncles, small
and short, the bud nearly globular and the tips of the
sepals cohering even after the fl. begins to burst;
tube very short; petals erect, twice shorter than the
calyx-lobes. B.R. 1556. Gn. 55, p. 75. A profuse
bloomer, and a common type amongst old-fashioned
fuchsias. There is a form with variegated Ivs.

Var. Riccartonii (F. Riccartonii, Hort.). Fig. 1600.
Very like var. globosa and reported to be a seedling of
it, is a very hardy and floriferous form, standing in
the open in Scotland, blooming particularly well in
autumn: 6-10 ft., making a trunk 3 in. diam., and
becoming wide-spreading: shoots slender: fls. red. J.H.
III. 58:329. A handsome and desirable fuchsia, said
to have been raised at Riccarton, near Edinburgh,
about 1830, but reported as originating in the Falk-
land Isls. Excellent in Calif.

Var. discolor, Bailey (F. discolor, Lindl. F. Lbwei,
Hort.). Fig. 1601. Dwarf, compact and hardy:
branches deep purple: Ivs. rather small undulate-
toothed: peduncles axillary, slender, exceeding the lys.;
fls. red, small, with slender, short tube and wide-
spreading, rather narrow calyx-lobes, which are some-
what longer than the tube; petals obtuse, shorter than
the calyx-lobes. Falkland Isls. B.R. 1805.

Var. cdnica, Bailey (F. conica, Lindl. F. macro-
stemma var. cdnica, Nich.). Shrubby, very leafy: lys.
3-4 together, toothed, ovate, the petiole one-third
length of blade, pubescent: fls. axillary, solitary, on
peduncles much longer than Ivs.; calyx scarlet, the
tube conical (or widest at base) and equaling the
lobes; petals dark purple, erect and emarginate;
small-fid. Raised from seeds brought from Chile.
B.R. 1062. Lindley says that it differs from F.
gracilis in having broader Ivs., being less floriferous,
and in the conical tube which widens above
the ovary and then narrows.

1602. Fuchsia magellanica var. gracilis.

1603. Fuchsia speciosa. The common
garden fuchsia. ( X H)

Var. gracilis, Bailey (F. gracilis, Lindl. F. decus-
sdta, Grah., not Ruiz & Pav. F. macrostemma
var. gracilis, Nich.). Fig. 1602. Very slender and
graceful, twiggy and cross-branched: Ivs. lanceo-
late to ovate, toothed; petiole J^in. long: fls. droop-
ing on very long pedicels which are single or in
pairs; tube slender, nearly as long as the narrow
spreading lobes; calyx scarlet; petals purple, retuse,
shorter than the long acute calyx-lobes. Chile. B.R.
847; 1052 (var. muUiflora). B.M. 2507. Gn. 55, p. 74.
Mn. 2, p. 186. Perhaps a distinct species. A var.
variegata is advertised. F . Thdmpsonii, Hort., is said to
belong here.

With the F. magellanica set may be classed F.
cordllina. Hort., F. elegans, Paxt., F. tenetta, Hort.,
and others. There are apparently many hybrids. The
short-flowered fuchsias are less popular than formerly,
but many varieties are now in cult.

2. specidsa, Hort. (F. hybrida, Hort.). Figs. 1603,
1604. The greater part of present-day garden fuchsias
are of the longer-tubed type shown in the illustrations.
These are probably hybrid derivatives of F. magellanica
forms and F . fulgens. Amongst the named sorts every
gradation will be found, from the short-tubed Storm
King to the Earl of Beaconsfield with fls. 3 in. long.
The old F. exoniensis, Paxt., B.M. 153, is figured as
a very showy plant, marked by very long-pointed
calyx-lobes and sharp-pointed buds, said to be a hybrid
of F. cordifolia (a Mexican species) and F. globosa.
The plant subsequently figured and cult, under that
name does not agree, having shorter fls. and much
less prominently pointed calyx-lobes.

3. coccinea, Ait. Not known to be cult,
in Amer., and inserted here for the pur-
pose of clearing up the synonymy of F.
coccinea. This species appears to have
been intro. before F. magellanica, and it
was named F. coccinea by Aiton. F . magellanica,
however, "usurped its name and spread it to
every garden in the kingdom, whilst the true
plant lingered in botanic gardens, lastly surviv-
ing (greatly to the credit of the Baxters, father
and son) in that of Oxford alone." The species
was lost from its intro. in 1788 to its rediscovery
in an Oxford garden in 1867; meantime forms of
F. magellanica passed as F. coccinea. "F. coccinea is
much more graceful than any of the varieties of F.
magellanica, flowers even more freely, and is readily
distinguished by the almost sessile leaves with broad
bases, and the hairy twigs and petioles; further, its
foliage turns of a bright crimson when about to fall."
J. D. Hooker, B.M. 5740. Probably Brazilian. The
plant should be looked for in collections.

1302

FUCHSIA

1604. The common garden fuchsia
F. speciosa.

4. splendens, Zucc. Fig. 1605. Much-branched,
shrubby: Ivs. ovate-cordate, pale green, serrate:
peduncles slender, axillary, solitary and single-fid. ;
fls. drooping, rather short; fl. IK in. long, scarlet
tipped pale green, the base swollen and the tube then
compressed; petals shorter than calyx-lobes, ovate,

greenish; stamens
much exserted, the
anthers yellow.
Mex. B.M. 4082.
B.R. 28:67. G.C.
III. 45:338. G.I:
649; 9:693.

BB. Tube thrice or
more the length
of the calyx-
lobes; petals
pointed, nearly
or quite as long
as the calyx-
lobes.

5. fulgens, Moc.
& Sesse. St. some-
what succulent,
glabrous, often red-
tinged: Ivs. large
and coarse, cordate-
ovate, soft, small-
toothed: fls. in ter-
minal leafy clusters
or racemes, the red
long-tubular calyx-
tube 2-3 in. long
and very slender at
the base; the calyx-
lobes short and
pointed, greenish at
the tip, not very widely spreading; petals deep scarlet,
pointed, shorter than calyx-lobes; stamens only short-
exserted. Mex. B.M. 3801. B.R. 24:1. Gn. 55, p. 75.
R.H. 1881:150 (yar. pumila). A brilliant plant, some-
times seen in choice conservatory collections. Evidently
one parent of the F. speciosa tribes. F. pendubefldra,
Hort., is supposed to be a hybrid, but the fls. very
long like F. fulgens: Ivs. ovate, acuminate, with violet
midrib: tube of fl. 3-4 in. long, trumpet-shaped; fls.
rich crimson shaded maroon. J.H. III. 51:301.

6. triphylla, Linn. Fig. 1606. Low and bushy (18 in.
high), pubescent: Ivs. often in 3's, small, oblanceolate,
petiolate, dentate, green above and purple pubescent
beneath: fls. 1 j/ in. long, in terminal racemes, cinnabar-
red, the long tube enlarging towards the top; petals
very short; stamens 4, not exserted. St. Domingo,
W. Indies. B.M. 6795. Gn. 41:32. I.H. 43, p. 94.
G.M. 49:333. Gn.W. 5:389. Known in botanical col-
lections and sparingly in the trade. The species has a
most interesting history, for which see the citations
made above. Upon this plant Plumier founded the
genus Fuchsia in 1703, giving a rude drawing of it.
Upon Plumier's description and picture Linnaeus
founded his F, triphylla. Plumier's figure is so unlike
existing fuchsias that there has been much speculation
as to the plant he meant to portray. No fuchsia was
known to have four stamens or to be native to the W.
Indies. In 1877 Hemsley wrote of it: "The figure,
however, is so rude that nobody, I believe, has been
able to identify it with any living or dried plant. Pos-
sibly it is not a fuchsia at all in the sense of the present
application of the name, for it is represented as having
only four stamens." But in 1873, Thomas Hogg, of
New York, secured seeds of a St. Domingo fuchsia
which turns out to be Plumier's original, thus bringing
into cult, a plant that had been unknown to science
for 170 years. It came to the attention of botanists
in 1882. For a discussion of further confusion in the

history of this plant, see Hemsley, G.C. II. 18, pp.
263-4.

7. venusta, HBK. Branches slender, somewhat
hairy: Ivs. opposite and in 3's, elliptic, acute, entire,
glabrous, somewhat shining: peduncles axillary, slen-
der, about the length of the scarlet fls., more or less
racemose above; fls. elongated, the tube 2 in. long
beyond ovary and narrow-trumpet-shaped, the lobes
ovate-lanceolate and acuminate; petals about equaling
calyx-lobes, scarlet, the margins undulate. Colombia.
F.S. 5:538. J.H. III. 49:243.

8. bpliviana, Carr. Compact, branching, 2-4 ft.,
producing the showy fls. in profuse drooping sometimes
branched clusters: Ivs. large, elliptic-ovate, acute or
acuminate, toothed: fls. 2-3 in. long, trumpet-shaped,
rich red. Bolivia. R.H. 1876:150. G.W. 8, p. 316.
Very like F. corymbiflora, but said to be more orna-
mental: fls. brilliant coral-red, the calyx-lobes and
petals acuminate and equal or subequal, the former
spreading-star-shaped or reflexed, the petals erect or
close about the stamens; filaments red, anthers whitish;
stigma very large, ovoid: fr. fleshy, violet-black.

9. corymbifldra, Ruiz & Pav. Tall but weak grower,
needing support when allowed to attain its full height,
therefore excellent for pillars and rafters: Ivs. large,
ovate-oblong and tapering both ways, serrate, pubes-
cent: fls. deep red, hanging in long brilliant corymbs;
calyx-tube 3-4 in. long and nearly uniformly cylindri-
cal, the lobes lance-acuminate and becoming reflexed;

Eetals deep red,
ince - acuminate,
about the length
of the calyx-lobes;
stamens length of
the petals. Peru.
B.M. 4000. Gn.
ll:70(asF.bolivi-
ana); 55:74. F.
1841:161. H. U.
2, p. 324. Var.
alba, Hort., has
white or nearly
white calyx -tube
and -lobes. F.S. 6:
547. Gn. 55:74.
A very hand-
some plant, but
not common.

AA. Fls. erect.

10. arborescens,
Sims (F. synngae-
flbra, Carr.). A
shrub: Ivs. lance-
oblong and en-
tire, laurel -like:
fls. lilac -scented,
pink -red, small,
with a short or
almost globular
tube, in an erect
terminal naked
lilac-like panicle;
calyx - lobes and
petals about equal
in length. Mex. B.
M. 2620. Little

grown, but excellent for winter-flowering; should not
be lost to cult.

11. procumbens, Cunn. TRAILING FUCHSIA. TRAIL-
ING QUEEN. Trailing, with slender much-branched sts. :
Ivs. alternate, small (^/i-^iin. across), cordate-ovate,
long-stalked: fls. solitary and axillary, apetalous, the
short tube orange and the reflexing obtuse lobes dark
purple, anthers blue: plant dioecious: berry glaucous-

1605. Fuchsia splendens. ( X l /Q

FUCHSIA

FUNGI

1303

red. N. Zeal. B.M. 6139. G. 35:97. A very inter-
esting little plant, suitable for baskets.

Species not known to be in the American trade are: F. ampliata,
Benth. Fls. large, scarlet, long-tubed, drooping. Colombia. B.M.

. . ,

(5839. F. bacilldris, Lindl. Compact, with short-jointed branches:
fls. very small, flaring-mouthed, rosy, drooping. Mex. B.R. 1480.
F. cordifdlia, Benth. Fls. 2 in. long, slender, drooping, hairy,

red, on very long pedicels. Mex. B.R. 27:70. F. Dominiana,
Hort. Garden hybrid with long drooping red fls. of the speciosa
type. F.S. 10:1004. F. excorticdta. Linn. f. Shrub or small tree
of New Zeal., reaching 40 ft. high and the trunk sometimes 2-3 ft.
diam., the bark thin, papery and loose: Ivs. alternate, ovate-lanceo-
late to lanceolate, entire or nearly so: fls. 1}^ in. or less long, soli-
tary and drooping, trimorphic. B.R. 857. F. macrdntha. Hook.
Largest-fld. fuchsia; 4-6 in. long, pink-red, in large, drooping clus-
ters. Colombia, Peru. B.M. 4233. F. microphylla, HBK. Dwarf,
small-lvd., with deep red, small axillary, drooping fls.: pretty.
Mex. B.R. 1269. F. serratifdlia, Ruiz & Pav. Fls. long-tubed,
speciosa-like, on drooping pedicels from the axils of the whorled Ivs.,
pink with greenish tinge: handsome. Peru. B.M. 4174. F.
simplicicaulis, Ruiz & Pav. Lvs. usually in 3's, entire: fls. crimson,
long and slender-tubed, in drooping clusters: resembles F. corym-
bifera. Peru. B.M. 5096. F. thymifdlia, H.B.K. To 6 ft.: Ivs.
small, opposite or nearly so, ovate or roundish, downy above: fls.
red, on axillary pedicels, the petals obovate and undulate. Mex.
B.R. 1284. L. H. B.

FUMARIA (fumus, smoke, the application perhaps
to the smoke-like odor of roots or other parts of some
species) . Fumariacese, a family by some botanists united

with Papaveracese. This
genus includes the
common fumitory, F.
officinalis, formerly
held in great repute
for various ailments,
but now practically
banished from medical
practice. Seeds are
still rarely sold to
those who have faith
in old physic gardens.
The plant has a large
literature, which is
especially interesting
to those who delight in
herbals. As an orna-
mental plant, it is
surpassed by Adlumia.
There are about 40
1606. Fuchsia triphylla. (XJi) species of Fumaria in

the Medit. region and

Cent. Eu., and S. Afr.: mostly annual herbs, with
compound much-dissected Ivs., usually diffuse and
branching, sometimes climbing, glaucous: corolla
1 -spurred at base, and thereby distinguished at once
from Adlumia; sepals 2, very small; petals 4; stamens
6, diadelphous: fr. a roundish 1-seeded indehiscent
nutlet. F. officinalis, Linn., the common fumitory,
of Eu., is sparingly run wild in waste places: 2-3 ft.
high : Ivs. petioled, the segms. linear, oblong or cuneate
and entire or lobed: fls. small, flesh-color with crimson
tip, in narrow racemes. Variable. L. jj. B.f

FUMITORY: Fumaria officinalis.
FUNCKIA, FUNKIA: Hosia.

FUNGI are plants. They differ from other plants
chiefly in their lack of chlorophyll, the green coloring
matter of green plants, and in the character of the
substance of which their cell-walls are composed.
This is sometimes spoken of as fungous cellulose, and
has characters both of the cellulose of other plants and
the chitin of insects. There are thousands of species
of fungi, varying greatly in form and structure. Some
forms are more or less familiar to everyone; for
example, mushrooms, or toadstools, molds, mildews
smuts and rusts. Other groups of plants often included
under the term fungi are the slime-molds or myxomy-
cetes and bacteria. While they have certain charac-
ters in common with fungi, they are sufficiently dis-
tinct to be considered separately.

The fungus plant consists of a vegetative feeding
portion, the mycelium, which, in a way, corresponds
to the roots of higher plants, and the fruiting struc-
ture, the sporophore. The latter bears the reproductive

bodies, the spores,
which, while much
simpler in structure,
function in the same
way as do the seeds
of higher plants (Fig.
1607). The sporo-
phore is the part most
often observed by the
layman. The mush-
room or toadstool,
the puffball, the
smut boil on corn,
the white powdery
mildew on the grape
or rose, or the blue
mold on stale bread
or cheese, are almost
entirely the sporo-
phores and spore
masses. The myce-
lium is usually buried
in the substratum
from which the food
is derived and is thus
not often observed.
In fact it is often too
minute and colorless
to be seen with the

1607. A fungus. A mildew, showing
the mycelium in the leaf-tissue and
the hanging spore-bearing threads.

(Much magnified.)

naked eye. It may
be observed as a
white branching weft
in the dung of mush-
room beds or in the leaf-mold in the forest. This form
is commonly spoken of as spawn. It may also be
seen as a white weft-like growth between the bark
and wood of rotting logs or dead trees, or as brown
leathery sheets in
the cracks of rot-
ting logs. It some-
times appears as
brown or black
shreds or strands
under the bark of
dying trees. This
form of mycelium
strand or rhizo-
morph is charac-
teristic of the
often very ' de-
structive mush-
room parasite of
trees, Armillaria
mellea. The spores
of fungi are min-
ute microscopic
bodies cut off from
the sporophores
for the purpose of
reproducing the
plant. They are
usually pne- or

1608. Different spore forms of fungi.

a. Spore-sacs with spores of the peach
leaf-curl fungus; 6, spore-stalk with spores
of a mushroom; c, two spore forms of the
wheat-rust fungus; d, winter -spore of
onion-blight parasite; e, spores of the beet
leaf-spot pathogen ; /, spore-sac with sporea
of the black-knot fungus; g, the summer-
spores of the brown -rot pathogen; h,
spores of the apple-tree canker fungus; i,
spore of the alternaria blight fungus of
ginseng; j, conidia of the late blight fungus
of potatoes; k, corn-smut spores.

two-celled, though
often many-celled
(Fig. 1608). They
are often color-
less, though they
may be variously
tinted or colored,
greenish, brown,
black, and so on.
When placed in

1304

FUNGI

FUNKIA

1609. Germinating spores.

a, Conidium of late blight fungus germi-
nating in a drop of water by swarm-spores;
a', swarm-spore germinating by germ-tube;
6, ascospore of apple-scab fungus sending
its germ-tube into the cuticle 6' of the
young apple.

sufficient moisture, and given the proper tempera-
ture, they usually will germinate quickly, either send-
ing out a sprout-like germ-tube (Fig. 1609, b) which
on finding sufficient nourishment grows into myce-
lium, or the protoplasmic contents of the spore-cell
may escape through an opening formed in the cell-wall,

as one or more
actively s w i m-
ming and naked
protoplasmic
masses, called
swarm - spores
(Fig. 1609, a).
These swarm-
spores swim
about in the
water for a time,
(usually less
than an hour),
then invest
themselves with
a cell-wall, and
germinate with
a germ-tube as
above described
(Fig. 1609, a').
This latter is the method of germination of the potato-
blight fungus, Phytophthora infestans. A fungus often
produces two kinds of spores, the vegetative spores,
conidia (Fig. 1608, j), produced usually in great num-
bers and repeatedly during the season for the purpose
of multiplying the form, and the sexual, or resting-
spores (Fig. 1608, a, b, c, d, k), adapted primarily to
carry the fungus through periods unfavorable to growth,
as dry seasons, winter and the like. Either form may,
however, function as the other. They are disseminated
by wind, water, insects, or by man himself.

Because of their lack of chlorophyll, fungi cannot
assimilate their carbon directly from the carbon-
dioxid of the air as can the green plants. They must
make use of the food substances already manufactured
or elaborated by other plants or animals. With respect
to the nature of the substratum from which fungi
obtain their food-supply, they are of two general
types, saprophytes, those that can feed and develop
on non-living organic substances (chiefly dead parts of
plants and animals); and parasites, those that may
grow upon and take food from living organisms. A
true or obligate saprophyte can feed only upon non-
living organic substances. There are great numbers
of such species, attacking dead and fallen trees, stems
and leaves of plants or the dead bodies of animals,
infesting dung and other debris, breaking up the com-
plex organic substances into simpler form, and deriving
therefrom the food and energy for their development.
Most mushrooms, toadstools, molds and the like,
are obligate saprophytes, playing the role of disin-
tegrators in the
ever-changing
cycle of nature.
An obligate para-
site, on the other
hand is, in nature
at least, compelled
to derive its nu-
trition through
direct attack on
the living tissues
of other plants or
of animals. Of
such fungi, the
rust- and smut-
producing para-
sites, the leaf-curl

fungus of the 1610. Colonies of the rust fungus on
peach, and the the leaf of a hollyhock.

potato-blight organism are good examples. Between
these extremes are to be found very many forms
which, during a part of their active development,
live as parasites, and during the remainder as sapro-
phytes. The apple-scab fungus is a good example. It
passes the summer as an active parasite upon the
leaves and fruit of the apple, but in the autumn and
spring continues its growth and development in the
fallen leaves, producing the sexually formed ascospores
which in the spring infect the next crop. Other forms,
which usually lead a saprophytic existence on the
dead and fallen parts of plants, may, under special
conditions, take on a parasitic habit. A good example
is a common saprophyte, a species of Botrytis, com-
mon in greenhouses. When there is an excess of moist-
ure or the plants are in any way weakened, this fungus
finds it easy to pass from a saprophytic life on the dead
leaves, to that of active and destructive parasitism on
the living leaves. It is sometimes destructive to let-
tuce. Fungi are in general favored by abundance of
moisture. For this reason in a wet season mushrooms
appear in great profusion, and epidemics of plant-
disease-producing fungi often
occur over wide areas, caus-
ing great losses to the agricul-
turist. The loss from potato-
blight in New York state
alone often amounts in wet
seasons to over $10,000,000.
Warm weather is generally
favorable to fungus growth,
but there are some forms,
like the potato-blight fungus,
which flourish only during
relatively cool periods. This
parasite occurs only in tem-
perate regions, being un-
known in the hot low lands
of tropical and subtropical
regions. The peach leaf-curl
fungus is apparently favored
as much by the low tempera-
ture as by the rains of a wet
spring. Other forms seem to
thrive best in dry climates,
as for example the powdery
mildew of grapes.

While many fungi are de-
structive agents of the crops
of the agriculturist, causing him heavy losses, most
fungi are active co-laborers with him, bringing about,
as has been seen, the disintegration of compost, on
which the farmer depends so largely for increased crop-
production. Other fungi, like the yeasts and certain
molds, are necessary agents in the arts and manufac-
tures, as for example, the use of yeast in bread-, beer-
and wine-production, molds in cheese-ripening, and
so on. The value of these fungi lies chiefly in their
ability to produce fermentations of various sorts or to
give flavors to the products. Many fungi are edible,
as for example the large fruit bodies of mushrooms,
puffballs and truffles. While their value as food is
perhaps often overestimated, they are valuable and
form no unimportant part of the food of many
people, especially in Europe. They are to be regarded
chiefly as delicacies. The truffles and the cultivated
mushroom, Agaricus campeslris, are perhaps the
best known. A delicacy known to relatively few is
the large smut boils occurring on Zizania latifolia.
Some fungi are poisonous, as for example the deadly
Amanita, the fly-agaric among mushrooms, and the
ergot, a fungous parasite of rye and other grasses.

H. H. WHETZEL.

FUNGICIDES: Diseases and Insects.
FUNKIA: Iloxta.

1611. Colonies of a fungus
on a plum leaf. The dead
tissue sometimes falls out,
leaving a shot-hole effect.

FUNTUMIA

FURCR.EA

1305

FUNTUMIA (Funtum is one of the vernacular names
of F. elastica). Apocynacex. Three trees, sometimes
very tall, of Trop. Afr., formerly placed in Kickxia, one
of them being a rubber tree. F. eldstica, Stapf, reaches
100ft., with a cyh'ndric trunk and pale spotted bark:
Ivs. oblong or lance-oblong, undulate: fls. white or
yellowish in short-peduncled many-fld. dense cymes,
the corolla-tube constricted above the base, the lobes
oblong and obtuse; stamens inserted well down in the
corolla-tube; disk 5-parted: follicles oblong-clavate,
woody. Offered in Eu.; yields the Lagos caoutchouc.

FURCRjJEA (Ant. Francois de Fourcroy, 1755-1809,
chemist). Syn., Fourcroya, Fourcrcea, Furcroya, Fur-
crcea. Amarylliddceae. Succulent desert plants from
tropical America.

Some with spiny foliage like Agave, others with
minutely toothed margins like Beschorneria. They
occasionally bear immense loose panicles of greenish
white fls., suggesting those of Yucca fdamentosa, which
are known to every plant-lover of the N. The perianth
of Furcrsea is whitish and wheel-shaped; in Agave
greenish yellow, funnel-shaped. The filaments in
Furcraea have a cushion-like swelling at the base,
which is absent from Agave.

Furcraea is cultivated much in the same way as
Agave, except that the furcreas are given more heat
and water. F . gigantea has a very pretty variegated
form, which makes a useful pot-plant.

As a rule, furcreas bear fruit not more than once,
and then die without producing suckers. However,
they produce while in flower an immense number of
bulbels, which may be used for propagation. It is
impossible to say at what size or age the plants will
bloom. Grown in pots, they may take a century. On
the other hand, plants from bulbels have been known
to flower at three years. Seeding is usually rare.

INDEX.

agavephylla, 5.
altissima, 5, 7.

elegans, 5.
foetida, 8.

marginata, 6.
medio-picta, 8.

andina, 5.

geminispina, 9.

pubescens, 5.

Barillettii, 8.

figantea, 8.

Roezlii, 2.

Bedinghausii, 3.

exapetala, 4.

Selloa, 6.

Cabuya, 7.

Humboldtiana, 7.

spinosa, 9.

Cahum, 4.

inermis, 7.

tuberosa, 9.

Commelinii, 8.

interrupta, 9.

variegata, 8.

cubensis, 4, 5, 6, 7.

Lindenii, 6.

Watsoniana, 8.

Deledevantii, 5.

longseva, 1.

Willemetiana, 8.

edentata, 6.

macrophylla, 5.

A. Lvs. rough-margined but not toothed, glaucous, striate-
roughened beneath: infl. pubescent: pedicels short.
SERRULATE.

1. longaeva, Karw. & Zucc. Slender unbranched
tree, up to 50 ft.: Ivs. rigidly outcurving, narrowly
lanceolate, gradually acute, concave, 3-6x60 in.:
infl. 15 ft., broadly conical, short-stalked; fls. !%-!%
in.; ovary rather longer than segm.: caps, elongated,
narrowed below; seeds small (J^x^in.): bulbels
unknown. S. Mex. to Guatemala. Zuccarini. Act. Acad.
Leop. Carol. 16, pt.2:48. M.D.G. 26, p. 10. Bateman,
Orchid, of Mex. & Guat. Vignette to pi. 16. B.M. 5519,
(habit). Herbert, Amaryll., pi. 34. A similar if sepa-
rable species is reported for Bolivia. The most remark-
able dracsenoid tree, flowering when extremely old,
and then dying, like others of its genus.

2. Roezlii, Andre (Agave argyrophylla, A. Toneliana,
Beschorneria floribunda, Lilia regia, Lilium regium,
Roezlia regia, R. reglna, Yucca argyrsea, Y. argyrophylla,
Y. Parmentieri, Y. Toneliana, Hort.). Trunk becoming 6
ft. or more: Ivs. rather flaccidly spreading, lanceolate,
acute, concave or plicate, 3-5x50 in.: infl. 10-15 ft.,

Eubescent, the moderately broad panicle short-stalked;
s. 1 % in. ; ovary and segm. about equal : caps, ellipsoidal,
scarcely stipitate: freely bulbiferous, the bulbels
elongated. S. Mex. R.H. 1887, p. 353. B.M. 5519 (as
to details) ; 7170 (as F. Bedinghausii) . G.C. III. 9, p. 489;

36, p. 45; 46, p. 340. The common plant grown along
the Riviera, often as F. longseva, but more commonly as
F. Bedinghausii, with which the synonymy is confused.

3. Bedinghausii, Koch (Beschorneria multiflora,
Hort. Yucca Pringlei, Greenm. Roezlia or Yucca bulbi-
fera, Hort.). Trunk scarcely 3 ft.: Ivs. rather rigidly
outcurving, lanceolate, acute, rather flat, 2-3 x 18-24
in.: infl. 10-15 ft., the rather narrow panicle little
longer than the scape; fls. 1H in.; ovary and segm.
about equal: caps, broadly oblong, abruptly stipitate;
seeds moderate (14-/4 x % in.): freely bulbiferous, the
bulbels ovoid. Cent. Mex. B.H. 13, p. 327. Ann.
Jard. Buitenzorg. II. Suppl. 3:44. G.W. 7, p. 101.

AA. Lvs. smooth-margined, typically toothed, usually

green, not striate. EUFURCR^EA.

B. Prickles rather small and close set: Ivs. narrow;

margin straight.

4. cubensis, Vent. (F. hexapetala, Urban. Agave
cubensis, Jacq. A. bulblfera, Salm? A. hexapetala,
Jacq. A. mexicana, Lam. A. odordta, Pers). Nearly
trunkless: Ivs. narrowly lanceolate, spreading, smooth,
about 2x50 in.; teeth nearly straight, j^-J^in. long,
%-l in. apart: infl. 10-15 ft., long-stalked, nearly
glabrous; fls. 2 in.; ovary fusiform, about equaling the
segm.: caps, small, broad, stipitate; seeds small
(/f-x^j in.): bulbels ovoid. Cuba and Haiti. Jacq.,
Stirp. Amer. : 175. Ann. Jard. Buitenzorg. II. Suppl.
3:40. As badly confused as Agave americana
and actually rarely seen in gardens: apparently the
original henequen of early writers on the W. Indies,
its fiber called cabuya. A related Yucatan species,
the cahum, with less lanceolate Ivs. and ovary exceed-
ing the perianth, is F. Cahum, Trel., Ann. Jard. Buiten-
zorg. II. Suppl. 3:39.

BB. Prickles large or prominently raised and rather dis-
tant, curved, suppressed in certain forms.

c. Shape of Ivs. oblong-lanceolate, large.

5. pubescens, Tod. Nearly trunkless: Ivs. spread-
ing, concave, smooth, about 3x60 in.; teeth Kin.
long, %-l^sin. apart: infl. 15-20 ft., rather short-
stalked, pubescent; fls. 2J4 in.; ovary 1 in.; segm. \ l /$
in.: caps, large, broad, variously stipitate: bulbels
ovoid. Mex (?). Giorn. Soc. Sci. Palermo 14:5-7.
Ann. Jard. Buitenzorg. II. Suppl. 3:43. B.M. 6160(?)
(depauperate). Related species are: F. elegans, Tod.
of Guiana, with Ivs. 5 in. wide with hooked black-
ening teeth K-J^in. long and 1% in. apart, glabrous
long-stalked infl., and leafy-tipped bulbels. Hort.
Panorm. 4. F. macrophylla, Hook., established in
the Bahamas and Jamaica (probably from the south)
with teeth J^in. long and 3J^ in. apart, broad
umbonate caps, and ovoid bulbels. Hook. Icon.
2501. Ann. Jard. Buitenzorg. II. Suppl. 3:37, 45.
F. andina, Trel. (F. Deledevdntii, and F. altissima,
Hort.?), of E. Peru, with nearly as large and distant
teeth, short-stalked infl., cuboid caps, and conical-
ovoid bulbels. Ceara or Pernambuco hemp is ascribed
to F. agavephylla, Brot. (F. cubensis, Mart. Agave
inermis and A. subinermis, Roem.), the caraguata
assu of N. E. Brazil., Marcgrav. & Piso, Brazil, p. Ill,
of this same group.

6. Selloa, Koch. Trunk finally 3-5 ft.: Ivs. spread-
ing, concave and revolute or plicate, rough-backed,
about 3x50 in.; teeth K~/4in. long, !%-!% in.
apart, variously curved: infl. tall, stalked, glabrous;
fls. IK in.; ovary %in.; segm. 1 in.: caps, not known:
freely bulbiferous. Colombia. B.M. 6148. Frequently
meant when the name F. cubensis is used. A handsome
white- or finally yellow-margined plant, frequent in
cult, is F. Selloa marginata, Trel. (F. Lindenii,
Jacobi. F. cubensis Lindenii, Hort. Agave cubensis
striata, etc., Hort.). Wiesner Festschr., p. 350. I.H.
21:186. G.W. 10, p. 212; 11, p. 135; 16, p. 162. G.C.

1306

FURCR^A

FUS^A

III. 23, p. 227 (as F. gigantea) . A form of this, rosy tinged
and without marginal prickles, edentata, Trel., has been
intro. from the Colombian Andes recently by Pittier.

7. Humboldtiana, Trel. (Yucca acaulis, HBK.).
Trunk finally 10 ft. : Ivs. spreading, nearly flat, grayish,
smooth, 5-6 x 60 in. ; teeth Yy-% in. long, usually
divergently twinned from the tops of green prominences,
1-2M in. apart: infl. 25-40 ft., long-stalked; fls. 2-2J^
in.; ovary 5-! in.; segm. 1^-1 Mi in. Venezuela. Ann.
Jard. Buitenzorg. II. suppl. 3:38. Called maguey
de cocui by Humboldt; now commonly known as
cocuiza brava in contrast with an unarmed cult, form,
the cocuiza mansa, which may prove not to differ from
F. inermis, Drum. (F . cubensis inermis, Baker. F.
altissima, Hort. Franceschi) . B.M. 6543. Intermediate

1612. Fussea longifolia.
a, perfect stamen; 6, petal-like staminode; c, fruit.

between this and the next is the cabuya of Cent. Amer.,
F. Cabuya, Trel., which likewise presents armed and
toothless forms. Ann. Jard. Buitenzorg. III. suppl.
3:36, 37.

8. gigantea, Vent. (F. Barillettii, F. fdetida, Agave
fdetida, Linn. A. gigantea, Aloe fdetida, Crantz. Fii-
nium piliferum, Willem.). Nearly trunkless: Ivs.
broadly oblanceolate, nearly flat, undulate, somewhat
roughened beneath, 5-8x60-100 in., entire: infl. 25 ft.,
long-stalked, rather narrow; fls. 1% in., with ovary and
segm. equal: caps, unknown: freely bulbiferous. S. E.
Brazil. DC., PI. Gr. 126, 126a. Redoute, Lil. 476.
B.M. 2250. Perrine, Senate Doc. 300:5. B.H. 10:34.
Indian For. 35:23. Mart., Fl. Bras. 1:44. Ann. Mus.
Marseille. II; 8, p. 125. Squier, Fibre PL, 2. Jacq. Icon.
379. Commelin, Hort. Amst. 2 : 18. The Mediterranean
hemp, Mauritius hemp, taretra, green aloe, or pita,
intro. by way of Madagascar and hence called Mal-
gache aloe. Varies with moderate toothing, var.

Willemetiana, Roem. (F. Commellnii, Agave Com-
melinii, Auct.), the Creole aloe. Ann. Jard. Buiten-
zorg. II. Suppl. 3:35. With broad median creamy
variegation, the unarmed form is var. medio-picta,
Trel. (F. gigantea variegata, Hort. F. variegata, Hort.
F. Watsoniana, Hort.). G.C. III. 23, p. 243. Ann.
Jard. Buitenzorg. II. Suppl. 3:41, 42, 46-8.

9. tuberosa, Ait. (F. interrupta, F. spinosa, Agave
spinosa, A. campanuldta, A. tuberosa, Yucca superba,
Auct.). Nearly trunkless: Ivs. broadly lanceolate,
nearly flat, 8x50-70 in.; teeth usually Xin. long
and M~1M in. apart, sometimes absent toward the
end or below: infl. 25 ft.: caps, unknown: freely bul-
biferous, the bulbels elongated. Cuba and Haiti and,
in somewhat differing forms, in Porto Rico and through
the Lesser Antilles. Rep. Mo. Bot. Gard. 18:1-4.
R.H. 1877, p. 233. Cyclo. Amer. Agric., II. p. 290. Gt.
1852:3. Yearbook Dept. Agric. 1904:31. Ann.
Mus. Firenze. 1:4. Commelin, Hort. Amts. 2:19.
Commonly called silk-grass, sometimes maguey
or cocuiza: apparently the Haitian cabuya of early
writers. With the teeth twinned, as they are sometimes
in F. Selloa and characteristically in F. Humboldti-
ana, it is var. geminispina (F. geminispina, Ait.)

WILLIAM TRELEASE.

FURZE: Ulex, particularly U. europxus.

FUS.5JA (probably from Latin fundo, signifying
melted or fused together, referring to the carpels).
Annonacese. South American trees or shrubs, resem-
bling Annona in the form of fruit, a solid, spheroid syn-
carpium composed of one-ovuled carpels fused together,
but differing from that genus in having its petals
imbricate or overlapping and in the outer circles of its
stamens which are sterile and petaloid. A genus of
very few species. Fusaea longifolia was first described
as Annona longifolia by Aublet. It was afterwards
placed in the genera Duguetia and Aberemoa, from
the last-named of which it was set apart by Baillon
as the type of a subgenus or section Fusaea. In the
genera Duguetia and Aberemoa, however, the carpels
are discrete, or separate, and not fused together; in
the former the indumentum is usually stellate-pubes-
cent or scurfy, and in the latter the carpels are not
only quite distinct but are borne on short pedicels.
From the structural features above mentioned, it is
evident that it .merits generic rank.

longifolia, Safford (Duguetia longifolia, Baill. Annona
longifolia, Aubl.) PINACOUA. CARIB APPLE. Fig. 1612.
A small tree: Ivs. oblong-acuminate, mucronate and
smooth: fls. issuing from near the base of small
branchlets growing from the axils of the If.-scars
of the preceding year, the 2 series of petals much
alike; outer stamens sterile and petaloid: fr. ovate-
globose, resembling a solid ball, its surface reticu-
lated with shallow impressed lines, nearly smooth,
flesh-colored. Guiana. According to Aublet, the fr.
has a good flavor and is eaten with relish by the
Garipon and Galiba (Carib) Indians of French
Guiana. Intro, into Fla. as a fr.-plant, but very
little known. Closely related to this species and
possibly identical with it is the Peruvian F . rhom-
bipetala, Safford (Annona rhombipetala, Ruiz. & Pav.)
with petals clothed on the outside with appressed
sericeous hairs, outer stamens petaloid and connivent
as in F. longifolia, Hin. long, smooth near the base and
minutely puberulent on the outside near the apex;
and obovate-oblong Ivs. with short thick petioles
and sharply acuminate apices, the midrib and lateral
nerves impressed on the upper surface and prominent
beneath, the extremities of the latter connected by a
submarginal nerve almost continuous from the base
to the apex. w. E. SAFFORD.

GAGEA (Sir Thomas Gage, British botanist, died
1820). Liliacese. Seventy-five or more small herbs of
Eu., N. Afr. and east to China and Japan, allied to
Ornithogalum, mostly hardy and sometimes grown in
the open. Fls. white, yellow or rose, few on the top
of the mostly low peduncle or scape: Ivs. radical, mostly
only 1, and sometimes on the st. and represented by
bracts under the umbel: perianth persistent, with dis-
tinct segms.; stamens 6; ovary sessile or short-stipi-
tate, 3-loculed: bulbs small. The gageas require the
cult, of ornithogalums. They appear not to be in the
American trade. G. Liotardii, Schult. f., the gold-star,
is from Eu. and eastward; a well-recommended alpine,
4-6 in. high, with yellow fls., making grassy mats:
radical If. usually 1, fistulose; scape-lvs. 2, one of them
larger and at base convolute.
G. lutea, Ker (G. fascicularis,
Salisb.), the yellow star-of-Beth-
lehem has yellow fls. with backs
of segms. green, opening only in
forenoon: radical If. 1, linear, 6-
18 in. long: scape short, with 1-
3 bracts. Eu. to Himalayas.
B.M. 1200. G. bracteplaris,
Salisb. (G. stenopetala, Reichb.),
is pale yellow: If. 1 at base, lin-
ear-lanceolate and glaucous; st.-
Ivs. opposite, lanceolate, pubes-
cent and fringed. Eu.

L. H. B.

GAILLARDIA (named for M.
Gaillard, a patron of botany in
France). Composite?. Showy- an-
nual and perennial herbs largely
cultivated in borders and flower-
gardens.

Leaves alternate, more or less
toothed, and spotted : fls. in soli-
tary and usually very showy
heads, the rays yellow and red
and always neutral, the disk-fls.
purple and fertile; involucre
broad, the bracts in 2 or 3 series,
hairy; ligules 3-toothed or 3-cleft,
giying a fringed appearance to
the fls. There are 12 species,
all American, mostlv from the
far W.

There are two types of gail r
lardias, the annual forms, which are
derived from G. pulchella and G. amblyo-
don, chiefly from the former; and the
perennials, which issue from G. aristata.
The gaillardias are conspicuous for pro-
fusion and duration of flowers. A constant
succession is produced all summer until
very late into the autumn. Besides their
use as border or bedding plants they are
good for cut-flowers, as they last well in
water. They thrive best in light, open,
well-drained soil, and should have full
sunlight and air. In heavy or wet soils the
plants are often winterkilled. The peren-
nial forms are propagated by division,
seeds or cuttings in August or September;
also by root-cuttings in early spring. They

1613. Gaillardia pulchella var. picta. ( X %)

1614. Gaillardia pulchella,
the form known as G. Loren-
ziana. (XH)

(1307)

usually do not breed true from seed and as better
plants are produced by cuttings it is the most satisfac-
tory method of propagation. G. grandiflora and its
many varieties are garden forms of
G. aristata (see Gt. 49, p. 583. G.
7:499). Some of the more recent in-
troductions have highly colored flow-
ers of extraordinary size, at least 4 to
5 inches in diameter. Another kind
has quilled florets (G. fistulosd) of
which Buffalo Bill is an excellent
example, a large, pure yellow with
a narrow disk. Vivian Grey is also a
remarkable and most distinct form,
with clear yellow fringed rays, and
disk of the same color. More recent
introductions include G. kermesina
splendens with narrow canary-yellow
rays and rich crimson disk, and G.
sulphurea oculata with pale sulfur,
and bright maroon disk-flowers. Other
trade names referable to no botanical
species are G. hybrida grandiflora,
G. Josephus, G. semiplena, and G. Loi-
selii (=pictaLoiselii, H.F. 11.8:329?).

A. Annual gaillardias: fls. normally
mostly red.

amblyodon, Gay. One to 2 ft.,
erect, leafy, hirsute: lys. oblong or
spatulate, sessile and auriculate, entire
or nearly so: lobes (or teeth) of disk-
corollas short and obtuse; rays numer-
ous, brown-red or maroon through-
out their length. Texas. F.S.21:2149.
Somewhat cult, amongst garden
annuals, and worthy.

pulchella, Foug. Erect, branching,
12-20 in., soft-pubescent: Ivs. oblong,
lanceolate or spatulate, rather soft,
nearly sessile, either entire or the
lower ones lyrate-pinnatifid : lobes of
disk-fls. acute or awned; heads 2 in.
across, the flat rays yellow at top and
rose-purple at base. Ark. and La. to
Ariz. B.M. 1602; 3551 (as G. tricolor).

Var. picta, Gray (G. picta, Hort.).
Fig. 1613. The common garden form
under cult., having larger heads and
of various colors. B.M. 3368. R.H.
1852:20. V. 16:181. In one form (G.
fistulosa, G. tubulbsa, G. Lorenziana, Hort.),
the ray-florets and sometimes the disk-
florets are enlarged and tubular. Fig. 1614.
R.H. 1881, p. 377; 1885:156.

AA. Perennial gaillardias: fls. nor-
mally yellow.

aristata, Pursh (G. grandiflora, G. lutea,
G. maxima, and G. perennis, Hort.). Erect,
2-3 ft.: Ivs. rather thick, lanceolate or
oblong, sometimes spatulate, varying from
entire to sinuate pinnatifid : lobes of disk-
corollas acute or awned; heads 3-4 in.
across, the flat rays yellow, or in cult,
varying to red (particularly at the base).
Plains W. B.M. 2940. B.R. 1186. Gng.

1308

GAILLARDIA

GALANTHUS

2:345. Gn. 45, p. 325. A.F. 5:329. This is the com-
mon perennial gaillardia of gardens (cult, under many
names). Blooms the first year from seed. From G.
pulchella it is distinguished by taller growth, firmer lys.,
yellower heads, and less attenuate lobes of the disk-
fls.; but it is practically impossible to distinguish the
two, except that one is annual and the other perennial.

N. TAYLOR, f

GALACTIA (from the Greek, milk; some species
said to yield a milky juice, which is improbable).
Leguminbsse. Prostrate or twining, perennial herbs or
shrubs, mostly of the warm regions of America, only
seldom cultivated.

Plants usually with pinnately 3-9-foliate Ivs., and
axillary, interrupted racemes of perfect, more or less
perigynous fls. : calyx short, 4-lobed, bracted; corolla
papilionaceous; standard broad; stamens 10, diadel-
phous; ovary 1, superior, 1-celled, with many ovules;
style beardless: fr. a linear, straight or slightly curved
legume. Cleistogamous fls. sometimes produced. There
are many species, but of very little horticultural value.
The two following have been advertised in the past
but are probably not now on the market.

regularis, BSP. (G. glabella, Michx.). Lvs. with 3
Ifts. : panicles mainly shorter than the Ivs.: Ifts. ellip-
tical, often notched at the tip, 1-2 in. long, glabrous:
corolla violet-purple. Dry sandy soil, N. Y. to Fla.
and Miss. B.B. 2:335.

Elliottii, Nutt. Lvs. with 7-9 Ifts.: panicles longer
than the Ivs.: Ifts. elliptic-oblong, notched, pubescent
beneath, ^-1 % "? long: corolla white tinged with
red. Dry sandy soil, S. C. to Fla., along the coast.

K. M. WlEGAND.

GALANTHUS (Greek, milk flower). Amaryllidacese.
SNOWDROP. Spring-blooming bulbs (one autumnal),
with solid scapes and solitary nodding white flowers.
Bulb tunicated, small: Ivs. 2-3, strap-shaped: peri-
anth without tube, outer and inner segms. unlike;
stamens 6: fr. a 3-valved caps., more or less fleshy.
Probably a half-dozen species, in Eu. and W. Asia. The
flowers of snowdrops (G. nivalis, Fig. 1615) are amongst
the smallest and daintiest of common hardy cult,
spring-blooming bulbs. They often bloom in early
March, before all the snow has gone. Their pendulous
white fls., with the "heart-shaped seal of green" dear
to Rossetti, hold a unique place in the affections of
lovers of gardens. At first sight the fls. seem to have
3 large white petals, inclosing a green-and-white tube
with 6 tips, but a second glance
shows that the parts that func-
tion as petals are the outer
segms. of the perianth, while the
3 inner ones, with their 2-lobed
tips, are not grown together, but
overlap slightly,
forming a rather
crude but stiffish
tube. Each plant has
a globose coated bulb,
2-3 Ivs., grows 6-9 in.
high, and bears usu-
ally only 1 nodding
fl., which emerges
from a spathe.
Behind the perianth
is the globose green
ovary.

In a congenial
)t, moist, cool and

shady, the plants in-
crease satisfactorily,
1<51 - and sometimes, with-

The snowdrop out an y care what-
Galanthus nivalis. ever, form a bed from
which thousands of

flowers may be picked at what is, perhaps, the most
desolate and wearisome moment of the year. The
leaves are linear and channeled, and in dark, shining
masses make a rich, quiet effect. They come out with
the flowers, attain their full growth later, and com-
monly die down in midsummer or fall. The bulbs are
cheap, and should be ordered in liberal quantities.
Plant in the autumn, as for other hardy bulbs; set 3
to 4 inches deep in mellow soil, and close together.

An era of new interest in snowdrops began about
1875, with the introduction of the "giant" kind (G.
Elwesii, Fig. 1616), but those who do not care for "large
violets" will be likely to cling to the small snowdrops.
Nevertheless, G. Elwesii is very distinct, and should
be the first choice if any large kinds are desired, and to
secure the best forms the connoisseur should buy
imported bulbs of its varieties. The only kinds known
so far to possess a patch of green at the base of the inner
segments are G. Elwesii and G. Fosteri. Considering
that there are only two main types in this genus, G.
nivalis and G. Elwesii, the profusion of Latin names
(especially since 1888, the date of Baker's "Hand-
book of the Amaryllidese") is rather trying, except
to the connoisseur who, unlike the general public, is
chiefly interested in the larger-flowered forms and the
novelties.

There are several types of minor importance. The
autumn-flowering kinds, representing many Latin
names, as G. octobrensis, G. corcyrensis, G. Regime-
Olgse, are usually weak-growing plants. However,
much is hoped from G. cilicicus, especially by the
florists, who have hitherto found no snowdrop that
could be profitably forced for Christmas. Doubleness
seems to add nothing to the beauty of snowdrops. So
far it seems to have affected only the inner segments
of G. nivalis and G. Elwesii. Yellow snowdrops are
also practically unknown in America. In these the
heart-shaped spot and the ovary are yellow instead of
green. Of these, G. flavescens is perhaps one of the
best.

INDEX.

byzantinus, 12. Gotwaldii, 12. octobrinus, 1.

Cassaba, 5. graecus, 6. plicatus, 10.

caucasicus, 4. grandiflorus, 11. poculiformis, 5.

cilicicus, 2. Ikarise. 8. Redoutei, 4.

corcyrensis, 1. Imperati, 3. reflexus, 1.

Elwesii, 5. latifolius, 7. robustus, 5.

Erithrse, 5. maximus, 4, 11. Sharlpckii, 1.

flavescens, 1. nivalis. 1. unguiculatus, 5.

Fosteri, 9. ochrospilus, 5. WhMallii, 5.

globosua, 5. octobrensis, 1.

A. Lvs. merely channeled, not plaited.

B. Width of Ivs. small, 8-4 lines.

c. Base of Ivs. not very narrow.

1. nivalis, Linn. (G. Shdrlockii, Hort.). COMMON
SNOWDROP. Figs. 1615, 1616. Bulb 6712 lines thick:
basal sheath split down one side: Ivs. linear, glaucous,
finally 6-9 in. long: outer perianth -segms. oblong,
6-12 lines long; inner segms. green only at the sinus.
Feb., March. Pyrenees to Caucasus. R.H. 1880, p.
148. G.M. 34:154. G.C. II. 11:237. Gt. 48, p. 232.
There are large-fld. and double forms. Var. corcyrensis
and others flower in Nov. G.W. 2, p. 250. At least 2
varieties have yellow instead of green markings. Var.
flavescens, S. Arn. The markings on the inner segms.
of the perianth and on the ovary are yellow, and the
sts. are more yellow than green. Useful for Alpine gar-
dens. G. 31:149. Var. reflexus has outer segms.
reflexed. G.M. 34:155. Var. octobrensis (var. octo-
brinus, Voss. G. octobrensis, Hort.) . Albania. Known
in cult, as a form blooming in England late in Oct.

cc. Base of Ivs. very narrow.

2. cilicicus, Baker. Less robust than G. Fosteri, with
much narrower Ivs., which are narrowed gradually
from the middle to a very narrow base. Green color
as in G. nivalis. Bulb J^in. thick: Ivs. whitish beneath:

GALANTHUS

1309

outer segms. oblong, 9 lines long, 3-4 lines broad;
stamens more than half as long as the inner segms. Mt.
Taurus, in Cilicia, where it flowers Nov. to March.
Intro, 1898. See G.C. III. 21 : 214. Pictured in G.C. III.
23:79. A.F. 13:1137. Gng. 6:244. F.E. 11:282. Gt.
48, p. 228. Gn. 73, p. 88.

BB. Width of Ivs. medium, 6-9 lines long.

c. Foliage moderately glaucous.
D. Outer segms. of perianth 12-15 lines long.

3. Imperati, Bertol. Lvs. broader than in G. nivalis,
and fls. larger: outer corolla-segms. spatulate, 1-134
in. long. Naples and Genoa. This and G. caucasicus
are regarded by Baker as subspecies of G. nivalis.
G.C. II. 11:237. G.M. 34:155. Gn. 76, p. 119.

DD. Outer segms. 912 lines long.

4. caucasicus, Baker (G. Redoutei, Rupr.). Lvs.
finally 8-9 in. long, mostly 9 lines broad : outer perianth-
segms. oblong-spatulate, with a very narrow claw; fls.
later than G. nivalis. Caucasus. Van Tubergen seems to
catalogue veuc.mdximus of this species, but consult No. 11.

cc. Foliage very glaucous.
D. Inner segms. with lobes rather spreading or crisped.

5. Elwesii, Hook. GIANT SNOWDROP. Fig. 1616.
Bulb larger and fls. more globose than in G. nivalis:
outer segms. oblong-spatulate, 9-15 lines long, 6-9 lines
broad; inner segms. green in the lower half and also
around the sinus. Mountains of Asia Minor. B.M.
6166. R.H. 1880, p. 148. G.C. II. 11:236. G.M.
34:154. Gn. M. 2:117; 12:112. The inner segms. are
narrowed suddenly just below the apical lobes, which
are square and much larger than in G. Fosteri. They
also form a narrower tube than in any other species.
Dealers have advertised vars. Cassaba (A. F. 3:471.
C.L.A. 5:135. Gng. 5:180. Gt. 48, p. 225. Gn. 55,
p. 206), ochrospilus (has pale yellow coloring on the
inner segms.), unguiculatus has a long claw at the tip
of each outer segm. (G.C. III. 17:361), and Erithrae.
Var. globosus has almost globular fls., larger than in
the type, and very broad Ivs. Var. Whittallii (Gn. 57,
p. 45; 59, p. 262) seems to belong here. Var. poculiformis,
a large and robust form with the inner and outer
segms. both pure white. Perhaps not in Amer. and
rare in England. G. robustus, Hort., seems never to
have been accounted for by Baker. It may perhaps be
G. Elwesii var. robustus which is a trade name. It is
broad-lvd and glaucous.

DD. Inner segms. with lobes not spreading or crisped.

6. graecus, Orph. Very near G. Elwesii, but differing
as above and in the smaller fls. and narrower outer
segms., and the very limited distribution of the wild
species. April. Chios.

BBB. Width of Ivs. greatest, 9-12 lines.

c. Green color only near the sinus.
D. Colored on both sides of the inner segms.

7. latifdlius, Rupr. Bulb. 1 in. thick: Ivs. lorate,
bright green: outer segms. oblong-spatulate, 6-9 lines
long; inner segms. green around the sinus, inside and
put; anthers suddenly narrowed to a sharp point, while
in G. nivalis and G. Elwesii they are gradually narrowed.
Caucasus, where it flowers in May. G.C. II. 11:237:
15:404. Gt. 48, p. 229.

DD. Colored on only one side.

8. Ikariae, Baker. Resembles G. Fosteri in foliage,
and G. Elwesii not in coloring but in the square, crisp
lobes of the inner segms. which tend to recurve: outer
segms. nearly 1 in. long; stamens rather shorter than
the inner segms.; green color occupying half the out-
side of the inner segms. Island of Nikaria (the classical
Ikaria). See G.C. III. 13:506. Gn. 52, p. 361: 49,
p. 330. G. 30:153. G.M. 52:146. Intro. 1893.

cc. Green color also on the lower half of the inner segms.

9. Fosteri, Baker. Resembles G. latifolius in foliage
and G. Elwesii in fl., but the apical lobes of the inner
segms. are short and erect, and smaller than in G.
Elwesii; also the stamens are not more than half so
long as the inner segms., while in G. nivalis, G. Elwesii
and G. latifolius they are three-fourths as long. Asia
Minor. Intro. 1889. G.M. 34:154. G. 35:193.

AA. Lvs. plaited, the edges permanently rolled back.
B. Green color only near the sinus.

10. plicatus, Bieb. Bulb larger than in G. nivalis:
Ivs. about 12 in. long, and 1 in. wide, very glaucous:
outer perianth-segms. ob-
long from a very narrow

base, very convex on the
back, 9^12 lines long, wide-
spreading or even reflexed;
inner segms. green in the
upper half, with a white
edge. March, April.
Crimea. This is much
confounded with G. cauca-
sicus. G.C. II. 11:236.
B.R. 545. B.M. 2162. G.
M. 34:155.

1616. Galanthus nivalis and G. Elwesii. The upper flowers are
G. nivalis; the lowest one is G. Elwesii; the middle flowers are a
variety of G. Elwesii.

11. grandiflSrus, Baker (G. mdximus, Baker, not
Velenovsky). Possibly a hybrid between G. plicatus
and some form of G. nivalis, remarkable for its robust
habit and green color, extending more than half way
down toward the base of the inner segms. Intro.
1893. See G.C. III. 13:354, 656. See also G. caucasicus
var. maximus, No. 4.

BB. Green color also on the lower half of the inner segms.

12. byzantinus, Baker (G. Gotwaldii, Hort.).
Intermediate between G. plicatus and G. Elwesii. "Lvs.
3 in. broad," which seems hardly possible, glaucous on
both sides, especially beneath; margins distinctly and
permanently recurved: outer segms. oblong, convex
on back, 9 lines long, 4 lines broad, apical lobes some-
what reflexed and crisped; stamens much shorter than
inner segms. Intro. 1893. See G. C. III. 13:226.

G. Attenii, Baker, has cone-shaped fls., pure white, but the petals
"crimped into a distinctly large, horseshoe-like patch of green just
below the wavy fold of the tips." Gn. 67, p. 53. G. Atkinsii,
Hort. Two plants seem to be cult, under this name, according to
S. Arn., one a pure white one, the other frequently has an addi-
tional perianth-segm., also misshapen blooms. Both are scarcely
known outside of England. Gn. 74, p. 154. By some supposed to
be a form of G. nivalis. G. Olgse, Orph. Outer segms. about 1 in.
long; inner ones half as long, plaiiL white, with rounded lobes.
Blooms in Oct. Greece. G. Reginx-Olgse, Hort.=G. Olgse.

WILHELM MILLER.

N. TAYLOR.f

1310

GALAX

GALAX (from the Greek meaning milk; applica-
tion obscure). Diapensiacese. One acaulescent plant,
much prized for its stiff bronzy root-leaves.

Calyx imbricated, persistent; petals 5, hypogynous,
oblong-spatulate, entire, adnate to the base of the
monadelphous stamens; the stamen-tube 10-toothed,
the 5 teeth alternating with the petals antheriferous,
the others petaloid; anthers transversely dehiscent;
pistil 1; ovary superior, 3-celled, many-ovuled; style
ehort: fr. a loculicidal, 3-valved caps.; seeds with a

1617. Galax aphylla.

loose cellular testa. This genus contains but a single
species. It belongs to a small family which was much
more extensive in past geologic times, but is now on the
way to extinction. A large industry has arisen in
recent years consisting in the marketing of immense
quantities of galax lys. for decorative purposes, espe-
cially at Christmas time; but the Ivs. are also used at
other times in wreaths and bouquets. The bronzy
autumn coloration of the Ivs. adds to their attractive-
ness. They are collected in the mountains of N. C. and
Va. The plants are grown also in rockeries. It is
recommended to plant in rockeries with northern
exposure, shade, and some moisture. Prop, by division,
aphylla, Linn. (Blandfordia cordata, Andr.). GALAX.
Fig. 1617. Evergreen, perennial herbs: rootstock thick,
matted, creeping: Ivs. basal, tufted, round-heart-shaped,
with narrow sinus, crenate, shining, conspicuously pal-
mately netted-veined, 1-3 in. broad, on long slender
petioles: scape 1-2 J^ ft. high; spike-like raceme dense,
2-5 in. long; fls. small, white, lJ^-2 lines broad. In dry
woods chiefly in the mountains, Va. to Ga., and along
the coast, Va. to N. C. B.M. 754. G.F. 5:605 (adapted
in Fig. 1617). G.M. 44:223. Gn. 59, p. 187. Called
also colts-foot or beetle-weed. j. M. WIEGAND.

Galax leaves were used for decorative purposes in a
commercial way only as far back as 1890, when they
were introduced to the northern florist trade by the
writer, who had experimented with them for several
years before that date, sending to hospitals and indi-
viduals. The reports received fully justified the intro-

ducer in advertising the leaf widely as a florist's deco-
rative material for making up wreaths, crosses, and in
fact all designs for which ivy leaves up to that time
had been employed almost exclusively. Today galax
leaves have to a great extent taken the place of ivy
leaves, being less expensive, more easily handled and
kept, and furnishing long wiry stems. The brilliant
bronze leaves supply a color long needed in this class of
work. The sizes also of the leaves vary from J/2 inch or
less to 5 inches diameter, again making their uses very
varied. Small green galax leaves are now used exten-
sively for bunching with violets, taking the place of the
violet leaves. One of the features of the holiday season
in Boston is the fakir with his stand of violets bunched
with green galax. They come in again and are used the
same way at the first touch of spring, when the early
trailing arbutus or "mayflower" appears on the street.
They can be arranged to cover much more space than
the ivy leaves, and do not have to be wired, as is the
case with the latter. The keeping qualities of galax are
remarkable, and they are now used the year round from
cold storage. Outdoor designs, as in cemeteries, will
keep fresh and bright for months if not dried out, but
otherwise require no care. A favorite arrangement of
galax leaves is to place them loosely in a small vase,
where they will retain their bright colors and shape for
weeks, even in a close warm room, though most of the
leaves are used, commonly with flowers, in designs
made up by the florist. As a Christmas decoration
they stand preeminent, and their general good quali-
ties mentioned above cause them to be used through-
out the year, more, perhaps, than any other decorative
green, ferns possibly excepted.

In Philadelphia, some time ago, an enterprising
young woman introduced a novel and taking innova-
tion in the shape of potted galax plants for society din-
ners. Small, brilliantly colored green and bronze
leaves were arranged in tiny pots, specially designed
by Messrs. Sackett & Company, and placed at each
plate, to be carried away by the guests as souvenirs.
They were also sold through one of Philadelphia's
leading merchants by thousands.

The larger cities, Boston, New York, Philadelphia
and Chicago, use the largest quantities, though many of
these are retailed again to smaller cities and towns all
over the United States and Canada, and there is a large
export trade now established in them, mostly to Ger-
many and the Netherlands.

The area over which galax is collected extends from
Virginia to Georgia, and is so vast that there is no dan-
ger of exterminating the plant by collecting the leaves,
even if they were injured thereby, which does not seem
to be the case. It is not practicable to grow the plants
for the harvest of leaves, at least in America, the pro-
cess being too expensive. Under cultivation they would
perhaps not average one perfect salable leaf to a plant,
as a speck or wormhole renders the leaf unfit for deco-
rative purposes. In Europe galax has been tried with
varying success under glass, the leaves bringing a very
high price.

Galax aphylla is a beautiful ground-covering plant,
specially adapted to the rhododendron border, where
the soil and situation alike are suitable to its growth;
it delights in shade and a cool, moist, peaty loam. Its
charms are far better known in England, however, than
at home. The leaves, when full grown, are always
bright green, the brilliant bronze shades appearing
later when the plant ripens and the frosts begin. Then
when they are exposed to the direct rays of the sun the
alternating freezing and sun action cause the leaves to
turn in a short time, though sometimes this occurs to an
extent before any freezing weather, when the sap starts
downward. In dense shade they always remain green.
In spring, when the sap begins to start, the leaves often
turn green or dingy again, and eventually die down the
second season. HARLAN P. KELSEY.

GALBANUM

GALIUM

1311

GALBANUM: Gums and Resins.

GALEANDRA (Greek for helmet and stamen). Orchid-
acese, tribe Vdndeas. Deciduous epiphytes, to be grown
under warmhouse conditions.

Plants with jointed thickened sts.: Ivs. distichous,
membranaceous : labellum inf undibuliform ; sepals and
petals equal, spreading; column erect, winged; pollinia
2. Six species in Trop. Amer. Cult, as for Eulophia.

Devoniana, Lindl. St. erect: Ivs. linear-
lanceolate, sheathing at base : sepals and petals
lanceolate, reddish brown, with green margins;
labellum whitish, veined in front with crim-
son. From the banks of the Rio Negro. B.M.
4610. I.H. 21:176. A.F. 6:609. J.F. 2:195.
V.0.9:8.

Baueri, Lindl. Sts. subcylindric, nearly
fusiform: Ivs. lanceolate: racemes terminal,
drooping; fls. large; sepals and petals similar,
lanceolate, yellowish; labellum pale yellow in
the throat, interior portion purplish. Mex., S.
B.R. 26:49. P.M. 14:49.

D'Escagnolleana, Reichb. f. Sts. terete,
tapering both ways: Ivs. lanceolate, pointed:
racemes terminal and drooping; sepals and
petals similar, ascending, narrow, yellowish;
lip funnelform or nearly bell-form, fluted,
with a rose-purple blotch on the lower limb.
Brazil. I.H. 34:22 (1887).

G. nimlis. Mast. Racemes short, few-fld., fls. about
2 in. across; sepals and petals light olive-green, the
funnel-like lip white with a purple blotch. Trop. Amer.
V.O. 9:9. G.W. 14, p. 307. Q AKES AMES

GEORGE V. NAsn.f

GALEDUPA: Pongamia.

GALEGA (Greek, gala, milk: supposed to
increase the flow of milk). Leguminosse.
Bushy perennials not very commonly cultivated in
America.

Of 120 names of species in this genus, only 6 are now
retained, most of the others being referred to Tephrosia.
The plants mentioned below are hardy herbaceous
perennials of the easiest cult., about 3 ft. high, with odd-
pinnate Ivs. and pea-shaped fls. of purplish blue or
white. They do not require frequent division, make
bushy plants, and bear in July and Aug. many dense,
axillary and terminal racemes of fls., which are useful
for cutting. Seeds of goat's rue are still offered abroad
among miscellaneous agricultural seeds, but the plants
are little known in this country. They are native in
S. Eu. and W. Asia.

A. Lfts. lanceolate: stipules broadly lanceolate.
officinalis, Linn. GOAT'S RUE. Fig. 1618. Height
2-3 ft.: Ifts. mucronate: fls. purplish blue. Eu., W.
Asia. G.M. 49:57. Var. alba or albiflora is commoner
in cult. Gn. 50, p. 269. G.L. 22:294. J.H. III.
48:557. Var. Hartlandii, Hort., has large spikes
of lilac fls. and the young foliage variegated. A.F.
22:695. A rose-colored variety is sold as var. carnea,
Hort., which is also known in a double-fld. form; a
dwarf, compact, lilac-fld. variety sold under the name
var. compacta, is also known.

AA. Lfts. lanceolate: stipules broadly ovate.
orientalis, Lam. Foliage and stipules larger: fls. pur-
plish blue, nodding: pods pendulous. Caucasus. B.M.
2192. Gn. W. 23:147. B.R. 326. Height 2^-4 ft.:
rootstock creeping: st. simple. N. TAYLOR.!

GALEOBDOLON: Lamium.

GALEOPSIS (weasel-like, from some fancied resem-
blance). Labiatse. HEMP NETTLE. Several weedy
European plants, some of them naturalized in this
country, rarely cult, in gardens. Annuals, of spreading

1618. Galega officinalis.

habit, opposite Ivs. that are dentate or entire, and red,
yellowish or variegated fls. in whorls toward the top of
the st. : calyx with 5 nearly equal teeth; corolla widened
in the throat, bearing an entire arched upper lip and a
palate with 2 teeth. G. Ladanum, Linn., is canescent,
with very narrow, nearly or quite entire Ivs. : fls. rose-
red or red, sometimes spotted yellow: 8-12 in.: there
are forms with broader Ivs. and also narrow Ivs., and
otherwise variable. G. versico-
lor, Curt., has hispid sts., ovate
coarsely toothed Ivs., and large
yellowish fls. with purple spot
on lower lip: by some con-
sidered to be a form of the
next with larger yellow-and-
purple fls. and an arched rather
than flat upper lip. G. Tetfahit,
Linn., is bristly-hairy with st.
swollen beneath the joints,
erect: Ivs. ovate, toothed: fls.
purplish or white or parti-
colored. L. H. B.

GALEORCHIS (in reference
to the hood-like organ formed
of the united sepals). Orchi-
ddceae. Orchids with fleshy roots :
st. scape-like, with 2 basal Ivs. :
fls. in a short, loose spike, ex-
ceeded by the large
bracts; sepals united,
forming a hood; petals
connivent; lip entire,
spurred; column short;
pollinia granulose, 1
mas in each sac, tailed.
^spect&bilis, Rydb.
(Orchis spectdbilis,
Linn.). SHOWY ORCHIS. St. up to 1 ft. tall, 5-angled:
spike 3-6-fld.; fls. violet-purple, variegated with lighter
purple and white. N.E.N.Amer. GEORGE V. NASH.

GALIUM (Galion was the name of a plant men-
tioned by Dioscorides as used in curdling milk. G.
verum is locally used abroad for this purpose). Rubia-
cese. BEDSTRAW or LADIES' BEDSTRAW, so-called because
of the legend that one of these plants was in the hay
on which the mother of Christ rested. Mostly weak or
slender herbaceous plants with square, often barbed
stems, and whorled leaves.

Flowers very small, perfect, epigynous; calyx almost
or quite obsolete; corolla gamopetalous, rotate, deeply
4-parted; divisions in our species acute or acuminate;
stamens 4; ovary inferior, 2-celled, forming a 2-lobed,
2-seeded, dry, indehiscent fr.; the lobes nearly globular.
About 220 species in various parts of the world.
Noted for the recurved-scabrous sts. of many species,
mathematical habit due to the whorled Ivs., and the
fine fluffy fls. The profuse-flowering species noted
below are often used in rockeries and flower-beds for
the regular but soft and filmy effect, which is similar
to that of gypsophila. As cut-fls., they are used to
lighten the effect of heavier fls.

A. F Is. yellow.

verum, Linn. YELLOW BEDSTRAW. Perennial from
a somewhat woody base: sts. erect, smooth, tufted,
1-3 ft. high: Ivs. in 8's or 6's, linear, %-l in. long;
apex bristle-tipped: panicle ample, its lower branches
exceeding the Ivs. Eu., now also a weed in fields in
the E. U. S. A very good plant for rockeries and banks.

AA. Fls. white.
B. Lvs. in 4's, lanceolate, several-nerved.

boreale, Linn. NORTHERN BEDSTRAW. Perennial,
stoloniferous, forming patches: sts. smooth, 1-3 ft.

1312

GALIUM

GARCINIA

high, erect, strict: Ivs. %-\% in. long; apex not bristle-
tipped: panicle ample: fr. usually minutely bristly.
Rocky soil, Que. to Alaska and south to Pa. and Colo.
Useful in rockeries and flower-beds.

BB. Lvs. in 8's or 6's, oblanceolate to linear.
Molltlgo, Linn. WILD MADDER. WHITE or GREAT
HEDGE BEDSTRAW. Perennial, smooth: sts. erect or
diffuse, 1-3 ft. high, mostly in clumps: Ivs. ^-1 in.
long, bristle-tipped, 1 -nerved : panicle ample: fr. smooth.
Eu., but a weed in fields in the eastern states. This
plant is known in some places as "baby's breath," but
this name is properly given to gypsophila.

K. M. WlEGAND.

GALPHIMIA (anagram of Malpighia). Malpighia-
cese. Woody plants, sparingly introduced in Florida
and southern California.

Shrubs or subshrubs: Ivs. opposite, small, slightly
glaucous on both sides or beneath, entire or obscurely
toothed, glandular at the margin or base of blade or at
the tip of the If .-stalk: clusters terminal; fls. yellow or
reddish; calyx without glands; petals toothed, clawed,
spreading: fr. a 3-parted caps., not winged. Species
15 or more, from S. Texas to Brazil, largely Mexican.
Little known as cult, plants, although a few species
have been mentioned in hort. literature abroad, and
the two following are listed in Calif. G. brasiliensis,
A. Juss. Shrub: Ivs. ovate or lanceolate, about 1 in.
long, reddish, glabrous, glaucous beneath: fls. small,
yellow, in short lax panicles, said to be bright in winter
in Calif.; pedicels jointed at base; petals ovate-lanceo-
late, obtuse, scarcely twice longer than calyx. Brazil.
G. hirsuta, Cav. Shrub: Ivs. bright green, ovate,
acute, twice larger than in preceding, hairy both sides:
fls. larger, in longer panicles, yellow. Mex.,
where it is known as "ramo de oro." G. nitida,
cult, in Fla., is apparently G. glauca, Cav.
(Thrydttis glaiica, Kuntze), native from Mex. to
Panama and naturalized in the W. Indies. See
Thryallis, with which Galphimia is combined by
recent students. L. H. B.

GALTONIA (after Sir Francis Galton, the dis-
tinguished author and anthropologist, 1822-1911).
Liliacex. GIANT SUMMER HYACINTH. Large and
handsome Cape bulbs, of three species, one of them
being cultivated in the open for summer bloom.

Scape or peduncle, 2-4 ft. high, from a tuni-
cated bulb: Ivs. long and large, more or less
fleshy, all from the crown: fls. white or tinged
green, large, in an open raceme,; perianth-tube
short, oblong or club-shaped; stamens 6, with
linear-oblong versatile anthers: fr. an oblong 3-
valved caps., containing many angled black
seeds. The genus differs from Hyacinthus mainly
by its more numerous and
flattened crowded seeds.
The other 2 species are
inferior to the following,
which was intro. by Leicht-
lin in the early seventies
of last century, and now
holds a permanent place in
horticulture. The plants
prefer a rich, open, moist
soil.

candicans, Decne.
( Hyadnthus cdndicans,
Baker). Fig. 1619. Bulb
large, round, coated: Ivs.
4-6, lorate-lanceolate, 2^
ft. long: scape often 4 ft.
high; racemes 20-30-fld.;
fls. fragrant, pure white,
1-1 J^ in. long, the tube
oblong; stamens about

1619. Summer hyacinth,
Galtonia candicans.

Kin. long, inserted high in the tube. F.S. 21:2173.
G.C. 1871 : 380, desc. ; 1872 : 1099 ; II. 15 : 273. G. 28 : 687.
Gn. 62, p. 361; 64, p. 158; 69, p. 163. J.H. III. 45:262;
47:583. R.H. 1882, p. 32. P.G. 3:101. A.G. 17:281.
The plants should be heavily mulched if left put-
doors where winters are severe. In favored localities
the bulbs may be left for several years with increas-
ingly better results. Large clumps are desirable.

G. clavdta, Baker. Bulb ovoid, 3-4 in. diam.: Ivs. 6-8, soft,
2-2% ft. long, with whitish margin: scape 2 ft., bearing a lax
raceme; fls. with a clavate tube which is 1 in. long and which is
twice as long as the segms. B.M. 6885. G. prlnceps, Decne.
Much like G. candicans, but fls. fewer and raceme shorter:
stamens inserted below middle of tube. y TI fi +

GAMOGYNE (name refers to the united ovaries).
Aracese. Two erect small herbs from the Malaysian
region, bearing attractive colored inclined spathes: Ivs.
narrow, thickish, tapering into petiole : spadix included
in the spathe: fls. apetalous; anthers truncate; ovaries
united. G. pulchra, N. E. Br. Peduncles erect, terete,
reddish brown, about 6 in. long: spathe bright crimson,
about 1 % in. long, spreading or almost nodding, closed
except at top: stigmas red: spadix with neuter organs
at base. B.M. 8330. G. Burbidgei, N. E. Br. Spathe
less brightly colored: stigmas greenish yellow: spadix
with neuter organs between the male and female parts.

GAMOLEPIS (Greek for united scales; referring to
the involucre). Composite. Flower-garden plants.

Leaves alternate and mostly pinnatisect: peduncles
1-headed, the heads bearing 1 series of yellow, pistillate
rays, the disk-fls. perfect: achenes without pappus,
wingless and glabrous. About a dozen S. African
herbs or small shrubs, somewhat allied botanically to
Chrysanthemum .

Tagetes, DC. (G. dnmia, Less.). Fig. 1620. An-
nual, of wiry growth, a foot or less high, much
branched and very floriferous: Ivs. pinnate or pin-
nately parted, 5-7 lobes or Ifts. on either side of the
rachis and Ifts. entire or lobed: involucre nearly or
quite urn-shaped, the scales joined more than half
then* length; fls.-heads bright yellow or orange,
%hi. across. R.H. 1896, p. 412. Gn. 25, p. 407 (both
as G. Tagetes). Hardy or half-hardy. Of easiest
cult, from seeds in sunny places, and most excellent
for ribbon borders and for low mass effects. Con-
tinuous bloomer. , jj 3.

GARClNIA (Laurence Garcin, who lived and col-
lected in India, and wrote in the eighteenth cen-
tury). Guttiferae. This genus includes the mango-
steen, which is declared by some connoisseurs to
be one of the most luscious of all tropical fruits;
also the gamboge tree, whose resinous juice yields
a well-known pigment and purgative.

Garcinia is a polymorphous genus of upward
of 150 species in the tropics of Asia, Africa and
Polynesia. The species are glabrous trees, usually
with a yellow juice: Ivs. evergreen, opposite or ter-
nate, simple, often thick:
fls. solitary or fascicled,
polygamous or dioecious;
sepals and petals 4; sta-
mens in .male fl. many,
2- or 3-delphous; female
fls. with staminodia; ovary
2- to many-celled, with
sessile stigma and solitary
ovule in each cell. The
mangosteen is cultivated
in the West Indies; the
gamboge tree is also cult,
in S. Fla.; it is a broad-
leaved tree of slow growth.
The mangosteen is about
the size and shape of an

GARDEN CITIES

1313

orange, with a rind of similar thickness and edible
segments of form and arrangement like those of an
orange. It is brilliantly colored outside with rich pur-
ple. The flavor is said to suggest something between
a grape and a peach. Numberless efforts are said to
have been made to naturalize this tree in the tropics
without success. The successful ripening of this fruit
under glass may be regarded
as an achievement. See
Mangosieen.

Mangostana, Linn. MAN-
GOSTEEN. Height 20-30 ft.:
Ivs. 7-10 in. long, elliptic-
oblong, acuminate, leathery,
nerves horizontal and very
numerous: fls. (male) IK in.
diam., purple or yellow-red,
in few-fld. terminal fascicles;
sepals orbicular, and petals
broad-ovate and fleshy: fr.
about 2% i n - diam., dark
purple with large flat seeds.
Malay region. B.M.4847. L.
B.C. 9:845. F.S. 22:2359.
G.C. II. 4:657. G.W. 3, p. 8.

Morella, Desr. GAMBOGE
TREE. Height 30-50 ft. : Ivs.
more tapering at both ends,
4-6 in. long, the veins indis-
tinct: fls. yellowish, male fls.
about 3 in the axils, the
sepals very small; female fls. 1620- Gamole pi s

larger, solitary, the stammodes Tagetes. A good yel-
about 12: fr. resembling a low-fld. composite
Morello cherry in size, slightly for edgings. (X%)
4-lobed. Bengal to Siam.
L. H. B.f

GARDEN and GARDENING. The word garden
etymologically means an inclosed space, and garden-
ing is historically distinguished from agriculture by
being within an inclosure of some kind instead of in
the open fields. Gardening operations are usually
conducted on a smaller scale than those of agriculture
and by more intensive methods. Gardening and horti-
culture are really synonymous terms, but, by usage, a
horticulturist is supposed to have a more extended
training and wider range of activities than a gardener.
Moreover, the word gardening now suggests more of
the private, homelike and personal point of view,
whereas the most distinctive feature of American hor-
ticulture is the immense commercial importance of
fruit-growing on a large scale, and a marked emphasis
of the professional side of a fruit-grower's work; and
in later years, it is marked also by the very extensive
vegetable-gardening and floricultural development.
The history and discussion of gardening are, therefore,
set forth in this book under Horticulture. Large private
places are often divided into fruit-garden, kitchen-
garden and flower-garden. Fruit-growing (which see) is
the same as pomology. Kitchen-gardening, in its widest
sense, is the same as vegetable-gardening (which see), or
the more learned word, olericulture; but the expression
kitchen-gardening is now less common, and usually
indicates the private and uncommercial point of view,
whereas market-gardening and truck-gardening (which
are practically the same) are now the chief words
used for the wholesale and commercial side of vege-
table-gardening in the United States. Flower-gar-
dening, a third primary division of gardening, is the
same as floriculture (which see). Under ornamental
gardening and landscape gardening are explained the
two different points of view in the use of plants and
flowers for their own separate values or when grouped
for artistic effects, the nature-like or picturesque con-
ception being set forth under landscape gardening, and

the artificial or merely decorative styles under orna-
mental gardening.

It is customary to speak of gardening as the amateur
and personal practice of horticulture. One makes a
garden. One derives from the garden not only the
plants and products that may be harvested, but also
the satisfactions in plant-growing, the reaction to forms,
fragrances and colors, and the
gain of close contact with the
out-of-doors. The first garden
that one may have should be
personal, for his own growth
and development. Naturally,
this will be in some personal or
retired part of the grounds. In
recent years, however, there has
been a marked socialization of
gardening, making it a contribu-
tion to public cleanliness and
beauty and a means of educating
the people. In America, this ap-
plication of the gardening spirit
to civic improvement has been
very marked, as evidenced in
the taking away of fences be-
tween adjoining properties and
the development of a street as a
unit. This is a great gain to
public spirit and to social feel-
ing; but this in no way interferes
with the personal garden for the

sheer love of it, to be grown in a place all one's own.
Persons desiring to find advice on specific gardening
matters, should refer to the different genera under their
respective heads; also to the articles under Landscape
Gardening, and to such cultural entries as Alpine
Plants, Annuals, Arboriculture, Autumn Gardening,
Banks, Bedding, Biennials, Border, Bulbs, Evergreens,
Ferns, Herbary, House-plants, Orchids, Palms, Peren-
nials, Rock-Gardening, Shrubbery, Spring-Gardening,
Subtropical Gardening, Succulents, Vegetable-Garden-
ing, Wall-Gardening, Water-Gardening, Kitchen-Garden,
Wild-Garden, and others. L. H. B.

GARDEN CITIES. Instead of being a community
in which gardens are the dominant feature, the garden-
city form of urban dwelling-place implies primarily
an industrial town of limited size and of definitely
advanced economic ideals. While there were in Eng-
land, where the idea originated, several prior develop-
ments, the example which has best typified the aims
and practicability of the garden city is that sometimes
known as Letchworth, but actually named Garden
City, in Hertfordshire, about thirty-five miles from
London. The genesis of this enterprise appears to
have been in the reception given to a little book
entitled "To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform,"
issued in 1898, and written by Ebenezer Howard, then
a London stenographer. The stated purpose was "to
organize a migratory movement of population from
our over-crowded centers to sparsely settled rural com-
munities." In detail, Howard proposed "to find for
our industrial population work at wages of higher pur-
chasing power, and to secure healthier surroundings
and more regular employment. To enterprising manu-
facturies, cooperative societies, architects, engineers,
builders and mechanicians of all kinds, as well as to
many engaged in various professions, it is intended to
offer a means of securing new and better employment
for their capital and talents, while to agriculturists it
is designed to open a new market for their produce
close to their doors. Its object is, in short, to raise
the standard of health and comfort of all true workers
of whatever grade, the means by which these objects
are to be achieved being a healthy, natural and eco-
nomic combination of town and country life, and this

1314

GARDEN CITIES

GARDENIA

on land owned by the municipality." It will be observed
that this is not a proprietory enterprise.

Howard considered that people aggregated them-
selves into the cities because of the "attractions" there,
of various kinds. In the nature of the case, certain
magnets attract to the town or city, and certain other
magnets attract to the country. He would combine
these magnets into a town-country habitation. He
expressed the idea in a chart, Fig. 1621.

The reception given to this idea was so favorable that
in 1902 a corporation was organized "to promote and
further the distribution of the industrial population
upon the land upon the lines suggested in Ebenezer
Howard's book," which in 1904 began operations. It
is interesting to note that among the subscribers to
this company's stock were George Cadbury and Sir

THE

THREE MAGNETS.

jfjgjjj

WHEBI YOU. THEY Go?

TOWN-COUNTRY.*--

1621. The three magnets that Mr. Howard considers to be the
attractions for the people.

W. H. Lever, both of whom had previously established
with success industrial villages upon a proprietary
plan Bournville and Port Sunlight.

While it is not the province of this sketch to discuss
in detail the sociological features either of Garden
City in England, or of its German prototype at Hel-
lerau, near to and dependent upon the great German
enterprise of the Krupps at Essen, it is proper to report
the steady growth of the Letchworth scheme (so called
because of the name of the largest estate purchased for
establishing the Garden City), and to note the removal
thither of several large industries, of which it is said
that "printing, book-binding and various branches of
engineering are the chief industries, and there are at
least a dozen others." Garden City had, in 1912,
eight years from its beginning, a population of 7,912,
scattered comfortably and working happily in 1,761
buildings in the developed part of its 4,500 acres, and
the effect of living eight years in its designed whole-
someness had been to give it a death rate of eight in
the thousand, as compared with 14.1 for the larger
English communities from which it drew its inhabitants
and its industries. It is quite within the scope of this
book to register the sober conclusion of the Royal Com-
mission on Canals and Inland Navigation (England),

in 1909, that "If industries are widely distributed,
workers can have better houses at lower rents, can
breathe less vitiated air, and they and their families
can in many cases combine with factory work the
healthy and profitable work of small agricultural
production."

"The gardens of Garden City are ... the small
individual gardens of its houses and cottages. . . .
The garden is inevitable in Garden City. . . . You
will not find a house without one a real practical
garden. . . . The majority keep their gardens
well. . . . Most of the residences are detached, with
gardens all around them." Such are comments on
this feature of the successful Garden City found in a
book on the enterprise, itself an evidence of the qual-
ity of the printing product of the community. (The
Garden City, by C. B. Purdom; "printed in
the Garden City at the Temple Press and pub-
lished by J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., London,
1913.")

In addition to the prevalence of gardens, this
industrial community enjoys other features not
usual in hit-or-miss development. The houses
in Garden City are not in blocks or "rows,"
are not monotonously similar, include careful
provision for health and cleanliness, and range
in cost from $1,000 to more than $10,000.
There are many outdoor recreational facilities,
and a strong community spirit helps to provide
entertainment and amusement. The town plan
takes account of the contour of the land, and
the houses of whatever character are touched
or approached by the green of vine or tree or
plant.

In the United States there are as yet no
garden cities so thoughtfully designed and so
capably worked out. There is a "Garden City"
near New York, but it is merely a well-handled
real estate promotion enterprise. Pullman
near Chicago, was an attempt at mitigating the
rigors of the congested city, and Gary, in
Indiana, is a later and slightly more advanced
industrial town. Neither approximates the
efficiency of the English example. There are
building in northern Michigan several indus-
trial towns in which there is both planting and
the retention of some native growth, but these
are proprietary enterprises, and not cooperative
as is the Letchworth Garden City.

It is certain that there will come into exis-
tence many more communities of the type of
Garden City, because it is coming to be generally
known that the influences of the garden and of wider
living areas upon an industrial population are economi-
cally favorable and tend to contentment, permanence
and prosperity, especially if intoxicating liquors are
either kept out or are made available only under sharp
restraint. j. HORACE MCFARLAND.

GARDENIA (after Alexander Garden, M.D., of
Charleston, S. C., a correspondent of Linnaeus). Rubi-
acese. Shrubs or rarely small trees, sometimes nearly
or quite evergreen, some of which are planted South
and one yields popular flowers for cutting.

Plants glabrous or pubescent or even tomentose:
Ivs. opposite or in 3's, with interpetiolar stipules: fls.
large, axillary and solitary or sometimes corymbose,
yellow or white; calyx-tube ovoid or obconic; corolla
salver-shaped or tubular, the tube much exceeding the
calyx, the limb with 5-9 spreading or recurved con-
torted lobes; stamens .5-9, on the corolla- throat. Spe-
cies about 60, in subtropical regions of the eastern
hemisphere. See Randia for related plants.

Gardenia includes the Cape jasmine, a tender shrub
2 to 6 feet high, with thick, evergreen foliage and
large double, waxy camellia-like, fragrant flowers. It

GARDENIA

1315

blooms from May to September in the South, where it
is often used for hedges, and is hardy as far north as
Virginia. In the middle of last century the Cape
jasmine was considered one of the finest stove shrubs
in cultivation, but with the waning popularity of camel-
lias the doom of the Cape jasmine as a conservatory
plant was sealed. The camellia has a greater range of
color, and has had hundreds of varieties, while its
scented rival has had barely a dozen. The flowers of
the Cape jasmine have never been so perfectly regular
as those of a camellia, and the plants are very subject to
insect enemies. Their bloom is successional rather than
close, and large plants are therefore not so showy as
camellias. They are considerably grown abroad for
cut-flowers in early spring, young plants a season or
two old being used for best results. The variety with
variegated foliage is dwarfer and weaker-growing. The
true botanical name of the Cape jasmine is G. jasmin-
aides, a name almost never used in the trade. "Cape
jasmine" itself is one of the most remarkable cases of
the vitality of an erroneous popular name. The single-
flowered form was introduced much later than the
double, and has always been less popular. The earliest
picture of a living plant with single flowers was pub-
lished in 1820 in B. R. 449. Cape jasmines are also
handled by importers of Japanese plants, who some-
times offer seeds also. G. lucida was probably intro-
duced by Reasoner, and G. Rothmannia by Franceschi,
who reports that it is probably not now (1914) in
cultivation. For the true jasmines (which belong to
the olive family, and are often trailing plants), see
Jasminum.

Culture. The Cape jasmine of today, Gardenia
Veitchii, was introduced by the well-known English
firm of Jas. Veitch & Son. This new variety has ful-
filled the long-desired want, because it is really a winter-
flowering variety, while the old species Gardenia jas-
minoides or G. fiorida could not be made to flower
during the early and midwinter when actually most
valuable, hence the almost total abandonment of that
old variety for cut-flower purposes. This new type
has become one of the most popular florist flowers,
although it is one of the most difficult plants to handle.
The young plants are raised from cuttings in the early
winter. Care must be taken to propagate only from
thoroughly healthy plants. Three- to four-eye cuttings
should be put into clean, sharp sand with a minimum
bottom heat of 70 and a maximum of 85. The atmo-
sphere should be rather close in the propagating-house
until after the cuttings begin to root, then some air
should be admitted. The cutting-bench must be kept
shaded from the sun and frequent syringing is absolutely
necessary. When fully rooted in the sand, they are
potted into 2-inch pots in well-prepared soil of four
parts decomposed sod loam, one part of well-rotted old
cow-manure and one part sand. The soil should be
well screened. Potting firmly is essential, and not too
much room should be left for water. A gentle bottom
heat for these young plants is highly beneficial. When
the sun begins to get higher and the days lengthen, a
little fresh air during the middle of the day is invigora-
ting for the young plants, but the night temperature
should never go below 65. The plants must be kept
growing constantly and should be repotted as soon as
they have filled their pots with roots. The months of
May and June are the best time to plant gardenias
into benches or solid beds. The best soil has been
found to be well-rotted turf or sod, a pliable loam and
well-rotted cow-manure well mixed, three parts of
loam to one of manure. Should the soil be rather
stiff or of a heavy texture, a portion of sand may be
added. The benches should be 4 to 5 inches deep and
have sufficient openings or cracks for drainage. Where
very thin turf or sod can be had, the bench should be
lined with this, or if not practicable, then a layer of
sphagnum moss so as to cover the bottom of the

bench. On top of this, a liberal sprinkling of pieces
of charcoal will tend to keep the soil sweet. A small
quantity of ground bone may be sprinkled over the
soil after it is all spread on the benches ready for
planting. Care must be taken that all balls are well
softened and dissolved when planting so that there
will be an amalgamation of the new soil and the soil
of the ball. Firm planting and immediate watering
are of the highest importance and frequent syringing
after planting. Shading is not necessary, providing
frequent syringing is given. Keep the soil moist but
never wet. It is well to keep the house rather close
for a few days, after which air can be given freely.
Gardenia Veitchii can stand any amount of heat, and
there is no danger of burning or scorching until the foli-
age begins to get warm. When thermometer goes
above 90 to 95 more air must be given. The plants
must now make their growth and if buds appear
they must be pinched out. Keep pinching out buds
and small side shoots until the latter part of September
when buds may be allowed to set upon the stronger
shoots. A strong healthy plant can carry four to six
such flowering shoots. After buds begin to set and
sometimes even before, bottom shoots begin to come.
These are the second growth and make for a second
crop of flowers as well as for propagating the young
plants for the next season. Plants are seldom kept
over the second year although it can be done success-
fully. Young plants are decidedly the most profitable.
When the plants are well set with buds, in October
and November, and the roots appear on the surface, a
very light mulch of cow-manure is beneficial as it will
assist to develop the flowers. A night temperature of
65 to 68 is best, while during the day it may range
from 70 to 90. Good hard syringing will keep down
the pests which are fond of this plant, especially the
mealy-bug. The flowers should be cut before the
center petals have fully expanded and the longer the
stem the more valuable the flower. (H. A. Siebrecht.)

A. Corolla-tube cylindrical.

B. Calyx with 5 long teeth.
c. Ribs on the calyx.

jasminoides, Ellis (G. fldrida, Linn. G. radlcans,
Thunb.). CAPE JASMINE. Variable, very small shrub,
unarmed, the st. sometimes rooting: Ivs. lanceolate,
sometimes variegated : fls. white, solitary, very fragrant,
waxy. For pictures of double forms, see B.M. 1842
and 2627, and B.R. 73; single, B.R. 449 and B.M.
3349; normal and variegated foliage, R.H. 1864, p. 30.
China. Var. Fortuniana, Lindl. (G. Fortunei, Hort.).
B.R. 32:43. F.S. 2:177. R.B. 2.3:241. In 1893 was
advertised G. camelliaeflora in addition to G. radicans,
G. fldrida and vars. major and majestica. G. sinensis
grandiflbra of Berger's catalogue perhaps belongs here.
Presumably the G. Veitchii of the gardens belongs here.

cc. Ribs not present.

lucida, Roxbg. Buds resinous: Ivs. oblong; stipules
annular, variously divided at the mouth, unequally
lobed: fls. stalked, fragrant, white but ultimately
turning yellow, 1-2 ^ in. across. India, Burma, Luzon.
The calyx-teeth are not decurrent, as in the Cape
jasmine, and thus the calyx does not have the ribbed
look.

BB. Calyx tubular, with 5 very short teeth.

amdbna, Sims. Differs from all here described in hav-
ing numerous strong spines nearly J^in. long, which are
axillary: Ivs. oval, acute, short-stalked: fls. subtermi-
nal; corolla-tube 1 in. long, longer than the lobes, which
are 6, obovate, white, with margins incurved enough to
show the rosy back. India or China.

BBB. Calyx spathe-like.

Thunbergia, Linn. f. Lvs. broadly elliptic, acute,
with pairs of glands along the midribs: fls. 3 in. across,

1313

GARDENIA

pure white; corolla-lobes 8, overlapping. S. Afr. B.M.
1004. Dwarf-growing, and perhaps not now in cult, in
this country.

AA. Corolla-tube short and wide-throated.

B. Fls. 3 in. long and broad.

Rothmannia, Linn. f. Very distinct in foliage and
fl.: Ivs. with pairs of hairy glands along the midrib:
calyx ribbed, with 5 long teeth, equaling the short,
cylindrical portion of the corolla-tube; corolla-tube
rather suddenly swelled, ribbed; lobes 5, long-acumi-
nate, whitish, spotted purple in the mouth. S. Afr.
B.M. 690. L.B.C. 11:1053. Fls. pale yellow, but it
does not bloom in Calif, according to Franceschi.

BB. Fls. 1 % in. long and broad.
globdsa, Hochst. Lvs. oblong, short-acuminate; lf.-
stalk nearly 3-5 lines long: fls. white, inside hairy and
lined pale yellow; calyx small, with 5 very short teeth;
corolla-tube wide at the base and gradually swelled;
lobes 5, short-acuminate. S. Afr. B.M. 4791. F.S.
9:951.

G. citriodbra, Hook.=Mitriostigma axillare. G. intermedia,
Hort., is a name unknown in botanical literature and the plant's
affinities are unknown. G. Stanleyana, Hook.=Randia raaculata.

WILHELM MILLER.
N. TAYLOR.!

GARDEN LEMON: Cucumis Mdo.

GARD6QUIA BETONICOtDES: Cedronella mexicana.

GARGET: Phytolacca decandra.

GARLAND FLOWER in the
South sometimes means Hedy-
chium caronarium. Often means
Daphne Cnearum.

GARLIC (AUium satl-
vum, Linn.). Hardy per-
ennial bulbous plant,
closely allied to the onion.
It is native of southern
Europe. It has flat leaves,
and the bulb is composed
of several separable parts
or bulbels, called cloves.
These cloves are planted,
as are onion sets, in spring
or in fall in the South.
They mature in summer
and early autumn, being
ready to gather when the
leaves die away. If the
soil is rich, it may be
necessary to break over
the tops to prevent too
much top growth and to
make the bulbs better, as
is sometimes done with
onions. This is done when
the top growth has reached
normal full size. The
cloves are usually set 4 to G
inches apart in drills or
rows, in ordinary garden
soil. The bulbs are used
in cookery, but mostly
amongst the foreign popu-
lation. Strings of bulbs
braided together by their
tops are common in metro-
politan markets (Fig.
1622). The bulbs are
white - skinned or some-
times rose-tinged.

L. H. B.

1622. Garlic, as strung for
GARLIC PEAR: Cratseva. market.

GARRYA (after Nicholas Garry, secretary of the
Hudson Bay Company). Including Fadyenia. Garry-
dcese, formerly included under Cornacex. Ornamental
shrubs chiefly grown for foliage and showy catkins.

Evergreen: TVS. opposite, short-petioled, entire or
denticulate, without stipules: fls. dioecious, apetalous,
1-3 in the axils of opposite bracts on elongated, often
drooping, axillary spikes; staminate fls. with 4 sepals
and 4 stamens; pistillate with 2 sepals and 2 styles and
a 1 -celled ovary: berry 1-2-seeded, rather dry. About
10 species in W. N. Amer. from S. Ore. to S. Mex., east
to W. Texas.

The garryas generally have elliptic to oblong leaves,
and small greenish white or yellowish flowers in catkin-
like, often pendulous spikes, and dark purple or dark
blue berries. None of the species is hardy North but
G. flavescens, G. Wrightii, and also G. Fremontii, which
are the hardiest, can probably be grown north to New
York in sheltered positions, while the others are hardy
in warmer regions only. They are well adapted for ever-
green shrubberies, and the staminate plants are espec-
ially decorative in early spring with the showy, pen-
dulous catkins, which in G. elliptica attain to 1 foot in
length and often bloom in midwinter. The garryas
thrive well in a well-drained soil and in sunny, shel-
tered position; in England they are often grown on
walls. Propagation is by seeds or by cuttings of half-
ripened wood under glass; also by layers.

elliptica, Douglas. Shrub, to 8 ft.: Ivs. elliptic to
oval-oblong, obtuse or acute, usually undulate, gla-
brous above, densely tomentose beneath, 1K~3 in.
long: 3 fls. hi the axils of short and broad, pointed
bracts; spikes rather dense, staminate 2-12 in. long,
often branched, pistillate 1-3 in. long: fr. globose,
silky tomentose. Calif, to New Mex. B.R. 1686.
Gn. 33, p. 562; 37, p. 501; 39, p. 261; 51. p. 257; 53,
p. 449; 55, p. 258; 57, p. 122; 63, p. 181; 67, p. 149;
76, p. 639. G.C. II. 22:425; III. 35:42, 43. Gn. W.
22:115. G. 20:30; 35:21. H.U. 2, p. 35. H.F. 1865:
198. G.L. 24:190. This is the handsomest species,
and stands about 10 of frost (sometimes more) in a
sheltered position.

G. Fadyenii, Hook. (Fadyenia Hookeri, Griseb.). Shrub, to
15 ft.: Ivs. elliptic to oblong, acute or mucronulate, glossy above,
tomentose beneath or almost glabrous at length, 2^-4 in. long:
bracts oblong-lanceolate, remote: fr. tomentose. Jamaica, Cuba.
G. flavescens, Wats. (G. Veatchii var. flavescens, Coult. & Evans).
Shrub, to 8 ft.: Ivs. elliptic, silky pubescent below, 1-2 in. long:
spikes dense, about 1 in. long. Ariz., Utah, N. Mex. G. Frem6ntii,
Torr. Shrub, to 10 ft.: Ivs. ovate to oblong, acute, glabrous on
both sides, yellowish green, 1-3 in. long: spikes dense, 2-5 in. long:
with short bracts: fr. pedicelled, glabrous. Ore. to Calif. G.C. II.
15:431; III. 35:44. G. macrophylla, Benth. Shrub, to 6 ft.: Ivs.
ovate to oblong-ovate, glabrous above, villpus-pubescent beneath,
2-5 in. long: spikes dense and short: fr. sessile. Mex. G. Thuretii,
Carr. (G. elliptica xG. Fadyenii). Shrub, to 15 ft.: Ivs. elliptic to
elliptic-oblong, whitish tomentose beneath, 2-5 in. long: bracts
remote, with usually 1 fl. in each axil; spikes shorter than those of
G. elliptica. Originated in France. R.H. 1869, p. 17; 1879, pp.
154, 155. G. Veatchii, Kellogg. Spreading shrub, to 8 ft.: Ivs.
elliptic-ovate to ovate-oblong, acute, yellowish green, tomentpse
beneath, lV6~2J^in. long: spikes dense, 1-2 in. long: fr. sessile,
usually silky tomentose. Nev. to Calif, and N. Mex. Named for
J. A. Veatch, botanical explorer of Cedros Isl., Lower Calif. -G.
Wrightii, Torr. Shrub, to 10 ft.: Ivs. elliptic or elliptic-ovate, acutish
and mucronate, glabrous or nearly so below, 1-2 in. long: spikes
slender, about 2 in. long: fr. glabrous, nearly sessile. Ariz., Mex.

ALFRED REHDER.

GARUGA (native East Indian name). Burseracese.
This includes a deciduous East Indian tree, reaching
60 feet, and cultivated in southern Florida and Cali-
fornia for its fruits, which are the size of a gooseberry,
and are eaten raw, but chiefly pickled.

Tomentose or hairy plants: Ivs. crowded at tips of
branches, alternate, odd-pinnate; Ifts. opposite, sub-
sessile, serrate: fls. polygamous, large, panicled; calyx
bell-shaped, 5-cut; petals 5, inserted on the tube of the
calyx above the middle; stamens 10; ovary 4-5-celled;
ovules in pairs: drupe with 5, or by abortion 1-3, stones,
which are wrinkled and finally 1-seeded. Species
perhaps a dozen in India and Pacific islands to Austral.

GARUGA

1317

pinnata, Roxbg. Tree, 30-40 ft., with Ivs. 1 ft. or
more long; Ifts. obtusely crenate: fls. small, in a very
large panicle: fr. a black drupe. India and Malaya to
the Philippines. Also cult, abroad under glass. .

L. H. B.

GAS PLANT: Dictamnus.

GASTERIA (Greek, gaster, belly; referring to the
usually swollen base of the flowers). Lilidcese, tribe
Aloinese. Mostly acaulescent and small succulents of
similar decorative uses and treatment as Aloe.

Leaves usually elongated, crowded in rosettes or on
short sts., usually 2-ranked: fls. with a red or rosy
typically ventricose curved tube and short equal sub-
erect greenish segms. about as long as the stamens and
pistil. S. Afr. Species 43. Monog. by Berger in Engler,
Das Pflanzenreich, hft. 33 (1908).

acinacifolia, 18.
angulata, 3, 4.
canaliculata, 7.
carinata, 15.
conspurcata, 2.
crassifolia, 6.
denticulata, 5.
disticha, 2, 3, 5.
Dregeana, 10.
ensifolia, 18.
exoavata, 13.
falcata, 15.
fallax, 10.
formosa, 9.

INDEX.

glabra, 16.
glabrior, 7.
grandipunctata, 17.
intermedia, 1.
latifolia, 1, 15.
lingua, 5.
longifolia, 3.
maculata, 10.
major, 16.
marmorata, 6, 12.
minor, 16.
nigricans, 6, 7, 10.
nitens, 18.
nitida, 17.

dbligua, 10.
parvifolia, 14.
parvipunctata, 17.
picta, 9.
planifolia, 8.
pulchra, 11.
scaberrima, 1.
strigata, 15.
subnigricans, 7.
sulcata, 4.
truncata, 3.
venusta, 18.
verrucosa, 1.

A. Fls. scarcely 1 in. long, mostly ventricose.

B. Lvs. radical, in 2 nearly straight ranks, not keeled.

c. The Ivs. with pale raised warts.

1. verrucSsa, Haw. (Aloe verrucosa, Mill. A. disticha,
Linn. A. verrucula, Medikus. A. acumindta and A.
racembsa, Lam.). Cespitose: Ivs. acute, somewhat
concavely 3-sided, spreading, % x 4-6 in., dull gray,
very rough with white crowded tubercles: infl. 2 ft.
high, typically simple. Cape. B.M. 837. DC., PI. Gr.
63. Berger 42, 43. Varies in a form with Ivs. 1 ft.
long and branched infl., var. latifolia, Salm (Aloe
lingua var., Ker), B.M. 1322, f. 2, 3. Salm, Aloe 29,
f. 25; a form with large greener more mucronate Ivs.
with less crowded warts, var. intermedia, Baker (G.
intermedia, Haw. Aloe intermedia, Haw.), Salm,
Aloe 29, f. 24. B.M. 1322, f. 1; and a form with
scarcely concave greener Ivs. with the greenish warts
somewhat in lines on the back, var. scaberrima,
Baker (G. intermedia scaberrima, Haw. Aloe scaberrima
Salm), Salm, Aloe 29, f. 26. Hybrids are reported
between G. verrucosa and G. pulchra; G. verrucosa
intermedia and G. carinata as well as Haworthia radula;
and G. verrucosa latifolia and G. breirifolia.

cc. The Ivs. not white-warty.

2. conspurcata, Haw. (G. disticha conspurcata,
Baker. Aloe conspurcata, Salm). Lvs. obtuse, mucro-
nate, little concave, IJ^x 10-12 in., green, smooth
except on the margin, with small often confluent white
spots: infl. 2^-3 ft. high, simple. Cape. Salm, Aloe
29, f. 31.

3. angulata, Haw. (G. disticha angulata, Baker. G.
longifolia, Haw. Aloe angulata, Willd. A. lingua longi*
folia, Haw.). Lvs. abruptly short-mucronate, a little
concave on one or both faces, 2 x 8-10 in., one or both
edges angularly doubled, dark green with small often
confluent white spots: infl. 3 ft. high, exceptionally
branching. Cape(?). Salm, Aloe 29, f. 29. A form
with gutter-like Ivs. is var. truncata, Berger (A,
angulata truncata, Willd.).

4. sulcata, Haw. (G. angulata, Haw. Aloe sulcata,
Salm. A. lingua angulata, Haw.). Lvs. concavely strap-
shaped, 4-angled, 1x4 in., dull green with small green-
ish little-raised dots: infl. 2 ft. high, simple; fls. little
inflated. Cape. Salm, Aloe 29, f . 32.

5. lingua, Berger (G. disticha, Haw. G. denticulata,
Haw. Aloe lingua, Thunb. A. disticha, R. & S.). Lvs.
obtusely mucronate, oblong, somewhat concave,
2-edged, denticulate above, 2 x 8-10 in., green or grayish
with more or less banded and pale greenish spots: infl.
3 ft. high, simple. Cape. Salm, Aloe 29, f. 33. Ber-
ger 44.

6. nigricans, Haw. (Aloe nigricans, Haw. A. obllqua,
Jacq.). Lvs. oblong, abruptly mucronate, 2-edged,

2 x 5-8 in., glossy dark green or purplish with more or
less banded pale greenish spots: infl. 3 ft. high, some-
times branched. Cape. Salm, Aloe 29, f. 7. Varies
into a less mottled form with shorter fleshier Ivs., var.
crassifolia, Haw. (A. lingua crassifolia, Ait. A. crassi-
folia, R. & S.), B.M. 838. J.H. III. 60, p. 98; and a
white- and rosy-marbled form with smaller Ivs., var.
marmorata, Baker (A. marmorata, Salm. A. formosa,
R.&S.).

7. subnigricans, Haw. (G. nigricans subnigricans,
Baker. Aloe subnigricans, Spreng. A. pseudonigricans,
Salm). Lvs. scarcely 1 in. wide, acute, green with small
separate rather transversely arranged pale spots: infl.

3 ft. high, simple; fls. ventricose. Cape. Salm, Aloe
29, f. 10. Varies into a form with more concave Ivs.,
var. canaliculata, Salm; and a form with sword-like
darker Ivs., var. glabrior, Haw. (Aloe guttdta, Salm. A.
nigricans denticulata, Salm. G. nigricans guttdta,
Baker). Salm, Aloe 29, f. 9.

BB. Lvs. crowded along an evident if short st.
c. The Ivs. in 2 straight or twisted ranks.

8. planifdlia, Baker (Aloe planifolia, Baker). Lvs.
in straight ranks, narrow, abruptly mucronate, 2-edged,
% x 6-10 in., glossy green with more or less confluent
oblong white spots, the minutely rough margin often
rosy: infl. 6 ft. high, or more, simple; perianth very
abruptly inflated below. Cape. Ref. Bot. 162.

9. picta, Haw. (Aloe Bouredna, R. &. S., A. Bowie-
ana, Salm). Lvs. in twisted ranks, tongue-shaped,
abruptly mucronate, somewhat concave and 3-sided,
1^-2 x 10-14 in., glossy dark green mottled with
round white spots confluent below, the thickened mar-
gin subentire: infl. 3 ft. high, branched. Cape. Salm,
Aloe 29, f. 3. Varies into the smaller var. formosa,
Berger (Aloe Bowiedna formosa, Salm. G. formdsa,
Haw.).

10. maculata, Haw. (G. obllqua, Haw. G. nigricans
platyphylla, Baker. Aloe maculata, Thunb. A. obllqua,
Haw. A. maculata obllqua, Ait.). Lvs. in somewhat
twisted ranks, tongue-shaped, blunt or abruptly
mucronate, 2-edged or with one margin doubled,
!%-2x6-8 in., glossy dark green with more or less
confluent large oblong spots or entirely white at base
below, rough-margined: infl. 3-4 ft. high, branched.
Cape. Salm, Aloe 29, f. 1. B.M. 979. Berger 47
Two varieties are distinguished: var. fallax, Haw. (.A.
maculata angustior, Salm), with smaller whiter smooth
Ivs., and var. Dregeana, Berger, with rough-margined
Ivs.

11. pulchra, Haw. (Aide maculdta pulchra, Ait. A.
pulchra T Jacq.). Lvs. in spiral ranks, falcate, narrowed
from the base, acute, scarcely 1 x 8-10 in., glossy dark
green with oblong white spots transversely or reticu-
lately confluent, slightly rough-margined: infl. 3 ft.
high, branched. Cape. Jacq., Schoenbr. 4:19. Salm,
Aloe 29, f. 2. DC., PI. Gr. 91. B.M. 765. Miller.
Icon. 292. Berger 47. It is said to have been crossed
with G. verrucosa.

cc. The Ivs. not 2-ranked. .

12. marmorata, Baker. Lvs. smooth, lorate-lanceo-
late, rounded and cuspidate at tip, 1-13^x5-6 in.,
with one margin doubled, dark green with large green-
ish more or less confluent spots: infl. 2-2^ ft. high,
branched. Cape.

1318

GASTERIA

GAULTHERIA

BBB. Lvs. nearly radical, typically keeled or triquetrous.
c. The Ivs. in 2 spiral ranks.

13. excayata, Haw. (Aloe excavdta, Willd. A.
obscura, Willd.). Lvs. smooth, rather thin, spreading,
lanceolate, mucronately acute, denticulate, \-\Yz x 45
in., dull pale green with small greenish white spots: infl.
2 ft. high, simple. Cape. Salm, Aloe 29, f. 22. B.M.
1322, f. 4.

cc. The Ivs. not 2-ranked.

14. parvifdlia, Baker. Lvs. thick, deltoid-oblong,
submucronate, somewhat roughened on keel and
margin, 1 x 2-3 in., purplish green with small whitish
spots: infl. \}/z ft. high, simple. Cape. Berger 49.

15. carinata, Haw. (Aloe carinata, Mill. A. tristicha,
Medikus). Lvs. thick, spreading, triangular -lanceo-
late, somewhat falcate, acute from the 2-in. base, 5-6
in. long, grooved above, dull green with coarse whitish
warts sometimes in irregular lines: infl. 2^-3 ft.,
sometimes branched. Cape. B.M. 1331a. Salm,
Aloe 29, f, 20. Berger 50. Varies into a larger
smoother form, var. strigata, Baker (G. strigata, Haw.
A. carinata lasvior, Salm); a form with narrower more
falcate Ivs. with smaller pale points, var. falcata,
Berger; and a form with short broad still finer-punctate
Ivs., var. latifdlia, Berger. It is said to have been
crossed with G. verrucosa intermedia.

16. glabra, Haw. (Aloe glabra, Salm. A. carinata
subgldbra, Haw.). Lvs. triangular-lanceolate, acute or
mucronate from the 2-in. base, 6-8 in. long, dull green
with small scarcely raised whitish points: infl. 2^-3
ft. high. Cape. Salm, Aloe 29, f. 19. B.M. 1331,
If. at left. Respectively larger and smaller forms are
sometimes designated as vars. major and minor.

17. nitida, Haw. (Aloe nitida, Salm). Lvs. triangular-
lanceolate, acute from the 2-in. base, 6-9 in. long,
smooth, light glossy green with white ox ten banded
spots, the margin roughish: infl. 3 ft. high, simple.
Cape. Salm, Aloe 29, f. 17. Varies in a form with
more numerous smaller pale dots, var. parvipunctata,
Salm (A. nitida major, Salm). B.M. 2304; and one with
fewer, larger and more confluent spots, var. grandi-
punctata, Salm (A. nitida minor, Salm).

AA. Fls. 1^-2 in., little inflated, long-stalked: large for
the genus.

18. acinacifdlia, Haw. (Aide acinacifdlia, Jacq.).
Lvs. acute, 3-edged, spreading in a large 2-ranked
rosette, 2 x 14 in., rather glossy dark green with scat-
tered low pale dots: infl. about 4 ft. high, branched
below. Cape. B.M. 2369. Berger 52. Varies in a
more erect-lvd. form, var. ensifdlia, Baker (G. ensi-
fdlia, Haw.), Salm, Aloe 29, f. 12; a form with more
confluent low mottling, var. nitens, Baker (G. nitens,
Haw. Aloe nitens, R. & S.); and a narrower-lvd.
form with somewhat seriate slightly raised whiter
spots, var. venusta, Baker (G. venusta, Haw. Aloe
venusta, R. & S. A. acinacifdlia venusta, Salm). It
has been crossed with Aloe striata.

G. brevifdlia, Haw. Lvs. 3-4 in. long, Ungulate, close together:
fls. red, about 1 in. long. Afr. G. Huttonix, N. E. Br. Lvs. in a
loose rosette, 16-18 in. long, broad at base, narrowed above,
obliquely keeled: fls. pendulous, nearly 1 in. long, rose with green-
keeled lobes. S. Afr. G. obtusifdlia, Haw. Lvs. thinner than in
G. sulcata and shorter than in G. lingua.

WILLIAM TKELEASE.

GAST6NIA PALM ATA : Trevesia.

GASTROCHILUS (Greek-made name, alluding to
the swollen lip). Zingiberacese. A very few Indian
and Malayan herbs, perennial or annual, that may
sometimes be found in choice collections of hothouse
plants. Allied to Hedychium and Kaempferia, differ-
ing from the former in the character of the connective
and from the latter in the sac-form lip: sometimes
provided with a creeping rootstock: st. very short or
none, or reaching 12 in. high: Ivs. oblong and acute:

fls. mostly white with lip yellow or pink, solitary or in
spikes; corolla-tube slender and the segms. connivent:
staminodia present and petal-like; lip oblong and
entire but the margin sinuate, exceeding the corolla;
ovary 3-celled, each cell many-ovuled. G. pulcherrima,
Wall., is leafy-stemmed, to 12 in., from a creeping
rootstock: fls. white in a spike 2-3 in. long, the lip
tinged pink. H. U. 4, p. 100. G. longifldra, Wall.,
is acaulescent, with Ivs. to 12 in. long: fls. 1 or 2
from the crown, long-tubed, white, the lip tinged red.
The Gastrochilus of Don is orchidaceous, and is now
referred to Saccolabium. L jj g

GASTROLOBIUM (Greek-made name, referring to
the swollen pods). Legumindsze. More than 30 shrubs
of W. Austral., little known in cult. Lvs. simple
and entire, mostly stiff: fls. yellow or in part purple-
red, racemose in corymbs or whorls; calyx 5-lobed;
petals clawed, the standard orbicular or kidney-shaped,
and emarginate, the wings oblong, and the keel broad
and short; stamens free; style filiform, incurved: pod
turgid, ovoid or nearly globular. G. velutinum, Lindl.
A handsome shrub: Ivs. in 3's or 4's, varying from
obpvate to linear-cuneate, very obtuse, emarginate,
%in. or less long: fls. orange-red, on villous pedicels,
in terminal clusters to 13^ in. long: pod ovoid, about
J^in. long. G. cunedtum, Henfr., may be the same as
the foregoing, perhaps with longer racemes. J.F. 3:258.
G. villdsum, Benth. Decumbent with ascending
sts. : Ivs. opposite, ovate to almost lanceolate, very
obtuse, 1-2 in. long: fls. in terminal pedunculate racemes
3-4 in. long; standard orange-red, shorter lower petals
purple-red: pod broadly ovoid, about J^in. long. B.R.
33:45. J.F. 4:341. G. ovalifdlium, Henfr. Diffuse
shrub: Ivs. mostly opposite, ovate or oblong or orbicu-
lar, 1 in. or less long, often emarginate: fls. nearly
sessile in racemes 1-3 in. long, orange or orange-red,
the lower petals deeply colored. J.F. 3:247, 324.

L. H. B.

GASTRONEMA: A section of Cyrtanthus.

GAULTHERIA (named by Kalm after Dr. "Gaul-
thier," a physician in Quebec, whose name was really
written Gaultier). Ericdcese. Ornamental woody plants
grown for the attractive flowers and fruits and also for
their handsome evergreen foliage.

Evergreen erect or procumbent shrubs, rarely small
trees, usually hairy and glandular: Ivs. petioled,
roundish to lanceolate, mostly serrate: fls. in terminal
panicles or axillary racemes or solitary; calyx 5-parted;
corolla urceolate, 5-lobed; stamens 10; ovary superior:
fr. a 5-celled, dehiscent caps., usually inclosed by the
fleshy and berry-like calyx. About 90 species in the
warmer and subtropical regions of Asia, Austral., and
in Amer. from Canada to Chile. Some have edible
fruits, and an aromatic oil used in perfumery and
medicine is obtained from G. procumbens and several
Asiatic species.

This genus includes the wintergreen and some other
ornamental low aromatic plants with alternate, ever-
green leaves, white, pink or scarlet, often fragrant
flowers in terminal or axillary racemes or solitary, and
with decorative, berry-like red or blackish fruit. G.
procumbens is fully hardy North, while the other
North American species are somewhat tenderer and
need protection during the winter; G. Veitchiana prom-
ises to be hardy as far north as Massachusetts. They
are well adapted for borders of evergreen shrubberies
as well as for rockeries, and in suitable soil they are
apt to form a handsome evergreen ground-cover. Most
of the foreign species can be grown only South or as
greenhouse shrubs. They grow best in sandy or peaty,
somewhat moist soil and partly shaded situations.
Propagation is by seeds, layers or suckers, division of
older plants, and also by cuttings of half-ripened wood
under glass.

GAULTHERIA

GAYLUSSACIA

1319

A. Fls. solitary.

procumbens, Linn. WINTERGREEN. CHECKERBERRY.
BOXBERRY. PARTRIDGE BERRY. St. creeping, sending
up erect branches to 5 in. high, bearing toward the
end 3-8 dark green, oval or obovate, almost glabrous
Ivs., 1-2 in. long, with ciliate teeth: fls. solitary, nod-
ding; corolla ovate, white, about Ji m - long; anthers
with 4 awns; filaments pubescent: fr. scarlet. July-
Sept. Canada to Ga., west to Mich. B.M. 1966.
L.B.C. 1:82. Gn. 31, p. 379.

AA. Fls. in racemes.

Shallon, Pursh. Low shrub, to 2 ft., with spreading,
glandular-hairy branches: Ivs. roundish-ovate or ovate,
cordate or rounded at the base, serrulate, 2-4 in. long:
fls. nodding, in terminal and axillary racemes; corolla
ovate, white or pinkish: fr. purplish black, glandular,
hairy. May, June; fr. Sept., Oct. Brit. Col. to Calif.
Called "shallon" or "salal" by Indians. B.M. 2843.
B.R. 1411. L.B.C. 14:1372. Gn. 31, p. 379.

Veitchiana, Craib. Shrub, to 3 ft., sometimes decum-
bent: branchlets setose: Ivs. elliptic to oblong or
obovate-oblong, short-apiculate, broadly cuneate or
nearly rounded at the base, setose-serrulate, glabrous
and lustrous above, paler below and setose on the veins
while young, l%-3% m - long: fls. in axillary and
terminal villous racemes 1-2 in. long, densely bracteate,
the bracts as long or longer than the pedicels; corolla
ovate, white, J^in. long: fr. indigo-blue. May, June;
fr. Aug., Sept. W. China.

G. antlpoda, Forat. Shrub, to 5 ft., sometimes procumbent,
hairy: Ivs. orbicular to oblong, J^-J^in. : fl. solitary, white or pink,
campanulate. New Zeal., Tasmania. G. cocdnea, HBK. Shrub, to
2 ft., hairy: Ivs. roundish ovate, about 1 in.: fls. slender-pedicelled,
in elongated, secund racemes; corolla ovate, pink. Venezuela.
R.H. 1849:181. G. ferruglnea, Cham. & Schlecht. (G. ignescens,
Lem. ). Small shrub, rufously hairy: Ivs. ovate or oblong, 1-2 in.:
fls. almost like those of the preceding species. Brazil. B.M. 4697.
J.F. 3:265; 4:371. G. fragrantissima, Wall. Shrub or small tree,
glabrous: Ivs. elliptic to lanceolate, 2J^-3K in. long: racemes
axillary, erect, shorter than the Ivs. ; corolla white or pinkish, globu-
lar-ovate. Himalayas, Ceylon. B.M. 5984. G. myrsinites, Hook.
Allied to G. procumbens. Lvs. orbicular or broadly ovate, %-\ in.
long: corolla broadly campanulate; filaments glabrous; anthers
without awns. Wash, to Calif, and Colo. G. nummularioides, D.
Don ( G. Nummularia, DC. ). Procumbent: branches densely
rufously hairy: Ivs. orbicular to ovate, %-l in. long: fls. solitary,
ovate, white. Himalayas. G.C. II. 22:457. G. oppositiftilia,
Hook. f. Shrub, to 8 ft. : Ivs. mostly opposite, ovate, cordate, bluntly
toothed, \ 1 A-2 1 A in. long: fls. white, urceolate, J^in. long, in
terminal panicles 3-4 in. long. New Zeal. G.C. III. 52 : 109. Gn. 75,
p. 412. -G. pvatifdlia, Gray. Procumbent, with ascending and
sparingly hairy branches: Ivs. ovate, acute, 1-1 Yi in. long: fls.
solitary, campanulate: fr. scarlet. Brit. Col. to Ore. G. pyroloides,
Hook. f. & Thorn. (G. pyrotefolia, Hook. f.). Low shrub, some-
times procumbent, almost glabrous: Ivs. elliptic-obovate, about
1J^ in. long: racemes few-fld., axillary. Himalayas, Japan. Var.
cunedta, Rehd. & Wilson. Branchlets minutely villous: Ivs. nar-
row, oblong-obovate, cuneate: ovary and fr. villous. W. China.
G. trichophylla, Royle. Dwarf: Ivs. elliptic, ciliate, J^-H in. long:
fls. axillary, pinkish: fr. blue. Himalayas, W. China. B.M. 7635.

ALFRED REHDER.

GAURA (Greek, superb). Onagracese. This includes
several herbs which are distinct in appearance, but
scarcely possess general garden value, although they are
pleasant incidents in the hardy border for those who
like native plants.

Annual, biennial or perennial plants confined to the
warmer regions of N. Amer.: Ivs. alternate, sessile or
stalked, entire, dentate, or sinuate: fls. white or rose,
in spikes or racemes; calyx-tube deciduous, obconical,
much prolonged beyond the ovary, with 4 reflexed
lobes; petals clawed, unequal; stamens mostly 8, with
a small scale-like appendage before the base of each
filament; stigma 4-lobed, surrounded by a ring or cup-
like border: fr. nut-like, 3-4-ribbed, finally 1 -celled,
and 1-4-seeded. Species 20-25. The bloom ascends
the slender racemes too slowly to make the plants as
showy as possible. The best kind is G. Lindheimeri,
which has white fls. of singular appearance, with rosy
calyx-tubes. Gauras are easily prop, by seed. They
prefer light soils, and the seedlings can be transplanted
directly into permanent quarters.

A. Height 3 ft.: fls. white.

Lindheimeri, Engelm. & Gray. St. hairy and more or
less branched above: Ivs. lanceolate or more often
spatulate with a few wavy teeth and recurved margins :
fls. in a loose spike. Texas and La. R.H. 1851:41;
1857, p. 262. H.F. 8:145. G.W. 14, p. 100.

AA. Height I ft.: fls. rosy, turning to scarlet.
coccinea, Nutt. An erect or ascending, usually much-
branched perennial: Ivs. numerous, lanceolate to linear
or oblong, repand-denticulate or entire: fls. in spikes,
very showy, except that the whole spike does not come
into flower at one time: fr. 4-sided. Manitoba to Mont,
and Texas. WILHELM MILLER.

N. TAYLOR.f

GAUSSIA (probably from a personal name). Pal-
mdcese. One slender pinnate-leaved palm, reaching
about 20 ft., from Cuba, recently intro. in S. Calif. It
is allied to Hyophorbe and Pseudophcenix. G. princeps,
Wendl., is a spineless species, the st. thickened below
but very slender above: Ivs. pinnatisect, the pinnae
crowded and narrow-linear and entire or 2-cut: fls.
very small, on filiform branches, monoacious; spadix
long-stalked: fr. small, purple or red. L. jj. B.

GAYA (for Jacques and perhaps Claude Gay, writers
on the plants of W. S. Amer.). Malvaceae. About a
dozen herbs, shrubs or small trees of S. Amer. except
the one described below: mostly tomentose: Ivs. usually
undivided: fls. yellow or white, axillary or terminal,
pedunculate, with no bracteoles; calyx 5-parted; sta-
minal column split at apex into many parts; ovary
many-celled and style-branches as many as the cells,
the ovules 1 in each cell. G. Lyallii, Baker (Plagidn-
thus Lyallii, Gray), the lacebark, endemic in the southern
island of New Zeal., is recorded in horticultural litera-
ture abroad. It is said by Cheeseman to be one of the
most beautiful trees of the New Zealand flora, often
forming a broad fringe to the subalpine beech forests.
It is partly deciduous at high elevations, but is ever-
green in certain river valleys. It is a small spreading
tree 15-30 ft. high: Ivs. ovate, acuminate, usually
double-crenate, sometimes somewhat lobed: fls. to 1
in. diam., white, in axillary fascicles or rarely solitary;
petals obliquely obovate, retuse. G.C. III. 50:56, and
Suppl.Sept.23, 1911. B.M. 5935. Hardy in the south of
England, where it blooms profusely. L. H. B.

GAYLUSSACIA (after J. L. Gaylussac, eminent
French chemist; died 1850). Syn., Adnaria. Ericaceae,
tribe Vocciniess. HUCKLEBERRY. Small shrubs, some
grown for their handsome flowers, others valued for
their edible fruits.

Evergreen or deciduous: Ivs. alternate, short-petioled,
usually entire: fls. in axillary, usually few-fld. racemes;
calyx 5-lobed, persistent; corolla tubular-campanulate
or urceolate; stamens 10; anthers acute; ovary inferior,
10-celled, each cell with 1 ovule: fr. a berry-like drupe
with 10 nutlets. About 50 species in E. N. Amer. and
S. Amer. Closely allied to Vaccinium, distinguished
by the 10-celled ovary, each cell with 1 ovule.

The huckleberries are low shrubs with white, red, or
reddish green flowers, and blue or black mostly edible
fruits. The deciduous species are hardy North, but are
of little decorative value, the handsomest being G.
dumosa, while the evergreen species, all inhabitants of
the South American mountains, except the half-hardy
G. brachycera, are often very ornamental in foliage
and flowers, but tender and hardly cultivated in this
country. They grow best in peaty or sandy soil and
in shaded situations; but G. baccata thrives well also in
drier localities and exposed to the full sun; like other
Ericaceae, they are all impatient of limestone. Propa-
gated by seeds, layers or division; the evergreen species
by cuttings of half-ripened wood under glass. See also
Vaccinium for cultivation.

1320

GAYLUSSACIA

GAZANIA

A. Lvs. evergreen, obtusely serrate.
brachycera, Gray. Low shrub, with creeping and
ascending st. and spreading angled glabrous branches:
Ivs. oval, glabrous, ^-1 in. long: racemes short, with
few white or pinkish fls. : fr. blue. May, June; fr. July,
Aug. Pa. to Va. B.M. 928. L.B.C. 7:648 (as Vac-
cinium buxifolium).

AA. Lvs. deciduous, entire.
B. Fls. in loose racemes; corolla campanulate.

c. Plant glandular-pubescent.

dumosa, Torr. & Gray. Shrub, to 2 ft., with creeping
st. and almost erect, somewhat hairy and glandular
branches: Ivs. obovate-oblong to oblanceolate, mucro-
nate, shining above, leathery, 1-2 in. long: fls. white or
pinkish; bracts foliaceous and persistent: fr. black,
usually pubescent, rather insipid. May, June; fr. Aug.,
Sept. Newfoundland to Fla. and La. in moist sandy or
swampy soil. B.M. 1106 (as Vaccinium).

1623. Gazania splendens. ( X J 2)

cc. Plant slightly pubescent or glabrous.

frondosa, Torr. & Gray. BLUE HUCKLEBERRY. DAN-
GLEBERRY. TANGLEBERRY. Shrub, to 6 ft., with spread-
ing, usually glabrous branches: Ivs. oblong or oval-
obovate, obtuse or emarginate, pale green above,
whitish beneath, membranaceous, 1-2 in. long: fls.
slender-pedicelled; corolla broadly campanulate, green-
ish purple: fr. blue, with glaucous bloom, sweet. May,
June; fr. July. N. H. to Fla., west to Ky., preferring
moist, peaty soil. Em. 2:451. G.C. III. 7:580.

ursina, Torr. & Gray. Shrub, to 6 ft., with somewhat
pubescent, spreading branches: Ivs. obovate to oblong,
acute, membranaceous, 2-4 in. long: fls. white or pink-
ish: fr. black, shining, sweet. May, June; fr. July, Aug.
N. and S. C. Harlan P. Kelsey writes of this species:
"Shrub 2 to 6 feet high; very local in a few counties in
southwestern North Carolina, though common in these
stations. Locally it is known as 'buckberry,' a name
given by the native mountaineers from the fact that
deer feed on the very abundant clustered fruit in late
summer. The berries are much used for pies and jams,

and have a most peculiar and pleasant acid flavor,
unlike any other Vaccinium. It promises to be a
valuable addition to our garden fruits."

BB. Fls. in short, sessile racemes; corolla ovate.

baccata, Koch (G. resinosa, Torr. & Gray). BLACK
HUCKLEBERRY. Erect shrub, to 3 ft., resinous when
young: Ivs. oval or oblong-lanceolate, mucronulate,
yellowish green above, pale beneath, 1-1 J^ in. long:
fls. short-pedicelled, nodding, reddish: fr. black, rarely
white, sweet. May, June; fr. July, Aug. Newfound-
land to Ga., west to Wis. and Ky., preferring sandy or
rocky soil. Em. 451. B.M. 1288 (as Vaccinium).
I. T. 4:152. Var. glaucocarpa, Rob. Frs. larger, blue
with glaucous bloom.

G. Pseudo-Vaccinium, Cham. & Schlecht. Evergreen, usually
glabrous shrub, to 3 ft., with elliptic, entire Ivs. and red fls. ia
secund, many-fld. racemes. Brazil. B.R. 30:62. R.H. 1845:285.

ALFRED REHDER.

GAZANIA (after Theodore of Gaza, 1393-1478,
translator of Aristotle and Theophrastus; by some con-
sidered to be derived from Greek, riches, owing to the
splendid floral coloring). Composite. Showy plants
grown in a cool greenhouse or in the open border in
summer.

Herbaceous, mostly perennial, rarely annual, with
short sts. or none: Ivs. crowded at the crown of the
root, or scattered along the st. : involucral scales in 2
or several rows, cup-like at the base, toothed at the
apex: achenes wingless, villous; pappus in 2 series of
very delicate, scarious, toothed scales, often hidden in
the wool of the achene. Species 24-30. This group
contains some of the finest of the sub-shrubby com-
posites from the Cape of Good Hope. They have a wide
range of color, pure white, yellow, orange, scarlet, and
the backs of the rays are in some cases rich purple,
and even azure-blue. Their foliage is often densely
woolly beneath, and the range of form is unusual.
The group is also notable for the spots near
the base of the rays of G. Pavonia and
some others. These markings suggest the
eyes of a peacock's tail. The plants are
also remarkable for their behavior at night,
when they close their fls. and turn their
foliage enough to make the woolly under
sides of the Ivs. more conspicuous.

Gazanias are now rarely met with in
some of the oldest-fashioned florists' estab-
lishments. Few of the more prominent
firms keep them now, and they may be said
to be practically out of the trade in
America. All the kinds described below
are old garden favorites abroad, particularly
G. rigens, a common bedding plant, culti-
vated for nearly a century and a half, but
whose precise habitat has never been ascertained. They
are of easy culture in the cool greenhouse, and are
commended for summer use in the borders of those
who can keep them under glass in winter. They can
be rapidly propagated in midsummer by cuttings made
from the side shoots near the base and placed in a
close frame.

A. Color of heads yellow.
B. Rays not spotted: heads 2 in. across.

uniflora, Sims. Sts. woody at the base, spreading
6-12 in. or more from a center: Ivs. varying as men-
tioned above. The woolliness also varies greatly:
sometimes the whole plant is snowy white; sometimes
the whiteness is confined to the under sides of the Ivs.
B.M. 2270. L.B.C. 8:795. The involucre is woolly,
according to Harvey, but the pictures cited do not
show it. This and G. rigens have short sts. with
branches alternately leafy, while G. pinnata, G. Pavonia
and G. pygmsea have little or no st. and the Ivs. radical
or tufted at the ends of the short branches.

GAZANIA

GENIPA

1321

BB. Rays spotted at base: heads 3 in. or more across.

pinnata, Less. Rootstock perennial, fibrous: Ivs.
commonly pinnate (some simple); lobes oblong or
linear in several pairs; white on both surfaces and stiff-
hairy: peduncle not much longer than Ivs.; involucral
scales acuminate, particularly the inner ones. Harvey
names 6 botanical varieties.

AA. Color of heads orange: rays spotted at base: heads

3 in. or more across.
B. Lvs. mostly entire and spatulate.
c. Basal markings containing brown.
rtgens, R. Br. Sts. short and densely leafy or dif-
fuse, laxly leafy, with ascending branches: Ivs. some-
times sparingly pinnatifid, i. e., with only 1 or 2 side
lobes, white beneath except on the midrib: heads large
and showy, 1 Yi in. wide, the rays orange, disk purplish
black. B.M. 90 (as Gorteria rigens) shows a head of scarlet
rays, with basal markings of brown, black and white.

cc. Basal markings without brown.
splendens, Hort. Fig. 1623. Hybrid, said to resem-
ble G. uniflora in habit but dwarfer and more compact.
Of the kinds in common cult, it is nearest to G. Pavonia
in coloring of fls. H.F. II. 4:240.

BB. Lvs. mostly pinnate.

Pavonia, R. Br. PEACOCK GAZANIA. Involucral
scales short, the inner broad, acute or subacute. B.R.
35 shows markings of brown, white, yellow and blue,
which are marvelous in design and precision of
execution.

AAA. Color of heads white above.

pygmsea, Sond. Crown woody and much divided:
Ivs. spatulate, entire: rays white, striped purple beneath.
Gn. 47:288. 1.11.43:53. B.M. 7455. G. 30:101.
Var. maculata, N. E. Br. Rays pale creamy white,
with a blackish spot at the base, reverse striped dull
purple. Var. superba, N. E. Br. Rays white, unspotted,
reverse striped bluish. Var. lutea, Hprt. Fl.-heads
very large, chrome-yellow. This species is very variable
in its involucral scales, which may be short or long,
sometimes cup-shaped at the base, and again almost
free. This upsets one of the most important features
of Harvey's key.

A hybrid between G. nivea, Less., and G. longiscapa, DC., known
as G. hybrida, has been described as a very prof use bloomer, flowering
continuously from June to late autumn. R.H. 1900:209. Gt.
47:134. G. longiscapa, DC. (G. stenophylla, Hort.), is a white-
woolly perennial with a glabrous peduncle which is shorter than the
Ivs. : involucre glabrous. G. nivea, DC. Very dwarf, almost woody:
jvs. crowded, hoary-tomentose on both sides: peduncle not exceed-
ing the Ivs.: involucre tomentose. Last two probably not cult, in

Amer - WILHELM MILLER.

N. TAYLOR-f

GEISSORHIZA (Greek words alluding to the coats of
the bulb, which cover it somewhat like overlapping
tiles). Iridacese. Ixia-like half-hardy Cape bulbs,
which are dormant from August to November and are
usually flowered under glass in spring and early
summer.

Cormous: Ivs. few, distichous: fls. in different colors,
in open, simple or forked spikes; perianth nearly regu-
lar, rotate, with a cylindrical tube; stamens 6, inserted
in the throat; ovary 3-celled, becoming a small oblong
caps. Species about 30, 1 in Madagascar and the
others in S. Afr. The genus has a wide range in habit
and in color of fls., but these plants are presumably
inferior to ixias for general culture. The following
species are advertised.

rochensis, Ker. Corm J/in. diam., globular: Ivs. 3,
one of them on the st., glabrous, basal ones narrow,
few-ribbed: st. 3-6 in., simple or forked, with 1 fl. at
the top; st.-sheath loose and swelling: fls. violet-purple,
1-2 in. across; perianth-tube shorter than the spathe;
segms. with a blotch at the base. B.M. 598, where the
whole plant is a trifle over 3 in. high and the fls. purple,

with a dark red eye, the latter surrounded by a pale
blue circle.

hirta, Ker. Lvs. hairy: fls. 2-6 in a loose spike, bright
red, the tube very short, segms. not blotched: corm
2^in. diam., globular. Offered in S. Calif. L. H. B.

GEITONOPLESIUM (Greek-made name, near
neighbor, in allusion to its kinship to another genus).
Liliacese. Woody stemmed twiners of Austral, and
Pacific islands of probably 2 species; one is offered in
S. Calif. Fls. small, in loose terminal clusters: Ivs.
alternate, linear to ovate, very short-stalked, lightly
nerved; perianth with 6 oblong distinct segms., the 3
outer ones more or less hood-shaped at times, the inner
ones flat and obtuse; stamens 6, included: fr. a nearly
globular berry with thin pulp and becoming dry; seeds
irregular, black. G. cymSsum, Cunn. Tall-climbing,
with wiry sts. : fls. purplish green, the perianth ^iin.
or less long, the pedicels very short and jointed under
the fl. : berry dark blue, J^in. or less diam. ; seeds few.
Queensland to Victoria. B.M. 3131. L. H. B.

GELSEMIUM (from the word Gelsemino, the Italian
name of the true jessamine). Loganidcese. Climbing
shrubs, with evergreen foliage and yellow flowers.

Glabrous, twining, shrubby plants, with opposite,
rarely whorled Ivs., and showy, hypogynous, per-
fect, regular, yellow and very fragrant fls., in axil-
lary and terminal cymes, the pedicels scaly-bracted :
calyx imbricated, deeply 5-parted; corolla funnel-
form, 5-lobed, imbricated in the bud; stamens 5,
epipetalous; ovary solitary, superior, 2-celled; ovules
numerous, on narrow placentae; style slender, 4-cleft:
fr. an elliptic, septicidal caps., flattened contrary to
the partition; valves boat-shaped, 2-cleft at the apex;
seeds flattened and winged. There are 2 species in
the genus, one American the other Chinese. The
American or Carolina yellow jessamine is a well-known
woody twiner of the S., bearing evergreen foliage and
a profusion of bright yellow, very fragrant fls. The
cymes of the Chinese species are terminal and trichot-
omous. Our species is very desirable for covering
banks and fences in any soil. It is also grown occasion-
ally in conservatories. The rhizomes and roots are used
medicinally as a nervine, antispasmodic and sedative.
The true jessamine is Jasminum officinale (Oleaceie) of
Eu.

sempervirens, Ait. f. CAROLINA YELLOW JESSA-
MINE. St. high-climbing: Ivs. ovate, or lanceolate,
shining, entire, short-petioled, 1-3 in. long: cymes
terminal, 1-6-fld.; the fls. dimorphous; corolla 1-1 Yt
in. long. Low woods and thickets, Va. to Fla., Texas
and Guatemala; early flowering. B.M. 7851. G.W.
9, P- 494. K. M. WIEGAND.

GENETYLLIS: Darwinian

GENIPA (Brazilian name). Rubiacese. This includes
a West Indian shrub allied to the Cape jasmine and
barely known to American horticulture. Genipa and
Gardenia are difficult to separate.

Small trees or shrubs: Ivs. with short or no stalks,
opposite, large, leathery, obovate or lanceolate, shining :
cymes axillary, few-fld.; fls. white to yellowish; calyx-
' limb bell-shaped, truncated, or 5-toothed ; corolla
salver-shaped, limb twisted to the left, 5-parted; stigma
club-shaped or bifid ; ovary 1 -celled ; placentas 2, almost
touching each other in the axis: berries edible.

clusiifolia, Griseb. A shrub 4-10 ft. in the wild, not
so large in cult.: Ivs. 4 in. or less long, black when
dried, obovate, glabrous: corymbs short-peduncled ;
calyx-limb 5-cut, the pedicels as long as the calyx;
corolla glabrous, the tube nearly as long as the lobes:
berry ovoid. W. Indies.

americana, Linn. A small tree: Ivs. 5-10 in. long,
lanceolate-oblong, glabrous: pedicels shorter than the

1322

GENIPA

GENISTA

calyx; corolla silky, white, about 1 in. across: berry
similar to last, but is "highly commended in cookery"
according to Reasoner, by whom the plant was intro.
(1914). W. Indies. The fr. is largely used in Trop.
Amer. as a preserve under the name "genipop." It is
often used as a kind of marmalade and has been
called "marmalade-box" in Surinam. N, TAYLOR.!

GENISTA (ancient Latin name). Leguminosas.
Ornamental woody plants chiefly grown for their hand-
some yellow, rarely white, flowers.

Deciduous or half-evergreen, sometimes nearly
leafless shrubs, unarmed or spiny: branches usually
striped and green: Ivs. alternate, rarely opposite,
entire, simple or sometimes 3-foliolate: fls. papiliona-
ceous, in terminal racemes or heads, rarely axillary,
yellow, rarely white; calyx 2-lipped, with the upper
lip deeply 2-parted; style incurved: pod globular to
narrow-oblong, 1- to many-seeded, -dehiscent, rarely
indehiscent. About 100 species in Eu., Canary Isls.,
N. Afr. and W. Asia. Allied to Cytisus, but without
callose appendage at the base of the seeds. The Genista
of florists is Cytisus.

The genistas are ornamental, usually low shrubs with
showy flowers, appearing profusely in spring or sum-
mer, and followed by small, insignificant pods. None
of the species is quite hardy North, but G. tinctoria,
G. pilosa, G. germanica and some other European spe-
cies will do well in a sheltered position or if somewhat
protected during the winter, while the others are more
suited for cultivation in southern regions. They are
essentially plants suited to drier climates and most of
them do well in California. They are adapted for
covering dry, sandy banks and rocky slopes, and for
borders and rockeries. They grow in any well-drained
soil, and like a sunny position. Propagate by seeds,
sown in spring, also by layers and by greenwood cut-
tings under glass.

INDEX.

*etnensis, 9.
cinerea, 10.
data, 14.
ephedroides, 8.
ferox, 3.
florida, 12.
germanica, 5.

hispanica, 6.
humilior, 14.
mantica, 14.
Martinii, 4.
monospenna, 1.
pilosa, 15.
plena, 14.

polygalsefolia, 13, 14.
Bagittalis, 16.
sibirica, 14.
sphaerocarpa, 2.
tinctoria, 14.
umbellata, 7.
virgata, 11, 14.

A. Color of fls. white.

1. monosperma, Lam. (Retama monosperma, Boiss.).
Shrub, to 10 ft. or more with slender grayish branches,
almost leafless: Ivs. small, simple or rarely 3-foliolate,
generally linear or linear-spatulate, silky: fls. white,
fragrant, in short lateral racemes; corolla silky; calyx

Eurple: pod broadly oval, 1-2-seeded. Feb.- April,
pain, N. Afr. B.M. 683. B.R. 1918. Gn. 55, p. 213;
62, p. 15. G.W. 15, p. 412.

AA. Color of fls. yellow.

B. Twigs striped, not winged. (Nos. 2-15.)

c. Pod globular, indehiscent, 1-seeded.

2. sphaerocarpa, Lam. Similar to the preceding,
but lower and more upright, leafless: fls. yellow, very
small, in numerous panicled racemes; corolla gla-
brous. May, June. Spain, N. Afr.

cc. Pod oval to linear, dehiscent.

D. Shrubs spiny.

E. Infl. racemose.

P. Spines stout: habit upright, to 6 ft.

3. ferox, Poir. Erect shrub, to 6 ft., with many stout
spines: Ivs. simple, rarely 3-foliolate, oblong to obovate,
almost glabrous: fls. in numerous terminal racemes
along the branches; corolla glabrous, over H m - long,
fragrant: pod linear, densely silky, many-seeded.
Spring, in Calif, in autumn and winter. N. Afr. B.R.
368.

FF. Spines slender: habit decumbent to upright, to 2 ft.
4. Martinii, Verguin & Soulie (G. Scorpius x G. Vil-
larsii). Decumbent shrub: branchlets tomentose: Ivs.
linear-lanceolate, simple, whitish pubescent on both
sides, small: fls. axillary, forming terminal slender
racemes; calyx pubescent; standard and keel silky.
S. France; natural hybrid. Cult, in Calif.

5. germanica, Linn. Erect or as-
cending spiny shrub, to 2 ft., with
viilous branches: Ivs. elliptic-oblong,
cih'ate: fls. small, in 1-2-in. long
racemes: pod oval, viilous, few-seeded.
June, July. Cent, and S. Eu. R.F.
G. 22:2085.

EE. Infl. head-like.

6. hispanica, Linn. Densely
branched shrub, about 1 ft. high, with
numerous thin spines: Ivs. ovate-
lanceolate, pubescent, not exceeding
Kin.: fls. in 3-12-fld. short head-like
racemes: pod rhombic, hirsute. May,
June. Spain, S. France, N. W. Italy.
L.B.C. 18:1738. R.H. 1888:36. Gn.
60, p. 395; 62, p. 95. G.M. 45:69.
M.D.G. 1907:388. Hardy in W.
N. Y.

DD. Shrubs unarmed.
E. Fls. in terminal heads, sessile.

7. umbellata, Poir. Erect shrub, to
2 feet, with rigid branches, forming a
dense bush : Ivs. simple or 3-foliolate,
lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, silky,
K-^in. long: fls. in 10-30-fld. umbel-
like heads; corolla silky, over ^in.
long: pod linear-oblong, tomentose,
2-5-seeded. April, May. Spain.

EE. Fls. in racemes, or axillary.

F. Habit upright. Nos. 8-14.

G. Branches rigid: pod 1-seeded, silky.

8. ephedroides, DC. Erect shrub,
to 3 ft., with rigid branches, almost
leafless: Ivs. sessile, simple or 3-f olio-
late, linear, almost glabrous: fls. in
many-fld. terminal racemes, small;
standard much shorter than keel: pod
oval, 1-seeded, silky. April, May.

Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily.

GG. Branches slender: pod
1-10-seeded.

H. The fls. axillary on last
year's branchlets.

9. aetnensis, DC. Shrub, to 6
ft., with slender branches, nearly
leafless: Ivs. simple, small, linear,
silky: fls. axillary, forming loose,
terminal racemes, fragrant; keel
snorter than the standard: pod
glabrous at maturity, oblique-
oval, 1-3-seeded. June, July.
Sicily, Sardinia. B.M. 2674.

10. cinerea, DC. Shrub, to 3
ft. : branches grooved, pubescent
while young, sparsely leafy: lys.

simple, lanceolate, pubescent on both sides, H~H m -
long: fls. 1-3, axillary, forming terminal racemes to 8
in. long; calyx pubescent; keel pubescent outside: pod
2-5-seeded, silky. April-June. S. Eu., N. Afr. B.M.
8086. G.M. 52:511;- 53:507. This species does not
seem to be in the trade at present, but it deserves
attention on account of its copious, brilliant yellow
fls.

1624. Dyer's Greenweed,
Genista tinctoria.

GENISTA

GFNTIANA

1323

HH. The fls. in terminal racemes on the young growth.
I. Pod pubescent, 1-4-seeded.

11. virgata, Link (Spdrtium virgatum, L'Her.).
Shrub, to 8 ft., with slender branches: Ivs. lanceolate to
elliptic, silky- villous, J^-Hin. long: fls. in numerous
short 3-6-fld. -racemes; standard and keel silky: pod
oblong, 1-3-seeded, villous. May-July. Madeira.
B.M. 2265. F. 1875:169.

12. florida, Linn. Erect shrub, to 5 ft., with gla-
brous striped branches : Ivs. spatulate-oblong or lanceo-
late, silky beneath, ^3-% in. long: fls. in dense, many-
fld. racemes; corolla glabrous: pod oblong or narrow-
oblong, silky, 2-4-seeded. April- July. Spain.

ii. Pod glabrous or slightly pubescent, rarely densely so,
3-10-seeded.

13. polygalaefdlia, DC. Erect shrub, to 6 ft., with
somewhat silky branches: Ivs. spatulate-oblong, gla-
brous above, sparingly silky beneath, J^-%in. long:
fls. in many-fld. slender racemes; standard and wings
glabrous, keel silky: pod oblong or narrow-oblong,
almost glabrous, 3-6-seeded. May-July. Spain,
Portugal.

14. tinctSria, Linn. (G. sibirica, Hort. G. polygalse-
fblia, Hort., not DC.). DYER'S GREENWEED. Fig.
1624. Erect shrub, to 3 ft., with striped, glabrous or
slightly pubescent branches: Ivs. oblong-elliptic or
oblong-lanceolate, almost glabrous, ciliate, J^-l in.
long: racemes many-fld., panicled at the ends of
branches; corolla glabrous: pod narrow-oblong, gla-
brous or slightly pubescent, 6-10-seeded. June-Aug.
Eu., W. Asia; naturalized in some places E. B.B. (ed. 2)
2:350. S.E.B. 3:328. R.F.G. 22:2088. Var. plena,
Hort. With double fls. R.H. 1899, p. 573. G.W. 16,
p. 137. Var. virgata, Mert. & Koch (G. virgata, Willd.,
not Link, not Lam. G. elata, Wender.). Of more
vigorous growth, to 6 ft. high: pod 3-6-seeded. S.E.
Eu. Var. humflior, Schneid. (G. mdntica, Poll.). Dwarf
and compact, more pubescent: pods silky- villous.
Italy.

FF. Habit procumbent: fls. axillary.

15. pi!6sa, Linn. Dwarf, procumbent or ascending:
Ivs. cuneate, oblong or obovate, dark green and almost
glabrous above, silky beneath: fls. axillary, 1-2, often
racemose toward the end of branches : pod linear, silky,
5-8-seeded. May, June. Cent, and S. Eu., W. Asia.
S.E.B. 3 : 327. R.F.G. 22 : 2093.

BB. Twigs broadly 2-winged.

16. sagittalis, Linn. (Cytisus sagittalis, Mert. &
Koch). Dwarf, procumbent, with ascending or erect,
mostly simple branches: Ivs. ovate to oblong, villous:
fls. in terminal, short racemes; corolla glabrous: pod
linear-oblong, silky. May, June. Eu., W. Asia. R.F.G.
27:2081.

G. dlba, Lam.=Cytisus multiflorus. G. Andreana, Puissant=
Cytisus scoparius var. Andreanus. G. dnglica, Linn. Spiny shrub
to 3 ft., sometimes procumbent, glabrous: Ivs. oval to linear-oblong
bluish green: racemes few-fld. Cent. Eu. S.E.B. 3:326. R.F.G
22:2086. G. anxdntica, Tenore (G. tinctoria var. anxantica
Fiori). Allied to G. tinctoria. Dwarf, diffuse: Ivs. elliptic, obtuse
glabrous: fls. in racemes. Italy. G. aspalathaides, Lam. Low
spiny shrub: Ivs. simple or 3-foliolate: fls. 1-3, axillary, forming,
loose, terminal racemes: pod many-seeded. N. Afr. G. canariensis,
Linn.=Cytisus canariensis. G. cdndicans, Linn. =Cytisus mon-
speliensis. G. dalmdtica, Bartl. Allied to G. germanica. Spiny
shrub with appressed or spreading silky pubescence: Ivs. linear-
lanceolate, simple: fls. in terminal racemes, 1-1 Yi in. long: pod
globose-ovoid, 1-seeded. Dalmatia, Herzegovina. B.M. 8075.
G. formdsa, Hort. =Cytisus racemosus. G. glabrescens, Briquet=
Cytisus emeriflorus. G. horrida, DC. Spiny rigid shrub, to 1 ft.:
Ivs. opposite, usually 3-foliolate, pubescent: fls. 1-3, in terminal
heads: pods rhombic-lanceolate, pubescent. S. France, Spain.
G.C. III. 53: 140. G. juncea, Lam.=Spartium junceum. G.
lusitdnica, Linn. Spiny shrub, 1-3 ft.: Ivs. 3-foliolate; Ifts. linear-
lanceolate, silky, very small: fls. in peduncled heads. Spain, Por-
tugal. G. nyssdna, Petrovich. Shrub, to 3 ft., silky-villous: Ivs.
3-foliolate: fls. in terminal leafy racemes to 8 in. long: pod rhombic,
villous, 2-seeded. Servia, Albania. I.T. 5:197. G. ovata, Waldst.
& Kit. Allied to G. tinctoria. To 1 ft., with ascending or erect
branches: Ivs. ovate to lanceolate, villous: pod villous. S. E. Eu.

L.B.C. 5:482. G. prostrdta, Lam.=Cytisus decumbens. G.
racemosa, Hort.=Cytisus racemosus. G. radidta. Scop. Erect
shrub, with opposite rigid branches: Ivs. simple or 3-foliolate: fls.
in 3-6-fld. heads: pod oval, silky. S. E. Eu. B.M. 2260. G.
Retdma, Nichols. =G. monosperma. G. scariosa, Viv.=G. trian-
gularis. G. scopdria, Lam.=Cytisus scoparius. G. trianguldris,
Willd. Dwarf, with ascending or procumbent triangular branches,
glabrous: Ivs. obovate to lanceolate, with transparent margin: fls.
in short racemes. Italy. S. E. Eu. L.B.C. 12: 1135 (as G. scariosa).

ALFRED REHDER.

GENTIANA (after Gentius, King of Illyria, who
is said to have discovered the tonic value of these
plants). Gentianace.se. Choice herbs, mostly blue-
flowered, grown in the open, many of them in alpine
gardening.

Chiefly perennial herbs, only rarely biennial or annual,
often dwarf, diffuse or frequently tufted, sometimes
erect and slender or even tall and stout: Ivs. opposite,
rarely verticillate, mostly sessile : fls. blue, violet, purple,
rarely dull yellow or white; floral parts typically 5,
rarely 4-7: fr. a caps. There are about 300 species,
widely scattered in temperate and mountainous regions.
Many botanists now consider the genus in a highly
restricted sense, taking up various names for gentians,
such as Amarella, Dasystephana, and so on, but they
are here all considered as of the genus Gentiana.

Gentians are amongst the most desirable of alpine
plants, and of blue flowers in general, but they are
usually considered difficult to establish. The genus is
the largest in the family, and from the horticultural
standpoint, the most important.

The blue gentian, celebrated by tourists in the Alps,
is mostly the stemless G. acaulis. This was brought to
English gardens so long ago that all record of its intro-
duction is lost. It is by far the most popular kind in
cultivation. This species is by some split into five
distinct forms, of which G. angustifolia, Vill. (not
Michx.), is nearest to the Gentianella of English gardens.
It has been so much modified in cultivation that it now
has stems 4 to 6 inches high and the rootstock is so
stoloniferous that the plant has to be cut back every
year when used for edgings in English gardens. In
France it is easily grown in a compost of one-half
humus or leaf-soil and one-half good vegetable mold,
to which may be added a little sand. Correvon writes:
"It can be multiplied by means of offsets, but it is
infinitely better to raise it from seed, and, in doing
this, it should not be forgotten that the seeds of this
group of gentians are very tedious, and, more espe-
cially, very capricious in germinating. I have sown
seeds of G. acaulis, some of which did not germinate
for twelve months, while others (which I must say
were more recently gathered) germinated in a few
weeks. The seedlings should be potted as soon as
possible and while they are very young. They will
begin to flower in about three years from the time of
sowing, rarely sooner." Except G. Andrewsii, G.
Saponaria and G. puberula, and perhaps a few others,
gentians do not thrive so well in America as in England.
Our seasons are too hot and dry. Whenever possible,
choose a damp atmosphere.

It is rash to generalize on gentian-culture, because
some plants are tall, others dwarf, some found on moun-
tains, others in lowlands, some in moist soil, others in
dry lands, while some like limestone and others cannot
endure it. The annual kinds are of interest only to the
expert. Alpine plants in general are singular in requir-
ing an extremely large water-supply, combined with
extremely good drainage. Another difficult problem is
to keep the plants as cool as they are on the mountains
without shading them more than nature does. Gentian
seeds are small, and in germination slow and uncer-
tain. They should be sown as soon as gathered, for the
thorough drying out of small seeds is, as a rule, soon
fatal. Gentians are difficult to establish, and dislike
division of the root, but are well worth patient years of
trial, for they are very permanent when once estab-
lished. Nature-like alpine gardens are one of the latest

1324

GENTIANA

and most refined departments of gardening, and gen-
tians are one of the most inviting groups of plants to
the skilled amateur. Consult Alpine Plants.

There are several fringed gentians, but ours (G. cri-
nita, Fig. 1625) is perhaps the most beautiful of gen-
tians, and one of the choicest and most delicate of
American wild flowers. It has been proposed as our

national flower, and,
while sought after less
than the trailing arbutus,
it is in even greater
danger of extermination
in certain states because
it is a biennial, and
because it has never been
successfully cultivated.
Seeds of G, crinita have
long been advertised,
but they are difficult
to germinate and the
plant is not seen in
American gardens. The
fringed gentian is,
however, firmly rooted
in American literature,
and from the time of
Bryant's ode many
tributes in verse have
been paid to its unique
beauty. The daily un-
folding of its square-
ridged and twisted buds
has been watched in
thousands of homes. By
the artists its blue is
often considered the
nearest approach to the
color of the sky, but it
must be confessed that
a shade of purple often appears in the older flowers.
Correvon makes four cultural groups of gentians:

1. Tall gentians for general culture: species whose
roots are more or less stout, which are of relatively easy
culture, and therefore suitable for borders, rockwork
and landscape gardening. Typical plant, G. lutea;
others are G. affinis, G. alba, G. Andrewsii, G. asclepia-
dea, G. Bigelovii, G. Burseri, G. Cruciata, G. decumbens,
G. Fetisowii, G. gelida, G. Kesselringii, G. macrophylla,
G. Olivieri, G. Pneumonanthe, G. Porphyrio, G. Sapo-
naria, G. sceptrum, G. septemfida and G. Walujewi.

2. Low-growing gentians: species whose roots being
less stout are adapted to rockwork, and for the open
ground only when a special compost is provided.
Includes G. acaulis and the species into which it is
sometimes divided.

3. Tufted gentians: species with sessile flowers
growing little above the level of the ground, and suited
to the same positions as Group II. Typical plant, G.
verna: others are G. bavarica, G. imbricata, G. oregana,
G. ornata, G. pyrenaica, and G. pumila.

4. Rare gentians: species which cannot be grown
without some special knowledge and practical experi-
ence. Typical plant, G. purpurea; others are G. ciliata,
G. Froelichii, G. punctata, and presumably all the rest.

The two most popular gentians in American cultiva-
tion seem to be G. acaulis and G. Andrewsii. These are
perhaps, followed by G. Cruciata, G. puberula and G.
baponaria. The plant which King Gentius knew is
probably G. lutea, the root of which furnishes the gen-
tian of drugstores. From the same sources comes the
liqueur or cordial called "gentiane."

In the index, those marked with an asterisk (*)
appear in American trade catalogues; the others are
cultivated abroad. (See also Suppl. list, p. 1328).
The plants are perennials and mountain-loving, unless
otherwise stated.

1625. Gentiana crinita.

INDEX.

*acaulis, 51.

*decumbens, 3.

adscendens, 3.

detonsa, 16.

affinis, 29.

dinarica, 56.

alata, 48.

ezcisa, 51.

*alba, 7, 19, 51.

Favratii, 48.

algida, 10, 11.

Fortunei, 27.

alpina, 55.

Freyniana, 28.

*Andrewsii, 22.

frigida, 9, 10.

angulosa, 48.

Froelichii, 18.

*angustifolia, 31, 52.

Gaudiniana, 43.

*asclepiadea, 19.

gelida, 11.

barbata, 16.

guttata, 20.

bavarica, 49.

imbricata, 47.

*Bigelovii, 39.

incarnata, 8.

brevidens, 37.

intermedia, 8.

Buergeri, 26.

Kochiana, 53.

Burseri, 2.

Kochii, 51.

*calycosa, 35.

Kurroo, 37.

campestris, 12.

*linearis, 23.

carpatica, 46.

*lutea, 1.

Catesbzi, 21,22.
ciliata, 15.

*macrophylla, 44.
Moorcroftiana, 13.

*Clusii, 54.

*Newberryi, 38.

cordifolia, 28.

nivalis, 46.

*crinita, 14.

occidentalis, 17.

*Cruciata, 45.

ochroleuca, 8.

dahurica, 30.

Olivieri, 30.

*oregana, 40.

ornata, 32.

pannonica, 42.
*Parryi, 36.

Pneumonanthe, 20.

Porphyrio, 31.

prostrata, 25.

pseudo-Pneit im>-

nanthe, ^--1.
*puberula, 41.

pumila, 50.
*punctata, 6.
*purpurea, 4.

pyrenaica, 24.

quinqueflora, 17.
*quinquefolia, 17.

rubra, 5.
*Saponaria, 21.
*scabra, 26.
*sceptrum, 34.
*septemfida, 28.

serrata, 16.

Thomasii, 4.

triflora, 33.

Veitchiorum, 32.

verna, 48.

villosa, 8.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

A. Calyx spathe-like, split in two.
B. Color of fls. yellowish.

c. Form of corolla wheel-shaped 1. lutea

cc. Form of corolla club-shaped, at

least in bud 2. Burseri

BB. Color of fls. blue or purple, at least
above.

c. Corolla plaited 3. decumbens

cc. Corolla not plaited.

D. Anthers grown together 4. purpurea

DD. Anthers free o. rubra

AA. Calyx with a tubular portion, and

usually 5 lobes.
B. Color of fls. yellowish, or greenish

white.

c. Style distinct: caps, not stalked.. . . 6. punctata
cc. Style none or very short: caps,
stalked.

D. Height 2 ft 7. alba

DD. Height 9-12 in 8. villosa

ODD. Height 6 in. or less.

E. Lobes of calyx longer than the

calyx-tube 9. frigida

EE. Lobes of calyx shorter than the
calyx-tube.

F. Lvs. lanceolate-linear 10. algida

FF. Lvs. ovate-lanceolate 11. gelida

BB. Color of fls. blue or purple,
c. Corolla not plaited.
D. Glands found at the base of the
filaments.

E. Calyx 4-cut 12. campestris

EE. Calyx 5-cut 13. Moorcrofti-

DD. Glands not found at the base of [ana

the filaments.

E. Fringed gentians: calyx 4-cut.
F. Caps, raised on a distinct

stalk.
G. Apex of lobes fringed, the

sides less so 14. crinita

QQ. Apex of lobes not fringed,

base fringed 15. ciliata

FF. Caps, on a very short stalk. . . 16. serrata
EE. Not fringed: calyx 5-cut; co-
rolla-lobes tipped with a sharp

point 17. quinquefolia

cc. Corolla plaited.

D. Stigmas 2, always distinct.
E. Caps, finally raised on a distinct

stalk.
F. Anthers permanently grown

together.

G. Calyx as long as the corolla.18. Froelichii
GG. Calyx one-half or one-third

as long as the corolla.

H. Seeds not at all winged. . . 19. asclepiadea
HH. Seeds slightly winged.

i. Fls. open 20. Pneumon-

[anthe
ii. Fls. closed, blue 21. Saponaria

GENTIANA

1325

HHH. Seeds strongly winded.

i. Fls. closed, purple 22. Andrews!!

ii. Fls. open 23. linearis

FF. Anthers free, at least finally.

G. Number of corolla-lobes 10.24. pyrenaica
GG. Number of corolla-lobes 5
(rarely 4)-

H. Calyx 4-lobed 25. prostrata

HH. Calyx o-lobed.

i. Lvs. distinctly rough above

(hispid-scabrous) 26. scabra

II. Lvs. distinctly rough at

the margins (scabrous).

j. Lobes of calyx shorter

than the calyx-tube. . .27. Fortune!
jj. Lobes of calyx as long as

the calyx-tube.
K. Corolla-lobes ovate,
acute, a little longer
than the much - cut

appendages 28. septemfida

KK. Corolla-lobes oblong-
lanceolate, obtuse ,
thrice as long as the
much-cut appen-
dages 29. affinis

in. Lvs. not distinctly rough

above or at margiiis.
j. Seeds not at all winged.
K. Form of corolla-lobes

linear-oblong 30. Olivier!

KK. Form of corolla-lobes
ovate, often broadly
so.
L. Fls. solitary.

M. Peduncled 31. Porphyrio

MM. Not peduncled... .32. ornata
LL. Fls. in clusters of 3-

5 or more.

M. Lvs. lanceolate-
linear 33. triflora

MM. Lvs. ovate to ob-
long-lanceolate.

N. Height 2-4 ft 34. sceptrum

NN. Height 9-12 in.
o. Calyx-lobes ov-
ate, about as
long as the
calyx-tube. ... 35. calycosa
oo. Calyx-lobes lin-
ear, moderate-
ly or much
shorter than
the calyx-tube.36. Parrvi
jj. Seeds winged (at the
base in G. Kurroo, in
G. Bigelovii wings
narrow, thickish).
K. Height 2-8 in.: fls.

spotted.
L. Pedicel y^in. long or

more 37. Kurroo

LL. Pedicel very short,

practically absent. . 38. Newberryi
KK. Height 1-2 ft.

L. Fls. in a dense spike.39. Bigelovii
LL. Fls. 1 to few or

several.

M. Appendages con-
spicuous, some-
times nearly as
long as the corolla-
lobes 40. oregana

MM. Appendages only
half as long as
the corolla-lobes. . 41. puberula
EE. Caps, sessile.

F. Anthers grown together; style

distinct: seeds winged.
G. Calyx 5-cut, the lobes longer

than the calyx-tube 42. pannonica

GG. Calyx entire, truncate, indis-
tinctly 5-lobed 43. Gaudiniana

FF. Anthers free; style usually

not distinct: seeds not winged.

a. Lvs. 6-12 in. long: calyx 5-6-

lobed 44. macrophylla

GG. Lvs. much shorter: calyx 4-

lobed 45. Cruciata

DD. Stigmas contiguous, rather fun-
nel-shaped, the margin crenate-
fimbriate.
E. Anthers free; style distinct.

F. Calyx pellucid, veiny 46. carpatica

FF. Calyx leafy.

G. Seeds winged 47. imbricata

GG. Seeds not winged.

H. Lvs. ovate 48. verna

HH. Lvs. obovate 49. bavarica

HHH. Lvs. linear 50. pumila

EE. Anthers connate; style short.
F. Fls. spotted.

G. Color deep blue 51. acaulis

GG. Color sky-blue 52. angustifolia

GGG. Color violet-blue 53. Kochiana

FF. Fls. not spotted.

G. Corolla broadly bell-shaped.

H. Size of fls. large 54. Clusii

HH. Size of fls. small 55. alpina

GG. Corolla almost cylindrical.. .56. dinarica

1. lutea, Linn. Fls. in dense, umbel-like cymes;
corolla 5-6-parted; lobes oblong-linear, acuminate;
anthers free; style none. July-Sept. Eu., Asia Minor.
Gn. 64, p. 59. G.W. 3, p. 290. Prop, only by seed.
Sow seed in Nov. in coldframe. Seedlings appear the
following March and April. In May and June prick
them out under a coldframe, and in Aug. transfer
young plants to pots, where they should be kept until
needed for permanent outdoor use. Be very careful
never to break the roots. Sometimes cult, abroad for
medicine.

2. Burseri, Lapeyr. A low perennial, less than 1 ft.,
with a simple st.: Ivs. elliptic-ovate, 7-nerved: corolla
mostly 6-cut; the tube much longer than the limb; lobes
ovate-oblong, acute; anthers connate; style distinct.
June, July. Pyrenees. Cult, like preceding.

3. decumbens, Linn. f. (G. adscendens, Pall.). A
stout, erect herb with fl.-sts. 2-10 in. tall: Ivs. mostly
radical, oblong or elliptic, margins scabrous: fls. blue;
calyx-tube M m - l n g) often split nearly to the base;
corolla narrowly obconical, toothed between the lobes;
lobes 5, ovate; anthers connate, finally free. Hima-
layas, Tibet. June-Aug. B.M. 705, 723. Cult, like
G. lutea.

4. purpurea, Linn. Lvs. ovate-oblong, 5-nerved: fls.
purple above; corolla-tube yellowish, club-shaped;
lobes mostly 6, obovate-subrotund, one-third the length
of the tube. Aug., Sept. Eu. L.B.C. 6:583 shows a
rich, dull purple, with no trace of blue. Compost of
sphagnum and heath soil. Be careful not to break the
roots.

5. rilbra, Clairv. (G. Thomasii, Gillaboz). One of 5 or
more natural hybrids between G. lutea and some species
of the section Coelanthe, which includes G. punctata,
G. purpurea, G. Pannonica, and G. Burseri: fls. purplish
outside. Swiss Alps.

6. punctata, Linn. Lvs. 5-nerved: calyx 5-7-cut;
corolla-tube bell-shaped; lobes ovate, muticous, one-
third the length of the tube; anthers finally free. Cent.
Eu. The spots are not arranged in any definite order.
This belongs to the section Coelanthe, in which the
seed has a wing of the same color, while the next 5
species belong to the section Pneumonanthe, in which
there is no wing, or it is of a different color. Cult, like
G. Froelichii.

7. alba, Muhl. St. stout: Ivs. acuminate, with a
clasping base: fls. in a terminal head, with single or
clustered ones in the upper axils; dull white, commonly
tinged yellowish or greenish; corolla resembling G.
Saponaria, but more bell-shaped and open ; lobes ovate,
short, little if at all spreading. Low grounds and moun-
tain meadows, N. Amer. B.M. 1551 (as G. ochroleuca).
This species now takes the name G. flavida, Gray.

1326

GENTIANA

8. villdsa, Linn. (G. ochroleuca, Froel.). St. smooth
scending, simple or nearly so, slender, 6-18 in. tall:
Ivs. ovate-lanceolate and obovate: fls. in crowded
terminal, nearly sessile, leafy clusters, or sometimes
axillary; corolla yellowish white or greenish, club-
shaped, connivent at the apex. E. N. Amer. Not
B.M. 1551. Var. intermedia, Griseb. (G. intermedia,
Sims, not L.B.C. 3:218), may be a hybrid between this
and G. Andrewsii. It resembles G. ochroleuca in having
calyx-lobes of unequal lengths, but as long as or longer
than the calyx-tube, and free anthers: it resembles
G. Andrewsii in the tinge of purplish blue. B.M. 2303.
Var. incarnata, Griseb. (G. incarnata,- Sims), B.M.
1856, from Carolina is not cult. These forms are not
considered worthy of varietal rank in Gray's Syn. Fl.

9. frigida, Haenke. Lvs. spatulate-linear, obtuse: fls.
1 or 2 at the top, sometimes a few in the upper axils;
calyx not laterally cut, and half as long as the corolla or
more; calyx-teeth lanceolate, a little longer than the
calyx-tube; corolla club-shaped, plaits not cut. Car-
pathian Mts.; also N. Amer. This is the true type of
G. frigida, which is not in cult., but is inserted to make
clear the differences between G. algida of Pallas and of
Steven.

10. algida, Pall., not Stev. (G. frigida var. algida,
Griseb.). Lvs. lanceolate-linear: fls. 2-5 at the top and
distinctly pedicelled ; calyx

laterally cut and one-third the
length of the corolla; calyx-
teeth linear-lanceolate, hardly
as long as the calyx-tube and
sometimes only half as long;
corolla between club- and bell-
shaped; plaits cut with a few
crenate teeth. Altai Mts., E.
Siberia, N. Amer. Gn. 17, p.
343, same as Gn. 27, p. 89; 48,
p. 146. This grows 4-5 in.
high, has numerous sts. and fls.
nearly 2J^ in. long, whitish,
with blue spots in longitudinal
lines.

11. gelida.Bieb. (G.
dlgida, Stev., not
Pall.). Lvs. ovate-
lanceolate, 3-neryed :
fls. few and terminal,
or many in the upper
axils, peduncled;
calyx-teeth linear-ob-
long, acute, nearly as
long as the calyx-tube
or shorter than it;
corolla rather bell-
shaped, yellowish
white, its lobes

broadly ovate, twice as long as the calyx and twice
as long as the lacerated plaits. June, July. Caucasus.
Not P.M. 7:5, which is G. septemfida var. cordifolia.
"Light, deep, cool soil and full sunlight." Correvon.

12. campestris, Linn. A low slender annual with
erect st. 2-6 in. tall: Ivs. sessile, ovate-lanceolate, 3-5-
neryed: fls. dark purplish blue, short-pedicelled, but in
various kinds of clusters; calyx 4-cut; corolla nearly
bowl-shaped, crowned; anthers free; style none. Eu.

13. Moorcroftiana, Wall. A stiff annual 8-16 in.
high: fls. pale blue in nearly terminal cymes which are
racemosely clustered; calyx 5-cut; corolla funnel-shaped,
about 1^2 m - wide. Himalayas. B.M. 6727, where fls.
are shown as pale purple.

14. crinita, Froel. Fig. 1625. FRINGED GENTIAN.
Biennial or often annual: erect, branched, 1-2 ft. high:
Ivs. lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, acutish, from a
rounded or subcordate partly clasping base: corolla-

'7
1626. Gentiana Andrewsii.

lobes wedge-obovate: seeds roughened by scales or
needle-like projections. Moist woods and meadows. N.
Amer. B.M. 2031. Mn. 4:161. B.B. 2:613. The ribs
of the calyx (made by the decurrent lobes) are one of
the minor beauties of this plant, and are probably more
pronounced than in the other fringed gentians here
described. Almost impossible to grow in cult.

15. ciliata, Linn. Perennial: st. flexuose, scarcely
branched: Ivs. linear, obtuse: corolla-lobes obovate-
oblong: seeds smooth. Dry limestone soils. Eu. Not
B.M. 639, which is G. serrata. Hardly 3 per cent of
Correvon's seedlings have flowered. He recommends
a heavy, compact soil which is almost clayey, and full
sunlight.

16. serrata, Gunner (G. barbata, Froel. G. detdnsa,
Griseb. G. detonsa var. barbata, Griseb.). Annual:
st. erect, branching, 3-18 in. high: Ivs. linear or lance-
linear: corolla-lobes oblong or spatulate-obovate,
fringed around the apex and sides or sometimes either
part nearly bare. Wet lands, Ural and Altai Mts., Cau-
casus, N. Amer. B.B. 2:614. B.M. 639 (erroneously
as G. ciliata) . No plants appear to be advertised as G.
serrata. G. barbata is a trade name abroad.

17. quinquefolia, Linn. (G. quinqueflora, Hill, Lam.
and others). Annual: height 1-2 ft., the larger plants
branched: Ivs. 3-7-nerved: infl. thyrsoid- paniculate;
clusters 3-5-fld.; fls. bright blue; calyx one-fifth or one-
fourth as long as the narrowly funnel-shaped corolla.
N. Amer. Probably the form in cult, is var. occiden-
talis, Gray. Height 2-3 ft., paniculately much
branched: infl. more open; calyx half the length of the
broader corolla. B.B. 2:615. B.M. 3496. Very pretty.

18. Froelichii, Jan. Sts. short, almost tufted: fls.
blue, solitary, peduncled, nearly as long as the st.;
corolla not spotted. Very rare in Alps, limestone rocks.
Easily grown on rockwork in compost of equal parts
of sphagnum, heath soil and vegetable-mold. Half-
exposure to sunlight.

19. asclepiadea, Linn. St. strict, about 1-1 Yi ft.
tall: Ivs. sessile, ovate-lanceolate: calyx-teeth very
short: fls. in spike-like racemes, dark blue, very showy;
corolla club-shaped; calyx one-third as long as the
corolla: seeds not winged. July-Sept. S. Eu., Caucasus.
B.M. 1078. Gn. 48, p. 143, and 54, p. 39. G.M. 47:544.
Gt. 54, p. 345. G. 3:59; 8:481; 13:403; 21:233. Var.
alba, a white-fld. form is excellent but perhaps not
known outside of English trade. Shade or half-shade,
and moist, deep soil rich in humus.

20. Pneumon&nthe, Linn. St. erect: fls. dark blue
in a cyme-like raceme (the top fls. opening first);
corolla club-shaped; lobes ovate, acute, mucronate,
much longer than the appendages. Aug.-Oct. Moun-
tain marshes, Eu., N. Asia. Var. guttata, Sims, is
dotted white. B.M. 1101. "Requires a cool, deep,
spongy soil, rich in humus. Dislikes lime, and prefers
sandy soil. Does remarkably well when planted on
margins of ponds or brooks. Prop, by seed or division."
Correvon.

21. Saponaria, Linn. (G. Catesbsei, Walt., not Andr.).
BARREL or SOAPWORT GENTIAN. St. ascending: fls.
light blue, club-shaped; calyx-lobes linear or oblong,
mostly as long as the calyx-tube; corolla-lobes short,
broad, roundish, erect, little, and often not at all
longer than the 2-cleft and many-toothed intervening
appendages. N. Amer. B.M. 1039. (Hooker is prob-
ably wrong in referring this picture to G. Andrewsii,
although the calyx-lobes in the plate are not narrow
enough.) Cult, like preceding.

22. Andrewsii, Griseb. (G. Catesbsei, Andr., not Walt.).
CLOSED, BLIND or BOTTLE GENTIAN. Fig. 1626. St.
ascending: fls. purplish blue; calyx-lobes lanceolate to
ovate, usually spreading or recurved, shorter than the
calyx-tube; corolla-lobes entirely obliterated, the teeth
at the top being supposed to be the remains of the

XL VII. Gentiana crinita.

GENTIANA

1327

appendages often found between the corolla-lobes in
other species. July, Aug. Moist places. E. N. Amer.
B.M. 6421. B.B. 2:616. Gn. 27:86. G.W. 4, p. 549.
F.W. 1879:33. L.B.C. 9:815 (erroneously as G. Sapo-
naria). A white-fld. form is cult, but very rare. For
cult., see G. Pneumonanthe.

23. linearis, Froel. (G. pseudo-Pneumondnthe, Schult.).
St. strict, 1-2 ft. high: fls. blue, 1-5 in the terminal
cluster; corolla narrowly funnel-shaped; lobes erect,
roundish ovate, obtuse, a little longer than the triangu-
lar, acute, entire or 1-2-toothed appendages. Bogs,
N. Amer. B.B. 2:617.

24. pyrenaica, Linn. St. tufted, about as long as the
fl., often forming mats: Ivs. with a cartilaginous, . sca-
brous margin: fls. solitary, dark blue; corolla funnel-
or nearly bowl-shaped, as long as or exceeding the
corolla which is about 1 in. long. May, June. Eu.,
Asia Minor. B.M. 5742. Very distinct and dainty.
Cult, like G. verna.

25. prostr&ta, Haenke (Chondrophylla americdna,
Nelson). Annual, dwarf: Ivs. white-margined: fls.
azure-blue, solitary and terminal, the parts in 4's;
corolla salver-form, in fruit inclosing the long-stalked
caps. W. N. Amer. Alpine.

26. scabra, Bunge. St. erect, leafy, rough-hairy
above: basal Ivs. almost perfoliate, ovate, acute, faintly
3-nerved, the margins rough toothed: fls. dark blue,
clustered; corolla bell-shaped. E. Asia. G. Fortunei is
considered a variety by recent authorities. (G.C. III.
47:136). Var. Buergeri (G. Buergeri, Miq.) is
advertised by Yokohama Nursery Co. It differs in
having a narrower corolla with shorter and more trian-
gular lobes. Probably not in Amer. except in botanic
gardens.

27. F6rtunei, Hook. Lvs. rather distant, 3-nerved:
terminal fls. rather clustered; corolla-lobes blue, spotted
white; outside of tube green; plaits blue, terminated by
3-toothed appendages, much shorter than the corolla-
lobes. China. B.M. 4776. F.S. 9:947. I.H. 1:36.
Now thought to be a variety of G. scabra, but not so
considered by Miquel.

28. septemfida, Pall. Lvs. lanceolate ("ovate,"
according to Grisebach), 3-5-nerved: fls. dark blue, in
head-like cymes; calyx-lobes linear; corolla club-shaped.
July-Oct. N. Asia, Orient. B.M. 1229 and 1410 (both
purple outside and dotted brown within; the lobes of
the latter spotted white). G. 34:773. L.B.C. 1:89.
Gn. 54, p. 37. P.M. 8:51. Not F.S. 8:765. G. Frey-
nidna, Hort., is said to differ from the type in having
larger fls. which are less prominently fringed between
the segms. of the corolla. G.C. III. 46:202. Gn. 75,
p. 421; 77, p. 168. Var. cordifdlia, Boiss. (G. cordifolia,
C. Koch), has heart-shaped Ivs.: corolla-tube greenish
white outside, unspotted within; lobes narrower,
unspotted. B.M. 6497. P.M. 7:5 (erroneously as G.
gelidd) . The name septemfida is misleading, as 7-lobed
corollas are very rare. Cult, like G. lutea.

29. affinis, Griseb. Sts. clustered, 3-9 in. high:
lower Ivs. obovate-oblong; upper Ivs. lanceolate,
acutish: fls. dark blue, in thyrsoid-racemose clusters, a
few or sometimes solitary; calyx-lobes oblong-linear
and sharp-pointed; corolla narrowly obconical, open,
the lobes spreading. N. W. Amer. Gn. 46, p. 77 and
48, p. 139. B.B. 2:615 (where corolla-lobes are pic-
tured erect, but said to be spreading). Cult, like G.
Pneumonanthe .

30. Olivieri, Griseb. (G. dahurica, Fisch., which is
probably the oldest name). Fls. dark blue, in umbel-
like cymes; corolla narrowly obconical; plaits trian-
gular, nearly entire. June-Aug. Mountain pastures,
Asia.- By recent authority referred to G. decumbens,
but differing from that species only in having equal
calyx-lobes. Cult, like G. lutea Useful in the rockery,
but will not grow well in the hot dry summer of E. U. S.

31. Porphyrio, J. F. Gmel. (G. angustifolia, Michx.,
not Vill.). Lvs. narrowly linear: fls. blue, somewhat
brown-dotted (also a snow-white variety with a greenish
hue outside); corolla funnel-shaped; anthers connivent
but never connected. July, Aug. Moist pine-barrens,
N. Amer. B.B. 2:618. Cult, like G. Pneumonanthe.

32. ornata, Wall. Branches many from the same
root: Ivs. broadly linear: fls. solitary, blue, streaked;
calyx-lobes spreading; corolla ventricose, about 1-1 M
in. long; lobes very short, spreading. Himalayas.
B.M. 6514 and 8140. G.C. II. 20:396; 111.46:179.
Gn. 59, p. 249. A form that differs from the type in
being more robust, with larger fls. and broader corolla-
lobes which are "intense blue," is offered as G. Veitch-
ibrum, Hemsl. It is a native of W. China, "where it
covers large areas," according to E. H. Wilson (Natural-
ist in Western China, 1 : 139), its discoverer. Intro,
into England in 1904. Alpine. Gn. 73, p. 479. G.C.
111.46:178.

33. trifldra, Pall. St. erect: Ivs. oblong-linear, blunt:
fls. solitary, dark blue, the calyx 5-toothed, acute,
and elongate; corolla club-shaped or bell-shaped, the
anthers free. E. Siberia. Probably not now in cult, in
Amer. outside of botanic gardens.

34. sceptrum, Griseb. An erect, leafy perennial,
from 2-4 ft. high: Ivs. oblong-lanceolate: fls. dark blue;
corolla bell-shaped, about 1 in. long: seeds winged on
one side according to Grisebach, but Gray says not
winged. Aug., Sept. N. W. Amer. Cult, like G. lutea,
except that it requires half shade and a rather peaty
soil.

35. calycdsa, Griseb. About 1 ft. high: Ivs. ovate,
about %in. long, the 2 upper commonly involucrate
around the fl.: fls. dark blue, commonly solitary,
according to Gray; corolla oblong -funnel -shaped;
appendages triangular-awl-shaped, laciniate or 2-cleft
at the tip. N. W. Amer. G.M. 47:541.

36. Parryi, Engelm. Sts. many, from a rather
woody root, about 9 in. tall: Ivs. somewhat glaucous,
ovate to oblong-lanceolate, the upper pairs involucrate
around the 1-5 purple-blue fls.: appendages narrow,
deeply 2-cleft. N. W. Amer.

37. Kurrod, Royle. St. tufted, as high as 7 in.:
lower Ivs. lanceolate, upper linear: fls. blue, spotted
white inside, 1-3 on a st.; corolla bell-shaped. Hima-
layas. Gn. 17:264. B.M. 6470. Var. brevidens has
shorter calyx-lobes. J.H. III. 30:3.

38. Newberryi, Gray. St. 2-4 in. high: lower Ivs.
obovate or spatulate: fls. pale blue, white inside, green-
ish dotted; calyx-lobes oblong or lanceolate, nearly as
long as the tube; corolla broadly funnel-shaped, its
lobes ovate and sharp-pointed. N.W. Amer. Alpine.

39. Bigelovii, Gray. St. 6-16 in. high, equally leafy
to the summit: fls. purple; corolla more narrowly
funnelform and smaller than in G. affinis. July, Aug.
New Mex., Colo. B.M. 6874. "Soon forms large
clumps, often with 40-50 sts. from a single plant, each
bearing 10-20 bright blue fls." D. M. Andrews.

40. oregana, Engelm. Height 1-2 ft.: Ivs. ovate or
ovate-oblong, 1-1 1/2 in. long: fls. blue, a few at the sum-
mit or several and loosely racemose; corolla broadly
funnel-shaped, over 1 in. long; lobes short, roundish.
July, Aug. N. W. Amer.

41. puberula, Michx. Perennial, usually solitary-
stemmed herb from 8-18 in. tall: Ivs. oblong-lanceo-
late to lanceolate-linear: fls. blue, sessile or nearly so in
the upper axils; corolla open-funnel-shaped, 1^-2 in.
long; lobes ovate. E. N. Amer. B.B. 2:615.

42. pannonica, Scop. A tall stout perennial: lower
Ivs. broadly elliptical, 5-nerved, margin scabrous;
upper ones ovate-lanceolate, also 5-nerved: fls. purple
above; calyx 5-7-cut; corolla leathery, distinctly
spotted; anthers connate at first, finally free. .Eu.

1328

GENTIANA

43. Gaudiniana, Thorn. Natural hybrid with the
habit of G. purpurea, but the membranous corolla of G.
punctata: fls. rosy violet. Eu., but not widely cult.

44. macrophylla, Pall. Perennial, with erect or ascend-
ing St.: Ivs. lanceolate, distant, very spreading, 3-
nerved, the upper often connate-perfoliate; internodes
unequal: fls. dark blue. July, Aug. B.M. 1414, not
L.B.C. 3:218. N. Eu. and Asia. Cult, like G. lutea.

45. Cruciata, Linn. (Crucidta verticilldta, Gilib.). An
erect and leafy perennial: Ivs. ovate-lanceolate,
crowded, erect-spreading, the upper connate-perf oliate ;
internodes equal: fls. axillary, in sparse clusters, dark
blue. June-Aug. Eu., N. Asia. Cult, like G. lutea.
Prefers limestone and full sunlight.

46. carpatica, Kit. (Probably G. nivdlis, Linn.). A
slender perennial with small obovate Ivs.: fls. solitary,
axillary or terminal, dark blue (as are the next 4 spe-
cies); corolla funnel-shaped, scarcely exceeding %in.
long. Carpathian Mts. Little known.

47. imbricata, Froel. Lvs. acute, margins scabrous,
(the next 3 species with smooth margins) : corolla-lobes
subrotund. June, July. Limestone rocks, Alps. In
this and the next 3 species, the corolla-lobes are usually
crenate, half the length of the tube, and 6 times the
length of the plaits. "Eastern and granitic Alps."
Correvon. Cult, like G. bavarica.

48. verna, Linn. Fig. 1627. Tufted: st. angled: Ivs.
ovate or ovate-lanceolate : fls. solitary; calyx membran-
aceous; corolla nearly bowl-shaped; lobes ovate, obtuse.
Apr.-June. Eu., Caucasus. B.M. 491. L.B.C. 1:62.
R.H. 1859, p. 250. Gn. 48, p. 139; 75, p. 284.
G.C. II. 24:373. J.H. III. 52:58. G.W. 23:431. Var.
alata, Griseb. (G. angulbsa, Bieb.), is taller and has the
nerves of the ventricose calyx produced into wings.
Rockwork, in a compost of heath-soil, finely crushed
granite, and vegetable-mold, with full sunlight. A
supposed hybrid between this and the following has
been described as G. Favrdtii, Hort. The plant is
practically unknown in Amer.

49. bavSrica, Linn. Calyx-lobes lanceolate; corolla
funnel- or nearly bowl-shaped; lobes obovate, obtuse;
ovary sessile: seeds not winged. May-Aug. Cent. Eu.
F.S. 7:651. L.B.C. 13:1256. J.H. III. 35:585. Gn.
15:278 (poor). The pictures cited all show a salver-
shaped corolla. "Requires a soil that is peaty, or at the
very least porous and cool, well drained, and capable of
retaining an abundant supply of moisture, although it

may be fully ex-
posed to the sun.
In the alpine
garden here we
grow them in
pure sphagnum
moss on a wall
facing due south,
but the plants
which we raise
for sale are grown
in pots in a com-
post of sphag-
num, heath -soil
and sand. Finest
of Group III."
Correvon.

1627. Gentiana verna. ( X %) 50. pftmila,

Jacq. A tiny

almost moss-like gentian with a 3-4-angled st.: Ivs.
clustered, scarcely more than J^in. long: fls. solitary
terminal; calyx-lobes linear; corolla deep blue, the lobes
ovate, acute. June, July. Tyrolese and Carinthian Alps.

51. acaulis, Linn. (G. exdsa, Presl.). GENTIANELLA.
STEMLESS GENTIAN. Fig. 1628. By the botanists of
continental Eu. this is often split up into the 4 or 5
following species. The plants that Linnaeus had in

mind were probably mostly G. Clusii and G. Kochiana.
For pictures of G. acaulis in its widest sense, see B. M.
52. G.C. III. 15:236. G.W. 3, p. 289. J.H. III. 52:59.
R.B. 28:204. Gn. 48, p. 146; 54, p. 39. F.S. 23:2421,
where a more detailed account of the 4 following species

1628. Gentiana acaulis.

is given. A var. Kochii, Hort., is known but it may
well be G. Kochiana. A white-fld. form, var. alba, is
advertised.

52. angustifdlia, Vill., not Michx. Stoloniferous:
Ivs. linear-oblong, narrowing toward the base,
glistening above: fls. spotted with sprightly green;
calyx-lobes more or less spreading, oval, abruptly con-
tracted at the base. May, June. Limestone rocks,
Alps. Considered by Correvon the handsomest spe-
cies of the whole genus.

53. Kochiana, Perr. & Song. Lvs. large, flat, thin,
spreading, oval or broadly oblong, light green: calyx-
lobes oblong, limp, more or less contracted at the base
and separated by truncate sinuses; corolla with 5 black-
ish green spots on the throat. May, June. Common in
pastures on granitic Alps. Dislikes lime. It seems
almost certain that this is the G. acaulis var. Kochii of
many gardeners.

54. Clftsii, Perr. & Song. A low acaulescent peren-
nial perhaps not different from G. acaulis and so con-
sidered in "Index Kewensis:" Ivs. lanceolate-acute,
leathery: fls. dark blue; calyx-lobes pressed close
against corolla, not contracted at base, and separated
by acute sinuses. May, June. Limestone rocks, Alps.

55. alpina, Vill. St. almost wanting: Ivs. small,
glistening, curving inward and imbricated, forming
rosettes which incurve at about the middle: fls. dark
blue. May, June. Granitic Alps. This and G. Kochi-
ana "require a compost of one-third crushed granite,
one-third heath soil, and one-third vegetable loam, and
should be planted on rockwork half exposed to the sun."

56. dinarica, Beck. Lvs. broad, thick, erect: fls.
dark blue. Certainly a mere form of G. acaulis, but
described as differing from that species in having no
spots on the corolla. Alps of S. and E. Austria.

The following are names of gentians not sufficiently described
for insertion above or as yet scarcely known in cult. : G. arverntnsis,
Hort. Perhaps a var. of G. Pneumonanthe. Fls. Napoleon blue.
See G.C. II. 20:40, desc. G. 29:7. G. Charpentieri, Thorn. Natural
hybrid, intermediate between G. lutea and G. punctata: corolla
spotted red; calyx 5-cut. Grisebach does not say whether the
corolla is not plaited, anthers always free, and style none. Alps,
above Engadine. G. corymbifera, Hort., is described as 12-18 in.
high, with usually simple sts. branching toward the top: fls. white,
about 1 in. diam. New Zeal. G.C. III. 46:203. G. Fetisdwii, Regel.
St. erect, tall: fls. deep blue. China. Gt. 31:1069. G. Hsengsiii,
Hausm.=G. Kummeriana. G. Kesselringii, Regel. Height about
8 in.: fls. whitish, dotted violet outside. Turkestan. Gt. 31:1087.
G. Kummeriana, Sendt. Hybrid between G. lutea and G. Pannonica.
Fls. yellowish. G. L&wrencei, Burkill. Allied to G. ornata but dis-
tinguished by the much longer linear Ivs. : corolla about 1 % i n
long, blue above, the tube paler with dark blue lines. Mongolia.
G.C. III. 38:307. G. Wallichiana. Height 8-12 in.: fls. clear blue.
G. Walujewi, Regel & Schmalh. Fls. whitish, dotted pale blue.
Turkestan. Gt. 33:1140. WlLHELM MlLLER.

N. TAYLOR.!

GENUS

GEONOMA

1329

GENUS, pi. GENERA (i. e., kind), is a term used in
natural history to designate a group of species. As with
species, so the genus is an indefinite conception, varying
with the author. The chief value of the conception is
its use in aiding us conveniently to arrange and name
plants and animals. The name of the genus is the first
of the two words in the name of the plant: thus, in
Brassica oleracea, Brassica designates the genus, and
oleracea the particular Brassica of which we are speak-
ing. It is difficult to trace the origin of the genus-
conception in natural history, but it is usually ascribed
to Konrad Gesner (Zurich, 1516-1565). L. H. B.

GEODORUM (gift of the earth). Orchidacex. Orchids
of minor importance, E. Indies to Austral., with radi-
cal lanceolate or elliptical Ivs., tuberous bulb-like
rootstocks, and vari-colored fls. in a nodding spike
on the top of the scape; sepals and petals similar, lip
upright: terrestrial. Belongs in the same sub-group
or tribe as Cyrtopodium and Eulophia. In habit, they
somewhat resemble Phaius and
Eulophia, and require similar
treatment, with potting in fibrous
loam and peat. Apparently not
offered in this country, but some-
times grown abroad in collec-
tions. G. purpureum, R. Br.,
from India: Hke a Bletia in
habit: Ivs. large: scape erect,
bearing a densely-fld. drooping
raceme; fls. small, white with purple
markings on the lip. G. fucatum,
Lindl., of Ceylon: 1 ft.: Ivs. oblong-
lanceolate and plicate, the scapes re-
curved at the apex: fl. with pink nar-
row sepals and ovate lip. B.R. 1687.
G. pictum, Lindl., from New. Holland,
grows 1-2 ft., with dull rose-purple
fls. shaded brown and white, borne in
dense racemes. G. dilatatum, R. Br.,
of India, 6-12 in. high, fls. white
marked pink and yellow, borne on an
erect scape. G. plicatum, Voigt.=
Phaius. L. H. B.

GEONOMA (Wittstein gives this
interesting explanation: "Greek, geo-
nomos, skilled in agriculture: for this
tree puts forth buds at the apex of
its stem which become new trees").
Pabnaceze, tribe Arecese. Slender spine-
less palms with ringed, reed-like stems
much cultivated for their excellent decorative pos-
sibilities.

Leaves terminal or alternate, usually crowded in
showy clusters; blade entire, 2-lobed at the apex, or
more or less pinnatisect; segms. acuminate, 1-nerved,
with the margins broadly recurved at the base; rachis
acute above, convex on the back; petiole nearly cylin-
drical, concave at the base above; sheath tubular:
spadices ascending or recurved, simple, forked or panic-
ulately branched, slender or stout, often colored;
spathes 2, often deciduous before flowering, or obsolete,
the lower one partial, truncate, concave, the upper
compressed or fusiform; fls. monrecious in each spadix,
borne in the furrows of the spadix, at length partially
exserted, when in 3's the upper one pistillate; cells of
the anthers twisted: fr. small, globose, black. Species
about 100. Trop. Amer. G.C. II. 24:586. A.G. 16:
345. For G. Ghiesbreghtiana, see Calyptrogyne.

Several of the members of this extensive genus of
small-growing palms are useful for the greenhouse,
though most attractive while in a small state, from the
fact that geonomas soon begin to form a stem, and
when aged become rather scantily furnished specimens.
These palms are by no means difficult to grow, and do

1629. Geonoma Spixiana.

not require a very high temperature, their natural
habitat being the mountains of Central and South
America, some of the species being found at an altitude
of over 4,000 feet above sea-level. Geonomas form part
of the undergrowth on their native mountains, and are
said never to appear in the open country unsheltered
by trees of larger growth; therefore, shade is necessary
for them when cultivated under glass. The old practice
of growing geonomas in a very light peaty soil does
not seem to be the only method, for excellent results
have been secured by growing them in a good loam,
well manured and well drained, giving an abundance of
water and a night temperature of 60. Red spiders
and thrips are the most troublesome insects to which
these plants are subject, and both of these pests multi-
ply much more rapidly if the plants are kept too warm
and dry. (W. H. Taplin.)

The most useful species from a commercial point of
view is G. Riedeliana (G. gracilis), which reminds one
of Cocos Weddelliana, but has longer leaflets. The
species are undoubtedly con-
fused under cultivation, and
often unidentified. They are
said not to be grown in the
open in southern California,
at least, not to any extent.
The species here listed
appear to be those of most
horticultural importance
here.

A. Los. simple, 2-lobed at the apex.
B. Cuneate-oblanceolate, rusty, tomentose.
Spixiina, Mart. Fig. 1629 (adapted
from Martius' work on palms). St.
slender, solitary, 6-9 ft. high: Ivs. in a
dense, graceful cluster; blades 3-5 ft.
long, bifurcate one-fourth of their
length, each lobe lanceolate-acuminate,
divergent: spadix from between the
Ivs., about 3 ft. long; fls. small, the calyx
and corolla equal. W. Brazil.

BB. Cuneate-ovate, plicate.
Seemannii, Hort. Low, 1-3 ft. high:
Ivs. all alike, the first 2 in. long, the
later ones 10 in. long, entire, or 2-lobed,
usually deeply cleft at the apex, plaited,
feather-veined; stalk triangular, sheath-
ing at the base, with broad, scarious
margins: fls. unknown. F.M. 1869:428.
Cent. Amer.

AA. Lvs. pinnate.
B. Basal If. -segms. narrow; the upper ones the broadest.

acaulis, Mart. Acaulescent: Ivs. in a congested,
rosette-like cluster, long-petioled, 3-4 ft. high; blade
unequally pinnatisect, with usually 6 segms. on both
sides of the rachis; 22-25-nerved, basal segms. 4 lines
wide, spreading, the middle and upper erect-spreading
at an acute angle, %^4 in. wide, the apical very wide:
spadix stiff, usually about 18 in. long, the stalk very
thick; fls. numerous: fr. unknown. Cent. Brazil.

BB. Broad and narrow segms. irregularly intermingled.
c. Blade of If. 6 ft. long; petiole 1 ft. long.

Pohliana, Mart. St. 12-15 ft. high, slender, densely
ringed, columnar or reedy: Ivs. very numerous, erect or
spreading, forming a much congested, showy cluster, in
adult specimens; segms. very unequal, linear-lanceo-
late, falcate-acuminate, few-nerved and many-nerved
intermixed, 16-20 in. long; petioles very short: spadix
scarcely showing among the dense cluster of Ivs. Trop.
Brazil. Cult, most advantageously in a warm moist
house. The young specimens are attractive for potted
plants.

1330

GEONOMA

GERANIUM

aconitifolium, 10.
album, 13, 15, 16.
anemonifolium, 3.
argenteum, 6.
armenum, 14.
Backhousianum, 14.
canariense, 3.
cinereurn, 7.
collinum, 24.
Endressii, 22.
enanthum, 17.
eriostemon, 18.
flore-pleno, 15.

Fremontii, 12.
grandiflorum, 20.
Greyilleanum, 25.
ibericum, 13.
incisum, 17.
lancastriense, 11.
Londesii, 24.
macrorrhizum, 5.
maculatum, 16.
malvaeflorum, 4.
nepalense, 21.
phseum, 8.

platyanthum, 18.
platypetalum, 13.
plenum, 16.
pratense, 15.
prostratum, 11.
Richardsonii, 9.
Robertianum, 1.
sanguineum, 11.
sibiricum, 19.
subargenteum, 7.
Traversii, 2.
Wallichianum, 23.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

cc. Blade 2-2 l A ft.; petiole 4 in. long. INDEX.
elegans, Mart., var. robusta, Drude. St. 6-10 ft.
high, 3-4 lines diam. : segms. rarely 3, usually 5-7, 1-
nerved, 10-14 in. long, some 4 lines wide, intermixed with
broader, many-nerved ones, all long, falcate-acuminate:
spadix about 10 in. long, the fls. very small, inserted in
deep pits. Cent. Brazil.

BBB. Lf. -segms. all alike (except the connivent apical ones),
c. Alternate, remote, linear, scurfy.

Riedeliana, Wendl. (G. grddlis, Lind. & Andre",
the oldest and perhaps the correct name). Habit of
Cocos Weddelliana, the whole plant sparsely covered
with caducous, brown, shining scales: petiole slender, A. Plants annual, more or less prostrate:

1^2 ft- or more long, terete below, flattened above; Ivs. finely dissected 1. Robertianum

rachis triangular, bisulcate above: Ivs. spreading, AA> PI* 1 * 1 * 8 perennial.

drooping at the apex; segms. 10-12 in. long, about 9 B - Species tender, to be grown only in

lines wide, linear-acute, elegantly recurved, the 2 greenhouse northward.

terminal ones connivent: fls showy yellow, in long ^^^STST 'least' never * TraV6rSU

drooping spadices. Brazil. I.H. 21:169. B.M. 7963. canescent. 3. anemonifo-

cc. Equidistant: petiole half as long as the blade. BB - Species hardy. [Hum

Schottiana Mart. St 9-15 ft. high, 1-1% in thick: c <; l^^us^ooted. * malv * florum

Ivs. long-stalked, gracefully recurving; petiole half or D plant with a thickened woody

more than half as long as the blade; segms. about 35 oase 5. macrorrhi-

qn each side, 10-12 in. long, %in. wide, equidistant, DD. Plants without thickened woody [zum

linear or linear-lanceolate, very long-acuminate, base.

recurved at the tip: spadix about 10 in. long, the stalk E. Foliage silvery-canescent.

about 1 ft. long. E. Brazil. A very variable species. F - Usually 1-fld 6. argenteum

The following are imperfectly described, but are in the trade: FF - Usually 2-fld . .. ...... 7. cmereum

G. imperiMis, Lind. G.W. 2, p. 37. G. princeps, Uud.G. EE. Foliage or whole plant glabrous

Pynxrtidna, Hort. Belongs under A. One of the smallest Ivs. meas- or pubescent, out not silvery.

ures 28 in. long by 10 in. at the broadest. Has not flowered yet, r. Sts. erect.

and the genus is therefore uncertain. R.H. 1898, p. 262. G.C. III. .-, p/,, fi nr i. hhip nJmntf hJnrk R nhamm

23 : 258. F.E. 10 : 886. G.W. 2, p. 445.-G. specidsa, Barb.-Rodr. " E rf ^ * T^f ^

G.W. 2, p. 431. G. Swdrtzii, Griseb. (Calyptrogyne Swartzii, GG - * no ^. ~ biue < some '

Hook. Calyptronoma Swartzii, Griseb.). Trunk 50-60 ft. high, times Wht blue.

smooth: If.-segms. linear-acuminate, green, glabrous. Cuba. H. Color of fls. white (see

N. TAYLOR.! a ^ so white-fld. forms of

GEORGINA. A synonym of Dahlia, which still i.^Tsl 3-5 -parted*. ^ .. 9. Richardsonii

survives in the form of "Georginen, the popular name n. LVS. 7-parted 10. aconitifolium

of dahlias in Germany. HH. Color of fls. not white.

. > i. Mostly 1-fld 11. sanguineum

GERANIUM (Greek, crane; from the resemblance of n. Mostly more than 1-fld.

the fruit to a crane's bill). Geraniacese. CRANESBILL. j. The st. branched.

Generally herbaceous plants, annual, biennial, and per- K. Fls. rose-purple 12. Fremontii

ennial. Widely cultivated in borders, and some species KK - Fl s - violet 13. ibericum

in the rockery, usually caulescent. JJ - Th . e ste - essentially

Leaves simple, alternate or opposite and much- . s l. TO P' e - 7

11 j- i a i i f K. Lobes of the Ivs.

lobed, sometimes almost radical: fls. regular; sepals 5, more or ^

imbricated, often 3-nerved and mucronate; petals 5, rounded 14. armenum

often hairy or ciliate; stamens 10, in 2 rows; anthers KK. Lobes of the hs.

10; seeds when ripened separated from the ovary and ovate or lanceolate.

with its awn bent sinuously. The genus Erodium, its L - Pedicels recurved

nearest ally, has but the inner row of stamens furnished Ji n /?' i ; 15. pratense

with anthers and the awn of the seed is bent spirally. LL< Ped els erect in

The geraniums of common speech are classed in the M The pedicels not

genus Pelargonium, having at the side of the pedicel a ' glandular 16. maculatum

distinct narrow tube and zygomorphic fls. The genus MM. The pedicels

Geranium has over 250 species, found in the temperate glandular.

zones particularly of the northern hemispheres, very N. Lvs. finely cut.17. incisum

few in the tropics. The roots of some, as G. maculatum, NN - Lvs - 5-lobed...l8. eriostemon

find use in medicine on account of their astringency. FF - Sts. decumbent or creeping,

Thrive well in ordinary garden soil, and are propagated scarcely erect.

by seeds and divisions of roots. 'The best botlnical ^ g*rfS Mfc^il ^

account is that of R. Knuth in Engler's Das Pflanzen- ' ' H . Petals about ^ Zonff as \ he

reich, hft. 53 (1912), and by Small and Hanks in N. sepals.

Amer. Flora, Vol. 25, 1907, for the N. American spe- i. Fls. pale lilac 20. grandiflorum

cies. A beautifully illustrated account of the genus is n. Fls. rose-purple 21. nepalense

by Sweet (1820-30) in which special stress is laid on HH. Petals 1-2 times the

cultivation. There are 500 colored plates, and, where length of the sepals.

possible, these are cited in the following account, thus, i- Upper Ivs. 8-lobed 22. Endressii

S. 197.=Sweet, Geraniace*, plate 197. n - All the hs. 5 -lobed

Large masses of native species such as G. maculatum aSfSS noised fnum

and G. Robertianum can be effectively naturalized ' some times spotted. '

under bushes and trees. They spread very rapidly K . Base of petals ciliated, collinum

and in the case of G. Robertianum will be profuse KK . Base of petals pilose

bloomers nearly all summer. or glabrous 25. Grevilleanum

GERANIUM

1331

1. Robertianum, Linn. HERB ROBERT. RED ROBIN.
About 9 in. high: Ivs. thin, ovate-orbicular, 3-5-parted,
with 3-fid. pinnatifid lobes: peduncles slender, 2-fld.;
fls. small, bright crimson. June to Oct. Amer., Eu.,
Asia and N. Afr. B.B. 2:341. For the rockery, in a
moist soil and some shade, and will carpet the ground in
a few seasons, from seed. Annual; or possibly biennial.

2. Traversii, Hook. A silvery canescant herb 3-15 in.
tall with a stout st.: Ivs. beautiful silver-color, nearly
round, 7-parted, the lobes wedge-shaped, and 3-parted:
fls. large, often 1% in. across; sepals broadly ovate,
cuspidate, silvery; petals ovate or nearly round, pale
rose, or sometimes white, much longer than the sepals.
Chatham Isl. Not hardy north of Washington and
to be grown in temperate house.

Little known in Amer. but a desir-
able greenhouse plant.

3. anemonifdlium, L'Her. ((?.
canariense, Reut.). A stiff single-
stemmed perennial from a thick-
ened rootstock or tube: Ivs. gla-
brous, round-ovate, '5-parted, the
lobes finely dissected: fls. corym-
bose, the pedicels and calyx densely
hairy; sepals oblong, mucronate,
the mucro almost ^in. long; petals
2-3 times as long as the sepals,
obovate, pale purple. Canary Isls.
and Madeira. S. 244. Must be
grown in the temperate house,
but doubtless hardy south of
Washington.

4. malvaeflorum, Boiss. A usu-
ally 1-stemmed perennial, from a
thickened tuber, not over 18 in.
tall: Ivs. long-petioled, 5-9-parted,
the lobes finely dissected, hairy:
fls. showy, the pedicels and pedun-
cles densely hairy; sepals ovate-
oblong, hairy; petals rose-purple,
obcordate, the apex often emargi-
nate, about twice as long as the
sepals. Medit. Region. Very
doubtfully hardy north of Phila-
delphia.

5. macrorrhizum, Linn. A large-
rooted species, about 1% ft- high,
with a st. suffruticose at base: Ivs.
smooth, round, basal ones 5-lobed,
cauline 3-lobed, toothed and often
colored red: fls. in bunches at the
end of the st.; calyx inflated; the
sepals ovate and 3-nerved; petals
spatulate and blood-red in color.
May to July. S. Eu. B.M. 2420.
S. 271.

6. argenteum, Linn. SILVER-LEAVED CRANE'S-BILL.
About 3 in. high: Ivs. almost radical, on long petioles,
5-7-parted, with 3-fid linear lobes, both surfaces hoary:
peduncles almost radical, 1- or 2-fld.; fls. large, pink,
with darker veins ; petals emarginate. Middle of June to
Aug. CarnicAlps. B.M. 504. L.B.C. 10:948. S. 59.
One of the best for the rockery. Often acts as a biennial
in New England.

7. cinereum, Cav. (G. subargenteum, Lange). GRAY
CRANE'S-BILL. Like G. argenteum, but 2-fld. and paler
in color: Ivs. not so hoary in appearance. June, July.
Pyrenees.

8. phjfeum, Linn. About 2 ft. high, with upright,
short-haired st., glandular above: Ivs. 5-7-lobed and
deeply toothed: peduncles 1-2-fld.; petals spreading,
obovate, unequally notched and often with a small
spur, very dark blue, almost black, with white spot at
base of each petal. May, June. Cent, and W. Eu.

1630. Geranium maculatum. ( X J)

9. Richardsonii, Fisch. & Trautv. About 1^ ft. high:
Ivs. thin and terminal, lobe of the uppermost Ivs. longer
than the often greatly reduced lateral lobes: pedicels
conspicuously glandular pubescent; fls. large, white or
sometimes streaked with pink; petals with long white
hairs on inner surface. Colo, and west. Sts. and young
growth tinged with red.

10. aconitifdlium, L'Her. St. usually simple,
grooved, 10-20 in. tall, few-lvd.: Ivs. more or less
hairy, deeply 7-parted, kidney-shaped or orbicular, the
lobes broadly ovate, deeply pinnatifid, the segms.
mucronulate: fls. fragrant, loosely corymbose, the
pedicels 2-fld.; sepals oblong or oblong-ovate, 3-nerved;
petals white, obovate, the margins slightly wavy.

Alpine or sub-alpine region of Eu.
June. Useful chiefly as rock-gar-
den species.

11. sanguineum, Linn. About
1^2 ft. high, with st. occasionally
forked, erect: Ivs. all petiolate,
mostly 7-parted, with 3-5-lobed
linear lobules: peduncles long,
mostly 1-fld. ; fls. very large, blood-
red. June to Aug. Eu. One of
the best species in cult.

Var. lancastriense, With. (G.
prostr&tum, Cav.). A dwarf er
form, smaller and with less deeply
lobed foliage: fls. lighter in color
and conspicuously veined purple.

12. Fremontii, Torr. & Gray. A
1- or many-stemmed perennial:
Ivs. nearly round, palmately 5-7-
parted, the lobes 3 -toothed or
sometimes crenate, slightly hairy:
fls. large and showy, frequently

1-1 ^2 in- across; sepals oblong,
3-nerved; petals pale rose-purple,
obovate, toward the base densely
ciliate. Rocky Mts. G. 29:191.
A handsome garden species. Not
as yet much known in cult, in
Amer. but a fine showy geranium
for the hardy border. Blooms all
summer.

13. ibericum, Cav. IBERIAN
CRANE'S-BILL. From 1-1% ft.
high: st. erect and leafless below,
above dichotomously branched,
villous: Ivs. opposite, 5-7-parted,
with deeply cut lobes and toothed
lobules: fls. 1 in. across, in showy,
open panicles, violet. July, Aug.
Iberia. Gn. 71, p. 167. B.M. 1386.
S. 84. Var. album, with white fls.,
is rare but known by some dealers.

Var. platypetalum (G. platypetalum, Fisch. & Mey.).
Slightly shorter than the parent, with Ivs. less deeply
lobed and lobes less pointed : fls. deeper and richer in
color, and also larger. G.M. 52:61. Gn. 76, p. 108. G.
3:293; 9:686.

14. armenum, Boiss. (G. Backhousidnum, Regel?).
About 2^ ft. high, the lower part of the st. thickened
and almost woody: Ivs. radical, upright, orbicular,
with 5 deep lobes: fls. about 1% in. across, inclining to
a dark crimson; petals dark spotted near the base,
obovate, often with the tips a little recurved. All season
at irregular intervals. Armenia. R.H. 1891: 350.
A very vigorous and floriferous species. Sometimes
growing 4 ft. high.

15. pratense, Linn. MEADOW CRANE'S-BILL. About
2% ft. high, with an upright round st.: Ivs. mostly
hand-shaped, with 7 lobes, each deeply cut: peduncles
mostly 2-fld., drooping after flowering; fls. large, blue;

1332

GERANIUM

GERARDIA

petals entire. June, through Aug. Eu. G. 18:649.
G.L. 18:208. Gn.W. 24:367. Var. fl6re-pleno, Not
so tall as parent. Very numerous deep blue fls. in clus-
ters. June and July, and often again in fall. J.H. III.
48:305. Var. album, a white-fld. form is known.

16. maculatum, Linn. WILD or SPOTTED CRANE'S-
BILL. Fig. 1630. The common American species, about
1J^ ft. high: st. angular: basal Ivs. long-petioled,
deeply 3-5-parted; st.-lvs. opposite, shorter-petioled:
peduncles 1-5, infl. often umbellate; fls. 1-1H in- broad,
rose-purple; petals woolly at base. June, July. N.
Amer. B.B. 2:341. S. 332. Showy native species;
should be more in cult. Grows best in somewhat wet
places. Var. plenum, a double-fld. variety of deeper
color. Var. album, a pale-fld. or pure white form is
known.

17. incisum, Nutt. (G. eridnthum, Lind.). About 1 ft.
high, leafy branched, the st. thickened below, solitary:
Ivs. finely cut, long hairy, the hairs fine and silky: pedi-
cels conspicuously glandular-pubescent; sepals oblong-
lanceolate, mucronate; petals with stiff white hairs,
inner surface purple, about 1 in. wide. Ore. A hardy
species well worth growing. Not perfectly hardy near
Boston.

18. eriostemon, Fisch. (G. platydnthum, Duthie). St.
erect, slender, grooved, from an almost woody base:
Ivs. kidney-shaped, 5-lobed, sometimes palmately so,
the lobes ovate, toothed, the teeth slightly mucronate:
fls. corymbose, the sepals ovate, obtuse, very hairy;
petals violet-purple, broadly obovate, entire. Native
of Siberia and temp. China. A showy and useful
garden plant.

19. sibiricum, Linn. SIBERIAN CRANE'S-BILL. A
slender, somewhat forked plant, brown-villous, 1-2 ft.
high: Ivs. deeply 3-5-parted: peduncles slender, usually
1-fld.; fls. very small, dingy white, the obovate petals
scarcely exceeding the oblong-lanceolate 3-nerved
sepals. June through Aug. Siberia, and naturalized
near New York. B.B. 2:341. Jacq. Hort. Widd. pi. 19.
Another form under same name, with brick-red fls.,
appears to be in cult.

20. grandifldrum, Edgew. A thick-stemmed peren-
nial about 10-16 in. tall, usually somewhat glandular,
branched: Ivs. long-petioled, the blade 5-parted and
rotund in outline, the lobes irregularly toothed: fls.
bunched at the apex of the branches, showy; petals
spreading, pale lilac, the veins dark purple, about as
long as the sepals. N.Asia. F.S.R. 1:54. Gn. 64, p.
184. Suitable mostly for rockeries.

21. nepalense, Sweet. St. spreading or ascending,
thin, not more than 18 in. long: Ivs. ovate-rhomboid,
deeply 5-lobed, hairy, the lobes dentate, the teeth
almost spinose: fls. numerous, on hairy pedicels; sepals
lanceolate, acuminate, often mucronate; petals usually
about equaling the sepals, rose-purple, broadly obo-
vate, not emarginate at apex. Mountains of Asia.
June- Aug. S. 12. Useful only in the rockery.

22. Endressii, J. Gay. About 18 in. high, the st.
covered with pale brown hairs: Ivs. opposite, palmate,
5-lobed, upper ones 3-lobed, serrated, densely hairy,
with spreading hairs: peduncles axillary, 2-fld.; petals
entire, fringed at base, light rose, darker veined, 2-3
times the length of the 3-nerved, oblong-ovate sepals.
Summer. Pyrenees. Among the best for the border,
and useful for cutting.

23. Wallichianum, D. Don. Of prostrate trailing
habit: st. and Ivs. covered with silky hairs, the st.
deeply grooved : Ivs. light green, 3-5-parted, with deeply
toothed lobes: fls. large, purple, borne sparingly all
summer; sepals 3-nerved, the lateral nerves stiff-hairy;
petals about twice as long as the sepals, smooth,
emarginate. Himalayas. B.M. 2377. S. 90. For the
rockery and must not be grown in the open exposed
parts of it. The hot dry winds of midsummer in E. U.
S. are not favorable.

24. collinum, Steph. (G. Londesii, Fisch.). St.
angular and usually decumbent, grooved and hairy:
Ivs. palmately 5-parted, deeply divided and cut:
sepals lanceolate-ovate, 3-neryed, densely hairy;
petals entire, purple, with a tinge of violet. June,
July. E. Eu. One of the showiest in its season. Should
be cut back before seeding, to induce second bloom.

25. Grevilleanum, Wall. St. creeping, rarely a little
erect: Ivs. long-petioled, the blades usually 5-lobed,
kidney-shaped, hairy, the lobes deeply serrate, but not
usually divided: flowering stalk thick, more or less
glandular, the fls. large and showy, frequently 2 in.
across; sepals oblong-ovate; petals obovate, some-
times hairy at their bases, pale rose or in some forma
with large purple spots, at least as to the wild plant,
1-2 times the length of the sepals. Himalayas. Useful
for the rockery.

The following are unknown as to botanical affinities or are
insufficiently known in Amer.

G. Balkanum, Hort. A hardy plant, with fragrant foliage:
fls. on radical sts., 1 in. across, dark magenta. June. <?. Held-
reichii, Hort. Orange-colored fls.=(?). G. Ldwii, Hort. 2-2 y z ft.:
fls. bright rose with violet center. Name unknown in botanical
literature. -41. prostr&tum, Hort. Fls. purple. Advertised as "good
rockery subject. "=(?). G. sylvdticum, Linn. About 2 ft. high, with a
soft-haired, upright, round st. : Ivs. 5-7-parted, lobes oblong, deeply
toothed: fls. purple or violet. June, July. The common wood
geranium of Eu. A white-fld. form G. sylvdticum dlbum, Hort., is
known. Gn. 72, p. 178. G. tuberdsum, Linn. Tuberous-rooted,
9-15 in. high, with st. at base naked: Iva. many-lobed, linear and
serrate: pedicels 1-2-fld., fls. large, violet. May. S. Eu.

N. TAYLOR.!

GERANIUM, FEATHER: Chenopodium Botrys.

GERARDIA (after John Gerarde, 1545-1607, per-
haps the most popular of the herbalists). Scrophulari-
acex. Hardy annual and perennial herbs, all American,
and mostly of the Atlantic states, with yellow or rosy
purple flowers, in late summer and autumn, the later
color rarely varying to white.

Leaves mainly opposite: calyx 5-toothed or cleft;
corolla bell- to funnel-shaped, broad-throated, 5-parted,
the 2 posterior lobes often smaller and more united;
stamens commonly more or less hairy; anthers more or
less approximate in pairs: caps, globose, 2-grooved;
seeds usually angled, loose-coated. The first 3 species
described below belong to a section in which the roots
are more or less saprophytic; by some, and probably
correctly, they are considered as belonging to the
genus Dasystoma. These plants are therefore rather
difficult to cultivate, and are offered only by collectors.
G. tenuifolia is offered by one dealer, the seeds presuma-
bly gathered in European gardens.

A. Fls. yellow.
B. Corolla pubescent outside: biennial or annual.

Pedicularia, Linn. St. much branched: pubescence
partly glandular and viscid, especially on the pedicels
and calyx, while in the next 2 species there is no glandu-
lar pubescence: Ivs. 1-2 in. long, all pinnatifid: fls. in
loose panicles or solitary, the calyx-lobes oblong and
herbaceous, usually incised. E. N. Amer.

BB. Corolla glabrous outside: perennial.
c. Height 8-6 ft.

virginica, Linn. (G. quercifdlia, Pursh). St. at first
glaucous, sparingly branched : lower Ivs. 35 in. long,
1-2-pinnatifid; upper Ivs. rarely entire: calyx-lobes
ovate, entire. Dry woods, E. U. S.

cc. Height 1-2 ft.

lasvigata, Raf. Not glaucous but glabrous, the st.
simple or slightly branched: Ivs. 1^-4 in. long, entire,
or the lowest somewhat incised, all petioled, lanceolate
or ovate-lanceolate : calyx-lobes ovate-lanceolate, equal-
ing or shorter than the tube and caps, glabrous, about
twice as long as the calyx. Oak barrens, etc. S. E.
U.S.

GERARDIA

GESNERIA

1333

AA. Fls. rosy purple rarely varying to white.

B. Height 1 ft.

tenuifolia, Vahl. Height 1 ft. ; branching, paniculate:
Ivs. mostly narrowly linear: infl. racemose; corolla
J^in. long, light purple, spotted, sometimes white.
Low or dry ground, E. N. Amer.

BB. Height 2-3 ft.

linifolia, Nutt. Perennial: Ivs. erect, very narrowly
linear, 1 line wide: calyx-teeth minute; corolla 1 in.
long. Low pine-barrens, N. Amer. Not cult., but said
to be a parent with Pentstemon pulchellus of G. hybrida,
Hort. Intro, by Haage & Schmidt, 1899. The poor
cut in S. H. 2:485 seems nearer Pentstemon than Ger-
ardia. WILHELM MILLER.

N. TAYLOR, f

GERBERA (named in honor of Traug. Gerber, a
German naturalist who traveled in Russia). Compdsitse.
A small group of temperate and tropical Asiatic and
African perennial herbs grown for their yellow or pink
or orange flower-heads.

1631. Gerbera Jamesonii.

Stemless herbs with radical, petiofed Ivs. which are
entire or sometimes lobed: fl. -heads solitary, many-fld.,
the conspicuous rays in 1 or 2 rows, those of the inner
row, when present, very short and sometimes tubular
and 2-lipped, as are the disk-fls. : achenes beaked.
There are 40 species, only one of which (G. Jamesonii)
is well known in Amer. and is sometimes found outside
the collections of botanic gardens and fanciers. They
should be grown in the temperate house, in a rich com-
post of sandy loam and peat. Prop, by seeds or by
cuttings of side shoots,

Jamesonii, Hook. Fig. 1631. Hairy throughout,
the mature Ivs. very woolly beneath : Ivs. numerous, the
petiole 6-8 in. long, the blade 5-10 in., a little pinnati-
fid: heads solitary, the showy orange-flame-colored
rays strap-shaped. Transvaal. B.M. 7087. G.C. III.
5:773. Gn. 36:340. A.G. 22:345. Gt. 54:1545. G.W.
2, p. 2. R.H. 1903:36. Could be grown out-

doors in the S. A brilliant summer-blooming com-
posite, more or less planted in the open. Var. trans-
vaalensis, Hort. Has larger fl.-heads than type, of
somewhat lighter color. Var. illustris, Hort. A robust
variety.

G. aurantiaca, Sch. A handsome plant with fls. 2}/ in. diam.:
florets red, with bright yellow anthers. Natal and the Transvaal.
B.M. 8079. Has been listed under name of G. Elsse. G. canta-
brigiensis, Hort. A garden hybrid between G. Jamesonii and G.
viridifolia. G.M. 47 : 366, desc. G. viridifdlia, Sch., is a little-known
green-lvd. plant with showy fls. that are white on the upper side,
yellow beneath. S. Afr. Well worth growing in temperate house.

N. TAYLOR.

GESNERIA (Conrad Gesner, Zurich, 1516-1565, cele-
brated naturalist, and considered to be the originator of
the idea of genus in taxonomy). Gesneriaceae. Green-
house and hothouse plants with showy tubular flowers.
Sometimes written Gesnera.

Low perennials, sometimes shrubs, with simple,
opposite Ivs. and showy tubular fls. in terminal short
panicles or fascicles: calyx campanulate, 5-parted;
corolla long, straight or curved, more or less ventricpse,
the base often distinctly swollen or gibbous, the limb
mostly shallow-toothed and nearly regular or bilab-
iate; stamens 4, didynamous (in pairs under the upper
lip); style 1, long; glands on the disk in the fl. Species
upward of 40, in the American tropics. Often tuberous
plants; allied to Achimenes, Gloxinia, Isoloma and
Streptocarpus. Some of the gesnerias of the trade
belong to Naegelia, which differs, amongst other things,
in having an annular or ringed disk rather than a disk
of distinct glands. There is considerable variation of
opinion as to the limits of Gesneria. In this account,
the genus is held to include Pentarhaphia, Duchartrea,
Codonoraphia, Conradia, Ophianthe, Synanthera. The
plants of this group are probably considerably modified
by crossing and breeding. The catalogue name G.
hybrida probably covers some of these forms.

A. Los. green.

cardinalis, Lehm. (Dircsea cardinalis, Regel. G.
macrdntha, Hort.). St. 6-12 in. high, stout, and hairy:
Ivs. large, cordate-ovate, crenatenientate, petioled:
fls. red, tubular, hairy, slender (2-3 in. long), the upper
lip projecting and the lower one almost wanting, borne
in a terminal, more or less flat cluster. Nativity
unknown. B.M. 8167. Gn. 42:232. A good species for
the stove. G. Duvalii, Hort., is evidently only a slen-
der form of this species.

Hendersonii, Hort. Lvs. velvety green: fls. 3 in. long,
brilliant scarlet, in a large truss. Probably of garden
origin.

longiflora, Hort., is a small-lvd. species, with
drooping, long-tubed nicotiana-like white fls. Gn.
33:340. The botanical position of this plant is in
doubt. It is not the G. longiflora, HBK., which is pur-
ple-fld., nor G. longiflora, DC., which is Achimenes
longiflora. By some it has been confounded with
Isoloma longifolium, Decne. Pentarhaphia longiflora,
Lindl. (Gesneria ventricosa, Swartz), is a small some-
what branched shrub: Ivs. ovate-lanceolate or oblong-
lanceolate, acuminate and serrulate, pale green beneath :
fls. bright scarlet, 1^ in. long, in long-peduncled cymes;
corolla-tube somewhat curved, narrowed toward the
base; stamens red, much exserted. W. Indies. B.M.
7339. A good summer- and autumn-blooming stove
shrub.

AA. Lvs. richly colored, at least beneath.

libanensis, Morr. (Pentarhdphia libanensis, Hanst.
Rhytidophyllum floribundum, Van Houtte. Ophidnthe
libanensis, Hanst.). Subshrub, but only a few inches
high, simple or slightly branched : Ivs. more or less
rosulate toward top of st., 3-4 in. long, obovate-lanceo-
late, more or less blistered, toothed: fls. bright red,
half as long as Ivs., tubular, puffed or swollen in the
middle, hairy, the mouth oblique and the limb of 5

1334

GESNERIA

GEUM

small ciliated lobes; stamens equaling the tube; calyx
very short, the segms. leafy. Cuba. B.M. 4380.

craniolaria, Swartz (Pentarhdphia craniolaria,
Decne.). Three to 4 ft. somewhat shrubby: Ivs. gla-
brous above and hispid beneath, obovate-cuneiform,
runcinate or more or less lobed: fls. greenish yellow with
black dots, in long-peduncled clusters of 5 or 6, the
corolla-lobes fringed. St. Domingo.

Leopold!!, Scheidw. Compact: st. erect from the
large, depressed tuber, thinly hairy: Ivs. verticillate in
4's, broadly ovate-acuminate, more or less unequal at
base, dentate, green above and purple beneath: fls. long-
tubular, thinly hairy, the lobes nearly equal; light scar-
let, in a rather loose, umbel-like cluster. Nativity not
recorded. F.S. 7:704, 705. Gn. 53:542.

exoniensis, Hort. Hybrid : Ivs. velvety, with red and
purple hairs: fls. bright orange-red, yellow in the throat,

in close clusters:
1ft.

refulgens, Hort.
Probably a hy-
brid: Ivs. cordate-
ovate, red -hairy:
fls. deep red or
vermilion: !*/ ft.
One of the best.
Donkelaeriana,
Lem. (G. D6nk-
larii, Hort.). St.
often 2 ft. tall:
Ivs. large, cordate-
ovate, crenate,
hairy, green and
purple-tinged
above and purple
beneath: fls. tubu-
lar - campanulate,
the rounded lobes
nearly equal, dull
red, 2 in. long,
hanging from long
pedicels in a large
panicle. Variable.
Colombia. B. M.
5070. R.B.21:97.
F. 1853:241.

G. amdbilis, Hort.=Nsegelia. G. cinnabarina, Lind.=Nsegelia.
G. guatemalensis, Hort., "a free grower and bloomer, fls. orange,"
was once offered. G. jasminifldra, Hort., "fls. of the purest white,
freely produced, beautiful," once offered. G. obldnga, Hort., fls.
orange. G. oblong&ta, Hort., is probably the same and ia very
likely an Isoloma.-^-G. Regime, Hort. Exhibited abroad: Ivs. green
and velvety, the midrib and main veins white : fls. bluish purple.
G. robusta, Hort., "vermilion, beautifully spotted and tigered."
G. Seemannii, Hook.=Isoloma. G. zdbrina, Paxt.=Nsegelia.

L. H. B.

GETIT$LLIS (old Greek name, of no particular
application). Amaryllidaceae. Nine or 10 stemless
herbs, with the look of crocus, allied to Sternbergia,
from the Cape region, seldom cult, under glass; appar-
ently not in the trade: Ivs. usually appearing after the
fls., linear, sometimes filiform and twisted: fls. appear-
ing through the ground, of delicate texture and of
short duration, fragrant, whitish, salverform, with a
long slender tube and 6 similar acute spreading segms.;
stamens 6 or more, attached in the throat; ovary 3-
celled, concealed in the bulb-neck: bulbous. Prop, by
offsets or seeds. G. dfra, Linn. Bulb 1)^-2 in. diam.:
Ivs. 12-20, linear and twisted: fl. with whitish limb 2 in.
or less long and tube 3-4 in. long; stamens 9-12: fr.
yellowish, clavate, recorded as edible. B.R. 1016.
G. spirdlis, Linn. Bulb \-\Y in. diam.: Ivs. 4-6, linear-
subulate, very much twisted, 4-^6 in. long; perianth-
tube 2-3 in. long, limb 1-1 ^ in. long, whitish and
tinted red on the outside; stamens 6: fr. clavate, 2-3
in. long. B.M. 1088. G. cilidris, Linn. Bulb lft in.

diam.: Ivs. 20 or more, linear, twisted, prominently
ciliate: perianth-tube 2-3 in. long, the whitish limb
^in. long: fr. yellow, clavate, 2-3 in. long.

L. H. B.

GEUM (probably originally from Greek, geuo, to have
a taste; referring to the roots). Rosdcese. Hardy border
and rock plants, some of which are valued for their
bright red flowers, some for their pure yellow flowers,
others for their long plumy fruits.

Herbs, with a perennial rhizome, sometimes stolonif-
erous: root-lvs. crowded, odd-pinnate, the alternate
lobes often smaller, terminal ones largest; st.-lvs. few,
mostly of 3 Ifts. or bract-like: fls. 1-2 in. across, soli-
tary or corymbose or cymose; calyx persistent, its
tube nearly hemispheric, usually 5-lobed; petals 5,
nearly or quite round, longer than the calyx: fr.
bunched on a short receptacle, frequently plumed.
More than 50 species, mostly in temperate and frigid
regions.

The plumy kinds are all contained in the subgenus
Sieversia. G. chiloense is the best species, and in the
gardens is commonly seen in double forms. A gar-
dener writes that "inferior forms show scarcely any
duplicity." Geums are of easy culture, and are propa-
gated by division or seed. It is said that they hybridize
freely if grown together. The dwarf kinds are suited
only to the rockery. Correvon, of Geneva, Switzerland,
writes that G. reptans is one of the best of the rockery
kinds, and needs full sunlight. For G. triflorum he
advises half exposure to sun and a light, moist soil. G.
rivale grows naturally in marshy places.

A. Plumy geums: style in fr. long and plumose

B. Fls. yellow.

c. Plants spreading by runners.
reptans, Linn. Root-lvs. interruptedly pinnatifid;
upper Ivs. 3-lobed, deeply crenate-serrate : fls. erect;
petals obcordate, not much longer than the sepals.
Eu. Gn. 45 : 284. The purple styles are pretty.

cc. Plants not spreading by runners.

D. Root-lvs. pinnatifid.

montanum, Linn. An erect and single-fld. perennial
with lower Ivs. lyrate pinnatifid; terminal 1ft. broadly
ovate-rounded: calyx-lobes entire, while those of G.
reptans are often 3-cut at apex; petals 1-2 times the
length of the sepals. S. Eu. G.C. II. 13:425. Gn. 45,
p. 285. Under the name of G. Heldreichii and G.
Heldreichii superbum are advertised what appear to be
forms of this with orange-colored fls. which often pro-
duce more than 1 fl. The name Heldreichii is of no
botanical significance. G.M. 46:371.

DD. Root-lvs. kidney-shaped.

radiatum, Michx. (Sieversia Peckii, Rydb.) Very
hirsute: root-lvs. 2-5 in. broad: st. 1-8-fld.: bractleta
minute. Mountains of N. C. and Tenn.

BB. Fls. bright red, unmixed with yellow.

c. Lateral lobes of Ivs. minute.

coccineum, Sibth. & Smith, not Hort. "St.-lvs. 3-
lobed; root-lvs. lyrate, the terminal lobe largest, cor-
date-reniform : fls. erect. Mt. Olympus in Bithynia."
The above is an exact translation of the entire descrip-
tion given by Sibthorp and Smith, Flora Gra^ca, t.
485. The chances are that all the plants in the trade
under this name are really G. chiloense. The true G.
coccineum is known in the botanic gardens.

cc. Lateral lobes of Ivs. 1 in. long.
chiloense, Balb. (G. coccineum, Hort., not Balb.).
"St.-lvs. 3-parted, laciniate; root-lvs. interruptedly
lyrate, pilose: terminal lobe rotund, somewhat 3-lobed,
crenate: fls. panicled: carpels villous." The above is a
literal translation of B. R. 1348, where the terminal
lobe is shown to be 2J/ in. each way. Chile. B.R.

GEUM

GILIA

1335

1088, and under 1099. L.B.C. 16:1527. Gn. 14:562;
45, p. 284. R.H. 1890, p. 305; 1881, p. 309. G. 4:487.
All erroneously as G. coccineum.

Var. miniatum, Hort. (G. miniatum, Robt. Parker),
has fls. about two shades lighter in color. A robust
form growing 2-3 ft. high, easily prop., and fls. from
April to end of July. Gn. 38:298, where it is supposed
to be a hybrid of G. chiloense var. grandiflorum x G.
aureum, which is a robust many-fld. form of G. mon-
tanum or else of G. chiloense x G. urbanum.

Var. grandifldrum, Hort., is an improved form.
"The double-fld. form of this seems to be a more general
favorite, the blooms lasting longer, though I think they
lack the elegance of those of the simple form. They
begin to expand soon after May and are produced until
Oct." D. K., in Gn. 38, p. 299. Var. plenum, Hort.,
a semi-double form, is known. It has bright scarlet
fls. and is a good border plant. G. 10:495.

BBB. Fls. chiefly dull red, mixed with yellow.
trifldrum, Pursh (Sieversia cilidta, Pursh). Low,
softly hairy: Ifts. very numerous and crowded, deeply
cut: fls. 3 or more on long peduncles; calyx purple, as
long as the petals. Coulter says the petals are erect.
Arctic Amer. L.B.C. 17:1609. Fruit showy and inter-
esting all summer.

AA. Not long and plumy in fr.
B. Style jointed and bent in the middle.

c. Fls. purplish orange.

rivale, Linn. Fig. 1632. St. erect and nearly simple:
root-lys. lyrate; st.-lvs. few, with 3 lobes or Ifts.: calyx
brownish purple; petals purplish orange, obovate and
emarginate, narrowed into a claw. North temperate
regions. Var. album, is also sold.

cc. Fls. golden yellow.

macrophyllum, Willd. St. erect and hairy: lower Ivs.
pinnatifid, 3-7-lobed, often with small Ifts. irregularly
placed on the rachis: fls. several, short-peduncled. E.
N. Amer. B.B. 2:221.

BB. Style not jointed, straight.

Rossii, Seringe. Slightly pubescent above: scape 1-3-
fld.; styles glabrous. Colo., arctic regions. Fls. large,
bright yellow.

G. atrococdneum, Hort., may be a typographical error for G.
atrosanguineum. G. atrosanguineum, Hort., ia presumably a
form of G. chiloense, with darker fls. than the type, and sold mostly
if not entirely, in its double condition. G. bulgdricum, Hort.=(?).
G. Ewenii, Hort. has light orange fls. and is said tp be a good
border plant. G. jap6nicum, Thunb., is sold, but little known.
St. flexuose, hirsute: Ivs. 3-5-lobed, hirsute: fls. erect, yellow; petals
as long as the calyx: fr. hirsute, awned, recurved. Japan.

WILHELM MILLER.

N. TAYLOR, f

GEVUINA (from the Chilean name). Also written
Guevina. Proteacese. One species, G. Avellana, Molina
(Syn., Quddria heterophylla, Ruiz & Pav.), sparingly
planted in Calif. CHILEAN NUT. CHILE HAZEL. An
evergreen tree, with large, alternate odd-pinnate, dark
green, glossy Ivs. and white, hermaphrodite fls. in long,
axillary racemes: sepals 4, deciduous; stamens 4; ovary
nearly sessile, 1-celled and 2-ovuled, the style filiform:
fr. a somewhat fleshy drupe, about the size of a cherry,
coral-red when ripe, the seed having a pleasant-flavored
kernel, resembling the hazel in taste and largely used
by the Chileans. G.C. III. 40:174. Prop, by seeds or
by green cuttings under glass. No trees of bearing age
recorded in U. S., although a tree approximately 50
years old is recorded as bearing in Devonshire, England.

W. A. TAYLOR.

GHERKIN: A small cucumber. The Burr or West Indian
gherkin is Cucumis Anguria.

GIFOLA (anagram of Filago). Composite. About 10
species of small woolly composites, of no horticultural
significance, in warm and temperate countries. G.

germdnica, Dum. (Filago germdnica, Linn.), the COT-
TON-RosE, is a cottony annual plant somewhat like
leontopodium, which latter is now and then collected by
tourists and dyed like immortelles. It was called
Herba impia by the old herbalists, because a new genera-
tion of clustered heads rises out of the parent cluster
as if undutifully exalting itself. It is native in Eu.,
and has become naturalized in E. N. Amer. in dry
fields. St. erect, 6-18 in.: Ivs. lanceolate, upright,
crowded : heads small, rayless.

GILIA (Philipp Salvador Gil, Spanish botanist of the
latter half of the eighteenth century, collaborator with
Xaurez). Polemonidcese. Annual, biennial or perennial
herbs, mostly of western North America.

Flowers small, of many colors, the corolla funnel-
form to bell-shape or sometimes salverform, 5-lobed;
stamens 5, inserted near the base of the corolla-tube,
the filaments usually naked; ovary 3-loculed, with
axile placenta?, the stigmas 3 (or sometimes 2). Nearly

1633. Gilia grandiflora. ( X M)

100 species, as the genus is now understood by most
botanists. Gilia is a very polymorphic genus, into
which Gray now (Syn. Fl. 2, pt. 1, suppl.) throws Col-
lomia, Linanthus, Leptosiphon, Leptodactylon, Nayar-
retia, Hugelia, Ipomopsis, Fenzlia. In this conception,
Gilia is defined as follows: "Fls. naked, not involucel-
late; calyx partly herbaceous, scarious below the
sinuses; lobes narrow and acute; corolla salverform or
funnelform to campanulate or almost rotate; filaments
not bearded at base: seeds wingless: herbs, or a few
suffruticose." In cult, only G. californica is woody.
It is not certainly hardy in the E.

Several of the gilias are popular garden annuals or
biennials (a few perennial). They are of the easiest
culture, being vigorous, hardy and floriferous. They
are mostly dwarfish, and are excellent for low masses,
edgings or rockeries. Seeds may be sown where the
plants are to grow. Any good soil will suit them.

achillesefolia, 8.
aggregata, 12.
alba, 6, 8, 10, 14.
androsacea, 15.
aureus, 16.
californica, 18.
capitata, 6.
carmineus, 16.
coccinea, 2.
compacta, 10.

INDEX.

congesta, 4.
coronopifolia, 11.
debilis, 5.
densiflora, 14.
dianthoides, 17.
grandiflora, 1.
hybridus, 16.
laciniata, 7.
liniflora, 13.
linifolia, 13.

major, 6, 8.
micrantha, 16.
minima, 3.
multicaulis, 9.
nana, 10.
nivalis, 10.
rosea, 8, 10, 16.
speciosa, 17.
splendens, 10.
tricolor, 10.

1336

GILIA

A. Plants not shrubby. (Nos. 1-17.)
B. Lvs. normally alternate, entire or pinnately cut or

divided (lower Ivs. sometimes opposite).
c. Fls. in dense heads, which are subtended by leafy

involucres.

D. Foliage entire or at least not much parted.
1. grandifldra, Gray (Collomia grandifldra, Douglas).
Fig. 1633. Erect, with minutely pubescent reddish sts.

1634. Flower of Gilia

capitata. ( X2)

1635. Gilia achilleaefolia.
(XM)

1-2 ft. high: Ivs. linear-lanceolate or oblong, narrowed
below but scarcely petioled, entire, acute : fls. many, in
dense terminal heads, buff or salmon-color, redder
inside, 1 in. long. Plains, west of Rocky Mts. B.M.
2894. B.R. 1174. This and the next are interesting
annuals. Useful as bee plants.

2. coccinea, Gray (Collomia coccinea, Lehm.). More
slender: sts. not red: Ivs. narrower (mostly linear),
somewhat cut at the ends : fls. smaller, slender-tubed, yel-
low or buff outside and brick-red inside. Chile. B.R. 1622.

DD. Foliage pinnately parted or compound.

3. minima, Gray (Navarretia minima, Nutt.). Dwarf
and tufted (3 in. or less high) often forming broad tufts,
nearly glabrous: Ivs. needle-like, pinnately parted:
fls. white, the corolla scarcely exceeding the white-
hairy calyx. In arid districts. Dak. to Ore. and Colo.

4. congesta, Hook. A foot or less high, erect or
spreading, tufted: Ivs. mostly 3-7-divided into linear
divisions: fls. corymbose or in close head-like cymes;
corolla white, the oval lobes nearly as long as the tube;
calyx-teeth long-pointed, nearly equaling the corolla. A
small-fld. species growing from Rocky Mts. to the Pacific.

cc. Fls. not in close heads, but more or less scattered,

or if capitate, the heads not leafy-subtended.
D. Plant perennial: seed only 1 in a locule: fls. small.

5. debilis, Wats. Two in. or less high: Ivs. oblong,
entire or 2-3-lobed, petioled : fls. solitary and nearly ses-

sile, the purple corolla %in. long, the tube exceeding
the calyx. S. Utah. Offered by collectors, but little
known in cult.

DD. Plant annual: seeds more than 1 to the locule: corolla

distinctly tubular, but relatively small.

E. Infl. capitate.

6. capitata, Douglas. Fig. 1634. Plant 18 in. to 2 %
ft. tall, the sts. long and nearly straight between joints:
fls. about J^in. long, in dense, nearly globular heads,
which terminate long, naked sts.; corolla-lobes lance-
linear, acute: Ivs. cut into very unequal linear lobes.
Calif, and Ore. B.M. 2698. B.R. 1170. G.W. 15, p.
214. An old favorite. There is a white form (var.
alba). There is also a var. major.

7. laciniata, Ruiz & Pav. Much like the last in
botanical characters, and possibly a form of it: lower
and much more slender, the If.-divisions mostly very
narrow (usually almost thread-like), the heads smaller
or the fls. sometimes even scattered. Chile. The fine
foliage and compact habit make this species an excel-
lent garden plant.

EE. Infl. mixed, capitate on the main branches, scattered
on the others.

8. achfflesefolia, Benth. Fig. 1635. Stout (2-3 ft.)
and very branchy and bushy, the early main branches
terminating in large, dense heads, but the later, finer
growth bearing scattered fls.: Ivs. small, with short,
linear lobes or teeth: fls. large, violet or purple-blue,
the corolla-lobes oblong or obovate: caps, large. W.
Calif. B.M. 5939 (showing only capitate infl.). An
old garden plant. Fls. vary to white and rose, and
there is a large-fld. form. Various horticultural names
are in use for these forms, such as alba, rosea, major, etc.

9. multicaMis, Benth. Not unlike the preceding,
from which it differs only in its smaller fls. and more
distinctive habit. Calif. B.M. 3440 and B.R. 1682, both
as G. achilleaefolia from which this may not really
differ.

EEE. Infl. scattered or loosely cymulose.

10. tricolor, Benth. Fig. 1636. A very diffuse, twiggy
grower, 2-2^ ft. high, sparsely pubescent: Ivs. few on
the full-grown plant, small, with many short, very nar-
row or needle-shaped divisions: fls. comparatively
large (%in. long or nearly so), nearly or quite bell-
shaped, the corolla 2-3 times the length of the calyx;
color of the roundish lobes violet and passing to whitish
at the base, of the throat

brown-purple and of the
tube yellow. W. Calif.
B.M. 3463. B.R. 1704.
One of the commonest
of garden annuals.
There is a white form
(G. nivalis, Hort. G.
alba, Hort.), Gn. 72, p.
201, and a rose-colored
form (G. rbsea, Hort.),
and a red-violet form
(var. rubro - violacea,
Hort.) Besides these
a small form has been
called G. ndna, a large
one G. splendens, and
a dense, stiff one G.
compdcta. None of
these names appears to
be in anything but trade
catalogues. Thrives
with the least care,
and is always a pro-
fuse bloomer. It re-
quires an open warm

situation. 1636. Gilia tricolor.

GILIA

GILLENIA

1337

DDD. Plant biennial: seeds few or many in each locule:

fls. large and long-tubular, red (running into

white forms), the corolla very much surpassing

the subulate calyx-lobes. (Ipomopsis.)

11. coronopifdlia, Pers. (Ipomopsis elegans, Poir.

/. aurantlaca and /. sanguinea, Hort.). STANDING

CYPRESS. St. strict and unbranched, sometimes 6 ft.

high, very leafy: Ivs. pinnate, the divisions needle-like

and about -1 in. long: fls. many, l l /z in- long, long-

1637. Gilia liniflora. (X%)

1638. Gilia micrantha. ( X M)

trumpet-shape, borne along the sides of the summit of
the st., the calyx inconspicuous amongst the short
bract-lvs., the corolla scarlet or pink-red and dotted
and yellowish within, varying to orange, its lobes obtuse
or nearly so and flaring. In dry soil, S. C., south and
west. B.R.1691. G.C.III.40:277. G.M. 49:598. Gn.70,
p. 165. Common old garden plant, and worthy. Fls.
scentless. Name should probably be G. rubra, Heller.

12. aggregata, Spreng. (Ipomopsis elegans, Lindl.).
Differs in mostly shorter stature, pubescent st., and
more slender habit, with redder (sometimes white)
fragrant fls., with acute and reflexing corolla-lobes.
Neb., south and west. B.R. 1281. The fls. are fiery
scarlet or sometimes nearly white. A very showy
biennial.

BB. Lvs. opposite, entire, or, if alternate (as in No. 13)

palmately parted.
c. Foliage very fine, the Ivs. cut into thread-like or linear

divisions.
D. Corolla rotate-bell-shape, with a short, flaring tube.

13. linifldra, Benth. (G. linifolia, Hort.). Fig. 1637.
Ten to 20 in. high, diffuse and branchy: lower Ivs.
mostly opposite, but the upper alternate, all palmately
divided to the base in needle-like or spurrey-like
divisions: fls. rather large for the size of the plant, the
corolla white or blush,

nearly rotate, the thin
lobes obtuse. Calif. B.
M. 5895. A useful tufty
garden annual. The
name liniflora is meant
to designate the resem-
blance of the fls. to those
of Linum tenuifolium;
but some catalogue-
maker, evidently think-
ing that the name meant
linear-flowered, and was
therefore inappropriate or an error, has changed the
name to G. linifolia, under which name it is known in
the trade.

DD. Corolla salverform, with a filiform and elongated
tube. (Leptosiphon.)

14. densiflora, Benth. (Leptosiphon densiflorus,
Benth.). Erect or even strict, 1-2 ft., hairy: Ivs. with
many filiform somewhat rigid divisions: fls. in rather

1639. Gilia dianthoides, the
Fenzlia of gardens.

close heads, lilac or white, H~M in. long; tube of the
corolla scarcely longer than the Ivs.; lobes of the
corolla spreading, obtuse, often dentate, nearly or quite
as long as the tube. Calif. B.M. 3578. B.R. 1725.
Common garden annual. The white-fld. form is known
as var. alba, Hort.

15. androsacea, Steud. (Leptosiphon androsaceus,
Benth.). Much like the last, but the tube very slender
and much exserted beyond the calyx and Ivs.: fls. 1
in. long, pink, lilac or white, in rather close heads, the
corolla-lobes ovate-acute and entire, much shorter
than the tube, 12-18 in. Calif. B.M. 3491. B.R. 1710.

16. micrantha, Steud. Fig. 1638. Tufted, 8 in. or less
high, the sts. most leafy near the top: Ivs. short, fas-
cicled: fls. with an exceedingly slender thread-like tube
which is 1-1 ^2 in. long, and projecting prominently
above the upper fascicles of Ivs., the corolla-lobes
spreading and obtuse; color range very wide, from
purple to lilac, red, yellow and white. Calif. A popu-
lar bedding plant. Forms of it are known as Leptosiphon
aureus, L. carmineus, L. hybridus, and L. roseus.

cc. Foliage of entire (but narrow) Ivs.

17. dianthoides, Endl. (Fenzlia dianthiflora, Benth.).
Fig. 1639. Tufted, 6 in. or less high: Ivs. narrowly lin-
ear, opposite: fls. 1-1 M in- long, lilac or purple, with
yellowish throat, the flat-spreading lobes denticulate or
nearly fringed. S.Calif. B.M. 4876. R.H. 1865:11.
A choice little annual, excellent for edgings and rock-
work, bearing a profusion of pink-like fls. The fls.
sometimes vary to white (Fenzlia alba, Hort.). A
large-fld. form is called G. speciosa.

AA. Plants shrubby.

18. californica, Benth. A low, procumbent and
much-branched shrub: Ivs. alternate, deeply digitately
parted into 5-7 stiff and hairy segms: fls. showy, very
free; sepals subulate, mucronate; petals cuneate, some-
times toothed, rose-colored. Calif. B.M. 4872. A fine
showy species, perhaps not hardy in the E.

G. abrotanifdlia, Nutt., occurs in mountains back of Santa
Barbara, and has been listed in collections of native plants for sale:
1-2 ft., simple or somewhat branched: Ivs. ample, all tripinnately
dissected, the ultimate segms. very narrow and acute and curved
backward: fl. without markings (blue?), large, the lobes spread-
ing, obovate and obtuse; stamens scarcely protruding. G. Chamis-
sdnis, Greene, is a segregate from G. achiltefolia: annual, but some-
times persisting over winter, 1 ft.: Ivs. mostly twice pinnately dis-
sected into linear segms. : branches few and peduncle-like, bearing
large and dense heads of blue fls. Calif. T IT B

N. TAYLOR, f

GILIBERTIA (J. E. Gilibert, 1741-1814, France,
physician and botanist). Araliacex. A genus of very
few Trop. American shrubs (if Dendropanax is sepa-
rated) that are not known in cult. The name is one
frequently but incorrectly used by gardeners for
Trevesia, and G. palmata is described under that genus.
G. paniculata and one or two others are referred to
Polyscias. Gilibertia differs from Trevesia in haying parts
of the fl. in 6-8's instead of 8-12's, and in its simple
entire Ivs. From Dendropanax it differs mostly in its
6-8-merous rather than 5-merous fls. N. TAYLOR.

GILLENIA (dedicated to an obscure German botanist
or physician of the seventeenth century, A. Gille or
Gillenius). Syn. Porter unthus. Rosacex. Excellent
graceful plants for the mixed border, rockeries, or
other hardy gardens.

Erect, perennial herbs, 2-4 ft. high, with nearly
sessile, 3-foliate, or 3-parted, stipulate Ivs.: fls. white
or pinkish, loosely panicled, perfect, perigynous; cup-
shaped receptacle narrow, somewhat contracted at the
mouth, 5-toothed; petals strap-shaped, unequal, 4-8
lines long; stamens 10-20, very short; pistils 5, superior,
lightly coherent, later distinct, pubescent: fr. consist-
ing of 5 2-4-seeded follicles. Two species. They are
hardy and of easy cult, in any good soil. Prop, by
seeds or division.

1338

GILLENIA

GINSENG

trifoliate, Moench. BOWMAN'S ROOT. Lfts. serrate;

stipules small, awl-shaped, mainly entire. Cent, and S. U.

S. B.M. 489 (as Spiraea). Mn. 8:129. J.H. III. 43:188.

stipulata, Trel.
(G . stipulacea,
Nutt.). AMERICAN
IPECAC. Lfts. in-
cised; stipules
large, broad, and
leaf-like, doubly in-
cised. Cent, and S.
U.S.

K. M. WlEGAND.

GILLYFLOWER.
Down to Shake-
speare's time usu-
ally referred to
what we now call
the carnation, Di-
anthus Caryophyl-
lus, also known as
clove pink. Since
Shakespeare's time
gilliflower has usu-
ally meant either
wall- flowers or
stocks, as explained
Matthiola.

1640. Ginkgo biloba.
under Cheiranthus and

GINGER: Zingiber officinale. Wild Ginger: Asarum canadense.

GfNKGO (Chinese name). Syn., Salisburia. Gink-
goacex, one of the segregates from the Coniferae. One
species in northern China and Japan, the sole remainder
of a more numerous tribe in geologic time; now wide-
spread as a street and park tree and also prized for the
edible seeds.

Tall tree, with wedge-shaped deciduous Ivs.: fls.
small and mostly dioecious; pistillate fl. solitary, the
single naked ovule ripening into a drupe; staminate fls.
in slender, loose catkins: fr. a drupe about 1 in. diain.,
containing a very large lenticular seed or kernel.

biloba, Linn. (Salisburia adiantifblia, Smith).
GINKGO. MAIDENHAIR TREE. KEW TREE. Figs. 1640-
1642. A straight, sparsely branched, usually slender
tree, attaining a height of 60-80 ft. : Ivs. 3-5, 1-clustered,
fan-shaped, divided at summit, with thickened margin,
striated on both sides with numerous parallel veins:
fls. dioecious; male catkins slender, stalked; females
on long footstalks, in pairs, of which one usually
aborts: fr. a drupe, consisting of an acrid, foul-smelling
pulp surrounding a smooth, angular oval, cream-col-
ored, thin-shelled, sweet-kerneled nut. F.S. 10, p. 119.
G.C. 111.5:265, 269. G.F. 1:175 (adapted in Fig.
1640). A.G. 12:268. Gng. 6:194. G.M. 52:1011.

1641. Ginkgo leaves and fruit.

1642. Ginkgo fruit. (Natural size)

Gn. 66, p. 345. Gn.M. 2:11. G.W. 3, p. 542; 10, p.
285; 15, pp. 589-593. J.H. III. 64:148. The ginkgo
was intro. to Amer. early in the last century; it is gen-
erally successful on good soil in the eastern states as
far north as E. Mass, and Cent. Mich., and along the
St. Lawrence River in parts of Canada. It is of special
value for solitary planting to secure picturesque effects.
It is considerably planted in Washington, D. C., where
it is growing in esteem as a street tree because of its
upright habit and freedom from insect injury. Easily
prop, from seed, stratified in autumn; varieties by
budding and grafting. Several horticultural forms are
recognized, including laciniata, pendula and variegata.
The foul odor of the ripe frs., which continue to mature
and drop during a period of some weeks, constitutes
the chief objection to the species as a street tree, or
near dwellings, and suggests the advisability of prop,
from staminate trees by grafting or budding, for plant-
ing in such locations. The kernels, which have a sweet-
ish, slightly resinous flavor, are highly esteemed for
food in China and Japan, and are gathered from fruiting
trees in Washington for such use by Chinese laundry-
men.

The word Ginkgo seems to be pronounced with a hard
initial G in the orient, but in English a soft G should
be used. The name is often spelled Gingko, but the
other spelling is that used by Linnaeus.

W. A. TAYLOR.

GINSENG (Panax quinquefblium, Linn. P. Ginseng,
Meyer. Ardlia quinquefblia, Decne. & Planch.) is fro
the Chinese more than quinine or any other drug is to
Americans. As its name Panax implies, it is a pana-
cea, being employed for all the ills that flesh is heir to.
Though credited with stimulating, aromatic, alterative,
carminative and tonic properties, the root is with us

GINSENG

GLADIOLUS

1339

1643. Parts of a gladiolus
flower. Showing the three
stigmas, three stamens, six
segments of the perianth,
and the tips of the spathe-
valves.

seldom used except as a demulcent. The reverence in
which it is held, and the high price that it commands in
China, led to extensive search for a substitute, which
resulted in the discovery in 1716 of American ginseng,
Panax quinquefolium, near Montreal, Canada. This
root was favorably received by the Chinese, and soon
became an important article
of export. During the past
fifty years the price of Ameri-
can ginseng has advanced
nearly 700 per cent, but owing
to the energetic hunt for the
root, to the destruction of
forests and to the gathering
of plants at improper times,
the wild supply has greatly
decreased. With the advanc-
ing prices and the diminishing
supply came experiments in
ginseng cultivation, most of
which failed through igno-
rance of the plant's peculiari-
ties. The seed ripens in Sep-
tember. If dry it will not
germinate until the second
year, but if fresh and properly
kept nearly all the seeds will
germinate the first season. The soil must be a light,
friable loam, free from stones, rich in humus and well
drained ; the plants must be well supplied with shade
and moisture. Cultivated ginseng already commands a
considerably higher price than the wild root, and,
though no returns can be expected from a plantation
under three or four years, the industry is profitable
to the men that have given it careful attention.

Ginseng beds can be located in orchards, gardens, or
woods, where the roots may remain without danger of
deterioration for several years after they first attain
marketable size. The roots are so valuable that they
are likely to be stolen, and beds should, therefore, be
placed where they can be guarded.

For further information on ginseng, send to Division
of Publications, Department of Agriculture, Washing-
ton, D. C., for Bulletin No. 16 of the Division of
Botany, revised by M. G. Kains in 1898, or consult
Kains' Ginseng, its culture, etc., Orange Judd Company
1899; second edition, 1902. For diseases, consult Cor-
nell bulletins. M. G. KAINS.

GITHAGO: Lychnis.

GITHOPSIS (like Githago, from the calyx). Cara-
panulacese. One blue-fid, annual in Calif., sometimes
recorded in horticultural litera-
ture, G. specularimdes, Nutt. It
grows in the open hill country and
the mountains: st. simple or some-
what branched, 4-7 in. high, rough-
pubescent: Ivs. obovate to oblong
or narrower, sharp-toothed, less
than J^in. long:
corolla tubular-
bell-shaped, the
lobes shorter than
the tube; calyx
10-ribbed, adnate
to the ovary: fr.
a coriaceous caps.,
bearing the rigid
calyx - lobes, de-
hiscing at apex.
Var. diffusa, Jep-
son, is nearly gla-
brous, but sinuses
of calyx some-
what hispid. 1644. Gladiolus conn growing above the old
L. H. B. ne ; an< * the cormels from the bottom.

GLADIOLUS (diminutive of Latin gladius a sword,
from the shape of the leaves). Iridaceae. Popular
summer-flowering and autumn-flowering bulbs, and
now somewhat grown under glass.

Corm-bearing herbs with fls. in simple or
branched spikes; Ivs. radical and cauline: fl. more
or less tubular, the tube usually funnel-shaped
(enlarging upward) ; segms. 6, more or less une-
qual, strongly narrowed or even clawed at the base,
the upper ones often hooded or roofed over the
opening or mouth of the fl.; stamens 3, inserted
on the tube; stigmas 3, on a long style; ovary
3-loculed, becoming an oblong 3-valved
caps., with flattened and winged or some-
times globose seeds: each fl. is borne in a
sessile spathe (like a calyx) with linear or
lanceolate valves or If .-like parts: the Ivs.
are mostly equitant on the st., all firm and
prominently several-ribbed, varying from
linear to sword-shaped (sometimes almost
terete): the old corm dies and a new one
grows on top, and cormels
or offsets (sometimes called
"spawn") form from the
underpart (Fig. 1644). The
species of Gladiolus are 160
or more, perhaps 100 being in
S. Afr. (Cape), many in Trop.
Afr. in both the E. and the
W., and others in the Medit.
and W. Asian regions. The
greater part of highly im-
proved garden forms are de-
rived more or less directly
from the S. African species.
The Eurasian species are little
grown, although some of them
are hardy. Gladioli have been
much modified by variation,
hybridizing and selection.

The gladiolus is propa-
gated readily by seeds, as
explained farther on; by the
use of the new corm growing above
the old one, and which is separated
either when cleaning in autumn or
before planting in spring; by the
young corms, or cormels. Increasing
stock by the small corms or cormels is
the most common method, and the
one by which a variety is perpetu-
ated. The small corms are stored in
bags, boxes or other suitable recepta-
cles and kept from frost. It is a help
to sprouting if the cormels are not
allowed to dry out during the period
of rest. They should be planted like
one-year seedlings, and they give
blooming plants the first and second
year.

Great progress has been made in
recent years in the improvement of
the gladiolus, until in floriferousness,
form, color, substance and keeping
qualities it has become one of the im-
portant summer flowers, both for
amateurs and florists. It is to be expected, however,
that many other forms and qualities are yet to appear,
considering the great number of wild species of much
beauty that have not been combined in the cultivated
strains. It may be possible, also, that closely related
genera can be used to some extent in hybridizing. The
lines of division between Gladiolus, Antholyza, Acidan-
thera, and some others, are more or less arbitrary.

The early departures were of the gandavensis (Fig.
1645) and similar types, founded probably on G.

1645. Gladiolus

gandavensis.

(XH)

1340

GLADIOLUS

psittacinus and G. cardinalis. Forms of G. tristis early
entered into the cultivated strains, as well as G. oppo-
sitiflorus, and later G. purpureo-auratus and G. Saun-
dersii. The Lemoinei and nanceianus races (Fig. 1646)
have afforded foundations for much subsequent breed-
ing. Recently, G. primulimts has entered into the
combinations. It seems to be particularly valuable
as a parent; it is said to be dominant in color over even
the deepest reds, subduing them to excellent shades of
orange, salmon, and terra-cotta; when crossed with
the lighter colors it transforms them to buff, lemon and
ecru; combined with yellow the color is deepened.
The hooded character is commonly inherited. W. W.
Van Fleet has succeeded in crossing this species with
many of the other wild forms. With G. Qvartinianus
the color is said to be toned down to terra-cotta and
the season for blooming is changed from autumn to
midsummer. When G. Watsonius is
used, the progeny is tall, orange in
color with scarlet veinings; the plants
are earlier, more vigorous, and pro-
fuse bloomers. Hybrids from the
above species, and from varieties of
G. cardinalis produce tall graceful
spikes of exquisite light tints.

1646. Gladiolus Lemoinei (on the right), and G. nanceianus. ( X } 3)

The ruffled strains of gladioli have appeared in recent
years, adding a pleasing variety and -much merit to
the flower. This type has been specially developed
in the recent breeding work of A. E. Kunderd, of
Goshen, Indiana (Fig. 1647). Nearly twenty years
ago he began his selections for the production of a
frilled or wavy flower, that should have something of
the petal-edge exhibited so well in azalea. Early- and
late-flowering strains have been produced. It is said
that one strain has the blood of G. Quartinianus and
is producing many good shades of red with fluted or
ruffled petals and suitable for late-flowering purposes.
G. primulinus has also given good tints in yellows, with
flowers very much frilled. It now seems possible to
introduce the ruffling into many of the standard types,
much as has been done with the sweet pea.

The recent Burbank strains have been developed from
the variety America as the seed-parent. These are
said to comprise many very large-flowered forms, with
brilliant coloring.

The G. prsecox group or strain was introduced by
Frederick Roemer, of Quedlinburgh, Germany, said
to be the result of intercrossing the earliest-flowering
plants of G. gandavensis, G. Lemoinei, G. Childsii and
G. nanceianus. In color, markings, or size, the race
compares favorably with the parents, and at the
same time the plants bloom the first year from seed,
especially when the seed is started in a moderate
hotbed in March. As growth advances, they are given
ventilation gradually. There is a decided improve-
ment the second year, when two or more spikes of
normal size are usually produced. Other strains
of gladiolus may also give bloom the first year from
seed.

Some of the earlier history of American gladiolus-
breeding was written for the "Cyclopedia of American
Horticulture" by H. H. Groff, of Canada, one of the
prominent contributors to the improvement of the
flower (extracts) : Some twenty-five years ago "when the
writer, under the inspiration of Luther Burbank, began
his own work in hybridization, the best American-grown
stock available was the Hallock collection of some 400
named varieties of gandavensis and about 100 of the
earlier Lemoine hybrids, all of European origin. After
trial, the writer placed them all in mixtures. About this
time Luther Burbank began to offer a few named varie-
ties, but shortly afterward sold his whole stock, the
collection being now in the writer's hands. This col-
lection, in the opinion of the writer, is the best strain
of gandavensis. The varieties were largely of varie-
gated types, with many of unique markings and peculiar
form. Burbank had given particular attention to varie-
ties calculated to withstand the hot, dry winds of
California, and had originated several with specially
stiff petals, quite distinct from the ordinary types. The
peculiarity of the flowers blooming around the spike
like the hyacinth was also his contribution. All of his
varieties are now grown in mixture by the writer with
the exception of a white variety, which promises to be
distinct and valuable for some time to come. The
work of Van Fleet, of New Jersey, was carried on more
for scientific than commercial results, and reaped a
deserved success. However, the writer has found that
the offspring of a pure species is less stable than that of
well-balanced cross-bred varieties, the former system
handing down few varieties of permanent commercial
value, though they are in themselves valuable as
parents for the foundation of new strains. The best
work of a semi-professional character, in the opinion
of the writer, has been done by T. S. Moore, of Indiana,
who has spared no trouble or expense in procuring
choice material upon which to build, and with satis-
factory results." Writing in 1914, Groff speaks of the
fluted, ruffled and crimped forms being frequent in
the progeny of every improved species; of the develop-
ment of iris-form flowers; and of innumerable influences,
under breeding, on the character of the stalk, fiber,
capsule, shape and size of foliage, disposition of flowers
to droop or to grow erect, on the corm and its husk
and the facility of producing cormels, and other inter-
esting departures.

The interest in the gladiolus has been much stimu-
lated in North America by the work of the American
Gladiolus Society. It was organized at Boston, May
27, 1910, for the purpose of "stimulating interest in,
and promoting the culture and development of the
gladiolus; to establish a standard nomenclature; to
test out new varieties, and to give them such recogni-
tion as they deserve; to study the diseases of the
gladiolus, and find remedies for same; to disseminate
information relating to this flower; to secure uniformity
in awarding prizes at flower shows, and to give one
exhibition each year." The society holds exhibitions,
publishes a bulletin, and in manj 1 " ways aids in the
popularizing of the gladiolus and in establishing stand-
ards of excellence. It has a trial-ground at the New York

GLADIOLUS

1341

State College of Agriculture at Cornell University,
where gladioli are now being carefully studied.

Following is a score-card prepared by direction of
Gladiolus Society of Ohio:

Points

1. Spike (long, 5; straight, 5; many blooms, 5; facing together,

5) 20

2. Flower (large, 5; widely opened, 5; broad, round petals, 5;

substance and texture, 5; beauty of bud, 5) 25

3. Color (attractive, 10; either self-color, or strikingly marked,

5; adapted to cut-flower trade or florists' use, 5) 20

4. Foliage (dark, healthy green, 5; broad, 5; abundant, 5) _. 15

5. Durability (continuance of bloom on spike, 5; lasting quali-

ties as cut-flower, 5) 10

6. General effect (in mass bed or field, 5; in vase or cut display, 5) 10

Total 100

Culture of the gladiolus. (Isaac S. Hendrickson, except
when otherwise stated.)

The Gladiolus has several good points combined to
make it interesting, popular, and promising, as: The
low cost; ease of culture; freedom from insects; varia-
tion in color; ease of carrying over from year to year;
length of blooming season; rapid increase; ease with
which new varieties are produced.

Figures recently compiled from information given
by the growers in the United States are as follows:

Number of acres devoted to gladioli 400 to 500.

Estimated number of bulbs produced annually

14,000,000 to 15,000,000
Estimated value of crop $250,000

Raising new varieties.

It is the contention of some growers that certain
definite results can be secured by hand-crossing of
different varieties, while other growers assert that they
cannot trace a single valuable result to that method.
The writer's observation has led him to the opinion
that some of the best and most useful sorts on the
market today are the results of careful selection of seed
from the varieties showing best form, growth, color,
vigor, size, and other qualities. It is well for the general
gardener to purchase a collection of the best-named
kinds now on sale, plant them together and let the
insects transfer the pollen naturally; and if the weather
is favorable, one is almost sure to have a crop of seed.
This seed must be carried over until the following
spring, when it can be planted in shallow drills, cover-
ing about one-eighth to one-fourth inch with soil; they
will make only a slight grass-like growth the first year,
and must be taken up in the fall, and housed away from
frost. The following spring they can be planted as
one would sow garden peas, and covered about 1^
inches deep; they will make a little more growth and
perhaps a small percentage will flower, but the bulbs
will have to be lifted and planted once more before a
good showing of flowers can be expected. The com-
mercial grower expects to wait three or four years
after planting the seed before he has salable bulbs,
which of course, can be sold only as seedlings or mix-
tures as all forms and colors will be present. In look-
ing for new varieties to name, the greatest care must be
taken to choose only those of real merit, something that
is distinct from previous selections, new in color, good
in substance, excellent in form, and in all ways merito-
rious. When the selection is finally made from perhaps
thousands of seedlings, it is labeled out and lifted
separately in the fall, and jealously guarded until the
next planting-time; then it is watched with eagerness
to see whether it will prove constant and worth taking
the trouble to "bring up," for as it requires at least ten
years to secure enough bulbs to offer for sale, one can
easily waste much time if the selection does not prove
to be a wise one. It is often said that there are too many
varieties now under name, and this is true; but as it is
so very easy and so fascinating to grow seedlings, one
should not discourage the amateur in securing this
satisfaction.

Of course the professional or expert breeder will
exercise the most careful choice of the parent stocks;
and he is able to make many interesting and valuable
combinations of special qualities.

Culture.

While nearly any good garden soil is adapted to the
culture of the gladiolus, the plant seems partial to a

sandy loam. In field cul-
ture, gladioli are usually
planted in rows similar to
potatoes; that is to say,
the furrows are made 3
feet apart to allow tillage
with horse. The bulbs are
placed in the row by hand,
usually about 2 to 4
inches apart each way
according to size, and
covered about 4 or 5 inches
deep. Deep planting pre-
vents them blowing over.
Frequent tillage must be
given in spring and sum-
mer.

For garden culture, they
may be planted promiscu-
ously in the border if
wanted for garden decora-
tion; or if wanted for
cut-flowers principally, the
straight-row method is
best, as it enables better
tillage to be given and
makes it much easier to cut
the blooms. The gladio-
lus is essentially a cut-
flower. If one has a
goodly number of bulbs, it
is an excellent plan to
make successive plantings
about fifteen days apart,
beginning as early as the
ground can be worked
and continued until July.
This will insure continu-
ous bloom from July until
October, or until the
plants are cut down by
frost. As the old bulb or
corm produces its flower,
it dies and a new one
forms in its place, and de-
velops until harvest time,
when it is lifted and stored
in a warm dry place; some
time during the winter
the roots and old bulb
should be taken off, so
that the bulb will present
a clean appearance and
be ready for planting.

As a cut-flower, the
gladiolus will rival most
other flowers in keeping
qualities. The blooms can
be kept fresh and beauti-

1647. The ruffled gladiolus.

(XJO

f ul for a period of five to
ten days after cutting by
changing the water daily
and removing each day the withered blooms; it also
helps if the ends of the spike are nipped off when chang-
ing the water. If the spikes are cut when the first two
or three flowers have opened, the entire stalk will open
out after it has been put in water. They may be sent
to a distance; they will arrive in excellent condition if

1342

GLADIOLUS

a little'care is taken when shipping. The spikes should
be cut when the first flower opens, and put in water in
the cellar or cool place for two or three hours, after
which they will stand a journey of two or three days;
and then when placed in water they will quickly
respond and unfold their petals.

The uses of gladioli are varied; great quantities are
used for decorating dining tables in the great hotels
and steamboats; florists have long recognized their
value in making funeral designs; at the exhibition of
the American Gladiolus Society, at Rochester, it was
demonstrated that they can be used for fancy table
decoration, wedding bouquets, and other purposes.

Varieties.

No two persons will agree on varieties, but the fol-
lowing represent some of the good types at present
(given here as a matter of record) :

White. Europa, Blanche, Peace, LaLuna. Pink.
Wild Rose, America, Mrs. Frank Pendleton, Myrtle,
Taconic, Panama. Scarlet. Mrs. Francis King,
Princeps, Brenchleyensis, Contrast (scarlet and white).
Yellow. Golden King, Sulphur King, Niagara, Kun-
derdi Glory. Maroon. Empress of India, Mrs.
Milh'ns. Violet. Baron Joseph Hulot.

Variation in size of bulbs.

There is great variation in size of bulb or corm. It is
a varietal characteristic. Some kinds never make a
large bulb, yet they may be superior kinds. This
ought to give a hint in buying mixtures at the flower-
shop. Nine times out of ten, when a customer has the
opportunity to pick out the bulbs personally, the very
largest ones are taken, with the result that perhaps not
more than one or two kinds are received, as very often
the very best and choicest flowers are concealed in the
small or medium-sized corms. Some of the
large-bulb sorts are very inferior, and it is
easy to increase the stock, while others,
perhaps producing smaller bottoms, bear
only a few offsets.

Commercial cultivation for stock or bulbs.
(E. H. Cushman.)

For successful commercial culture it is
essential that sandy soil conditions are
obtainable. Such preparation of the soil
as puts it in a loose, friable condition will
answer. Probably the ideal soil is a sod,
fall-plowed and then most thoroughly worked
in the spring. Strong, fresh stable manure
should be avoided. If soil is not sufficiently
rich in plant-food it is best to use all strong
manures on a previous season's crop of some
other kind. Any complete fertilizer is bene-
ficial when thoroughly worked through the
soil, at the rate of 600 to 1,000 pounds to the
acre. Planting should be begun as early in
the spring as the proper working of the soil
will permit. The ground being prepared, it
should be furrowed 4 inches deep and from 24 to 36 inches
apart, according to method of cultivation. If fine, round
bulbs are to be grown, and the stock for planting
exceeds 1}^ inches in diameter, it will be necessary to
place the bulbs right side up in the furrow by hand,
either in single or double rows 2 inches apart. Bulbs of
lesser size may be scattered as evenly as possible along
the furrow, with an average of ten or twelve to the foot
of furrow. Clean culture throughout the growing season
is essential. Cutting the spike of flowers is a help to
increasing the size of the bulbs. Four months is suffi-
cient for the growth and maturity of the bulb. To har-
vest, loosen the soil and lift the bulbs by their tops,
and lay on the ground to dry off and ripen. Should
weather permit, they can be entirely ripened out-of-
doors. Cut the tops off close to the bulbs, pulling off

the old bulbs and roots, and place in thin layers in
crates and store in a cool, dry place. If circumstances
require, the tops may be trimmed off at once on lifting,
and the bulbs taken under cover for cleaning and
drying.

Culture in California. (Sydney B. Mitchell.)

Gladioli, like all South African bulbs, do very well in
California; indeed near Santa Cruz, some of the popular
large-flowering varieties are grown in commercial quan-
tities for their bulbs. These summer-flowering kinds
may be planted in the fall to bloom in the following
May and June, but in private gardens additional
corms should be put in at intervals from April to July
so that a succession of flowers may be available until
October, right through the season when California
gardens are barest. It should be noted that the early-
flowering class of the nanus and Colvillei types are
also quite hardy here and
so do not require the glass
protection given in the
East. The favorite varieties
of the nanus or dwarfs are
Peach Blossom and Blush-
ing Bride, while The Bride
easily leads in the Colvillei
section. A few of the less-
known early species are also
grown occasionally, as for
example G. tristis (yellow and terra-
cotta) and its variety concolor (pale
greenish yellow), both of which
flower in March around San Fran-
cisco Bay. The earlier-flowering
classes should all be planted just as
soon as available in late October or
in November. Growth starts at
once, but the flowers usually do not
appear much before the following
May, when they make a brave show
and are fine for cutting. Their
simple requirements are fall-plant-
ing in a well-drained, preferably
loamy soil, put about 3 inches
deep and about the same apart. Separate
bulbs are reset each autumn for best
results.
gain

a year in California, as far as soil and
climate go, there is no good reason why
the local-grown bulbs should not quite
replace imported ones.

Indoor culture. (A. C. Hottes.)

Until recently, the gladiolus used for
blooming indoors was principally of the
nanus type. Planted in November, they
bloom in April and May. They may first
be started in 5-inch pots and later benched.
They require a cool temperature, about
45 at night, if one expects the foliage to develop nicely.
This is a temperature near that of the carnation op-
timum; they are therefore, often planted around the
margins of the carnation benches. Their growth at first
is slow, making little growth till the sun gets higher
in the spring.

The flowers of the nanus type appear two or three
weeks earlier than the standard varieties of gandavensis,
Lemoinei or nanceianus. Varieties of the latter groups,
however, are being developed with the desirable
qualities for forcing, that of earliness and of a pleasing
commercial color, and are becoming of considerable
importance as a spring flower for the florist.

If the stems are not cut too short, the corms will
renew themselves as well as in outdoor culture and they
can be forced again or given a year's growth in the field.

ts. As they increase quite rapidly and
greatly in vigor after they have had

1648. Gladiolus tristis var.
concolor. (XJi)

XLVIII. The garden gladiolus, variety "Peace."

GLADIOLUS

1343

The kinds of gladiolus.

The following account includes those species that
appear to have any particular horticultural history; also
some of the prominent Latin-named hybrids, although
not all these hybrids may now be in commerce.

INDEX.

Adlami, 20.

Engesseri, 33.

oppositiflorus, 26.

alatus, 2.

erectus, 19.

Papilio, 13.

albidus, 24.

excelsus, 24.

pracox, 36.

albus, 28.

fasciatus, 9.

primulinus, 19.

angustus, 5.

floribundus, 25, 28.

princeps, 35.

atroviolaceus, 7.

Froebelii, 33.

psittacinus, 22.

biflorus, 8.

gandavensis, 29.

purpureo-auratus, 23.

blandus, 24.

grandis, 3.

Quartinianus, 18.

brenchleyensis, 29.

Hibbertii, 24.

ramosus, 28.

Brinerii, 33.

Hollandia, 29.

salmoneus, 19.

byzantinus, 11.

hybridus, 35.

Saundersii, 17.

cardinalis, 15.

imbricatus, 6.

eegetum, 12.

carneus, 10, 24.

Kunderdii, 37.

sulphurous, 20.

Childsii, 32.

Leichtlinii, 14.

superbus, 17.

citrinus, 29.

Lemoinei, 30.

trimaculatus, 5.

Colvillei, 28.

maculatus, 19.

tristis, 4.

communis, 10.

major, 19.

turicensis, 34.

concolor, 4, 19.

Milleri, 27.

undulatus, 9.

cordatus, 5.

Mortonius, 24.

versicolor, 3.

crispiflorus, 6.

namaquensis, 2.

vinulus, 9.

cruentus, 16.

nanceianus, 31.

vittatus, 9.

delicatissimus, 28.

nanus, 28.

Watsonius, 1.

dracocephalus, 21.

natalensis, 22.

I. SPECIES OF GLADIOLUS (Nos. 1-27).

Few of the original species of Gladiolus are in culti-
vation in their pure form. When grown at all, they are
prized chiefly as oddities, or because of their botanical
interest. The following species are either offered at
the present time in the trade or are parents of modern
garden forms:

A. Fl. with a long, slender, cylindrical curved tube,
which is enlarged in the middle; segms. nearly
equal. (Homoglossum.)

1. Watsdnius, Thunb. (Antholf/za revoliita, Burm.).
Cprm 1 in. diam., globose: st. slender, 18 in. or less,
with 1 long, narrow-linear and stiff If. and 2-3 short
sheathing Ivs.: fls. 2-4, in a lax 1-sided spike, 2 in. or
less long, bright red, the wide-spreading segms. oblong
and acute, the lower ones smaller and lanceolate-fal-
cate; stamens very short. S. Afr. B.M. 450. Little
known in this country, but offered by Dutch growers.

AA. Fl. short and open, the tube short or scarcely any;
segms. very prominently clawed, usually unequal.

2. alatus, Linn. Corm small, globose: small, the
st. only 4-12 in. high, and slender: Ivs. 3-4, linear and
rigid: fls. 3-4 in a lax spike, the curved tube ^fan. long,
the perianth pink and often strongly veined; segms.
very unequal, the 3 lower tongue-like and protruded,
the others obovate or nearly orbicular, all of them dif-
ferently colored toward the base; stamens nearly as
long as upper segms. S. Afr. B.M. 586; 592; the var.
namaquensis, Baker, which is more robust, with broader
Ivs., more fls., the upper segms. broad.

AAA. Fls. of medium length, with a funnel-shaped tube,
which is flaring at the top; segms. narrowed below,
but not distinctly clawed. (Gladiolus proper.)

B. Lvs. linear (%in. or less wide).
c. Perianth-segms. acute.

3. grandis, Thunb. (G. versicolor, Andr.). Corm
globose, with coverings of thick wiry fibers : st. slender,

2 ft. or less, terete: Ivs. about 3, terete, strongly ribbed,
\}/% ft- or I GSS long: fls. 6 or less in a lax 1-sided spike,

3 in. long, with a curved tube; segms. nearly equal,
oblong-lanceolate and cuspidate, as long as the tube
and twice longer than the stamens, recurved and often
wavy, yellowish or creamy, tinged and striped with
purple-brown, especially on the keel: caps, oblong, 1^
in. long; seeds winged. S. Afr. B.M. 1042.

4. tristis, Linn. Very like the last : fls. 2-4, somewhat
smaller (2 in. or less long) ; segms. shorter than the tube
and not twice longer than the stamens, acute (short-
pointed), yellowish white with purple or blackish pen-
cilings, or var. concolor, Hort., Fig. 1648 (G. concolor,
Salisb.), almost white or uniform yellow. S. Afr. B.M.
272, 1098. G. 21:649. Gn. 75, p. 420. G.C. III. 38:187
(var. concolor). G.F. 8:75 (reproduced in Fig. 1648).
Said to exhale a powerful and delightful lemon
perfume at night.

5. angustus, Linn. (G. trimaculatus, Lam. G. cor-
datus, Thunb.). Corm globose: slender: st. 2-3 ft.,
simple: Ivs. 3-4, very narrow, flat, 2 ft. or less long:
fls. 2-6 in a very loose spike, long-tubed, white, the
oblong segms. shorter than the tube and the 3 lower
ones with a characteristic purple median line ending
in a heart-shaped or spade-shaped mark; stamens half
length of limb. S. Afr. B.M. 602.

cc. Perianth-segms. obtuse.
D. Color purple or violet.

6. crispifldrus, Herb. (G. imbricatus, Linn., var.
crispiflorus, Baker). St. 1-2 ft., rather slender: lys.
2-3, sometimes ^m. broad: fls. 4-10, the tube J^in.
long and curved, the segms. obovate (1 in. long),
crisped or wavy on the edge, dark purple, more or less
marked with white and red: seeds winged. E. Eu. and
W. Asia. Hardy or nearly so.

7. atroviolaceus, Boiss. Corm ovoid, %in. or less
diam. : st. 1-2 ft. high : Ivs. 3, closely ribbed, firm : fls. few,
the tube Jiin. long and curved, the obovate segms. 1 in.
long and dark purple or violet-blue : seeds globose, not
winged. W.Asia. G.C. 111.41:378. Hardy or nearly so.

8. bifldrus, Klatt. Corm globose, small (^in. diam.) :
dwarf (1 ft. or less), the st. slender and terete and bear-
ing only 1 well-formed If., which is subterete and very
narrow and 5-6 in. long, the 2 upper Ivs. rudimentary:
fls. 2-3, lilac, the tube nearly straight, the oblong segms.
twice as long as the tube; stamens reaching half-way
the limb. S. Afr. Connects with Geissorhiza.

DD. Color (under-color) white or nearly so.

9. vittatus, Hornem. (G. vinulus, Klatt. G. fasciatus,
Roem. & Schult. G. undulatus, Schneev.). Corm glo-
bose: plant low (about 1 ft.): Ivs. 3-4, very narrow: fls.
3-6 in a lax spike, nearly erect, the slightly curved tube
nearly or quite an inch long, the limb longer than the
tube, pink, the 3 lower segms. with a purple central
blotch; stamens reaching half-way the limb. S. Afr.
B.M. 538 (as G. undulatus, var.)

BB. Lvs. ensiform (y&n. or more broad, and flat or

flattish) .
c. Under- or body-color essentially purple.

10. communis, Linn. Corm about %in. diam.:
st. 1^-23/6 ft.: lys. 3-4, 1 ft. or less long: fls. 4-8, small
(\ l /z in. long), with a curved tube; segms. bright purple
(flesh-colored in the var. carneus), nearly equal in
length, all connivent or touching (making a narrow
fl.), the 3 lower ones long-clawed and with a median
line: seeds broad-winged.. France, Germany. B.M. 86,
1575. Hardy; little known in cult, in this country.
Variable; Nos. 11 and 12 are by some considered to be
forms of it.

11. byzantinus, Mill. Fls. more and larger, plant
more robust than in No. 10, segms. more spreading at
maturity, although the 3 upper ones are contiguous,
dark purple, the 3 lower ones with a prominent white
median line: seeds winged. Medit. region. B.M. 874.
Hardy; little known in gardens.

12. segetum, Ker. Differs from G. byzantinus in
having globular (not winged) seeds, and in the flaring
or spreading segms. of the bright purple, obovate-
obtuse sepals. Canaries and Medit. region. B.M. 719.
Hardy and early; little grown.

1344

GLADIOLUS

13. Papflio, Hook, f. Corm of medium size, globose:
st. 2 ft. or more: Ivs. about 4, rigid, 1 ft. or more long
and 1 in. or less wide: fls. 6-12, pale purple or lilac,
yellow in the throat; perianth horizontal, the curved
tube Kin- lng an< i broadly funnel-shaped at the
top; 3 upper segms. obovate-spatulate, uppermost
not reflexing, M-%in. broad, 1^ in. long, the lower
ones very narrow below and marked with large red-
brown spade-shaped yellow-edged blotches. S. Afr.,
in the Transvaal, Orange Free State and Natal. B.M.
5565. Handsome. Varies to white in cult.

cc. Under- or body-color essentially red (No. 22 may be
sought here).

14. Leichtlinii, Baker. Corm large and globose:
st. about 2 ft. tall, terete: Ivs. about 4, ensiform, 1 ft.
long: fls. 6-8, large, in a somewhat dense 1-sided spike,
bright red, with a curved tube 1 % in. long; upper segms.
obovate and connivent, equaling the tube, 3 lower ones
much smaller and acute, spreading, red at tip but yellow
and minutely red-dotted below; stamens shorter than
upper segms. Transvaal.

15. cardinalis, Curt. Corm large and globose: st.
34 ft.: Ivs. 4-6, glaucous-green, ensiform, nearly or
quite 1 in. broad and reaching 2 ft. or more in length:

1649. Gladiolus purpureo-auratus. ( X YS)

fls. many (sometimes 20), nearly erect, bright scarlet,
the tube 1H in. long and nearly straight; upper segms.
oblong-spatulate (2 in. long), scarlet, the 3' lower ones
shorter and narrower, with a large white blotch; sta-
mens more than half the length of the limb. S. Afr.
B.M. 135.

16. cruentus, Moore. Corm large, globose: st. 2-3
ft.: Ivs. about 4, ensiform, dark glaucous-green, 2 ft.
or less long, %-l in. broad: fls. 6-10 in a rather dense
distichous spike, bright scarlet; tube 2 in. or less long,
nearly straight; upper segms. obovate-spatulate, to
23^ in. long; 3 lower segms. 1J^ in. long, white-blotched
and red-spotted; stamens reaching half-way of limb.
Natal. B.M. 5810. Closely related to No. 15.

17. Saftndersii, Hook. f. Corm large, flattened-glo-
bose: height 2-3 ft.: Ivs. 4-6, strongly ribbed and stiff,
1-2 ft. long and 1 in. or less broad: fls. 6-8, large,
bright scarlet, the tube 1-1^ in. long and curved; 3
upper segms. oblong-spatulate, uniform scarlet, con-
nivent (2 in. long), 3 lower smaller, white-blotched
and scarlet-spotted. S. Afr., coast region to Transvaal.
B.M. 5873. Gn. 12:64. Handsome. Var. superbus,
Hort., is a form produced by the early infusion of G.
Saundersii into the garden strains.

18. Quartinianus, Rich. Corm to \]/^ in. diam., glo-
bose: strong, 2-4 ft.: Ivs. 3-4, rigid, sometimes nearly
ensiform, the lower ones 1^ ft. or less long, and %in.
or less broad : fls. 4-9, in an open spike, large, blood-red,
the narrow curved tube 1J^ in. long; upper segms.
hooded, the other smaller and more or less reflexed;
stamens nearly equaling upper segms. Nile Land to
Lower Guinea and Mozambique. B.M. 6739. G.C. III.
24:467, and Gn. 55:388 (var. superbus). Trop. Afr.
One of the best of the genus. Named for M. Quartin
Dillon, who discovered it in Abyssinia.

ccc. Under- or body-color at least, yellow.

19. primulinus, Baker. Very like No. 18 (with which
Baker subsequently united it), but differs in the yellow
color: corm globose, 1 in. and more diam.: Ivs. about 3,
ensiform, 1^ ft. long and to 1 in. broad: fls. 3-5, in a
lax secund spike, clear primrose-yellow throughout;
tube 1 in. long, much curved above; 3 upper segms.
ovate or obovate, acuminate, hooded, 2 in. long and
more than 1 in. wide, the central one covering the
stamens and stigmas; 3 lower segms. deflexed and much
smaller; style exceeding the stamens. Trop. Afr.,
occurring in the rain-forests. B.M. 8080. G.C. III.
36:191; 42:291. R.H. 1908, p. 9. A handsome species,
and although not discovered until 1887 and flowered
under cult, in 1890, it is now much used as a parent in
breeding. Several varieties are offered, as var. macu-
latus, Lemoine, with fls. large, chrome-yellow, the
inner surface of the reflexed segms. bearing a maroon-
red spot. Var. salmoneus, Lemoine, with fls. saffron
or salmon-color outside, the interior bright chrome-
yellow, with fine purple lines. Var. major, Lemoine,
large-fld., said to be a cross of G. primulinus and yel-
low G. Lemoinei: fls. chrome-sulfur-yellow with light
brown marks on the interior of the segms.: plant strong.
Var. erectus, Lemoine. Erect, with large scarcely
hooded chrome-yellow maroon-spotted fls. Var. con-
color, Lemoine. Fls. large, 2 of the segms. sulfur-yel-
low and the remainder naples-yellow.

20. sulph&reus, Baker. Corm 1 in. diam., globose:
stout, but low, the st. 1 ft.: Ivs. 3-4, the blade short
(2-3 in.) and somewhat ensiform: fls. 6-8, large, soft
bright yellow, the curved tube 1 }/% in. long, upper segms.
hooded, oblong or obovate, the 3 lower ones small;
stamens shorter than upper segms. E. Trop. Afr.
The G. sulphureus, De Graaf (G. Adlami, Baker) is
another species and the name is older. B.M. 7791.

21. dracocephalus, Hook. f. Corm large, flattened-
globose: st. stout and simple, 2 ft. or less: Ivs. 3-4,
rather firm, 1-1 ^ ft. long and 1 in. or less broad: fls.

GLADIOLUS

1345

3-6, of medium size, yellowish green, the tube (2 in. or
less long) curved; upper segms. elliptic-obovate, hooded,
yellowish and closely striate with purple, the other
segms. much smaller and reflexing, mostly green and
purple-spotted; stamens nearly equaling the segms.
Natal. B.M. 5884. Odd.

22. psittacinus, Hook. (G. natalensis, Reinw. Wat-
sbnia natalensis, Eckl.). Corm very large, flattened-
globose: st. 3 ft. or more, stout: Ivs. about 4, rather
rigid, 1-2 ft.- long and 1-2 in. broad: fls. many and
large, with a curved tube nearly or quite 2 in. long,
in general effect rich yellow but thickly grained and
overlaid with red (particularly about the margins of
the segms.); upper segms. obo-

vate and hooded, dark crimson,
the lower much smaller and
reflexing, red and yellow mixed.
S. Afr., away from the coast.
B.M. 3032. B.R. 1442. L. B. C.
18:1756. One of the leading
parents of garden gladioli.

23. purpftreo - auratus, Hook,
f. Fig. 1649. Corm large, glo-
bose: st. 3 ft., very slender: TVS.
3-4, short: fls. 10 or more, prim-
rose-yellow, medium in size, the
curved tube less than 1 in. long;
segms. obovate, not widely
spreading, the lower ones with
a red-brown blotch; stamens
reaching half-way up the limb.
Natal. B.M. 5944. G.F. 2:89
(reduced in Fig. 1649). Hand-
some. A parent of modern
gladioli. Suggested by Baker
as perhaps a color-variety of G.
Papilio.

cccc. Under- or body-color white.
(Forms of No. 13 may be
sought here.)

24. blandus, Ait. Corm
medium size, globose: st. 2 ft. or
less tall, sometimes branched:

Ivs. usually 4, 1 ft. or less long and V^-^va.. wide: fls.
few, white and red-tinged, the curved tube 1J^ in. long;
segms. all oblong or oblong-spatulate and flaring or
recurved, some of them red-marked in the throat;
stamens more than half length of limb. S. Afr., coast
region; variable. B.M. 625. Sometimes pure white.
B.M. 648, G. dlbidus, Jacq.; pink or flesh-color, B.M.
645; G. cdrneus, Delar.; segms. white, with many pink
markings, B. M. 3680, G. Mortonius, Herb.; taller,
with longer Ivs. and perianth-tube, G. excelsus, Sweet;
pink fls. with red blotches on 3 lower segms., var.
Hibbertii, Hort. G. blandus is an old garden plant.

25. floribundus, Jacq. Corm globose : st. 2 ft. or less,
often branched: Ivs. usually 4, ensiform, 1-2 ft. long:
fls. 12 or less, ascending, in a lax 2-sided spike, large,
white tinged with pink, the slightly curved tube 2 in.
or less long; segms. obovate or spatulate, obtuse or
deltoid, wide-flaring, red-lined; stamens one-third or
one-half length of limb. S. Afr., coast region; perhaps
a form of G. blandus. B.M. 610.

26. oppositifldrus, Herb. Much like the last, but fls.
more numerous and smaller, white, sometimes marked
with rose, the segms. oblong and distinctly pointed.
S. Afr., in the eastern region. B.M. 7292. G.C. III.
13:291. Gn. 45:440. A very handsome plant, grow-
ing 3-6 ft. high, and said to produce spikes 2 ft. long.

27. Milleri, Ker (Anlholyza spicala, Mill.). Corm
medium size, globose: st. 12-20 in., simple: Ivs. about 4,
ensiform, shorter than the st. : fls. rather large, 4-5,
nearly erect, milk-white, the tube 2 in. or less long and
straight; segms. oblong and nearly acute; stamens

1650. Gladiolus turicensis. ( X H)

one-third to one-half length of limb. S. Afr., coast
region. B.M. 632.

II. HYBRIDS AND VARIANTS OP GLADIOLUS IN
CULTIVATION.

The garden gladioli are derivatives of various kinds
and degrees. Of many, the parentage is so confused
that it cannot be made out. However, there were four
early main lines of development or divergence, repre-
sented in the late-flowering G. gandavensis, G. Lemoinei
and G. nanceianus, and the early-flowering G. Colvillei.
To these have been added other lines in recent years.

28. Colvillei, Sweet (G. tristis var. cdncolor x G.

cardinalis). Fls. open or flaring,
with oblong-acute segms. ; scarlet,
with long blotches at the base
of the lower segms : early-flower-
ing: spikes short. Hardy south
of Washington with some pro-
tection. R.H. 1895, p. 289. G.C.
III. 12:90. Gn. 28:566; 34:580;
50, p. 66. Gn.M. 4:189. The
oldest of the garden forms. Runs
into many types and strains.
The modern white-fid, type, var.
dlbus, represented by The Bride,
is best known in this country.
Small forms are known as G.
nanus: Gn.W. 15:9; used for
early flowering. Some forms are
known as G. floribundus. G. deli-
catissimus, Blushing Bride, is a
form of the same group: segms.
white, with a large oval rose-
crimson yellow-centered blotch
on each of the 3 lower ones. Gn.
W. 15:9. J.H. 111.49:213.

Another form of early-flower-
ing gladioli is known as G.
ramosus, Paxt. (issue of G. cardi-
nalis and G. oppositiflorus), but
it is probably no longer pos-
sible to distinguish these two
groups.

29. gandavensis, Van Houtte (G. psittacinus x <?.
cardinalis). Fig. 1645. Upper segms. nearly or quite
horizontal or hooded, the colors in bright shades of
red and red-yellow, variously streaked and pencilled:
late-flowering: spikes long. The commonest old-time
type of garden gladiolus with the bloom much like
that of G. psittacinus in form and size, but with a
purer and better red. F.S. 2:84 (1846). R.H. 1846:141.
P.M. 11:27. Gn. 64, p. 252. H.F. 1:208; 2:132.
Gt. 59, p. 499 (var. Europa, with pure white fls.)
First offered to the trade by Van Houtte, Aug. 31, 1841.
M. Souchet, of Fontainebleau, France, did much to
improve the gandavensis type by repeated selections
and breeding. By Herbert and some others, gandaven-
sis is considered to be an offspring of G. psittacinus x
G. oppositiflorus. Var. citrlnus, Hort., is like G. psit-
tacinus, but the color is bright yellow. F.S. 5:539.
C. brenchleyensis is one of the gandavensis tribes;
light red. G. Holldndia is a pink form of this.

30. Lemoinei, Hort. (G. gandavensis x G. purpureo-
aurdtus). Fig. 1646. A modern race characterized by
highly colored yellow, red and purplish fls., purple-
blotched on the lower segms. with a more or less bell-
shaped form of corolla the segms. broad and heavy and
the upper ones horizontal or strongly hooded. Grown
by M. Lemoine, Nancy, France, and first shown at the
Paris Exhibition of 1878. Gn. 17:306; 30:76. R.H.
1879 : 330. Fls. said not to open up so well when cut
as do those of G. gandavensis, the st. being hard.

31. nanceianus, Hort. (G. Lemoinei x G. Saundersii).
Fig. 1646. Robust, with very large, open-spreading fls.,

1346

GLADIOLUS

GLEDITSIA

the 2 side segms. widely flaring and sometimes meas-
uring 6-8 in. from tip to tip; upper segm. long and
upright. First exhibited by Lemoine, the raiser, in
1889. The finest race, characteristically is full-open and
large fls., in brilliant shades of red and purple. Gn.
41:190. G.C. III. 13:131. Gn. W. 7:797.

32. Childsii (G. gandavensis x G. Saundersii). Fls.
wide open and large, with very broad petals: st. large
and soft, taking up water well when fls. are cut. Origi-
nated by Max Leichtlin, Germany.

33. Froebelii, Hort., is G. purpiireo-auratus x G.
gandavensis; G. Engesseri, Hort., is of similar paren-
tage; also G. Brineri, Hort.

34. turicensis, Hort. (Fig. 1650), is the offspring of
a large-fld. G. gandavensis and G. Saundersii var.
superbus. It is a fine purplish crimson, the lower segms.
being beautifully marked with white: fls. 3 in. across.
G.F. 3:89 (reduced in Fig. 1650). This and the last
3 are the work of Froebel & Co., Zurich.

35. princeps, Hort. (G. hybridus princeps). Produced
by W. W. Van Fleet, from seed of G. cruentus x G.
Childsii; like the seed-parent in its scarlet-crimson
coloring, with white and cream feather markings on the
lower segms. : very large, the flat circular bloom expand-
ing to 6 in. diam. : plant very large. G. 24 : 663 ; 34 : 533.
Gn. 60, p. 197. G.M. 44:629.

36. prsecox, Hort. Very early-flowering types,
results of crossing of horticultural groups (p. 1340) .

37. Kunderdii, Hort. A strain or group of the ruf-
fled or fluted kinds. See p. 1340.

Many species of Gladiolus are likely to be discussed in horticul-
tural literature. The following have recently been prominently
mentioned: G. carmineus, C. H. Wright. Resembles R. ramosus,
Paxt., but differs in its laxer habit, longer spathe and yellow anthers:
slender, 1J^ ft.: Ivs. linear, acuminate, 8 in. long and Jjjin. broad:
fls. carmine, about 3 in. across; tube narrow-funnel-shaped, white
outside; segms. ovate, acuminate, 2 of the inner bearing a dark
spot with a pale center; stamens rather more than half length of
perianth. 8. Afr. B.M. 8068. G. glaiicus, Heldr. Dwarf, not
exceeding 12 in.: st. and Ivs. erect and stiff: fls. many, bluish red
with red and white stripes at base. Greece. G. MacTdnderi, Hook,
f. St. slender, 2 ft.: Ivs. narrowly linear, the lower about 1 ft. long:
fls. 5-6, the tube yellow, broad segms. scarlet and 1 l /i in. across.
E. Trop. Afr. B.M. 7860. Named for Professor Mackinder,
Oxford, who collected seeds at 10,000 ft. on Mt. Kenia in 1900.
One of the Homoglossum section. L H R

1651. Glaucium flavum.

GLASSHOUSE. Any glass structure in which plants
are grown, particularly one that is large enough to
admit the operator. It is a generic term. See Green-
house.

GLAUCIUM (name refers to glaucous foliage).
Papaveracese. HORNED POPPY. Annual, biennial or
occasionally perennial herbs, a few of which are grown
for their large poppy-like flowers and glaucous-blue
foliage.

Sepals 2; petals 4; stamens many; ovary with 2
(rarely 3) cells, the stigmas miter-shaped, the fr. becom-

ing a long silique-like caps.: Ivs. alternate, lobed or
dissected. A dozen or more species of S. Eu. and W.
Asia.

Glauciums are low, branchy herbs, often some-
what succulent, with large flowers, mostly yellow or
orange, but varying to red and purple. The flowers are
usually short-lived, but they are borne in rapid suc-
cession. They are well adapted for foliage effects in
borders or edgings. Of easy culture in any good soil.
They prefer an open, sunny situation. Mostly propa-
gated by seed, but the perennial kinds by division;
however, the perennials are short-lived, and usually
had best be treated as biennials; they should be grown
from seed. Hybrids are announced by Burbank.

flavum, Crantz (G. luteum. Scop.). HORN POPPY,
or SEA POPPY. Fig. 1651. Sts. stout, 1-2 ft., pubes-
cent: radical Ivs. 2-pinnate and hairy, the upper clasp-
ing and sinuate-pinnatifid and cordate at the base: fls.
generally solitary, on long sts. 2-3 in. across, vellow
or orange. Eu. C.L.A. 1:139. Gn. M. 9:86. Spa-
ringly naturalized E. Perennial or biennial; sometimes
grown as an annual. Var. tricolor, Hort. (G. tricolor,
Vilm.) has been advertised. It has parti-colored fls.
and is showy. G.C. III. 36:115. G.M. 48:697. Gn.
66, p. 59.

corniculatum, Curt. (G. phceniceum, Gaert. G.
rubrum, Hort.). Lower: radical Ivs. pinnatifid, pubes-
cent, the upper ones sessile and truncate at the base:
fls. red or purplish, with a black spot at the base of each
petal. Eu. Mostly annual. G. Fischeri, Hort., is
probably a form of this.

leiocarpum, Boiss. A velvety perennial with oblong,
sinuate-dentate, or much-divided Ivs. which in the upper
part of the plant are sinuate-lobed : fls. yellow, the calyx
somewhat papillose. Medit. region. Scarcely a showy
member of the genus. L jj jj

N. TAYLOR. t

GLAUX (Greek, sea-green). Primulacese. One small
little pale herb, seldom seen in gardens, G. maritima,
Linn. St. 9 in. or less high, erect or spreading, peren-
nial by slender creeping rootstocks, growing in salt
marshes and seacoasts from New Jersey and Calif,
northward, and also in Eu. and Asia: Ivs. oval to. oblong-
linear, entire and sessile, Hi n - or less long: fls. purplish
or white, the corolla wanting; calyx with 5 petal-like
lobes; stamens and style exhibiting dimorphism: fr. a
5-valved few-seeded caps. L_ jj_ jj.

GLAZldVA: Cocos insignia.
GLECH6MA: Nepeta.

GLEDITSIA (after Gottlieb Gleditsch, director of
the botanic garden at Berlin; died 1780). Syn. Gle-
ditschia. Leguminbsae. HONEY LOCUST. Ornamental
trees grown chiefly for their handsome finely divided
foliage; also the large conspicuous pods and the branched
spines are attractive.

Deciduous, usually with large branched spines on
trunk and branches: Ivs. without stipules, alternate,
abruptly pinnate, often partly bipinnate on the same
If. or wholly bipinnate, both usually on the same tree:
fls. polygamous in racemes or rarely panicles; calyx-
lobes and petals 3-5, petals nearly equal, not much
longer than calyx, stamens 6-10; style short, with
large terminal stigma: pod compressed, mostly large
and indehiscent, 1- to many-seeded. About 12 species
in N. Amer., E. and Cent. Asia, in Trop. Afr. and in
S. Amer.

The honey locusts are large trees with spreading
branches forming a broad graceful rather loose head,
with finely pinnate foliage, generally light green and
turning clear yellow in fall; the greenish flowers appear-
ing in racemes early in summer are inconspicuous, but
the large, flat pods are ornamental and the fertile tree
is therefore to be preferred for planting. G. triacanthos

GLEDITSIA

1347

1652. Gleditsia triacanthos.
(X>fl

is a useful native and is hardy North; G. japonica is
almost hardy North, while G. Delavayi and G. sinensis
are tender. They are very valuable trees for park
planting and for avenues, and make almost impene-
trable hedges if planted
thickly and pruned se-
verely. The coarse-grained
wood is durable and
strong. The pulp of the
pods of G. triacanthos is
sweet when fresh, hence
the name honey locust,
but becomes bitter at
length; that of G. japonica
is used in Japan and that
of G. sinensis and G.
macracantha in China as a
substitute for soap. The
gleditsias are of vigorous
growth and thrive in
almost any soil; they
stand drought well. Prop-
agation is by seeds sown
in spring about 1 inch
deep; they should be
soaked in hot water be-
fore being sown; varie-
ties and rare kinds are
sometimes grafted on
seedlings of G. triacanthos
in spring.

A. Spines more or less compressed, at least at the base:
walls of pod papery or leathery: Ivs. pinnate with
more than 12 Ifts., or bipinnate.

B. Pod 1-2-seeded, oval, not pulpy.
aquatica, Marsh. (G. inermis, Mill., not Linn. G.
monosperma, Walt.). WATER or SWAMP LOCUST. Tree,
to 60 ft., with short trunk, spiny: Ivs. 12-18-foliolate or
doubly pinnate with 6-8 pinnae; Ifts. ovate-oblong,
usually rounded or sometimes emarginate at the apex,
slightly crenate and often entire below the middle,
glabrous except a few hairs on the petiolules, about 1
in. long: fls. in racemes; ovary glabrous: pods long-
stalked, 1-2 in. long. May, June. S. C. and Ky. to
Fla. and Texas. S.S. 3:127, 128.

BB. Pod many-seeded, elongated and usually more or

less twisted, pulpy.

c. Lfts. usually acute or acutish, often more than 20, not
over 1% in. long: ovary pubescent.

triacanthos, Linn. HONEY or SWEET LOCUST. THREE-
THORNED ACACIA. Fig. 1652. Tree, 70-140 ft., usually
with stout simple or branched spines 3-4 in. long: Ivs.
Q-S in. long, with pubescent grooved rachis; pinnate
with 20-30 Ifts., bipinnate with 8-14 pinnae; Ifts. oblong-
lanceolate, remotely crenulate-serrate, %-lM m - long:
fls. very short-pedicelled in 1^2-3 in. long, narrow
racemes; ovary pubescent: pod 12-18 in. long, slightly
falcate and twisted at length. May, June. From Pa.
south to Miss., west to Neb. and Texas. S.S. 3:125,
126. Gn. 32, p. 304. Var. inermis, Pursh. Unarmed
or nearly so, of somewhat more slender and looser
habit; var. inermis elegantissima, Grosdemange, is
an unarmed form of dense bushy habit and with smaller
Ifts. R.H. 1905, p. 513. Var. Bujdtii, Rehd. (G.
Bujotii, Neum. G. Bujotii pendula, Hort.). With slen-
der, pendulous branches and narrower Ifts.

CC. Lfts. obtuse or emarginate, usually less than 20: ovary

glabrous or only pubescent on the margin.
japonica, Miq. (G. hdrrida, Makino). Fig. 1653.
Tree, 60-70 ft., with somewhat compressed, often
branched spines, 2-4 in. long: Ivs. 10-12 in. long, with
grooved and slightly winged, puberulous rachis, pin-
nate with 16-20 Ifts., bipinnate with 8-12 pinna?; Ifts.

ovate to oblong, nearly lanceolate, obtuse, entire or
remotely crenulate, lustrous above, %-2 in. long: fls.
short-pedicelled, in slender racemes: pod 10-12 in.
long, twisted, bullate, with the seeds near the middle;
pulp acid. Japan, China. G.F. 6:165 (adapted in Fig.
1653). Var. purpftrea, Rehd. (G. sinensis var. pur-
purea, Loud. G. coccinea, Hort. G. sinensis var. ori-
entdlis, Hort.). Lfts. broadly oval to oblong-oval,
obtuse or emarginate, J-l^ in. on the pinnate, smaller
on the bipinnate Ivs.

Delavayi, Franch. Tall tree: spines compressed at
the base, to 10 in. long: Ivs. 12-18-foliolate, only on
young plants partly bipinnate; Ifts. obliquely ovate or
ovate-oblong, obtuse or emarginate, slightly crenate
or nearly entire, dark green and lustrous above, gla-
brous, to 2% in. long, the lower much smaller, also
much smaller on young plants: fls. in slender racemes;
ovary glabrous : pod with leathery walls, to 15 or some-
times to 20 in. long and to 2 ^ in. broad, twisted. S. W.
China. Very handsome; recently intro.

AA. Spines terete: walls of pod thick, woody; pod straight
or falcate, not twisted: Ivs. 8-16-foliolate, very
rarely bipinnate.

sinensis, Lam. (G. hdrrida, Willd.). Tree, to 40 ft.,
with stout conical often branched spines: Ivs. 5-7 in.
long, with grooved pubescent rachis, and 8-18 Ifts.;
Ifts. ovate or oblong-ovate, obtuse or acute, crenulate-
serrate, yellowish green, dull above, reticulate beneath,
%-2 in. long: fls. distinctly pedicelled, in slender
racemes; ovary glabrous: pod almost straight, thick,
4-7 in. long, 1-1 ^ in. broad. China. Var. nana, Loud.
Shrubby and less spiny, with smaller and narrower Ifts.

G. amorpholdes, Taub. (Garugandra amorphoides, Griseb. )
Tree, to 50 ft., very spiny: Ifts. obliquely ovate to linear-oblong,
J-l in. long: fls. in racemes: pod oblong, falcate, 3^-4 in. long, 1 in.
broad, J^in. thick. Argentina, Bolivia. Cult, in Calif. G. australis,
Hemsl. Tree with large spines: Ifts. very oblique, oblong, crenate,
leathery, shining: pod with coriaceous walls, 4-5 in. long. S. China.
G. cdspica, Deaf. (G. horrida var. caspica, Schneid.). Allied to
G. japonica. Lvs. pinnate with 12-20 ovate, crenulate Ifts., or bipin-

1653. Gleditsia japonica. ( X Ya)

1348

GLEDITSIA

GLOBULARIA

nate with &-8 pinnse: pod thin, pulpy, to 12 m. long. G. ferox,
Desf. Allied to G. einensis. Spines very stout: Ivs. 16-30-foliolate;
Ifts. oblong-ovate to oblong-lanceolate, crenate, J^-l Vi in. long: pod
to 10 in. long. China. Most plants cult, under this name seem to
belong to G. japonica. <7. Fontanksii, Spach=G. macracantha. G.
heteroph$lla, Bunge. Allied to G. aquatica: Ifts. obliquely obovate,
pubescent below, Yy-y^va. long: pod oval, 2-3-seeded, slender-
stalked, about 1 in. long. N. China. Probably quite hardy. G.
macracdntha, Desf. Allied to G. sinensia. Spines and Ifts. generally
larger: infl. paniculate; ovary pubescent: pod 4-6 in. long, %in.
broad, often almost cylindrical. China. G. officinMis, Hemsl.
Allied to G. sinensis. Spiny tree, to 40 ft.: Ifts. 12-20, obliquely
elliptic to elliptic-oblong, acutish, to 3% in. long: pod oblong,
thick, falcate, 34 in. long and little over Hin. broad. Cent.
China. G. texana, Sarg. Allied to G. triacanthos. Lvs. 12-22-
foliolate, often bipinnate: pod narrow-oblong, straight, 4-5 in.
long. Texas. S.S. 13:627. Possibly hybrid of G. aquatica and G.
triacanthos. ALFRED REHDER.

GLEICHENIA (W. F. Von Gleichen, 1717-1783).
Gleicheni&ceae. Ferns mainly from the tropical and south
temperate zones, growing naturally in dense thickets;
one species has recently been found in Louisiana, D.
flexuosa. (Amer. Fern Jour. 4:15).

The family is characterized by dorsal sori composed
of a few nearly sessile sporangia; each sporangium is
surrounded by a broad transverse ring, and opens
vertically. The most striking thing about the family
is the growth of the Ivs. The Ivs. of many of the species
are perennial and show an indeterminate growth. Dur-
ing the growing season, the end of the If. will keep
unrolling after the usual manner of ferns. During the
resting season this tip rests, but resumes its growth the
next season. The Ivs. of some species may thus become
over 100 ft. in length. The species after the third (AA)
are often catalogued under Mertensia, a name which,
because used for a genus of flowers, must give way to
Dicranopteris if they are separated and placed in a dis-
tinct genus, where they probably belong.

A. Ultimate lobes small, roundish.
B. Sorus of 3-4 sporangia, superficial.

rupestris, R. Br. Lobes rounded or obtusely quad-
rangular, the margins thickened and recurved, some-
what glaucous beneath. Austral. Var. glaucescens,
Moore, has Ivs. of thicker texture, which, when young,
are very glaucous on both sides, contrasting with the
reddish purple stalks.

circinata, Swartz. Lobes ovate or rotund, with the
rachides pubescent when young; 3-5 times forking, the
ultimate pinnules 1 in. long. Austral., New Zeal.

Var. speluncas, Hort. (G. speluncse, R. Br.). Lvs. pen-
dent but not curving; pinnules curved inward, form-
ing small cavities. Var. semivestita, Labill. (G. semi-
vestita, Hort.), differs in its close and very erect habit,
and flat, deep green pinnae. Var. Mendellii, Moore (G.
Mendellii, Hort.). More robust and compact than the
type, with flat, thicker and glaucous Ivs. Gn. 51, p. 472.

BB. Sorus of 2 sporangia concealed in slipper-shaped
lobes.

dicarpa, R. Br. Lvs. 2-4 times forked, with the
lobes strongly arched, rotund or narrow, with the
under surface rusty-hairy. Austral.

AA. Ultimate lobes pectinate: sori near the middle of
the veinlets.

B. Lf. after first forking, bipinnate.

glauca, Hook. Primary branches elongate, 2-3 ft.
long: rachises with rusty scales; pinnae 4-8 in. long,
with closely placed entire segms., glaucous beneath.
China and Japan.

BB. Lf. with fan-shaped divisions.

flabellata, R. Br. Lvs. 2-3 times forked, the divisions
ascending, 6 in. or more long, elliptic-lanceolate; ulti-
mate divisions linear. Austral.

longipinnata, Hook. Branches of the Ivs. repeatedly
dichotomous; pinnae up to 2 ft. long, 3 in. wide. Trop.
Amer.

AAA. Ultimate branches with a pair of forked pinnae:
If.-sts. zigzag, repeatedly dichotomous.

dichotoma, Willd. With a distinct pair of pinnae aris-
ing from the base of the forked branches; segms. not
decurrent. Tropical regions generally, but several
species have been confused here, as in many of the
widely distributed species. L . M< UNDERWOOD.

R. C. BENEDICT.!

GLIRICIDIA (rodent-poison, from the seeds) . Legumi-
ndsae. Eight or 10 woody plants, Cuba and Mex., to
S. Amer., differing from Robinia in the wingless or
marginless pods and coriaceous valves. Lvs. odd-pin-
nate, the Ifts. entire: fls. rose-colored, racemose or
fasciculate; calyx-teeth short and broad, the 2 upper
ones joined; standard large, reflexed; wings falcate-
oblong; keel incurved, obtuse; ovary stipitate, many-
ovuled, becoming a broad-linear 2-valved pod.
G. platycdrpa, Griseb., of Cuba, is offered in S. Fla.:
tree, to 25 ft. : Ifts. 7-9, ovate or ovate-oblong, glabrous,
the margins undulate: corolla pink or purplish; stigma
ciliate : pod sessile, piano-compressed, lanceolate-oblong,
8-seeded. G. maculata. HBK. (Lonchocdrpus maculd-
tus, DC.), Guatemala to S. Amer., is reported as in
cult, in S. Fla.: small tree: Ifts. about 17, oblong, obtuse,
somewhat appressed-pilose above and blackish-spotted
and glaucescent beneath: pod linear, compressed, with
thickened margin. L H B

GLOBE A (Malayan name). Zingiberaceas. Herba-
ceous conservatory plants with rhizomes and habit of
canna, and a singular floral structure.

Flowers in terminal panicles; bracts usually decidu-
ous; calyx funnel-shaped, 3-lobed; corolla-tube longer
than the calyx, the lobes nearly equal, ovate; stami-
noid petal-like and fastened to the corolla-lobes; ovary
1-celled, forming a globose, tardily dehiscing caps.
Only one species is known to be cult, in Amer. This is
known as G. coccinea, which is really G. atrosanguinea,
figured at B.M. 6626. "Index Kewensis" is clearly in
error in referring G. coccinea to G. albo-bracteata, as is
plain from G.C. II. 18:71. Veitch intro. in 1881 a
plant under the provisional name of G. coccinea, as it
was supposed to be a new species, but the next year, it
was identified with G. atrosanguinea. This plant was
highly praised in 1893: "Plants in bloom the greater
part of the year: sts. much crowded, 12-18 in. long,
gracefully arching on all sides: fls. scarlet and yellow,
in dense racemes." The credit for the discovery of this
plant is generally given to F. W. Burbidge, but in G.C.
II. 18:407, Burbidge gives the honor to Curtis. For
cult., see Alpinia.

atrosanguinea, Teijsm. & Binn. (G. coccinea, Hort.,
Veitch). St. slender, becoming 2-3 ft. high: Ivs. 3-4
in. long, elliptic, acuminate at both ends; sheaths
purplish, pubescent, closely clasping the St.; lower
flowerless bracts distant, brown, 6-9 lines long, upper
and flowering bracts crowded, red: fls. 1J^ in. long;
corolla yellow, tubular, thrice as long as calyx. Borneo.
B.M. 6626. G.Z. 27, p. 121. Little known in Amer.
outside of botanic gardens. j^ TAYLOR.!

GLOBE AMARANTH: Gomphrena.
GLOBE FLOWER: Trollius.
GLOBE HYACINTH: Muscari.
GLOBE THISTLE: Echinops.
GLOBE TULIP: Calochortus.

GLOBULARIA (the flowers in small, globular heads).
Globularidcese. Herbs, subshrubs and shrubs, with
small blue flowers mostly in spherical heads.

Leaves from the root or alternate, leathery, entire
or with a few sharp teeth: fls. small, blue, in dense
heads; calyx 5-lobed, sometimes obscurely 2-lipped;
corolla-tube usually short, broad at the throat, the

GLOBULARIA

GLORIOSA

1349

lobes oblique or unequal; stamens 4, didynamous,
attached at the throat: fr. small, included in the calyx.
About a dozen species from the Old World. Probably
the commonest and best species is G. tricosantha, which
thrives at the front of well-drained borders, but is
particularly showy in the rockery. For this and G.
vulgaris and its forms, rather moist but well-drained
soil and partial shade are advised. Prop, by division
or seed.

A. Hardy herbaceous plants about 6-12 in. high.

B. Root-lvs. 1 -nerved.

trichosantha, Fisch. & Mey. Height 6 in.: root-lvs.
spatulate, 3-toothed at apex; st.-lvs. obovate or oblong,
mucronate, sessile. July, Aug. Asia Minor. Syria.

BB. Root-lvs. 5-nerved.

vulgaris, Linn. (G. nudicaulis, Hort.). Height 8-12
in.: root-lvs. obovate, petiolate, nearly entire, apex
entire, notched or mucronate; st.-lvs. lanceolate, sessile.
S. Eu., Caucasus. July, Aug. B.M. 2256.

1654. Gloriosa superba. ( X J 2)

AA. Prostrate, woody herb, forming mats.
cordifolia, Linn. A low prostrate perennial with
creeping, almost woody sts., and wedge-shaped, notched
Ivs., which form rosettes at the base of the solitary
pedicel: fls. in a close head, not showy. S. Eu. Useful
for the rockery.

G. Alypum, Linn. Lvs. obovate-oblong, mucronate or 3-toothed
at apex. Medit. regions. Cult, years ago in S. Calif, by Franceschi,
who says it is covered with fls. all winter; but not now in cult. Also
cult, abroad under glass. G. bettidifdlia, Salisb. = G. spinosa.
G. gpindsa, Linn. One ft. and more: radical Ivs. obovate, attenuate
into petiole. 3-7 -toothed at apex; st.-lvs. lanceolate and sessile:
head larger than in G. vulgaris; calyx 2-lipped, the tube ciliate and
throat barbed; upper lip of corolla 2-parted, lower 3-parted. Spain.

N. TAYLOR, f

GLOCfflDION (from Greek for point, the anthers
being long-pointed). Euphorbidcese. Tropical trees or
shrubs, rarely cult. Lvs. alternate, simple: fls. in axil-
lary clusters or singly; staminate calyx imbricate, of
3-8 sepals; pistillate fls. without disk, stigmas short
and thick, ovules 2 to each cell: fr. a caps. About 135
species of Trop. Asia and Pacific islands, related to
Phyllanthus. j. 3. S. NORTON.

GLONERIA: Psychotria.

GLORIOSA (Latin for glorious). Syn., Methonica.
Liliaceae. Tall, weak-stemmed plants, supporting them-
selves by means of tendril-like prolongations of the
leaves. Odd and handsome plants, to be grown in
a warmhouse.

Leaves oblong, lanceolate or lance-ovate: fls.
many and showy, long-stalked, borne singly in the axils
of the upper Ivs.; perianth of 6 distinct long segms.
which are undulate or crisped, and reflexed after the
manner of a cyclamen, variously colored; stamens 6,
long and spreading, with versatile anthers; ovary 3-
loculed; style long, and bent upward near the base. -
Five or perhaps more tropical species, all African, and
1 also Asian.

Gloriosas are not difficult to grow. The brightest
flowers are produced in sunlight. The plants grow from
tubers. These tubers should be rested in early winter,
and started in pots in January to March. The plants
bloom in summer and fall. When potting the old tubers,
offsets may be removed (when they occur) and grown
separately for the production of new plants. The tubers
may be cut in two for purposes of propagation. Let the
plants stand near a pillar or other support. Give freely
of water when the plants are growing. In this country
they are sometimes bedded out in summer. Gloriosas
are sometimes grown outdoors in summer in Massa-
chusetts, and the plants so treated are not much
inclined to climb and flower so freely as under glass.
In Florida, they may be grown permanently in the open.
Success with gloriosa depends on having strong
bulbs. Consult Bulbs.

A. Perionth-segms. about 2% in- long.

Carsonii, Baker. St. erect and climbing, the
Ivs. st. -clasping, about 4-5 in. long, bearing long
tendril-like processes: fls. very numerous, in a loose
cyme; perianth-segms. not more than 2J^ in. long,
usually less than that, recurved and crisped, the
margins yellow; style erect; stigmas 3. F.S.R.
2, p. 355. A showy plant from Cent. Afr. Intro,
in 1904.

AA. Perianth-segms. longer than 3 in.
B. Segms. (or petals) much crisped.

superba, Linn. CLIMBING LILY. Fig. 1654. St.
5-10 ft. high: Ivs. ovate-lanceolate: segms. 2-3 in. long
and less than an inch wide, opening yellow, but chang-
ing to yellow-red and deep scarlet. Afr., Asia. B.R.
77. Gn. 38:576. B.H. 23:121. G.L. 18:277. A
yellow-fld. form of unknown origin has been described
as G. lutea, Hort; it is scarcely known outside of
Kew. Var. grandiflSra, Hort., is advertised as "color
a yellow-red, changing to deep scarlet;" it is unknown
in the wild state.

BB. Segms. somewhat undulate, but not crisped.

simplex, Linn. (G. virescens, Lindl. G. Pldntii,
Loud.). Fls. opening yellow, and remaining so in shade,
but becoming deep yellow-red when exposed to the
sun; wider than in G. superba, barely undulate and
wavy, and not prolonged or hooked at the end as in
the latter species. Afr. B.M. 2539. G. 26:556. Var.
grandiflora, Nichols. (Methdnica grandiflora, Hook.),
has fls. 8 in. across. B.M. 5216. G. 27:477.

Rothschildiana, O'Brien. St. climbing, simple at
first, afterward branched: Ivs. bright green, glabrous,
oblong-acuminate, alternate or opposite: fls. solitary
in the axils, or peduncles 3-4 in. long, abruptly curved
near the ovary; perianth-segms. oblong-lanceolate,
recurved, over 33^ in. long, crimson, with a dark
purple mark near the base. Trop. Afr. One of the
best species. G.C. III. 33:323. G.M. 47:377. Gn. 65,
p. 451. G.W. 9, p. 112; 13, p. 535. R.B. 34:339.
F.S.R. 2:248. Var. citrina, Hort., has fls. citron-yellow
and claret-purple. It is a splendid showy addition.
G.C. III. 38:211.

1350

GLORIOSA

GLOXINIA

G. abyssinica, Rich., said to be the largest-fld. species, seems not
to be in cult. -G. Leopoldii, Hort., a beautiful form with yellow
and purple fls., is probably some form of G. simplex grandiflora.
G.C. III. 36:188. R.H. 1903:548. N. TAYLOR. t

GLORY-OF-THE-SNOW: Chionodoxa.

GLORY PEA: Clianthus.

GLOSSOCOMIA CLEMATfDEA: Codonopsis dematidea.

GLOXINERA (Gloxinia and Gesneria). Gesneriacese.
A bigeneric hybrid between Gesneria pyramidalis (seed-
parent) and Gloxinia Radiance, by Veitch and first
exhibited at the Royal Horticultural Society, London,
May 8, 1894. It has the habit of a garden gloxinia,
with inclined fls. of fair size, brilliant scarlet tinged
with magenta in the shadows. The foliage is recorded
as more nearly that of a gloxinia than a gesneria in
appearance, being very succulent and covered with fine
hairs. G.C. III. 17:145.

GLOXINIA (named for P. B. Gloxin, of Strassburg,
who wrote in 1785). Gesneridcese. The genus Gloxinia
was founded by L'Heritier in 1785 upon G. maculata
of Brazil. Early in last century a related Brazilian
plant was introduced, and it attracted much attention:
this plant was named Gloxinia speciosa by Loddiges in
his Botanical Cabinet in 1817, and it was there figured.
In the same year it was figured by Ker in the Botanical
Register, and also by Sims in the BotanicaF Magazine.
Sims wrote that the plant was "already to be found in
most of the large collections about town [London]."
These writers refer the plant to the Linnaean class
Didynamia, but Ker also suggests that it may belong
to the Campanulacese. This Gloxinia speciosa was the
forerunner and leading parent of the garden gloxinias,
but it turns out that the plant really belongs to Nees'
genus Sinningia, founded in 1825 on a Brazilian plant
which he named S. Helleri; but the rules of nomen-
clature make the tenable name to be Sinningia speci-
6sa, Benth. & Hook. (See Sinningia.) All the gar-
den gloxinias are
therefore sinning-
ias, but to gar-
deners they will
ever be known
as gloxinias; there-
fore, the evolution
of them may be
traced here.

stigma. The garden gloxinias belong to the subgenus
Ligeria (subgenus of Sinningia), which has a short st. or
trunk, and a broad-limbed bell-shape fl. Gloxinia has
perhaps a half-dozen species from Mex. to Brazil and
Peru; Sinningia has about 20 species, in Brazil.

Gloxinia has no
tubers: Sinningia has
a tuberous rhizome.
Gloxinia has a ring-like
or annual disk about
the ovary: Sinningia
has 5 distinct glands.
The sinningias are

either stemless or st.-bearing, with a trumpet-shape or
bell-shape 5-lobed and more or less 2-lipped corolla, a
5-angled or 5-winged calyx, 4 stamens attached to the
base of the corolla, and with anthers cohering at the
tips in pairs, and a single style with a concave or 2-lobed

1656. A good gloxinia plant.

The true gloxinias are not florists' flowers, and they
are little known in cultivation. They are apparently not
in the American trade. The old G. maculata is figured in
the Garden 39:801 (p. 364), and it is probably to be
found in choice collections in the Old World. It pro-
duces knotty rootstocks, which, as well as the leaves,
may be used for propagation. It is also figured in B.M.
1191. G. glabrata, Zucc., from Mexico, is the G. glabra,
Hort., Achimenes gloxiniaeflora, Forkel, and Plectopoma
gloxiniflorum, Hanst. It is a stemmy plant, bearing
white flowers with yellow-spotted throat; B.M. 4430,
as G. fimbriata, Hook. Plectopoma is now referred to
Achimenes, and the plant then takes the name Achi-
menes glabrata, Fritsch. It appears not to be in the
trade. Other related genera are Diastema, Dicyrta
and Isoloma.

The garden gloxinias (genus Sinningia) are nearly
stemless plants, producing several or many very showy
bell-like flowers, each on a long stem. G. (Sinningia)
speciosa originally had drooping flowers, but the result of
continued breeding has produced a race with flowers
nearly or quite erect (Figs. 1655, 1656). The deep bell
of the gloxinia is very rich and beautiful, and the erect
position is a decided gain. The flowers also have been
increased in size and number, and varied in shape and
markings; the leaves also have become marked with gray
or white. The color of the original Gloxinia (Sinningia)
speciosa was a nearly uniform purple. The modern
races have colors in white, red, purple and all inter-
mediate shades, some are blotched, and others are fine-
spotted or sprinkled with darker shades. It is probable
that the larger part of the evolution in the common
greenhouse gloxinia is a direct development from the
old G. speciosa, but hybridity may have played a
part. One of the earliest recorded series of hybrids
(1844) was with Sinningia guttata, which is a plant
with an upright stem and bearing rather small spotted
flowers in the axils of the leaves. (B. R. 1112.)
The issue of this cross showed little effect of the S.
guttata, except a distinct branching habit in some of
the plants (B.R. 30:48). It is possible, however, that
S. guttata has had something to do with the evolution
of the spots on the present-day flower, although the
original G. speciosa was striped and blotched in the
throat. The student who wishes to trace some of the

GLOXINIA

GLYCERIA

1351

older forms of garden gloxinias may look up the fol-
lowing portraits: B.M. 1937, speciosa itself; B.M.
3206, var. albiflora; B.M. 3934, var. macrophylla varie-
gata; B.M. 3943, var. Menziesii; F.S. 3:220, Teichleri
(hybrid); F.S. 3:268; F.S. 4:311, Fyfiana (hybrid);
F.S. 6:610; F.S. 10: 1002; F.S. 14:1434-6; F.S. 16:1699
and 1705; F.S. 17:1768, 1772-6; F.S. 18:1846, 1878,
1885, 1918, 1919; F.S. 19:1955, double forms; F.S.
21:2164; F.S. 22:2324. I.E. 42:39, 41. Gt. 47, p. 79;
Gt. 48, p. 80. Gn. 15:162; 43:392; 52, p. 268. R.H.
1846:301, teuchlerii; R.H. 1848:201, Fyfiana; 1877:70,
variabilis; R.H. 1883, p. 248. For florists' plants, see
A.F. 11:7; A.G. 14:49; Gng. 6:83. There are many
Latin-made names of garden gloxinias, but the plants
are only forms of the G. speciosa type. One of the
trade entries is G. crassifolia, a name applied to some
of the best and largest-growing strains.

There are double forms of gloxinia, in which an
outer but shorter corolla is formed. The forms are
more curious than useful. L. jj. 3.

Cultivation of gloxinia.

Few flowers can surpass the large tubular blooms of
gloxinia for richness and variety of coloring. The
colors range through all the shades of blues and purples,
pinks and crimsons, while some are pure white, and
others again white with tinted edges; still others have
the colors dotted on the lighter ground - color. The
foliage also of gloxinias is very beautiful, being of a
rich soft velvety texture. Gloxinias make a gorgeous
display, therefore, when in flower and are especially
valuable for the decoration of conservatories during
the summer and early fall months.

Gloxinias are native of tropical America and therefore
require a warm greenhouse or tropical temperature in
the growing season. When first introduced into culti-
vation, and even for many years after, the flowers of
gloxinias were all nodding, that is they hung down
instead of standing upright; no one now grows the
nodding-flowered kinds, the upright-flowered being so
much more attractive.

Though they may be grown so as to flower at almost
any season of the year, yet they are naturally summer-
flowering plants, and do best when treated as such.
They are propagated by seeds, or by cuttings made of
leaves or stems. Seeds are preferable, unless one wishes
to increase some very choice colored variety, when it is
best to propagate by leaf -cuttings, using partly matured
medium-sized leaves with a small portion of leaf-stalk
attached (Fig. 1176, p. 929). These may be inserted
in an ordinary propagating-bed, where if kept rather
on the dry side, they will soon root and form tubers,
when they may be potted and grown on. Seeds should
be sown in a warm temperature early in February, in
pans or shallow boxes containing a finely sifted mixture
of peat, leaf-mold and silver sand in about equal pro-
portions. The seedlings will begin to appear in about
ten days, when great care must be exercised in water-
ing, or they will "damp-off." In fact, success with
these plants throughout the year depends largely upon
the care exercised in watering. Even in their most
active growth the water always should be given from
the spout of a watering-can, taking care not to wet the
leaves, though they like a warm, humid atmosphere
during their growing season. As soon as the seedlings
can be conveniently handled, they should be potted
singly into thumb-pots and grown on rapidly ; using
in subsequent shifts a mixture of two parts leaf-mold,
one part good fibrous loam and one part peat. The
plants must be well shaded from sunlight and placed in
a position free from draughts. The seedlings should
begin to flower by the middle of August, when they
should be given an abundance of air. After flowering,
the leaves will begin to mature, when water should be
gradually withheld. As soon as the leaves have all

ripened off, the pots should be stored away in some con-
venient place for the winter, in a temperature of about
45, giving just sufficient water to keep the tubers from
shriveling. Toward the middle of February the tubers
will show signs of starting into growth. A batch should
be started at this time, choosing the tubers which ap-
pear most active, and the remainder should be held back
for another month; this will give a much longer period
of blossoming. The tubers should have all the old soil
shaken off and be potted again in clean well-drained
pots, using sizes just large enough to accommodate the
tubers, the compost being the same mixture as before
recommended. They should be given but little water
until active root-growth commences. As soon as the
pots are filled with roots, they should be shifted on at
once into the pots they are intended to flower in, as
frequent shifts would more or less damage their leaves,
which have a tendency to cling round the sides of the
pots. The first batch should come into flower in June.

When carefully grown, gloxinias are particularly free
from insect pests or fungous diseases, and the same
tubers can be grown for several years.

EDWARD J. CANNING.

GLYCERIA (Greek, glukeros, sweet). Graminex.
Marsh perennials with open (or rarely contracted)
panicles, sometimes grown for ornament.

Spikelets few- to many-fld.; lemmas convex, firm,
with a scarious margin or apex, usually obtuse, awnless,
prominently 5-9-nerved. Species about 16 in temper-
ate regions of both hemispheres.

grandis, Wats. (Paniculdria ameri-
cdna, MacM.). REED MEADOW-GRASS.

1657. Glyceria grandis. (XK)

1352

GLYCERIA

GMELINA

Fig. 1657. Three to 5 ft.: lower sheaths rough and
overlapping; blades 3-8 lines wide; glabrous: panicle
8-16 in. long, many-fld., open and spreading; spikelets
4-7-fld., 3 lines long. Dept. Agric., Div. Agrost. 7 : 286.
N. U. S.

nervata, Trin. (Panicularia nervata, Kuntze). FOWL
MEADOW-GRASS. One to 3 ft.: blades 1-2 J^ lines wide,
scabrous above: panicle 4-8 in. long, open, the branches
drooping; spikelets 3-7-fld., 1 line long. Ibid 287.
Widely distributed in U. S. A. S. HITCHCOCK.

GLYCINE (Greek for sweet). Leguminbsse. The soy-
bean and related plants. The glycines are allied to
Dolichos, Vigna and Phaseolus: the cult, species are
distinguished by small and hairy fls. in short axillary
racemes: stipules very small and free from the petiole:
Ifts. 3, large. Perhaps 40 species, mostly tropical, in
Asia, Afr., and Austral., nearly all twining vines. In
this country Glycine is known only in the soybean,
G. Soja, Sieb. and Zucc., which is an erect, hairy
annual from Japan and China. It is also known as
the soja or soya bean, coffee bean and coffee berry.
It grows 2-6 ft. high, making a rank, bushy herb, and
bearing axillary clusters of small hanging, hairy pods,
with constrictions between the seeds. Fls. small, white
or purple. The seeds are subglobose to oblong, yellow,
green, brown or black, but in some varieties parti-
colored. In China and Japan the beans are much used
for human food and for the production of oil. For the
latter purpose great quantities of seed have been
exported in recent years from Manchuria to Eu. In
this country the plant is grown for forage, its first use
for this purpose dating from 1854. Since 1882, and
especially since 1898, the crop has been steadily gaining
in importance. The beans may be used as a substitute
for coffee; and for this purpose the plant is often sold.
The erect form of soybean is unknown in a wild state.
It is clearly a domesticated form of G. ussuriensis,
Regel & Maack, which is wild in Japan, Manchuria,
China, and India. For the economic merits of soy-
beans, see various experiment station reports; also
Farmers' Bull. No. 372, U. S. Dept. of Agric. For a
technical exhaustive paper see Bureau of Plant Indus-
try, Bull. No. 197. The soybean has also been made
the basis of a distinct genus under the name of Soja,
Moench. Glycine was clearly used by Linnaeus to
refer primarily to the ground-nut, Apios tuberosa.
Botanists who accept Glycine in that sense use Soja
for the soybean and allied species. The plant named
Phaseoliis max by Linnaeus is the soybean, and as the
description is on a previous page to that of Dolichos
Soja, some authors use the specific name max and
designate the soybean as Soja max.

G. chintnsis = Wistaria sinensis. G. frutescens = Wistaria
speciosa. G. sinensis= Wistaria. /-i y' PTPFT? t

GLYCOSMIS (from the Greek for sweet, and
smell). Rutdcese. Thornless shrubs or small trees,
grown for ornament.

Leaves persistent, alternate; Ifts. 1-9, alternate or
nearly opposite, dark green above, pale below, coria-
ceous, entire or obscurely crenulate: fls. in axillary or
terminal panicles, small, white, fragrant, urceolate,
5-merous; calyx pubescent (ciliate); ovary 2-5-celled
with 1 ovule in each cell; style very short, persistent;
stamens 10, free, inserted in 2 series on the disk: frs.
small, with a fleshy pulp in which are imbedded the
large rounded seeds; cotyledons epigeous in germina-
tion; first foliage-lvs. simple, opposite. Several spe-
cies are known, occurring in India and Ceylon and
extending to Austral., the Philippines, and China. Only
one has as yet been intro. into cult, in this country.

pentaphylla, DC. (Limdnia pentaphylla, Retz. Tolui-
fera cochinchinensis, Lour. G. cochinchinensis, Pierre).
Small inermous shrubs with pinnate Ivs. having 1-7
Ifts.: fls. urceolate, very small, white, fragrant: berry

2-3-celled with 1 or 2 brownish green rounded seeds
imbedded in the fleshy pulp. A very variable species
common throughout India, Indo-China, Philippine Isls.
and Malayan Archipelago. 111. Roxbg. PL Coroman-
del, 1:60, pi. 84. Talbot, For. Fl. Bombay, p. 192, fig.
117. This species is sometimes grown as an ornamental
in greenhouses or out-of-doors in the southern states.
Because of its dark green glossy Ivs. and translucent
pinkish berries, it is a handsome shrub for warm semi-
tropical climates. WALTER T. SWINGLE.

GLYCYRRHIZA (Greek, sweet root). Leguminbsse.
LICORICE, also spelled LIQUORICE, and LICKORICE. This
genus contains the plant whose roots produce the
licorice of commerce.

The genus has about a dozen widely scattered spe-
cies of perennial herbs, often glandular: Ivs. odd-pin-
nate; Ifts. of indefinite number, rarely 3, entire, with
minute glands or teeth: fls. blue, violet, white or yel-
lowish, in axillary racemes or spikes, which are pedun-
cled or sessile. About a dozen species in the Medit.
region, Trop. Asia, W. Amer. and S. Amer., only one
of which appears to be cult.

The roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra, of southern Europe
and central Asia, are used extensively by druggists; in
America by brewers and manufacturers of plug
tobacco; in Turkey, Egypt and France to make cool-
ing drinks. Our supply more than $1,500,000 worth
in 1899 is derived mainly from Spain, Portugal, Italy,
Turkey and Russia (Transcaucasia), the roots from
Spain and Italy being considered best, and those from
Turkey poorest on account of their bitterness. The
soil for licorice must be deep, mellow, moist, rich and
free from stones. Plants are usually set in rows, 3
feet or more apart, and not less than 1 foot asunder.
After the plants have covered the ground, they are
allowed to shift for themselves for three or four years.
Harvesting is primitive, the roots being exposed by the
plow and pulled by hand. Large quantities of roots are
thus left to produce a succeeding crop or to overrun the
field as weeds. One ton to the acre is considered a fair
yield; 1.6 cents a pound an average price. In America
the only fields worthy the name are in California, where
licorice is not considered very paying. Experiment and
experience with it are, however, but little more than
begun. (M. G. Kains.)

glabra, Linn. Height 2-3 ft. : Ifts. ovate, subretuse,
subglutinous beneath, 4-8 pairs, with an odd one : spikes
peduncled, shorter than the Ivs.; fls. closely clustered,
the calyx glandular pubescent: pods glabrous, 3-4-
seeded. Summer and autumn. Seeds in pods are listed
by a few dealers with miscellaneous agricultural seeds.

WILHELM MILLER.

GLYPTOSTROBUS (engraved or marked cone).
Pindcese. One or 2 species of trees of swamps and low
grounds in China, separated by some authors from
Taxodium, but here included in that genus. The basis
of separation from Taxodium lies mostly in the fact
that the cone-scales are deciduous, whereas in Taxo-
dium proper they are persistent; the mature cones are
obovoid with a long contracted base, the seeds scarcely
angled and stipitate or narrowed at the base into a wing.
G. heterophyllus, Endl". (Taxodium heterophyllum,
Brongn., which see), is a shrub to 10 ft. high, with lower
branches pendulous: Ivs. long, linear, 3-rowed or scat-
tered, on the fruiting branches short and rather obtuse
and spirally imbricate: cones ovoid, %in. long: tender,
and little cult.

GMELINA (after one of five distinguished German
botanists named Gmelin). Verbenaceae. Trees and
shrubs, bearing yellow or brownish irregular flowers
sometimes nearly 2 inches across. A very few plants
may be cultivated in European warmhouses, and in
America only in southern Florida and southern Cali-
fornia outdoors.

GMELINA

GODETIA

1353

Spiny or not : shoots tomentpse : Ivs. opposite, entire,
toothed or lobed: fls. in panicled cymes or racemes,
tomentose at least while young; calyx bell-shaped,
shortly 5-toothed or entire; corolla-tube slender below;
limb oblique, 5- or 4-lobed; stamens 4, didynamous,
nearly exserted: fr. a succulent drupe. Eight or 10
species from E. Asia and N. Austral. The genus pro-
duces a fancy timber similar to teak, which is a prod-
uct of the same order. Vitex and Clerodendron are
better known congeners.

A. Plant not climbing.
B. Lvs. becoming 9 in. long, 6 in. wide.

arbdrea, Roxbg. (G. Rheedii, Hook.). Unarmed tree,
sometimes attaining 60 ft., deciduous, flowering with
the young Ivs.: Ivs. cordate-ovate, entire: panicles
often 1 ft. long, terminal. India, Malaya. B.M. 4395.
Cult, apparently only in S. Calif, by Franceschi, who
keeps G. Rheedii separate.

BB. Lvs. }/%-! ^A, in. long.

asiatica, Linn. (G. parviflora, Pers., a typographical
error for G. parvifolia, Roxbg.). Shrubby, sometimes
spinescent: Ivs. ovate or obovate, entire or lobed: fls.
in racemose clusters, the corolla about 1^ in- across.
India, Ceylon.

AA. Plant scandent.

Hystrix, Kurz. A large spiny scandent shrub: Ivs.
3xlH in-> entire, glaucous beneath: fls. in dense
terminal cymes, the bracts very large and nervose,
colored; corolla about 2 in. across, yellow, but not
hairy on the outside as in G. asiatica. E. Indies. A
sprawling plant with the habit of bougainvillea.

N. TAYLOR-f

GNAPHALIUM. See Leontopodium and Helichry-
sum. There are various native gnaphaliums, but they
are not in cultivation. G. lanatum of gardeners is
Helichrysum petiolatum.

GNIDIA (Gnidus, a place in Crete). ThymeUeaceae.
Trees, shrubs or subshrubs, of about 100 species in
Trop. and S. Afr. and E. India. Some of them have
been grown abroad as greenhouse evergreen woody
often heath-like subjects: Ivs. mostly small: fls. white,
yellow, red or violet, mostly in heads on the ends of the
branches; perianth-tube cylindrical, at length detach-
ing above the ovary, the lobes 4 and spreading, with
scales in the throat alternating with the lobes; stamens
8; ovary sessile, 1-celled: fr. small and dry, included
in the persistent base of the perianth. G. polystdchya,
Berg. Handsome shrub, to 6 ft., with many graceful
pubescent branches: Ivs. crowded-imbricate : fls. small,
yellow, in terminal heads. S. Afr. B.M. 8001. G.C.
III. 41:294. G. tomentosa, Linn. Three to 4 ft.: Ivs.
ovate or ovate-lanceolate, decussate and sometimes
reflexed: fls. yellow, fascicled with the Ivs. at the ends
of the branches, the tube slender and silky. S. Afr.
B.M. 2761. L. H. B.

GOAT'S - BEARD is usually Aruncus Sylvester
(Spiraea Aruncus) ; also the genus Tragopogon.

GODETIA (C. H. Godet, Swiss botanist). Ona-
gracese. Mostly erect annuals with very showy flowers
in leafy racemes or spikes.

Calyx-tube obconic or funnelform; petals rose, lilac-
purple or white, often marked with a large deep crim-
son or purple spot; stamens 8; ovary 4-celled, inferior:
fr. a many-seeded caps. Twenty or more species in
the western parts of S. and N. Amer., especially Calif.

Seed may be surface-sown in the late fall in order to
be covered by the rains which follow, or in February
lightly covered in sunny or in half-shady places. G.
amcena is very popular and furnishes an abundance of
bloom in early summer when many late spring annuals

have succumbed to advancing heat. In the wild garden
the species come again freely but have a tendency to
move to new ground after the second year.

A. Plants tall, slender: fls. loosely spicate-paniculate.

amcena, Lilja. FAREWELL-TO-SPRING. Fig. 1658.
Slender, branching, 1-2 ft. high: Ivs. linear to lanceo-
late, y^-IYi in. long, often with smaller ones fascicled
in the axils: buds erect: calyx-lobes united and turned
to one side on expansion of the fl. ; corolla lilac-crimson
or red-pink, satiny, 1-2 in. broad : caps, teretish, sessile
or very shortly pedicelled. Cult, also in European gar-
dens (since 1818). Exhibits considerable variability,
especially in the size, and color-scheme of the fls.
G. rubicunda, Lindl. (B.R. 1856), is the lilac-crimson
form. G. vinosa, Lindl. (B.R. 1880), is a white-fld.
state. G. Schwdminii (Gn. 70:203), a double-fld. pink

1658. Godetia amoena
(G. rubicunda splendens
of the trade). (XH)

form. (Enothera Llndleyi, Douglas (B.M. 2832), has the
crimson petals with a large central blotch of deeper
color. (Enothera rdseo-dlba, Bernh. (Reichenbach, Icon.
Bot. Exot., pis. 47 and 150), is a prolific-flowering form.

Bottae, Spach. Similar to G. amcena: buds nodding:
petals pink or light crimson; stigmas united at base to
form a cup-like apex to the style: caps, long-stalked,
usually with flat sides. S. Calif, near the coast.

AA. Plants low: fls. in a short spike or cluster of spikelets.

grandiflora, Lindl. ((Enothera Whitneyi, Gray). Fig.
1659. Stout, simple and dwarfish, 4-12 in. high: lys.
oblong, tapering to base and apex: buds large, 1-2 in.
long; corolla 3-5 in. across, rose-red with a deeper
blush or blotch in center, varying into pure white
(Duchess of Albany), dark crimson (Lady Albemarle),
or bright carmine (Lady Satin Rose) : caps, sessile, 4-

1354

GODETIA

GOMPHRENA

sided, 8-ribbed. B.M. 5867. J.F. 318. A highly prized
species.

G. decumbens, Douglas. Sts. ascending, strongly flattened,
whitish pubescent: ovary white-woolly. B.M. 2889. B.R. 1221.
Not certainly known in a wild state. Seed originally from Ore.
Differs little technically from G. quadrivulnera or its forms but is
quite unchanged in its characters after 75 years or more of cult, in
European gardens. It is an excellent illustration of the manner in
which many strains of the smaller-fld. godetias maintain their
slight but distinctive characters, although subject for many years to
the varying conditions of garden cult. G. magelldnica, Burbank,
a diffuse free-flowering species with lavender fls. the size of G.
amcena, has been recently intro. from Patagonia by Luther Bur-
bank. G. quadrivulnera, Spach. Erect, slender, pubescent: Ivs.
obovate to linear or the uppermost lanceolate and half-condupli-
cate: petals lilac or pale crimson, usually with a spot at apex, 4-6
lines long: caps, sessile, 4-sided, lightly 8-ribbed. B.R. 1119.
Occasionally cult., but probably not in the trade. G. Romanzdvii,
Spach, from the "northwest coast," not now known in a wild state,
has been cult, in Eu. nearly a century. Very leafy with young
parts white-pubescent: Ivs. oblong-oblanceolate. B.R. 562.

W. L. JEPSON.

1659. Godetia grandiflora, (Enothera Whitneyi of the trade. ( X H)

GOETHEA (Goethe, the great German poet,
who was also a botanist). Malvacex. Two Brazilian
evergreen shrubs, seldom grown in hothouses. Lvs.
alternate, simple, entire or nearly so: fls. showy, in
cymes from the leafless sts. or sometimes solitary in
the axils, subtended by large cordate red showy calyx-
like bracts; calyx 5-toothed, included within the
bracts; petals short; stamens united in a column,
which is 5-toothed below the apex; ovary 5-celled, each
1-ovuled. G. .strictiflora, Hook. (G. cauliflbra, Hort.),
is a small shrub or bush with large ovate Ivs. sinuate
on upper half, and aggregated fls. in yellowish white
red-tinged bracts; petals small, obcordate, veiny;
calyx whitish or greenish, the lobes ovate-acuminate;
fls. on short-peduncles that are aggregated in the axils
along the st. B.M. 4677. J.F. 4:365. G. muLtiflora,
Nichols., and G. semper flor ens, Nees & Mart., belong
in Pavonia. L H B

GOLDEN CHAIN: Laburnum vulgare.

GOLDEN FEATHER: Chrysanthemum Parthenium.

GOLDENROD: Solidago.

GOLDEN SEAL: Hydraslis.

GOLDFUSSIA: Strobilanthes.

GOLD THREAD: Coptis trifolia.

GOMBO, Gumbo, or Okra: Hibiscus esculentus.

GOMESA (named in honor of Bernardinus Anto-
nius Gomes). Orchidacese, Stove epiphytes.

Pseudobulbs 1- or 2-lvd.: racemes often many-fld.,
lateral; sepals free and spreading, or the lateral approxi-
mate or connate; petals equaling or wider than dorsal
sepal; lip affixed to base of column, continuous, spurless,
the lateral lobes small; pollinia 2. About 5 or 6 species,
natives of Brazil.

planifdlia, Klotzsch (Odontoglossum planifolium,
Reichb.). Pseudobulbs ovoid, 1^-2 in. long, 2-lvd.:
Ivs. 4-5 in. long: racemes exceeding the Ivs.; fls. fra-
grant, light greenish yellow; sepals and petals oblong,
acute, the lateral sepals united nearly to the apex; lip
shorter than petals, broadly oblong, acute, reflexed.
B.M. 3504 (as Rodriguezia) . G.W. 14, p. 517.

G. Bindtii, Hort. Racemes 15-^30-fld. ; fls. small, orange, with
a white column. Brazil. G. Glazidvii, Cogn. Climbing: st. elon-
gated: pseudobulbs 2-4 in. apart: fls. light green. Brazil.

GEORGE V. NASH.

G6MPHLA: Ouratea.

GOMPHOCARPUS (club-fruit). Asdepiaddcese.
Perennial herbs, or subshrubs, of more than 100 spe-
cies, mostly of the Old World, of which one has been
mentioned recently in horticultural literature abroad;
very closely allied to Asclepias, being distinguished
mostly by the absence of crests or appendages on the
hoods. G. textilis, Naudin, a warm-country species but
nativity unknown, is a semi-woody plant 3 ft. high with
slender branches: Ivs. opposite, linear-lanceolate: fls.
white, in terminal clusters, the lobes of the crown
violet: fr. large, obliquely oval in outline, bladdery,
pale green, long-hairy, to 4 in. long. R.H. 1902, p. 35.
Described as a showy and worthy plant for the border.

L. H. B.

GOMPHOLOBIUM (name refers to club-shaped pod) .
Leguminosse. Two dozen Australian yellow- or red-fld.
shrubs, rarely cult. Lvs. simple or compound, the Ifts.
mostly narrow: fls. papilionaceous, solitary, few or
in short racemes; standard orbicular or reniform, exceed-
ing the other petals; wings falcate-oblong; keel mostly
broader than the wings, obtuse; stamens free: pod very
wide or nearly globular, inflated, bearing small seeds.
They are said to be excellent greenhouse shrubs; prop,
by cuttings of young shoots. G. polymorphum, R. Br.
Glabrous shrub or undershrub, variable in foliage and
habit: Ifts. 3, but sometimes 5 or 7 or 9, digitate, mostly
linear, to 1 in. long: fls. orange-yellow to bright crim-
son: pod much inflated, ovoid-globular. B.M. 1533,
4179. H.U. 1, p. 166. B.R. 1574 (as G. venulosum,
Lindl.). B.R. 1615 (as G. tenue, Lindl.). B.R. 25:43
(as G. versicolor, Lindl.). L, jj_ B.

GOMPHRENA (name suggested by Gromphraena,
Pliny's name for some amaranth, supposed to be
derived from grapho, to write or paint; alluding to the
highly colored or "painted" foliage). Amarantdceas.
Herbaceous plants grown as "everlastings."

Herbs erect or prostrate, pubescent to villous, with
or without a leafy involucre : fls. short or long, white or
colored: bracts short or long, concave, and keeled,
winged or crested on the back. About 70 species,
mostly in the warmer parts of Amer. and Austral.,
but the globe amaranth is widely dispersed throughout
the tropics. For cult., see Annuals and Everlastings.

GOMPHRENA

GONGORA

1355

This genus includes the globe amaranth, a common
everlasting flower of easy culture. It is also known as
bachelor's button, though two other utterly distinct
plants (Centaur ea Cyanus and Ranunculus acris) have
the same popular name. The flower-heads are an inch
or less in diameter, globose, of many colors, and chiefly
remarkable for the showy bracts, which hide the true
flowers. In a family remarkable for brilliant foliage this
genus seems to be the only one valued for everlastings.
Nearly all the other everlasting flowers of importance
belong to the Composite.

globosa, Linn. GLOBE AMARANTH. BACHELOR'S
BUTTON. Height 18 in. or less: Ivs. elliptic to obovate,
the largest 4 in. long, 1% in. wide, tapering to a petiole.
July. B.M. 2815. R.H. 1890, p. 522. F.R. 1:333. The
following names of horticultural varieties indicate the
range of color: vars. alba, aurea, carnea, nana com-
pacta (=a#>a) purpurea, striata, violacea. Dwarf and
compact forms are likely to be associated with any
color. There is a narrow-lvd. form of this species
which Voss calls G. Haageana, Klotzsch (G. aurantwca,
Hort. G coccinea, Decne.), which has lanceolate Ivs.,
often 6 times as long as broad. The Ivs. are rarely %
in. wide. R.H. 1854:161. All are easily grown annuals.

G. gnaphalioides, Vahl=Pfaffia. WlLHELM MlLLEK.

GONGORA (after Don Antonio Caballero y Gongora,
Bishop of Cordova). Includes Acropera. Orchidacese,
tribe Vdndeae, subtribe Cyrtopddieae. A small group
of plants with curious spotted flowers, not common in
cultivation, and of little value except for collections.

Distinguished from the other members of the sub-
tribe by being epiphytic, having the
dorsal sepal adnate to the column, and
by its many-fld. raceme: dorsal sepal
erect, spreading, thus appearing to
spring from the base of the column;
lateral sepals spreading or reflexed from
the base of the column, wider; petals small, adnate to
the base of the column; labellum continuous with the
column, narrow and fleshy, with 2 thick lateral horned
or aristulate lobes, and a central one which is saccate
or even folded, forming a vertical plate; column
erect or ascending, not winged: pseudobulbs sulcate,
sheathed, bearing 1 or 2 large, plicate Ivs. : fls. borne in
a long, loose, pendent raceme arising from the base of
the pseudobulbs. Over 20 species from Brazil to Mex.

Gongoras are extremely free-flowering, and grow
easily in a mixture of sphagnum and peat, with a little
charcoal added for drainage. During the growing
season they require plenty of water, and brisk heat. In
the winter they require little water, but should be kept
in a moist atmosphere in a cool, shaded house. They
grow well with cattleyas, or in a temperature of 60 in
winter and 80 in summer. Some growers prefer to use
fine fern root packed tightly and for a top finish a little
fine moss found in damp meadows, instead of sphagnum,
which in this climate is quick to decay. (Wm. Math-
ews.)

A. Lateral sepals ovate or oblong, truncate.

truncata, Lindl. Pseudobulbs deeply furcate: lateral
sepals rotund, oblong, truncate, the upper one ovate,
keeled; petals minute, ovate; sepals and petals pale
straw-color, spotted with purple; base of labellum com-

Eressed in the middle, 2-horned; apex ovate, canalicu-
ite. B.R. 31:56.

AA. Lateral sepals broad, ovate, pointed.
B. Fls. light sepia-brown; ovary much incurved.

galeata, Reichb. f. (Maxillaria galedta, Lindl. Acro-
pera Loddigesii, Lindl.). Fig. 1660. Pseudobulbs
ovate-conical, clothed with membranous scales: lys.
broadly lanceolate, 6 in. long: racemes drooping, 6-8 in.
long, with 6-12 pale sepia-brown fls.; dorsal sepal gal-
eate; petals small, oblong-truncate; labellum 3-lobed;

lateral lobes inflexed, middle one saccate. The plants
bear several short, rather large-fld. racemes. Aug.
Mex. B.M. 3563. L.B.C. 17:1645.

BB. Fls. yellow; ovary somewhat incurved.
armeniaca, Reichb. f. (Acropera armenlaca, Lindl.).
Pseudobulbs ovate, sulcate, 2-lvd. : raceme loose, bear-
ing many yellow fls. ; sepals ovate, rounded, apiculate,
the lateral ones oblique; petals one-half as long as the
column; labellum fleshy; apex ovate, plane, acuminate,
base tuberculate, crested. B.M. 5501.

AAA. Lateral sepals lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate.

B. Fls. chocolate-brown, spotted.

atropurpurea, Hook. Pseudobulbs oblong-cylindrical,
deeply sulcate, 2-lvd. : Ivs. about 1 ft. long, lanceolate,
subplicate: racemes numerous, 2 ft. long, bearing many

chocolate-colored,
spotted fls. about 2
in. diam.; margins
of the sepals revo-
lute; petals small,
twisted at the apex;
labellum 4 -horned
at the base; apex
folded so as to form
a vertical triangular
plate. Trinidad.
B.M. 3220. This
species is the most,
common in cult. It
is nearly always in
flower during the summer.

BB. Fk. yellow, spotted.
quinquenervis, Ruiz &
Pav. ( G. maculdta, Lindl.).
Pseudobulbs ovate-ob-
long, deeply furrowed, 2-
Ivd.: Ivs. broadly lanceo-
late, 5-plaited : racemes
many, 2 ft. long, with
numerous yellow fls. spot-
ted with dark red; lateral
sepals reflexed, meeting in
the back; petals small,
linear -oblong, from the
middle of the column; lip
4-horned at base; apex
folded, tapering to a seta-
ceous point. May-Aug.
B.M. 3687. B.R. 1616.
A curious plant, much
resembling G. atro pur-
purea except in color and
form of fls.

BBB. F Is. dutt red-purple spotted, with a yellow

labellum.

tricolor, Reichb. f. (G. maculata var. tricolor, Lindl.).
Pseudobulbs ovoid, 2% in. long, deeply furrowed: Ivs.
ovate-oblong, acuminate, about 5-ribbed, 6 in. long:
raceme slender, pendulous, lax-fld., 6-10 in. long; pedi-
cels with ovary 1^-2 in. long, speckled like the rachis;
fls. about 2 in. long; dorsal sepals lanceolate, with revo-
lute margins, tip recurved, lateral sepals ovate-lanceo-
late, with revolute margins, dull red-purple, with a pale,
stout midrib; free portion of the petal spreading,
upcurved, lanceolate, speckled; labellum golden yellow,
base cuneiform saccate, truncate in front, with an awn
on each side, apical part broadly funnel-shaped, with a
spurlike, slender, speckled tip, gibbous behind; column
slender, speckled. B.M. 7530. B.R. 33:69.

G. Beyrodtiana, Schlecht. Allied to G. truncata. Infl. pendu-
lous, about 16 in. long; fls. pale yellow, spotted with purple. Colom-
bia. G. bufdnia, Lindl. Resembles G. atropurpurea in habit, Ivs.
and pseudobulbs: fls. yellowish white, thickly spotted with dull

1660.
Gongora
galeata.

1356

GONGORA

GOODIA

purple. Brazil. B.R. 27:2. G.W. 13, p. 110. G. fuscata, Hort.
(Acropera fuscata and luteola, Hort.), has been cult, for ^nany
years, but no description is available. -G. Tracyana, Rolfe. Sepals
and petals greenish yellow, marked with brown; lip ivory-white.

Peru - H. HASSELBRING.

GONIOMA (Greek, gonia, angle, corner; the corona
cornered near the top) . Apocynacese. Shrub, introduced
for the warmer parts of the country.

A monotypic genus containing a S. African glabrous
plant with coriaceous Ivs. and terminal corymbose fls.:
calyx small, with 5 more or less herbaceous sepals;
corolla with 5 lobes, overlapping to the left; stamens
inserted at the middle of the corolla-tube. Gonioma
differs from Tabernsemontana in having the ovules
arranged in 2 series instead of an indefinite number of
series.

Kamassi, Mey. (Tabernsemontana Camdssi, Regel).
Height 16-20 ft.: Ivs. opposite or the upper ones inS's,
oblong -lanceolate, entire, leathery, 4-6 lines wide:
corymbs small, terminal, 8-10-fld.; fls. salver-shaped,
yellowish, 3 lines long; tube a little wider at the middle
and angled, constricted at top, pilose within from the
middle to the top; lobes a third as long as the tube,
ovate, cordate, twisted to the right in the bud; style
2-cut: fr. 1-2 % lines long. Yields the hard yellow
Kamassi wood of S. Afr. .jj. TAYLOR, f

GONIOPHLEBIUM. A subgenus of Polypodium,
(or perhaps a distinct genus), with a special type of
anastomosing veins. For G. svbauriculatum and G.
vacdnisefolium, see Polypodium.

GONIOPTERIS (Greek, angled fern). Polypodidcese.
A generic name for a group of tropical ferns belonging
with Dryopteris, with naked rounded sori and the lower
veinlets of contiguous segments or lobes united. Has
been placed under Polypodium. For G. crenata, see
Dryopteris crenata.

GONIOSCJPHA (name refers to the angled peri-
anth). Liliacese. One species, G. eucomotdes, Baker,
an odd nearly stemless plant from the E. Himalayas,
producing 1 thick dense short-peduncled spike 3-5 in.
long, of small lurid green fls.: Ivs. few in a rosette,
10-15 in. long, 5-6 in. broad, elliptic or elliptic-oblong,
several-nerved; petiole 3-4 in. long, broad: perianth
open, somewhat fleshy; anthers 6, sessile; stigma some-
what 3-lobed: fr. a 1-seeded globose-ellipsoid dark
brown berry, becoming dry. B.M. 8078. G.C. III.
20:748. G.W. 12:750. Blooms in late autumn; pro-
duces a short fleshy rootstock. L. jj g g_

GON(5LOBUS (name refers to the angled pod of one
of the original species). Asdepiadaceae. Mostly trail-
ing or climbing plants, herbaceous or woody, of Amer.,
chiefly tropical: Ivs. opposite and mostly cordate: fls.
dull or dark-colored, of medium or large size, in fas-
cicles or umbel-like cymes; corolla rotate to campanu-
late, 5-lobed; crown ring-like or cup-like, entire, lobed
or divided; anthers short and borne under the disk of
the stigma or on the margin of it; pollinia nearly or
quite horizontal; stigma flat-topped. Seventy-five or
more species, only one of which seems to be in horti-
cultural lists. G. edftlis, Hemsl., of Guatemala and
Costa Rica, is a more or less rusty-hairy twining shrub,
with ovate-oblong deeply cordate Ivs., and 3-5-fld.
short peduncles: corolla of medium size, white, densely
bearded inside; crown short, with 5 interior longitudinal
lamellae: follicles the size of a swan's egg, edible. It is
said to be hardy at Santa Barbara and to bloom pro-
fusely but to set no fr. It is the guayote of the natives
of Costa Rica.

G. Cundurdngo, Triana=Marsdenia. G. MartiAnus, Hook., is
properly Fischeria Martiana, Decne. A handsome stove twiner
with pretty fls. in early summer: Ivs. oblong-ovate, hairy, acumi-
nate: fls. white with a green ring at base and a red hairy calyx.
Brazil. B.M. 4472. J.F. 1:33. T TT T>

Ll. Jtl. D.

GOOBER is a commoner name in the South than
"peanut," which is the universal name in the North.
For culture, see Peanut; for botany, see Arachis.

GOODENIA (Bishop Samuel Goodenough, England,
1743-1827, who wrote on Carex). Goodenidcese (some-
times written Goodenoviese). The family Goodeniacese
is allied to the Campanulaceae, differing in never having
milky juice, the style surrounded by an indusium or
cup-shaped or two-lipped expansion, the cells of the
ovary mostly more in number, and other technical char-
acters. There are a dozen genera of herbs and shrubs
and probably 300 species, mostly Australian. Proba-
bly none of them is in regular cultivation, although
Goodenia and Scaevola are sometimes mentioned in
horticultural literature.

About 100 species oi Goodenia occur in Australia:
calyx-tube adnate to the ovary, the lobes free or
adnate at the base; style undivided: caps, with 2 or
rarely 4 valves: herbs, subshrubs, or shrubs, with
yellow, purplish or blue fls. The species most likely
to be met with in horticultural literature are: G.
grandiflora, Sims. Erect herb, with large yellow fls.
more or less streaked purple, linear calyx-lobes, and
broadly ovate or ovate-lanceolate,
toothed Ivs. that sometimes have
small lobes along the petiole. B.M.
890. B.R. 31:29. G. Macmillanii,
F. Muell., very like the last but
with- purple fls. and lyrate Ivs. H.
F.II. 4:240. G. stclligera, R. Br.
Perennial herb: st. 12-18 in., almost
leafless: radical Ivs. linear or nearly
so, entire, 3-^6 in. long: fls. yellow,
nearly or quite sessile, in a long in-
terrupted spike. G. ovata, Smith.
Glabrous or viscid shrub or sub-
shrub, to 4 ft.: Ivs. lanceolate to
ovate or nearly orbicular, denticu-
late: fls. yellow, the corolla about
J^in. long. L. H. B.

GOODIA (after Peter Good, who
found the plant in New South
Wales). Leguminbsse. Australian
shrubs, with pea-like flowers.

There are 2 goodias; both species
have long been cult, in a few con-
servatories abroad, but the pubes-
cent species is now forgotten and
the glabrous one, in Amer. is cult,
chiefly in S. Calif, outdoors. Under
glass these shrubs are treated like
Cape heaths or Australian hard-
wooded plants. It has no near allies
of garden value. It belongs with
4 other Australian genera to sub-
tribe Bossisea, in which the Ivs. are
mostly simple: stamens coalesced
into a sheath, which is split above:
seeds strophiolate. From these 4
genera Goodia differs in having 3
pinnate Ifts. and its racemes ter-
minal or opposite the
Ivs. instead of axillary.
A. Schultheis writes
that goodias are occa-
sionally seen in florists'
windows in America.
Wm. Watson, of Kew,
says the flowers are
very fragrant, and re-
main on the plant a
long time. He adds
(G.F. 2:244): "Prob-
ably this plant, if taken 1661. Goodyera pubescens. (X>i)

GOOSEBERRY

1357

in hand by the florists, would prove quite as useful for
spring flowering as the popular Cytisus racemosus."

lotifolia, Salisb. Often misspelled "latifolia,"
but the name means "lotus-leaved." A tall much-
branched glabrous shrub: Ifts. ovate or obovate, very
blunt, about %in. long: racemes loose,
many-fld.; the fls. yellow with purple mark-
ings near the base. B.M. 958. J.H. III.
29:484. H.F. II. 6:358 Likely to be con-
fused with Argyrolobium Andrewsianum,
belonging to the Crotalaria subtribe, in
which the seeds are not strophiolate. In
Argyrolobium the 3 Ifts. are digitate and
the stipules, bracts and bractlets small but
persistent. A. Andrewsianum has sparsely
silky Ivs. In Goodia the stipules, bracts
and bractlets are very evanescent.

WILHELM MILLER.

N. TAYLOR, f

GOODYERA (after John Goodyer, British
botanist, who helped Johnson in his edition
of Gerarde's Herbal). Orchidacese, tribe
Polychondrese. Dwarf terrestrial orchids of
minor importance which are cultivated
chiefly for their variegated foliage.

Leaves radical, usually reticu-
lately veined: fls. in dense or loose
spikes; labellum saccate; anther
on the back of the column. About
25 species. They have scapes 8-18
in. high at most. Difficult to grow;
require shade. Includes
the rattlesnake plantain.

A. Plants hardy natives.

B. Labellum strongly in-
flated, with a short tip.

pubescens, R. Br. RATTLE-
SNAKE PLANTAIN. Fig. 1661. Lvs.
ovate, deep green; veins netted,
white: scape stout; spike dense,
ovate in outline before anthesis;

fls. globular whitish; beak of 1662 . Goodyera repens var . ophioides .
stigma short, obscure. Aug. New- s ^ denser than common . ( x ^
foundland to Fla., west to Mich,
and Minn. L.B.C. 1:1. B.B. 1:474. Mn. 2:54. F.S.
15:1555. A.G. 12:281; 13:520. C.L.A. 4:108. Gn.M.
4:15. Should be grown in ordinary loam mixed with
pine needles and dry pine twigs. Not well suited for
greenhouse cult.

BB. Labellum saccate, with an elongated tip.
c. Beak of the stigma shorter than its body.

repens, R. Br. Lvs. ovate to oblong-lanceolate:
veins dark: spike 1-sided; labellum with a recurved
tip. L.B.C. 20:1987. Eu. Var. ophioides, Fern. (Fig.
1662), is the American form of this species, with very
broadly marked Ivs.

cc. Beak as long as or longer than the stigma.

tesselata, Lodd. (G. pubescens var. minor). Lvs.
broadly ovate to oblong-lanceolate; venation exceed-
ingly variable: scape slender; spike loose; fls. white;
labellum less saccate than in G. repens; tip straight.
N. U. S. and Canada. B.M. 2540. L.B.C. 10:952
Confused by tradesmen with the next. Should be
planted out in a rockery in shade, the roots being
firmly placed among dead pine needles and loam.

BBS. Labellum scarcely saccate, margin involute.

Menziesii, Lindl. Plant rather large, the st. some-
times 18 in. high, being taller than G. tesselata: Ivs.
ovate-lanceolate, dark green; veins netted: spike some-
what 1-sided, rather densely fld. W. U. S. to N. New
England. Advertised by Dutch dealers.

AA. Plants tender exotics, cult, under glass.

B. Lvs. with a whitish midvein.

velutina, Maxim. Fls. whitish, tinged rose: Ivs. ovate,
velvety, purplish green, with white rib. Japan. F.S.
17:1779.

BB. Lvs. with white, netted veins.
Schlechtendaliana, Reichb. f. (G. japonica, Blume).
In general appearance like G. tesselata. Lvs. ovate:
spike loose; fls. white. Japan.

G. Dawsoniana and G. discolor. See Hsemaria. G. nuda,
Thouars. Lvs. variegated: fls. whitish, with petals and midveins
of sepals light brown. Mascarene Isls. -G. querdcola. See Physurus.
By some botanists, the name Goodyera is given up. The spe-
cies referred to Goodyera are then by some authors placed in Pera-
mium; by others the old application of the name Epipactis is used, and
in that case what we have been calling Epipactis goes in Serapias.
Following this latter disposition, the characterization of Epipactis
is the same as the characterization given here for Goodyera, the
name Epipactis merely supplanting Goodyera. Under Epipactis,
the above goodyeras take names as follows: E. Willdenovii, House
(Goodyera pubescens, R. Br., Peramium pubescens, MacM., Epipac-
tis pubescens, A. A. Eaton, not Pursh). E. repens, Crantz (Good-
yera repens, R. Br.) E. tesselata, A. A. Eaton (Goodyera tessel-
ata, Lodd.). E. decipiens, Ames (Goodyera Menziesii, Lindl.).
E. velutina, A. A. Eaton. E. Schlechtendaliana, A. A. Eaton.
Under Serapias, the following synonyny would occur: SERA-
PIAS, Linn. Sp. PI. 949, 1753. Helleborine, (Tourn.) J. Hill.,
Brit. Herbal 477, 1756. Epipactis, Zinn, Cat. PI. Hort. Goett. 85,
1757. Adans. Fam. 2:70. 1763. Amesia, Nelson & MacBride.
Bot. Gaz. 56:472. 1913. Species: Serapias Helleborine, Linn.;
Serapias atrorubens, Hoffm. Serapias gigantea, A. A. Eaton
(=Epipactis Royleana, Lindl.), and several others. If Peramium
is used for Goodyera, the synonymy becomes: PERAMIUM,
Salisb. Trans. Hort. Soc. 1:301. 1812. Epipactis, (Haller) Boehm.
in Ludw. Definit. Gen. PI. 1760. Not Zinn 1757. Goodyera, R.
Br. in Ait. Hort. Kew, ed. 2, 5:197, 1813. Species:
Peramium pubescens, MacM.; Peramium decipiens,
Piper (=Goodyera Menziesii, Lindl.); Peramium tessela-
tum, Heller; Peramium ophioides, Rydberg (=Goodyera
repens var. ophioides Fernald). QAKES AMES.

L. H. B.f

GOOSEBERRY. A bush-fruit,
grown for its large berries, which are
mostly consumed green in cookery.

The gooseberry has received com-
paratively little attention in America,
although in northern Europe, and
especially in the British Isles, it has
long been a prime favorite, and a
great improvement has taken place
in its size there during the last 200 or
300 years. When it was first culti-
vated in Europe probably in the sixteenth century
the wild fruit, if it was like what it is now, would be
only about % inch in diameter and less than one
quarter of an ounce each in weight. The largest goose-
berries which have been produced in recent years aver-
age several times this size, the largest one of which
there is a record weighing two ounces, although there
are doubtless larger specimens produced. The English
and European gooseberries are derived from a species
native of northern Europe, Ribes Grossularia (Figs.
1663, 1664). The varieties of Ribes Grossularia do not
succeed well in America as a general rule, although in
some places they do weU. The chief obstacle to their
successful culture is the gooseberry mildew, which it
has been found very difficult to control.

As late as 1846 no cultivated varieties of American
species of gooseberries were mentioned by writers, an
early reference, according to Bailey, being in 1849 in
the "Northern Fruit Culturist," by Goodrich, where the
author writes: "We have it from good authority that
native sorts have been discovered both in New Hamp-
shire and Vermont well adapted to garden culture." In
1847 the Houghton's Seedling was exhibited at a meet-
ing of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, this
being the first improved form of the native gooseberry
of which there is a record. This variety was originated
or found by Abel Houghton, Jr., Lynn, Massachu-
setts. It is probably a seedling of the native species,
Ribes hirtellum (Figs. 1665, 1666, 1667). The first
improvement on the Houghton was the Downing (Fig.

1358

GOOSEBERRY

1668), a seedling of the Hough ton, which was origi-
nated by Charles Downing, Newburgh, New York, and
first brought into notice in 1853. It is thought by some
authorities to have been a hybrid between Houghton
and Ribes Grossularia, the European species. The
Downing is still more largely planted in America than
any other variety of goose-
berry. This is doubtless
largely due to the fact that
comparatively little has been
done toward improving the
gooseberry in America during
the past fifty years. The
most work seems to have
been done by William Saun-
ders,